at ens eee - THE AMERICAN BOTANIST A QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL BOTANY EDITED BY WILLARD N. CLUTE LIFRARY EY Yis... s4-- ec 78 Dowumaney. Coldeand. =. seta SV Dutchman’s Breeches, Poisonous 87 Easter Lilies from Seeds....... 36 Evening Primrose, Names..... 86 Evening Primrose, Navajo .... 43 Fern Leaves, Twenty-eight NAVI rime eeeects ce Sic ss ste) ata eaten 168 Fruiting, Effects of Light on..171 Fruits of Japanese Quince..... 81 Gentian bistnpedur st. sels 172 Garden Pests, Two New...... 134 Grape Fruits, Ripening ........132 Growth Temperatures, High.... 43 Kingheads; <2... 5). 2. eRe eee 134 Japan Quince, Fruits of........ 81 Lady’s-slippers, Cultivating | yellow | a2... 22> -<+-> Sn 173 Lawn Pest, Another =. -22sneee 85 Light, Effects of, on Fruiting..171_ Iuilies from Seeds -2 >. sseeeeee 86 Locusts, Plant or Animal ..... 129° lumber, ‘Woodless* 3-52 see 13h Marsh Elder, Puccoon and..... 131 Malleweed “Uitaps. <2... ase 133 Milkweeds, Poisonous ......... 39 Offensive Luxuriance .........- 38 Pitcher Plant, Indoors: . 122 --ee 83 Plant Names, Western, .....41, 80 Poisonous Milkweeds ........-. 39 Plants. Pasture. =. +5... alee 169 Pollen Peculiarities, -. 5: seeeeiae 167 Puccoon and Marsh Elder....131 Ouince Japan... 3... >> eee 168 Quince Japan, Fruits of ...... 81 Ripening Grape Fruit ......-% 132 Seeds. Liltes Prom) 7. - 2s 86 Sex of Plants, Changing the .. 82 Sunlight in High Latitudes ....128 Trailing Arbutus, Cultivating... 79 Trilliums, Green: .....:. Jase 78 Woodless Lumber ...-. seen 131 Vol. 28. No. 1 Whole Number 132 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST FEBRUARY, 1922 40 Cents a Copy: $1.50 a Year WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILLINOIS The American Botanist A Quarterly Journal of Economic @ Ecological Botany WILLARD N. CLUTE, EDITOR | SUBSCRIPTIONS.—The subscription price of this magazine is $1.50 a year or $2.50 for two years, payable strictly in advance. The magazine is not sent after subscriptions expire. Personal checks on small or dis- tant banks must contain ten cents for collection fees. The magazine is” issued on the 20th of February, May, August and November. | BACK NUMBERS.—Volumes 1 to 10 inclusive consists of 6 numbers each, Vols. 11 to 13 of 5 numbers each and all later volumes of 4 num bers each. Prices are as follows: | ae IRR on OC RP ROR acre hs SiMe lH Ary RS $ .50 each Sia 1. b SPRAY Bsc EARL Hemi tele itis yt aC 75 each BESS TR RD SE a nis anal ghetto go eR ig has Te 1.00 each CaP a ge” ake ae EM MO Od EARN Se Ae Ea Se ERIN Ce ea 1.25 each q aria Ms, ete ea aos a i lenaA et tes od g'aoe ahw Bte cles ee 1.50 each | THE FERN BULLETIN : In 1913, at the completion of its twentieth volume, The Fern Bulletin was consolidated with this magazine. The back volumes average more than 100 pages each and since they cover the entire formative period of American Fern study, are invaluable for reference. The majority of new forms discovered in this period were described in its pages. The first six volumes are out of print. A set of vols. 7 to 20 will be sent for $8.00. An extended description of the contents of the volumes may be had for the asking. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO., PUBLISHERS 207 WHITLEY AVENUE, JOLIET, ILL. Entered as Mail Matter of the Second Class at the Post Office, Joliet, Ill. A BOTANICAL -ENCYCLOPEDIA Think of a volume of 3288 pages—a volume larger than the largest dictionary —filled with thousands of articles and notes on the interesting phases of botany! Merely to read it through would require more than 100 hours. Such a volume is found in the back numbers of the American Botanist. The articles are short, crisp and original and as fresh as when first written. Mere lists of species and tiresome technical articles are excluded, but much space is given to fragrance, color, nectar, latex, drugs, dyes, food and fiber plants, seed dispersal, pollination and a multitude of other subjects with which the real botanist must be familiar. There is no botanical publication in the whole world that contains so much information of value to the plant lover. This number is a sample of what the set is like. All the large libraries as well as many private individuals have complete sets and every plant lover should follow their example. We have less than 35 sets. Get one while you can. The first 25 volumes will be sent un- bound and postpaid for $16.00. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILL. Uapivr) puv wdvy Asa}ino0g ‘SJIN (VY Yoni) vAayjouaQQR— ASOAWIAd DNINAA’Y OLVAVN LIM ar Mt) ye y (de SSYrANK A VARLE THE AMERICAN BOTANIST VOL AAV ITY. FEBRUARY, 1922. No. 1 Vestured and veiled with twilight Lulled in the winter’s ease, Dim, and happy, and silent, My garden dreams by its trees. —Rosamund Marriot Watson. OLD GARDEN FLOWERS~II THE EVENING PRIMROSES |‘ is only in some old-fashioned garden wher> the owner has time and inclination to bother with them that one is likely to find the evening primroses. The fact that many of them are biennial has much to do with+their lack of popular- ity for it is not always that one cares to wait two years for the seeds he sows to produce flowers, or to make new sowings, each year, to keep up the supply of bloom. Moreover, the majority of species are, as their name indicates, evening bloom- ers, with their noontide of life placed at that period of the day when twilight is turning to darkness. Most of the species, however, have such cheerful and conspicuous flowers, produced through such an extended blooming season that they may be regarded as quite worth planting even if they do open only at evening. The perennial species, and especially the day blooming kinds, are, of course, among our most desirable bord- er plants. All are easily grown from seeds. The flowers have long been noted for opening with a celerity that makes the whole process of blooming perceptible. 2 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST Nearly all flowers open so gradually that the most careful watcher cannot say positively that he has seen the petals move but the evening primroses leave him in no such uncertainty. He may indeed be “Startled by the leap Of buds into ripe flowers” as Keats expresses it. At the proper time the sepals, which during the day have covered the bud, snap directly backward in a business-like way and the sulphur-yellow petals, released from their confinement, unfold at once and seem to settle into their places with a sigh of satisfaction. The botanist, Lindley, reported that at the instant of opening, a flash of phosphores- cent light may be seen, but this statement seems to need con- firmation. One of the most conspicuous examples of this rapid open- ing, because of the size of the blossoms, is found in the Na- vajo evening primrose, illustrated in our frontispiece. In summer the first flowers begin to open about twenty minutes of eight and the blooming proceeds so rapidly that one can see, not a single blossom opening, but a whole bush bursting into bloom. One is reminded of the way umbrellas begin to appear in a crowd when a threatened shower begins to descend. In ten minutes seventy-five flowers may open on a single plant. The flowers in all the species are arranged in an indeterminate inflorescence, two or three blossoms in the axil of each leaf and though they open for only a single day—or night—there are always one or two mature buds waiting to replace them at the next dawn or dusk. The first flowers have scarcely spread before the hawk- moths find it out. Attracted by the nectar they flock to the flowers and for an hour or more are very busy; so busy, in fact, that they pay no attention to human observers provided THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 3 CHEERFUL AND CONSPICUOUS FLOWERS they do not move suddenly. They will even visit, without a sign of fear, flowers detached from the plant and held in the hand. As the twilight deepens one may throw a beam of light on flower and moth and study both at close range. Margaret Deland has referred to the friendship of flower and insect in the lines “And there the primrose stands, that as the night Begins to gather and the dews to fall, Flings wide to circling moths her twisted buds That shine like moons with pale cold glow.” Some interesting experiments were made with the flowers of the species previously mentioned to discover what stimulus it is that causes the flowers to open and close. Two buds picked a few minutes before the opening time and placed in water close to a bright light remained closed but when one bud was shaded it immediately opened. The other continued closed until it, too, was placed in darkness. Still other blos- soms placed in a cool, dark cellar remained open for more 4 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST than three days with a life-span thrice that of their compan- ions in the garden. Lack of time prevented experiments to decide whether heat or light has the greater effect on their closing, but from the fact that, late in the summer, the flowers do not close during the day and are no longer true evening primroses, it may be inferred that temperature rather than light may be the cause. Though there are times when the flowers remain open in the light, they are nevertheless true to their first instincts in opening first at dusk. The evening primroses are all very much alike in cul- tural requirements. They are dry ground plants, often very abundant in desert regions, but almost any garden soil will suit them. Though often blooming at night, they prefer sunny situations. Our commonest species (Oenothera biennis ) is a frequent weed in gardens but some forms of it are suf- ficiently attractive to be cultivated, and occasionally they are fragrant. This species, or a closely related form, is of more than ordinary interest because of the fact that from it De Vries obtained some of the best proofs of his Mutation Theory which in some respects modifies the well-known Darwinian Theory of the origin of species. The particular form he worked with is known as O. Lamarkiana, or occasionally it is called the variety grandiflora of O. biennts. The finest day blooming species of the group 1s proba- bly O. speciosa, a plant with large satiny-white flowers. The best yellow sort is said to be O. Missouriensis a trailer with flowers often five inches across. The yellow-flowered form oftenest cultivated in the gardens is O. fruticosa variety Youngii, which is usually called O. Youngi in the catalogues. Another white-flowered day-blooming form is O. pallida. This opens in the early morning and late in the day turns to a deep pink. Best of all it is a perrennial and in time forms THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 5 attractive little colonies. Oenothera glauca var. Fraseri (O. Frasert of the catalogues) is much like it in size and shape but does not turn pink with age. It is, moreover, a bad weed in some gardens, spreading so rapidly by underground run- ners that it may easily become a pest. It should be planted only in places where its spreading cannot crowd more desira- ble plants. The Navajo primrose (O. Clutei) is among the finest of those that open in the early evening. The flowers are often more than four inches across, of a clear sulphur vellow and borne in great profusion. PACHYLOPHUS Related to the evening primroses, and often classed with them, are certain plants often placed in the genus Pachylo- phus. ‘These are acaulescent plants with rosettes of tothed leaves, resembling those of the dandelion, from the center of which spring several pure white flowers more than six inches long and three wide. These open in the early evening and by the next morning have turned pink. After the plant be- 6 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST gins to bloom it produces from one to six flowers every even- ing throughout the summer. It is a very handsome and at- tractive species. There are probably a hundred species of evening prim- roses. Nurserymen and gardeners incline to place all these in the genus Oenothera, but botanists, noting small differences in the flowers, have at times made several smaller divisions with such, generic names as Anetffia, Onagra, Levawxria Hartmannia, etc. Most of the species are North American, and all could probably be greatly improved by cultivation. Practically the only claims they have to our attention are their beauty anl interesting habits, though the root of our common species is sometimes eaten in Europe and is said to have a flavor like that of oyster plant. FLORA OF THE MICHIGAN SAND DUNES By Mary EARLE Harpy T is a surprise on digging into the dunes to find so much moisture under the surface of the sand, and that streams trickle, and ponds and marshes lie, in the hollows among the hills. The wide stretches of dune marshes are another sur- prise and their beauty is beyond expression. We wonder that any plant dares attempt a settlement where mountains of sand are carried by the winds; where deserts stretch farther than the eye can see. Yet plants are full of courage. The dunes are battle-grounds and the stu- dent comes upon many a hero-tale among the trees and other plants of our Lake Michigan areas of driven sands. Close to the water’s are the “wave-tormented sands’”’ THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 7 though if we were wiser we might change our phraseology seeing how the gray, glittering strand laughs in the sun. Here no plant can live. Next are the driving sands which are the sport of the winds, and these gradually merge into the station- ary dunes which have been battle-grounds for ages and ages, and where plants are at last victorious. Often in these bat- tles between vegetation and the driving sands, a little bunch of dune-grass has turned the tide in favor of the plants. Dune-grass has winged seeds, is quick of growth, and a rapid colonizer. It binds the sands with its tangle of roots, catches other seeds, twigs, and leaves, and little by little forms a hu- mus and the storm-tossed dune becomes a place of plants and a hill of trees. Aside from the wonder that plants ever make settlements on the dunes, is the added surprise of finding desert and arc- tic plants in close companionship, along with those of wood- land, prairie,and marsh. This is said to be the case with no other known region of the United States. In consequence of this, the dunes become wild gardens of especial interest to botanists. The prickly pear cactus luxuriates in the dune sand and sprawling in thorny patches bears its flaming yellow flowers as freely as in its desert habitat, while twin-flowers nearby, are as delicate as their cousins above the Arctic Circle. Direct descendants of trees that grew in the hot Carboniferous age, now dwarfed to delicate herbage, fringe the sands over which trail the long runners of the uva-ursi—a lovely wanderer from the Arctic regions. Over them wave and bloom the slender shad-trees which Matthews, in his book on trees, tells us came down from the North with the glaciers. Sheltered by the pines and oaks, whole hillsides are covered with trail- ing arbutus—the Pilgrim’s flower. 8 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST On the southern shore of Lake Michigan, in the very shadow of Mount Tom a sand-dune one hundred and nine- ty-two feet high—is a ten-acre tamarack swamp where tas- seled trees stand close together with water-loving ferns be- tween. The fronds of the ferns reach to the height of a man’s shoulder and little starry blossoms, that love to stand in water, hide among them and wear their jewels of dew. Lupines flourish in the sand and acres are blue with their blossoms while their long ramifying roots are sewing the sands into solidity. On the steep dune banks I have found wild lilies and delicate hair-bells, swept by storms of wind that wear rocks like a graving tool, but the flowers were as beau- tiful and care-free, as if lifting censors and swinging bells before the face of God—and who can say they were not? This is near the southern limit of the jack-pine and against their green, fire-weeds blaze, phloxes wave, and col- umbines weave their charm. “Rosy mound” is a dune at the lower extremity of the region, crowned with wild roses which are themselves thornless. Out of apparently desert sand spring four kinds of lady-slippers. Masses of marsh-marigolds—called by an Indian name which means “to light up the swamp’’—are like patches of sunshine, as are also the brilliant yellow flowers of the puc- coon—another Indian name whose significance we wish we knew. The tall milkweed stalks—and they grow very tall and abundant in the sand—may seem in the twilight to be the shades of tall Pottawattami sachems who still keep guard over their ancient hunting grounds. The bogs and marshes among the dunes are an especial part of dune-land. Imagine if you can the sweep of a dune marsh in May or June when acres upon acres are lit with the sky color of millions of wild iris flowers. And in autumn the THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 9 same marshes, as far as the eye can reach, are darkly blue with the flowers of closed gentians or ablaze with cardinal flowers. Like the desert in general the flora of the dunes is of great brilliancy. I have only given a few imperfect glimmpses of the wonderful flora of a wonderful region. Those who love the dunes will tramp over them all day with shoes full of sand but with hearts full of delight, while others not in the “cult” may curse the dunes—and miss a blessing! THE TURTLE MOUNTAINS OF NORTH DAKOTA By O. A. STEVENS O the average “tenderfoot” in North Dakota, the name Turtle Mountains is of special interest, particularly if his view of the state be limited to the famous valley of the Red River of the North. He is thankful to be assured that somewhere in the state there must be more varied typogra- phy, something different from this level receding horizon, broken here and there by a cottonwood grove, something to in- terrupt the convergent pair of slender lines which represent the indispensable railway. Perhaps his recollections of geography fail to include mountain ranges in North Dakota, but even so, there may have been some thought unworthy of inclusion in some little known spot in the great west. The older resident is likely to inform him that the Turtle Mountains will disappoint him. As mountains, this is quite probable, but as an interesting dot on the Great Plains, a brief description may he of interest to our readers. 10 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST Geologically this area is said to have been once a part of the Missouri Plateau, becoming separated by long processes of erosion until it remained an island as it were, some distance from similar formations. In the glacial period the top was more or less smoothed off and a moranic covering of 10 to 200 feet left upon it. Geographically, the “mountains” form a spot about 40 by 25 miles astride the Canadian boundary nearly midway of the length of the state. Three branches of the Great North- ern Railway touch them, one at St. John on the eastern end, one at Bottineau on the southwest, and the third having its terminus at Dunseith on the south. Traveling on the so-called “wheat-line” of the “Soo” the hills are usually in view in the distance from Bisbee to Omaha. The writer’s observations are from three brief trips in the vicinity of Bottineau. The elevation ot the “mountains” is 400 to 600 feet above the surrounding plain. Thus they fall considerably short of the 1000 feet necessary to qualify in the mountain class. Locally they are spoken of as “the hills.’ The sur- face, like that of other glaciated hills, is a succession of low rounded hills with intervening depressions of sizes ranging from mere potholes to quite respectable small lakes. Natur- ally wooded, the larger timber was early removed, and in later years much has been cleared for farming. The woods now standing are composed largely of aspen and balsam poplar (Populus tremuloides and P. balsamifera) of a foot or less in diameter. In other places ash and elm (Fraxinus lanceolata and Ulmus americana)are common while birch (Betula papyrifera) is frequent in suitable locations. The more open spaces are quite densely covered with shrubs, chiefly willow, dogwood, hazel wild-rose, June-berry and choke-cherry. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 11 o pened! a st aes al an ner ® wey a ALONG THE MARGIN OF THE LAKE Lake Metigoshe, lying partly across the international boundary, provides about twelve miles north of Bottineau, a summer resort of no small importance to the surrounding country. The writer spent one Sunday (July 7, 1917) col- lecting near the road about half way between Bottineau and the lake. This had been graded recently, furnishing a good road through the hills. In the small hours of the morning autos began to pass on their way from the surrounding country and neigboring towns to spend the day at the lake. During the day there was scarcely a time when the hum of passing cars was absent. This road provides an interesting cross section of the “mountains.” For some three miles from Bottineau it crosses a level plain, the floor of glacial Lake Souris. Then by a gradual winding incline, it mounts some of the lower hills and continues northward toward the lake. At one point it crosses a high broad hill from which a considerable veiw of the surrounding country is obtained but most of the way it winds between the ponds and up and down over the lower hills. Approaching the lake a detour is made around one end, 12 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST and then it winds through the woods down to a point which nearly divides the water. At the end of this point a bridge has been constructed making it possible to return on the other side. Driving over the same way on July 6, 1920, recent rains had brought the vegetation into superb condition, and the roadside was decorated with brilliant masses of flowers, most tonspicuous of which were the roses and vetches (Lathyrus venosus and Vicia Americana). Some of the dark red roses were the most handsome I have seen, and the Lathyrus venosus is a truly beautiful and characteristic plant. The late Dr. Lu- nell, an ardent champion of wild flowers, has described (Am. Mid. Nat. 4:431) as the most beautiful display he had ever seen a whole acre of this plant. It seems strange that this attractive flower has not re- ceived a distinctive common name, but none ‘has come to the writer’s notice. ‘‘Wild sweet pea” is made to serve for near- ly any native legume, the flower of which attains an appreci- able size regardless of odor, or simply “wild pea’, which applies equally well to some hundreds of plants. I have there- for proposd (Am. Mid. Nat. 7:92) “bushy vetch’, a name suggested on this very trip by the ease with which it grows upright, seemingly alone, but slightly supported by small shrubs or other plants. Perhaps it may be permissable to interpret the name as referring also to its characteristic habit of growing among such plants. Growing in the open, the stems stand erect to a height of a foot or more, but where somewhat protected, clasping the finger of a neighbor, it readily reaches three or four feet and extends its dense clusters of large purple flowers. The more slender wild vetch is some- what overshadowed, but is an ardent ally rather than compet- itor. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 13 As one follows the curves of the road various types of vegetation are presented by the ever-changing contour of the ground. Some of the hills are yet covered with poplar, others have been cleared for farming. Slopes cleared of timber, still have a covering of wolf berry (Symphoricarpos occiden- talis) and coarse herbs with occasional larger shrubs. Espec- ially where the hillside has been cut away for the road the dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium) spreads its branches displying its pretty little pink bells. The smaller depressions are filled with sedges and grasses, somtimes with a starry cover of fleabane (Erigeron philadelphicus). The subsidence of a once larger lake has left a low ridge dividing two lakes (or are they ponds) and along this runs the road. The higher part of this ridge is a favorable place for the vetches, and occasional larger shrubs, cow parsnips (/Ter- acleum lanatum), or other coarse herbs rise above the wolf berry. Coming down the hill and on the ridge, the trees give way allowing a glimpse of the lake. Some places are border- ed with bulrushes from which come the sounds of coot and duck, while terns and gulls hover over the water. The photo shows a view along the margin of one of the larger of these little lakes along the road. In the distance is the tree-covered hillside. To the left the road skirts the lake, rising slowly, then turning sharply to mount the hill. In front stretches an expanse of shore left by the retreating lake, and this displays a striking zonation. Behind the bare mar- gin for a few feet is little but Ranunculus sceleratus and Rumex persicarioides,; then scattered among these a band of tall Senocio palustris in full flower. Behind this, bulrushes (Scirpus validus) which in turn give way toa mixture of horsetail and fleabane (Equisetum hyemale and Erigeron phila- delphicus). Further, are grasses and sedges, with some reeds 14 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST (Phragmites) and Joe-pye weed (Eupatorium purpureum), near the foot of the hill which is covered with the coarse herbs and shrubs. Around a near-by lake the Senecio was even more conspicuous, forming a brilliant golden band encircling it. The woodland flora is mainly that of the more eastern deciduous forest as for example wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis) which is abundant, but a straggler from the north is found in Achillea multiflora. A few other such occur. A leafy stemmed loco (Oxytropis deflexus) is abundant along the gravelly shore near the summer resort, and another species (O. splendens) occurs on some of the grassy hilltops. Cornus canadensis, Lepargyrea candensis, Anemone hudsoniana, Ger- amium bicknellu, Polygala senega, Pyrola asarifolia, Ribes triste, Senecio eremophilus and Avena Torreyi are mostly lim- ited to this part of the state, while the beaked hazel (Corylus rostrata) is the common one there. Weeds are not absent. The dragonhead (Dracocephalum parviflorum) which is so at home near the woods, is common. False flax (Camelina sativa) seemed especially common along the road, and Canadian thistle (Carduus arvensis) was seen around the edges of nearly every pond. Apparently the seeds had blown into the water, and cast upon the shore had found a congenial habitat. By the same way has come the more recent pest, perennial thistle (Sonchus arvensis. ) BOTANY FOR BEGINNERS By WILLARD N. CLure HE young lady who said she liked everything about plants except botany expressed the sentiments of a great many people. We admire the brilliant colors and gracful forms of the flowers, we ornament our grounds and decorate our dwellings with the finest specimens, we use them in quantity for all sorts of festive occasions, and most of us realize that we depend upon vegetation for food, shelter and clothing, but when it comes to the science of plants, we too often regard it as concerned primarily with a multitude of uncouth and out- landish terms quite detached from the plants themselves and of no use to anybody except a few peculiar individuals who happen to like that sort of thing. This opinion is one that the scientist himself often unconsciously fosters, for his life in herbarium, classroom or laboratory inclines him to exalt book knowledge and indoor studies above a familiarity with plants in the field. ‘Where have you been” asks the prim and severe tutor of her youthful charge. “Out in the garden watching a rose unfold” replies the child. “Well, don’t you know you ought to have been in here studying your botany lesson?” inquires the conscientious but purblind teacher. The world has long poked fun at its conception of the botanist whom it usually represents as an amiable elderly gentleman, armed with vasculum, trowel, manual and lens, wandering about the fields, peering at small flowers through his glass, and so intent upon his hobby as to be oblivious of everthing else. Doubtless such specimens exist but they are always so rare as to cause comment. Asa matter of fact 16 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST everything ‘that concerns plants belongs to botany. Even the succesful farmer must be a good botanist though few things would surprise him more than to be told so. It 1s 10t a familiarity with, and use of technical terms tha: makes the true scientist; it 1s an understanding of, and love for, the plants themselves. It is very clear, therefore, that more botanists are roaming the countryside nowdays than are num- bered on the rolls of the botanical societies. The students of an earlier day were nearly all field bot- anists, attracted to the study by the beauty and marvellous structure of their specimens. Often they pursued their studies far beyond the bounds of civilization and under the greatest difficulties, sustained in the work by the pleasure derived from a discovery of the unknown, whether this happened to be an unknown species or an unknown fact. Probably a majority of such students were enthusiasts who found in botany only an avocation that might be followed in spare moments snatch- ed from the daily grind of business and on Sundays and other holidays. "Those were the days in which the profes- sional botanist scarcely existed and the study was alluded to as the “amiable science.” The modern college-bred, closet scientist has exchanged his vasculum and trowel for forceps and scalpel, and with his lens, now grown up into a micro- scope, studies not plants, nor even a plant, but parts of a plant. He usually looks with some contempt upon the col- lector and namer of plants, but there is still much to be said in favor of such studies, not the least of which is that this phase of the subject is the one that appeals most strongly to the common people. Pretty nearly everybody is interested in field botany. I have known farmers, business-men, common laborers, house- keepers, fishermen, hunters—even cowboys and Indian trad- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 17 ers—to leave their regular tasks and wander over hill and dale in search of plants when they were accompanied by some- body who could talk about them. Indeed, I suspect that a great part of the fishing and hunting that goes on in settled communities is made the subtile excuse for getting away again for a day among the plants. It is the custom of the ordinary man to suggest some ulterior motive for a return to nature, just as he borrows a child to take to the circus, or takes the children to the woods in spring. Deliberately to go flower-gathering would seem to the average adult much too sentimental to be countenanced. An interest in plants, moreover, is the compelling factor in a multitude of diverse undertakings quite unbotanical in character. No matter how much the driver is interested in the speed of his car he at least chooses the more flowery and tree-shaded highways when he drives for pleasure. And those peripatetic gentlemen of the road whose sole artificial method of transportation is an empty box-car—where do they establish their camps? Always among sheltering trees if there are any in the neighborhood! The wanderlust that in- spires such travellers is undoubtedly in part a response to the changes of vegetation, for like the birds, they go south when the leaves fall and are always rarest where plants are fewest. There are no tramps in the desert! Much of the charm of bird-study is really due to the plants among which it is carried on. The bobolink’s song sounds less sweet if separated from the flowery meadows over which he hovers and sings, as many a man has discovered to his sorrow after caging the bird. The whistle of the oriole from the airy branches of an elm, the mew of the cat-bird in the dewy alder thicket, the robin’s song in the orchard, even the caw of the crow among the pines, is more musical because 18 THE AMERICAN BOTANIS|1 of its plant associations. It is not surprising, then, to learn that many of the eminent botanists of the present generation trace their interest in plants to the time when, as bird students, they wandered in field and wood. One might go still further and point to the fact that the birds themselves, are good bota- nists. ‘They know which species produce the edible fruits and their judgement in the matter of nesting materials and the most satisfactory locations for summer residences cannot be ques- tioned. The wood pewee, the humming-bird and various others are great students of bark patterns and lichen decora- tions and reproduce them in the ornamentation of their nests. Even stranger than this some birds are known to regularly decorate their nests with fresh flowers. The purple martin is as fond of peach blossoms as the Japanese are of their cherry blossoms. There are, of course, a few individuals—those who re- gard themselves as hard-head business-men or professional scientists—who would almost as soon be caught robbing a church as gathering flowers, but even these have, perhaps far beneath the surface, an interest in plants. They are not averse to going berrying, or nutting, or hunting bee-trees or gathering mushrooms. To such, the virtues of wintergreen and birch and sassafras and slippery elm and ginseng may be matters of importance and though they disclaim an interest in plants they commonly pay homage to vegetation in general by spending at least two weeks of every year in a wilderness of plants. The automobile has done much to reduce the number of those who would ordinarily take up the study of plants. I do not now allude to the important part it plays in reducing the total of the population, but to the fact that it is so much easier and less dangerous to ride than to walk that we natur- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 19 ally choose the more rapid method of transportation, One can have a rattling good time in the cheapest of automobiles! It is, however, difficult to stop when one once gets started. Even at ordinary speeds, the flowers trail past as mere blobs of color in the landscape and one hesitates to check the driver in his flight lest the other members of the party be annoyed. The only practicable way to study plants is on foot, though the auto need not be disdained as a means of reaching the spot where the real journey is to begin. ‘There is much to be said, however, in favor of entire journeys afoot and I am grat- ied to note that the number who agree with this opinion seems to be increasing. There is a special delight- in making short cuts across fields, following the brooks, or sauntering along country by- ways where the automobile cannot go. One sees so many things that are hidden from those who must keep to the high- ways. It is difficult, I confess, to get the average automobile driver to appreciate this point of view. That anybody should actually prefer to walk when he can ride is incomprehensi- ble to him. It is one of the commonest. experiences of the bot- anizer to be offered a lift to the nearest town by well-inten- tioned autoists, but the wise student knows very well that one cannot successfully pursue plants with any combination of iron, rubber and gasoline. “All travelling,’ says Ruskin, “‘is dull in exact proportion to its rapidity” and this observation has special application in the case of botanical rambles. Many things combine to make the study of plants en- joyable. Every excursion afield is a voyage of discovery in which one makes new acquaintances, accumulatés unex- pected treasures, and steadily adds to his stock of menta! pictures which it is ever a joy to recall. The botanizer en- ters a new world from his very doorstep. Poking about the 20 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST hedgerows, investigating strange woodlands, exploring un- familiar ravines, threading the maze of herb and shrub along pond and stream, he is ever on the margin of adventure. Per- chance he may find a rare plant never reported from the re- gion, or even a variety previously unknown to science. There is also the chance of his meeting with old plants that are new to him. If these larger experiences do not come his way, there is still the pleasure of finding the very first flower of its kind to open, the possibility of encountering a noteworthy varia- tion in color or form, and the delight of discovering old plants in new settings, not to speak of the mere joy of existence when the trees are in leaf, the birds in full song, butterflies flitting over meadow and thicket, and the earth spangled with flowers. FLORA OF THE NAVAJO INDIAN RESERVATION - II By AvEN NELSON HIS short article is offered in continuance of ‘the studies made by Mr. Willard N. Clute in the summer of 1919 The first paper was concerned with the long list of interesting though better known species representative of the Navajo In- dian Reservation, and more particularly Navajo Mountain. The present one is an attempt to dispose of a few that are ap- parently novelties and to locate the rarer and adventive speci- mens. The latter with notes by Mr. Clute seem to he as follows: 67. Peresia Wrightti Gray. Common along the cliffs at Red Canyon near Endische. 77.Shepherdia rotundifolia Parry. Endische and else- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 21 where. A very interesting shurb with round, white-woolly leaves that deserves a place in ornamental plantings. 94. Nama hispida Gray (?). Common at Endische. Collected also as 141. 98. Wedeliella incarnata (.) ckll. Common at Red Lake. 114. Grindelia stylosa Eaton. Red Lake. A very sticky composite. 117.Verbesina encelioides Cav. var. exauriculata Robins. and Greenm. Red Lake and Marsh Pass. 128. Mimulus Eastwoodiae Rydb. In open caves grow- ing in crevices of the rocks at some distance from the entrance. Betatakin Cliff Ruin and Navajo creek. 134. Oreocarya sp? 143. Astragalus sp.? 146. Atriplex sp.? ERIOGONUM FeErRIsstI n. sp. Glabrous perennial with numerous di or tri-chotomous stems from a branched semi- woody candex, 2-3 dm. high: leaves fascicled-verticilate at the nodes and tips of the stolons, 3-5 or more in each cluster (the dead leaves often persisting on the crowns of the caudex.) small, % cm. long, oblong-oblanceolate, acute at apex and tapering cuneately into the slender petiole which is almost as long as the blade except upwards where they tend to become bract-like and sessile: inflorescence mostly 3-rayed, somewhat regularly proliferous a third and even a fourth time, the ray- lets obscurely glandular pubescent, each terminating in a single several-many flowered involucre; flowers yellow on slender pedicels, glabrous, the segments about 2mm. long, broadly spatulate with long tapering base. Number 10 ¢ in Mr. Clute’s Navajo Indian Reservation 22 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST collection, secured at Betakin Ruin, July-August, 1919, is the type. EASTER LILIES FROM SEEDS.—Those who grow lilies us- ually depend upon the importers of bulbs for their specimens, but it appears that some sorts may be easily grown from seeds in this country. In China and Japan, where lily bulbs are used for food instead of for ornamental planting, it is quite likely that they may be grown in this way. Experi-_ ments in raising the bulbs of lilles from seeds have been carried on by the United States Department of Agriculture for the past six years and it is now stated that flowering bulbs may be easily produced in America by this method. ‘The seed is sown late in autumn for spring germination. It is not stat- ed how long it requires to produce bulbs of flowering size, nor what species is meant by Easter lily though it is probable that Lilium candidum is meant. The Department Weekly News-Letter from which this information is abstracted, fails to be explicit on this point. Such vagueness characterizes much of the information about plants sent out from Washing- ton and gives point to the old jibe about “Washington Sci- ence.” AKELA-BERRY.—The akela-berry (Rubus Macraei) is an unfamiliar name among tropical fruits but it has long been known to botanists, having been discovered by the United States Exploring Expedition to the Pacific and named by Asa Gray. The plant grows wild in the elevated parts of the Hawaiian islands, the vines sometimes reaching a length of THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 37 ‘twenty feet and a diameter of two inches. ‘The most aston- ishing feature of the plant are the gigantic berries which at- tain a diameter of two inches. Some of the berries are large enough to cover a silver dollar. Unlike certain gigantic blackberries from other parts of the world the fruits of this species are said to be very juicy and of good flavor. It is likely that it will be introduced into cultivation in the cool, moist regions along our Pacific Coast. Co_p AND DorMANCy.—From experiments recently car- ried on by Government botanists, we may discover why it is that hardy plants brought into the house in autumn will not renew their growth, while the same plants left in the ground until they have been exposed to freezing temperatures for a time, will resume growth at once. It is the custom of those who grow rhubarb for the early market, for instance, to dig up the plants and allow them to freeze before, starting them to grow. In some of the experiments referred to, other plants when kept from the cold remained dormant for an entire year. Other experiments showed that the effects of cold are felt only in the parts exposed to it. Plants were grown in such a way that part of the plant was exposed to the cold and part kept warm and when the whole plant was then exposed to warmth, only the part exposed to the cold grew. The theory upon which this peculiar behavior is accounted for is that growth does not begin until some of the starch stored in the cells has been turned to sugar. The enzyme that converts the starch to sugar is supposed to exist outside the plant cells and to be unable to penetrate into them until the cell wall has been weak- ened in some way, as by freezing. Support is lent to this theory by the fact that various injuries to the plant, such as rubbing the bark, girdling, pruning or notching the stem, pro- duce results similar to those produced by the cold. When 38 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST the starch is turned to sugar, it increases the osmotic pressure in the cell and in this manner is believed to stimulate the cells into new growth. It is probable that different plants require different lengths of exposure to the cold in order to resume growth. Not only may the effects of chilling be noticed in the mature plant, but it appears in seeds as well. The prac- "tice of planting various seeds in autumn may, after all, be for the purpose of exposing them to the cold instead of breaking the shells as commonly assumed. OFFENSIVE LUXURIANCE.—In the English Garden Miss Gertrude Jekyll complains of a number of beautiful plants which, admitted to cultivated ground, thrive so well that they encroach upon better specimens until their room is better than their presence. Since they thrive so well in a variety of soils, they are naturally hard to eradicate. Among such noxious species she lists the common horsetail (Equisetum arvense), the great yellow loosestrife (Lysimaciia vulgaris), the com- mon tansy (Janacetum vulgare),the field scabious ( Knautia arvensis ), the wood sorrel (O-alis violacea), the field bellwort (Campanula rapunculoides) the goutweed (Aegopodium poda- graria), and the enchanter’s nightshade (Circaea lutitiana). To this list the editor of the Gardener’s Chronicle adds the obe- dient plant (Physostegia Virginica), and the purple loosestrife (Lythrum roseum). It is likely that the plants mentioned would not prove equally weedy in all gardens, however. The soil often has a considerable influence on the luxuriance of a given species. The writer of this paragraph has found the tawny day lily (Hemerocallis fulva) too pushing for respect- able garden company but considers the day flower (Commel- yna communis) a far greater pest. Costmary (Chrysanthe- mum balsanutae) perhaps better known as sweet Mary or rosemary, is another quickly spreading plant, but the worst of THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 39 the whole category is one of the evening primroses, Oenothera Fraseri. The worst pest one can get into his lawn is the com- mon moneywort (Lysimachia numularia. ) Poisonous MiILKWEEDS.—We have already called atten- tion in these pages to the fact that a western species of milk- weed, Asclepias galioides, is poisonous to stock. Further in- vestigations ‘by the, United States Department of Agriculture indicate that several other species or forms closely related to the whorled milkweed. (Asclepias verticillata) of the Eastern States are also poisonous. ‘These forms are wide-spread: in the West. Asclepias galioides, however, is the most venemous of the lot, being recorded as ten times more poisonous than A. verticillata var. Geyeri of the Great Plains region. In the latter region is also found A. pumila and on the Pacific Coast from California to Washington occurs A. Mexicana. A. gal- toides is found in Arizona, New Mexico and contiguous ter- ritory. Fortunately the plants are not readily eaten by cattle and sheep and few cases of poisoning ordinarily occur, but when stock have difficulty in finding other food they may eat the plant with fatal results. It may be noted that the common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) is regularly used as a pot-herb in Eastern America and appears to have no poisonous proper- ties. The swamp milkweed (Ascelepias incarnata), however, is looked on with suspicion and practically never gathered. Acip Soins.—It is an obvious fact that plants do not grow just anywhere. Each species is closely related to its environment. One grows only in sandy places, another on limestone rocks, others in clay and still others in muck or peat. In general, plants do not thrive in the last mentioned soil be- cause of its acidity and the plants that are able to live in such places form a very interesting group. Among them are the 40 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST insectivorous sundews, pitcher plants and butterworts, the cranberry and other heaths, various orchids, the cotton grass and the peat mosses (Sphagnum.) Naturally such plants‘are difficult to manage in cultivation. They appear to miss their acid soil and are especially intolerant of limestone. People in limestone regions have usually had to deny themselves the pleasure of growing such species and have thereby missed a number of fine flowers, such as rhododendrons, kalmias, and azalias. The trailing arbutus and blueberry are other heaths that have thus far resisted practically all efforts to cultivate them in ordinary garden soil. The trailing arbutus, especial- ly, has the reputation of being impossible to grow away from its native haunts. Some years ago, however, it was discov- ered that this plant would grow in soils containing considerable amounts of oak leaves and now Henry Bird has discovered that in regard to the pitcher-plants, at least, a small amount of tannic acid added to the soil, will reconcile the plants to domestication. The acid is supplied by an extract of hemlock bark in the proportion of one part of the acid to from fifty to a hundred parts of water. It is at present unknown whether other plants may be induced to grow by like treatment, but from the fact that oak leaves aid thearbutus to thrive, itappears likely that tannic acid, or perhaps other organic acids, may be all that is needed to promote the growth of acid soil plants un- der garden conditions. The subject is one that otfers mosi interesting opportunities for investigation by those who have access to a small greenhouse. By setting up a series of potted plants as nearly alike as possible, and watering them with di- lute solutions of different acids, it would soon be apparent whether a single acid can produce the effect, or whether sev- cral ~cids have the power. To discover just what acid will THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 41 most readily induce acid soil plants to grow in our gardens would be a most important accomplishment. WeEstERN PLANT NAmeEs.—Concerning certain plant names mentioned in this magazine, Prof. J. C. Nelson writes: The word ‘“Thorn-apple’ seems very elusive. By! BGS heard it applied to either Crataegus or Datura; when we used it in Kentucky, it meant Solanum carolinense, a very bad per- ennial weed of sandy fields, and interesting because it was at- tacked by the Colorado potato-beetle almost as eagerly as was the cultivated S. tuberosum. I wonder if this application of the name was only local? The books call this plant “horse- nettle; but I never heard this applied to it. Will you tell me by what name the “giant rag-weec (Ambrosia trifida) is referred to in different localities? in Kentucky we used to call it “horse-weed”, because it was greedily eaten by these animals. The last time I was in northern Minnesota, I found that the Scandinavian settlers had begun to call it “king-head ”, from a fancied resemblance of the akene with its sharp points to a crown; and this name has now got into some of the weed-manuals.. How far south ‘does it extend? Is there any common name for /va vanthii- folia? You know how abundant it is in the Northwest, and what gigantic size it attains; and yet I can never remember hearing any popular, name applied to it. Around deserted homsteads it almost reaches the size of a tree. I had always supposed that Ginkgo took the name of “maiden-hair fern tree” from the shape of the leaves, which very closely resemble the pinnules of Adiantum. Of course, the root may have something to do with it; but I believe the leaf first suggested the name. [The point about the maiden hair fern tree is simply this: the fern was named from its roots because they “were assumed to resemble hair and therefore according to the _. i —_— oe ee 2 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST doctrine of signatures, good for the hair. Thus arose “maiden-hair fern’ applied to species of Adiantum, and maidenhair spleenwort applied to Asplenium trichomanes. The resemblance of the leaves of Ginkgo to the pinnules of Adiantum made it maiden-hair fern tree originally though it is probally maiden hair tree now.—Ed. ] CoLor CoMBINATIONS.—A color combination that I saw zar Westbury was worthy of note. A fine patch of mealy star- grass ( Alctris farinosa) with their slender wands of frosty bells towered above patches of some violet-colored flower which 1 was unable to tell at a distance. I got out of the fllyver to investigate and found it was a dwarf aster which answered the description of A. linearifolius. Only once be- fore had I seen it. In an open wood near Manchester, Conn., it thrives beautifully but I did not expect to meet it in company with Aletris farinosa on Long Island. Another combination that appealed to me in the South Mountain Reservation, of Orange N. J. was the dogwood and pinkster-flower blooming together. The shower of snow-white bracts blended beauti- fully with the deep pink of the buds and partly opened bells on the bare straggling branches of this dainty azalea. Surely a floral picture of the highest order. When the heather and the broom are blooming on the Grampian mountains in Scotland there is displayed a natural combination of purple and yellow that is hard to beat. Perhaps the New England aster and the goldenrod come nearest to it—R. M. Crocket, Cranford, N. J. [Residents of the Middle West would venture the as- sertion that when the redbud and wild plum are bloming, or when the wild crab thickets hang out their myriads of pink and white blossoms, the Alantic Coast would have to look to its laurels in more senses than one, if it would avoid being excell- ed.—Ed. ] THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 43 CHANGEABLE Cactus.—From the desert region of west- ern Arizona Mr. James H. Ferris sends us a specimen of cactus whose color-transformations are a strong source of interest. The plant is a globular species thickly set with stout grayish thorns that must render it very inconspicuous in its desert home. The instant that rain touches it, however, it becomes a ball of flaming crimson and one of the most conspicuous and handsome plants in existence. Investigation shows that the thorns are really a deep red but so heavily covered on both surfaces with a forest of waxy columns that the color is mask- ed. When water falls on the thorns, however, the wax be- comes nearly transparent and the deep red, shining through produces the change noted. High GrowtH TEMPERATURES.—A number of simple plants are known that are able to exist in hot springs whose waters are nearly at the boiling point, but more complex forms of vegetation are quickly killed at such temperatures; in fact a temperature of 122° Fahrenheit (50° C.) is regarded as fatal. Some forms of cacti, however, seem not only resistant to dessication but to heat as well. In a recent number of Science, a report from the Desert Botanical Laboratory in Arizona notes that ‘joints of a hardy Opuntia or “prickly pear” were observed to continue growth in a temperature of 136° F. Other plants subjected to a temperature of 144° F. resumed growth when the temperature was again lowered. This is the limit for active protoplasm, so far as known, and it apparently is not likely to be much exceeded. Navajo EVENING Primrose.—Those who are interested in the evening primroses may be glad to know that they can se- cure seeds of the Navajo species from this office for ten cents a packet. We shall be glad to exchange for seeds or plants of other primroses from the Great Plains region. ox EDITORIAL Ae This magazine is unlike all other botanical publications in the United States in that it is not issued and financed by a society or association of some kind. It has, to be sure, a considerable list of “patrons’’ who have consistenly supported it for many years and also a number of “associate editors” though some of these may not be aware of the title—who send us notes, suggestions and friendly criticisms as occasion war- rants, but of clubs to shape its policy, there are none. As an independent publication, therefore, it has nobody to please but its readers and the editor’s sole aim is to make a publi- cation worthy of their support. At the beginning of a new volume and enlarged magazine, it may not be amiss to di- rect attention again to this fact and to invite everybody to join in making it a publication to their liking. We want es- pecially those short notes which everybody makes mentally and so few transcribe to paper oe ae: It is possible that the editor of this magazine and a small party of the scientifically inclined will make another expedi- tion to the Grand Canyon, the Painted Desert, Navajo Moun- tain and the Rainbow Bridge next summer. If there are any members of theA4merican Botanist circle who would be in- clined to make such a trip we would like to hear from them. There are no regular means of transportation to most of the points mentioned but by making up a small party the cost of the trip is not excessive. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 45 It is some time since the World War was won and wages in many industries have returned to something approximating normal, but the printing trades still adhere to war prices. The only material that has lowered in price is paper. The printers have not only shortened their hours, but in many lo- calities have increased their wages while illustrations of all kinds were never higher. The increased cost of printing which such conditions necessitate is having a most harmful effect upon scientific publications. A large number of the periodicals are late, or not issued at all, while book after book that in normal times would be re-issued is now allowed to go out of print since it is no longer profitable to carry it. There are, now only two fern books obtainable and a large number of popular books on plants, birds, insects, etc., have disappeared from the market. The avaricious publisher, not to be outdone by the printers, has doubled and even trebled the price of books issued at low cost before the war and be- cause the market for nature books is limited, is not issuing others. We cannot recall a single important botanical work issued in America in 1922. All this spells stagnation for science and hard times for the printers, who in spite of high wages are not noticeably prosperous. BOOKS AND WRITERS The date palm (Phoem-x dactylifera) the fruit of which with us is regarded as a sort of confection, is an important food plant in the warmer parts of the world. So extensively is it cultivated in Mesopotamia that V. H. W. Dawson of the Agricultural Directorate of that region has found it desira- ble to publish a memorial on the subject under the title of 46 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST “Date and Date Cultivation of the ‘Irag.”” The work is to be completed in three parts, the first two of which have already been issued. Parts 1 and 2 deal with the cultivation and yield of the date and the final part, which is in preparation, will take up the discussion of the varieties cultivated. | The parts which have appeared are extensively illustrated by maps and photographs which graphically tell the story of the culture, harvesting and packing of the date. The publishers are W. Heffer & Sons, Cambridge, England. Part one in paper costs ten shillings and part two in the same binding is priced at five shillings. In sublimity—the superlative degree of beauty—what land can equal the desert with its wide plains, its grim moun- tains and its expanding canopy of sky? You shall never see elsewhere as here the dome, the pinnacle, the minaret, fretted with golden fire at sunrise and sunset; you shall never see else- where the sunset valleys swimming in pink and lilac haze, the great mesas and plateaus fading into blue distance, the gorges and canyons banked full of purple shadow. Never again shall you see such light and air and color, never such opaline mirage, such rosy dawn, such fiery twilight. And wherever you go by land or sea, you shall not forget that which you saw not but rather felt—the desolation and the silnce of the desert—JoHn C.VaAn Dyke. te veh ye li nee THE FLOWER GROWER: | American Fern Journal Published Monthly A Quarterly devoted to Devoted to the spreading of facts Ferns and Fern Allies, pub- and information on the growing of | jished by all sorts of flowers, especially the summer-flowering plants. The American Fern Society THE FLOWER GROWER is otc not a NEWS paper nor is it a Subscriptions $1.25 a year TRADE paper. It is particularly Sent free to all members for the flower lover who works in of The his own garden. American Fern Society. Annual dues $1.50 $1.50 per year; 3 years $3.50 Life membership $25.00. Sample copy 15c Madison Cooper, Publisher, Calciam. NOY: E. J. WINSLOW, Auburndale, Mass. 600 Pages of Plant Lore for $1.50 Our offer of surplus volumes of The American Botanist at less than cost is one of the greatest bargains ever presented to plant students. The volumes are all clean, complete and exactly like those offered in sets and are offered at this rate simply because we are overstocked with certain volumes. While the supply lasts, we will send postpaid 5 dif- ferent volumes, our selection for $1.50 WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILL. ECOLOGY Devoted to all Forms of life in relation to environment ESTABLISHED 1920 QUARTERLY Official Publication of the Ecological Society of America Subscription, $3 a Year Back Volumes $3.50 post free Sample Copy on request TEN PER CENT DISCOUNT on Volumes One and Two will be offered to all institutions plac- ing a subscription on the “till forbidden” basis. This OFFER HOLDS GOOD ONLY WHEN THE ORDER IS PLACED WITH THE BUSINESS MANAGER DIRECT, and not through any agency. Address all communications to ECOLOGY BROOKLYN BOTANIC GARDEN BROOKLYN N. Y. Send for free sample copy. BOOKS BY WILLARD N. CLUTE FLORA OF THE UPPER SUSQUEHANNA.—2nd edition. 8 vo, 172 pp.—A list of the flowering plants and ferns in a region 1200 square miles in extent with copious notes. Only 10 copies left. Price, unbound........ $2.00 a FERN COLLECTOR’S GUIDE.—60 pp. Several illustrations.—Direc- ‘ tions for finding, naming and preserving ferns. Check-list, glossary and illus- — Rrated: dey ee P oO k Be ce Pe BN en Se tay kN IRs ce pol a he $1.00 OUR FERNS IN THEIR HAUNTS.—8 vo. 333 pp. 225 illustrations, 8 colored plates.—Descriptions of all the ferns in Eastern North America with an account of their haunts and habits. Every species illustrated. The lead- ine. book “on ferns: 4 hes oe ein eae es ops Sale eS o Stee eee $3.00 FERN ALLIES OF NORTH AMERICA.—8 vo. 250 pp. 150 illustrations — 8 colored plates—A companion volume to “Our Ferns.” All the fern allies — in North America, exclusive of Mexico, described and illustrated. Numerous keys to the species—(Tempororily out of print.) AGRONOMY .—8 vo. 300 pp. Nearly 300 illustrations—A course in prac- tical gardening for town and city schools but a useful manual for all gardeners. Includes the principles of pruning, budding, grafting, propagating, lawn mak- Ss ine and: decorative planting, so. casei ates ween ras oe oh ass oe eee ee ee $1.50 LABORATORY BOTANY FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL.—12 mo. 177 i pages. —Founded on the inductive method and designed to cover a year’s work © in botany. Full instructions for gathering, preparing and studying the ma- 4 terials: OF SUCHNa. COUTSE eee es ae gh SG Ras Son Br oe abn eae ae $1.20 LABORATORY MANUAL AND NOTEBOOK IN BOTANY.—A com- # bination of directions and questions with room for the answers, making it the only book needed in the laboratory. May also be used with any of the loose- | leaf covers. The 90 pages are a complete guide to the first half year of © BOtAN Yoo ook cle e oes he ck os ope eas Te een en eae to aarao ae nee $0.95 fe 7 EXPERIMENTAL GENERAL SCIENCE.—12 mo. 300 pp. A manual for the study of General Science by means of experiments with common things. Deals with fundamentals; not a mixture of the formal sciences. ...$1.00 OTHER GOOD BOOKS OF THEIR KIND How to Know the Wildflowers—Dana........... How to Know Wild Fruits—Peterson........... | PRICES ON Guide to the Wildflowers—Lounsberry.......... Southern Wildflowers and Trees—Lounsberry... APPLICATION _ Field-book of American Wildflowers—Matthews. THE AVERAGE Field-book of Western Wildflowers—Armstrong.. Wildflowers of Sus pieerts base BR Ar eho IS ABOUT $3.00 Guide to the Trees—Lounsberry..............5 Our Native Trees—Keeler........ 0... .ss cee seas ; BUT PRICES Our’ Native Shrubs—Keeler.. 00.0... ce cei CHANGE Ornamental Shrubs of the United States—Apgar. The Flower and the Bee—Lovell................ WITHOUT Gray's Manual 7th. Editions.) 051% 352 eis os REASON Britton’s Manual (Flora of Northeastern States). A year’s’ subscription to American Botanist will be sent with any of the above books for $1.25 extra. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILL. Ss v ol. 28. No.2 ' Whole Number 133 fy AMERICAN BOTANIST MELB AS LUNA ST” € VTE AT MAY, 1922 s 40 Gents a Copy; $1.50 a Year : WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. q JOLIET, ILLINOIS By, Me) The American Botanist A Quarterly Journal of Economic @ Ecological Botany WILLARD N. CLUTE, EDITOR SUBSCRIPTIONS.—The subscription price of this magazine is $1.50 a year or $2.50 for two years, payable strictly in advance. The magazine © is not sent after subscriptions expire. Personal checks on small or dis- tant banks must contain ten cents for collection fees. The magazine is © issued on the 20th of February, May, August and November. BACK NUMBERS.—Volumes 1 to 10 inclusive consists of 6 ember each, Vols. 11 to 13 of 5 numbers each and all later volumes of 4 num-— bers each. Prices are as follows: ; MOISES oo ee ia kak ad ke Geet eee $ .50 each San Ce (Rh agra eM Sate OT ARR Tet Re Reo yd 75 each IME 8 Be Aleit Pac nly ATT RI 4 A SO Rie Eat de 1.00 each GAG Tse: ate geet elie tages atch Mai Rene se meg he tae 1.25 each Mert Oe. Be etc a ore Me Peet ater oo nic eh 1.50 each THE FERN BULLETIN In 1913, at the completion of its twentieth volume, The Fern Bulletin was” consolidated with this magazine. The back volumes average more than 100 © pages each and since they cover the entire formative period of American Fern — study, are invaluable for reference. The majority of new forms discovered in this period were described in its pages. The first six volumes are out of print. A set of vols. 7 to 20 will be sent for $8.00. An extended description of the © contents of the volumes may be had for the asking. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO., PUBLISHERS 207 WHITLEY AVENUE, JOLIET, ILL. Entered as Mail Matter of the Second Class at the Post Office, Joliet, Ill. A BOTANICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA Think of a volume of 3288 pages—a volume larger than the largest dictionary - —filled with thousands of articles and notes on the interesting phases of botany! Merely to read it through would require more than 100 hours. Such a volume is found in the back numbers of the American Botanist. The articles are short, crisp and original and as fresh as when first written. Mere lists of species and tiresome technical articles are excluded, but much space is given to fragrance, color, nectar, latex, drugs, dyes, food and fiber plants, seed dispersal, — pollination and a multitude of other subjects with which the real botanist must — be familiar. There is no botanical publication in the whole world that contains — so much information of value to the plant lover. This number is a sample of — what the set is like. All the large libraries as well as many private individuals have complete sets and every plant lover should follow their example. We have a less than 35 sets. Get one while you can. The first 25 volumes will be sent un- bound and postpaid for $16.00. ‘4 WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. - JOLIET, ILL. Ee PR ee Ee Te em Ee ee TRI Za aa PEN ee uapivy pur uriey Asojinoy) SIPlO]IJIUL DANJD(J—AAMO'TY Ld WaT, LaAsaqd LIMRAPY NEW YORE BUTANICAL THE AMERICAN BOTANIST VOL. XXVIII MAY, 1922. No. 2 Under a hudding hedge I hid While April rain went by, But little drops came slipping through, Fresh from a laughing sky: A-many little scurring drops Laughing the songs they sing. Soon found me where I sought to hide And pelted me with spring. —Shaemas O’Sheel OLD GARDEN FLOWERS—III THe Daturas ee ne of Datura are rarely seen in the more pre- tentious gardens of the present day but in old-fashion- ed communities somewhat remote from urban influences, the “angel's trumpets” as they are commonly called are not un- familiar sights. There are several reasons for the neglect of this most beautiful and highly decorative group of plants. The most significant is probably the fact that included in the group is the despised jimson weed(Datura stramonium) of waste grounds and rubbish heaps and its unsavory cousin the purple thorn-apple (D. tatula) also a friendless outcast. It is difficult for the grower to realize that he is not cultivating jimson weeds. Another species, Datura metel, may be occa- sionally cultivated—it finds favor at times in Southern Europe for its fragrant though small flowers—but it barely crosses the line that separates the weeds from the flowers in the gar- dener’s lexicon. 50 THE AMERICAN BO'TANIST The ample leaves of soft green give to the cultivated spe- cies an attractive look even when out of bloom, but when the plants are brightened by hundreds of immense flowers like morning-glories, they present a sight that is long to be remem- bered. The flowers are often a foot in length and white tinged with violet in color. In most of the species the flowers are borne erect, but in others they hang down, probably from their sheer weight. For the most part the Daturas have the habit of blooming at the approach of evening but the blossoms seldom close with the promptness that characterizes other night blooming species which makes then ornamental for a part of each day. Undoubtedly the best species for out-door cultivation in the United States is the desert trumpet flower (D. meteloides ) of Mexico and the Southwest, shown in our frontispiece. It grows quickly from seed, begins to bloom early in July, and when once in flower continues to produce its great, showy, lilac-tinted blossoms until frost. It is commonly treated as an annual but it is really a perennial and will stand temperatures nearly to zero if protected. The species most commonly seen in cultivation is Datura fastuosa. It is a native of India and is usually known as Datura cornucopia in the catalogues. This is the plant most commonly known as angel’s trumpet or horn-of-plenty. The double form in which there are often three corollas, one within another, is much admired but fre- quently this form is merely a mass of petals,white within and purplish without. When the trumpets are complete and dis- tinct, the flowers may have some claim to attractiveness, but since the shape and size of the blossoms are their chief claims to beauty it is likely that single forms may prove more de- sirable. A yellow-flowered plant has been called Datura THE AMERICAN BOTANIST | chlorantha but it sems doubtfully distinct from D. fastuosa. It is likely that a number of other varieties of this species may have distinguishing names in the dealers’ lists. The Daturas are all plants of tropical and sub-tropical re- gions and for this reason many species must be cultivated un- der glass in the United States. In the warmer parts of the world the plants are often shrubs or small trees and some of these latter forms are frequently placed in the genus brug- mansia. Two of these, Datura arborea and D. suaveolens, are among the tree-like species and have great pendulous blos- soms a foot or more long. Datura suaveolens is said to be a native of Mexico and D. arborea of Peru and Chili, but they are so much alike that they are distinguished with diffuculty without the calyx. In suaveolens the calyx is tubular and five- toothed; in arborea it is spathe-like and not toothed. A second Mexican species, D. cornigera, is rather like these but never to be mistaken for them because it has a long spur pro- duced from the calyx. The latter species is especially known for its strong fragrnace. A red-flower plant, D. sanguinea, from Peru has smaller ordorless blossoms. There are possibly twenty-five different species in the genus Datura, widely scattered in the tropical regions. The group belongs to the Solanaceae or Nightshade family and like its relatives has poisonous or narcotic properties. None however, are poisonous to the touch. They are harmful only when eaten and the nauseous taste should prevent experiments in this direction. The leaves of Datura stramonum are often smoked to relieve asthma and this species still retains a place in the Materia Medica. Other species are used to produce a sort of intoxication and PD. meteloides is used in the religi- ous ceremonies of the Indians of our own Southwest and as on bo THE AMERICAN BOTANIST a sort of anaesthetic in their rough surgery. The ripened fruits of nearly all the species are spiny and this accounts for the name of “thorn-apple’” applied to the jimson weed in Europe. One of the interesting features of the flower is that. the long tubular calyx which encloses the other parts of the blossom until flowering is over is finally cut off by the plant about half an inch from where it joins the stem and falls with the corolla. In most cases the flowers last but a day but new blossoms are always ready to take their places. All the species that will grow in the open in our latitude are very easily cultivated. They are fond of strong sun- light but have no special predilections as regards soil though a sandy loam seems to suit them as well as anything. It is the lack of fastidiousness in habitats that makes several of the species weeds, but this family charteristic makes them ex- cellent subjects for experiment in the hands of the inexperienc- ed gardener. THE CLASSIC YARROW By VIRGINIA BALLEN EGEND and history enhance plants as well as places. Why then is the classic yarrow treated in California with scant respect and little admiration? It certainly saved our pioneers frow various evils before doctors had arrived in the new land. We seem to have forgotten all the old stories about it. Almost we have forgotten the old fashioned name. Withered old Spanish women still gather it but they call it “milhojas”. In the far places Indian squaws use it still making great secret about its gathering, as is their manner when they go herb plucking. But each tribe has a grunted name for the plant that gives us no picture of yarrow; though once in a while one’s nose may perhaps in a city handicraft Fat THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 53 shop. Some Mahala Mary has thriftly used her woven ware against the time of its selling. The tang of yarrow is the basket’s predominating smell. Most children cast it out of their wild flower bouquets calling it a weed. It is the children who must keep alive the folk-lore of plants. Dear me have these had no grand mothers? Getting at the character of wild plants is likely to de- velop in one an indifference for the merely sentimental per- fumes of garden flowers. The yarrow has a_bitter-sweet virile fragrance. It means something. What does it mean? Well, to one it means medicine. To another it recalls the Siege of Troy story and the sulky Achilles who it is said first found out the potency of the plant which gave it its botanical name, Achillea. We do not know if he made a plaster of yarrow and applied it to his vulnerable heel, but it is written he tried it upon his soldiers’ weaknesses with good success. To others the smell of yarrow brings up tales of gypsy charms and love-lorn women of whom many a one down the ages has picked it from a grave at midnight murmuring an incantation the while. Later it was presented to the refrac- tory lover. Faith and the oftimes much wilted yarrow and—Oh yes, other things beside—, usually got the lover back. For in those days the blood had not run so bitter and cold. It some- times happened then that money was the least of all magic. We wonder if the yarrow recalls old tales too; quaint customs of a more romantic humanity. We bend to the flat topped clusters studded with small white shallow flowers, enameled and aromatic. The yarrow has bloomed through many changes of the earth’s vegetation itself remaining un- + THE AMERICAN BOTANIST on changed. We say to the ferny leaved aboriginal yarrow “Never mind, primitive women and primitive plants will have their day again.” Some of us love the yarrow just for its fine closely set beauty. Other bright flowers arranged with it, are given added grace of color and form; that spark of tone and con- trast a touch of white always draws forth in flowers, faces, land-and water-scapes. Many bugs beetles and short tongued bees fly long dis- tances following the strong scent of yarrow. Look at that smoke of red lady bugs wavering out of the cool shadow of willows. Like blown sparks they drop to the yarrow. The taste of the plant is offensive to birds. Bugs and beetles know this and many directly or by substitutes fill their bodies with the juice of yarrow. Some insects dote upon the acrid juice and others top off with it as a safety medicine. These red lady bugs are especially fond of the plant lice that live upon hoarhound, tansy, milkweed and yarrow. Yarrow stops nose bleed and when pushed up a well be- haved nose causes it to bleed. It cures ague but 1f given to one without malaria brings on chills and other ague symptoms If bound on a healthy hand or foot it will cause rawness of the skin and by the same token will heal old sores. A strong infusion of the plant will break up a cold overnight but will over come the lesser ailment with a fit of staggering and stupor. It will cause healthy bones to ache but a strong tea taken at night will in a week or less cure inflamatory rheuma- tism. You see the yarrow is a potent and powerful plant. Admire and respect it. Never use it trivially. It is the herb of gypsies. It is the witch’s plant. It is one of the simples of good and wise old women. It is in the medicine case of some few wise old country doctors. Yes indeed you must on on THE AMERICAN BOTANIST be most careful in calling upon the yarrow. It may lose you a lover. It may make incantations go wrong. It may bring on at least temporarily the very disease you dread. Only be sure that you have got the formula right that you use its magic correctly and the yarrow will give the benefit you crave. And for all this the herb is not very different from about a thous- and other old world and new world plants. For in all veg- etation there is more or less occult utility and magic. Always consult what we may call the soul of the yarrow, in arranging it decoratively in a room, never put it with a flow- er that has not the remotest tendency toward affinity with the yarrow, lesst the two abash and offend each other. Never with lillies, camilias, orchids nor violets. Blossoming wands of yarrow look well with heavy hanging man-made chrysanthe- mums, with crimson and purple horticulturally doubled zinnias, with the airy painted cosmos, with frilled and fluted dahlias bred to gorgeous hues. But companion the yarrow with the plumes of golden-rod and wild purple asters and the pink fringy Erigeron in a long black pottery jar such as the Havasupais Indians make and you have a poem in your room, an earth-sung poem. And this should be in a simple wilderness home, with windows opening out upon the unspoiled gardens of God. IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS 3Y JoHN J. Bircu HE movements of plants are far more complex and nu- merous than those of animals. Because of the complex- ity and variability of movements, a general outline inclusive THEAMERICAN COLANISE. on Oo of all, would be quite impossible. In fact there are some movements peculiar to certain plants and dependent on tem- porary or occasional factors which become modified by envi- ronment. Every animal movement is the result of a tension of muscles regardless of the stimulus; but such cannot be said of plants. CIRCUMNUTATION The most common and universal movement found in the plant kingdom is circumnutation. It 1s the elliptical or circu- lar movement, made by apparently every growing >art of all plants. ‘The movements vary greatly in form and amplitude with different species. Sonae plants describe larger circles than others, while those which describe ellipses have a still greater variation. Circumnutation is brought about by a growth, first on one side of the organ and then on the other. The cells become steadily more and more turgescent on one side until the part suddenly yields and bends. Then they become more so on the other and the part swings around again. It is probable that the more rapid the growth the greater the movement, until the plant is full grown, at which time circumnutation would be very slight. Just why every part of a plant while it 1s grow- ing and in some cases after growth has ceased, should have the cells rendered more turgescent, and the walls more extensile, first on one side and then on another, thus inducing circum- nutation, has not been conclusively shown. But by all ap- pearances it would indicate that the changes in the cells require periods of rest. The seat of circumnutation in leaves generally lies in the petiole, but sometimes in both the petiole and the blade or in the latter alone. The extent of the movement varies in dif- ferent plants. It is chiefly in a vertical plane,rising from 2 to THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 57 10 degrees in the average plant. The rising and lowering lines never coincide thus giving a lateral movement as well; the two motions which when combined, generate irregular ellipses. The amount of vertical and lateral movement var- ies with the time of day, amount of moisture and heat, and due to these conditions the ellipses are variable. The periodicity of plant movements is a very interesting phenomena. Generally they rise a little in the evening and early part of the night, sinking again on the following morning. The upward movement jin the evening is at first slow, begin- ning at very different hours, and gradually increasing to a maximum. Leaves possessed of a pulvinus have more dis- tinct nocturnal movements, known as “nyctitropic movements.” The insectivorous plants are very little affected as far as their movements are concerned by light, and it is probable that they do not have any night movements. CIRCUMNUTATION OF CLIMBERS AND RUNNERS» The simplest case of modified circumnutation is found in the movemment of climbing plants, with the exception ot those which climb by rootlets or motionless hooks. The climb. ers have a tremendous amplitude of movement, caused very likely by the greatly increased growth over a small length. The movement is more regular than of ordinary plants, but the ellipses are formed in all directions. This power is innate in the plant, and is not excited by any external agent except touch so far as can be ascertained. It is this power which has been gained for the sake of ena- bling climbing plants to ascend to a greater height and thus reach more light. The tendrils in their movement, feel a support and twine spirally around it. The circumnutating stems of some plants can twine around a support only when it is thin and flexible, while some can twine around a support 58 THE AMERICAN BOYTANIS1 only when it is more than a few inches in diameter, while in tropical forests some can embrace enormous tree trunks. The runners of creeping plants have a very complex movement. It is obvious that this movement aids them in finding a passage between surrounding plants and other ob- structions. If they did not circumnutate, their tips would come in contact with obstructions and double up, thus hinder- ing the spreading of the plant from the parent stock. Their chief motion is vertical and due to the weight .of the end of the stolon, the ellipses formed have long vertical and very short horizontal axes. (To be continued ) A NEW FORM OF KEY O matter how carefully the technical keys are construct- ed by the skilled botanist, the novice always has more or less difficulty with them. It 1s not easy to follow directions in all cases and a single slip, of course, lands him in a group that may be quite remote from the one his plant is in. The Key on the opposite page is not open to this objection for all the searcher has to do is to follow up the lines from Liliales on the bottom line until he reaches the genus he is in search of, being careful to take the correct line at each fork of the road. The Key is not designed to show relationships though it naturally throws similar plants together and therefore gives the beginner a somewhat comprehensive survey of the group to which his plant belongs. The genera keyed out here are those in the two most important families of the Liliales. If it proves serviceable to students, keys of the other groups may be printed in later issues. Ornithogalum Smilacina E\\aments Flattened Rootslock Thre Disporu ae ee ee Root stock slender Filaments slender ¥ \o wers Ter minal Seq ments free aN Seq ments united S\replopus Seqmen\s Sepa rate Lilium Pol\ygonatim : Versatile Seqmen\s united Anthers \nlrovse Evy thro mum not versatile Flower 9 Not snirorse Ax \\ary Nothoscordum so Yio onion odor STems xa\\ A\\ium ed onron\ Ke Ma ranthe mum eee | Convallarie owey wis Gb umbelled ie i aes ¥ \owers. ere _ uwtoe Wea Hemerocallis ee yellow eee ms evident _Yucca_ ‘ : Flowers white C\\nTonva Jew bulbous / ee S Tem not bulbous decola Flowers aa Leaves scattered Gleteis Arillvam, aeeaee superior ey Vo wes, So1NOry ~~ a ee wae sule ae bere Stine a XEN eee BOTANY FOR BEGINNERS II. By WILLARD N. CLutE N the popular mind the pursuit of botany is so indissolubly connected with the study of flowers that these struc- tures are often assumed to be the only parts of the plants of any real significance. The beginner is always astonished when he discovers that many of the formal courses in school and college do not mention the flowers at all. He may even wonder what there is left to study if the blossoms are elim- inated ; certainly these are the parts that make any plant worth while to him. Indeed, the word flower in his vocabulary is often extended to include the whole plant, and he speaks of cultivating his flowers when there may be no blossoms in sight. It is a comparatively new idea that the production of flowers for ornament is not the end and aim of the plants existence. In the long ago, it was universally believed that flowers existed solely for the delectation of mankind. It never occured to those early observers to wonder why the lines and spots that so often ornament the interior of tubular blossoms were not on the outside if they were designed to be seen and admired by human beings. Nearly everybody, nowadays is aware that flowers have been envolved without any thought of pleasing that-species which rather boastfully styles itself the Lord of Creation. ‘That their beauty and fragrance hap- pen to please man is merely so much his good fortune. The bees and butterflies discovered what those lines and THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 61 spots were for, millions of years before mankind even began to look at them. It was not, in fact, until the middle of the 17th century that the German Botanist, Sprengel, pondering over the visits of the insects to the flowers in his garden, solv- ed the mystery of the blossoms and discovered their connec- tion with the production of seeds. Since Sprengel’s day we have found out much that he did not know about the flowers and have discovered numerous others that the ancients probably did not regard as flowers at all. Even now we may find individuals who reserve the title for the bright-colored forms and speak of all others as weeds. Such people are commonly of the opinion that our forest trees do not bloom. They can usually recall seeing certain caterpillar-like structures on the trees in the spring, but they regard these as mere excrescences to be thrown off with the bud-scales and loose bark as a natural accompaniment of the resumption of growth. When the pollen is showered down from the millions of pine blossoms the average individ- ual never surmises its origin but is convinced that some dis- tant voleano has suddenly become active and thrown out a cloud of sulphur. It is, of course, quite natural that the novice should be primarily interested in the flowers. They are by long odds the most attractive of the plant parts and make a nearly uni- versal appeal. Those who take up the study of plants out of school nearly always begin with the blossoms. In a few case the beginner may have his curiosity aroused by a fern, a moss, a lichen or a bit of seaweed and develop a predilection for investigating such things, but if left to himself, he usual- ly begins with the largest and brightest blossoms. Those who have become specially interested in the plants can usually re- call the very species and the incidents which sent them off on 62 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST their botanical hobbies. — It 1s said that the botanist, Asa Gray, was impelled to desert medicine for botany by the examina- tion of the common little spring beauty. Another botanist of note once told me that the multidudes of hepaticas in our spring woods induced him to take up the study. The bio- graphies of botanists contain many such instances. The in- clination toward flower-gathering is possibly the survival of a very ancient practice. Savage man, it is well known, wore flowers long before he wore clothes; in fact, in the remoter parts of our planet, the inhabitants are still in the flower-wear- ing stage and even in civilized regions, though clothes may appear to be of more importance, we continue to include flow- ers as a sort of decoration. It is difficult to imagine a more harmless and _ pleasent pastime than flower-gathering. Bird study probably comes next to it, but birds have to be carefully stalked through forest and glade while the plants do not require even this exertion. Rooted in the soil they await the coming of the collector, but not to make the conquest too easy, they have their times and seasons for appearing at their best and must be found when they are displaying their blossoms to make the occasion com- plete. Like other coming events, however, the blooming per- iod casts its shadow before and one may anticipate the climax in swelling buds and lengthing flower-stalks. It is one of the satisfactions of plant study that the various species have a fair degree of permanency in the locality. It is as if they held part of the landscape by right of ownership. If they are to be found at all, they will be right’ where they were last year and others are quite likely to be found in similar localities else- where. ‘The collector rarely returns from his expeditions empty-handed. Each trip is.a real voyage of discovery and the treasures secured are so many visible evidences of his THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 63 success; to be shown to friends, to be preserved in the her- barium or to be cultivated in the garden as perennial remind- ers of the pleasure experienced in their original discovery. No matter what phase of plant study interests the novice, his first requirement is for the names of his specimens. When he has a species firmly anchored to a name, he has the means by which he can handle his find mentally, can discuss it with his friends or look up additional facts about it in the books. The failure to find such names readily has probably done more to discourage the beginning student than any other single thing. And since the name is of such great importance the novice too often considers attaining it the object of the quest. To be sure this is the object of all keys, scientific or other- wise, and many books seem written with the same end in view, but it is truly said that the names are but the alphabet of bota- ny. If one becomes interested in mere names, he runs a risk of wearing out his locality in a few years and of being obliged to turn to something else for amusement, but when he becomes interested in the lore of the plant world, he finds in a single locality, material for the study of not one but many lifetimes. The names that the beginners desires are not those used by the strict scientist. He wants the common names of plants —those homely meaningful names by which the common people know them. These are often much older than the science of botany itself, having been in existence almost trom the beginning of our language. Unfortunately the names now in use have been derived from a multitude of sources and often do not carry with them the exactness of designation re- quired by science. Gradually he comes to see the necessity for the technical terms. These latter were evolved after a multitude of changes but have now reached a fair degree of brevity and exactness. Up to the middle of the eighteenth 64 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST century, however, the best the scientist could do was to refer to his plants by a long series of Latin terms. It was the great Linnaeus, “‘the Father of Botany” who perfected the scheme of giving to each plant a name of two words which corresponds roughly to our christian and surnames. This scheme has been universally adopted but it still affords opportunity for some particularly astonishing combinations as in Kraschenninikowia Maximowicziana, the name of a small anemone of the Old World. The obsurdities to which the system may run when Variations of the species engage the attention of the matter- ot-fact botanist is seen in such combinations as Prunus Pseudo- cerasus Lindley, subspecies Jamaskura (Sieb.) Makino, vari- ety glabra Makino, forma praecox Makino which is the full title of one of the cherries so dear to the heart of the Japanese. Happily such monstrosities are the exceptions which prove the rule. They are the “horrible examples” of the science. Or- dinarily the technical names of plants are not difficult. None are harder than rhododendron, chrysanthemum, ranunculus and similar names in daily use by the non-botantical. The question is often asked why plants need to be given such outlandish names at all. To this it may be replied that owing to the wide distribution of plants, the names cannot be scetional or even national in character. We must have names that any student, no matter what his situation, can use and understand. It is probable that the use of Latin or Greek for such names was not at first regarded as important. The languages mentioned happened to be those in which most books were written at the time the scientific naming of plants came into fashion and it was natural that the names selected by scholars should be from those languages. The selection, how- ever, seems to have been most fortunate for the Latin is now a ‘“‘dead’’ language in which the meaning or form of words THE AMERICAN BOTANIS1t 65 do not change as they often do in modern languages. Thus we may have stability in meaning if we cannot have it in nomeclature. When it comes to learning the names of plants, it may be said that in botany as in other studies, there is no royal road. The ordinary road, however, has been greatly improved of late. The bad places have been bridged by various “how-to- know” books and guides have been set up that make it increas- ingly difficult to miss the way. In any event the present gen- eration has many facilities for identifying plants that the early student did not possess. People in middle life can re- member the time when there were no botanical books intend- ed expressly for beginners. In those days digging out a sci- entific name from the technical works was a demonstration of unusual intellectual ability. Nevertheless the study of botany was particularly recommended to young ladies as not too tax- ing to their minds. At present there are many ways of becoming acquinted with the plants. One of the easiest is by associating with a more learned companion and obtaining a considerable educa- tion “by absorption.” Those who take up botany by them- selves frequently get one of the popular handbooks that are now so common and identify their specimens by color of the flowers or the place of growth. The great trouble with such books is that they frequently omit the very species for which we are looking. We trace it to its group, we encounter re- latives that look much like it, we say “it must be here some- where”—but it isn’t. After a few such disappointments the earnest student buys a real Manual and determines to master the technical keys. With such a book, he knows that his species is to be found if he has the ability to trace it. 66 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST The two Manuals most commonly used are Britton’s “Flora of the Northeastern States and Canada” and Gray’s “New Manual of Botany” the latter in its seventh edition. Britton’s book has better keys but uses a discredited nomencla- ture and splits the plants into a larger number of species. Gray’s Manual is probably somewhat easier for the beginner in spite of its poor keys since it does not make so much of minute differences in structure. Wood's “Class-book of Bot- any’ was probably better than either of these for the beginner, but it is now long out of print and only to be found in the libraries of older students. Scarcely second to the Manuals as a source of information are the botanical journals which con- tinually discuss unfamiliar plants or publish-new and interest- ing items about well known forms. The reader therefore soon has a number of mental pictures of plants which he has never seen but which he is frequently able to identify at sight when he comes upon them later, from their remembered descriptions. Who is there that has passed the initial stages of botany who cannot recall many occurrences of this kind; indeed, who 1s there that is skilled in botany who does not, even now, have numerous pictures which are still to be matched with realities ¢ Every flora has its rarities which both botanist and bo- tanizer are anxious to see, but naturally enough, they never agree as to which are rare. The botanist is quite likely to be attracted to some insignificant specimen whose value depends upon it being out of range, or a variety of some better known species, but the botanizer is more likely to be in search of such famous plants as the pitcher plant, walking fern, sundew, moccasin-flower, shooting-star, compass plant, ginseng, Dutch- man’s breeches, cardinal flower and even trailing arbutus and mountain laurel. How many times have we all made long journeys just to see a single one of these! And how many THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 67 more expeditions we expect to make to see other plants which we now regard as fully as attractive! PREPARING SUCCULENT PLANTS FOR RAPID DRYING 3y Dr. N. M. Grier. UCCULENT plants such as species of Cactus, Sedum and others do not readily respond to the ordinary methods of pressing and drying in preparation for herbarium specimens. One method of hastening the dessication has been to apply pressure to the specimen with a hot iron, a process which is laborious and frequently requires a disproptionate amount of time. Another is to immerse the plant in hot water, but as a result the specimens may turn dark and in moist climates are apt to become mouldy unless special precautions are taken. Finally, where the specimen will permit such, botanists remove the surface which would be invisible in the mounted specimen and scoop out the water retaining tissue, after which pressing and drying is somewhat facilitated. All of these methods, however, have their disadvantages, and at the suggestion of Dr. O. E. Jennings, Curator of Botany, Carnegie Museum, I have endeavored to obtain more quickly and conveniently through chemical agencies, the ef- fects upon plants of this type secured by the methods of kill- ing previously indicated, which result of course in the loss of turgidity and death of the water retaining tissue. Spect- mens treated chemically in the way to be described, have not only dried and pressed more quickly, but have been pronounc- 68 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST ed by botanists to be equal if not superior to those obtained by the older methods. The experiments upon which this newer method rests were made at the Biological Laboratory of the Brooklyn institute of Arts and Sciences, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. dur- ing the summer of 1921. The following species of succulent plants were used, Opuntia vulgaris Mill, Salicornia europea L., Sueda maritima L., Sedum purpureum Tausch, Cakile ed- entula Hook, and Arenaria peploides L. ‘The starting point was the study of the effect upon these plants of the more common fixing and killing reagents known to the plant histologist, with preference given to those more cheaply ob- tained and more likely to be a reagent in the herbarium. To facilitate the pentration of the reagents, incisions were made at from 1-3 in. intervals along the stems or stem-like struc- tures of what would eventually be the ventral surface of the plant when finally mounted. In Opuntia, however openings were made all around the edges of the separate phylloclades, and the epidermis of one side of these punctured with a needle at the point of attachment of the spines. Each specimen of plant used was then immersed in a quantity of killing fluid about five times its own volume, and weighted down if neces- sary with a piece of glass. Controls for the experiments were made by preparing other herbarium specimens in the ways first indicated. The results of interest to the systematic bo- tanist from the series of experiments are now present under the headings of the reagents used. Medium Chromo-Acetic Acid Solution. (Basic formula as designated by Chamberlin: Chromic acid, .5 gm; glacial acetic acid, .1 gm; water, 100 cc.) Well perforated speci- mens of the above named plants were treated with this fluid from 24-43 hours; in the of Opuntia, a longer time varying THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 69 according to the size, although 72 hours was abundant for most specimens to completely assume the color of the reagent, when they may be removed and washed. Six to twelve hours cf the latter usually removed most of the stain of the chromic acid, leaving a color easily as desirable as that secured by or- dinary methods of preparation. The chemically treated speci- mens after drying and pressing were ready in most cases for mounting at least three days ahead of the controls, and show- ed no tendency to mould in the moist climate at the Labora- tory. Specimens of the cactus acquire a leathery consistency and an olive green color. This killing fluid and the following may be used at least three times without impairing their powers for this purpose. Formalin-Acetic Solution. (Basic formula: 100 cc. 4% formalin; 3cc. glacial acetic acid.) Under similar conditions to those governing the use of the medium chromo-acetic solu- tion, similarly satisfying results were obtained by the use of formalin acetic solution. Penetration was more rapid, and the period of washing is safely abbreviated. The treated specimens exhabited a somewhat pale color, and with pro- longed exposure-to the reagent became somewhat fragile and brittle. Denatured Alcohol. (This was 95% alcohol apparent- ly containing formalin.) After 24-43 hours treatmentwith this fluid, followed by 3-4 hours washing, small specimens of all the plants with the exception of Arenaria were ready for pressing and drying. Inthe case of Arenaria, the brittle quality of the leaves was best overcome by the use of the other killing fluids. Specimens treated with alcohol were of a paler color than those treated with other chemicals, althought there was not any great appreciable difference in the cases of Sueda and 70 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST Salicorma. The denatured alcohol may be used for this pur- pose at least three times. Potassium hydroxide. (59% solution.) Although used principally as a macerating agent, this compound yielded ex- cellent results with Sweda and Salicornia, the specimens re- maining mostly a normal green color. A much shorter period is required for washing. With the other plants it was unsat- isfactory, probably on account of slow penstration. All specimens treated with it show a tendency to mould unless quickly dried. With such a precaution, the satisfactorily treated specimens were ready for mounting two days ahead of the control. Washington and Jefferson College, Washington, Pa. PLANT NAMES AND THEIR MEANINGS—XI LEGUMINOSAE—III By WILLARD N. CrUTE C LOSE to the sweet clovers, comes another familiar genus Medicago to which belongs the “alfalfa” (W. sativa) and others. In the Old World, alfalfa is commonly known as “‘lu- cerne”’ from the belief that it was originally from Switzer- land. Britton and Holland in their “Dictionary of Plant Names” however, say that the plant is not especially common about Lucerne and that Europe did not get its supply from Switzerland. Place names, it is well known, are no indica- tion of nativity. Our “Canada thistle” is not a native of Can- ada. “Burgundy trefoil”, “Brazilian clover’ and “Spanish trefoil” are other names for the alfalfa that-are no more ap- propriate than others mentioned. Our species, like several of. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 71 its allies was also known as “medick”. ‘Purple medic” alludes to the color of the flowers and “snail flower” proba- bly refers to the coiled seed-pod, though by rights Medicago scutellata, a species often cultivated in gardens, is entitled to this name. This plant is another of the “sain foins’. The name appears to be applied to any kind of valuable forage p'ant though probably the original “sain foin” was Onobrychis sativa. This latter species was anciently called “lucerne”, also, and this doubtless accounts for the curious tranposition of common names. “Holy hay” applied to our plant is a monument to the stupidity of some early writer who mistook the French word signifying health for the word saint. The word al- falfa, itself, is a rendition of the Arabic alfacfacah, accord- ing to the dictionary. Medicago lupulina is commonly known as “nonesuch.” The reason for this is not apparent for the term nonesuch com- monly means very superior. ‘There is, however, a secondary definition of the word which indicates unequalled badness and it is possibly in the latter sense that the name 1s applied, -for the plant is an insignificant weed of no especial value. It has, however, a multiplicity of common names. Perhaps “black medic”, “black nonesuch” and black grass” may refer to its disruputable qualities though “‘black-seed”” seems to put the emphasis elsewhere. “Hop clover’, “yellow hop clo- ver” and “hop medic” refer to the resemblance of this plant to the “low hop clover” (Trifolium).This species is often sold as the true shamrock, which for all we know of the matter it very well might be. “Sain foin’” naturally falls to a species of Medicago and “horned clover’ evidently refers to the seed pods. Medicago denticulata bears the name of “bur clover” and it would be singular if other members of the gen- us have not acquired it. “I bo THE AMERICAN BGTANIST Not all plants are clovers that are called so. Any plant with leaves of three leaflets are likely to be regarded as be- longing to the group, however, and we are prepared to hear the species of Lotus and Hosackia called “trefoil” and bird’s- foot trefoil”. Our only species of Hosackia is also know as “wild vetch” and “prairie bird’s foot trefoil”. Lotus cor- niculata is an introduced plant and has an abundance of ver- nacular names of no special interest on this side of the water. Among them are “ground honeysuckle’, “‘bloom fell’, “cat clover,” “‘crow’s toes’, “cross toes”, “‘sheep-foot’’, “shoes and stockings’, ““‘bird’s eye” and “ladies fingers.” The “prairie clovers” are found in the genus Petalostemum. ‘The common name is fairly appropiate, for the species when in flower ra- ther closely resemble clovers. In addition to the general name, P. candidum is known as “white tassel flower”. P. pur pureum is the “‘red tassel flower” the “tassel’’, be it known alluding to the elongated spikes of flowers. After the petals have fallen, the close-set seed-pods give the plants the name of “thimble weed”’. Among the more curious of the legumes are the species of Amorpha whose flowers can boast of only a single petal. A. canescens is commonly known as “lead plant’, because, according to Wood it grows near lead ore. Others say the name is not from any connection with the metal but because its densely downy leaves give it a hoary appearance which by a great stretch of imagination might be considered to be lead- colored. Other names are “lead-wort” and “wild tea”. Since the plant is not used for tea it is conjectured that “wild pea” may be intended by the latter name. “Shoestrings” is a term that refers to the long and slender, but strong, roots. Amorpha fruticosa, a taller species, is “lead plant”, “river lo- cust” and “false indigo.” The locust-like leaves and the THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 73 plant’s habit of growing along river banks makes the second name appropriate while the resemblance to the true indigo plant which grows in parts of its range makes a distinction between the true and the false necessary. Peas and vetches and well mixed in the three genera, Tephrosia, Vicia and Lathyrus, most of which have tendril- bearing pinnate leaves. Cvacca, the Latin term for vetch, is often substituted for Tephrosia in the scientific terminology. Our commonest species of Tephrosia (T. Virginica) is an interesting plant with downy gray leaves and flowers of pink and yellow. Its commonest vernacular names are “hoary pea” and “wild sweet pea’. Rabbit pea” and “turkey pea” are other names probably of fanciful origin. ‘Goat’s rue” is another well known name for the plant, but its application is obscure for there is no resemblance to rue. The names “devil's shoestrings” and “‘cat-gut” refer to the strong, wiry roots. Like most sand plants, the roots of this species extend for long distances and interfere with the plow. Lathyrus is the real sweet pea genus. The “sweet pea” of our gardens is L. odoratus and the perennial pea” or “‘ever- lasting pea” is L. Jatifolius. Because of its fondness for growing in sterile places near the water, Lathyrus maritimus is known as the “beach pea’, “seaside pea’”’ and “heath pea”. Lathyrus decaphyllus is the “prairie vetchling” or “everlast- ing pea” and L. palustris is the “‘marsh vetchling” and “wild pea’. An Old World species, Lathyrus pratensis, which has become sparingly naturalized with us has, as usual, a number of vernacular names such as “mouse pea’, “cow peas”, “Tom Thumb’, ‘“‘angleberries’”’ and “ladies fingers”. The plants most entitled to the name of “‘vetch” are the species of Vicia, since the word vetch, itself, is only another rendering of the generic name. ‘Tare’ applied to several 74 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST species seems to imply worthless characters and “tare vetch” or “tare fitch” are old names for weedy plants that were bet- ter exterminated. The word “tine” has something the mean- ing of tare and is illustrated in such terms as “‘tine-weed” and “tine tare’, applied to Vicia hirsuta of Europe which is now naturalized here. Other names for this plant are “tare”, “tare vetch” and “hairy vetch”’. “Strangle tare’ is an ap- propriate name for a plant that climbs upon and smothers other species. The large bright flowers of Vicia Americana have caused it to be known as “wild sweet pea’, “purple vetch” and ‘“‘wild pea”. Other names are “American vetch”, “peavine’ and “buffalo pea’. Vicia cracca is the “Canada pea’, “blue vetch’’, “cat peas’, “bird vetch’”’ and “cow vetch”, the last three being more fanciful terms than real names as- sociated with the animals indicated. Vicia sepium is the “wild tare” or ‘crow peas” and V. tetrasperma is the “lentil tare’, the lentil meant, of course being the well known legume of that name. Vicia saiiva is known as “spring vetch.” Still another group of plants sometimes called peas be- long to the genus Vigna. ‘The well known “cow pea’”’ of the Southern States is V. sinensis. It is also known as “whip- poor-will pea”, “lady pea’, “black-eyed bean’ and “China bean”. Phasolus polystachos is the “wild bean” or “kidney bean”. Centrosema Virginiana is the “spurred butterfly pea”. Amphicarpa monoica is “hog peanut”, “wild pea-vine” and “Wild peanut” which names refer to the underground pods produced by the cleistogamous flowers of this plant. The name “licorice” sometimes found in books, seems to be a misnomer for our plant which but slightly resembles the true licorice (Glycerrhiza glabra) a plant of the Old World. Our “wild licorice’ (G. lepidota) is called “American lic- ebay Ie : ; pera orice”, licorice root’, “sweet root’, and “sweet wood”’. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST NI ui The Wisteria of our gardens is a chinese species (I’. Chinensis) but the genus is found in both Hemispheres and the American species, Wisteria frutescens, is frequently culti- vated. Being a legume it may possibly be entitled to the name of “kidney bean tree” but “‘virgin’s bower’ is surely a misnomer. Owing to the resemblance of Apios tuberosa to the Wisteria, it is often called “wild wisteria’. It is how- ever, more frequently known as “‘ground-nut” in allusion to the rounded tubers, in no sense roots, which form part of the monilliform rootstock. These tubers are edible and were, in fact, the first “potatoes” brought back from explorations in the New World. The Indians made regular use of them. A considerable number of other names allude to these tubers among which are “potato pea’’, “Indian potato’, “pig potato”, and ‘“‘white apples’. The plant is also known as “trailing pea’, “ground pea’, “wild bean’, and “travellers delight”. The last name seems like a book name, but the fragrant chocolate colored flowers perhaps deserve it. Several species of Psoralea produce edible parts, but un- like Astragalus, the edible portions are the roots. The spe- cific name of Psoralea esculenta alludes to its edible properties and among its vernacular names are “prairie apple’, “prairie turnip”, “prairie potato”, ‘‘Indian bread-root”’, “Cree potato”, “Missouri bread-nut” and “‘tipsin” or “tipsinna”’. The last mentioned sound supiciously like the Indian name for the plant. “‘Pomme blanche’ the French for white potato, and “Pomme de prairie” are self explantory. Psoralea hypogaea is also known as “Indian bread-root”. Psoralea onobrychis is known as “French grass’ and “sain-foin psoralea”. The -Old World “‘sainfoin” was Onobrychis sativa and the common name which may be translated as safe or healthful hay or grass was undoubtly transferred to our plant because of this 76 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST resemblance. Thomas Nuttall gave the specific name onobry- chris to our plant from its resemblance to the European species. In all probability the name “Sampson snakeroot”’ applied to Psoralea pedunculata is derived from “‘sainfoin’’, ‘“Bob’s root” and “congo-root” applied to this species are unintelligible to the writer. Psoralea floribunda and P. tenuifolia are known as “‘scurvy-pea”. This name has nothing to do with scurvy, however, but refers to the white-hoary covering of the young plants and should properly be written “‘scurfy pea!’’ To all the species in the genus Desmodium the names of “bush trefoil’, “tick trefoil”, ‘“beggar-lice” and “beggar’s ticks” are applied. Anyone who has stumbled into a thicket of these plants in autumn will recognize the appropriateness of the designations. In addition Desmodium Canadensis is called “sain foin”’. Desmodium Michauxii is known as ‘‘dol- lar leaf’, for what reason we know not, and “hive vine” which we suspect refers to its. nectar-yielding properties. Another “hive-vine” is Cornilla varia a plant better known as “coronilla” or “crown vetch’”’. These latter names refer either to the use of the flower as garlands, or more probably to the crown-like head of flowers. The plant is also called ‘“axseed” and “‘axwort” for no reason that we can discover. The striking racemes of blue and white flowers should have secured for Lupinus perennis a better vernacular name than that of “wild pea’? and thus relieved us from cal- ling the plant “lupine”’. The most descriptive but little used name is “sundial”? possibly in allusion to the round pinnate leaves whose leaflets spread out in a circle like the conven- tional sundial though Wood says the reference is to the leaves which follow the sun all day. “Quaker bonnets” and “old maids bonnets” are probably book names imposed for the fancied resemblance of the keel of the flower to the head- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 77 gear mentioned. The “false lupine” is Thermopsis rhombi- folia which is also called “yellow pea’, and “‘bush pea”. Its congener, 7. mollis, also bears the latter name. Here we may also list the “bush clover” (Lespedeza capitata) which, owing to its downy leaves, is also called “dusty clover”. A fine, though somewhat rare, tree native to the Ohio valley is the “virgillia’” (Cladrastis lutea). The plant was originally called Vergillia lutea which accounts for the com- mon name. The species has long pinnate leaves, white lo- cust-like flowers and yellow wood and naturally becomes “Kentucky yellow wood”, ““American yellow wood”, and “‘yel- low locust”. ‘“‘Fustic tree’ is another reference to its proper- ties as a dye-wood, the fustic of the tropics being used for the same purpose. “Gopher wood’ is unintelligible to the writer. It was the name of a unidentified wood used in the Ark by Noah but it is not likely that the supply was import- ed from Kentucky ! In spring when the young leaves are just unfolding, Cercis Canadensis covers its young twigs with an abundance of pink flowers and, notwithstanding the fact that it is in full bloom before it is noticeable, is very generally known as “red-bud”. The European species seems to have escaped this name but to have fallen upon a worse one being called “Judas tree’. By virtue of belonging to the genus, our plant inherits the name though it is without significance thus applied. The tradition is that the flowers of both species were originally white until Judas selected the European Cercis siliquastrum on which to hang himself. Since then the flowers have been blushing for their involuntary connection with the affair. “June bud” applied to our species is apparently a hybrid be- tween “Judas tree” and “red-bud”. “Salad tree’, a name given in the books, is inexplicable. | NOTE and COMMENT p> DATURA METELOIDES.—The desert trumpet flower is fre- quently offered in the seedsman’s lists. but if any ot our readers wish to experiment with seeds from the plants shown in our frontispiece, they may obtain packets from this office for ten cents. GREEN TRILLIUMS.—TIn certain red-flowered species of plants it is not uncommon to find specimens with white or al- bino flowers. Such forms are most frequently noticed in plants whose blossoms are colored by the cell-sap. In flowers colored by minute grains called chromoplasts, white forms are much harder to find; in fact, it is rare to find such blossoms without a trace of other colors. Usually the color of the specimen is greenish or yellowish white. In the older books, Trillium erectum is credited with a whitish variety, alba, but this so called variety is now known to be a distinct species and bears the name of Trillium declinatum. ‘The modern manuals retain a green-flowered species of trillium as Tyril- lium viride, but those who are familiar with Trillium sessile in the field are inclined to regard the green form as a mere variation. It has no distinctive habitat but occurs mixed with T. sessile almost anywhere. A more interesting form is a vellow-green specimen of Trillium reflexum brought to our attention by Mrs. Everett Lewman. In this the petals are somewhat enlarged and leaflike and of a pale greenish-yellow. The claws of the petals are of the familiar brownish-red as THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 79 are the stamens also. It is of course, only a color form, but to distinguish it we may call it Trillium recurvatum forma luteum. CULTIVATING TRAILING ARBUTUS.—It is commonly be- lieved that it is impossible to grow the trailing arbutus (£pi- gaea repens )in the garden. This opinion has some founda- tion in fact for an immense number of attempts have been made to domesticate it without success. Until recently the fact that this plant, like so many other heaths, prefers an acid soil was not sufficiently appreciated. That the plant can be induced to bloom in an ordinary flower-pot in the greenhouse by giving it the proper soil conditions, is by this time well known. All that seems necessary is to pot it in an acid soil of the “upland peat” type, formed from the decay of oak leaves. Last August it occurred to the editor of this mag- azine to make another attempt to grow arbutus in the garden. A small clump of the plant was dug up in Michigan and trans- ferred without delay to a spot on the north side of a wall where the soil is sand mixed with humus from an upland oak wood. It is gratifying to record that the plants bedded with oak leaves, came through the recent rather trying winter unharmed and have’since produced an abundance of blossoms. Reviewing this experiment, it seems quite likely that pro- tecting the plants from the sun in the winter is quite as import- ant as the character of the soil in determing their survival. Cotor oF CAROLINA ANEMONE.—That diminutive and early flowering species of anemone known as A Caroliniana is apparently not a familiar plant to the makers of popular books on wild flowers; at least not a single volume that we can find, even mentions it. It is, however, a very attractive little plant with roundish leaves ternately divided and the divisions again variously toothed and lobed. From the midst 80 THE AMERICAN BOTANISE |= of these leaves springs a single flower which Wood says is fragrant but which does not appear to be always so. Pos- sibly it is owing to its rarity that technical botanists fail to agree on its color. Gray calls it purple, or whitish; Britton makes it purple varying to white and Wood calls it white or rose-colored but adds that the outer sepals are dotted with purple. It is difficult to understand what these authors mean by purple. The purple of the ancients was what we would call a brilliant red, nearly the color of the British flag. Mod- ern purple is supposed to run all the way from lilac and violet to mauve, but as long as we have these separate names for the different colors or shades it is scarcely scientific to lump them all under the term purple. In the vicinity of Joliet, Anemone Caroliniana is fairly abundant and the plants con- form to the book descriptions in having white flowers varying to rose-color. There is in addition a form exactly matching in color the early violets and this form does not appear to intergrade with the others. In order to give it a distinctive name we may call it Anemone Caroliniana forma violacea. It resembles the type in everything save the deep violet- colored flowers. WESTERN PLANntt NAMES.—The various species of Bro- diaea are known as “fool’s onion,” the leaves, flowers and bulbs closely simulating Allium, but wholly without alliace- ous taste or odor, so that the hungry traveler who thinks he is going to have a feast is badly fooled! B. Douglasu is sometimes known as “wild hyacinth,” though, as you remark, this name more properly belongs to Camassia. The many species of Calochortus are collectively known as “Marioosa lily,”and locally in Western Oregon as “‘cat’s ear,” from the fine wool on the inside of the petals. This name properly belongs to Hypochaeris radicata, which in the Northwest re- —_— THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 81 places the dandelion as the chief lawn-weed. ‘The native spe- cies of Fritillaria and especially F. pudica, are known as “‘rice- root” or “Indian rice,” from the small pearly-white bulblets, shaped almost exactly like grains of rice. Erythronium gi- ganteum is known universally in Oregon as ‘“‘lamb’s-tongue”’ —probably from the shape of the leaves. Zygadenus venc- nosus 18 the plant commonly known as “death camas.”” Our only Stenanthium, S. occidentale, is too infrequent to have any common name. I know a farmer who stubbornly per- sists in applying the name “‘death camas”’ to Muscari comosum, which is well established on his farm. Xerophyllum tenaxis is known as “pine-lily,” or more frequently as “bear-grass.” The long, tough leaves are used by the Indians for basket- making. The Californian Chlorogalum pomeridium which occurs also in southwestern Oregon, is called “soap-weed”’ or “soap-root,” because the roots make a soapy emulsion in water.—/. C. Nelson, Salem, Oregon. Fruits OF JAPANESE QuINCE.—Paul- Winkler writes from Dallas, Texas, that Cydonia Japonica bears fruit quite often in the South or even as far north as Southern Kansas. “The fruit seems to stay on the bushes nearly all winter”, he says, “Only four ‘days ago [Jan. 20] I noticed a plant with about ten large fruits. I wonder if the climate has some- thing to do with the color of the fruit. The ones I saw in Northern Oklahoma were yellow-brown all right but the ones I see here in Northern Texas are bright yellow. Bailey's Cyclopedia is right in the latter case.”’ CHAPTALIA.—In March the wet grounds in the pine bar- rens from North Carolina to Texas are usually sprinkled with with small, white, daisylike flowers which rise on scapes from a rosette of lanceolate leaves densely woolly beneath. It is an unassuming little herb but one quite remarkable from the fact that it is the only member of the Compositae or aster 82 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST family in North America in which the disk-flowers are two- lipped or bilabiate as the botanist has it, like the flowers of sage or snapdragon. Under the lens the tiny flowers are seen to have a three-lobed lip on the side toward the exterior of the flower-head and a two-lobed lip toward the center. ‘The ray-flowers are usually white but sometimes they are tipped with red giving the flower-head somewhat the appearance of the English daisy. In books whose nomenclature follows the “American” Code the plant is called Thyrusanthema semi- flosculare. ‘That spring had reached North Carolina by the middle of March was attested by specimens of this plant in bloom sent by H. A. Rankin of Hallsboro. CHANGING THE SEX OF PLANts.—The majority of plants have stamens and carpels in the same flower but a good many others vary this arrangement. In some cases the stamens and carpels are on separate plants as in the willow and cottonwood ; in others they are on different parts of the same plant as in the pines and maize. In the group of which the Jack-in-the- pulpit or Indian turnip (Arisaema triphyllum) belongs, some plants bear only carpels, some bear stamens, and some a mix- ture of the two. This condition suggests that the sex of such plants is not so rigidly fixed as it seems to be in other plants and might not be incapable of change. Among some of the lower plants, sex often appears to be determined by the food supply. In some of the ferns the prothallia grown on sterile media may produce nothing but sperms similar to the pollen elements, while an abundance of food results in archegonia containing eggs such as are found in the carpels. A similar conditions exists in the gametophytes of Equisetum and Selag- mella. In the American Journal of Botany for February, Dr. J. H. Schaffner records his experiments with the Indian turnip and its ally the green dragon (A. dracontium) in try- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 83 ing to discover if feeding has any effect on the sex of plants. By proper manipulation of the food supply he was able to change staminate plants to carpellate plants and vice versa. More remarkable still, after turning carpellate plants into staminate plants, he was able to turn them back to carpellate plants again the following year. It seems likely that the completely staminate plants found in nature may be plants that were exhausted the previous year by seed production. Somewhat similar conditions have been found by Dr. Schaff- ner in the hemp (Cannabis sativa) and by others in Mer- curialis annua. Dr. Schaffner concludes his paper with the following: “In nature, we see quite generally the existence of positive, negative, and neutral conditions and the physicist is inclined to interpret these conditions in terms of positive and negative electricity. Whatever the fundamental cause of the positive and negative state of matter will be found to be, it will probably also give a clue to the remarkable duality and dimorphism which we call sexuality and which is a char- acteristic of all plants and animals except the very lowest”. PITCHER-PLANT INpDooRS.—I doubt if it is generally known that the pitcher-plant (Sarracenia purpurea) is a plant which takes very kindly to life indoors in winter. A friend of mine was presented with two thrifty plants at Thanksgiv- ing-time in 1921 and told that they might live until Christmas. They were set in moss in a fairly deep dish in which water was kept standing as well as in the pitchers. They were kept with other plants on a stand in front of a south window. It is now three months since the plants were brought into the house and they are as fresh as at first and are sending up new leaves. While teaching in a little country school in New Hampshire several years ago, the children brought me a pitch- er-plant which we placed in an old tin basin and kept where 84 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST it received no sun at all. In a few weeks it surprised us by sending up a flower stalk and we had the pleasure of watching the bud develop into a flower. It would be interesting to hear from others who have experimented with this plant in winter. —Mrs. Viola F. Richards, South Deerfield, Mass. CoLtor CoMBINATIONS.—Every locality I have been in could lay claim to superior beauty of its color combinations at some season. The most striking were the sweeps of prim- roses and forget-me-nots on the upper slopes of Pike’s Peak. Of course the effect was intensified by the absence of trees, the background of immense bare cliffs, and the wonderful blue of the sky. The purple mists of pentstemons that drift over the foot-hills of Colorado in July are no more wonderful than the crimson flames of paint-brush (Castilleja) that kindle the Wyoming ranges in June. The golden blaze of ten thous- and acres of rabbit-brush in September in no more beautiful than the gray film that clouds league after league of sage land in the hunting season. Our own local colors are blue and gold, the blue from dense acres of Wasatch beard-tongues sweeping up to steeps densely sodded with dwarf sunflowers and visible for miles in June when the lower gravel hills are red from the ripening Bromus tectorum, locally called June grass.—Mrs. M. E. Soth, Pocatello, Idaho. THE BLUE? IN WINTER.—A very common little plant has been the source of much pleasure to me during the winter. This is the modest bluet (Houstomia coerulea). The time to. secure these plants for winter use is in autumn after several severe frosts have occurred. By careful search of those places in which you remember to have seen the bluets in bloom you will be able to find the tiny round leaves, now rather brown but quick to respond to warmth and moisture. Take up sev- eral of the little clumps—it is not necessary to have much earth THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 85 with them—and set them in a dish deep enough to hold a little water. Keep water around the roots all the time and let the plants stand in the sunshine. Within a few weeks you will be rewarded by a mass of blossoms. Bear in mind, however, that they will not amount to much unless they have been well frozen.—Mrs Viola F. Richards. ANOTHER LAWN PEst.—Any one who has vainly con- tended with the moneywort in an attempt to extirpate it from a lawn where it has decided to take up its residence, will not be inclined to dispute your contenion that it is the “Worst pest one can get into his lawn’. But it has a worthy rival in a plant that has recently appeared in one of our handsomest lawns here in Salem, and that has every evidence of becoming a very tough customer to get rid of. It is the “mouse-ear”’ (Mieracium Pilosella), a small perennial with long stolons that lie prostrate in such a way as to escape the lawn-mower, and are covered with small leaves that much resemble those of Antennaria. Within 24 hours after the mower has gone over the lawn, our plant sends up a slender scape some 10 cm. high, bearing a solitary pale-yellow dandelion-like head at the sum- mit, which matures.seed before the next trip of the mower, and continues this game of hide-and-seek all summer. It spreads very rapidly, and apparently nothing but a complete plowing and sifting of the soil will eradicate it. The plant seems to be well known in the East, but I can find no record of its previous appearance in Oregon.—/J. C. Nelson, Salem, Oregon. [In the third volume of this magizine a form of Prunella (P. vulgaris var. nana) was described which differs from the type by lying flat on the ground and rooting at every joint. This is a good example of a machine-made species for it is only common in lawns and appears to have taken on the 86 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST new form to avoid decapitation by the mower. As it roots at every joint it is another species hard to eradicate,—Eb. | EVENING Primrose NAMEs.—Commenting on the article in the last number, Prof. O. A. Stevens writes: ‘The species to which the name pallida is applied is a night blooming one, but we have a closely related one, pinnatifida, which appears to be day-flowering according to my observations. _’'There has been considerable confusion in the use of these names. I notice also that you do not mention the species serrulata, a very common day-flowering plant of our prairie region. I do not know whether it has ever been cultivated or whether it is capable of being so. The Pachylophus is truly a beautiful thing, grow- ing as it does with us on the bare buttes in the Bad Lands. I have a very distinct recollection of trying to collect seeds from it an finding the crowns so woody that I nearly wore out my fingers trying to twist out the capsules’.—[The species called pallida is apparently a stray from farther west. A confusion of names is likely responsible for the misapplication. The form named is day-blooming where we have seen it growing. Ep. | LILIES FROM SEEDS.—With regard to your note on Easter lilies from seeds in the February number it may be interesting to mention a hardy lily that is easily raised from seeds. I have reference to Lilium regale the new lily from China in- troduced by Professor Wilson of the Arnold Arboretum sev- eral years ago. The gardener on the Dukes farms, Somer- ville, N. J. sowed seeds of this lily in the green-house during January, trasplanted the seedlings to well prepared beds in the summer where by fall they had developed bulbs of consider- able size. These he lifted and stored for the winter setting them out again in the early spring. A large precentage of them flowered the following July. A year later, having been left undisturbed, they produced a full crop of flowers. ‘Thus THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 87 a period of eleven actual growing months was all that was required to flower this lily from seed. The bed referred to is about six feet by seventy-five and was certainly a wonder- ful sight. The harmonious blending of pink, white and yel- low in the otherwise Easter lilylike flowers, combined with the graceful narrow leaves that clothe the stems make this lily indispensable as a choice flower in midsummer. Its delicate fragrance in another asset by which it is assured a prominent place in American gardens. The possibility of producing hy- brids of this lily are very great because of its seed-producing qualities and the compartive ease with which it can be raised from seed. It has been predicted that it will be the Easter lily of the future, having been eae! forced for that event.—R. M. Crocket, Cranford, N. DUTCHMAN’S-BREECHES PoIsoNnous.—At a recent meet- ing of the Torrey Botanical Club it was reported that the com- mon plant of the Fumitory family known as Dutchman’s- breeches (Dicentra cucullaria) and its congener the squirrel- corn (D. Canadensis) are poisonous to cattle. The poison is said to be most abundant in the “bulbs” as the underground portions are sometimes called. That these plants are poisonous is not surprising when it is recalled that they are rather closely related to poppies, moonseeds, buttercups, aconite, and others with suspicious reputations. eS eA 5s is mane WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILLINOIS The American Botanist A Quarterly Journal of Economic @ Ecological Botany WILLARD N. CLUTE, EDITOR SUBSCRIPTIONS.—The subscription price of this magazine is $1.50 a year or $2.50 for two years, payable strictly in advance. The magazine is not sent after subscriptions expire. Personal checks on small or dis- tant banks must contain ten cents for collection fees. The magazine isi issued on the 20th of February, May, August and November. BACK NUMBERS.—Volumes 1 to 10 inclusive consists of 6 numbers each, Vols. 11 to 13 of 5 numbers each and all later volumes of 4 numr Fivate! bers each. Prices are as follows: 4 Vols 1-TB ees oe A Pe oe oe $ .50 each e SOE LATS ye ae en tate eae Gree Nee ne peace 75 each E OS he A eB he: pte acdtts Ripka Oe obi aes we See ER 1.00 each 7 Sade, Biss “Dien anaes ate is ees en he MUP Gay eee aS ee 1.25 each E ce Dae sche ae See Cee RG MNO we Ue ee 1.50 each THE FERN BULLETIN é consolidated with this magazine. The back volumes average more than 100 pages each and since they cover the entire formative period of American Fern study, are invaluable for reference. The majority of new forms discovered in this period were described in its pages. The first six volumes are out of print. A set of vols. 7 to 20 will be sent for $8.00. An extended cSonnoe of the contents of the volumes may be had for the asking. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO., PUBLISHERS | 207 WHITLEY AVENUE, JOLIET, ILL. Entered as Mail Matter of the Second Class at the Post Office, Joliet, Ill. In 1913, at the completion of its twentieth volume, The Fern Bulletin i “ ta * es 5 A BOTANICAL ~ ENCYCLOPEDIA Think of a volume of 3288 pages—a volume larger than the largest dictionar —filled with thousands of articles and notes on the interesting phases of botany! Merely to read it through would require more than 100 hours. Such a volume is found in the back numbers of the American Botanist. The articles” are short, crisp and original and as fresh as when first written. Mere lists of species and tiresome technical articles are excluded, but much space is given to fragrance, color, nectar, latex, drugs, dyes, food and fiber plants, seed dispersal, pollination and a multitude of other subjects with which the real botanist must be familiar. There is no botanical publication in the whole world that contains - so much information of value to the plant lover. This number is a sample of what the set is like. All the large libraries as well as many private individuals have complete sets and every plant lover should follow their example. We have less than 35 sets. Get one while you can. The first 25 volumes will be sent un- bound and postpaid for $16.00. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILL. t.—Monarda punctata E-MIN Hors THE AMERICAN _BOTANIST VOL. XXVIII AUGU ST. 1922 No. 3 Fringing the stream at every turn,” Swung low the waving fronds of fern: LIBRARY From stony cleft and mossy sod NEW YGRK Pale asters sprang and goldenrod. BOTANICAL — Whittier. G OLD GARDEN FLOWERS—III Tur MonarpbDaAs ATO matter what other treasures the old-fashioned garden \ might possess, it was never complete without its clump of bee-balm (Monarda didyma). Though tucked away in some remote corner, the glowing scarlet of its blossoms served to light up the garden as few others could do; in fact, this plant seems especially designed by nature to grow in masses against background of other vegetation and to be endowed with sufficient color for all. More permanent than the scarlet salvia, more amenable to cultivation than the cardinal flower and unsurpassed in brilliance of color by either, it is a most satisfactory addition to the garden beds and borders. Even when not in flower it has some claim to our attention for its leaves, permeated with a warm, aromatic oil afford a pleas- ing fragrance that serves to distinguish it from others of its class as the fragrant balm. The species of Monarda that have been taken into our gardens have been little changed from the wild state, with 96 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST the exception of various color forms developed by cultivation. Monarda didyma still outlines dripping rocky outcrops with its brilliant blossoms or colonizes sunny glades on the shores of river or lake, MWonarda fistulosa spreads in solid sheets of lavender over hundreds of square miles of prairie, and Mon- arda punctata gives to the sandy wastes an air of cheerful thrift in spite of heat and drowth. The flowers of the monardas are slender, curved and two-lipped. Though individually of no great size, their habit of growing in compact little rosettes at the tips of the stems make them quite conspicuous. In this they are helped out by the floral leaves or bracts which commonly take on some- thing of the colors of the flowers themselves. In the case otf Monarda punctata shown in our illustration, this has gone so far that the bracts have become the most conspicuous parts. The flowers are rather insignificant, yellowish in color and spotted with purple within, but the bracts are large, white or purplish and most attractive. As might be expected, the scarlet forms of Monarda are most sought after for cultivation. Of these, the bee-balm or Oswego tea (M. didyma) is easily first. Various other red and purple forms are found in the dealers’ catalogs as forms of Monarda fistulosa, but these are regarded as seper- ate species at present. As usual, white forms are also to be obtained. True Monarda fistulosa has lilac or pink blossoms. The horse-mint (Monarda punctata), though. not as brilliant as its sisters is still an attractive plant, especially desirable for dry grounds where few other things will grow. Monarda clinopodia is a species of no great attractiveness which ranges south to Georgia. It has whitish flowers and is seldom cul- tivated. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 97 The Monardas will grow in any good garden soil, in either sun or shade but thrive best when given a sunny sit- uation and plenty of water. The species are easily propagat- ed by divisions of old clumps in fall or spring. GARDENING IN AN ARTIFICIAL BOG Py Henry Birp, Rye N. Y. ANY of our native wild flowers take kindly to horticul- tural uses and landscape architects are recommending natural plantings to a degree never equalled before. To secure the acme of result in such way requires much skill and exper- 1ence, but the successes are being duly appreciated. Not a few of the acid soil plants and shrubs are valuable in this line, but they are tabu except when their transference happens to be to a situation closely resembling their original habitats. The true bog plants have much to recommend them in some instances but success in their case requires an understanding that makes appeal to botanists rather than others. Mention of the successful transplanting of trailing arbu- tus and the northern pitcher plant recently in this magazine, 1n- dicates that commendable human attribute which ever seeks to do the difficult and unusual. The writer’s efforts in the arti- ficial acidulation of soils has found outlet in the production of an artificial bog which may appeal to botanists and is not without artistic possibilities in its horticultural developement Arbutus and Sarracenia, woodland orchid types and the swamp Helomas, sundews and gentians, may be brought to- gether in the space of a few square feet in a manner one never 98 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST sees quite duplicated in nature. It is not difficult to grow all the Sarracenias in the latitude of New York City, and if a majority of these species be represented and made to form a principal feature of the planting, a pleasing result is assured. To be able to follow these interesting types, have them bloom and exhibit their anomalous features of entrapping insects while at the same time others find immunity and their sole ha- bitat within these wonderfully adapted pitchers, in ones own garden, is a privilege, and the trouble in the beginning is soon forgotten in subsequent gratification. The recent work of Jones, Hapburn and MacFarlane in checking up the old and adding new data on the many sided question involved in these plants takes on a new meaning when such striking tvpes may be seen standing one beside the other. And of this category it is always of interest to point to Dionaea muscipula, that plant characterized by Darwin as the most wonderful in the world. To enhance an extension of the environmental or ecolog- ical possibilities of the suggested bog, the aim has been to pro- duce an acid content where such plants as Sphagnums and sundews for moist types, and Fissipes acaulis of drier ones, plants usually associated with maximums, may get on with what may be their minimum requirements, thus allowing a con- dition of limited acidity, open to a vast number of species. While the plants themselves act in a large measure as in- dicators of their acid requirements, the work of Wherry in computing the entended data he has given us, simplifies and suggests much that may be done in this line. It may seem anomolous to bring together plants redolent of moisture in juxtaposition with those of thin soil or well drained situations ; to comingle habitats as divergent as Canada and Florida, but it only demonstrates that moisture and temperature lose much THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 99 of their significance when a sufficient acidity is met. An experimental bog may be no larger than an area six by nine feet. It should copy the natural bog in being an entrapped drainage area; be sheltered thru depression; se- cure an “acid’’ content by the use of the tannin residues such as the commercial extracts of oak or hemlock bark, as they come in concentrated form prepared for the tanning trade. These bark extracts dilute readily in water, contain a very minute percentage of acid, but seem to develop a rather marked amount as their constituents undergo chemical change in moist soil. Thru a continuous supply of the tannin, favor- able conditions arise for growing the more pronounced types of so called acid soil plants, and because of this, at a degree much less than that of their usual habitats. THat is, the tests by the Wherry method using the LaMotte indicators, show we may grow arbutus, pink lady slipper and buckbean for in- stance, at thirty points or less beyond neutral, whereas one rarely finds a natural station for them except it be well beyond that point. For such a six by nine planting we recommend the fol- lowing procedure. Select some situation in full sun, and ex- cavate an area of seven by ten feet down to a depth of three feet. At the bottom a saucer of puddled clay must be formed, two cubic feet of such material being needed. Having donned rubber boots and moistening the clay at intervals it can be trodden into proper consistency, about that of a stiff putty. It may then be shaped into a saucer with a mason’s trowel to a thickness of ten inches with edges arising as perpendicularly as possible on the inside, and its finished periphery conforming to the six by nine feet required. The edges should run up so that there is a depth of about sixteen inches in the center 100 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST of the saucer, and when thoroughly dried out the basin may be filled with sand and wood soil, two parts to one respectively, finishing the surface so that the center is four inches lower than the sides. Since this level is yet about a foot below the ground line an arrangement of planking like a hot bed frame should be built to hold the adjoining soil and keep out sur- face water. With such a wooden coping the southern plant life can be proiected by three hot bed sashes in winter, and lath screens be-applied in very hot midsummer weather or on occasion of damaging windstorms. | In applying the bark extract, our plan is to sprinkle once a week or oftener at the start, using one half pint of the extract diluted in ten or twelve gallons of water. If this quantity of extract is mixed in two quarts of tepid water first, a bet- ter suspension is obtained. Other waterings may be with the garden hose—the bog is never expected to maintain stand- ing water, but ust always be thoroughly moist. From its concave surface most moisture will accumulate at the center of the bog, and here sundews, pitcher plants, etc., should be placed, while the sides can support the drier types. Of course water that is decidedly limey should be avoided and no fertilizers countenanced. The earthworms will soon be- come established and help build up humus, and in transplant- ing, the introduced plants should have plenty of soil about their roots, thus bringing in bacteria that thrive where tannin abounds. As to adaptable plants, the list is large. Due to restricted area, small and low-growing ones must be used and if in ad- dition to a botanical experiment the artistic possibilities be considered, the Orchidaceae at once suggest themselves. The more adaptable of these like Cypripedium parviflorum may THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 101 luxuriate in two seasons as we have seen, from a three crown plant to one supporting twenty six flowering sterns. When this and its immediate relatives hold sway, a floral effect is easy. Following this array, the Sarracenias become in evi- dence, first with their peculiar flowers and for the remainder of the season their pitchers form a dominating feature. Drum- mondu and flava are very effective and though not so robust as in southern climes, their pitchers attain a height of nine- teen to twenty inches at Rye. A congeniality for mosses and ferns abounds. but we have restricted the single species Lorinseria arcolata for a border fringe to hide the woodwork. The following list of plants are those most conspicuous with us, are luxuriating normally, have for the most part flow- ered and show a commingling of types which point to the extent acidity may bridge differences of moisture and gaps of isotherms. Sphagnums and other mosses = Limmnorchis dilatata Camptosorus rhizophyllus Blephariglottis ciliaris Lorinseria areolata B. blepharigottis Juncus effusus Limodorum tubersum Lycopodium complanatum [bidium strictum L,. lucidulum I. gracile L. olscurum Helonias bullata (Delaware ) Xyris Sp. Clintoma borealis Coptis trifolia Hepatica acutiloba (Can. ) Cypripedium reginae Bicuculla cucullaria C. parviflorum Sarracema purpurea Fissipes acaulis 5S. fawn S.C) Galeorchis spectabilis S. Drummondi (Fla. ) Gymnadentopsis integra S. minor (S. C.) G. clavellata S. rubra 102 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST S. psittacina ( Fla.) Drosera rotundifolia (Fla. ) D. filiformis, var traceyt ( Ala.) Dionaea muscipula (Carolina ) Silene caroliniana Sedum ternatum Heuchera sp. Rubus hispida Epigaea repens Gaultheria procumbens Viola lanceolata Rhexia virginica R. mariana Chimaphila maculata, C. umbellata Kalnu latifolia (seedlings ) Gaylussacia brachycera (from primitive Penna. plant) Vaccimum sp. Oxycoccus macrocar pus Sabbatia — sp. Gentiana crinita Dasystephana andrewsu Menyanthes trifoliata Mitchella repens Houstonia coerulea Shortia galacifolia Tonactis linartfolius ? Coreopsis sp. (adventive seedling from Fla.) BOTANY FOR BEGINNERS IIL. By W1LLArD N. Chute. HE, whole subject of plant growth seems an inscrutable mystery to the average individual. He is wont to imagine that plants spring out of the earth much as wool grows on a sheep, entirely overlooking the fact that plants are living things derived from pre-existing individuals and therefore more or less related and not the product of natures vagaries. It is a common failing for him to regard any unusual flower he encounters as the only one of its kind or, if instead of a single plant, a colony is discovered, he is disposed to insist that his is the only place in the world where the plant grows. =—s THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 103 The American lotus or Nelumbo is often credited with this kind of distribution, or rather, lack of it. The plant is so remarkable in both leaf and blossom as to attract the atten- tion of everybody who approaches it and its comparative rarity naturally leads to unwarranted conclusions. To be sure there are various plants that inhabit very limited portions of the earth’s surface. The Venus’ fly-trap, for instance, is found only in the North Carolina marshes near the coast, and the insectivorous Darlingtoma is known only from the sierras of California and Oregon, but most plants are more widely distributed. Nor is such distribution hap-hazard or disconnected. Each kind of plant has a defi- nite range that in the case of all ordinary forms can be indi- cated with considerable exactness. In general, plants are supposed to have spread outward from their point of origin until they encountered some barrier to their further progress, and thus are confined to very definite areas. There are, how ever, certain phases of distribution that have ever been a puzzle to botanists. Among these are the occurrence of col- onies of the hart’s-tongue fern in central New York and in Tennessee but nowhere else in America. The plant is com- mon along ditches and hedge banks in England and the ques- tion is still how the colonies arose in the Western Hemisphere. Another fern Asplenium alternans, is found in a single can- yon in Arizona and not encountered again until the. Hima- laya mountains are reached, more than ten thousand miles away! In some cases, when there are outlying colonies at a distance from the main body of the species there is evidence to show that the species was once more widely distributed and has since contracted its area, but in other instances the species may be extending its range into new territory. Reports of 104 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST plants far beyond their known limits are now matters of fre- quent occurrence. Classic illustrations of the extensive spread of species in historic times may be found in the behaviour of the prickly pear in Australia, of the water-weed (Elodea) in Europe and of the prickly lettuce and Russian thistle in our Own country. Sooner or later, the most persistent species must reach a barrier that limits its further progress. Such barriers are naturally most diverse and their importance often depends upon the species, for what constitutes an insuperable barrier to one species may prove to be no hindrance to another. An extensive forest may bar the spread of plants that thrive on plains or prairies, and a desert or large body of water be an efficient barrier to woodland forms. Indeed, the desert might limit the forest while offering new regions for colon- ization by plants of the plains. The effect of temperature on the distribution of species is a familiar one, for we see a cold period annually put an end to many kinds of tender vegetation and realize that the northward extension of any species must ultimately be limit- ed by the cold. That an increase in temperature may prove harmful to other species is not so well known but a consider- ation of the plants of the world show an immense number that cannot endure any great increase in temperature and when brought into milder regions die because the weather is too warm. We may even account for the fact that the tree flora of Europe is not as rich as our own by a matter of temper- ature, for it is known that the last great ice-sheet which cover- ed the northern hemisphere pushed the plants southward until they were stopped by the mountain chains across their path and thus obliged to perish, while in our own country the north THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 105 and south trend of the mountain ranges allowed our plants to elude the ice sheet and to migrate back into territory form- erly inhabited after the ice sheet had retreated. It not infrequently happens that one species 1s limited in its distribution by its dependance upon another species. Fungi and such parasitic flowering plants as the dodders and some orchids cannot, of course, be distributed farther than the range of their host plants. The chestnut blight must come to an end as soon as all the chestnuts and chinquapins are des- troyed unless it learns to live upon some other species in the meantime. Even more curious are those ranges that are modified by insects which pollinate the blossoms and thus en- sure a continuance of the stock. The yucca and the yucca moth, for instance, are so closely interdependent that one can- not long survive in a locality or spread into new regions, with- out the other. It thus happens that the draining of a swamp or the cutting down of a woodland in one part of the country may destroy the feeding grounds of some insect that aids in maintaining a very different species in some other area. It is only in recent years that we have come to realize the important part the soil plays in the distribution of plants, but we now know that vegetation can be divided into two great groups depending upon whether they are tolerant or in- tolerant of acid in the soil. Most plants,especially the com- mon plants of our gardens, do not thrive in a soil that is acid, but many others absolutely refuse to grow in any other. The rhododendron, azalea, huckleberry and trailing arbutus belong to this group, not to mention various water ferns, violets, and bog-plants generally. It is apparent, therefore, that it is not mere accident that determines where a plant shall grow. Each species does the best it can under the circum- 106 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST stances and occupies as much territory as it can conquer for itself. But often fine and, in many cases imperceptible dif- ferences in soil or climate make an area unfitted for the sur- vival of a given species though in no wise inhabitive to some other. Thus have come about the willow thickets, walnut groves, oak forests, berry patches, alder swamps, sphagnum bogs, wintergreen colonies and many more. Even one who has had no botanical training recognizes the difference be- tween two such regions though often unable to state it in words. He does not hunt tor pitcher plants on hillsides nor _ for sassafras in swamps. Among the upland forests of pine, oak, and hemlock we may find arbutus, sweet-fern, winter- green,. and huckleberries, while in the maple-covered low- lands grow the bloodroot, hepatica, violet, and phlox. Although each species is at present spread as far as pos- sible in every direction, various natural agencies may at any time open new fields for further colonization. The great bar- riers of the earth, however, such as mountain chains, deserts, oceans and the like ultimately divide vegetation into fairly distinct groups. Thus the flora of the Northeastern States differs in its major aspects from that of the Gulf States, as both differ from the flora of the Pacific Slope or of the Great Plains. But while a given species rarely extends far beyond the boundaries thus set, it is the usual thing to find other species very much like it in adjoining regions. It is likely that all may have arisen from a common stock at some time long in the past, but in adapting themselves to different conditions have taken on different characteristics which for- ever distinguish them. IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS-II By JoHN J. Bircu CIRCUMNUTATION OF ROOTS OT only do the stems, leaves and stolons circumnutate but the radicals, hypocotyls and epicotyls of the seeding plants as well, even before they emerge from the ground. In all germiating seed, the first change is the protrusion of the rad- icle, which immediately bends downward and endeavors to penetrate the ground. ‘There is a movement of the root tip which bores thru the soil and in this way makes a place for the root. Then as the root grows and fills up the hole, the cells become more numerous and exert a pressure on the side sufficient to force the earth away, and in this way, due to the close packing of the earth around the root, it is able to come in direct contact with materials for growth. The movement of the radicle, also guides it along the line of least resistance as when the root happens to break obliquely into cracks or into burrows made by earth worms or larvae. This movement, combined with the sensitiveness of the tip to contact, is of great importance, for as the tip is always endeavoring to bend to all sides it will press on all sides, and thus be able to dis- crimate between the harder and softer abutting surfaces, thus guiding the root. Consequently it will bend from harder soil to the softer soil, materially aiding the plant. There is no structure in the plant more wonderful, as far as its functions are concerned, than the tip of the radicle. If this be lightly pressed or injured it transmits an influence to 108 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST the upper parts of the root, causing a bending away from the affected side. The tip also can distinguish between slightly harder and softer objects to a marked sensibility. One might compare the tip of the radicle to the nervous system of an- imals.—it receives the impressions and then by some marvelous methods directs the organism. Several other factors which will be discussed later are active in determining the direction of growth. In almost every case however, the final purpose or advantage of several move- ments is obviously for the life of the plant. After the radicle has penetrated the soil, the hypocotyls of the dicotyledonous seeds break up thru the ground in the form of an arch. When the cotyledons are hypogean, that is, re- main buried in the soil, the hypocotyl is hardly developed and the epicotyl or plumule raises in an arched manner. The cotyledons after they have broken thru the ground are in constant motion, chiefly in a vertical plane and com- monly once up and down in the course of twenty four hours. However, there are many exceptions to such a simplicity of movement. Their upward and downward movements do not exactly conicide, therefore generating an ellipse. In many cases it is found that the cotyledons sink downward a little in the forenoon and rise in the afternoon or evening. Thus they stand rather more highly inclined during the night than during the mid-day, at which time they are expanded almost hort- zontally. The circumnutating movement is thus at least partially periodic, no doubt in connection with the daily alter- nations of light and darkness. The conclusions reached from the study of circumnuta- tion is that it was not gained for any special purpose, because it is so universal a phenomena; but that it follows in some unknown way from the manner in which vegetable tissues —_—— a, THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 109 grew. As more powerful agents, such as light, dampness, obstructions, gravitation, etc. exert their influences the plant be- comes susceptible thereto and in this way, new movements were developed, which have become hereditary and necessary for the well being of, the plant. ESPINASTY MOVEMENTS When the growth is greater longitudinally along the upper than along the lower side of the part, causing a downward bending, the term espinasty is used. The reverse of this is expressed by hyponasty. These are in reality modifications of circumnutation, but because they are so often referred to, the special terms were designated to express them. The organ, under the influence of epinasty does not move down- ward in a straight line, or upwards under the influence of hy- ponasty, but oscillates up and down with some iateral move- ment. However, the preponderant movement is up and down. There is some growth on all sides of the part, but more on the upper in the case of epinasty and more on the lower in that of hyponasty. There may be an additional growth on one side due to geotropism and on another side due to helio- tropism, thus increasing or decreasing epinasty or hyponasty. One of the commonest cases of epinasty is that offered by leaves which are crowded together round the buds at an early age and diverge as the plant grows older. It was be- lieved that this is due to increased growth along the upper side of the petiole blade. As the hypocotyl and epicotyls of some plants protrude from the seed coats in an arched form, it is doubtful whether the arching through the ground ought always to be attributed to epinasty; but when it happens that they are first straight and afterwards become arched, it is in that case certainly due thereto. The arch must retain its 110 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST form when surrounded by soil; but as soon as it is freed from that pressure, or rises above the ground it begins to straighten, by the force of hyponasty. HELIOTROPISM AND GEOTROPISM The sun is one of the most vital agencies active on plant life. Stems and leaves behave very differently in relation to the direction of light. The stems grow toward the light and the leaves arrange themselves so that the upper surfaces are perpendicular to the sun’s rays. Just the reverse of this is the case with the roots; they grow away from the light. This process of auto-turning is called heliotropism. Parts which turn towards the light are described as positively heli- otropic, while those which turn away are negatively heliotrop- ic (apheliotropic) and those which turn across as transverse- ly hehotropic (transheliotropic). There is a fourth case which might be included under heliotropism. The leaves of some plants when exposed to an intense or injurious amount of light, protect their leaves by twisting or rolling them. This is especially noticeable in dry wheather when the plant seems to conserve its moisture by every way possible. Such movements are sometimes called diurnal sleep or para- helotropism. When a plant is exposed to a lateral light the stems move at first in a zig-zag line, which is undoubtedly due to its circumnutation at the time, in a direction either opposite to the source of light or transverse to it. As soon as the di- rection of circumnutation nearly coincides with that of the entering light, the plant bends in a straight line towards the illumination. The course becomes more and infore rapid and rectilinear in ratio to the intensity of the light and ellipses tend to have a greater ratio of diameters. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 111 Heliotropism prevails so extensively among the higher plants that there are extremely few of which some part does not bend towards a lateral light. ‘The insectivorous plants are exceptions to this;for it is obvious that they do not live chiefly by decomposing carbonic acid,but it is of' more impor- tance to them that their leaves should occupy the best position for capturing insects. Also the stems of twining plants are rarely heliotropic for if they had a tendency to move towards a lateral light, they would be drawn away from their supports. Most tendrils are apheliotropic and thus find supports. Paraheliotropism has undoubtedly been acquired for a definite purpose. The chlorophyl of leaves is liable to become injured from too much light, and it is believed that it is pro- tected by the most diversified means, such as the presence of hairs, coloring matter, and amongst other means, by the leaves presenting their edges to the sun so that the blades re- ceive the smallest amount of light. It is very probable that this movement has been acquired for the special purpose of avoiding too intense illumination. It is of paramount importance to the chlorophyl man- ufacture that the leaves get all the sunlight possible. As it falls on the sensitive protoplasm of the plant, the light sets up, probably by chemical means, a condition of irritation or strain which puts the side toward the light in a condition dif- ferent from the side away from it, thus favoring the chloro- phyl process. This is well shown by the plants growing on a bank or on the borders of a wood. ‘The trees send their greater number of branches towards the open, and in the case of plants growing on a bank, the leaves are so mosaicked that they are not one on top,of the other, but each is so ar- ranged that the greater area is presented to the sun. Some botanists have advocated the idea that the angular shape of 112 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST such leaves as those of the English ivy are partly determined by the advantage of interlocking to use all the space. Flowers are extremely heliotropic. They turn their faces directly towards the light that they may receive all the rays of the sun. Some flowers follow the sun through the day, although the adjustment is only moderately effective. Although there is no chlorophyl process active in the flower, yet it becomes evident that if it is to be attractive to insects, the function of conspicuousness requires that the corolla stand out where the light strikes it most! fully. As to fruits, they are indifferent to light, which may be due to their weight. However, most fruits are on the ends of the branches where they receive the most light, and it is probable that the amount of sunlight affects the fineness of the fruit as regards size, flavor and beauty. ASPIDIUM LASERPETITFOLIUM IN PENNSYLVANIA By JAMES GRIMSHAW Scorr hoe since the discovery of Asplemum ebenoides, R. Kk. Scott in the Schuylkill valley, Pennsylvania, the botanical denizens of the States have been on the lookout for a new speci- men of fern that might perchance eclipse it in importance and perpetuate their names in botanical annals. Recently, Charles H. Pettiford, gardener for W. S. Pil- ling has found growing in the enchanted wild garden on the Pilling premises in Germantown, an exotic fern that seems to have become thoroughly Americanized in the happy en- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 113 vironment of this notable collection of indigenous plants though which one of the tributaries of the Schuylkill river flows. oh | 4 \ ASPIDIUM LASERPETITFOLIUM. After repeated efforts to have some local botanist name the fern it was sent to the Smithsonian Institution and the Bronx Botanical Gardens for indentification. Both of these authorities agreed in naming it Aspidium laserpetifolium, Mett: and the specific name so much resembles that of its re- 114 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST discoverer, we may call this domesticated fern Pettiford’s shield fern for purposes of introduction and general discus- sion. Mr. Pilling has found among the nurserymen of the vicin- ity a “commercial” fern-somewhat similar to his specimen bearing the name of Aspidium viridescens but it has none of the vigor and beauty of the plant growing in the Schuylkill wild garden. ‘The nurseryman’s fern appears, in comparsion with the domesticated specimen, to be drawfed and stunted in growth so that the casual observer would not recognize the two to be of a common origin. One is artificial, the other natural. The oriental variety 1s a species of eastern Asia ex- tending from Tonkin to Japan. Diels lists it as Polystichum laserpetiifolium, but Christiansen takes up the earlier name of Moore’s and calls it Polystrichum Standishiu (Moore) C. Chr. It was transferred to Dryopteris by Otto Kuntze in 1891 and-is in fact, one of the comparatively few species ex- actly intermediate between these two genera, in this respect re- sembling Dryopterris denticulata (Swartz) Kuntze of tropi- cal America which is often placed in Polystichum. In habit the plant is somewhat polystichoid and for that matter the indusium also suggests Polystichum although it is actually orbicular-reniform and attached distinctly to the sinus rather than being centrally peltate. The fern is a hand- some one in cultivation and in pursuit of the new policy of the American Fern Society to feature exotic ferns, we com- mend this splendid plant to their early consideration. PLANT NAMES AND THEIR MEANINGS—XII . LABIATAE By WILLARD N. CLutre HE. species included in the Labiatae are very distinct in ap- pearance. The square stems, aromatic foliage, and flowers in clusters in the axils of the leaves or in a spike at the sum- mit of the stem set them off from other plants and make them easily recognized. The group was naturally among the first to be distinguished when the relationships of plants began to receive notice. The flowers, which usually face side- wise,- are two-lipped .or “‘labiate’’ and from this cir- cumstance the family name is derived. It is to be observed, however that the designation Labiatae is not founded on the name of a genus and according to some botanists should give way to one that is, for instance, Lamiaceae. This latter name has as yet found little favor. The family is occasionally know as the Menthaceae a title which should prevail if fit- ness be considered for Mentha is the name of the mint genus and mint is the commonly accepted name for the whole group. The Labiatae abound in showy flowers and in keeping with this fact several genera have names which refer to the blossoms. At the beginning we may introduce /santhus which is formed from the Greek isos, equal, and anthos, a flower, because the flowers are nearly regular instead of two- lipped as is usual in this group. Ajuga, from a, without, and jugum, a yoke, refers to the fact that the flowers of this genus appear to lack an upper lip to the corolla, Lophan- 116 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST thus, the name by which the giant hyssop was once known, means crest and flower and alludes to the dense tertninal flower- spikes, Agastache, the term by which the genus is now desig- nated, has somewhat the same meaning being derived from words meaning much and an ear of corn (wheat). The latter half of the name may also be translated to mean flower-spike as in Stachys the name of the hedge nettle. Pycnanthemum means ““dense blossom” in allusion to the compact inflores- cences of this genus. The genus Lanuum, from which the family name Lam- iaceae is derived, is by some assumed to come from the Greek for throat, in reference to the open or ringent corolla. Wood, however, says that the name comes from Lanua the name of a sea-monster “to which the flowers may be likened.” Botanists have seen other resemblances in the flowers of this family to various animals, fabulous and otherwise, as in Dracocephalum which is literally “‘dragon-head”’. Leonurus means “‘lion’s tail’ and Galeopsis comes from two words sig- nifying weasel and appearance. Lycopus, means wolf's foot and refers to the leaves of the plant. Melissa also reters to an animal but the reference is suggested by its attractiveness for bees—miel is Greek for honey—rather than from any re- semblance of the plant to bees. Scutellaria is from scutella, a dish, in allusion to the shape of the calyx, and Trichostemma is trom Greek words meaning hair and stamen and refers to the slender filaments. Physostegia means ‘bladder’ and “a covering” and is said to have been bestowed on our species from the fact that the calyx becomes somewhat inflated in fruit. The sterile cells of the anthers in Synandra cohere, hence the name from words sig- nifying “together” and ‘‘anther’. The hairy fringe on the THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 117 bracts and calyx teeth of Blephillia account for its name from a word meaning eyelash. Genera in the Labiatae dedicated to botanists are not nu- merous, but we must not overlook Monarda which commen- orates Nicholas Monardes or Monardus a Spanish botanist who lived in the latter part of the sixteenth century and wrote many pamphlets on useful plants, especially those of the New World. There is also Collinsonia, named for Peter Collinson an English botanist of the time of Linnaeus, who did much to make the plants of Eastern America known. J. S. El sholtz, a German physician of the 17th century is remember- ed in Elsholtzia a genus with certain half-shurbby forms quite unusual among labiates. Meehania is the name given to a group set off from Cedronella to commemorate the name of Thomas Meehan one of the most acute and learned botanists of recent years. Nor must we forget Teucrium which bears the name of that ancient Teucer who legend says was founder and king of Troy. He is reputed to have been the first to use the plants of this genus medicinally. The true mint gen- us, Mentha is dedicated to a wholly mythical personage, Minthe, who according to Theophrastus was a nymph which Proserpone turned into a mint plant. Perilla is a Greek and Latin proper name. As usual, there are, in this family, a number of generic names whose derivation is unknown or uncertain. One of these in Cunila the name of the dittany. Wood says this is ; eS aa 4 an ancient name for the pennyroyal. The generic name ot the black hoarhound, Ballota, means according to the same author, “to reject,’ on account of its vile odor. Satureia, the name of the summer savory is said to be the ancient Latin name which Wood says is derived from the Arabis satur, 118 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST a term used for labiates in general. Hyssopus is another an- cient name which is said to be derived from the Hebrew ezeb. From the same language comes Marrubium from marrob “a bitter juice”. The name was first used by Pliny. The cat- nip genus, Nepeta, is by some said to be derived from Nepet or Nepete an Etruscan city. Phlomis is the old Greek name for some woolly plant. Wood says that the woolly leaves of Phlomis lychanitis were anciently used for lamp-wicks, a use which the specific name indicates. The genus Glechoma, by which a section of the catnip genus is sometimes known signifies thyme or pennyroyal in the Greek. Both of the species mentioned have names that refer to their aromatic qualities. Thymus is an old word for perfume which is reputed to have been given to our plants because of their use in incense, though Wood says the name is derived from thymos, courage, from its invigorating smell. -The pennyroyal genus is Hedeoma from the Greek edos, sweet, and osma, smell. Originally this is said to have been the name of the mints. Ocimum is another generic name derived from the Greek osma. | In so useful a group as the one under discussion, there would naturally be a number of generic names derived from their healing or other properties. One of the most familiar is Salvia the name of the sage genus from the Latin salvare, to save. Then there is Lavendula from lavare, to wash, in allusion to the well-nigh universal association of lavender with clean clothes. Prunella is a modern spelling of Bru- nella a name given to the self-heal from the German braune meaning quinsy, which this herb was reputed to heal. Lin- naeus gave sanction for spelling the name Prunella, though whether by design or a typographical error seems uncertain. ‘THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 119 When once a mis-spelled word becomes current, however, changing it becomes a weighty matter. Such are the ways of botanists. ry : . ° The rosemary genus, Rosmarinus may be mentioned here to point out another error into which plant students sometimes fall. This plant, though called rosemary, has nothing to do with the Virgin. It is really ros, dew and marinus, the sea. In the labiates, also is found the genus Betomca, probably the original of that word “‘betony’’ which is often applied to var- ious other plants of different affiliations. Calamintha is lit- erally “beautiful. mint’? and Origanum is “mountain joy” or “mountain ornament.” Clinopodium, formerly used for some of the plants now placed in the genus Satureia, is Greek “bed-foot’”’ because the flowers are like a bed-caster. It is possible that the plant which origininally bore the name had some resemblance to the article mentioned but it is difficult to see any resemblance to it in our species. Although the entire group of labiates are commonly cal- led “mints” only a few of them are mints in the sense of belonging to the genus Mentha. Most of the other members of the family, however, are so pervaded by the warm aro- matic mint-like flavor that it is most natural to regard them as mints, also. The most distinguished of all the true mints is probably Mentha spicata, a rather insignificant plant as ap- pearances go, but one that is celebrated in song and story as an all-important accompaniment of roast lamb and as an indispen- sable ingredient in a beverage which only a Constitutional amendment could banish from public life. Now, falling on more prosaic days, its principal use in in flavoring chewing- gum. As an ingredient in mint-sauce, it has acquired such names as “lamb’s mint”, “garden mint’, “mackerel mint”, 120 THE AMERICAN BOTANIS!1 “common mint” and probably, “sage of Bethlehem.”. “Our Lady's mint” is doubtless a name testifying to its high re- pute, since only plants of great excellence were dedicated to the Virgin. The name of “spearmint,” by which the plant is most commonly known refers to the spire-like inflorescence. The plant was once known as Mentha viridis and from this circumstance the plant is occasionally called ‘‘green mint’’. Second only in importance to the spearmint, comes Mentha piperita, well known from its biting flavor as “‘pep- permint”, but also called “lamb’s mint’? and “brandy mint” from which we assume that it occasionally served in place of its more popular relative. Both Menth longifolia and M. aquatica are known as “‘water mint” and “fish mint”, probably for their fondness of water, though all the mints are found in wet places. The first mentioned is also “brook mint,” and “horse mint”, the latter name doubtless referring to its coarse or less attractive qualities. Mentha rotundifolia is also “horse-mint” and “‘wild mint”. The meaning of “apple mint” and “Patagonia mint” applied to this species is not clear, but since practically all our mints are of Old World origin and brought their common names with them when they settled with us, they may have more significance abroad. The only species native to both sides of the ocean is Mentha arvensis which is known as “field mint” and “corn mint” for growing in culti- vated grounds, as “wild pennyroyal” for its odor, and as “lamb’s tongue”’ for its occassional use in sauces. The variety Canadensis is sometimes called ““American mint’’, but rarely on this side of the world. Mentha citrata is the “bergamot mint”. The true bergamot is a member of the citrus family which the orange and lemon belong and the common name of our plant clearly shows it to be a translation of the specific THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 121 one. Both were probably given for the lemon-like odor. Other plants called bergamots belong to the genus Mon- arda. ‘The species most frequently called “wild bergamot” is M. fistulosa but thé specific name of M. citriodora marks that species as best entitled to the name. Instead, the latter is cal- led “lemon mint” and “lemon monarda”’ which simply states the same idea in different words. Monarda fistulosa is a con- spicuous member of our flora, able to endure poor soil, and putting up numerous heads of showy lavender flowers. It is sometimes called “Oswego tea” but this name is: understood to be better applied to Monarda didyma, a plant with flower- heads very similar in shape but of so vivid a red as to rival those of the imperial cardinal flower. It has received a var- iety of common names but ““*bee balm” is the one usually heard. Nearly as common is “Oswego tea” the latter half of the name given because the leaves were sometimes used in in- jusions, but why this tea is associated with Oswego is a puz- vle. Among its other names are “‘mountain mint’, “red balm.” “low balm”, “fragrant balm’ and ‘Indian plume”, the last probably a mere book name. ‘‘Horse mint,” a title some- times given to this species is more commonly applied to MW. punctata. This latter species is also called “rignum” which is manifestly a contraction of Origanum a genus to which it is wrongly referred. Monarda clinopodia is the “basil balm” though Britton’s Manual spells the first word basal. The name means royal and belongs properly to the species of Ocimum. “Balm” is itself a contraction of balsam. Several species of Saturcia are also called “basil.”’. ‘The one most frequently so named is S. vulgaris which is “wild basil”, “field basil” and “stone basil’. This species is also called “bed’s foot” a translation of Clinopodium the generic name once used for certain members of this group. “Dog 22 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST mint’’ may refer to its inferior qualities while “feld thyme” and “horse thyme” are doubtless names to distinguish it from the true thyme (Thymus serpyllum). Satureia nepeta is the “basil thyme”’, “field balm” and “‘calaminth” or “‘calamint”’. This last term is derived from still another generic name cal- amintha which some of the species have borne in bygone days. It means “beautiful mint’. Satureta acinos is another “basil” or ‘basil balm”’ and also ‘mother of thyme,” and “polly moun- tain” applied to the true thyme is a distortion or reference to pennyroyal. ,Satureia hortensis is the “summer savory” of our gardens whose aromatic leaves are much used for flavor- ing soups and dressings. The name of ‘‘mountain mint’? applied to Monarda didyma suggests a confusion of this plant with Pycnanthemum Virginianum. When in leaf, only, the two species are, indeed, very much alike, but in flower no one could mistake them. Monarda may often be found in elevated places, especially if wet, but the present species is so plentifully distributed in rough country as to be fairly entitled to be considered the true mountain mint. The looseness with which identical terms are applied to a number of plants when there is only a passing resemblance between them is seen in the present instance ‘ when our plant is also called “basil’’, “pennyroyal’’, “mountain thyme’, and “prairie hyssop.” ‘These names are of course, explained in their proper places. In dry and elevated regions a strong and pungent odor often apprises one of the presence of Hedeoma pulegioides commonly known as “‘pennyroyal”’. Though so familiar to us by this name, it has really usurped the cognomen of a Eu- ropean species (Mentha pulegium) regarded as the true pennyroyal. ‘The specific name seems to have been derived THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 123 from pulex meaning a flea. From pulegium it became puletuin then puliall or poliol and finally “‘pennyroyal”. The Ameri- can plant is naturally known as “mock pennyroyal’’ and ‘American pennyroyal.”’ It is also called “‘squaw-weed” from its use as medicine by the Indians. ““Tickseed” probably re- ‘ers to its use against insects. The oil is a well known defense —if such there be—against mosquitos. Our only species of thyme is Thymus serpyllum. Unlike most other plants it does not derive its common name from the generic name for it was known as thymus long before scientif- ic names came into fashion. As we have already noted, the word has some connection with incense, as well it might, con- sidering the plant’s aromatic odor. It is also called “creeping thyme’, “mother of thyme” and “‘shepherd’s thyme”. *‘Penny mountain” connects it with pennyroyal and “hillwort’’ pos- sibly refers to its growth in broken country. This is the species to which Shakespeare alludes in: “T know a bank Whereon the wild thyme grows.” ADDITIONAL PLANTS NAMES HE. series of articles on “Plant Names and their mean- ings” now running in this magazine is designed to serve two purposes. In the first place it is desired to put into cor- nected form an explanation of current common names _ for the benefit of those who have not the time to look up this in- formation for themselves, but in addition it is hoped that the series may bring out further notes and suggestions. That this latter hope is being realized is shown by the responses 124 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST from our readers. Scarcely a single number has been issued that did not bring us additional information. Incidentally, it may be said that the articles have attracted considerable at- tention in many parts of the world and inquiries for them have been received from such remote regions and the Cape of Good Hope, India, China, and Russia. Several additional names in the Ranunculaceae have come to light since the notes on that family were published. We note that the hepatica is occasionally called “‘blue an- emone”’, a name that is fairly descriptive. Myosurus muni- ma has the singular name of “blood strange”. This seems to be derived from the Latin stringendo, to staunch, and thus gives some meaning to the name though it is scarcely appro- priate. We also missed another change rung on the colum- bine, in “culverwort”. Culver is an ancient name for dove, just as columba, in the Latin, means dove, and columbina, dovelike. In Vaughan’s seed catalogue Aquilegia Canadensis is listed as “Turk’s-cap”. This may be in allusion to the spurs of the flower though it scarcely deserves to be called a common name. ‘Akely” is a vernacular name originated in an attempt of the unlettered to pronounce Aquilegia. Clema- tis ligusticifolia is reported as “hill clematis” in “American Honey Plants” but the plant is not especially partial to hills. The name of “poor man’s rhubarb” ascribed to species of Thialictrum appears to be based on the fact that the root of one species may serve on occasion in place of the officinal rhu- barb. Aconitum napellus is a European species of “monk’s- hood”, commonly planted in gardens. It may be of interest to note here that the curiously shaped flowers have received other names such as “friar’s cap”’ which is much the same as ‘“monk’s hood”, “soldier’s cap’. ‘“Turk’s-cap”. and “helmet flower”. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 125 The name “bear’s-foot” probably applies to the leaves. In the Rosaceae, we missed “albespine” an old name for the ‘white thorn” (Crataegus coccinea) which comes from al- ba spina which of course has the same meaning as white thorn. Crataegus oxycanthus is the real hawthorn of Europe which is also called “‘quick’”’ and “quick-set thorn” from its use in hedges. Other names for the hooked fruits of agrimony are “sticklewort” and “harvest-lice”. It seems to be uncertain whether the mulberry was so called because its fruits resemble a blackberry, or the reverse. One thing is certain, the word mulberry is a very old term for the blackberry in England. The fruits of the blackberry were also anciently known as “branke-berries” and “bramble apples.” The word “rasp- berry” appears to have been derived from a wine made of raspberry fruits which was called raspis in the 15th and 16th centuries. OWNERS OF COMPLETE SETS It is probable that we have located all the complete sets of American Botanist in existence. The list is given below as a matter of record, a number being attached to each set. Those who have recent volumes have still two or three chances of completing files by the purchase of early numbers, but the stock of most volumes is now practically exhausted. OWNED BY PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS 1. Ames, Iowa. Iowa State College. ies) Amherst, Mass. Massachusetts Agricultural College. 3. Boston, Mass. Massachusetts Horticultural Society. THE AMERICAN BOTANIS1 Brookings, S. Dak. South Dakota State College. Buffalo, N. Y. Buffalo Society of Natural History. Cambridge, Mass. Gray Herbarium, Harvard Univer- sity. Chapel Hill, N. Car. University of North Carolina Chicago, Ill. Field Museum. Chicago, Ill. John Crerar Library. Cincinnati, Ohio. Lloyd Library. Corvallis Oregon. Oregon Agricultural College. Galveston, Texas. Rosenberg Library. Hanover, N. H. Dartmouth College. Honolulu, Hawaii. Hawaiian Sugar Planters Ass’n. Iowa City, lowa. State University of Iowa. Jamaica Plain, Mass. Arnold Arboretum. Lawrence, Kansas. Kansas State College. Lexington Ky. University of Kentucky. Minneapolis, Minn. University of Minnesota. Montgomery, Ala. State Dept. of Archives and History co) 73 - New Haven, Conn. Osborn Botanical Laboratory. New York, N. Y. New York Botanical Garden. Oberlin, Ohio. Oberlin College Providence, R. 1. Brown University. Pullman Wash. State College of Washington. St. Louis, Mo. Missiouri Botanical Garden. State College, Pa. Pennsylvania State College. Urbana Ill. University of Illinois. Waco, Texas. Baylor University. Washington, D. C. Department of Agriculture. PRIVATE, OWNERS. Angert, Fugene H. F'sq., St. Louis, Mo. Bauman, Mrs. Adda, Pittsburg, Pa. Burnham, Stewart, H., Ithaca, N. Y. 54. a0. 40. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST Buswell, W. M., Ft. Myers, Fla. Case, Rev. B. F., East Granby, Conn. Classen, Claus $., Chicago, III. Deam, Chas. C., Bluffton, Ind. DeCleene Rev. L. A. V., West DePere, Wis. DeSelm, Hon. Arthur W., Kankakee, II]. Ewart, George B., Pittsburgh, Pa. Fitzpatrick, Prof. T. J., Bethany, Nebr. Fitzsimmons, G. D., Monterrey, Mexico. Hess, Dr. Wm. L., Denver, Colo. Jellett, Edwin C., Philadelphia, Pa. Jenks, Chas. W., Bedford, Mass. Johnston, Prof. Earl Lynd, Briggsdale, Colo. Laughlin, Miss Emma, Barnesville, Ohio. Mansfield, Dr. William, Albany, N. Y. Marsh, W. T., Amlin, Ohio. Martin, Dr. Louisa, Chicago, IIl. Oleson, Hon. O. M., Fort Dodge, Iowa. Plitt, Prof. Chas. C., Baltimore, Md. Pember, F. T., Granville, N. Y. Pretz, Harold W., Allentown, Pa. Rhodes, Chas. O., Groton, N. Y. Schaffner, Prof. John H., Columbus, Ohio. Thompson, Prof. J. F., Richmond, Ind. Tuttle, Mrs. J. D., Marlboro, N. H. Vicks Fe-C Newatk, No f\. Victorin, Rev. Fr. Marie, Longueil, Canada. Von Oven, F. W., Naperville, Il. White, Chas. E., Shelbourne Falls, Mass. Wolfgang, Harry G., Leetonia, Ohio. | NOTE and COMMENT > SUNLIGHT IN HiGH LAtTiITupEs.—At the north pole the plane of the equator coincides with the horizon plane so that on March 21st, or rather a few days earlier owing to the effect of refraction, the sun appears on the horizon and makes a complete circuit of the heavens in twenty four hours with- out setting. This brings to an end the long winter night of six months duration. From this time until the sun crosses the equator going south in September, it remains continually above the horizon for the observer at the north pole and grad- ually makes it way upward until it reaches an altitude of 23% degrees at the beginning of summer in June. It then begins to gradually wend its way downward once more toward the horizon, disappearing beneath it at the beginning of fall for another six months. At latitudes between the north pole and the polar circle the sun appears above the horizon before the beginning of spring and rises and sets daily until it reaches a distance north of the equator equal to the observer’s distance from the pole. It then makes a complete circuit of the heavens without setting, touching the horizon at the north point and the phenomenon of the midnight sun can be seen. The sun remains continually above the horizon from that day on, at- taining a little higher altitude each day until the beginning of summer. After that its altitude above the horizon begins to decrease. When it has reached the same point as before on its southward journey it rises and sets daily once more until THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 129 it is as far south of the equator as the observer is from the north pole when it disappears completely from view below the horizon and the long winter night sets in to last until the sun has passed through the winter solstice and has again reached the same distance south of the equator on its return journey to the north.— Science Service. FLOWERING BamBoos.—Readers of the Botanist who live in a winter sufficiently mild to permit the cultivation of bamboos in the open air will recall that it is a rare exper- ience to find one in flower. Even in their native haunts many species flower only at long intervals, sometimes as much as thirty years, after which the whole plant dies; and it often happens that cultivated plants never produce any flowers at all. I had the unexpected pleasure this past season of coming upon a bamboo-hedge in full flower. The species, a very common one in cultivation here, introduced from Japan, is Phyllo- stachys mitis, belonging to a genus easily recognized by the fact that the internodes of the culm are flattened on one side. This species is perfectly hardy in our climate, but no flowers had ever been reported until a hedge in front of the State School for the Deaf suddenly in late August burst into bloom, the panicles in many cases being as much as two feet in length. This will doubtless end the career of that particular hedge; but the plant is easily propagated by root-cuttings. It would be in- teresting to know the experiences of other readers with flower- mg of this or any other species. Mrs. Agnes Chase tells me that though this Phyllostachys has been known in cultivation about Washington, D. C. for some fifteen years, it has never been known to flower.—J/. C. Nelson, Salem, Oregon. PLANT OR ANIMAL Locusts?—Rev. George L. Tilton questions the statement, in a recent number, that the food of 130 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST John the Baptist in the wilderness was the fruit of the Carob tree. He writes: “If Matthew meant his readers to under- stand that John fed on carob pods I hardly think he would have written locusts; especially as certain species of locusts were, a common article of food among the Bedawin Arabs and the very poor of the country generally. If you have not read the statement of Dr. Wm. Thompson forty years missionary in Syria, you may be interested in a quotation from his classic work, The Land and the Book, Vol. 2 pp. 107-8. ““Do you sup- pose that the meat of John the Baptist was literally locusts and wild honey? Why not? By the Arabs they are eaten to this day. The perfectly trustworthy Burchhardt [who identified himself with the Arabs in his whole manner of liv- ing| thus speaks on this subject :—“All the Bedawins or Ara- bia are accustomed to eat locusts. I have seen at Tayf and Medina locust shops where these animals were sold by meas- ure. The Arabs in preparing locusts as an article of food, throw them alive into boiling water with which a good deal of salt has been mixed. After a few minutes they are taken out and dried in the sun; the head, feet and wings are then torn off; the bodies are cleansed of the salt and perfectly dried, after which process whole sacks are filled with them by the Bedawin. They are sometimes eaten boiled in butter, and they often contribute materials for breakfast when spread over unleavened bread mixed with butter.”” Thus far Burck- hardt. Then Dr. Thompson after stating that locusts were eaten only by the Bedawin and the very poorest people goes on to say, ‘John the Baptist, however, was of this class either from necessity or election. He also dwelt in the desert where such food was and is still used, and therefore the text states the simple truth’. Were I trying merely to prove this point THE AMERICAN BGOTANIST 131 1 could easily add other authorities but I hardly suppose you seriously doubt it”. Puccoon AND MArsH ELbER.—Regarding the inquiry as to the significance of the word puccoon, Mrs. M. E. Soth writes: “I believe it is the Indian word for any plant from the root of which a reddish dye may be obtained as the Litho- spermum and also the bloodroot; also the pigment itself. The books give “marsh elder” as the common name of /va -vanth- folia but I never heard it called that. We always called it “horse-weed” in Iowa because it was so lusty and abundant in places where horses were wont to be found. We young- sters called it “spear-weed”’ because its shining leafless trunks made such light, straight, shooting darts after frost shrivelled the leaves. It is interesting to note that it diminishes in size as it travels westward. In Colorado it is only half as high as eastward. Here in Idaho it is scarcely a yard high, a mere relic of its glorious condition in the East. WoopLess LuMBER.—According to Science Sevice a board twelve feet wide and nine hundred feet long has recently been produced. This is a much larger board than could be produced from any tree that we know of. It is said to con- tain sufficient matertal to construct three five-room bungalows. This remarkable board was made from sugarcane, or rather from the refuse, of the cane after the sugar has been ex- tracted. Sugar-cane refuse, known as bagasse, consists of the fibrous material of the plant and is very similar to the fiber from which paper is made. In making bagasse lumber the fiber is put through processes similar to those employed in making paper. The new lumber is said to be very light, waterproof and an excellent non-conductor of heat. Up to the present, refuse sugar cane has been of little use and is i32 PESSAVGE RA CANS One wiSd usually burned to get rid of it. Now that a way to use it has been found, it is expected that the cane fields of Louisiana, alone, will yield over 750,000,000 feet of this lumber annually. There are many demands for wood that the new material will not supply, but it can be used in so many ways that it seems destined to take much of the pressure from our rapidly di- minishing forests. RIPENING GRAPE-FRUIT.—Investigation proves that there are more differences in grape-fruits than are shown by size and color, though these latter, especially color, may indicate | other differences when interpreted correctly. Everybody knows the difference that exists between green and ripe ba- nanas. Green bananas are practically all starch but if. left until the skins are yellow or nearly black these same fruits wall become sweet and palatable. The fact is that bananas are alive and if given time will digest their starch and tannin into sugar. Not until this process is finished are the fruits actu- ally ripe. Many people fail to realize that other fruits run though the same series of changes. In the case of the grape- fruit it has been found that when the fruits are held in cold storage for a period of from one to three months they de- velop a superior flavor. Much of the acid disappears and with it the bitter principle, while the sugar content increases. It is apparently another case of digestion improving the flavor. It has been supposed that the increase of flavor depends in some way upon cold storage, but this is probably incorrect. The length of the time the fruit is kept seems to be the important factor, for ones notices a remarkable difference in the flayor of grape-fruits that have not been in cold storage at all. In selecting these fruits, therefore, it is well to pay some attention to the color of the fruit and to select those which are fully ma- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 133 ured and deep colored. Even slightly shrivelled fruits may yrove desirable. CHAULMOOGRA OiL.—A considerable stir has recently been made in the public prints regarding the virtures of chaulmo- ogra oil in the cure of leprosy. One might infer from this that the idea is new, but this proves not to be the case. As early as 1881, Dr. John D. Hill suggested this use of the oil in the ““New York Medical Abstracts.’’ The oil and its use is also mentioned in the “U.S. Dispensatory”, edition of 1888. MinKWEED TRAps.—The Asclepias’ method of pollination does not seem very effective to me. In one umbel I counted ninety-four flowers each of which possessed two embryo pods vet rarely as many as five in the whole cluster develop. Does the plant need all of those fragrant blossoms to coax insects to help her make one or two grow into fruits? Nature is lavish again when she does make a pod for in one I counted two hundred and twenty-five seeds, each with its own pretty white sail. One June day I watched an ant struggling desper- ately on one of these blossoms. The middle and hind legs were all entrapped in the slits between the upstanding, en- ticingly sweet, hoods. The poor ant had no thought about the sweetness, being too busy trying to free itself. It would pull and twist and sometimes a leg would slip out but with the next movement it would slip in again. I wanted to help and held my middle finger for it to cling to. Then the middle legs came out and one of them bore a pair of yellow pollen: masses. A moment later the two other legs were freed. The insect was in a great hurry and it was difficult to keep it crawl- ing on my hands and arms until I discovered pollen bags on one of the hind legs too. It seemed excited and bothered with the sticky appendages. I wished it could fly for it re- 134 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST minded me of a cat with its feet tied up in papers. Milkweed traps do not please me when I find three honey-bees hanging stiff and dead from the veritable death-traps which the blos- soms sometimes become.—NVell McMurray, Clearfield, Pa. KINGHEADS .—With regard to Prof. Nelson’s inquiries about the names of Ambrosia trifida and Iva xanthifolia. The name kinghead is in common use for the former in our region. I do not know any name in general use for the latter except that the inappropriate name marsh elder is much used. I have suggested for it the name false kinghead on account of its general resemblance to the other plant. A group of them around deserted homesteads truly does suggest a group of trees when seen at a distance.—O. A. Stevens, Agricultural College, N.D. Professor E. A. Bessey in a note to Prof. Nelson re- ports that /va is known as “marsh elder” in the upper Penin- sula of Michigan. Two New GarvEN Pes'ts.—It has often been questioned whether cotton or corn was king of agricultural products and the decision may have to be held in suspense for some time while we conbat the enemies of both claimants to the throne. It is doubtless only another indication of the general decline of the king business that both crops are seriously threatened. Cotton is in danger from two kinds of boll-worms, both of which are steadily increasing in their invasion,while corn has the corn-ear worm and the cornstalk borer to contend with. The corn-ear worm has been spreading in the corn belt for many years. It is to all intents and purposes a cut-worm which eats its way into the growing ear of corn and defiles much that it does not consume. There are three broods in a season and more than enough of the repulsive worms to go around. Those that cannot find an ear of corn in which to THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 135 burrow attack tomatoes, peppers, beans, and other garden pro- duce. The cornstalk borer is a more recent introduction. It comes from abroad and does great damage,not only to corn and broom-corn but to celery, beets, spinach, rhubarb, asters, cosmos, zinnia, hollyhock, gladiolus, dahlia and other plants. It was first noticed a few years ago in New Jersey but it failed to heed the quarantine regulations of our celebrated Federal Horticultural Board and has steadily spread westward. It has progressed as far as Ohio and it is now proposed to establish a new quarantine by prohibiting or restricting the movement of the plants mentioned above, across a line from Lake Michigan to the Ohio Valley. This may help some, but it ought to be clear to everybody by this time that a quarantine often does not quarantine. One lively entomolo- gist in the field devising methods for controlling the pests is worth several reams of restrictions put out from Wash- ington by the Government scientists. 0 EDITORIAL > A great many things depend upon the point of view. A cathedral may be seen through a keyhole or we may attempt to view it from a point so near that we see only the stones and mortar just beyond our noses. The idea is well illustrated in the matter of botanical nomenclature. The philosophical botanist views the rules for naming plants in their entirety and perceives that they are merely a means to an end and that end the distinguishing of one species from another; but the technical botanist is frequently too near his subject and fails to see it in proper perspective. He is fond of quarreling over different “codes” of nomenclature and he often uses up much good white paper in attempting to establish the priority of a favorite name which he has exhumed from some ancient and musty tome, or in trying to prove which of two dilapidated specimens is entitled to bear the name given by a botanist long since turned to dust. More reprehensible still is his worship of the author citiation. The philosopher realizes that the au- thor of a plant name must frequently be cited to indicate the exact species meant, but the pettifogging botanist too often considers such citations as a means of gaining distinction for himself. He is frequently charged with changing names with- out sufficient reason when this will bring his own name into prominence. If this stricture is unjust, how else can we ex- plain the fact that every albino flower and fruit and every variation from the normal in other plant parts is dignified by a name which includes the name of the author? To be sure all THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 137 important variations should have a name in order that they may be conveniently designated, but why the author citation ? Does the namer of a white huckleberry or white cardinal flower fear we shall not know that it is white unless it is ac- companied by the name of the eminent describer? In the older books this is not so, for nearly everybody realizes that albinos are likely to occur occasionally in any group of living things. The nonsense, moreover, does not stop here. It fre- quently happens at present, that if one author describes a specimen as a variety, another will at once call it a form or vice versa. This proceding enable the name-changer to make a “new combination” and thus inject his own unmusical pat- ronymic into the citation. But who, it may be asked, can dis- tinguish surely between a variety and a form? ‘The lines that separate one specimen from another are not hard and fast. There are variations of all degrees of importance, seasonal, edaphic, geographical, physiological and what not, and no- body can really say where one ends and the other begins, unless it be the name-tinker standing too close to his cathedral. If we could only get him to stand a little farther back, what an immense number of trifling problems that now perplex his mentality would automatically disappear ! aoe We have received notice that a third society for protect- ing the wildflowers has been organized. The newcomer ap- pears under the joint auspices of the Massachusetts Hort1- cultural Society and the Garden Club of America. That we can never have too many people interested in protecting the wildflowers is certain, but it may be questioned whether the results desired could not be better attained by uniting the ef- forts of all concerned into one strong movement. The great 138 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST criticism that can be made of most of the proposals for pro- tecting plants thus far offered, is that they are based too largely on sentiment. Undoubtedly a very praiseworthy sentiment is at the bottom of all suggestions for protecting the flowers but it would seem that protection, itself, should be of more practical nature to be effective. We should at once locate all areas in which plants may be protected without conflicting with other uses of the ground—parks, cemeteries, large estates, woodlands, marshes, bogs, dunes, cliffs, river banks, lake shores, and railroad rights of way—and see that they are prop- erly protected. And we are of the opinion that one stern sign to the effect that flower-gathers will be prosecuted is worth a hundred requests to “please do not pick the pretty flowers”. Perhaps the herb everlasting, the fragrant immortelle of our autumn fields has the most suggestive oder to me of all those that set me dreaming. I can hardly describe the strange thoughts and emotions that come to me as I inhale the aroma of its pale, dry, rustling flowers. A something it nas a sepulchral spicery, as if it had been brought from the core of some great pyramid, where it has lain on the breast of a mummied Pharaoh. Some too, of immortality in the sad, faint sweetness lingering so long in its lifeless pecals. Yet this does not tell me why it fills my eyes with tears and carries me in blissful thought to the banks of Asphodel that border the River of Life—OLIvER WENDELI, HOLMEs. —— een es ee ce i i eh ee Se ' for the flower lover who works in of ‘The THE FLOWER GROWER | American Fern Journal Published Monthly A Quarterly devoted to Devoted to the spreading of facts | Ferns and Fern Allies, pub- and information on the growing of lished by all sorts of flowers, especially the summer-flowering plants. The American Fern Society THE FLOWER GROWER is Nae, not a NEWS paper nor is it a Subscriptions $1.25 a year TRADE paper. It is particularly Sent free to all members American Fern Society. Annual dues $1.50 $1.50 per year; 3 years $3.50 Life membership $25.00. Sample copy 15c Madison Cooper, Publisher, 600 Pages of Plant Lore for $1.50 Our offer of surplus volumes of The American Botanist at less than cost is one of the greatest bargains ever presented to plant students. The volumes are all clean, complete and exactly like those offered in sets and are offered at this rate simply because we are overstocked with certain volumes. While the supply lasts, we will send postpaid 5 dif- ferent volumes, our selection for $1.50, WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILL. ECOLOGY Devoted to all Forms of life in relation to environment ESTABLISHED 1920 QUARTERLY Official Publication of the Ecological Society of America Subscription, $3 a Year Back Volumes $3.50 post free Sample Copy on request TEN PER CENT DISCOUNT on Volumes One and Two will be offered to all institutions plac- ing a subscription on the “till forbidden” basis. This OFFER HOLDS GOOD ONLY WHEN THE ORDER IS PLACED WITH THE BUSINESS MANAGER DIRECT, and not through any agency. Address all communications to ECOLOGY his own garden. Send for free sample copy. BROOKLYN BOTANIC GARDEN BROOKLYN N. Y. BOOKS BY WILLARD N. CLUTE FLORA OF THE UPPER SUSQUEHANNA.—2nd edition. 8 vo. 172 ‘| pp.—A list of the flowering plants and ferns in a region 1200 square miles in © extent with copious notes. Only 10 copies left. Price, unbound $2.00 FERN COLLECTOR’S GUIDE.—60 pp. Several illustrations.—Direc- ; tions for finding, naming and preserving ferns. Check-list, glossary and illus S trated key OUR FERNS IN THEIR HAUNTS.—8 vo. 333 pp. 225 unsteene 8 colored plates.—Descriptions of all the ferns in Eastern North America with | an account of their haunts and habits. Every species illustrated. The lead- a ing book on ferns a FERN ALLIES OF NORTH AMERICA.—8 vo. 250 pp. 150 illustrations — 8 colored plates—A companion volume to “Our Ferns.” All the fern allies — in North America, exclusive of Mexico, described and illustrated. Numerous keys to the species.—(Tempororily out of print.) AGRONOMY.—8 vo. 300 pp. Nearly 300 iasimenae —A course in prac- ¢ tical gardening for town and city schools but a useful manual for all gardeners. — . Includes the principles of pruning, budding, grafting, propagating, lawn mak- ~ ing and decorative planting 1.50% LABORATORY BOTANY FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL.—12 mo. 177, pages. —Founded on the inductive method and designed to cover a year’s work in botany. Full instructions for gathering, preparing and studying the ma- terials of such a course $1.20 LABORATORY MANUAL AND NOTEBOOK IN BOTANY.—A com- bination of directions and questions with room for the answers, making it the only book needed in the laboratory. May also be used with any of the loose- leaf covers. The 90 pages are a complete guide to the first half ha os 2 EXPERIMENTAL GENERAL SCIENCE.—12 mo. 300 pp. A nae for the study of General Science by means of experiments with common things. Deals with fundamentals; not a mixture of the formal sciences....$1. 00" OTHER GOOD BOOKS OF THEIR KIND How to Know the Wildflowers—Dana How to Know Wild Fruits—Peterson PRICES ON Guide to the Wildflowers—Lounsberry Southern Wildflowers and Trees—Lounsberry... APPLICATION Field-book of American Wildflowers—Matthews. THE AVERAGE Field-book of Western Wildflowers—Armstrong.. penne of California—Parsons IS ABOUT $3.00 uide to the Trees—Lounsberry Our Native Trees—Keeler BUT PRICES Our Native Shrubs—Keeler CHANGE Ornamental Shrubs of the United States—Apgar. ane Flower an a Bee—Lovell WITHOUT ray’s Manual, 7th Edition Britton’s Manual (Flora of Northeastern States). REASON A year’s subscription to American Botanist will be sent with any of the above books for $1.25 extra. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILL. ey Jol. 28. No.4 Whole Number 135 f a THE AMERICAN BOTANIST = a NOVEMBER, 1922 a 40 Cents a Copy; $1.50 a Year WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. . JOLIET, ILLINOIS _ The American Botanist A Quarterly Journal of Economic @ Ecological Botan) WILLARD N. CLUTE, EDITOR “ SUBSCRIPTIONS.—The subscription price of this magazine is $1. 50. a year or $2.50 for two years, payable strictly in advance. The magazine is not sent after subscriptions expire. Personal checks on small or dis tant banks must contain ten cents for collection fees. The magazine i issued on the 20th of February, May, August and November. a BACK NUMBERS.—Volumes 1 to 10 inclusive consists of 6 numbers each, Vols. 11 to 13 of 5 numbers each and all later volumes of 4 num bers each. Prices are as follows: 7p Ace) Pia BS kes Feces Stee a a Ne ar gc 8 gle i ee $ .50 each optaas C: Ss FS Meio amie fies art MES AN gyal, mPa Mea eae nae 75 each Se Ef Os ee a SOS te Renee: ote Seen feet ieee 1.00 each Cy BRD oi eae ariel iy oS ai 1.25 each Be OSE A Leagan line eo aa ela ae ee eee 1.50 each THE FERN BULLETIN In 1913, at the completion of its twentieth volume, The Fern Bulletin was consolidated with this magazine. The back volumes average more than 10 oa pages each and since they cover the entire formative period of American Fern study, are invaluable for reference. The majority of new forms discovered i this period were described in its pages. The first six volumes are out of print. A set of vols. 7 to 20 will be sent for $8.00. An extended description of “ contents of the volumes may be had for the asking. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO., PUBLISHERS 207 WHITLEY AVENUE, JOLIET, ILL. Entered as Mail Matter of the Second Class at the Post Office, Joliet, Ill. 600 Pages of Plant Lore for $150 1 Our offer of surplus volumes of The American Botanist at less than cost is one of the greatest bargains ever presented to plant students. The volumes are all clean, complete and exactly like those offered in sets and are offered at this rate simply because we are overstocked with certain volumes. While the supply lasts, we will send postpaid 5 dif- ferent volumes, our selection for $1.50 WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILL. THE FLOWER GROWER American Fern Journal Seep eee SF SES nae era AG ht. At heain ns j x Pubbshed Montay A Quarterly devoted to — Devoted to the spreading of facts Ferns and Fern Allies, pub- 4 and information on the growing of lished by q all sorts of flowers, especially the g summer-flowering plants. The American Fern Society — THE FLOWER GROWER is ante ‘y not a NEWS paper nor is it a Subscriptions $1.25 a year $ TRADE paper. It is particularly Sent free to all members | for the flower lover who works in of The American Fern his own garden. Society. Annual dues $1.50 — $1.50 per year; 3 years $3.50 Life membership $25.00. Sample copy 15c Madison Cooper, Publisher, Calcium, N. Y. E. J. WINSLOW, Auburndale, Mass. Send for free sample copy. Venenosus As.—Zygadenus ATH CAM E D LIBRARY NEW YORK THE AMERICAN BOTANIST I would not say that trees at all Were of our hlood and race, Yet, lingering where their shadows fall I sometimes think I trace A kinship, whose far reaching root Grew when the world began, And made them best of all things mute To be the friends of man. —Samuel Valentine Cole. THE DEATH CAMAS 3y Lesiie L. HAsk1N VYGADENUS venenosus commonly known as death camas bears an evil reputation with reference to both man and beast on the Pacific Coast. Its danger to human beings comes from its resemblance to the true edible camas (Quamasia), of the same region. The Indians recognized its dangerous nature and used great caution to protect themselves from pos- sible poison. To them it was an especial menace since it . grows in the identical situations favored by the true camus, > which was, and is, one of their principal food plants. Both 5 8TOw in moist meadows and swales, often closely intermingled. -1 Their bulbs, too, so nearly resemble each other that it is not 5 safe to attempt to distinguish them when severed from the = leaves and flower scapes. It is true that the bulb of the Zygadenus never seems to attain to quite the size of a well developed Quamasia bulb but 142 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST as in every camas patch there are many small seedling bulbs, size alone is no safe criterion. As long as the fruiting cap- sules remain upon the plant, however, they are easy to dis- tinguish. The capsules of the death camas are much smaller and more closely set upon the stem, and the scapes are more slender. The leaves, too, are narrower, and usually folded lengthwise, while those of the true camas remain flat. In spite of the Indian’s knowledge of the dangers of the plant, cases of poisoning often fatal, seem not to have been uncom- mon among them. In Indian medicine, according to Chestnut, the bulbs are used as a poultice for boils, and for bruises and sprains, and are also applied as a cure for rheumatism. Although the use of camas for food has never become general among the white inhabitants of this section, many people, as a novelty, enjoy digging and eating the bulbs in a raw state, and children are sometimes poisoned through fail- ing to distinguish these from the bulbs of the death camas. The bloom of: the death camas is very attractive, being white with each section of the perianth bearing a yellow gland at the base. The many-flowered scapes rise to a height of from six inches to two feet, much exceeding the narrow incon- spicuous leaves. In the Willamette Valley the blossoms ap- pear about the middle of June, and are rather short lived. Horses and cattle are sometimes made sick from eating death camas, but seldom with fatal results. By far the great- est loss from this plant occurs among bands of sheep. Ac- cording to Mr. Lawrence, of the Oregon Agricultural Col- lege, the fatalities to sheep sometimes reach as high as “twenty- one per cent in a band” in regions where the plant 1s com- mon. In the same connection he states that all parts of the plant are dangerous, but are “poisonous in the following order, beginning with the most toxic: seeds, mature pods, flowers, THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 143 leaves, bulbs, roots, young pods.” Hogs seem not to be affect- ed by the poison of this plant. On the other hand they appear to relish it, which has given it among other common names that of hog’s potato. Other names locally applied to the plant are lobelia, poison grass, poison sego, alkali grass, water lily, wild onion, and soap root. FLOWERING PLANTS IN MASSES sy R. M. Crockett T is most interesting to note, as one journeys through the country, how lavishly flowering plants that are either small or not particularly striking in the individual are massed so as to present a bold effect. In a pasture between Hartford and Manchester, Connecticut, there appears with the first breath of spring, a wonderful display of pearly whiteness that might seem to be snow or hoar frost to the tired commuter as he whizzes by on the trolley. Closer examination, however, dis- closes the fact that the effect is produced by the unassuming pussy-toes (Antennaria dioica) with its fuzzy little edelweiss like flower-heads three or four inches above its tufts of woolly leaves. Following this initial display, in the same pasture, with hardly an interval between comes a vision of the daintiest love- liness in lilac-lavender shades. Our friends the bluets (Houstonia coerulea) are blooming. Day ofter day they per- sistently present fresh faces to the sky and en masse maintain an apparently unchanging sheet of blue. A careless cow may obliterate with its hoof a score of the delicate things yet, un- til the grass around them has grown tall enough to obscure their beauty, the picture at a distance is perfect. After the bluets are hidden by the grass and other plants, 146 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST Strangely enough the true mountain mint, to judge from the significance of its generic name, Origanum, seems never to be called by that title. The best known species, O. vulgare is known as “wild marjoram” and “pot marjoram,” both terms derived from majorana by which name a European species has been called for more than a thousand years. “Or- gany”’ and “organs” are easily seen to be contractions of On- ganum while “winter sweet” refers to its odor. There are a number of “false pennyroyals” among the Labiates. One of these is /santhus brachiatus and another is Trichostema dichotomum. ‘The latter is more commonly call- ed “blue curls”. An allied species, 7. lanceolatum shares the name of “false pennyroyal” and is also known as “flea weed”, both names carried over from the true pennyroyal. This latter species is also “‘vinegar-weed’’, “camphor-weed” and “turpentine,” names which, we infer, have reference to the odor, but this is only a conjecture. First among medicinal labiates should come the garden sage (Salvia offcinalis) if names count for anything, for from the generic name is derived the common name “‘sage’’ and to it are related such words as solid, safe, solemn, and salvation. Salvia lyrata is the “cancer-weed” though utterly belying any reputation for curative properties. Another species, Salvia sclarea, is called “clary”, “clear-eye” and “see-bright’’ because its mucilaginous seeds were used to clear the eyes of foreign matters as we now use the seeds of flax. Salvia verbenacea is also “wild clary” and “eye-seed.” The “wood sages’ are species of Teucrium. |Our commonest species, Teucrium Canadense, is commonly known as “germander”’. ‘This name the authorities would have us believe, is derived from the specific nanie of the European germander, Tuecrium chamae- drys. It may seem incredible that the common tongue could — THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 147 have made “germander” from chamaedrys but stranger mis- takes than this have been made by the unlettered. Teucrium scorodoma is the “germander sage”. A species of another genus, Phlomus tuberosa, is the “Jerusalem sage” and ‘“‘sage- leaf mullein,” the latter name given in reference to its woolly leaves. . Second only to sage, or possibly before it, as a healing herb is Prunella vulgaris. The genus is named from the Ger- man braune a disease of the throat (quinsy) for which it was once regarded as specific. Its reputed curative powers were even of wider application for the plant is also known as “heal all’, “self heal’, and “all heal”. It was regarded as especially good for cuts as we find hinted at in “Sicklewort’’, “hook heal”, “hook weed”, and “‘carpenter’s herb.” “Square stem” is a name which must have been given to the plant by some- one who failed to observe that most mint stems are square. “Carpenter's square’ has no reference to that artizan’s best known implement but is another reference to the shape of the stem. “Brown wort” (from braune), of course refers to its use in the cure of quinsy. ‘‘Heart-of-the-earth,” sometimes applied to this plant, is said to be given it because it uses up the soil, but to me it seems more likely that it alludes to the plant’s many virtues, whose excellence these more degenerate modern days utterly fail to substantiate. “‘Blue curls” refers to the flowers and is probably the commonest common name of the plant at present in spite of the fact that Trichostemma also bears it. ‘‘Blue Lucy” is another name refering to the color of the flowers. “Dragon head” appears to be a fanciful name and “thimble flower’? a meaningless one, though by a great stretch of the imagination one might fancy the spike of seed pods to resemble a thimble. Still another group of reputed vulnerary plants are the 148 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST species of Stachys. The most familiar is Stachys palustris which is known as “‘all-heal’”’, ‘“clown’s-heal’’, ‘‘clown’s wound- wort’, and “marsh woundwort”. The name “rough-weed” refers to the foliage while “hedge-nettle” is probably inspired by a fancied likeness to the real nettle, though another name “dead nettle” indicates that the difference is perceived. Stachys hyssopifolia is the “hyssop hedge nettle’. Stachys arvensis is the “corn woundwort”, or “field woundwort” from its habit of growing in cultivated areas. There are still other dead nettles among which may be noted the “hemp dead nettle’ (Galeopsis tetrahit). This plant is also known as “‘bee nettle’, “dog nettle’, “blind nettle”, “flowering nettle’, ‘nettle hemp”, and “false hemp”. Nearly all of these terms illustrate the tendency of the common people to group plants of similiar appearance together. The adjec- tives false, dead, and blind, however, show very clearly that they have not been deceived by appearances but have dis- tinguished the plants to which they are applied from the true stinging nettles (Urtica) and other less harmful kinds. “Flowering nettle” is a pardonable mistake, for the flowers of the true nettles have little resemblance to what are ordi- narily regarded as flowers. ‘The definition of such terms as flower and weed of course depends somewhat upon who is do- ing the describing. | Galeopsis ladanum is the “red hemp net- tle’ and “dog nettle’. This and the preceding species are also known as “ironwort’’, for what reason I do not know. The list of dead nettles is not complete without three species belonging to the genus Lamium. Upon Lamium al- bum have been piled “white dead nettle’, “dog nettle’, “blind nettle’, “dumb nettle’, and “‘bee nettle’, besides “snake flow- er’, “‘suck-bottle” and ‘“‘white archangel”. It is very apparent that a nettle that cannot sting is in common parlance, either THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 149 false, deaf, dumb, blind or dead. The term “archangel” ap- plied to this plant has been given to several others in reference to their size or beneficial qualities. The true ‘archangel’, at least on the authority of the scientific name, is drchangelica a genus of Umbellifers allied to the carrot and celery. The species of this genus have an aromatic odor and it is possible that our plants may have been named with reference to this quality ; certainly they are quite unlike it in appearance. Lamu- un amplexicaule has been named the “henbit” or “henbit dead nettle”. ‘‘Henbit”, according to the dictionary is a morsel for hens but how it applies to this species is a mystery. Lamu- um purpureuni is the “red dead nettle’, and “‘sweet archangel’. Old names for it are “ dog nettle’, “French nettle” and “deat nettle.” The name “rabbit meat” doubtless refers to the idea that rabbits eat the plant. The list of plants called mints has not been used up with the species already mentioned. There is still the ‘“‘stone-mint”’ or “sweet horse-mint”, by which our only species of Cunila is known. Its more familiar title is “‘dittany” which is itself said to be derived from Dictammus the name of a European plant so named because it was abundant upon Mt. Dicte in Crete. The true “dittany” is regarded as being Dictamnus fraxinella. Our plant is another of the “basils”. Still other mints are the “wood mint”, by which name Blephilia hirsuta is known and “Ohio horsemint’’, the common name of an allied species, B. ciliata. Nor have we yet listed the familiar “catmint” (Nepeta cataria) beloved of cats, and whose leaves are made a soothing tea for babies and irritable adults. It is also known as “catnep” or “catnip” the latter title being the more familiar. From the fondness of cats for it, the plant was known as “‘cat’s heal-all”. Agastache nepetoides, which, as the specific name indicates, resembles the better known 150 THE AMERICAN BOTAN T Sa plant is also called “catnip” but it is better known as “giant hyssop”’. ee vie The peculiarly appropiate name of “obedient plant” is applied to Physostegia Virgimana, a tall plant with showy magenta flowers borne in terminal spikes. The individual flower-stalks are so constructed that when a blossom is push- ed to the right or left it will retain the position until pushed in another direction thus accounting for the name. “‘Ameri- can heather” is an attractive book name that might well have a wider circulation. The clustered flowers are not so very unlike those of the true heather (Arica). “False dragon- head” and “‘lion’s heart’’ given this plant are general names that more properly belong to the species of Dracocephalum among which our species is sometimes included. Dracoce- phalum parviflorum is the plant most commonly regarded as the true “dragon-head” or “lion heart’. Both names appear to be mere fanciful appellations, though “dragon head” is a literal translation of the generic name which was given for some supposed resemblance of the flowers to a dragon. The name of “‘lion’s tail’? belongs to another mint, Leon- urus cardiaca which is more commonly known as “mother- wort” from its reputed value in cough mixtures. It is also known as “‘lion’s ears” but those who call it so have directed attention to the wrong end of the animal. The generic name is surely translated “‘lion’s tail”. The specific name, cardiaca, however, has reference to the heart and we might hastily con- clude this to be the true lion’s heart, if it were not practically certain that the specific name is connected with the plant’s re- puted power as a heart tonic. “Cowthwort” is a meaningless old English name. Leonurus marrubiastrum is the “hore- hound motherwort”, but the true “horehound”, which this resembles, is Marrubium vulgare. ‘The latter plant is also THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 151 known as “white horehound”, “hound’s bane”, ‘“‘marrube” and “marvel”. The word “horehound”’ is said to be derived from hoar, white, and hune, plant, and to have no reference to dogs. It should therefore be spelled hoarhound, but the modern way of spelling it 1s the one I have used. Ballota mgra is the “black horehound”’, “fetid horehound”, “hair hound’’, “false horehound”, “black angelica” and “henbit”. All are intelligi- ble and the last two indicate a mental association of these plants with Lamium. Another plant often wrongly named “horehound” is Lycopus Europaeus which is usually better known as “water horehound” or ‘marsh horehound”. This is also the “green archangel” and “gypsy plant” or “gypsy weed”. The last two names allude to the belief that this plant is used by gypsies to stain the skin. Lycopus rubellus and L. Americanum are other species that are known as “water hore- hound” and “gypsy wort’’, and the latter shares the name of “bitter bugle’ with L. Europaeus. Lycopus Virgimcus 1s known as “bugle weed”, “bugle wort’? or “wood betony”. The last name results from a confusion of this species with the real wood betony (Betonica). ‘The species of Ajuga are also commonly known as “bugle weeds”, from a fancied resem- blance to the well known musical instrument. “Bugle’’, it may be said, is derived from buculus a diminutive of bos, an ox, and the reference is of course to the horns. Ajuga rep- tans is the species most commonly called ‘“‘bugle-weed’’ or simply “bugle”. It is occasionly known as “‘carpenter’s herb”’ and “‘sickle wort’, names which are apparently due to the con- fusion of this species with Prunella. The species of Scuwtellaria are generally called “‘skull- caps” from the appearance of the fruiting calyx like a helmet with visor closed. Scutellaria lateriflora is the ‘“‘mad-dog skull cap” and ‘“‘madweed” because it was once reputed to be 152 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST a cure for rabies. “‘Hood-wort’’ is another reference to the calyx and “blue skull-cap” and “blue pimpernel’’ refer to the color of the flowers though the pimpernel is a very different plant. Scutellaria galericulata is the “marsh skull-cap” and “hooded willow-herb”. It may be added that its form does not in the least resemble either the willow or the willow-herb. In rich woods in early summer, one may find the broad leaves of Collinsonia Canadensis surmounted by its panicle of yellowish lemon-scented, flowers. The knotty root, or rather rootstock, is a marvel of hardness and gives the plant such names as “‘knot-root’’, “knot-grass’’, “knob-weed”, and “‘stone- root”. ‘‘Horse-balm” and “ox-balm” allude to its superior size and “‘citronella’’ to its scented flowers. The name of “richweed” and “rich leaf’ probably refer to its place of growth. Early in spring one often finds the earth in waste places covered with a tangle of roundish leaves through which peep great numbers of cheerful though small, blue flowers. This is Glechoma hederacea a lowly relative of the catnip and com- monly called “ground-ivy”’ as the specific name suggests. It is abundant on both sides of the Atlantic and has a host of com- mon names most of which are of obvious significance as “gill- over-the-ground”’, “‘gill-go-by-the-ground”’, “‘gill-run-over”, “creeping Charley’, ‘creeping Jenny”, “wild snake-root” and “robin-runaway.” The terms “ale-hoof’’, “tun-hoof”, “‘hay- hoof” and “‘hove” may have been derived, as often suggested, from the Anglo-Saxon hufa, a crown, because garlands for country inns were made of it, but there is also a possibility that the name was originally “hai-hove” meaning “hedge-ivy” since still other names for it are “hedge-maids’’ and “‘hay- maids”. ‘‘Ale-hoof’? may also be a corruption of ale heave and refer to the use of this plant in making the ale “heave” or on w THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 1 “work”. Darlington, in his “American Weeds and Useful Plants” says that this species was used as late as the time of Henry VIII of England to clarify and flavor the ale. An in- fusion of the plant with ale was known as “ale-gill”. Such are some of the perplexities that confront the investigator when he attempts to unravel the meanings in the vernacular names of plants. SELECTING SUPERIOR VARIETIES By F. W. VonOvVEN UR knowledge of the great outdoors, Nature's arboretum, is not complete until the botanist can tell us of all the kinds and varieties and where to find them. To ascertain the members of the indigenous flora of any community is quite a problem in itself and the reporting of such matters is a prac- tical scientific outlet for those botanists who scour their ter- ritories from year to year. In these journeys they are bound to notice special trees or other plants noteworthy for their foliage, color, shape, vigor, age or size. Hawthorn trees and their hybrids may be investigated as to the ornamental value of their foliage or shape, the earli- ness of their flowers or fruits, size of fruits, single and double- ness of flowers, and other features which determine the su- periority of one tree over another. The planting of a thousand acorns or a thousand seeds of elms will never bring a simi- lar number of trees with the vigor, foliage, shape, and other characters of the parent species. There is great variation in the seedlings and only the best should be selected. 154 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST Botanists should not only know the names of the typical indigenous trees and shrubs but should be informed as to the location of such superior types as occur. A nurseryman or horticulturist naturally becomes more or less a_ botanist through close inspection of the varieties which he has under observation in his plant collections from year to year and thus numerous desirable varieties are originated. |The Hollanders and other foreign plant growers selecting the stronger strains of plants from their seedlings have thus turned out many of the fine varieties that are the basis of our horticulture today. Has it ever come to your mind that there are many beauti- ful perennial plants growing wild in our country that if put under cultivation would themselves be of value and if hybrid- ized might become the parents of other worthy garden vari- eties? Have you ever reflected that only the most hardy and vigorous plants of a species or variety should be the basis of propagation? Why then, waste hundreds of years of effort by planting the inferior varieties? Those who can assist in locating the specimen trees, shrubs and other plants from which seed or propagating stock may be had would be doing a great favor for horticulture by reporting them. It may take several years of comparison in a given locality to deter- mine the value of some varieties which seem to have superior qualifications, but you will be doing a good work for horti- culture and possibly you may find some varieties that have not as yet been named. BOTANY FOR BEGINNERS—VI 4 By WILLARD N. CLutEe T is probably a fortunate thing, considering man’s ideas of beauty, that Nature did not make all plants alike. No doubt a world might have been created with nothing on it but grass, or ferns, or pines from pole to pole, but we have been spared such monotony. On our better ordered planet, there are not far from one hundred and twenty-five thousand flow- ering plants, to say nothing of nearly as many mushrooms, ferns, puffballs, mosses, seaweeds, and similar plants that nev- er produce either flowers or seeds. To be sure the existence of such names as rose moss, flowering fern, asparagus fern and sea lettuce seem to indicate that these latter plants may . flower on occasion, but in every case the names are founded on a misapprehension. If we ask ourselves why there should be nearly two hun- dred and fifty thousand kinds of plants in the world, the most satisfying answer-is, that since there are mountains and des- erts and plains, swamps and bogs and ponds, lowlands and el- evated regions, temperate, torrid, and frigid zones, and many combinations of these, vegetation has had to adopt a great variety of forms in order to fit into the different situations pre- sented. There are, of course, a large number of people who still hold to the opinion that plants have existed in the forms they now exhibit, since the very beginning, but it seems more reasonable to suppose that during the millions of years that 156 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST plants have inhabited this unstable and changing earth, a cer- tain amount of change must have occurred in them also. Iverybody must be aware that no two objects in nature are exactly alike. There is indeed, more or less variations in plants of the same kind and the plant breeder has taken ad- vantage of this to produce a long line of improved varieties of garden vegetables, flowers and fruits. Left to themselves, plants must have worked out some similar methods of improvements, for given the power, which all flowering plants possess, of producing seeds far in excess of the number necessary to replace those annually lost by death, there is certain to be an over-production of young plants and consequently great competition for every square foot of avail- able space. Only those plants whose natural variations give them some advantage over the others could possibly hold their own under such circumstances. The less nicely adjusted to the locality would naturally perish and leave no sign. In fact we may see this very struggle going on in our own gardens and waste lands every growing season. Millions of young plants spring up, only to be ruthlessly smothered out in their infancy by a few stronger and thriftier individuals who have the ability to take and the power to hold. ‘Thus does Nature play into the hands of the more efficient individuals. Considering these facts, one perceives that the resem- blances he notices among plants are not mere accidents. Here, as elsewhere among living things, resemblance denoted rela- tionship. The different forms have descended from a com- mon ancestor and those which most closely resemble one another are most closely related. As in human families, plant children resemble their parents, first cousins may have many family traits in common and these traits somewhat dimmed by distance may appear in second cousins and others more re- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 157 motely related. Such resemblances, indeed, are recognized by the non-botanical. © Give a man an unfamiliar plant and he at once attempts to classify it. He says “It looks like a lily,” “like a rose’, or “like a grass” as the case may be. The bot- anist with more knowledge upon which to base his conclusions is more certain of the relationship and uses this information to arrange the plants of the world in related groups. All the plants of one kind he groups as a species. It is not hard to recognize the members of a species for the essential thing about them is that they are practically alike. Nor is it much more difficult to recognize closely related species because of their general family resemblance. For instance, the red clo- ver, the white clover, and the crimson clover would be recog- nized at sight as members of the clover group. To a group of closely related species of this kind, the botanist gives the name of genus. In this way the scientific names of plants originate. They are simply the names of the genus and spe- cies to which a given plant belongs. There are, of course, cases in which the family likeness is not at all conspicuous and then even the botanist may be puz- zled. Plants of this kind are joys to the name-tinkers who are wont to debate with much gravity whether some slight dif- ference in form is sufficient to warrant the setting up of a new species. It may be said that those who are constantly engaged in hairsplitting studies may perceive differences not apparent to the casual observer, just as when one goes into a foreign country, the people at first look pretty much alike but even- tually their individual peculiarities appear. In consequence, the herbarium student often makes species that the field bot- anist distinguished with difficulty if at all. It used to be said in Washington, when the craze for making violet species was at its height, that before a violet could be properly identified, 158 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST one must not only know when and where it was collected, but who collected it! When species closely resemble one another, it requires, of course, very nice distinctions to determine their position in the plant world. One then realizes the truth of the dictum that “species are but judgments” and can appreciate some of the difficulties of the strict scientist. A fertile subject for dis- cussion is whether similar plants of the Old World and the New belong to the same species. In the northern part of both Hemispheres, there are numerous plants that appear to be iden- tical but that are not always called so, and the difficulty of judging them properly is increased by the fact that the mater- ial used for comparison is usually in a dried condition. One who has worked in an herbarium knows that the closet bot- anist may become so accustomed to dried plants as to fail to recognize their living representatives. It is said that when an eminent New England botanist found it hard to name a plant fresh from the field, he used to say to his followers “Let us dry it and then see how it looks!” But unless one is making a dead set at nomenclature and taxonomy, the vagaries of the technical botanist need give him no concern. The fields and woods are full of flowers that are quite recognizable and easily named. To find them year after year, springing from the selfsame nooks and punctual to their time of blooming, almost to a day, is a pleasure that the strict scientist, engaged with dry facts, often misses entirely, but one that is never denied children, poets, and all good botanizers. IMPORTANT MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS —III By JouN J. Brrcu GEOTROPISM AND APOGEOTROPISM. Geotropism is the downward movement of sub-aerial organs. All roots penetrating the ground are guided, in their downward course by this factor. The manner in which it acts seems quite clearly understood. Gravitation draws the heavier content of the cells, especially the starch grains, to the the bottom of the cell. Here their accumulated weight presses on the sensitive protoplasm and produces a condition of strain, differing from anything in the upper part of the cell, and it is this difference which establishes the line of di- rection. When the responding mechanism is so set main roots are sent growing towards this pressure, main stems away from it, and side parts across it, precisely as in other typical responses. Geotropism is a perfect example of the fact that a stimulus acts merely as a guide and not as a physcial aid to responses. Gravitation might be supposed to help pull roots downward, but it: cannot be imagined to push stems upward or to drive side parts crossways. The geotropism of leaves is disguised by their stron- ger heliotropism; but that they are geotropic is shown by the positions they assume when kept in dark rooms. Flowers are also exceedingly geotropic. If a long terminal cluster of larkspur be bent over and fastened in that position, each blos- som as it opens will turn over individually to the identical po- sition, it would have occupied in the vertical cluster. The position of each separate flower is established geotropically. 160 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST Of all the stimuli made use of by plants for advantageous guid- ing of their parts, gravitation is by far the most important. Plants have in themselves an hereditary tendency to put forth their parts in a symmetrical manner, but they depend upon geotropism to guide those parts to the suitable positions and thus realize the ultimate shape of the plant. This is applicable not only to the main structures, but to most of the minor parts being the case especially with roots. The fact that geotropism is thus ever tending to hold the plant in a certain upright sym- metrical form explains why any one-sided turning in response to other stimuli is of a limited amount, and why the plant al- ways tends to recover its former upright and symmetrical po- sition in case It is disturbed. Apogeotropism is the reverse of geotropism. — Different species and different parts of the same species are acted on by apogeotropism in very different degrees. Young seedlings, most of which circumnutate quickly and largely bend upwards and become vertical in much less time than do other plants, but whether this be due to their greater sensitiveness to geotro- pism, or merely to their greater flexibility is not definitely known. A part or organ which is extremely sensitive to geotro- pism ceases to be so as it grows old and it is remarkable as showing the independence of this sensitiveness and of the cir- cumnutating movement, that the latter sometimes continue for a time after all power of bending by gravity has been lost. Also geotropism acts when very nearly balanced by an oppo- sing force. When the stem of any plant bends during the day towards a lateral light, the movement is opposed to apo- geotropism, but as the light gradually wanes in the evening the latter power slowly becomes more powerful and draws the stem back into a vertical position. A stem or other organ THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 161 which bends upward through apogeotropism exerts consider- able force, such as that of its own weight, which has to be lifted. This is often sufficient to cause the part to bend down- ward; but the downward course is rendered more oblique by the simultaneous circumnutating movement. HYDROTROPISM There is in roots an inherent tendency to move towards a direction where moisture is most plentiful. The advantage of hydrotropism is perfectly evident, for it is the very first function of roots to absorb water. It is believed that water is absorbed more rapidly on the side of its greatest abundance. It undoubtedly causes an osmotic swelling and tension, strong- er on that side than on the other, and this difference is ample to establish a line of direction towards which roots turn in their growth. Stems and leaves are obviously not hydrotropic for they do not absorb any water. This fact illustrates the adaptive character of responses; for it is a general rule that plant parts are indifferent to stimuli to which there is no ad- vantage in responding. It is said that when trees develop in a uniformly moist soil, the root tips tend to collect in a circle just under the out- er drip of the foliage, which is obviously the place of greatest dampness. But in case the soil is moister on one side than another, the roots grow more freely in that direction, and the distance to which they will grow is sometimes almost incred- ible. CHEMOTROPISM Chemotropism is the sensitiveness of certain plant or- gans by virtue of which they change their directions of growth when acted upon by chemical substances. Roots will turn to- wards a source of supply of some of the minerals they absorb. The pollen tubes in their growth, turn towards the substances 162 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST secreted by the stigmas and styles. If the organ bends so as to grow towards the source of the substance it is positively chemotropic to that substance; and if it turns away it is neg- atively chemotropic. In elongated organs, such as roots, the movement is a matter of growth. The curvature is brought about by the retardation on one side or the acceleration on the other; or by both together. The side on which the retarda- tion occurs becomes concave, while the other is convex. If a root is positively chemotropic towards a substance, the side coming in contact with most of the substance, will be retarded in growth and become concave, as the substance diffuses thru the medium in which the root is growing. If the root is neg- atively chemotropic, acceleration of growth takes place with an accompanying convexion of the root. Thus the root tip is turned either toward or away from the source of the diffusing substance and the bending continues until all sides are equally stimulated. MINOR TROPISMS There are other movements in plants which, although of equal importance with the aforementioned are generally con- sidered modifications thereof. Aerotropism is a term applied to the power of responding to gases, particulary oxygen, in the same way as chemotro- pism. Illustration of this is found in water plants having floating leaves. The length of the petioles is altered in accor- dance with the depth of the water. The petioles continue to srow until the leaves reach a supply of free oxygen, when they stop. This case illustrates the fact that stimuli serve as sig- nals to stop a process as well as to guide it and such are un- doubtedly very important in controlling the various processes of growth. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 163 Klectrotropism is a certain adjustment which a plant will make to a mild electric current. ‘Thermotropism is the turn- ing of the roots towards warmth. It is very rare and possibly has been confused with other stimuli. Rheotropism is the turning against a water current. This illlustrates a confusion of stimuli, for undoubtedly the roots mistake the pressure of the flowing water for a hard object in the soil and attempt to turn away therefrom. There are others which might be men- tioned, but they are of lesser importance. NYCTITROPIC MOVEMENTS These are commonly called “sleep movements” in plants and are brought about following variations in the intensity of illumination, so that parts have a diurnal and nocturnal posi- tion. The sleep of leaves is a phenomenon so conspicous that it is observed as early as the time of Pliny. Since Linnaeus, the scientist of antiquity published his essay, “Somnus Plan- tarum”’ it has been the subject of many investigations. The movements which result from circumnutation, are modified and regulated by the alternations of day and night or light and darkness; but they are to a certain extent inher- ited. | Leaves when they go to sleep move either upwards or downwards, or in the case of leaflets of compound leaves, for- wards or backwards;—that is, towards the apex or the base. In almost every instance the plane of the blade is so placed as to stand vertically or nearly so at night. The upper surface of each leaf and more especially of each leaflet, is often brought into close contact with that of the opposite one. This is ‘sometimes effected by singularly complicated movements. This fact seems to suggest that the upper surface requires more protection than the lower. There are plants in which the terminal leaflets after turning up at night so as to stand vertically often continue to bend over until the upper surface 164 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST is directed downward, while the lower surface is fully expos- ed to the sky, and an arched roof thus formed over the two — lateral leaflets which have their upper surfaces pressed closely together. Here there is an unusual case where one of the leaflets does not stand vertically at night. The position which leaves occupy at night indicates with sufficient clearness, that the benefit derived is the protection of their upper surfaces from radiation into the open sky and in many cases the mutual protection of all parts from cold, by their being brought into closer approximation. The nyctitropic movements of leaves are easily affected by conditions to which plants have been subjected. If the soil be too dry, or if the humidity be very low, the movements are much delayed, or fail altogether. Some have advocated the idea that the quantity of water absorbed has a great in- fluence on the movement of leaves and that the variable amount of shrinking of leaves bears a relation to the amount of water in the plant. It is the accepted belief however, that the nyctitropic movements of leaves, leaflets and petioles are effected in two different ways: first, by the alternately increas- ed growth on their opposite sides, preceded by increased turgescence of the cells, and second by means of a pulvinus or aggregation of small cells generally destitute of chlorophyl, which also become alternately turgescent on nearly opposite sides. When pulvini are present, the nyctitropic movements are continued for a very much longer period than when such do not exist. The sleep of cotyledons is as pronounced as the sleep of leaves. As a general observation, cotyledons provided with pulvini continue to rise or sink at night during a much long- er period than those destitute of this organ. In this latter case the movement no doubt depends on alternately greater THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 165 growth on the upper and lower sides of the petioles or of the blade or of both, preceded probably by the increased tur- gescence of the growing cells. There is an independence of the nocturnal movements of the leaves and cotyledons on the same plant, and on plants be- longing to the same genus. This leads to the belief that the cotyledons have acquired their power of movement for some special purpose. Other facts lead to this same conclusion, such as the presence of pulvini, by the aid of which noctur- nal movements are continued during some weeks. The cotyledons of some species move vertically upwards and others vertically downward at night; while in others one cotyledon moves upwards while another moves downward. Biologists are justified however, in assuming that the move- ments have been acquired at least in most cases, for some special purpose; nor can we doubt that this purpose is the pro- tection of the upper surface of the blade and perhaps of the central bud from radiation at night. All gardeners know that plants suffer from radiation. It is this and not the cold winds that the peasants of Southern Europe fear for their olives. It is a known fact that a thermometer rises as soon as a fleecy cloud, high in the sky, passes over the zenith. Seedlings are often protected from radiaticn by a very thin covering of straw, and fruit trees on walls by means of a few fir branches, or even a thin netting spread over them. Fruit growers place smudge pots in their orchards in order to protect the buds. Many flowers close at night, and these are likewise said to sleep. Their movement is effected by the same mechanism as in the case of young leaves; namely unequal growths on opposite sides, yet they differ essentially in being excited chiefly by changes in temperature instead of light. Very likely they close at times when the pollen is liable to become destroyed, 166 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST and thus their movement seems to be one of self preservation. The analogy between animal and vegetable life is further demonstrated by the well known fact that while some creatures such as the owl and cat, sleep during the day, and remain awake at night, certain plants do the same thing. ‘There are plants which close at nine o’clock in the morning and open at evening time. Every hour of the day has some particular plant which shuts itself up, hence the idea of the flower dial by means of which the hour of the day can be told with a re- markable accuracy. Some plants shut themselves up in the daytime and flower at night. It is said that Linnaeus used to go out in his garden at night with a latern to have the oppor- tunity of witnessing this remarkable peculiarity in the plants in which it is exhibted. THE RESULT OF DEVELOPMENTS Thus one may see that the movements of plants are very complex. A casual observation leads one to assume that their movements are very primary and seemingly of little import- ance to the organism, but upon more complete observations the reverse of this is found to be true. Their movements are extremely intricate and regular, having a direct bearing on the well-being of the plant. It is probable that we have by no means observed all the movements and undoubtedly as the field of biology enlarges and becomes more and more closely related to plant psychology, new movements will be found to exist and the old movements shown to have greater bearing on the life of the plant. The responses to a stimulus, while it may be highly efficient to the plant, is blindly invariable and not alterable for particular conditions. There is no sign of an attempt to correlate stimuli and respond in a manner which would be best for any particular combination. In this respect, animals have THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 167 advanced much further than plants for they have acquired the power of correlation and here is the chief feature which designates the higher animals from the higher plants. Thus out of one and the same origin, plants have developed irrita- bility, which is the response to stimuli, while animals have re- flex actions, consciousness and ultimate reason, which is mind. PoLLEN PECULIARITIES —In the course of an article on “Pollen Enzymes” in the American Journal of Botany, Julia 3ayles Paton mentions various interesting things about pol- len grains that may not be known to the general public. A medium-sized plant of maize is reported to produce about fifty million pollen grains and cat-tails (Typha latifolia and T. an- gustifolia), which often have sixty thousand flowers in a single spike, produce enormous quantities. Another member of the cat-tail family, the elephant grass (T. elephantina), of the East Indies and New Zealand yields so much pollen that the natives use it for making bread and cake. A gram of rag- weed pollen has been estimated to contain one hundred and seventy-two million grains. Pollen grains are said to be very resistent to heat, cold and dryness and certain kinds have been known to retain their vitality for many years. Pollen of the date palm was found by Popenoe to be usable after seven years. In color, pollen varies from white to yellow or dark red. In Lythrum salicaria there are two sets of stamens each with its own color of pollen. “| NOTE and COMMENT > TWENTY-EIGHT Mitton Fern Leaves.—Nearly thirty million fern leaves sounds like a large number, but this is the number which Horticulture reports to have been shipped from Bennington, Vermont, in a single year. ‘To secure these leaves, nearly a hundred thousand dollars were paid out in wages. Such facts as these give some indication of the pro- portions to which the business of collecting fern leaves, prin- cipally leaves of the spinulose wood fern, for the florist has grown. Whenever the florist receives an order for cut flow- ers, it is his custom to add a bit of greenery in the shape of fern leaves. Many people suppose that the ferns are grown for the purpose as the flowers are, but this incorrect. All are ob- tained from wild plants. It is still a question whether pulling off the leaves of ferns in midsummer or later will ultimately destroy the plant, but the species in greatest demand is dis- tributed over such an extensive area that it will be many years before the wild supply is exhausted. At present, in Vermont, an insect, by eating the tender tips of the fronds has joined man in destroying the plants. JAPAN QuinceE.—Supplementing what has been said re- cently in these pages regarding the fruiting of the Japan or flowering quince (Cydonia Japonica), it may be noted that this year, in various parts of northern Illinois, this shrub has fruit- ed more abundantly than has ever been recorded before. In many cases the bushes are bending down with their weight of fruit. What has caused this sudden fruiting is not evident unless the flowering’ period has happened to coincide with a THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 169 season particularly favorable for pollination. Ordinarily the habits of this plant have justified the name of flowering quince. The plants seldom fail to produce a good crop of flowers, but the fruits are usually so rare that few people have seen them. The writer of these lines has seen the fruit but twice before. . The ripe fruits are not greenish-yellow as Bailey’s “Cyclope- dia” has it, but are clear dandelion-yellow. They average less than half the size of the garden quinces, though many are of fair size. Owners oF Complete Sets.—When we published the list of owners of complete sets of this journal in the last is- sue, we were aware that two sets had been purchased by F. W. VonOven, president of the Naperville Nurseries, Naper- ville, Ill., but we did not know that one set had been presented by Mr. VonOven to the Morton Arboretum, of Chicago. The Arboretum, itself was a present to Chicago from Mr. Joy Morton the son of Hon. J. Sterling Morton who originated Arbor Day. Set number 64, therefore, is located at the Mor- ton Arboretum, Lisle, Ill. It is interesting to note in this con- nection that Illinois holds the record for complete sets. Nine are owned in the State. Massachusetts, New York and Ohio have six each, Pennsylvania has five, lowa three, and New Hampshire, Connecticut, Indiana, Missouri, Texas, and Col- orado have two each. ‘Twelve other States have one set each and three sets are in foreign countries. PasturE PLANTs.—We are accustomed to the fact that cows do not eat Asclepias and Ranunculus; at least our com- mon milkweed and creeping buttercup are left undisturbed when everything green in the vicinity is appropriated. It is interesting to walk into a field where cattle have recently been turned loose and note their fondness for the wild sarsaparilla (dralia nudicaulis). This plant is apparently the first to be 170 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST consumed. Ina large patch, nothing was left but the balls of greenish florets. Sarsaparilla has the habit of concealing its flowers the same as mandrake. Looking down upon a colony of plants one sees only a dense mass of leaves. Each leaf has three compound divisions on a long petiole. About half as tall, and close beside it, stands the flowering stalk with three or four peduncled umbels at its summit.—wNell McMurray, Clearfield, Penna. OLpEst AMERICAN BoTANICAL, GARDENS.—When the subject of the oldest botanical gardens comes up, one’s mind is likely to turn to Bartram’s garden in Philadelphia, Prince’s garden on Long Island, or the Elgin garden in New York. These were all established in the early days of our country, but have long been abandoned as botanical gardens, though Bartram’s garden still exists. The botanical gardens that at present are entitled to the name are of comparatively recent origin. The Missouri Botanical Garden is probably one of the oldest, but the oldest botanical garden of America is neither in the United States nor in Canada. For real age, one must turn to the West Indies. The garden at St. Vincent 1s more than 150 years old and still going strong while Trinidad has recently celebrated the hundreth anniversary of the found- ing of its garden. Bath garden in Jamaica, though now fall- en almost into disuse, was founded nearly 150 years ago and is a close second to the garden at St. Vincent in seniority. East’s garden also in Jamaica, was a few years older than the garden at Bath, but it has long since been abandoned. The Ja- maican gardens still in existence are much younger. Castleton garden has been in operation about sixty years and Cinchona for nearly as long. The best known garden, Hope, near the city of Kingston, dates from 1873. If there are any gardens in the New World that have a span of life approaching the old- est of these, we would be glad to hear of them. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 171 KFFECTS OF LIGHT ON FRUITING.—Nearly everybody has noticed the tendency of plants to bloom most profusely dur- ing the colder parts of the year. Winter, instead of summer, should be represented as garlanded with flowers. Summer has its blossoms to be sure, but the profusion of flowers in autumn is exceeded only by the burst of bloom in the spring. While most of the plants that bloom during the cooler part of the year are restricted to one or the other of these seasons, there are a few, such as the violets, that bloom both in spring and autumn or perhaps they bloom from autumn to spring and are repressed only temporarily by the coldest weather. There is, however, a considerable body of evidence to show that it is the shortness of the day, rather than the cold that induces blooming. ‘Two Government botanists, W. W. Garner and H. A. Allard have been conducting a long series of experi- ments which seem to settle the matter. They find, however, that plants may be divided into two different categories as re- gards their response to different periods of daylight. In one, a long period of light induces flowering; in the other it hinders the process. Acting on this knowledge, they have been able to bring the spring flowering Viola fimbriata into bloom a second time in July by simply reducing the length of time the plant is exposed to the light each day. On the other hand, the rose mallow, (Hibiscus moscheutos) which normally blooms in summer, was not able to flower at all when its light exposure was cut down to seven hours daily. From this the gardener ought to get a hint on growing superior salad-plants. Lettuce and spinach are noted for “‘running to seed”’ in late spring and early summer, but by reducing their supply of day- light this tendency is quite eradicated. In the case of the scar- let globe radish which, planted in May, was deprived of some hours of light daily, it continued to vegetate through the sum- 172 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST mer and winter in the greenhouse and showed no sign of flow- erin:y though steadily increasing in size until the root reached a diameter of five inches and the leaves were eighteen inches long. Exposed to the full sunlight the following summer, it promptly blossomed. This effect of different periods of light is also held to account for certain phases of plant distribution. Annuals, it is well known, are nearly absent from the tropics since the short days there do not require plants to exhaust their energies in seed production. Outside the tropics, how- ever, the lengthened summer day may speed up the blooming season with the result that the plants become annuals. FRINGED GENTIANS.—Fringed gentians do not grow near my home, so last fall a friend sent me a large boxful from Massachusetts. The books say a plant of fringed gentian may have as many as thirty of the showy flowers; twenty was the most on mine. They were all asleep when they arrived and in spite of coaxing would never open of their own accord, thus showing their’ relation to the bottle gentian. My fingers spread the petals and their blueness and irregular fringe were enjoyed. When discarding the bouquet two weeks later, a stalk with a fragment of freshness and a bud was noticed. This last stalk was kept in a vase of water near the radiator where much heat is often felt and on the fourteenth of Octo- ber without any help from me the corolla spread naturally and was the only one that did so. The smallest and palest of all and yet the one that behaved the best. For eleven days it opened in the morning and closed in the evening and then losing the power to move it stayed open all the time and not until the first of November did the edges curl up and really fade after nineteen days of life. It was frailer than those that developed out of doors, but I wonder if they can boast of so long a life—Nell McMurray, Clearfield, Pa. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 173 CULTIVATING YELLOW LADY’S SLIPPER.—I am a great ad- mirer of our native orchids but have never been successful in growing them though I have given them leaf-mold, abundant moisture, and supplied their wants as well as I knew how. A year ago I decided to make one more trial and bought three plants of the small yellow lady’s slipper. All lived through the winter and appeared promptly in spring but seemed very frail and weak. ‘They had about reached the point where I felt they should not be left alone nights when I read that oak leaves and twigs added to ordinary soil would produce the acid condition of soil necessary for the health of bog-loving plants. I immediately procured some oak leaves, and after chopping them very fine mixed them very thoroughly with the soil. In a short time the plants began to stiffen up, whether from rheu- matism or increasing vigor I cannot say, and while they did not bloom they bid fair to go through another winter and I hope for blossoms next year. Needless to say I shall add all available oak leaves to the compost for my boggy beds next year—that is, unless somebody tells me it is all wrong! —Adella Prescott, New Hartford, N. Y, ‘ EDITORIAL > Ask any resident of the South to name the most beautiful flowers of that favored region and he will at once mention the crepe myrtle, the azalea, the dogwood, and perhaps the Cape jessamine. No matter what other plants he names, he is pretty certain to put the crepe myrtle first. Though this plant has not yet reached the dignity of a national flower, it has at least become a sectional obsession, like corn bread and fried chicken. It is quite possible, however, that the South- erner is quite justified in his position. When the crepe myrtle has reached maturity and some time in early summer bursts into a living cloud of watermelon-pink, it is truly one of the most beautiful of shrubs in this or any other country. It is a perpetual delight to the eye, regardless of its location and always has a certain dignity of bearing about it, whether bend- ing in shelter over the humble cabin of the negro or flashing from the shrubbery of some lordly estate. Mahomet, who advised one of his followers with two loaves of bread to sell one and buy some narcissus flowers because bread is merely food for the body while flowers are food for the soul, doubt- less never saw a crepe myrtle in bloom. The narcissus at its best is a handsome flower, but, even at its best it is no match for this resplendent shrub. In northern gardens several of the lilacs might be thought not unworthy to compete with the myrtle for the crown of beauty. The Persian lilac, especially, seems at times only a smaller copy of its Southern rival. But THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 17 ue who are we to make comparisons? Neither plant is a product of the region that claims it. Though both have long been grown in this country, the crepe myrtle is a native of India and the Persian lilac, in spite of its name, comes from China. BOOKS AND WRITERS The Reviewer and his best friend the Editor, have been in the South all summer. * * * The Editor has been teaching, * * * Our desk is still several inches deep in things to be reviewed. * * * We think it is an oak desk but we have not seen the top for so long we are not sure. * * * The things that might be reviewed and the things that ought to be reviewed are all mixed up. * * * We shall have to mention them all, we suppose. * * * We hear that Walter Stager has published a book on Irises, but we haven’t seen a copy. * * * This might be construed asa hint to the publishers. * * * Scribners have publish- ed a book on “Hardy Perennials’ by a British writer. * * * We expect to say something more about it later. * * * Dr. Edward Blake Payson has sent us a copy of his Monograph on-the genus Lesquerella. * * * Les- quereux knew all about the mosses, but the really big thing he did was to get this genus named after him. * * * Pay- son says there are more than fifty species in it. They are all rather insignificant plants of the Rocky Mountain region. x * * The account of the Gray Herbarium expedition to Nova Scotia has been printed in a single volume. * * * It was originally published serially in Rhodora. * * * The Gray Herbarium itself did not go, but several of the Staff did. * * * It required more than 200 pages to tell 176 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST of all the new, rare, and otherwise interesting plants found. * * * And some folks thought all the new plants in East- erm America had been discovered! -*~ * -* A mewemtern book is coming out in time for the Holidays. * * * Rev. Geo. B. Tilton, the author, says it will be called the “Fern Lover’s Companion”. * * * It ought to be well received; there are only two other volumes on the subject in print. * * * C. A. Weatherby sends us a copy of his paper on the Group Peolvbodium lanceolatum in North America. * * * —It'is published in “Contributions from thesGray Herbariunt of Hatyard University.”.. +" * * We sential one or two observations on a rare species from South America that in some way has moved into Jamaica. * * * In the same publication, J. Francis Macbride upsets a lot of Rydberg’s highly ornamental names in the genus Parosela. * * * “< They are having a delightful “ ‘tis’ and “ ‘tisn’t” time and nobody else is*the wiser. -* 9* * .Macbride “mustibesd friend of Piper’s. He says that Piper’s revision of Allocarva is one of the finest. * * * He thinks the Amenacn Bor anist is impolite in poking fun at a genus of 79 species founded on the way the seeds are wrinkled. * * * But we could not swallow all those seeds! * * * Wonder what he would do with a quart of dried peas * * * The Gla- diolus Bulletin has begun publication. * * * It is edited. by Stanley Thorpe of Medford," Mass) * * >* Weegke Bonnewitz is issuing a series of Garden Notes, principally on irises and peonies. * * * Looks as if it might develop into another plant journal. * * * It is published at Van Wert, Ohio, -*- * -*) ‘Welearn trom the Secretary etme “Society for the Protection of Native New England Plants” that it is not an additional society but a combination of three others of similar nature. * * * ‘This may account: for * THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 177 the seventeen-syllabled name * * * The Massachusetts Horticultural Society has issued an excellent list of Wildflower literature. * * * Most of the worth-while books are in it, * * * The “First Book of Grasses” by Agnes Chase is announced for publication by the Macmillans. * * *If the author can make the identifications of the grasses easy her book ought to be one of the “best sellers”. * * * How- ever, a book in the hand is worth two at the publisher’s and it is time we turned our attention to some of those in hand. From the Oxford University Press, comes a neat little volume entitled “Junior Botany” by T. W. Woodhead. This is designed for use in British schools where a larger volume is impracticable and is a good illustration of how they do things “on the other side.’’ In the main the subjects discussed are similiar to those that make up the contents of American school books on the same subject, though the latter: usually touch upon several phases of botany that are not mentioned in the present book. By substituting American plants for the European spe- cies used for illustration the book would be quite suitable for class work in the United States. “Junior Botany” is describ- ed as a simplified and abridged edition of the author’s “Study of Plants” and has apparently been written with a view to en- able the beginning student to classify his specimens. This aim of botanical texts, it may be said, has largely been discarded in America in favor of studies in ecology, the lower forms of plant life, economic plants, and the like. The book will be of interest to all teachers for the light it throws on the methods of teaching botany abroad. It is published by the Oxford University Press, American Branch, New York. Four more parts of O. Penzig’s ‘‘Pflanzen-Teratologie”’ have been received from the press of Gebruder Borntrager, Berlin, Germany. Earlier numbers of this work gave a very 178 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST extended account of all the abnormal plants known, and listed the polypetalous dicotyledons in which such abnormal plants have been found. The parts just received continue this list through the gamopetalous dicotyledons, the monoctyledons, the conifers, the ferns, mushrooms and even the algae. Un- der each species are described all the abnormal forms reported for 1t and the place of publication of each example is given. In preparing this work, the literature of the whole world seems to have been carefully searched. ‘Those who are en- gaged in the study of plant “freaks” will find this work simply invaluable for reference. The price is $6 unbound. Dr. William Mansfield’s “Botany, Developmental and Descriptive,’ is a textbook designed for use in high school and college but one that favors a type of work quite unlike that which ordinarily finds a place in such institutions, be- cause it is frankly an introduction to classification. Such books, however, are still in demand by students of medicine and pharmacy where the identity of a given plant is often of prime importance. Judged by its usefulness for the purpose intended it seems to have very little in it that cannot be heart- ily commended. It may be said, however, that although it 1s logical to begin such a book with the one-celled algae and end with the highest flowering plants, this is not the order likely to appeal most strongly to beginning students. We should have been inclined to reverse this arrangement. The forms taken as examples are carefully and accurately described and the 135 illustrations are mostly new and made from photo- graphs of drug plants. The text is remarkable for the number of simple declarative sentences it contains. To those familiar | with botanical literature, the book is likely to recall Gray’s | “Lessons with Plants” and Rusby and Jelliffe’s “Morphology | and Histology of Plants’. For present day purposes, how- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 179 ever, it is probably better than either. Certainly the student interested in the basis of classification will find this a clear pre- sentation of the subject. The book is a 12mo of 232 pages and is published by Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia. A new laboratory Manual for the study of biology is W. H. D. Meiers’ “Study of Living Things’. It consists of a pad of 96 sheets, each sheet containing various questions to be answered on a given subject ranging from algae and garden- making to teeth, houseflies and bulb-growing. The questions are pertinent and well selected but it strikes the reviewer that a few are rather impracticable, at least with students in second- ary schools. Take the fourth exercise, for instance, in which the student is asked to discuss the helpful and harmful factors in the environment of a plant and to decide whether the plant is spreading or losing ground. ‘This could scarcely be decid- ed with any degree of accuracy by a child in a single season. Older students would find such an exercise less difficult and even the average teacher might discover food for thought in many of the questions. The work is bound in paper covers and published by Ginn & Co. ‘The price is 80 cents. , At a time like the present, when eminent Chautauqua lectures and Southern legislators are doing their best to con- vince the public that. there is no such thing as change, a re- print of Samuel Christian Schmucker’s “The Meaning of Evo- lution” is most appropriate. It is not likely that any thinking person really doubts the facts of evolution, though like the scientists, themselves, he may question the explanations of many of its phenomena. Dr. Schmucker’s book is an ele- mentary treatise, devoid of technicalities and designed to meet the needs of the general reader. In twelve chapters covering upwards of 300 pages, he discusses the evolution of the idea of evolution with a reasonableness that must appeal to ull who 180 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST read the book. There are chapters on adaption in species and individuals and one on the evolution of the mammals. The reader may doubt some of the conclusions drawn by the author in the chapters on the future evolution of man, and science and the Book, but these are not pertinent to the main subject and may be disregarded if desired. The fact that the book has been reprinted four times is some indication of its popularity. It is published by the Macmillan company, New York. 3ut the supreme gift of the fall, that which not seen leaves the year uncrowned and one’s memory the poorer, is the gentian whose twisted buds open to the September sun and rarely as now brave the winds of November. The gentian is a typical wildflower, resenting cultivation, shy and capricious in habit. It may be sought through the livelong day and turning you have at your feet, a dozen erect stems raising their flowers to the sunshine. One year a low meadow will be blue as the sky above, the next not one is to be found. But the flower it- self is openhearted and frank in expression, gladly giving its message of cheer quite unlike its sister the closed gentian whose vase-shaped, dark purplish-blue buds never open. They puzzle their new acquaintance who vainly watches for their unfolding, and their sinister aspect might repel even their true lover and tempt him to relegate them to a place among the mystic herbs gathered in the full of the moon for a witches’ cauldron.—MartHa B, FLIn’. SPRAYING is as Essential as Fertilizing Successful cultivation demands a knowledge of the habits of plant insects and diseases, and the proper remedies for their con- trol, APHINE, an effective spray remedy against all sap-sucking insects, infesting flowers, fruits and vegetables, is free of the dis- agreeable odors and features of most insecticides. It invigorates plant life and is unexcelled as a wash for decorative plants. Aphine will not injure the most tender flower or foliage. FUNGINE, an excellent remedy for mildew, rust and other blights. It is readily soluble in water and contains no sedi- ment. Fungine does not stain the foliage, but cleanses it. VERMINE, a soil sterilizer and vermicide. It destroys cut, wire, eel and grub worms, maggots, root lice and ants, and will protect your gardens and lawns from ravages under the soil. There is but one convincing way for you to become familiar with the merits of these products and that is to try them out for yourself. It will prove worth while. CCE nn Sold by dealers in various sizes. APHINE MANUFACTURING CO. Manufacturers of Agricultural Chemicals MADISON, N. J. BB BB SPECIALIST GROWERS Or THE PEONY and IRIS Our comprehensive price list covers the better of the standard varieties at nominal prices and the rare superfine varieties of recent French, English and American intro- duction. Cjarence W. HabbarD de PEONIES & IRISES & 6144 Lakewood Ave. CH!CAGO CACTI We make a specialty of col- lecting cactuses for botanists, parks and cacti fanciers gener- ally. Illustrated catalogue with cultural hints 25c or free to those who buy $3.00 of cactus at a time. Make a cactus garden and study nature’s most wonderful plants. Nice selection of ten blooming size plants for only $5.00 postpaid. We live where they grow and can furnish you the best plants. Low wholesale rates given to landscape gardeners, etc. CANUTILLO CURIO CO. 3604 Louisville St. El Paso, Tex. SISSON’S PEONIES Comprise all the finest and most expensive varieties grown. Good planting divisions sold at about one third list price. If you are not interested in the best, please do not waste your time and my time writing to me. W. A. SISSON ROSENDALE, WISCONSIN If you would be assured of SUCCESS with Wild Flowers, Ferns Rhododendrons, Azalea and Laurel, you must reproduce with tested humus the soil conditions under which they are found growing wild. The use of PRINDLE HUMUS is a guarantee of success. Write for cultural directions. $5.00 for 5, 100 Ib. Bags F. 0. B. Stanhope, N. J. H. B. PRINDLE 710 E. 45th. St. NEW YORK ea. = = =. ss) ~~ os) Be A ait is ES al asia ee ee Se ee eer AMERICAN PLANT NAMES All the common and vernacular names of the plants of Eastern America alphabetically arranged under the correct technical terms. It gives the generic vernacular names, indicates the most authoritative common name and enables you to identify your plants if you know what ordinary people call them. The first part contains more than 1,000 names in the buttercup, rose, pea and lily families. 50 Cents per part of 32 pages oe 3 parts for $1.00 With Annual Subscriptions, only, $1.75 WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO., Publishers JOLIET, ILL. EDUCATIONAL STEREOGRAPHS In natural color, illustrating western wild flowers, forest trees, geology, astronomy, mineralogy, western mountains, deserts, etc. Just the thing for teachers and nature lovers and for gifts. Write for complete information and price list of desired subject, or send 25 cents for a sample. We also sell lantern slides at a very low rate. W. SCOTT LEWIS HOLLYWOOD, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA ECOLOGY Devoted to all Forms of life in relation to environment ESTABLISHED 1920 QUARTERLY Official Publication of the Ecological Society of America Subscription, $3 a Year Back Volumes $3.50 post free Sample Copy on request TEN PER CENT DISCOUNT on Volumes One and Two will be offered to all institutions plac- ing a subscription on the “till forbidden” basis. This OFFER HOLDS GOOD ONLY WHEN THE ORDER IS PLACED WITH THE BUSINESS MANAGER DIRECT, and not through any agency. Address all communications to ECOLOGY BROOKLYN BOTANIC GARDEN BROOKLYN N. Y. BOOKS BY WILLARD N. CLUTE FLORA OF THE UPPER SUSQUEHANNA—2nd edition. 8 vo. 172 pp.—A list of the flowering plants and ferns in a region 1200 square miles in extent with copious notes. Only 10 copies left. Price, unbound........ $2.00 FERN COLLECTOR’S GUIDE.—60 pp. Several illustrations.—Direc- tions for finding, naming and preserving ferns. Check-list, glossary and illus- © Prater ey 5 es he bee ceed a eee Reds Wet he ee ae i eee be eee $1. OUR FERNS IN THEIR HAUNTS.—8 vo. 333 pp. 225 illustrations, 8 colored plates.—Descriptions of all the ferns in Eastern North America with an account of their haunts and habits. Every species illustrated. The lead- fas. book ‘on: terns: sooo iw av cae tages ca ek ot eats seams ee eee $3.00 FERN ALLIES OF NORTH AMERICA.—8 vo. 250 pp. 150 illustrations 8 colored plates—A companion volume to “Our Ferns.” All the fern allies in North America, exclusive of Mexico, described and illustrated. Numerous keys to the species.—(Tempororily out ‘of print.) AGRONOMY.—8 vo. 300 pp. Nearly 300 illustrations—A course in prac- tical gardening for town and city schools but a useful manual for all gardeners. Includes the principles of pruning, budding, grafting, propagating, lawn mak- mp aird: decorative. Planting... ..s.. <5 sen ss Oe ke oa es ee ae ree $1.50 LABORATORY BOTANY FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL.—12 mo. 177 — pages.—Founded on the inductive method and designed to cover a year’s work in botany. Full instructions for gathering, preparing and studying the ma- terials -of stich-a: COUPSEs 22 ee a etree are le be ee a ea ee oe ho la ae $1.20 LABORATORY MANUAL AND NOTEBOOK IN BOTANY.—A com- bination of directions and questions with room for the answers, making it the only book needed in the laboratory. May also be used with any of the loose- leaf covers. The 90 pages are a complete guide to the first half year of — BOCA ss a ok Leh as SL ee On Oe OE a ee eee $0.95 EXPERIMENTAL GENERAL SCIENCE.—12 mo. 300 pp. A manual for the study of General Science by means of experiments with common things. Deals with fundamentals; not a mixture of the formal sciences... .$1.00 How to Know the Wildflowers—Dana........... eee to Know Wild nears in ASS Pe ] PRICES ON uide to the Wildflowers—Lounsberry.......... Southern Wildflowers and Trees—Lounsberry... APPLICatson Field-book of American Wildflowers—Matthews. THE AVERAGE Field-book of Western Wildflowers—Armstrong.. ipa ae of pelipra eons ates aes IS ABOUT $3.00 uide to the Trees—Lounsberry............... Our :Native“Drees—Keelet ign (ee cei Cae BUT PRICES Our Native Shrubs—Keeler..................... CHANGE Ornamental Shrubs of the United States—Apgar. The Flower and the Bee—Lovell.............00- WITHOUT ~ Gray's*Manual (7th: Pditioty. xc. ss cen eee cn tetoe coe REASON Britton’s Manual (Flora of Northeastern States). A year’s subscription to American Botanist will be sent with any of the above books for $1.25 extra. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILL. Betts Wits THE AMERICAN BOTANIST A QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL BOTANY WW EDITED BY WILLARD N. CLUTE Volume XXIX. JOLIET, ILL. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. 1923 CONTENTS ILLUSTRATED ARTICLES MARKED WITH A STAR (*) Arborescent Flora of Midwest Farmsteads. The, Soe igi ghee gx sei ns Fahd 7. J. Fitzpatrick. 142 EES UNIS. OE Be Shree yoke sais bye ke lprn la tee wee 113 Botanizing in South East Georgia Mrs. Mary W. Diddell 138 Botany for Beginners.......... Willard N. Clute 7, 53, 110 motany, Value of Practical............ A, A. Hansen 15 Boughs, The Charm of Bare,........ Adella Prescott i anna Seeds, Vitality of,.:........ J. Ford Sempers ae Meentiry Plant, ‘The.............. Mrs. O. A. Budd *91 mycas, Our Native......... Mrs. Mary W. Diddell 118 MMNICLETIONS | ISIE. cles ee bos Norman Jeffries 108 Dandelions, Our Common,.......... Ernst A. Bessey 93 NE SCM CPNATL «Bore iS is ce jE oe eswaes +13 Flora of Pocatello, Idaho..........:Blanche H. Soth 49 MENA CERUN OVIISERELOG Sir 2G. ones Wigs svete yh 0 «tek bea 156 Largest Flower in the World, The,.H. &. Zimmerman — 117 Magnolia, The Flowers of,........ Willard N. Clute *45 mmtoxes, Our Native ....ciei eee es Willard N. Clute *137 Plant Names and Their Meanings. .. . Willard N. Clute PIGEON RA ACERS oe cael su vid s-uu9 «oo uae 18, 60 Bree Re ee aes dow Cis ew a ee a 101, 149 Plants, Producing Disease Resistant,Casper A. Redfield 94 Resurrection Fern, The,.......... Willard N. Clute *] Tahiti, Botanical Notes from,........ J. G. Stancliff 3 REISS lent ake) a oa ne OD 36, 80, 128, 170 MIOKS AND WRITERS... ccc ba desc over 37, 81, 129,172 NOTE AND COMMENT Acid Soils, Gardening in....... Amphicarpy in Four-o’clock...164 Aster Leavis Back Numbers Wanted..... SUe7, Bidens trichosperma BreadmicOmpdleats meee ae BurterwOLtss lle yee eres 122 Cactis Culture. ssee eee 68 Cockle-bur Poisonous ......... 162 Cold) Catching -y.5es Geen 78 Complete Sets, Owners of 31, 77, 162 Daisy, American Legion...... 25 Double Flowers, Purslane with.169 Raster ilies fromeseedsena.2. 15 Elder Praise Maree: ee 121 Fruits, Large Elder-berry...... 121 Gardening in Acid Soils ....... 27 Gardening in One’s Shoes...... 124 Géntigns; Hrmpged i ..4 sac. 167 Raine WV eed 's. : cc-.', Bae eence we 70 Lirsects-amlPollei G8. aueas en AS Te SSESE RNG. 4"), ks seen ae ee 165 ESWieARWECULESS on) epee eee 26 Ae lieiiS he Sirs els ee, a ee 124 Lichen, the Anomalous ........ 73 Leiter Oriciniolh. ++ te eee eee 74 Light, Plants and Ultra Violev.. 29 Wiliess Sterility im 4.02. e- .123 Lonicera Tartarica Speciosa....166 Magnolias, Range of ........:. 125 Mahonia Repens not Guilty.... 29 Miin’s “Parasites: 25. tees eee qe Man zartitial thet jasc ere eee 160 Marsh Elder and Sunflowers.... 30 Morning-glories, Edible .. Boe Nectaries' of Toad hilyaseseeee 161 Orchid seeds’... x2. (32) eee 76 Phlox: Stelleria.. see 69, 125 Plant Importations, Government 163 Plant Importations, Strenuous.. 24 Plant Names, Origins indicated Plants and Ultra Violet Light.. 29 Plants in Closed Jars, Growing. 71 Poison Ivy, Abnormal Growth OF Pda be Go Ree eee 120 Pollen; Insects*and <32- =) sere 76 Potato, @Crinese co. ae eee 32 Purslane with double flowers..168 Quack erass aside eee 167 Oumce Erutts,..0) see 34 Rattlesnake Plantain Colonies.. 33 Rubiaceae, Symbiosis in ...... 161 Rust, White Pine blister ...... 26 Seeds; ‘Orchid’ .0y2 5.6 aaa 76 Sneezeweed in Oregon ........ 70 Soils, sAcid.c% 2.5.0: dae nen eee 76 Speed of Birds in Flight ....... 28 Sunflowers, Marsh elder and ... 30 Sweeter than Susan. seer 34 Symbiosis in Rubiaceae ........ 161 Toad ‘lily; nectaties of... see 161 Tradescantiay ©. sce eee 125 Tulips, American 5.2.02. ectene 78 Vegetable Brooms -eeee eieree AVA Water-plant, Japanese’ 2... 122 Weeds, Idahio:....0 2... eee 70 Where Snow Falls Deepest.... 28 White Pine Blister Rust ...... 26 VueGa®-..2h.0haees scars one ee 126 Vileca* Cuban acm sits tere 72 Whole Wisahek 136 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST FEBRUARY, 1923 40 Cents a Copy; $1.50 a Year WILLARD N. CLUTE & GO. JOLIET, ILLINOIS The American Botanist A Quarterly Journal of Economic @® Ecological Botany WILLARD N. CLUTE, EDITOR SUBSCRIPTIONS.—The subscription price of this magazine is $1.50 a year or $2.50 for two years, payable strictly in advance. The magazine is not sent after subscriptions expire. Personal checks on small or dis- tant banks must contain ten-cents for collection fees. The magazine is issued on the 20th of February, May, August and November. . BACK NUMBERS.—Volumes 1 to 10 inclusive consists of 6 numbers each, Vols. 11 to 13 of 5 numbers each and all later volumes of 4 num+ bers each. Prices are as follows: Wools TAS See Se ee ete ei ae $ .50 each : Seta. Boy b . apeneeeny te Rea ant era oe et DEBE be gi GS 75 each iy cats}! Me Aaa Banat iia SRO Ries Eom cas ye 1.00 each peer A 774 mR a Reg ote Sates eM Tee SRLS tal gh 1.25 each s STN SIU AT tes SEN Or tam ne eece enack yher a 1.50 each WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO., PUBLISHERS 207 WHITLEY AVENUE, JOLIET, ILL. Entered as Mail Matter of the Second Class at the Post Office, Joliet, Ill. 600 Pages of Plant Lore for $1.50 Our offer of surplus volumes of The American Botanist at less than cost is one of the greatest bargains ever presented to plant students. The volumes are all clean, complete and exactly like those offered in sets and are offered at this rate simply because we are overstocked with certain volumes. While the se thle we will send postpaid 5 dif- ferent volumes, our selection for $1.50 ' WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILL. THE FLOWER GROWER American Fern Journal Published Monthly A Quarterly devoted to Devoted to the spreading of facts Ferns and Fern Allies, pub- and information on the growing of lished by all sorts of flowers, especially the ae amet flowering plants. The American Fern Society THE FLOWER GROWER is Subscriptions $1.25 a year not a NEWS paper nor is it a TRADE paper. It is particularly Sent free to all members for the flower lover who works in of The American. Fern his ard : : Re Society. Annual dues $1.50 $1.50 per year; 3 years $3.50 - Life membership $25.00. ag Sample copy 15c Send for free sample copy. ‘Madison Cooper, Publisher, é a Calcium, N. Y. E. J. WINSLOW, Aaharnee a PUDOR’S PUGET-SOUND IRIS EXCEL! Plan to Plant an IRIS GARDEN. I grow Acres of Iris—thousands of stock plants, which enables me to supply my customers in all parts of the country with big, sturdy, healthy rhizomes that satisfy. Our climatic and soil conditions are perfect. I grow all of the best old, and nearly all the new and rare varities. A descriptive list free for the asking. It also contains a list of many other choice GARDEN TREASURERS, GLADIOLUS BULBS, etc. PUDOR’S GLORY of PUGET-SOUND STRAIN of DOUBLE FLOWERING DELPHINIUMS Line bred and carefully selected for many years have resulted in a few distinct varieties of Hybrids; wonderful shades of blue and mauve, separate and combined. Individual flowers as large, and larger than a Silver Dollar. Flower stalks 6 to 8 feet tall. My new illustrated, very comprehensive 50 page Iris Catalogue contains several valuable articles by such Iris breeders as Bliss, Dykes, and Miss Sturtevant. It has a complete color classification, description and rating of nearly 250 of the world’s best old and newest varieties. It is free with every $2.50 order, otherwise 25cts. (worth much more.) QO. M. PUDOR, Iris and Delphinium Breeder PUYALLUP, WASHINGTON, U. S. A. ( Please, mention this magazine in wniting) Kunder “They Never Disappoint” Entirely new possibilities are yours in the garden-growing of gladioli with Kunderd ruffled, improved plain-petal and primulinus hybrid varieties. These remarkable Kunderd Gladioli have won the enthusiasm of ex- perts and home growers all over the world for they are in a class by themselves, being unlike any others. They are wonderful of form as well as exquisite in colors. Write today for my 1923 catalog, which is actually a gladioli hand- book, describing nearly 400 varieties and containing my personal cultural instructions. A. E. KUNDERD, Box 84 Goshen, Ind., U. S. A. The originator of the Ruffled Gladiolus AKE the guesswork out of gar- dening. You can count on success with Vegetables and Flow- ers if you follow the directions in DREER’S 1923 GARDEN BOOK. The most complete catalogue of Seeds and Plants published—an invaluable guide to both amateur and professional gardeners. A large book of 224 pages with 8 color plates and hundreds of photo-engravings of the latest novelties and standard varieties. Filled with cultural information compiled from DREER’S 85 years’ experience and advice from famous experts. It offers the best Vegetable and Flower Seeds, Lawn Grass and Agricultural Seeds, Garden Tools and Implements, Fertilizers, Insecticides, etc. Also Plants of all kinds, including the newest and ‘est Roses, Dahlias, Hardy Perennials, Garden and Greenhouse Plants, Bulbs, Hardy Climbers, Hardy Shrubs, Water Lilies and Aquatics, Small Fruits, ete. HENRY A. DREER 714-716 Chestnut Street Philadelphia, Pa. Write today fer a copy, which will be mailed free if you mention this publi- cation. SEEDS WANTED | WE SPECIALIZE IN Flower Seeds i Bul touch with plant collectors, Flower Bulbs seedsmen, nurserymen or bot- Native Plants anists who know varieties, es- A party wishes to get in . Perennial Plants pecially the commoner sorts of trees, shrubs, evergreens, and and Rock Plants vines of northern latitudes, and There are native plants suitable who can collect seeds of such | for every corner of your garden, whether it is sunny or shady, wet or dry. Let us know your require- as the New England States and | ments. those North of the Ohio and RODERICK M. CROCKET Missouri Rivers. For further information address: Lock Box 36 HILLCREST AVENUE 81 Naperville, Illinois. CRANFORD :: NEW JERSEY varieties in northern latitudes THE RESURRECTION FERN—Polypodium incanum. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST VOL. XXIX FEBRUARY, 1923 No, 1 High in the air the maples show Their first faint tints of crimson glow; Hazel and poplar everywhere Are sifting pollen on the air; From plumy elms in gray and brown The bud-scales shimmer softly down; The mourning—cloak is on the wing And wandering breezes whisper, ‘“Spring.”’ THE RESURRECTION FERN By WILLARD N. CLUTE. PIPHYTES are not abundant in temperate regions. At best the list includes only a few algae, mosses and lichens with no suggestion of higher forms such as the ferns and flowering plants, but as the tropics are approached the variety of epiphytes increases enormously until in the rain-forest bordering the equator a host of orchids, ferns, pitcher-plants, bromeliads, peppers and numerous other flowering plants crowd the branches of the giant forest trees. In our Southern States we find the first outlying colonies of the flowering-plant epiphytes in the gray or Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides) which is not a moss at all but a mem- ber of the pine-apple family in good, regular standing. With it grows the subject of our sketch, the gray polypody or res- urrection fern (Polypodium incanum). The species, through _ growing in the same general region divide the territory be- rs .* tween them, the Tillandsia preferring the upper branches te THE AMERICAN BOTANIST of the trees from which it hangs in long festoons, while the polypody forms colonies on the trunk and larger limbs. The polypody derives its name of resurrection fern from its habit of curling up during dry periods and apparently com- ing to life again when it rains. The plant does not actually die during the drouth but remains in a state of suspended ani- mation much as our perennial plants do in winter. The drough is the polypody’s winter. So fixed is this habit in the plant, however, that even when it is dead and reduced to a mass of brown and dry vegetation, it will spread out its fronds if soaked in water. It is, however, a somewhat difficult mat- ter to know when such a plant is really-dead for cases are known where specimens have survived for more than a year without water. . There are an immense number of plants in the world which have the ability to renew growth after a period of dessication. Often they are rooted in the soil as in the case of Selaginella lepidophylla another resurrection fern which, is misnamed for it is not a fern though closely related to such plants. This plant curls up into a compact round ball when dry and is frequently offered collectors of curios. Various flowering plants have the habit of resting thus especially in the rain forest. Here, how- ever, the period of drouth is likely to be of short duration and therefore offers no such test of vitality as our polypody must citen undergo. Since it grows as far north as southern Illinois, it must often encounter both drouth and cold. It is well equipped for the battle, however, for its fronds are closely set with tiny brown and gray scales which enable it to hold tenaciously any moisture it may absorb. Our frontispiece is from a photograph showing a colony of these plants on the base of a large oak and was made in Florida by Mr. W. M. Buswell. BOTANICAL NOTES FROM TAHITI By J. O. STANCLIFF. Hk silk-cotton or kapok tree forms a striking part of the scenery of Tahati. In its spring garb it is covered with pensile, somewhat banana-shaped cotton pods which hang full to bursting. The cotton is fine for packing shell necklaces for mailing to small nieces at home. The steamship folder says Papeete is situated in “a forest of flamboyant trees” but the principal trees embowering the harbor front are a form of locust which a writer calls algaroba and which a high authority in far-off Washington says is not the carob tree but a near relation thereof. The hard-shelled fruit contains a sweet pulp which is inedible unless possibly it is relished by stock. “Flamboyant trees” have now a lacy green foliage, a few red blossoms, and their fruit. A medium sized tree with bare branches like a buckeye, or branches beginning to be leafy, bears now fragrant white and cream-colored magnolia-shaped blossoms. Some call it the French pine from its use by the French in cemeteries, but I am told that the natives have a sort of superstitious horror of it. The small pink blossoms of lofty cassias strew the streets in places, Bougainvillea is now covered with gay lilac-hued flowers, and at Faaa, the next village west of Papeete, a fine vine is smothering a half- dead flamboyant with its lilac blossoms. At Faaa too, is a huge banyan. 4 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST Lantana is a sturdy bush which here spreads and forms dense brambly thickets. It has very attractive flowers of a bewildering variety of combinations of pink and yellow. It is however, considered a great pest by planters on account of its impenetrable tangles. It is found also in the Fiji’s. I am told that it was introduced here by a French missionary who imported it for his flower-garden. A hibiscus species known as purau has lemon-colored blos- soms very like cotton-tree blossoms and very tough bark used locally as cordage. The cotton-trees in the yard of Mr. Campbell in Papeete are ten or more feet in height, bearing buds, flowers, and both green and ripe bolls at this time. These plants are also found in a wild state. A species known as black acacia bears large white globular blossoms and forms dense jungles amongst coconut groves if allowed to grow. Another species with small yellow flowers deliciously fragrant, seems identical with the Texas acacia. Tamarind trees are frequently seen, mostly in green pod. Coming back to the ground one first sees a long-stemmed, dark red pea-shaped blossom on a species of weed commonest along the surfless, reef-protected beach. Various tough yellow- blossomed mallow weeds are used to make the brooms used by the local ‘“‘whitewings” who are convicts. -The pink-flow- ered sensitive plant has smaller blossoms than the familiar Morongia of the southern United States. A cucurbitaceous vine with rather small yellow flowers is also found pretty much everywhere in the country. It bears small ornate “pumpkins” like fairy lanterns. A small-flowered species of Passifiora is also abundant in places. The dayflowers (Commelina) are of two kinds, a small- flowered running kind with the third petal blue and a larger flowered kind with the third petal white. The first is by far THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 5 the more numerous and forms extensive beds far up the Fan- tana valley where it narrows. The only “dandelion” I have found is bright red, with branched and somewhat leafy stems that are several flowered. There is also a faded pink edition of this same flower, mostly on the eastern side of the Island. At one point of the shore road near Papeete, I found Sonchus in a verdant spot at the foot of a bluff where it grows with a double-blossomed fabaceous vine, the dayflower and others. I have since seen it elsewhere. A blue vervain is common, quite bushy in favorable locations and bearing florets which seem large for this genus. There are two species of Bap- tisa(?) just as in the Gulf States, one slim-spiked, the other larger flowered. The common Convolvulus is small-flowered and heart- leaved with a concealed, deep-red center. The sweet potato of the islands is also a Convolvulus with purplish pink flowers. Another species has yellow blossoms borne in clusters which at a little distance are in appearance not unlike a large Chrysanthemum, — Still another grows on the sands of the beaches and has large somewhat fleshy round leaves and large purplish-pink flowers. A heart-leaved species of the same shade grows along roadsides. A plant almost exactly like Mitchella repens, but with larger and more succulent fruit, grows in moist woods, espec- ially near waterfalls. A certain tenacious plant known locally as false tobacco is a troublesome species. I have often seen it near Houston Texas. There are at least two Eupatorium species, I think, in Tahiti. A herb-like or somewhat bushy mallow with large red-centered yellow nodding blossoms grows commonly along the Papeete-Faaa stretch of beach road. In one spot only, not far from a deserted residence, I found some very atractive deep-blue pea blossoms corresponding to Cli- 6 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST toria mariana of the Southern States except in color. They grew on vines twining over the roadside. A small tree called piti by the natives is very abundant and bears handsome yel- low trumpet-shaped flowers like those of Gelsemium semper- virens. The first fern one sees in quantity is a pedate maidenhair- shaped bracken species. It is found on all dry hills. The ferns of Tahiti are most interesting. They grow in all shapes —broad, narrow, parsol-like, fan-shaped,—and on rocks, on trees—anywhere, apparently. They grow to the sizes of small trees and some are even said to have trunks like trees but I did not happen upon these last during my limited stay in Tahiti. I found Lycopodium but once, near Taravao where the ocean nearly cut the island in two. — I think the species is L. cernuum. A little triangular fern and a delicate maidenhair are found up the Fantana and elsewhere. There is also a fern resem- bling precisely Onoclea sensibilis. In. a book by F. W. Christian descriptive of the Marquesas, mainly, will be found a list of the Marquesan ferns which in many respects are like those of Tahiti. Another remarkable feature of Maiatea val- ley is the mistletoe and other hanging vegetation growing on the horizontal branches of trees. The enormous dark arrow- shaped leaves of the wild taro are commonly seen in the nar- row valleys and along shady stream banks. One of the finest plants of the South Sea Islands is the mango-tree whose oval, golden fruits are now ripening under the hot tropical sun. Not even the large-leaved bread-fruit can excel it, nor can those magnificent feather-dusters the co- conut palms. nor the spiny dark-leaved citrous trees with their piquant globes, [ast but not least in the golden mango tree. BOTANY FOR BEGINNERS—V By WILLARD N. CLuTE E, take the plants and animals of this world so much as a matter of fact that we seldom pause to consider the im- portant and remarkable differences that separate them from all other members of creation. When we do investigate the matter, however, we discover that plants and animals are the only things we know, that are alive. But when we ask our- selves what this aliveness means, or in what it consists, we may be puzzled for an answer. As regards the fundamental sub- stances out of which all living things are made, they do not differ in any essential way from the substances found in life- less material elsewhere. A little carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen and still smaller quantities of sulphur and phos- phorus are all that Nature needs to form living matter, while to carry on the business of living, such matter requires only minute amounts of iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium and oxygen. But lite does not consist of these elements or of any com- bination of them. Life is far subtler. Its grosser manifesta- tions are indicated chiefly in theability of the organism™ to take to itself additional particles of the substances mentioned, to build them up into new combinations useful to it, and to excrete or throw out matter no longer of value. Moreover, when the elements are combined in the form of animals or plants, they are affected by time and have a youth, maturity 8 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST and old age. In the end they die and the elements of which they were formed become disassociated and may again form part of other organisms, but the elements themselves have neither a youth, maturity, nor old age that can be measured by our common time standards. But though the individuals may die, the group to which they belong does not disappear because it is constantly being renewed by processes of repro- duction which all possess whereby, on coming to maturity, they give rise to smaller and younger organisms like them- selves. Lifeless matter cannot reproduce or increase in this way; in fact, no new forms of living matter originate of them- selves. All life from pre-existent life is the law. To carry on the business of living, or in any other activity, a certain amount of energy is needed. This energy plants se- cure from the sunlight, by means of the green coloring matter known as chlorophyll. This color is able to change some of the light energy falling on it to electrical energy and by means of this, plants combine hydrogen, oxygen and carbon into foods, which, like storage batteries, hold the energy until it is desirable to release it. Oxidizing the foods releases the en- ergy. This latter process is called respiration and is practi- cally equivalent to breathing, as commonly understood. The animals lack this green coloring matter and cannot make food for themselves. They therefore rob the plants for their own uses. Even man, himself, finds it necessary to do this. The simplest plants consist of single cells but the size of such organisms in no way limits the functions that distinguish living things from non-living. Although most of the plants with which we are familiar are made up of vast aggregations of cells, there are many one-celled organisms on the earth. Practically all of the germs that cause disease in man, the other animals and the plants are one-celled, while it is well known THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 9 that even the highest plants begin as single-cells. In the main, however, the tide of life has flowed on to larger and more com- plex forms. Among the plants this tide might be said to be heaped, here and there, into waves, or the situation might be likened to a mountain range in which an occasional lofty sum- mit rises above its fellows, with many lesser peaks about it which are themselves surrounded by foothills. One of these summits might be labeled algae and fungi and imagined to con- sist of some eighty thousand different forms, or species. A near-by peak may be thought of as representing a group of nearly twenty thousand mosses and another, slightly smaller, may stand for the ten thousand ferns. Then, towering over all, the mightiest summit in the vegetable world comes that peak representing the flowering plants, more than one hundred and fifty thousand in number. All the groups mentioned have their devotees; indeed, some small division of one group may provide interesting em- ployment for a lifetime. Favorite groups for study are ferns, the mushrooms, the algae, the grasses, the asters, the lichens and the hawthorns. One American botanist is widely known for his studies of the slime moulds, and another for his work on the Laboulbeniaceae, a group of more} than 150 species of fungi so small that they live on the bodies of beetles. Before you can study such plants you must catch your beetles and buy a compound microscope! The flowering plants, because of their beauty, attract by far the greatest number of students. Not all flowers are beautiful, however, or even conspicuous, for that matter. There are some so insignificant in size that they consist of only a single stamen and carpel which cannot be seen withont a high-power lens. | From the plant’s standpoint, however, such an insignificant flower may signify perfection, for the sole 10 THE AMERICAN BOTTNIST business of the flower is to produce the pollen and ovules whose contents, united, will give rise to a new plant. But we must not hastily assume that nature is satisfied with pollen and ovules from the same flower. Far from it. She has ten thousand ways of securing pollen from distant flowers and pre- venting the flower’s own pollen from being used at home. The two agents commonly depended on for transporting the pollen are the wind and the insects. The wind works for noth- ing but the insects have to be beguiled by nectar or extra pol- len, and directed to these supplies by color, odor, nectar-guides and properly shaped corollas. Wind-pollinated flowers are naturally dull-colored. for there is no use in wasting the refinements of color on anything sO unappreciative as the breeze. Such flowers produce large amounts of pollen to insure that some at least will be borne to the waiting carpels. The pollen is light in order to travel long distances before coming to the earth and it is usually scattered before the leaves are spread. Most of our early spring flowers have this type of blossom. It appears clear, then, that all our most beautiful flowers are in a very real sense, presented to us by the insects. Not that the insects have acted consciously in the matter, but it is certain that without the insects, flowers would all have been much like those of the pine, hazel, grass, cat-tails and alders. Flowers pollinated by the insects are more certain that their pollen will go by the most direct route to other flowers and therefore do not find it’ necessary to produce so great an amount of pollen, but the problem is not as simple as this. There are small creeping insects to be excluded for they would only waste the pollen,. Various schemes must be devised to secure the visits of the insects and get them well dusted with pollen when they appear. Some flowers are run wide-open THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 11 and all who will, both large and small, may call and enjoy the feast, but our better kinds of blossoms are more aristocratic and entertain only a select few. These shut out the small in- sects by numberless devices, or they store the nectar in nec- taries so deep that only the larger insects can reach it. More- over, many of them have learned that if the flower is turned sidewise the insect must always alight in the same place and in consequence the pollen supply, if borne in the right place, may be still further reduced. The wild rose, which is spread open to all comers, may have a hundred or more stamens, but the number in the flowers that face sidewise is seldom more than ten and usually only five. Indeed, the mints and figworts have but four stamens in each flower, or often only two, many of the orchids get along with a single stamen, while the canna manages to be pollinated with only half a stamen. THE CHARM OF BARE BOUGHS By ADELLA PRESCOTT’. ta is quite the fashion among a pessimistic class of people to speak of autumn as a period of death and decay and to bewail the coming of the cold and dreary winter. I am not very fond of cold weather, myself, but every season has its own special attractions and to me one of the charms of au- tumn and winter is the unburdened trees. The bulbous and herbaceous plants of our north-land seem to regard the winter as strictly a rest time, a few leaving a tuft of green leaves to cheer the pessimist, but most of them cuddling down into the soft warm soil for a long nap. The trees take it as a vacation period, when all their du- ties and responsibilities falling off with the falling leaves, they refresh their souls with a wide outlook and stretch their light- 12 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST ened limbs in many a gleeful frolic with the winds. In sum- mer the burdened branches sway slowly and reluctantly in the light breeze and thrash heavily in stronger winds, but in winter every twig and branch responds lightly and lithely to the sweeping gales. Never is the beautiful structure of trees so noticeable as when the softly blending leaves have fallen, leaving each curve and angle to stand out sharply against the wintry sky. And how varied these curves and angles are! Not only has each tree its own characteristic way of reaching out to the light but each twig solves its own problem to suit itself and the eye finds an unfamiliar source of interest in following these solutions as revealed by the nudity of winter. The sycamore flings its gaunt and ghastly branches wide open to the sun but it is hard to believe that life remains in its body, so ghostly is its appearance. It is one of the most striking landmarks of the wintry Jandscape and even a care- less eye can hardly miss it. At the other extreme-are the pot- hooks of the horse-chestnut which looks like sooty iron and by rights should be hanging in a roomy fireplace rather than from the limbs of a tree. Between these two extremes there are many variations from the wand-like branches of the wil- low to the stouter twigs of the beech and maple. Not less interesting than the many variations of angle and curve is the bark which is largely hidden by the leaves in the summer. ‘The sycamore owes its ghostly appearance mainly to the color of its bark, but for sheer beauty I think the beech surpasses all others though the “‘tatterdemalion birch” with its rags and tags of silken tissue in silver or golden-brown is a close second. The golden bark of the willow, the shining red- brown of the wild cherry and the deep red twigs of some of the dogwoods are some of the most striking examples of varia- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 13 tion in color but the number is as many asi the trees; and the texture varies even more perhaps than the color. Surely with all this waiting just outside our door or window, we have only ourselves to blame if we find winter devoid of interest and charm. FEIJOA SELLOWIANA HE warmer parts of the world possess a wonderful var- iety of fruits which are rarely seen in temperate regions for the reason that they cannot be produced outside of the tropics except under glass, while their perishable nature pre- vents their being shipped to distant markets. Even the names have a foreign sound as sapodilla, cherimoya, mangosteen, guava, grandilla, star-apple, ceriman and durian. Some of the 14 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST hardiest of these, however, are finding their way into the gar- dens of the South and West and are thus becoming more widely appreciated. This is the case with the fruit shown in our illustration which though grown in California is still so rare as to have no common name. _ Botanist call it Fetjoa Sellowiana but from its looks, taste, and habitat, it might well be known as the Argentine guava. Feijoa Sellowiana belongs to the Myrtaceae or Myrtle Family, a group of some thirteen hundred species found most- ly south of the equator and especialy common in. South Amer- ica and the East Indies. There are no species native to North America but the pomegranate, commonly cultivated in south- ern gardens, is much like the Myrtaceae in appearance. Among species of this group well known by name at least are allspice, cloves, Surinam cherry, rose apple, Jambolan plum, bottle-brush, eucalyptus and Brazil-nut. The name of the family is derived from the classic myr- tle of Europe. This latter species is possibly more famous for yielding the bay-leaves commonly used in cookery. As a matter of fact the leaves of most of the group are dotted with tiny glands containing a fragrant oil and the fruits usu- ally have a pleasant odor as illustrated in the allspice. This is true of Feijoa fruits whose odor suggests that of the Cape jessamine (Gardenia jasminoides. ) The fruits themselves are two or three inches long, and about half as thick, broadest in the middle and tapering to- ward the ends. The end opposite the stem is crowned with the remains of the four sepals. The fruit is green when ripe and has a rather thick skin surrounding a pale reddish, some- what watery, pulp that is sweet and edible, with a flavor that has been likened by different people to that of pineapples guavas, bananas and strawberries. To the writer it suggests THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 15 the odor of buckwheat honey with a hint of cloves. From this it might be inferred to approach in flavor the mangosteen (Garcinia Mangostana) which is said to include in its pulp the flavor of all other fruits and to be the fruit with which the Serpent tempted Eve. Feijoa comes from the Argentine and is likely to find a welcome wherever it can be grown. It is said to be popular in Southern France. It is a medium-sized tree with small, oblong entire leaves white beneath. The fruits are produced singly along the twigs and at their tips. We are indebted to Mrs. Jay C. Jenks, of Halcyon, California for the fruiting specimen here figured. VALUE OF PRACTICAL BOTANY SHORT time ago the writer attended a farmers’ field day that was in charge of the county agent. The county agent was a well trained man, a college graduate, as was evi- denced by the ease and accuracy with which he answered ques- tion after question. Finally a farmer aproached with a speci- men of one of the common weeds growing in the pasture and requested that the plant be identified. For the first time that afternoon the county agent fell down on the job. A specimen of plant was received from a county agent last summer with the explanation that it occured abundantly in alfalfa fields in his county and threatened to become a serious alfalfa weed. Upon examination the plant in question turned out to be a dwarfed specimen of common alfalfa. These incidents are cited because they illustrate a general condition among trained agriculturists, a lack of knowledge of many of the common plants that grow on our farms. Many men who are well trained in other phases of agriculture, ex- 16 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST hibit lamentable ignorance concerning common farm weeds. This condition may be due in part to the unfortunate manner in which the general study of systematic botany has fallen into a state of neglect. Had the county agent who sent in the specimen of alfalfa learned to recognize the plants by their bo- tanical characteristics, it is doubtful if he would have made so foolish and embarrassing a mistake. Perhaps the old-fash- ioned method of dissecting flowers in the laboratory can be made more attractive and profitable to the average student by a field study of the weed flora and approved methods of eradi- action and control. It is suggested, then, that men in agricultural courses should make an effort to learn to recognize the common weeds and familiarize themselves with the methods by which trouble- some'weeds may be controlled. A great deal of this knowledge can be gained during under-graduate days by collecting speci- mens during hikes into the country and by identifying them and becoming familiar with their characteristics. A knowledge of the farm flora may prove an asset in almost any field of endeavor that the trained agriculturist may select, from practical farming to teaching or demonstration work. For example, a specimen of a plant received some time ago from a college trained farmer with the statement that the sender was acquainted with most of the wild plants growing upon his land, but the specimen sent was new to him. It turned out to be the black knapweed or star thistle (Cen- taurea nigra),a plant that is not common in the United States but considered extremely troublesome in Europe. The sender was advised to destroy immediately the few plants upon his farm before seeds were matured. This was done and no fur- ther trouble was experienced. It is entirely reasonable to believe that his knowledge of plants enabled the farmer to THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 17 recognize the stranger upon his land and it is possible that his foresight may have saved his community from the ravages of a new weed pest. New weeds are constantly appearing in our midst, as wit- ness the Russian thistle. sow thistle, and Russian pigweed, and more recently the lawn pennywort and leafy spurge. Not only are new weeds introduced from abroad, but native weeds are carried from one section of our country to another. Thus the blue sage (Salvia lanceaefolia), a western weed, has re- cently appeared in Ohio alfalfa fields where it was carried by the agency of impure seed from the west. The bracted plan- tain (Plantago aristata), one of the species designated as nox- ious in the recent Indiana Seed Law, is a western species that has been widely introduced in the east by means of baled hay and impure grass seed. A knowledge of the farm flora is of distinct advantage in recognizing new weeds and may be of considerable value. If the first patches of Russian thistle had been recognized as a new weed and immediately destroyed, the saving to agriculture would have been great. The farmer should be ever on the alert for new weed pests, but it is first necessary to become familiar with the common plants occur- ing in our fields so that strangers can be immediately recog- nized and adequate eradication measures instituted. Entirely aside from the practical value, the pleasure derived from a knowledge of plants is worthy of consideration. Such a knowledge has a recreational value that cannot be esti- mated in dollars and cents. The joys of country life may be greatly enhanced with the surrounding flora. It 1s an in- spiration and a pleasure that cannot be valued by the ordinary standards. —Albert A. Hansen in Purdue Agriculturist. PLANT NAMES AND THEIR MEANINGS — XIV SCROPHULARIACEAE By WiLLaArD N. CLure. sl ea Scrophulariaceae comprises some 2500 different species very widely distributed over the earth but most abundant in the Temperate zones. Many species have a close superficial resemblance to the mints (Labiatae) since they possess square stems, opposite leaves and two-lipped flowers but the flowers are much larger, though generally lacking fragrance, and they are more commonly borne at the top of the stem in panicles and thyrses though Gray says that none have a truly terminal inflorescence. The most trustworthy character for separating this group from the mints is found in the fruit. In the Scro- phulariaceae this is a many-seeded two-celled pod; in the Labiatae the fruit breaks up into four nutlets. The group derives its name from the genus Scrophularia which is said to be so named because used for the cure of scrofula. The plants of this genus have long been known as figworts, and by an ex- tension of the name the members of the entire family are so called. The plants in no way resemble figs, however, and the true fig does not belong to this family. The origin of the name may be found in the notes on figwort. By some the family is called the Rhinanthaceae for the genus Riinanthus. As in the mints, a large number of the Scrophulariaceae have reputed or real medicinal properties. After Scrophularia whose derivation as we have just seen refers to its reputation in the treatment of scrofula we may mention the genusGratiola derived from gratia, grace, in allusion to its usefulness in me- dicine. Euphrasia named for one of the Graces means delight THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 19 or cheerfulness and is applied to a genus of plants for their medicinal virtues. It is said that Odontites is an ancient plant- name derived from a Greek word meaning tooth and reputed to be good for the toothache. The plant which now bears the name, however, fails to live up to this reputation. | Among medicinal plants, also, is probably to be included Pedicularia derived from a word meaning louse. Gray says the name has no obvious application but Wood states that the plant was formerly used against lice. An old belief is that this plant bred lice in sheep that happened to feed upon it. The reader will therefore choose the derivation that most strongly appeals to his fancy. In several instances the flowers have suggested the names of the genera. In Chelone, for instance, the name is derived from a word meaning turtle and is given in allusion to the flowers, like a turtle’s head. The open corolla of Mimulus suggested the grinning mouth of an ape, mimo, hence the diminutive name. The peculiar corolla of the snapdragon genus has given it the name of Antirrhinum from words meaning like and snout. Ina similar way, Rhinanthus means snout and flower, the name referring to the beaked upper lip of a species once included in the genus. Dasystona means hairy mouth and alludes to the hairs in the throat of the corolla Pentstemon is the name of a genus of plants with five stamens in a group where four in the fashion. The fifth stamen, however, does not bear pollen and the plants may therefore be considered in good standing in the family. : According to Wood, the foxglove genus, Digitalis, is from digitabulum, a thimble. Another derivation says it is from a word from fingers or “belonging to the fingers” as the com- mon name suggests. Sc/izanthus is from two Greek words meaning cut and flower and was applied to this genus in 20 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST allusion to the laciniate petals. Calceolaria is from calceolus, a slipper, which the sachate lower petal suggests. Leptandra, by which a section of Veronica is sometimes known, means slen- der stamens, these organs being quite conspicuous in the plants so named. Muicranthemuim, means, simply, small-flowered. The genus Veronica is supposed to have been named for St. Veronica whose own name from Vera icon “true image” is connected with an interesting legend familiar to everybody. Whether the first Veronica was named because it bloomed on the day dedicated to the saint, or whether the plants, being medicinal, were under the protection of this saint, does not seem to be known. Genera dedicated to less saintly personages are not uncom- mon in this family. Seymeria is for Henry Seymer an English naturalist, Castilleja is for the Spanish botanist Domingo Cas- tillejo, Buchnera is for J. G. Buchner an early German bo- tanist, Collinsia is for Zacheus Collins, an 18th century botan- ist of Philadelphia and Schwalbea is for C. G. Schwalbe an obscure German. The name Gerardia commemorates John Gerarde, the famous author of the “Great Herbal’ issued about 1597, while Pawlonia is named for Anna Pawlona, a Russian princess, daughter of the Czar Paul I. Peculiarities of the plants, other than the flowering parts have given names to such genera as Linaria where the refer- ence is to the leaves like those of the flax (Linum). The mulleins have the very appropriate name of Verbascum which was originally barbascum from barba a beard. Synthyris 1s Greek for ‘‘doors closed” in allusion to the form of the seed capsule. Orthocarpus is the Latin for straight fruit and Melampyrum is Greek for “black wheat”, the name said to have been given to these plants in allusion to the dark colored seeds of the species. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 21 Two groups of little plants living in the mud have derived their generic names from their habitat. J/santhes is from 11s, mud, and anthos, a flower, while Limosella is from limus, mud, and a word for seat, the plants appearing as if sitting in the mud. /erpestis, a name formerly applied to a genus of plants now included in Bacopa is Greek for a creeper. Bacopa itself, is a South American word of unknown meaning and Conobea, the name given to a single small plant so inconspic- uous as to have no common name, is from the same source. The flowers of the Scrophulariaceae, like those of the Labiatae, are nearly all strongly two-lipped with shapes that often suggest the heads of animals as such common names as “turtle head”, “snapdragon’”’, “rabbit-flower” and the like at- test. It is worthy of note, however, that one section of the family has flowers so nearly regular as to seem an anonialy in the group and one has difficulty in harmonizing such species with his conception of the family. Aside from the flowers, however, the other characters of these particular plants con- form to the styles for the family and no botanist has yet had the hardihood to attempt their exclusion. Of this latter group, the mullein is an excellent example. Everybody knows the mullein (Verbascum thapsus). The white-woolly leaves and tall, thick flowering-spikes are familiar sights in widely separated parts of the North Temperate Zone and have naturally gained the species many common names. More than forty of these are known. ‘They are mostly of European origin, since the plant originated on the other side of the Atlantic, and the majority are of obvious deriva- tion. Among the most numerous are those referring to the woolly leaves, such as “velvet-dock”, “candle-wick mullein”, “Adam’s flannel’, ‘“felt-wort’’, “hare’s beard’, “flannel leaf”, “old man’s flannel’, “‘blanket-leaf’’, “flannel plant”, Be THE AMERICAN BOTANIST “velvet-plant”, “ice-leaf’, and “‘lucernaria”. The last mentioned is from the Latin lucerna, a lamp, and, like ‘‘candle- wick mullein’”, alludes to the ancient use of the woolly leaves as wicks for lamps. By many the word ‘“‘mullein”, or “mullen”’ as it may be spelled, is derived from the same rooti as wollen and the word flannel is regarded as akin to it. After the leaves, the flower-spike is probably responsible for the greatest number of names in the vernacular. Among these may be noted “‘Jacob’s-staff”, Aaron’s rod”, “hag-taper”, “hedge tap- er”, “torches”? and “shepherd’s club”. The name of “cows lungwort” and “‘bullock’s lungwort” may have been given to the plant in the supposition that it is medicine for cows, but grazing animals rarely if ever eat it. The plant is also called “great mullein” to distinguish it from the lesser members of its genus. Verbascum blattaria is the “moth mullein’. The name is said to have been given the plant because moths visit it, but it is very apparent that the hairy purplish stamens and the soft white or yellowish corollas make the flower itself very like a moth and this is probably the correct interpretation of the name. The specific term is from Blatta the generic name of the cockroch and was given this plant under the entirely er- roneous impression that it will repel the unwelcome insects mentioned. The specific name of Verbascum lychnitis is from the Greek /ychnos, a lamp, and is still another allusion to the use of mullein leaves as lamp-wicks. A companion of the mullein in old fields, and like it an im- migrant from Europe, is the “‘toad-flax’’(Linaria vulgaris). This species, however, has a’ rather more aristocratic lineage and appears to have been first imported for the flower-garden, but its vagabond ways soon made its room better than its com- pany and it was turned out and obliged to consort with other | a a ne THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 23 weeds less beautiful. The name “ranstead”’, or ‘“‘ransted”, which colloquial speech has corrupted to “rancid” is the name of its introducer, and is all that is left to it of the days when it was held in high repute. The bright yellow and orange of its blossoms are responsible for many of its common names such 9 oe as “butter-and-eggs’’, ““eggs-and-bacon”, and “bread-and-but- +B ter’. “Rabit ears”, “rabbit flower”, and “snapdragon” refers to the shape of the flowers and “‘Jacob’s ladder” to the form of the inflorescence. ‘The slender leaves, much like those of the flax, have suggested “flax-weed”’, “toad flax” and “yellow toad-flax”. At first glance it is a mystery how the toad became connected with this plant, but it is said on good authority that the plant was originally called buboniwm because used in curing an affliction known as buboes. Since Bufo is the technical name of the toad the similarity of sound made the transfer easy. Entirely inexplicable are “bride-weed”’, “bride-wort”, ‘{mpudent lawyer” and ‘“‘gall-weed”’ though the last two sug- gest some points of similarity. Linaria cymbalaria is the familiar creeping plant known as “Kenilworth ivy”. It has a number of other names of similar meaning such as “coliseum ivy”, “Oxford-weed”, ivy-weed”, “ivy-leaved toad-flax”, “wandering Jew’, “mother-of-thous- ands”, and “climbing” or “roving sailor”. The name of “pen- nywort” probably refers to the shape of the leaves but this term, like several others applied to it, are general terms used for many other plants. Both L. spuria and L. elatine are called “cancer-root” without adequate reason. These plants also bear the name of “female fluellin” which appears to be a corruption of a Welsh phrase meaning ‘‘Llewellyn’s herbs or plants”. Th- particular Llewellyn referred to, is the Welsh Prince mention- ed in the legend of the hound, Gellert. <( NOTE and COMMENT > STRENUOUS PLANT Importation.—Importers of plants . have not always had the Federal Horticultural Board to con- tend with, but the introduction of new plants in America has sometimes failed to be plain sailing for all that. Take the case of the mango, for instance. The introducion of this fruit into Jamiaca was quite unintentional, so far as the origi- nal importers were concerned. In 1782, a French ship bound from Mauritius to Hayti with a cargo of economic plants was captured by the English under Rodney and sent as a prize to Jamaica. Among the plants were cinnamon, Jack-fruit (Ar- tocarpus integrifolia) and mangoes (Mangifera Indica). The mangoes were invoiced by number and the names having been lost the plants were referred to by the original numbers. “Number 11” turned out to be an especially well-flavored fruit and to this day it has so influenced opinion that any superior variety is sure to be called a “number eleven’. About ten years after this importation Captain Bligh landed in Jamaica with severa! hundred plants of bread-fruit (Arctocarpus in- cisa). The account of his adventures in securing these reads like a tale from the Arabian Nights. As Lieutenant Bligh, he left England in 1787 in command of the British ship Bounty for a trip to the Society Islands in quest of bread-fruit trees. He tried to sail around Cape Horn but hostile winds kept him back and he was obliged to make for Tahiti by way of the Cape of Good Hope. After taking on a cargo of a THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 25 thousand bread-fruit plants, he began the return voyage, but his sailors could not forget the beautiful Tahitians and about a month after sailing they mutinied. Bligh and eighteen of the men who had remained faithful to him were placed in an open boat and the ship sailed back to Tahiti where they took on a very different cargo and then sailed away again finally land- ing on Pitcairn Island in the Southern Pacific. In the mean- time, Bligh and his party in the open boat made the trip of more than 4,000 miles across the Pacific and finally reached the Moluccas. Making his way to England, he was given com- mand of a new ship and as Captain Bligh of the Ship Provi- dence set out once more for Tahiti where he secured a new cargo and at last delivered it to its destination in Jamaica. AMERICAN LeEGIon Datsy.—The American Legion has had the usual luck of those who attempt to adopt a represen- tative flower that does not represent anything in particular. In the beginning the poppy of Flanders was most appropriately chosen, but later it was rejected because it was not a native American and because it was feared that it might become a weed if introduced into this country. As to the last men- tioned objection, it may be said that the poppy has been cul- tivated for many years on this side without showing a ten- dency to spread from the garden. At the Legion’s third na- tional convention the “American Daisy” was adopted. Those who sponsored the claims of the daisy were careful to point out that the flower designated is not the daisy of Burns and Shakespeare, but their botanical knowledge, was apparently not extensive enough to apprise them of the fact that the “Amer- ican” daisy is by origin an English plant, that it is a noxious weed in any country, and is detested by every cultivator of the soil. The sentimental may dignify it with the name of “Marguerite,” but the farmer calls it plain “white-weed”. 26 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST Waite Pine~ BriisteR Rust.—The white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) is a European fungus pest that became established in New England about twenty years ago. It is very destructive to the white pine (Pinus strobus) as well as to other pines with five needles in a bundle. It was hoped that it might be kept out of the West and Northwest where there are still extensive forests of western white pine (P. monticela) and sugar pine (P. Lambertiana), both suscept- ible species, but it has recently found a foothold in western British Columbia and Washington. When a pine tree is at- tacked, the fungus does not spread from it directly to other pines, but must first pass a certain stage of its life on the leaves of some species of currant or gooseberry. In making war on the pest, therefore, an attempt will be made to eradicate the species that transmit the disease to the pines, but since these shrubs are very numerous in the Northwest a long and strenuous contest is in prospect. A WEEDLEsS LAWN.—Those who dislike the annual labor of eradicating from the lawn dandelions, quack-grass, purslane, dock, and other interlopers, will be interested in a new method of lawn-making that obviates this performance. The idea originated at the Agricultural Experiment Station of the Rhode Island States College at Kingston, at least they have been able to maintain what amounts to a weedless lawn there for more than fifteen years. In an Extension Bulletin (No. 13) they tell us how it is done. It all goes back to the subject of acid and alkaline soils. It happens that the weedier the lawn, the likelier the soil is to be alkaline, or to turn the statement around, if you have an alkaline soil you are likely to have weeds. The weeds have so long fought the crops of alkaline soils that they have decided aversion to soils that are sour, but certain grasses have no objection to acidity and thus THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 27 we circumvent the weeds by making the soil sour and plant- ing the grasses. All that is then needed is to keep the soil at a proper degree of acidity. The grasses recommended for such lawns are Rhode Island bent, creeping bent, velvet bent, red-top and Italian rye-grass. Most of these grasses are species of Agrostis, the first named being the most highly re- commended. To produce the proper degree of acidity the soil is treated before planting with equal parts of ammonium sulphate, acid phosphate and muriate of potash, applied at the rate of about 3 ounces to the square foot or about 750 pounds to the acre. All lime should be avoided and clover, of course, will not grow in such soils. To keep the lawn in condition and prevent the weeds from pushing in, the same amount of fertilizer must be applied annually,‘early in spring, but most gardeners will regard this as worth the trouble. It is well to remember, however, that ordinary garden plants are not likely to thrive in such soil. GARDENING IN Acip Soirs.—By this time it is probably pretty well known that the heaths, pitcher plants, orchids and the like that are commonly regarded as difficult to grow, are difficult only because they dislike alkaline soils. If the soil is made acid, they thrive without much care. Since there are an immense number of plants in the world that favor acid soils, and many of them produce most beautiful flowers, the problem of their cultivation is an important one. Dr., Bird has recently shown in these pages that artificial bogs for the cultivation of such plants may be made by simply watering the plants with a solution ef tannic acid. Now F. V. Coville, a Government botanist has devised another scheme to make the soil acid, not so much by adding acid as by taking out the alkaline matter. By adding aluminum sulphate to the soil, the sulphur forms a new combination with the lime in it mak- 28 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST ing calcium sulphate which is thus rapidly leached out of the soil. In one case reported, rhododendrons treated with aluminum sulphate increased in size 250% more than un- treated plants. If as encouraging results are obtained with other acid soil plants, we may expect our blueberries to attain unheard-of size and luxuriance, and trailing arhutus and the orchids to become a feature of all good gardens. WHERE SNow Fats DeEEPEsT.—The greatest snowfall known in the United States occurs in the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountain ranges in the Pacific Coast States, where at some places from 30 to more than 40 feet of snow falls during the winter season, says the Weather Bureau of the United States Department of Agriculture. At Summit Calif., which has an elevation of about 7,000 feet, nearly 60 feet of snow have been recorded in a single season, and about 25 feet in a single month. Snow usually falls on more than 60 days of the year in northern New York, the upper peninsula of Michigan, northern Minnesota, and northern North Dakota, as well as in the higher elevations of the northern Rocky Mountains. Snow may be expected on as many as 30 days as far south as southeastern Pennsylvania, central Ohio, southern Wisconsin, and southern South Dakota, and on 10 days in southern Virginia, western North Carolina, the northern portions of Tennessee and Arkansas, central Okla- homa, and northwestern Texas. In extreme southern South Carolina, south-central Georgia, northern Alabama, and south central Texas, however, snow may be expected only on about one day during the winter. SPEED OF Birps IN FLicHt.—Certain species of hawks have a speed of 200 feet a second, or about 136 miles an hour, according to the U. S. Biological Survey. This might be a suitable rate for a racing airplane. The canvasback duck can THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 29 fly from 130 to 160 feet a second, but its usual rate of 60 to 70 miles an hour would be pretty fast to be enjoyable in a plane making a pleasure trip. The crow is the least rapid of a list of 22 migratory birds, flying an insignificant average of 45 feet a second, or 30 miles and hour. Of course this speed maintained steadily in an automobile would mean a very fair rate of progress, defying the speed laws in many communities. Most of the birds listed, however, do better than the crow. Curlews and jacksnipes can fly 55 and 65 feet a second, while quail, prairie chickens, and ruffed grouse can make 75 feet. The dove can reach a speed of 100 feet a second, or 68 miles an hour, although its usual rate is less. Redheads, blue- winged teals, green-winged teals, Canada geese, and different varieties of brant can fly over 100 feet per second, ranging in speed from 68 to 98 miles an hour, but usually fly at a much slower rate. PLANTS AND ULTRA-VIOLET LiGH?T.—An interesting series of experiments on the effect of ultra-violet light on plant life is being conducted at the Pennsylvania State College. It is reported that H. W. Popp, an instructor, has found, in pre- liminary tests, indications that the invisible rays in sunlight decrease the rate and amount of germination in soaked seeds, inhibit growth and development, and finally cause the death of the plants. In some varieties of plants, it was found that new leaves would not form under ultra-violet light, and in other cases it was found that, though the leaves formed, they were killed a day or two later. The ultra-violet light was produced by means of a mercury vapor arc. Various types of screens were used to eliminate the ultra-violet light from sunlight. MAHONIA REPENS Not GuiLty.—Another proof of Josh Milling’s famous aphorism that “It is better to know less than 30 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST to know so much that aint so” is supplied by Mahonia repens which, because of its alliance with the barberries, was ostra- cised, some years ago, when certain young scientists were making a reputation by making war on the barberries. In some sections the common barberry (Berberis vulgaris) is a well-known carrier of one stage of a rust that is very destruc- tive to wheat. In consequence it was decided to eradicate all barberries, whether in city or country. Mahonia repens, often called Berberis repens, naturally fell under the ban but the Federal Horticultural Board has now graciously permitted it to live and has pronounced it not guilty of harboring the rust. The unfortunate part of the affair is that this belated rein- statement will not bring back the plants dug up in a patriotic effort to help the Government stamp out a plant parasite that does not require the barberry in is young life but nevertheless lives on it when it gets the chance. Marsu ELDER AND SUNFLOWERS.—I want to supplement my statements about /va Nanilifolia. Never anywhere have I seen any weed spread and develop as this one has in Po- catello. Three years ago it could hardly be found and the few individuals that were hidden in out of the way nooks were so small and stunted as to be hardly recognizable. Last summer it was everywhere, especially abundant along the sidewalks and curbings of the veant 'ots in the business district. | While the great majority of the plants were still far below the height of this plant in the mddle west, here and there one more lusty than its fellows, attained a height of five or six feet with large and heavy panicle that promises inuch for the future possession of the land. Where this weed 2-ows abundantly Russian thistle and our native saltbush oc- cur very sparingly but it will require further observation to determine whether it is supplanting them or only occupying THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 31 the territory they have not covered. It still sticks to the soil around town but 1 have seen a few small plants here and {'«re along trails and streams in the hills that indicate its scouting activities. Sunflowers, too, are spreading so rapidly here that Kansas will have to go to planting sunflowers to keep up with us. Not only along ditch-banks, curbings and railroad tracks but everywhere in waste ground along the river, in dry-farmed fields, unbroken gulches and gravelly benches the ground is hidden by a blaze of yellow. There are two species of them Helianthus lenticularis and H. aridus. Generally speaking the former prefers the improved soil about town while the latter is more abundant on the raw soil of the hills but the two often grow together. Is this a hint from Nature as to the developement of a new product from our semiarid tracts? “The old Oregon Trail across the prairies died in a blaze of sunflowers” but it has been born again west of the mountains, flanked with golden glory typical, not only of the lure that called the white man across their sav- age summits, but also of the wealth that 1s waiting for the ap- plication of work and wisdom—Mrs M. E. Soth, Pocatello, Idaho. Owners oF CompPLETE SETS.—To the list of owners of complete sets of this magazine, may now be added the follow- ing: 65. Daniel Smiley, Mohonk Lake, N. Y. 66. University of California, Berkeley, Calif. 67. Chas. L. Hutchinson, Corn Exch. Nat’l. Bank, Chicago 68 Wm. H. Lightfoote, Canandaigua, N. Y. There are still left sets 69 to 90. Set 91 is owned by the ed- itor and this completes the list. We have seven additional sets of Vols. 1 to 22 inclusive which can be used to complete sets of those whose subscriptions began as early as 1917 but 32 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST this is the absolute limit. Prices will naturally advance as our stock approaches the vanishing point. Those who contem- plate owning a complete set should hesitate no longer. CHINESE Potato.—Those who patronize chop-suey estab- lishments may have become acquinted with a curious vegetable known as Telinga potato or Chinese potato. It is not a po- tato nor closely related to the potato family, but it is never- theless a very palatable vegetable, either raw or cooked. Ex- amination of fresh specimens show them to be corms an inch or two in diameter that are produced by an araceous plant known as Candarum potato. The plant is cultivated in Eastern Asia and the fresh corms have a taste somewhat like chestnuts. In flavor they are much superior to the dasheen, another corm produced by a tropical species of Araceae. BREAD FROM TEARS.—A species of grass often cultivated in old gardens for its hard grayish seeds is commonly known as Job’s tears (Coir lachryma-Joli). The seeds are fre- quently made into necklaces and have the special merit for this purpose of being perforated and ready to string. No- body would think of using these hard bony objects for food, but a variety has been discovered in the Philippines in which the outer husk is so thin as to be easily milled and then can be made into flour from which a very palatable bread can be baked. The plant has yielded thirty bushels or more to the acre and can be profitably grown wherever rice can. It promises to be a valuable addition to the cereal crops of the warmer parts of the world. It is already used to some ex- tent in the Philippines and is being introduced to new countries under the Phillippine name of Adlay. EpisLt Morninc-GLortés.—Although the sweet potato belongs to tha morning-glory family, one does not commonly think of the family as a producer of edible species. A plant THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 33 recently sent from China by one of our Government's agricul- tural explorers, however, is recommended as a pot-herb the leaves and young stems being the parts used. The plant is semi- aquatic and the leaves that appear in market are gathered from plants grown on the borders of wet fields. It is reported that during June and July, loads of the young shoots are sent to market. ‘The stems are about 18 inches long, hollow, and half an inch in diameter. These with the succulent leaves are cut up into a spinach-like food. RATTLESNAKE PLANTAIN COLONIES.—It seems to be a rare thing for the little orchid known as rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera pubescens) to grow singly. Almost invariably they occur in close little colonies very conspicuous by reason of their white-veined and mottled leaves. The reason for these plants growing in companies seems to be that the young plants find the best conditions for growth near to the old plants and thus continue to renew or extend the original colony. This is quite contrary to the behavior of plants in general, for the seedlings seem to desire to get as far away from their place of origin as possible. In the orchid genus, however, the young plants have set up a partnership with a mycorrhizal fungus and are not able to thrive without it. In consequence they seldom find suitable places for growth at any great distance from the parent colony. The seeds of Goodyera pubescens lie on the soil all winter and sprout the following spring, but by the end of August they are often only a millimeter in length and lack chlorophyll, according to Oakes Ames, from whose article in Rhodora, we quote. The protocorms, as these small bodies are called, develop numerous long, slender, root-like processes known as rhizoids and then appear “like small white spiders at the center of miniature webs.” The fungus enters the rhizoids and aids the young plant in making food by absorbing useful 34 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST material from the humus in the soil. At the beginning of the second spring, leaves and roots are produced and the young plant proceeds to grow up. . QuINCE Fruits.—It is seldom that the descriptions of the technical botanist make a vivid impression on the mind. One would not recognize his best friend if described in the same way. When one has a plant in hand, it is very convenient to compare it, point by point, with the technical description, but for ordinary purposes this is not sufficient. . Who that has read the description of the Japan quince, realizes that the fruits are five-angled like the well-known “delicious” apple, or that the core is much more roomy than that of the largest apples and fairly packed with seeds? It is a matter of common knowledge that the apple-like fruits consist partly of the ripened ovary and partly of the floral receptacle, now grown thick and juicy. In most pomes, as these fruits are called, one may distinguish in a general way between the receptacle and ovary, but in the Japan quince there is no doubt about it. When cooked, as in the process of making jelly, the receptacle comes apart along the five angles and spreads out like some new kind of flower in which the five divisions form the corolla with the ovary in the center. In size and shape they suggest the larger forms of earth-stars (Geaster). ‘The core or ovary when ripe is quite firm and woody and very clearly indicates its relation to seed capsules in general. SWEETER THAN SuGAR.—Under the title of this para- graph there was published in this magazine several years ago, a note on a South American plant whose leaves placed in the mouth gave the impression that they were much sweeter than sugar. The plant was formerly called Eupatorium rebandi- anum but it is now sometimes placed in the closely allied genus Stevia. The principle that causes the sweet taste has been THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 35 found to be a glucoside and therefore not likely to compete with sugar in the markets of the world. The behavior of this plant, however is quite put into the shade by a member of the Sapotaceae named Synsepalum dulciferum trom tropical Africa. This species has berry-like fruits resembling olives, which at maturity are dull red with a thin soft pulp. When this fruit is eaten it has the property of making even the most acid substances taste sweet and this peculiar effect is said to last for an entire day. Back NumsBers WantED.—Walter M. Buswell, Fort Myers, Fla., needs No. 2 of Vol. 25 and No. 2 of Vol. 27 to complete his set of this magazine and will pay cash, or ex- change complete volumes for them. ‘The Buffalo Society of Natural History, Public Library, Buffalo, N. Y., also wants No. 2 of Vol. 27." Mr. Madison Cooper, Calcium, N. Y., wants all of Volume 23 and offers any reasonable price for the numbers. Readers who happen to have extra copies of the numbers wanted will do a great favor by communicating with the persons mentioned. If there are any others who still need odd numbers to complete their files they should speak at once. It will soon be too late. 0 EDITORIAL > One of the things that is the matter with botany is the Academic Mind. An individual laboring under this handicap would much prefer data on the structure of fibro-vascular bundles, the nature of the nuclear spindle, the position of the chromosomes in karyokinesis, and the chemical composition of the anthocyanins than to have the run of the finest garden or park in the world. It is the academic mind that inclined botany teachers to require their classes to draw cross-sections of a pickled seaweed conceptacle with the aid of the compound microscope, when they might be observing the vegetation of field and wood or studying the insects that pollinate the flow- ers. The teacher with the academic mind does not subscribe to the botanical journals. He does not have to keep up with the advances in botany. His courses in plant study were cut and dried, especially dried, long ago and he means to keep them in that condition. But all this reacts unfavorably upon the flower-loving public which contributes the money for the upkeep of the schools and wants its children taught something about plants that they can use. Such questions as “What is the name of this plant?’ ‘“’What is it good for?” How can you grow it?” Where does it grow?” “How can you mul- tiply it?’ “To what other plants is it related?” “Is it help- ful or harmful?” are all too rarely heard in the school room. We know of at least one high school in a large city where ag- riculture is taught out of a book. Just imagine asking an able-bodied boy aching to get out into the soil on a spring day to stand up in class and describe plowing from the description THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 37 in the book! And think of the botany teacher who does not know the common plants of his own region and who never possessed a garden of his own! How can he teach botany of any significance? Is it any wonder that botany is slipping? What can we expect so long as the Academic Mind is in con- trol; when the teacher of botany, rather than the botanist makes the course of study? BOOKS AND WRITERS Well, we suppose we shall have to mention the Editor’s new book first. * * * “American Plant Names’’ is the title though it ccvers only the plants of North-eastern America. * * * Three parts have been issued and another is nearly ready. * * * ‘here are about six thousand names in the first hundred pages. * * * It is a German sort of a book in which the author records the facts, whether they mean anything or not. * * * But it will be invaluable for reference, the Editor says. * * * Now that is off our mind. * * * Looks as if the new year would be a good one for botany, so niany new magazines are springing up, or about to spring. * * * ‘The most ambitious undertaking is the 64-page Nature Magazine announced from Washington. * * * You probably received a copy of the prospectus. * * * Yes, everybody did! * * * The National Horticultural Magazine has already issued two or three num- bers. * * * Hamilton Traub, secretary of the National Horticulture Society is editor. * * * The society wants more members. * * * Its office is at Henning Minn. * * * We hear that Eva Kenworthy Gray is publishing the Flower Journal. * * * ‘Two numbers are reported to be out but we have not seen them. * * * All this activity 38 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST is good for botany. * * * We need more magazines and more botanists. * * * Something ought to be done about it! * * * Luther Burbank writes to one of our contem- poraries that “I know of no other horticulture magazine pub-— lished anywhere that is so well edited and so generally interes- ting.” * * * Bless your heart, Luther, you are going to see one just as soon as this is off the press! * * * “Every day and in every way we are getting better and better.” * * * C. A. Weatherby says that somebody has been pirating the Fern Bulletin. * * * A reprint of Vol. 1. No. 1, has been discovered. * * * Jf anybody: knows who did it, we wish they would let us know too. * * * No we don’t intend to reprove him. * * * We think just as much of the Fern Bulletin as he does. * * * Wish he would reprint several other numbers. * * * They are as scarce as cardinal flowers in January. * * * That reminds us that the Editor is going to bring out a new edition of his “Fern Allies of North America.” * * * This is positively its last appearance, * * * The plates are to be melted up. * * * Get ready to order your copy. * * * R. C. Benedict says there ought to be game laws for ferns and rare flowering plants. * * * His observa- tions on the subject, reprinted from American Fern Journal, are being distributed by the Brooklyn Botanic Garden and the Fern Society. * * * Vermont has protected her terri- tory from the hand of the spoiler by enacting a law to pro- hibit picking flowers and uprooting plants. * * * Other States are expected to follow this example. * * * The subject of Dr. L. H. Bailey’s second number of ‘‘Gentes Her- barium” might well be “Too Much Mustard!” * * * In a scholarly paper he has tried to separate the cultivated forms of Brassica or Sinapis or whatever else you may call them. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 39 * * * Think of all the varieties of cabbage, kale, broccoli cauliflower, collards and brussels sprouts belonging to a single species! * * * And the kohl-rabi and turnip almost squeezed in! * * * Pe Tsai, the so-called “celery cab- bage”’ is identified as Brassica pekineisis. * * * After this the mustards will stay on their own side of the fence. * * * Dr. Aven Nelson has resumed his position as head of botany in the University of Wyoming after serving five years as President of the institution. * * * The West is fond of making University presidents out of its botanists; Dr. Bessey served in this capacity in the University of Ne- braska. * *. * We like to see eminent scientists at the head of large institutions but good botanists are too rare to be used ‘as mere college presidents. *~ * **»We-are glad to see Dr. Nelson back in his old position. * * * The botany of the Rocky Mountain region will now get a new impetus. * * * In appreciation of his services, Dr. Nelson was given a three month’s leave of absence. * * * He is spending this in California. * * * ‘“‘Pettiford’s fern” illustrated in the American Botanist for last August was awarded a silver medal at the 94th annual show of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society. * * * Itis Aspidium laser petifolium from Asia. * * * But no longer a foreigner ; it has been naturalized near Philadelphia. * * * The Independent Gazette of Germantown reprinted the article from this journal. * * * W. R. Maxon sends us a copy of his “Botanical Gardens of Jamaica’. * * * It is re- printed from the “Smithsonian Report” for 1920. * * * Well, we have been in all of them and they are just as he says they are. * * * ‘Twenty fine plates accompany the text. * * * Makes one want to explore the Blue Mountains again. * * * Hine illae lachrymae. 40 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST The long-expected “Fern Lovers Companion” by George Henry Tilton has at last appeared. It is a fine little book of some 238 pages in which are treated all the ferns of that re- gion commonly known as the Northeastern States but which by common consent for floral purposes goes west to the Great Plains and South to the mountains of Kentucky and Tennes- see. The book is very well printed and fully illustrated the illustrations for the most part being from ferns in the author’s collection, but other sources have been drawn upon, such as the Davenport Herbarium and various fern-books now out of print. The ferns are discused in related groups the text devoting two paragraphs to each species, the first of a tech- nical nature and the second more popular. There is a list of American and foreign, fern literature, a glossary, a list of the species discused with their synonomy, and directions for studying ferns. The book is a most attractive addition to our fast disappearing fern literature and will undoubtedly meet with a warm welcome from students of ferns. ‘It is published by the author at Melrose, Mass. At first thought it might be hastily assumed that all the different kinds of garden-books have been written, but Ella M. Freeman has shown otherwise in her ‘‘Home Vegetable Gar- den.”. about her grounds and comment on each kind of vegetable as she came to it, and later set all this down in a book it would probably be very much like the one before us. It is no made- If one who knows all about gardening should walk to-order volume; the author undoubtedly wrote it for the sheer delight of telling about her plants. The book is full of information from cover to cover, but it is not of the seed- catalog variety. It reads a good deal more like an essay. In spite of this, or because of it, each vegetable is thoroughly dis- cussed from seed-sowing to the table or the storage-cellar. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 41 Anybody who enjoys a good garden will be pleased with this book. It is number 2 of a new “Open Country Series” under the editorship of L. H. Bailey who has himself written the initial volume on “The Apple-tree.” Two other volumes, “The Cow” and “Vacation on the Trail” have also appeared. The price of the present volume is $1.75. Along the western side of India, south of the tropic of Capricorn, there is a stretch of country known as the Bombay Presidency, whose ferns form the subject of an attractive little volume by E. Blatter and J. F. d’Almeida, professors of botany in St. Xavier’s College, Bombay. ‘The Ferns of Bom- bay” is a book designed to advance the study of the ferns in the Presidency by providing means for their identification. In the beginning, the terms used in describing ferns are de- fined, and the distribution of the different species discussed. The bulk of the book, more than 200 pages, is devoted to technical descriptions of the species. There is a synopsis of the genera and various keys to the species, but this feature is not as conspicuous as it might be. Owing to the great divers- ity of surface, the rainfall of Bombay is very uneven. Some portions are so arid as to approach desert conditions, while others are moist enough to support an evergreen rain-forest. There are however, fewer than a hundred species of ferns known. In spite of the great distance that separates us from Bombay, we note a number of familiar species in its flora. Among these are the bracken (Pteris aquilina), the lady fern (Asplenium filix-foemina), the adders tongue (Ophioglossum vulgare), the rattlesnake fern (Botrychium Virginianum), the venus’-hair fern (Adiantum capillus-veneris), the royal fern (Osmunda regalis), the marsh fern (Nephrodium the- lypteris), and the holly fern (Polystichum aculeatum). Many others are common in the American tropics including Pteris 42 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST longifolia, Adiantum tenerum, Blechnum occidentale, Neph rodium molle and Acrosticum aureum. ‘The well-known Gymnogramme calamelanos has become naturalized in Bom- bay. The book is well illustrated and well printed. It is is- sued by D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co., Bombay, and costs 7 Rupees and 8 Annas. In early April, the first flowers to greet the searching eyes were those of the Anemone hepatica or liver-leaf, which blooming at Easter were once named Paas-blumtje. Cousin- german to the European pasque flower, it is, with its evergreen leaves and persistent vitality, a better symbol of the resurrec- tion, and more perhaps than any other of our wildflowers gives the welcome sense of quickened life in the woods and fields. Nestled among the branching roots of a great tree, or in the crevices of a rock, from among the cluster of last year’s leaves —three lobed leaves of an ivy-green and purplish crimson un- derneath—trise a dozen slender stems wrapped in silken hairs; and from the furry involucre delicate in texture and tint as the silvery-tipped paws of a Maltese kitten, opeh to meet the sun- shine glad flowers of every shade from hyacinthine purple to the windflower’s rose-flushed pallor. Their fragrance is a subtile aroma distilled in the waiting buds by the first warm breezes and tells of fresh running sap, of bursting leafbuds and swaying catkins. It is the breath of the April days; Nature has awakened; the Lord is risen!—MarrHa B. FLin‘’. AMERICAN PLANT NAMES All the common and vernacular names of the plants of Eastern America alphabetically arranged under the correct technical terms. It gives the generic vernacular names, indicates the most authoritative common name and enables you to identify your plants if-you know what 'ordinary people call them. The first part contains more than 1,000 names in the buttercup, rose, pea and lily families. 50 Cents per part of 32 pages Lo 3 parts for $1.00 With Annual Subscriptions, only, $1.75 WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO., Publishers JOLIET, ILL. EDUCATIONAL STFREOGRAPHS _ In natural color, illustrating western wild flowers, forest trees, geology, ' astronomy, mineralogy, western mountains, deserts, etc. Just the thing ’ for teachers and nature lovers and for gifts. Write for complete information and price list of desired subject, or _ send 25 cents for a sample. We also sell lantern slides at a very low rate. W. SCOTT LEWIS HOLLYWOOD, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA ECOLOGY ‘Devoted to all Forms of life in relation to environment . ESTABLISHED 1920 QUARTERLY Official Publication of the _ Ecological Society of America ‘Subscription, $3 a Year Back Volumes $3.50 post free R Sample Copy on request 4 TEN PER CENT DISCOUNT @ on Volumes One and Two will be offered to all institutions plac- 4 ing a subscription on the “till forbidden” basis. This OFFER % HOLDS GOOD ONLY WHEN THE ORDER IS PLACED WITH THE BUSINESS MANAGER DIRECT, and not _ through any agency. d Address all communications to . ECOLOGY E BROOKLYN BOTANIC GARDEN BROOKLYN N,., Y. BOOKS BY WILLARD N. CLUTE — FLORA OF THE UPPER SUSQUEHANNA—2nd edition. 8 vo. 172 pp.—A list of the flowering plants and ferns in a region 1200 square miles in extent with copious notes. Only 10 copies left. Price, umbound........ $2.0) FERN COLLECTOR’S GUIDE.—<60 pp. Several illustrations.—Dir cl tions for finding, naming and preserving ferns. Check-list, glossary and ill trated key os bee baw een ewig Yam wie HUN E wena Piceeelie Chai wer eae ae $1.00) OUR FERNS IN THEIR HAUNTS.—8 vo. 333 pp. 225 illustrations, 8 colored plates—Descriptions of all the ferns in Eastern North America witl an account of their haunts and habits. Every species illustrated. The lead~ ing book on ferns <<. ccm sass 08 oe 8 Cds bh pe bolo e es t:e bane Oke oe oe $3.00 FERN ALLIES OF NORTH AMERICA.—8 vo. 250 pp. 150 illustrations 8 colored plates——A companion volume to “Our Ferns.” All the fern allies) in North America, exclusive of Mexico, described and illustrated. Numerous keys to the species —(Tempororily out of print.) a AGRONOMY.—8 vo. 300 pp. Nearly 300 illustrations.—A course in prac- tical gardening for town and city schools but a useful manual for all gardeners. Includes the principles of pruning, budding, grafting, propagating, lawn make ing and: decorative planting oo. icv. coos ts ny oe ane ee ee a $1. LABORATORY BOTANY FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL.—12 mo. Ii 7 pages.—Founded on the inductive method and designed to cover a year’s work in botany. Full instructions for gathering, preparing and studying OS = Hs { bination of directions and questions with room for the answers, making it the only book needed in the laboratory. May also be used with any of the looses leaf covers. The 90 pages are a complete guide to the first half year of BORA. (055 Sc Soe a Ree Fo es eo ein iS Pip ne ee .. $0.95 EXPERIMENTAL GENERAL SCIENCE.—12 mo. 300 pp. A manual for the study of General Science by means of experiments with commos things. Deals with fundamentals; not a mixture of the formal sciences... .$1.00 | 4 How to Know the Wildflowers—Dana........... a How to Know Wild Fruits—Peterson...... witas | PRICES ON bi Guide ‘to the Wildflowers—Lounsberry.......... Southern Wildflowers and Trees—Lounsberry... APPLICATION “4 Field-book of American Wildflowers—Matthews. THE AVERAGE Field-book of Western Wildflowers—Armstrong.. pe Wildflowers of California—Parsons........... IS ABOUT $3.00 3 Guide to the Trees—Lounsberry..........+...: Fr, Our Native Trees—Keeler.........0c. cc cs eceeeee BUT PRICES — é Our Native Shrubs—Keeler............00..0000. CHANGE a Ornamental Shrubs of the United States—Apgar. ay The Flower and the Bee—Lovell................ WITHOUT ¥ Gray's: Manual)’ /th’ Edition. (isc0. cin pene seapes REASON & Britton’s Manual (Flora of Northeastern States). # A year’s subscription to American Botanist will be sent with any of th above books for $1.25 extra. Y WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. 3 ' JOLIET, ILL. Whole Number 137 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST MAY, 1923 40 Cents a Copy; $1.50 a Year - WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILLINOIS The American Botanist A Quarterly Journal of Economic @ Ecological Botany 7 WILLARD N. CLUTE, EDITOR SUBSCRIPTIONS.—The subscription price of this magazine is $1.50 7 a year or $2.50 for two years, payable strictly in advance. The magazine ~ is not sent after subscriptions expire. Personal checks on small or dis- tant banks must contain ten cents for collection fees. The magazine is issued on the 20th of February, May, August and November. : WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO., PUBLISHERS 207 WHITLEY AVENUE, JOLIET, ILL. Entered as Mail Matter of the Second Class at the Post Office, Joliet, Ill. EDUCATIONAL STEREOGRAPHS In natural color, illustrating western wild flowers, forest trees, geology, astronomy, mineralogy, western mountains, deserts, etc. Just the thing for teachers and nature lovers and for gifts. : Write for complete information and price list of desired subject, or send 25 cents for a sample. We also sell lantern slides at a very low rate. W. SCOTT LEWIS HOLLYWOOD, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA oF al cid % is ee # set 2 a % ? NEW OR NOTEWORTHY American Fern Journal PLANTS . is the unique title of an equally unique catalogue which offers for A Quarterly devoted to $ Ferns and Fern Allies, pub- sale NATIVE AMERICAN lished by SHRUBS AND PLANTS for the enrichment of your garden. Su- The American Fern Society perior nursery-grown and acclimat- ed stock, backed by more than a Subscriptions $1.25 a year quarter century experience. Sent free to all members You will enjoy reading this lit- of The American Fern tle book; there is nothing else like 4 it; most of the plants cannot be Society. Annual dues $1.50 obtained elsewhere. Write for Life membership $25.00. your copy today. Wee A re a ne ag. tere ee _ Send for free sample copy. _ D. M. ANDREWS’ NURSERY 4 BOULDER, COLO. E. J. WINSLOW, Auburndale. Mass. 4 Fi . = Y r = = 1) 7 y = ‘i 2 : : * ‘ > . 2 5 : ‘ r : A ‘ VUOTTIGNVAD VVIONDVIN 7. FF &¢ SRAKY NEW YORK BOTANICAL THE AMERICAN BOTANIST Skirting the rocks at the forest’s edge With a running flame from ledge to ledge, Or swaying deeper in shadowy glooms, A smouldering fire in her dusky blooms; Bronzed and molded by wind and sun SCaddening, gladdening every one With gipsy heauty full and fine, Gracefully blossoms the columbine. THE FLOWERS OF THE MAGNOLIA By WILLARD N. CLutrE { T is well known that not only plant families but lesser groups are based largely upon the structure of the flower. We are quite accustomed to refer plants with lilylike flowers to the Liliaceae, those with roselike flowers to the Rosaceae, and so on, but we run some risk of overlooking the fact that there are other ‘features of the flower that are quite as char- acteristic and striking. ‘Take size, for instance. There seems to be no reason why different species in the same family should keep within definite limits as to size and yet there are, whole plant groups that are distinguished almost as much by the size of the flowers as by any other feature. The Umbelliferae almost without exception have very small flowers that are conspicuous only because massed and the flowers of Cruci- ferae, though much larger are still so small that taken singly few are noted for their beauty. 46 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST It is quite otherwise with that great alliance known to the botanist as the Ranales. Besides the Ranunculaceae, or buttercup family, for which it is named, it includes the Anon- aceae or custard apples, the Nymphaeaceae or water-lilies, the Magnoliaceae and various other groups noted for the size of individual blossoms. We have only to call to mind the peony, pawpaw, May-apple, clematis and water-lily, to realize this; in fact, with few exceptions, the largest flowers in the world are found in this group. The blossoms of the Am- azon water-lily (Victoria regia) are often more than twelve inches in diameter and even in our own part of the world the yellow nelumbo may reach the size of a quart bowl. The magnolias which, in the Western Hemisphere occupy the re- gion between the plants just mentioned, have flowers quite in keeping with theirs. The flowers of the more hardy northern species often approach those of nelumbo in size while MJag- nolia grandiflora of the South, the species which always comes first to mind when magnolias are mentioned, occasion- ally reaches the dimensions of the great water-lily itself. Magnolia blossoms however, have other claims to our attention, besides those of mere size. They are among the most beautiful of single flowers with thick, waxy, petals that form a substantial cup from which a pleasing perfume is poured. The structure of the flower is also of interest. Among other things it shows the magnolia family to be pretty well down in the list as plant relationships go. Indeed, cer- tain characteristics, such as the stamens and carpels arranged in spirals instead of cycles, suggest a derivation from some pine-like ancestor. The petals and sepals also fail to conform to the standards set for higher types of flowers and seem quite undecided as to their affinities. Instead of adopting the five-parted arrangement characteristic of dicotyledons, THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 47 they show a tendency toward the monocotyledon number of three. By many this is taken as evidence of the relationship of the magnolias to the monocotyledons and to indicate that the latter group may have taken its origin from this section of the plant world. In fact, the water-lilies, which have sim- ilar characteristics, are often considered true monocotyledons. The ripened ovaries of the magnolias cling together in oblong masses much like cones in appearance and again sug- gest a relationship to the pines. To others the fruits have suggested young cucumbers and several species are called cu- cumber trees on this account. The carpels at maturity open and disclose one or two seeds covered with brilliant scarlet arils, much like the fruits of the bittersweet (Celastrus). Un- like the bittersweet, however, the seeds when they leave the carpels, do not'immediately fall to the ground, but hang for some days suspended by short silken threads which appear to be a part of the seed-stalk. Thus embellished the cones of fruit take on a new beauty. The illustration for our frontispiece was inade from a photograph of a flower of Magnolia grandiflora taken in Flor- ida by Mr. Walter M. Buswell, of Fort Myers and kindly loaned for the purpose. FLORA OF POCATELLO, IDAHO | By BLaANcHE H. Soru. OCATELLO, Idaho, is situated almost at the mouth of the valley where the Port Neuf river emerges from the hills on its way to the Snake. The higher hills about the town are the northernmost bluffs and outposts of the Wahsatch range—among the oldest elevations of land on the continent. Briefly and very generally, three geological periods are re- corded by (1) the mature hills west of town of which Kim- port Peak is the highest point overlooking the valley, (2) the nearly level benchland in front of them and a hundred feet or more above the present level of the river and (3), due to a comparatively recent elevation, the cutting of the face of ‘the bench into a series of shallow gulches and a few deeper narrow canyons. During the period of subsidence at the end of the glacial epoch an arm of great Salt Lake drained by way of Red Rock Pass through the Port Neuf valley into the Snake river. At that time huge deposits, of sand, gravel and clay were dumped into the valley. The lower sand hills east of town are of this heterogeneous material. No doubt with them were carried the roots and seeds of the desert plants which today grow upon them but whose center of distribu- tion is much farther to the south, On the west, Mink Creek, City Creek and Trail Creek come down from the hills through narrow canyons which they have cut across the bench. Several miles south, Rabbit Creek comes into the valley from the older broken country to the southeast. Pocatello Creek meanders about the east- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 49 ern base of the sand hills east of town until it sinks away in the loose deposits. Spring Creek and Michaud Creek are farther to the northwest, the fish hatchery is near the mouth of the former. Mt. Putnam some fifteen miles northeast is a point of interest much frequented. The hills west of town have a rich and varied flora due to their older, richer soil and their protection from the drying chilling southwest wind which sweeps the inter-mountain country so constantly. The sand hills east of town exhibit many patches of desert vege- tation characterized by some species not recorded from any other point so far north but nowhere upon them are there any great number of species. The native flora along the river has been almost obliterated especially within the city limits. Necessary embankments have destroyed much of it, other places, subject to yearly overflow, have filled up with a great variety of introduced weeds which are rapidly spread- ing and crowding out the native plants even in those areas which have not been disturbed. Pocatello has an altitude of 4,500 feet while Kimport Peak is approximately 7,000 feet above sea level. The flora of the valley as a whole is Transitional. Patches of pure Sonoran (upper) vegetation occur on the sand hills. |The Canadian zone appears toward the summits of the higher hills and extends well down in places along the creeks and in the deeper moister gulches. The flora of this part of Idaho is closely related to that of the Wahsatch region, many of the desert species probably having been carried here in the manner above indicated, while the great Snake River valley has always acted as a barrier to the mignation of plants from the north. The rapidity with which introduced weeds are crowd- ing out the native flora is worthy of note. Bromus tectorwm 50 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST has almost entirely replaced the native bunch grasses. Ex- tensive patches of Salsola pestifer in late September give a characteristic ruddy glow that alternates with the blaze of rabbit-brush (Chrysothmnus) up and down the slopes of the entire valley. It is remarkable how many weeds from the Old World are spreading here and how few of the native plants resist intrusion and become weeds. Among the most striking examples of the former are Lepidium perfoliatum, Cheirima repanda and Atriplex laciniata, this last not re- corded from any other place in the United States. The plant- ing of European sugar beet and grain seed in many places west of the mountains easily accounts for the presence of the first two while the last seems to be closely connected with the large European population of Pocatello. The seasonal aspects may be divided into pre-vernal ver- nal early aestival, late aestival and autumnal. The pre-vernal aspect covers the time from the beginning of plant growth to about the end of April. During this period the grass becomes green, the buds of the trees swell and burst, and pussy-willows, and such other tree blossoms as appear before the leaves, expand. Buds and young shoots of Arte- misia and Chrysothamus soften and afford good browsing for hungry herds. The bristly points of Phlox and other pun- gent -leaved perennials become tender. Basal rosettes of such plants as Arabis, Senecio, and Cheirinia are conspicuous and succulent tufts of larkspur as well as the tender green shoots of poison sego offer dangerous temptations to hungry animals. A very few herbs flower at this season. (Frittilaria pudica, Phellopterus Utahensis, Cogswellia Jonesti and Microsteris micrntha). ‘The last mentioned is the earliest. I have found it in bloom March seventeenth on the grassy slopes below the cedars when scarcely an inch high. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 5] A copious shower or two about this time will usher in the vernal aspect which covers the month of May. Moisture rather than temperature determines this aspect. If rain falls a host of perennial desert herbs come quickly into bloom upon the sand hills and the gravelly slopes and gulches of the bench- land. Among the first to bloom are lungwort Mertensia lan- ceolata and Astragalus purs/ui. Shrubs like golden currant (Ribes aureum) and service-berry (Amelanchier florida) bloom at this season and add their fragrance to the color of the lower forms. This aspect is the glory of the year for the lower hills but the gulches higher up about Kimport peak are still burdened with deep accumulations of snow. However, if the rain fails the flowers are fewer and less conspicuous, many plants fail to bloom at all or are delayed far beyond their usual season. Some will even bloom in autumn if rain follows an unusually dry spring. Always these early flowers mature quickly and the above ground parts disappear before the true summer flora of the higher hills appears. The month of June approximates the early aestival aspect. It is the “high tide of the year” for the valley as a whole. The snow banks upon the higher hills melt rapidly and every little depression cradles a rippling streamlet. Some of this water finds its way into the creeks, filling them to overflowing and their banks and meadows teem with life and color, Much more of this water, however, sinks into the loose, gravelly soil to reappear further down in springs or at least in available moisture that nourishes groves of maple and dense, extensive beds of flowers. Trees are in full leaf. Some flowers of the vernal aspect persist in sheltered gulches and large numbers of seedlings come into bloom. Purple mists of Pentstemon drift away like smoke from the blaze of great patches of Hel- tanthella, Closer examination shows that these natural gar- 52 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST dens support a dense growth of Eriogonum, Yarrow, Geran- ium, Erigeron and Balsamorrhiza with wild rose and dogwood along the creeks, sego stars in the sagebrush, pink buttercups and balm among the rocks on the summits. Why care whether corn and cabbages are growing in the town? By the fourth of July the ruddy sheen of the ripened June grass has replaced the floral display upon the lower slopes of the valley and proclaimed the advent of the late aestival period. The available moisture of the soil has disap- peared. It is hot, arid and dusty. Dense growths of pestif- erous weeds are beginning to excite the maledictions of pro- perty owners and sufferers from hay fever. But plants as well as men find agreeable haunts in the high wooded hollows along the headwaters of the creeks. Fragrant mint and yar- row, the sweet blue eyes of grass and speedwell, and flames of monkey-flower and painted tip are in the meadows. Rag- wort and monk’s-hood strive to overtop the shrubs. Currants, chokecherries and service-berries hang ripe for the taking. Apparently this is the end of the floral year. But by the mid- dle of August sunflowers are everywhere in great patches and in long golden trails in every direction. The grasses are sere and brown but the green clumps of rabbit-brush and grease- wood and the gray blur of the various kinds of “sage” are becoming increasingly conspicuous. Water in the reservoirs and ditches is getting dangerously low. We are praying for rain. ~ At last it comes and with it the autumn blaze, the halcyon time of all the year for all the great dry lands of the west. The torchweed’s glow gilds all the gulches. Great fields of rabbit-brush afire with bloom stretch endlessly with here and there amongst them the ruddy embers of patches of Russian thistle. Crimson tongues of maple on the hillsides, spurts of THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 53 cotton-wood blaze on the creek banks, smoky sheen of sage and shad-scales on the flats, desert haze in the distance but desert sunshine all around, the coming winter has no power to chill until the last faint glow of this autumn fire has flick- ered out in late November. BOTANY FOR BEGINNERS—VI By WILLARD N. CLutTE N that part of America which lies north of the Ohio Riv- er and east of the Mississippi there are about four thou- sand different kinds of flowering plants and incidentally most of the botanists. Owing to the greatly diversified surface of the region the plant population varies with the locality, each species thriving in the situations best suited to its needs and being rare or absent altogether in less hospitable places. More- over, there are other differences in the flora that may be as- cribed to the effects of migration. Prairie species push in from the west, southern species crowd up along the Atlantic coast and plants from the north invade the mountain sum- mits. Why the botanists are most numerous in this region has never been settled, but the fact that they are here most abundant certainly accounts for the fact that a majority of the books on plants issued address themselves to this audience. A few plants are so tolerant of differences in soil and climate that they have a range almost as wide as the region, but with the exception of these the flora of one place is likely to differ considerably from that of another though separated from it by a comparatively short distance. In any locality, however, the botanizer may hope to find at least a thousand different species within a day’s ramble of his home, the exact 54 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST number depending somewhat on the topography of the place. In beginning, however, the student is usually far more interested in finding out the names of his specimens than he is in tracing their ranges or ascertaining their exact number. Without a name one is helpless, unable to indicate his plant intelligibly to his friends or to look up its history in the books. He may, it is true, make a pretty close guess at its indentity from its resemblances to some better known plant, but even here appearances are often deceptive and he still lacks that exactness of identification so dear to the hearts of all real plant students. In such a dilemma, he finds himself in a position to sympathize with those early botanists who with only the crudest of books at hand were confronted, not only with a host of strange plants, but with a multitude without names at all. The way in which they evolved order out of this chaos makes a most interesting chapter in botany but can be only touched upon here. At first the best scheme that could be thought of was to describe the species as carefully as might be but this left no way of mentioning them except by the use of this series of descriptive terms. It was the Swedish bot- anist Linnaeus who devised the scheme of giving each plant a name of only two words, the first standing for the group to which it belongs and the second its own specific name. All this, however, presupposes some idea of relationship among plants for until such ideas existed there could not be a group name. The idea that plants are really related and that their resemblances are not purely fortuitous, came very slowly ; in fact external appearances were first relied upon to indicate relationship and it was a long time before the flower was recognized at the least changing of plant parts and therefore likely to give the most satisfactory characters for grouping THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 55 them. Until real relationships were recognized, therefore, plants had to be classified as edible, poisonous, medicinal and the like. A somewhat better classification was that which di- vided the plants into trees, shrubs, herbs and lianas or woody vines. Indeed, this classification is still used by nurserymen and seedmen and serves their purpose fairly well. It does not, however, always bring like species together and is there- fore anything but scientific. 3ut even when the plants were properly catalogued there still existed the difficulty of finding the name of an unknown plant. This difficulty was also solved in a measure by Lin- naeus, who devised a sort of botanical index or “key” by which a given species might be traced through the maze of plants. By dividing the plants into groups according to the number of stamens they produced, and then subdividing these groups according to the number of carpels possessed, he made divisions small enough to make it reasonably certain that one might soon locate his species. That this was an artificial system was recognized by everybody, but until the affinities of plants were understood it served the purpose. The keys that now are a part of every popular guide to the plants are often highly artificial, the sole object of course being to pro- duce the name of the plant without undue labor or loss of time. The object of scientific classification however, it to place like species together in a natural grouping and the keys in technical manuals are nearly always based on this arrange- ment. In some cases both natural and artificial keys stand side by side. The beginner finds the artificial keys easier at first because they sieze upon the most obvious characters for distinguishing the species, but the natural keys give more fundamental differences. Of the botanical manuals most conimonly used, Britton’s 56 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST has by far the more satisfactory keys, but it is open to the objection that it inclines to make species of every slight dif- ference and the nomenclature employed is one that is dis- credited by the rest of the world. Gray’s manual is much more conservative as to the species and uses the standard nomenclature, but the keys are often very unsatisfactory, be- ing perhaps scattered through the text, or divided into many different sections, any one of which may lead the unwary astray. In Gray’s book too, the distinguishing character- istics are italicised in the text, while in Britton’s such charac- ters are found in the key. In general one finds that first one key and then the other is more useful and in many cases one book may supplement the other. It might be asked why we should use such keys at all, since the popular handbooks have artificial keys which often trace the species with less labor. The reply, of course, is that the popular handbooks contain only the more showy species and when we are investigating little known plants or closely resembling species, a more exact set of descriptions are needed. So one might as well learn to use the technical keys in the first place. The general framework of the natural system for identi- fying plants is very easily understood. The entire plant world is first divided into a number of groups and these are then subdivided according to relationship which is, of course, according to the descent. All those in a single group may be assumed to have had a common ancestor and naturally re- semble one another more than they resemble those of other groups. A common method of making the first division is to make four groups. These in the order of their complexity are the Thallophytes (algae and fungi), the Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts), the Pteridophytes (ferns and their allies), and the Spermatophytes (seed-bearing plants). Mod- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST un NI ern systematists sometimes make as many as sixteen primary divisions but this adds nothing of interest to the beginner. The usual division of the Spermatophytes is into the Gymno- sperms or cone-bearing trees and the Angiosperms or true flowering plants. In other systems of classification these are occasionally given equal rank as primary divisions and known as Strobilophyta and Anthophyta, respectively. Each of the main divisions of plants have entire volumes devoted to cata- loguing their species, but books on the flowering plants are naturally more numerous than all the others put together. VITALITY OF CANNA SEEDS By J. Forp SEMPERS HOSE who have planted the seeds of the garden canna have doubtless noticed the hard, shell-like covering ap- parently hermetically enveloping the seed. Years ago when the plant was more conspicuous for its foliage than for its blossoms it was sometimes known, as shot-plant, a name sug- gested of course by the hard round seeds it bore. Gardeners are accustomed to resort to some mechanical means of puncturing this impervious outer covering that the elements necessary to germination may be more readily ad- mitted. This is sometimes accomplished by cutting through the outer covering with a file or emery wheel, but to be more practical the seeds may be placed in a test tube or some simi- lar container and covered with boiling water. A pronounc- ed popping sound follows which indicates the rupturing of the shell like covering. The brief application of high tempa- ture does not appear to affect the vitality of the seeds, but occasionally there will be a few that resist its action. It is 58 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST from the somewhat unlooked for behavior of a stray excep- tion or two of this kind, accidently found that the following peculiarities have been noted. I perhaps would not have been any the wiser but for the presence of a large pile of sandy soil that had been lying near an out building since the autumn of 1901. It had been placed there with the intention of grading about the building and was composed enterely of discarded seed tests made at that time. The material was not used as had been expected and the pile remained undisturbed. No additions were ever made to it in the intervening years. On its north side a sturdy honey lo- cust, (Gleditsia triacanthos)twenty feet high and ten inches in diameter, marked the spot where an ungerminated seed had been thrown along with other test refuse that accumulated at the time. The pile contained the remains of the average assortment of seeds to be found in a modern seedsman’s cat- alogue besides those of many deciduous and coniferous trees, and the spores of cultivated ferns. In later years I sometimes used this sandy soil in_pot- ting plants and was astonished at the persistence of so many seed coats that had undergone little or no change in appear- ance. Eleven years afterwards, (1912) the remains of cu- curbit seed coats were conspicuous so that one could readily identify those belonging to gourds, squashes, pumpkins, and melons. In addition there were others, chiefly those of asparagus, beets, onions, okra, spinach and winter vetches. I also found in my sieve at this date, three canna seeds that to all external appearances were uninjured. One I cracked open, finding the seed in apparently normal condition. The other two were placed in a germinator and in a very few days both burst into growth. They were later planted out and developed into large hardy plants; each bearing a large THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 59 raceme, the flowers of one being a deep red while those of the other were equally brilliant, but yellow. In the autumn of 1917 another canna seed was sifted from the sand pile along with a much reduced showing of seed remains; in fact the only other distinguishable seed coats were a few cucurbits, spinach and one each of Marty- nia and winter vetch. The canna seed, having a rather rough and dingy appearance was promptly germinated in a flower pot. With the approach of frost the young plant was taken indoors. The following winter being a severe one the entire plant was killed above the surface of the soils though uninjured below. Early the next spring a new growth appeared and after all danger of frost had passed the plant was set out in the open. By early autumn it had made a rank growth and bore large deep yellow blossoms. The time required to obliterate traces of the seed coats was undoubtedly extended by their being buried in a_ pile above the surrounding surface from which all surplus water could easily drain, yet the mound retained sufficient moisture to support a heavy growth of grasses. In winter it was re- peatedly frozen as hard as a rock during zero weather for perhaps a foot from the surface. It is rather remarkable that the canna seeds would have excluded moisture for so long a time, thus preserving the vital parts against injury. Objection perhaps to the supposition that the canna seeds found, had remained buried for so long a time may be made on the ground that seeds from recently discarded tests could have been carried and deposited in the sand pile by some burrowing rodent. There is not much on which to support such an objection since the sand tests made in 1901 were discontinued at that time and were followed in the interven- ing years by an entirely different and cheaper method of 60 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST testing in which the refuse was destroyed instead of being dumped in a pile to spread possible fungus infection. No canna plants were grown on the place ,with the exception of the two mentioned, from seeds found in 1912 and none were grown on adjoining premises. An interesting, but lengthy experiment might be made with canna seeds by packing them in sand, using some kind of indestructible container such as a perforated concrete box that would exclude underground trespassers but allow a free circulation of moisture in the box. The seeds should be so arranged that each would be separated from its neighbor by an intervening layer of sand. The contrivance could then be buried and a part of the seeds tested for germination at intervals of five or ten years. Such an experiment would very likely show whether the peculiarities related above are constant or just mere freaks. PLANT NAMES AND THEIR MEANINGS—XV SCROPHULARIACEAE By WILLARD N. CLuve. O like the toad-flax in appearance as to be joint owner of some of the common names in the “snapdragon”’ (Antirrhinum majus). The first syllable in the name is as- sumed by many to refer to the way the corolla opens and shuts or “snaps” when pressed in just the right way, but Britten and Holland assert that the name is really sneb dragon which is literally “‘dragon’s snout”. It will not do, however, to jump to the hasty conclusion that the common name refers to the flower. An examination of a ripe seed-pod will disclose a truly dragonlike countenance with staring eyes, a broad mouth, and along snout. It is quite possible that this is the dragon’s snout THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 61 meant. Other names for the plant are “‘lion’s snap”, and “lion’s-” “‘tiger’s-”’ “‘dog’s-” “‘toad’s-” “‘calf’s-“* “rabbit’s-’’ and “‘dragon’s-” mouth’. “Bunny rabbits’ and “bull dogs” are but other names of similar reference. A fine little plant with flowers suggesting the head of an animal is Chelone glabra, commonly known as “‘turtle-head”’ but also called ‘“‘snake-head’’, ‘“‘cod-head”’, ‘‘fish-mouth” and “turtlebloom.”. The name of “‘shell flower” is quite as ap- propriate but this term is usually applied to an allied garden plant. An old name for our species is “balmony” a corrup- tion of “bald mony” derived in turn from baldemoin which is of obscure origin. The terms “bitter weed” and “‘salt-rheum weed” allude to real medicinal virtues. The genus Scrophularia, from which the family takes its name is represented on both sides of the Atlantic by plants so nearly identical in appearance that for a long time our plant was regarded as a variety of the other. The European plant, Scrophularia nodosa, is the one to which all the common names really belong, though our plant (S. marilandica) shares them. The leaves have certain medicinal virtues as the common name “heal-all” indicates and it is probable that the use of the plant in the cure of certain fig-shaped tumors gave to the genus its best-known common name and to the family the appellation in the vernacular by which it is universally recognized. The name “‘scrofula-plant”’, like the generic term, alludes to the re- putation of the plant in the cure of other ills and “pile-wort” is of the same nature. ‘‘Carpenter’s square”’, is a misapplica- tion of a name that seems by rights to belong to one of the mints (Prunella). Another member of the Scrophlariaceae of European ex- traction, has the distinction of possessing more than sixty com- mon names, which is probably the record in this respect. The 62 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST plant! is the well-known “foxglove” (Digitalis purpurea). It has always been more or less of a question whether the name is derived from the fox or from the fairies (folks). The bulk of the evidence seems to be in favor of the fairies as witness such names as “‘folk’s-glove”’, “fairy’s-glove”, fairy-bells”, “fairy-cap” and “‘fairy-thimbles”. Variations on the thimble idea are “‘witches thimbles’’, “lady’s thimbles”’, or simply “thimbles’’. It may be observed that the flowers are more like thimbles than gloves as the generic name suggests. Common names that recall those given the snapdragon are “rabbit- flower’, “lion’s mouth”, and “throatwort’’. The name of “pop-dock”’ probably refers to the mild explosions made by the corollas when suddenly compressed. Certain other plants closely related to the species just mentioned are sometimes placed in the genus Gerardia and sometimes in Dasystoma. The yellow flowers are sufficiently like foxglove blossoms in shape to be given the same common name though it is customary to prefix this with “false” to in- dicate the difference. Gerardia flava is the “yellow foxglove” or “downy false foxglove” and Gerardia Virginica is the “smooth false foxglove” or “golden oak”. The last mentioned name refers both to the flowers and the oaklike leaves. Gerardia pedicularis has accumulated a larger number of com- mon names. It is called “yellow gerardia’, “bushy gerardia”’, “lousewort” and ‘“‘fever-weed”. With reference to the divided leaves it is called ‘‘fern-leaved false foxglove” and “‘lousewort false foxglove”. The “lousewort” part of the name comes from the fact that the leaves are very much like the leaves of the true “lousewort” (Pedicularis) in appearance. In recent years this genus has received still another change of names and by some botanists is now known as Agalinis. When the change was made the common names of the plants were promptly THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 63 changed to “yellow agalinis”, ‘‘fern-leaved agalinis” etc, in this showing how uncommon a common name may become. — All the other species of Gerardia are so universally called by the generic name that this has virtually become a common name as well. Gerardia maritima is further distinguished by the names “seaside gerardia” and “salt marsh gerardia”. The woolly-leaved Seymeria macrophylla is sometimes known as “mullein false foxglove’’. The numerous species of Veronica are reputed to derive their names of “‘speedwell’”’ from the fact that the flowers fall and speed away so soon after opening. It will be remembered that a companion ship to the famous Pilgrim ship, Mayflower, was named Speedwell, and true to its name came to a speedy end. Thus narrowly did the speedwells miss canonization among our ‘‘national flowers”. To judge from the number of common names, English speedwell (Veronica chamaedrys), which has escaped to America, is the best known. ““Germander speedwell’’ as we have elsewhere shown, is derived from the specific name, while ‘‘God’s eye”, “angel-eye’, “‘bird’s- eye”, “cat’s-eye”’, “blue eye” and “eye-bright” refer to the color and brightness of the flowers. ‘‘Base vervain” distinguished this from certain species of true vervain (Verbena) while “‘forget- me-not” though quite appropriate is a name that by general consent is bestowed on the species of Myosotis. Veronica arvensis is the “corn speedwell” from its habit of growing in English corn (wheat) fields, V. Tourneforti is the “Byzantine speedwell’”’, as well as “bird’s-eye”’ and “‘cat’s- eye” and lV’. peregrina is the ‘“‘purslane speedwell” and “neck- weed”, the latter name alluding to its early use in the treatment of scrofulous swellings on the neck. The “field” or ““garden speedwell” is 7. agretis. This is also known as “germander chickweed” and “‘winter-weed”’. Veronica hederaefolia is the 6+ THE AMERICAN BOTANIST “ivy-leaved speedwell” and “ivy chickweed” from the shape of its leaves and “‘mother-of-wheat”’, “small henbit’’ and “‘winter- weed from its appearance or place of growth. Veronica serpyllifolia is the “thyme-leaved speedwell” and ‘Paul’s be- tony’. Concerning the latter name it may be said that the true betony is a mint (Betomca) and that there does not appear to be any indication as to who Paul was. The same name, how- ever, is applied to Veromica officinalis and this species is also called “ground hele” (heal?), “upland speedwell”, “‘fluellin” and “gypsy weed”. Veronica scutellata is the “American brooklime”’. ‘“‘Brooklime’’ is said to be a middle English name meaning brook and plant. The European brooklime is ’. bee- cabunga. Our species is also known as “blue-bells” and “wal- link”. Veronica anagallis-aquatica is the “water speedwell”, or “water pimpernel”. The last mentioned name is more com- monly referred to another little plant (Anagallis arvensis) of the primrose family which is much like it. Veronica Virginica is a species so different in habit from the majority of speedwells that it is often placed in a separate genus (Leptandra) or at any event, in a separate section of the group. It is most commonly known as “culver’s physic” or “culver-root” both of which appear to be fanciful names, for “culver” is an ancient term for dove and doves seldom are in need of medicine. The plant was once regarded as a desirable drug under the name of ‘“Beaumont’s-” or “Bowman’s-root.””. ““Brinton’s-root”’ is a name of similar import. It will be remembered that a species of Gillenia is also called ‘““Bowman’s-root”. The question as to who Bowman and Brinton were and how this came to be their root, is refer- red to my readers for answer. I have been unable to throw light on the subject. The plant is also called “tall speedwell” and “‘black-root”’, neither name needing an explanation. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 65 The Pentstemons are so well known to plant students that the generic name serves as the common name for most species. The name, however, is decidedly appropriate for the group which is practically the only one in the family to have five stamens, though there are many indications in the flowers of other genera that an additional stamen has been lost. The fifth stamen in the group under discussion is in most cases covered with hairs from which circumstance the name of “beard-tongue” arises. Pentstemon Jursutus is called “hairy beard-tongue”, which seems somewhat redundant until we learn that the adjective refers to the leaves and not to the stamen. Pentstemon acuminatus is called “St. Joseph's wand” without any very obvious application. The plants of the genus Pedicularis are commonly known as “louseworts” from a belief that these plants are concerned in the lousiness of cattle. Pedicularis Canadensis is most fre- quently called “wood betony” though the name belongs by right to species of Betonica. ‘‘Head betony” is a variation of the name which might indicate that the lousiness was not always confined to cattle though it probably refers to the heads of flowers. Tine name of “high heal-all’” distinguishes our plant from at least one of the accepted ‘‘heal-alls”, a species of Prunella to which it has a passing resemblance though it is much taller. The name of “‘beef-steak plant’, given by Britton and Brown is a puzzle. “Snaffles’’ alludes to the shape of the flowers which somewhat resemble part of the snaffle-bit for horses.. The word snaffle, itself, is an old word meaning beak or bill. From the shape of the flowers, also, Pedicularis Groen- landica is known as “red elephant”. Pedicularis palustris is the “purple pedicularis”, “‘marsh lousewort”, and “red rattle”, the last named being doubtless due to a confusion of this plant with the species of Rhinanthus. ‘The color of the flowers in 69 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST P. palustris might entitle it to be called “beefsteak plant”. “Cow’s wort” may be another name to indicate that cows be- come lousy when feeding where this plant grows. The true “rattle” is regarded as being Rhinanthus crista- gall. It is also known as “yellow rattle’, ‘‘rattle-box’’, “rattle bags’, and “‘penny rattle” being so called because the seeds rattle in the inflated pods at maturity. ‘‘Penny-grass’”’ and “money-grass”’ appear to be other variations of “penny rattle”. “Yellow cock’s-comb” of course alludes to the flowers and “cow-wheat” may be another name connecting this plant with the species cf Pedicularis though it may be added that this latter name is the only common name of Melampyrum lineare. The reason for applying this name to the latter plant is difficult to fathom. The species is an insignificant weed, in dryish woods and probably never comes to the attention of the cows. Anyone who has seen Castilleja in bloom will at once re- cognize the significance of such names as “‘scarlet painted-cup”’, “Indian pink”, “Indian paint-brush’, “red Indians’’, “‘bloody warrior’, “nose-bleed’”’, and “prairie tire’. The word Indian appearing in several of the names seems to be for the sole reason that the flowering bracts are bright colored and there- fore assumed to be pleasing to the Indian’s taste. ‘““Wicka- wee” sounds very much as if it might be the Indian name for the plant. It might be said in passing that the flowers of this genus are dull colored. The brilliance of the flower heads is due entirely to the bracts. The rather insignificant weeds included under the sonor- ous name of Gratiola were once thought, as the name indicates, to be especially favored medicinal plants, hence the name “herb of grace” applied to the species once known as Gratiola mon- niera but now called Bacopa monniera. Other names alluding to its supposed medicinal virtues are “water hyssop” and THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 67 “hedge hyssop’”. Gratiola Virginica is the ‘‘clammy hedge hyssop” and “golden pert’, the latter name of no obvious ap- plication. Pauloma tomentosa, formerly P. imperialis, is usually called ‘empress tree”, but “‘princess tree’? would be somewhat nearer the facts since the species was named for the daughter of a Russian king. The name of “blue catalpa’”’ is expressive, though the catalpa belongs to another family. Our plant is sometimes called “neckweed”’ because reported to be useful in curing scrofula. In the Southern States the tree is generally known as “cotton-wood” in allusion to its extremely brittle branches. ‘Napoleon’, reported from Virginia, is an attempt of the illiterate to use the generic name. As often befalls plants that are either very conspicuous or quite inconspicuous a number of species in the Srophulariaceae have but a single common name, if, indeed, they have any at all. Thus we find Schwalbea Americana universally called “chaff-seed” and IJ/santhes dubia called “false pimpernel’’. Limosella aquatica, from its habit of growing in the mud, is known s “mudwort”’ or “mudweed”. Buchnera Americana is called “blue hearts’’ for no obvious characteristic. Collinsva verna is appropriately named “innocence” and “‘blue-eyed Mary”, from the bi-colored violet-like flowers, Mimulus ring- ens is everywhere known as “monkey-flower” though it re- quires a great stretch of the imagination to see in the flower any likeness to the face of a monkey. An allied plant of our gardens is called ‘“‘musk flower” or “musk plant’’ from its odor. Euphrasia arctica and E. Americana are both known as “eye- bright” doubtless from the shape of the flowers and Odontites rubra, a European weed rather uncommon on this side of the ocean is known as “red eye-bright”’. <( NOTE and COMMENT [0 Cactus CuLTuRE.—lIt is strange that those interested in the growing of cacti have not thought it worth while to study the plants in their native habitat in order to discover what kind of treatment suits them best. The cactus, like the donkey, can exist’ under extraordinary hardships and a good many people have jumped to the conclusion that they need such conditions to thrive. Both, however, readily respond to better treatment. The cactus lives in the desert simply because it finds there the conditions that will protect it from other forms of vegetation. When it grows elsewhere, more luxuriant plants soon over- shadow it. The desert is its protection. But even in the desert, it is not so badly treated by nature. During the grow- ing season it is drenched by rains almost daily. When it is dry and not growing, it is no more to be pitied than is the rose when it throws off its leaves and stands with bare twigs during the winter. If you want your cacti to grow, therefore, do not spare the water. One must remember, however that cacti grow in sandy or rocky places where the water runs off immediately, so look well to your drainage. With good drain- age and plenty of water during the hotter parts of the year most remarkable results may be obtained. One specimen so treated made more growth in a single summer than it had made in the previous ten years combined. Two joints of another from Florida made nearly fifty new joints and bloom- ed the first season. Hundreds of others did nearly as well. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 69 It is interesting to know, also, that when the plants are given the right conditions, a large number will live out of doors all winter even as far north as Chicago. Cacti from Santa Fe and from the middle of the Painted Desert have survived winter thus when the temperature went to 25° below zero. cacti of your region therefore is to kick specimens into a com- so long as it is exceptionally well drained. They will grow in ashes, sand, or very stony soil and in the wild are often found in the “dobe” soil from which the sun-dried bricks for building are made. In passing it may be mentioned that the city of Joliet now has one of the best collections of cacti in the northern States having had collectors in the field for the past four years. The curators now feel warranted in offering to name specimens for others. All that is needed to know the cacti of your region therefore is to kick specimens into com- mon fiber box and mail to the editor, who will turn them over to the proper authorities. No packing is needed. except to keep them from rattling about in the box. PHLOX STELLARIA.—Who knows where Phlox stellaria can be found? The plant is very much like Phlox bifida in appearance, the principal difference being that the corolla lobes of P. bifida are cleft down to the middle while those of P. stellaria are merely deeply notched into oblong lobes. This lat- ter species is also regarded as smoother than the other, but the plants from Grand Tower, Jackson County, Illinois, reported by Professors Trelease and MacDougal are pubescent. Both plants are species of the Middle West with fairly limited ranges. Gray reports P. stellaria from the cliffs of the Ken- tucky river, southern Illinois and barrens of Kentucky, but a subscriber who searched such cliffs as he could find along the Kentucky river failed to discover the plant and explorations in the vicinity of Lavergne, Tennessee, from whence Gat- 70) THE AMERICAN BOTANIST tinger reported it, was also barren of results. If any of our readers know of the plant, we would be glad to hear from them. Is there such a species as Phlox stellaria or is it a mere variation of P. bifida? SNEEZEWEED IN OREGON. I wish to record the finding of the “‘sneezeweed” Helenium puberulum at Brownsville, Oregon. ‘This is an extension of the range of this plant approximately three hundred miles northward, its previous northern limit according to competent botanists, being in Humbolt County, California. The plant as I find it here is quite rare, but seems to be quite widely distributed.—Leslie L. Haskin. IpAHo WeEEpDs.—I have remarked before upon the large number of old world weeds in the intermountain region. I have two new ones to report, of more than ordinary in- terest. Atriplex laciniata, a native of Europe not reported before in the United States. This is well established here (Pocatello, Idaho) as I found it in considerable quantities in several places in vacant lots on the east side. This section has been inhabited by Greeks and Italians for many years so the connection is easy to establish. This plant is called local- ly ‘pink weed” and occurs with A. spatiosa which it some- what remotely resembles. The other plant is Lancisia coron- opifolia, a South African plant extensively introduced on the Pacific coast but not collected inland before. It is a water plant spreading in the ditches in North Pocatello. It is a member of the Composite family distinguished by the con- spicuously sheathing petioles. It grows in prostrate mats, rooting at the nodes, in the mud on the banks, or upright, taller and more succulent in the water amid the long grasses. —Mrs. M. E. Soth. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 71 GROWING PLANTS IN CLOsED JARs.—During the past summer, [ had my attention called to a case of growing flowering plants indoors without any care being taken of them. Plants of partridge berry (Mitchella repens) were collected in west central Michigan in August, 1921, brought to Chicago and placed in a glass aquarium jar about eight inches in diameter, along with some of the soil from the place where the plants were obtained. A moderate amount of water was put in the jar and the top put on over a_ rubber ring, sealing the jar very nearly if not quite air tight. The jar was kept in an apartment without at any time being ex- posed to the direct sun. During the winter it was kept above a radiator, which was usually turned off, and during the sum- iver it was allowed to remain close to the house wall on a heavily shaded porch. When seen by me the plants were very thrifty and look- ed very close to normal, although it had had neither sun nor water for somewhat over a year. ‘This particular specimen had not flowered, but I was told that in previous years specimens similarly treated had flowered and fruited under these conditions. As the previous specimens had been thrown out late in spring, it is not possible to state how long such a plant might be maintained under such conditions. This might prove a useful hint for someone to have green things growing in his house even under apparently most unfavor- able circumstances. ‘The partridge berry seems to be very suitable, possibly because it naturally grows in deep woods, receiving direct sun only early in the spring or in the fall when the trees have lost their leaves —Frank C. Gates. (In the Fern Bulletin, vol. 20, page 75 is am account of a fern that had lived for more than eight years in a tightly sealed bottle five by three inches in size. Possibly ferns are more THE AMERICAN BOTANIST “NI bo susceptible to this treatment than flowering plants, but! it now remains for somebody to can a number of our smaller plants and report results. Think of an entire canned garden! It is worth trying.—Ep. ) Man’s PARASITES. Although man furnishes the most striking illustrations of the ease with which both the parasi- tic and host roles may be assumed by a social animal, his capacities in this direction have been but little appreciated by the sociologists. Our bodies, our domestic animals and food plants, dwellings, stored foods, clothing and refuse support such numbers of greedy organisms, and we parasitize one another to such an extent, that the biologist marvels how the race can survive. We not only tolerate but even foster in our midst whole parasitic trades, institutions, castes, and nations, hordes of bureaucrats, grafting politicians, middle- men, profiteers,; usurers, a vast and varied assortment of criminals, hoboes, defectives, prostitutes, white-slavers, and other purveyors to antisocial proclivities, in a word so many non-productive, food-consuming, and space-occupying para- sites that their support absorbs nearly all the energy of the free members of society. This condition is, of course, re- sponsible for the small amount of free creative activity in many nations. Biology has only one great categorical imper- ative to offer us and that is: be neither a parasite nor a host and try to dissuade others from being parasites or hosts.— W. M. Wheeler in Scienticfic Monthly. Cupan Yucca..—An item in one of the horticultural journals mentions the formation of a company in Havana for the production of starch from the Cuban yucca. This recalls the fact that the plant called yucca in, Cuba is what is more familiarly known as the cassava plant (Manthat utilis- stma). This is undoubtedly the original yucca. The name iy § y THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 73 has since become attached to a very different group of plants of our Southwest through an error of old Gerarde, author of the “Great Herbal”. Tue ANomaALous LicHEN.—The lichen is the only living object in the world that is entirely vegetable without being a plant! In the vegetable kingdom new individuals come into existence as the result of the union of an egg and a sperm derived from plants like themselves, but the lichen has no parents. It does not grow from a fertilized egg and does not conform to our ideas of a species. Practically everybody is aware that lichens are composed of two very different kinds of plants—an alga and a fungus—which live in partner- ship and from what might, by some stretch of our definitions, be described as a physiological species in contradistinction to the more usual kind. In this association of alga and fungus a new plant-body is formed that is quite different in appear- ance from either member of the partnership when growing alone. The fungus partner in the lichen forms spores which may develop into new fungus plants but if they come into contact with the right kind of algae they produce lichens. A lichen once formed reproduces vegetatively by means of soredia which consist of alga cells entwined by strands ot the fungus. On many lichens one, may find tiny plate-like projections heaped with these minute packages of fungus and alga ready to be blown away by the wind. The lichen is particularly resistent to the influences that hinder the growth of other plants and in consequence is often the only form of life present in deserts, on mountain tops and other inhos- pitable places. Lichens are also among the most variable of living things. They range in form from microscopic dots on exposed rocks to crustlike masses, leafy thalluses or even bushy forms. They are most luxurious, of course, in the 74 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST tropics and there one species attains a length of more than thirty feet! Their color is perhaps most frequently gray- green, but it may be brilliant red or yellow, dead ‘black or pure white. They live on rocks, earth, the trunks of trees or even on the leaves, and one species is reported to be truly aquatic. Several kinds are of economic importance, among them the reindeer moss, the chief food plant of grazing animals in the far north. Several others have been used as food for man in an emergency. The manna of the Israelites is supposed to have been a lichen. — Still other species have been known from hoary antiquity as a source of dyes.. The familiar litmus so commonly used as an indicator of acids and alkalies is obtained from a lichen. Last but not least of the lichen’s good qualities is the effect it has upon the rocks, steadily breaking them down into soil in which other plants can grow. OrIGIN oF LirE.—The only living things on our planet that can change carbon dioxide and water into foods are the plants. They are able to do this by means of minute green bodies in the leaves and other parts which turn the energy in sunlight into a form which they can use. Recently it has been discovered that the ultra-violet rays of “light” can change car- bon dioxide and water into sugar just as the green bodies or chloroplasts do. Here we have an instance of the formation of food upon which beginning plants might live without the assistance of the plant green. It has always been assumed that the first plants were green, but with a source of food pres- ent, this would not be necessary. Plant food, however, is not protoplasm. ‘his latter substance, which is the only part of a plant that may be said to be alive, is far more complex than simple sugars, but it is reported that even this may be formed if the necessary mineral salts are present under conditions of- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 75 ten existing on the earth. From this one may draw the con- clusion, that the first plant may have received its start in life through some such process. GROWING EASTER Lites FROM SEEDS.—Several lilies are known as Easter lilies from their use at Easter, but the one usually referred to when the florist uses this term is a white- flowered species from Japan known as Lilium longiflorum. The common white or Easter lily of northern gardens is Lil- ium candidum, but it blooms too late for Easter and is more frequently called Madonna lily or Annunciation lily. This latter species is quite hardy but L. longiflorwm is less resist- ent. It is, however, hardy as far north as Washington and experiments made recently indicate that it might be profita- ble to grow it out-doors as a commercial enterprise. Seeds sown in the greenhouse early in January produced plants that were ready to go into the ground by April or May and several of these flowered before the autumn frosts. A few pro- duced as high as a dozen blossoms on a stem. At the end of summer the bulbs measured from six to eight inches in circumference and when removed to the greenhouse gave as good blossoms as those grown from imported bulbs. Bulb- lets from which a new stock of bulbs may be produced are found on the stem near the surface of the ground and even the scales broken from the old bulbs when digging may be planted like seeds and will soon produce new bulblets. Sec- tions of the stem, treated as layers, wilf also produce bulb- lets. If desired the old bulbs may be left in the ground over winter but they are generally taken up, potted, and brought into bloom. They have been held in cold storage for at least two years and then have given a good account of themselves in producing flowers. 76 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST INSECTS AND PoLeN.—In general, insect pollinated flowers are showy and wind pollinated flowers inconspicuous, but the insects often fail to play the game according to the rules and visit many flowers that seem properly designed to be pollinated by the wind. As a matter of fact the abund- ant pollen of various wind pollinated flowers must often at- tract insects that normally visit more showy specimens. Nor should it be forgotten that pollen as well as nectar is food for insects. A a recent meeting of the Torrey Botanical Club, O. P. Medsger mentioned the fact that bees often visit the blossoms of timothy grass for the pollen. He also re- ported that mining bees, living on the edge of the New Jer- sey marshes, collect much pollen which they fashion into balls half an inch in diameter. This is used as food by the developing larvae. The speaker was of the opinion that our native plants are mostly pollinated by native insects and that honey-bees, themselves introduced from Europe, are the chief agents in pollinating the flowers of introduced plants. OrcHID SEEDS.—Darwin held that in general, plants which produce a large number of small seeds are lower in organiza- tion than those which produce a smaller number of better- equipped seeds. Orchids, however, are regarded as the highest type of Monocotyledons and yet their seeds are among the smallest produced by flowering plants and are so incomplete as to lack an embryo. Darwin estimated that a single seed-pod of a species of Cephalanthera contained more than six thous- and seeds and that a single flower spike of Orchis mascula contained 186,000. This, however, is far short of what orchids can do at their best for Fritz Muller estimated that a single capsule of a Mazillaria yielded 1,756,440 seeds. One reason for this great profusion of seeds seems to be that orchids depend upon a fungus partner for satisfactory growth THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 77 and since the fungus is not present in every soil, a great num- ber of small seeds enables the species to search the world thoroughly for it in a way that they could not do if they pos- sessed fewer and larger seeds. Acip Soiis.—Only a short time ago, no attention was paid to the effects upon plant growth of acids in the soil. Now it is known that the presence or absence of such substances profoundly affects the distribution of plants. The principal acids that are regarded as rendering the soil sour are acetic, citric and lactic. Contrary to common opinion, it has been found that the majority of plants favor a slightly acid soil. It is, of course, impossible for the ordinary plants to thrive in soils as sour as those favorable to the growth of heaths, pitcher-plants, and bog-plants generally. In artificial bogs and other plantings of acid-soil plants, tannic acid has often been employed to give a proper acidity to the soil but since acetic, lactic, and citric acids have been found to have the same effect it might be possible to produce the required acid conditions by the application of vinegar, lemon juice or sour milk. OWNERS OF COMPLETE SETS.—Since the last report ad- ditional sets of this magazine have been distributed as fol- lows: 69. F. L. Green, Greenwood, Ontario, Canada. 70. Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. 71. Herbier Boissier, Geneva, Switzerland. “72. Dr. Charles Vetter, 67 West 12 St., New. York. 73. Wm. E. Brodersen, 1917 Ellis St., San Francisco, Calif. Mr. Green’s set is the second Canadian set and that of the Herbier Boissier the first complete set in Europe. There are now eighteen sets remaining and the price has been ad- “I oe) THE AMERICAN BOTANIST vanced to $17 for the first 25 volumes or $21 for sets complete to the present year. CATCHING Co1p.—There are various ways of collecting plants, and catching cold is one of them! When we used to speak of “catching cold” we thought that in some way our trouble was caused by a lowering of the tempature, but it is now pretty well understood that we really do catch a “cold” germ, a small plant which proceeds to live upon our tissues and causes the sore throat, cough and other symptoms that accompany a “‘cold in the head.’ One of the easiest ways of catching cold is by being infected from bedding, mufflers, and articles of winter clothing that have been packed away and in which the germs lie snugly concealed during the sum- mer ready to get in their deadly work when these articles are brought into use again during the first cold snap of au- tumn. In packing away winter clothing, therefore, it is well to first rid them of their plant inhabitants. This may readily be done by sprinkling the clothing with formaldehyde which may be bought at the nearest drug store for a small sum. For- maldehyde, or its weaker solution, formalin, is the substance the wily milkman sometimes puts into the milk to discourage another small plant which otherwise would sour it. It was recently reported that cold in the head is the most popular in- door disease in America. More than a hundred million peo- ple indulge in it annually. A subscription to this magazine, plus a nickle’s worth of formaldehyde, will, however, enable anyone to avoid the plant, escape the doctor, and live happily ever after. AMERICAN ‘Turaps.—We have depended upon Holland adjacent countries for our tulip bulbs for so long that the impression has become general that marketable tulips can be produced nowhere else. It has long been assumed that there THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 79 is something in the soil or climate of such regions that ren- ders them peculiarly suited to the production of bulbous plants. That this is an error is shown by a recent Bulletin (No. 1082) from the United Statess Department of Agriculture in which David Griffiths gives a survey of tulip growing in America. Tulips as good as any that are imported have been grown to a limited extent in Michigan, Vermont, Virginia, California, Oregon and Washington. It is apparent, therefore, that near- ly any region with a rich friable soil and not too warm will produce good bulbs. The most extensive experiments in tulip growing in this country have been made in the vicinity of Bellingham, Washington, where the Government maintains a station for this work. The bulletin states that any full- grown tulip bulb is certain to produce a flower if handled properly and that the cause of unsatisfactory bulbs is to be found in careless handling of the bulbs after they are dug. As is so frequently the case, ripening continues in the bulbs for weeks after they are dug. Under ideal conditions more than 150,000 bulbs large enough to flower have been pro- duced on a single acre. The tulip has few if any diseases and can be grown to maturity in a single season. oK EDITORIAL : The August number of this magazine may be a few days late, owing to the fact that the Editor expects to be conduct- ing a botanical exploring party across the Painted Desert of Arizona in July. The party will visit the Pueblo Indians, the cliff ruins, Navajo Mountain and the Rainbow Bridge and hope to bring back a rather complete collection of the plants. The region is one that has never been explored botanically but previous trips have shown the flora to be most interesting. If any of our readers care to join the party, we can find place for one or two more. ‘Transportation part of the way is by horse- back and sleeping accomodations consist of a soft bed in the sand. Food will be plain but sufficient. That the trip will not be too strenuous may be assumed from the fact that nearly half the party are women. The cost, aside from the railway fare, is negligible. rig Each year a thousand or more new readers ask for sample copies of this magazine. If all subsequently subscribed our circulation would justify a much larger magazine than we publish at present, but unfortunately they do not. As a mat- ter of fact it requires a rather philosophical type of mind to appreciate the matter we publish. | Without attempting to compliment our readers we must nevertheless add that with- out a single exception, all who are personally known to us are above the average in intelligence. After thinking the matter over we are disposed to think that this is also a compliment to us. Whenever we find a new reader with the type of mind THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 81 indicated, he subscribes as a matter of course and if he re- news his subscription he rarely fails to continue with us for an extended term. We have many subscribers who have been with us for twenty years and at the present-time perhaps five percent are paid up to the end of 1927. More than half of our subscribers are on our permanent list, having ordered the magazine sent until we are notified to stop. If any of those who have recently joined us think well enough of it to wish it continued we suggest that an order to transfer their names to the permanent list does not pledge them to subscribe for more than two years and does secure the magazine at re- duced rates. Further particulars will be found on our regu- lar subscription blanks. At this time we also take the oppor- tunity to solicit more short notes from our readers. We are of the opinion that more and shorter articles are desirable and shall endeavor to make this change in our contents as soon as such matter can be secured. BOOKS AND WRITERS Fire in the printing plant of the Guide to Nature, late in February, destroyed the stock of paper, cuts and other ma- terial belonging to the magazine. * * * ‘There was no in- surance. * * * Editor Bigelow says that this is his first real fire though he has been under fire many times. * * * This reminds us that Southern legislators are making it hot for the evolutionists. * * * Texas and Oklahoma have joined South Carolina and Kentucky in putting an end to ev- olution by law. * * * Now if they would only legislate the boll wevil out of existence. * * * Just like Volsted exterminated the yeast plant! * * * Facts are stubborn 82 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST things and refuse to be bound by man-made laws. * * * So is and does evolution. * * * However, if we remem- ber correctly, Mr. Noah’s family give rise to all the different kinds of peopie on this planet. * * * Kentucky ought to do something about this! * * * It sounds just like evo- lution. * * * Somebody is always obliging enough to do the thinking for the rest of the world. * * * A newly appointed Commisioner of Indian Affairs is devoting himself to the religion of the Indians. * * * Expects to convert them by law. * * * He says the religious dances of the Indians is distasteful to him and they really must not do it. * * * And vet the Turk has been accused of being reli- oe * giously narrow-minded! * * The new Nature Maga- zine has come up to expectations. * * * Its remanie ably well illustrated’ and presents the showier side of nature very attractively. * * * Jtis bound to be popular? * same Some of the nature books are coming back. * * * Mac- millan’s have issuer Peterson’s “How to Know Wild Fruits.” + * * This is the only book on the subject: 2a) ame It costs $1.75 and is worth it:: * *.* There arevapene 450 plants on Santa Catalina Island and L. W. Nuttall and C. F. Millspaugh have told about them in a publication of 297 pages, issued by the Field Museum. * * * They found two young plants of the “California Poppy” on the beach and pronounced them a new species which they named in honor of a prominent chewing-gum manufacturer. * * * Yes, they did! * * * There are some truly remarkable plants on Santa Catalina and somebody should give us a less tech- nical account of them. * * * Anybody who has never seen the Joemma Bulletin has still something in the botanical line to look forward to. * * * You can get a copy free by addressing Joe Smith, Longbranch, Wash. * * * THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 83 The address of Eva Kenworthy Gray who is publishing the Flower Journal is 32nd and Woolman Avenues, San Diego. * * * Several issues have appeared and the publication shows indications of surviving. * * * “The Fern Lovy- ers’ Companion” is probably the most successful fern book ever written. * * * It has been taken over by Little Brown & Co. of Boston, at a price calculated to make the au- thors of all other fern-books envious. * * * We again congratulate the author. * * * The Olio Journal of Science has changed from nine numbers a year to bi-monthly. * * * The January issue begins the twenty-third volume. * * * “The Field and Camp Notebook” is a fat little book designed to make out-door note-taking easy. * * * It is by Comstock and Vinal and_ published — by the Comstock Publishing Company, Utica, N. Y. * * * There are many fine drawings of birds, flowers, mammals, insects, etc., outlines for studying them, and star-maps for the different months. * * * Most of the outlines are ex- cellent but we were disappointed in the one for studying an animal. * * * We tried it on the earthworm and it would not work. * * * Wonder if they could have meant this outline for the study of mammals? Walter Stager’s “Tall Bearded Iris” is probably the first book devoted exclusively to the iris that has appeared in Amer- ica. As its name indicates, it deals with only one branch of the Iris Family—the group commonly known as German Irises—but since this is the group from which most of the garden irises are derived the book may be said to cover that part of the subject of interest to iris growers. The author’s sub-title is ‘A Flower of Song”’ and this is justified by some 200 quotations referring to the iris, some of which run to 84 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST more than a page each. A chapter is given to the origin of the names, another to the use of the iris in art and trade, and then follow more practical chapters on structure, planting, cultivating, propagating, insect and fungus enemies, etc. The book ends with a rather extensive descriptive list of the bet- ter varieties and includes a list of standard and recently intro- duced varieties graded by the recent “iris symposium”. The book is exceptionally well printed and has a fair number of illustrations. All iris fanciers will, of course, add it to their lists. It is published by Madison Cooper, Calcium, N. Y. at $2.00. The book of “Hardy Perennials’ recently issued by ‘Charles Scribner’s Sons, is by a British author, A. J. MacSelf, the founder of the National Hardy Plant Society of England and naturally reflects somewhat the British view-point. The first part of the book contains seven chapters on preparing the soil, planting, cultivating, and the like, all of which is use- ful and up-to-date. The larger share of the volume is taken up with “Plants Worth Growing” an alphabetically arranged list of all the hardy perennials commonly grown in Great Britain. The notes on the different species are not of the stereotyped botanical kind, but appear to have been made from the author’s personal experience with the plants. They consist of opinions as to their value for cultivation, special ways of growing them, the selection of the best varieties, and notes on color, form, floriferousness and the like. The book, of course, can not be unreservedly recommended to beginners in America, but it is an excellent presentation of how the plants are treated in English gardens, from which all can learn much. In make-up it suggests Thomas’ “Hardy Peren- nials” and since this latter volume is now out of print the new one should be especially welcome. It contains upwards of 200 ——— THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 85 pages and is illustrated by 8 colored plates and others in black-and-white. The price is $2.75. The greatest objection to many books intended for the identification of the trees, is that the keys they contain are too frequently based on characters to be found for only part of the year. For instance, a key based on flowers or leaf charac- ters is of little use in winter, while one that is concerned principally with fruits is hopeless in spring. In a re-issue of Dr. John H. Schaffner’s “Field Manual of the Trees’, the objections have been met by the inclusion of three keys; one to the trees in the winter condition, one for the summer con- dition, and a third after the common style of botanical keys which takes advantage of any salient character. Following the keys, all the species north of Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, and east of the Prairie region, are described in un- technical language with additional keys to the species of each genus. In estimating the radical or conservative tendencies of tree books, one may always depend upon the treatment given the genus Crataegus. In the present volume 52 species are recognized, while from essentially the same region Brit- ton’s Manual lists 31 and Gray’s 65. Incidentally, for once, at least, Britton escapes being regarded as a radical. In ad- dition to a description of the species, the book includes the uses to which they may be put. The nomenclature is Amer- ica’s own private brand which even so good a book as this cannot make respectable. The volume is published by R. G. Adams & Co., Columbus, Ohio. The series of “Open Country Books” recently inaugu- rated by the Macmillan Company, New York, is described as “a continuing company of genial little books about the out-of- doors.” It leads off with a book about the Apple Tree by L. 86 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST H. Bailey, the editor of the series, followed by books about the cow, the vegetable garden, and vacation camping, with promise of many more of similar nature. Dr. Bailey’s book might be described as a series of essays on the history, botany, cultivation, propagation, and uses of the apple. From the first chapter which describes a land “where there is no apple tree” to the seventeenth and final chapter on the “appraisal of the apple tree’ the book is full of information told in an attractive way. The apple is one of the oldest of cultivated fruits. Charred remains of diminutive apples have heen found on the sites of the prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. The apple seems to have originally grown wild, in central Eu- rope but has since followed man to all the cooler parts of the world and now is found wild in many of them. It is so much a part of the landscape that the author devotes one chapter to this phase of his subject. The book is well worth reading, not only by lovers of out-doors but by commercial growers of the fruit as well. The price is $1.50. It perhaps needs a peculiar type of mind to get excited over the study of grasses. The flowering parts are so unlike the flowers of better known plants that the novice is much per- plexed at beginning. In Agnes Chase's “First Book of Grass- es,” issued by the Macmilan Company, New York, the author well says that it is impossible to make a book on how to know the grasses that may be used without mental effort, but those who really want to study these plants no longer have the excuse that they lack directions for beginning. In this new grass book, a very clear account is given of the puzzling structure of the flowers accompanied by many of the excellent drawings for which the author is noted. ‘The book begins with the simplest and plainest forms and carries the student on through a series of twelve lessons to the more complex variations from hee * THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 87 the type, and since the identification of grasses is based al- most entirely on the flowers, the student is soon in possession of the information needed to make the work easy. As a mat- ter of fact, grass flowers, which at first seem so complicated are in reality very simple. They lack the showy calyx and coralla of more familiar flowers but stamens and carpels are like those of ordinary flowers and the chaffy scales mixed with them may be referred to the bracts that are present in so many other flower-clusters. Using this book to start with and a good manual of the grasses for reference, it would seem as if anybody might soon become acquainted with the grasses of his region. The most sumptuous volume on the pear ever issued in America is without doubt the volume published by New York State in its series of Fruit Monographs. Previous volumes have dealt with apples, plums, cherries, grapes and peaches. The present issue, like the others, is a quarto profusely illus- trated by colored plates. The six hundred pages of text were prepared by Dr. U. P. Hedrick and a corps of assistants and comprises about everything known about the pear. Though entitled “The Pears of New York” it is really an account of the pears of the world and as the preface observes it aims to make a complete record of the development of the pear wherever cultivated up to the present time. The evolution- ary history of the pear is involved in some obscurity. It is a fruit of northern origin and did not appear in civilized gar- dens as early as other fruits. It is said that the bible fails to mention this fruit and that it has no name in the Sanscrit or Hebrew. The twenty or more wild species of pears are all natives of Eurasia. The pear genus, however, is of much wider distribution. There are at least sixty species in it, among them several that are American, such as the mountain 88 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST ash and the choke-berry. ‘None of those we regard as true pears have been found on any part of the Western Hemisphere, or south of the equator in the Old World. Several species are found in Korea, China, Japan and Persia and the others in western Europe. There is great variation in the size and quality of the fruit; one species illustrated in the book has fruits no longer than grapes. Only three of these wild pears seem to have been drafted for garden use. Of these the most important is Pyrus communis of southern Europe and Asia. Pyrus nivalis of southern Europe and P. serotina from China and Japan are the others. From these by hybridiza- tion have sprung several hundred varieties, few of which have sufficient merit to be of value. Owing to difficulties that attend keeping and marketing pears, this fruit is not as extensively grown in America as are apples and_ peaches. The present volume ends the series of books devoted to tree fruits, but it is intimated that in time we may have a new series dealing with small fruits. The books thus far issued are invaluable as reference works and unsurpassed in beauty, ac- curacy, and general excellence.. After all, where is the flower lore? for the first book, not the last, should contain the poetry of flowers. The Nat- ural System may tell us of the value of a plant in medicine or the arts, or for food, but neither it nor the Linneau to any great extent tell us its chief value and significance to man. There will be pages about some fair flower’s qualities for food or medicine but perhaps not a sentence about its significance to the eye (as if the cowslip were better for greens than for yellows) about what all children and flower-lovers gather flowers for.—HeEnry D. THOREAU. ms s- - to be found in the country. 4 | will be no two alike. | ed from the first of August until late fall. ' year No, 1 plants, FRYER’S NEW IRIS I have thousands of mixed tall beard- ed iris seedlings that I am offering in a mixture for $6.00 per 100 plants, and will give 50 or more varieties in each order for 100 plants. As I am not naming one in 1000 you are liable to get something good, and the pleasure you will derive in watching them bloom will repay you for the small sum - invested. Iris can be planted from the last of June until late fall, but if planted in July and August many of them will bloom the following season. f I have a fine stock of Delphinium, and believe there are no better varieties I am offer- ing them at $2.50 per dozen for two and unless it is a large plant that has been divided there They can be plant- If to be sent prepaid add one cent per plant to the third zone, and two cents per - plant beyond that. My new catalog showing views of flowers in the field and other objects of interest free on request. WILLIS E. FRYER Mantorville - Minnesota Biss miss SPECIALIST GROWERS OF THE PEONY and IRIS Our comprehensive price list covers the better of the standard varieties at nominal prices and the rare superfine varieties of recent French, English and American intro- duction. Clarence W. Hubbarp GROWER OF dd PEONIES & IRISES AR 6144 Lakewood Ave. CHICAGO EFCOLOGY _ Devoted to all Forms of life in relation to environment i ESTABLISHED 1920 QUARTERLY Official Publication of the - Ecological Society of America _ Subscription, $3 a Year Back Volumes $3.50 post free Sample Copy on request TEN PER CENT DISCOUNT on Volumes One and Two will be offered to all institutions plac- ing a subscription on the “till forbidden” basis. This OFFER HOLDS GOOD ONLY WHEN THE ORDER IS PLACED WITH THE BUSINESS MANAGER DIRECT, and not &. through any agency. _ Address all communications to ECOLOGY BROOKLYN BOTANIC GARDEN BROOKLYN N. Y. -~ naw, { ae 2. eS eee eee SPRAYING is as a Essential as Fertilizing — q Successful cultivation demands a knowledge of the habits of plant insects and diseases, and the proper remedies for their con- ic trol. a APHINE, an effective spray remedy against all sap-sucking | insects, infesting flowers, fruits and vegetables, is free of the dis- agreeable odors and features of most insecticides. It invigorates ~ plant life and is unexcelled as a wash for decorative plants. ~ Aphine will not injure the most tender flower or foliage. ; FUNGINE, an excellent remedy for mildew, rust and other blights. It is readily soluble in water and contains no sedi- | ment. Fungine does not stain the foliage, but cleanses it. a VERMINE, a soil sterilizer and vermicide. It destroys cut, a wire, eel and grub worms, maggots, root lice and ants, and will | protect your gardens and lawns from ravages under the soil. : There is but one convincing way for you to become familiar i with the merits of these products and that is to try them out for | yourself. It will prove worth while. a Sold by dealers in various sizes. AVDUUELI LETTE APHINE MANUFACTURING CO. MADISON, N. J. ‘ol. 29. No.3 .- Whole Number 138 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST AUGUST, 1923 40 Gents a Copy; $1.50 a Year WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILLINOIS The America Botanist A Quarterly Journal 8f Economic @ Ecological Botany WILLARD N. CLUTE, EDITOR 4 SUBSCRIPTIONS.—The subscription price of this magazine is $1.50 a year or $2.50 for two years, payable strictly in advance. The magazin e is not sent after subscriptions expire. Personal checks on small or dis- tant banks must contain ten cents for collection fees. The magazine is issued on the 20th of February, May, August and November. e WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO., PUBLISHERS 207 WHITLEY AVENUE, JOLIET, ILL. Entered as Mail Matter of the Second Class at the Post Office, Joliet, Ill. EDUCATIONAL STEREOGRAPHS — In natural color, illustrating western wild flowers, forest trees, geology, ~~ astronomy, mineralogy, western mountains, deserts, etc. Just the thing ~~ for teachers and nature lovers and for gifts. E* Write for complete information and price list of desired subject, or Ea send 25 cents for a sample. ss We also sell lantern slides at a very low rate. W. SCOTT LEWIS 2500 Beachwood Drive HOLLYWOOD, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA NEW OR NOTEWORTHY American Fern Journal PLANTS is the unique title of an equally unique catalogue which offers for A Quarterly devoted to Ferns and Fern Allies, pub- * sale NATIVE AMERICAN lished by SHRUBS AND PLANTS for the ; q enrichment of your garden. Su- The American Fern Society i? perior nursery-grown and acclimat- 4 ed stock, backed by more than a Subscriptions $1.25 a year 7 uarter century experience. | ? ya Sent free to all members” You will enjoy reading this lit- of The American Fern | tle book; there is nothing else like ss it; most of the plants cannot be Society. Annual dues $1. obtained elsewhere. Write for Life membership $25.00. our copy today. vv. y PY Send for free sample copy. D. M. ANDREWS’ NURSERY a BOULDER, COLO. E. J. WINSLOW, Auburndale, Mas THE CENT jz CENTURY PLANT hon LIBRARY THE AMERICAN BOTANIST How deepening bright, like mounting flame doth burn The goldenrod upon a thousand hills! This is the autumn’s flower and to my soul A token fresh of beauty and of life, And life’s supreme delight. Richard Watson Gilder. THE CENTURY PLANT By Mrs. O. A. Bupp. HE accompanying illustration shows the species of cen- tury plant that is found growing wild in the northern part of Arizona. The blossoms, which are reddish-yellow, are very similar to banana flowers. They have no fragrance but keep perfectly for several weeks. It ts the custom here to bring in a blooming specimen from the hills and fasten it to some post down town to give visitors an opportunity to see this curious plant in bloom. In Florida the natives claim that the plant must be a hun- dred years old to bloom, but in Arizona they bloom in less time. How old the plant must be I cannot say, but I can say that as soon as the flowers fade the plant begins to die and the huge stem dries out completely. The dead stem is brought to town and sawed into two-inch slices. This makes wonderful pin-cushions. Needles and pins remain ever bright and sharp in this convenient cushion. After the stem dies, a new shoot from the root, which looks like a neighboring plant, grows with renewed vigor. There are often a dozen such plants in a clump on the hillside OUR COMMON DANDELIONS By Ernst A. BEssky HIRTY years ago but one species of dandelion was com- mon in the Northeastern quarter of our country, Leon- todon taraxacum, as it was called by Linnaeus, or Taraxacum officinale, as many books still call it without regard to the un- doubted priority of the Linnaean name. About fifteen years or more ago there began to be found the red-seeded dandelion. At first this was found only in a few spots and was a great rarity, but it has been spreading rapidly, until now it is quite common in manv localities. Its name is Levntodon erythros- permum, or Taraxacum erythrospermum for those who deny to Linnaeus the right to use the name Leontodon, which means “‘lion’s tooth,” or “dent de lion” ( corrupted in English to dandelion, ) for the plants under consideration. When the writer came to Michigan over twelve years ago the red-seeded dandelion was to be found in a few spots on the campus of the Michigan Agricultural College and only as a very rare plant elsewhere. In the years that have inter- vened since then it has been increasing in abundance not only at the College but elsewhere. It is now to be found in many localities in the Lower Peninsula and the writer has collected it at widely separated places, in the Upper Peninsula. It has beyond doubt come to stay. One of the first things attempted was to see whether the — two species can be distinguished before the seeds are mature. In general the red-seeded species is smaller than the other, and THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 93 tne fruiting heads appear less dense and not so bright wliite: furthermore the flowering heads appear a brighter yellow in color. The leaves, too, seem to be more deeply incised. These differences, however, are soon found not to be constant. The common dandelion when crowded or on poor soil is often as small as its red-seeded relative, with as thin a head of fruits. The flower color as well as the degree of incision of the leaves are very variable. In fact, it is often impossible for the writer to distinguish a medium-sized common dandelion from a red-seeded specimen until the plants have mature fruit. Even the bract. character used by Britton and Brown, the re- flexed position of the outer bracts in the common dandelion and their spreading or ascending position in the other species absolutely fails in most cases. However, the large sized plants are invariably the common species. It was soon noted that the red-seeded species ceased to flower as summer came on, so that the only dandelion in blos- som at East Lansing after the middle of June were the other species. On the other hand the first to blossom were the red- seeded sort. During the latter half of May the two are both in full bloom. As the cool weather of Autumn comes on the red-seeded species again begins to bloom, being the last to show its flowers in that season. It is interesting to speculate upon the relation of the cooler weather to the blossoming of the red-seeded sort, as throwing light on the probable origin of the species. It seems that the species was first described from the cooler parts of the Russian Empire. The original home of the common dandelion is clouded in the mists of an- tiquity, and can perhaps never be found, so completely has it become a companion of man in his wanderings. Michigan Agricultural College, Department of Botany. PRODUCING DISEASE RESISTANT PLANTS By Casper L. REDFIELD. PLANT is an organism composed of many cells. In the growing part of the plant these cells are living things which have within them certain powers. A plant disease 1s a conflict, or the result produced when these living cells are attacked by parasites which are themselves living cells. If these parasites are sufficiently numerous, and have greater | powers of attack than the plant cells have of defense, then the plant dies. If the parasites are not numerous, or have less powers than the cells of the plant have, then the plant is affect- ed little or not at all by the attack. Plants are of many kinds and diseases are of many kinds, but as we are not going into the technicalities of any particu- lar disease, we will refer to plants and diseases in a generic way. A particular plant may have the power of resisting one disease and not the power of resisting another disease. In other words, disease resistance is specific, and the fact that a plant has the power of resisting one disease does not give it the power of resisting some other disease. Also, the power of resisting a particular disease is specific for the plant which has it. One plant of a variety may have such great power of resisting some particular disease that it is said to be immune, and another plant of the same variety may have so little power of resisting the same disease that it is said to have none at all. These qualities of resistance and susceptibility are in- herited qualities. The progeny of resistant plants are resis- — THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 95 tant, and the progeny of susceptible plants are susceptible. What we have to consider here is the process of making sus- ceptible plants resistant so that their descendants in later generations will also be resistant. The power which a plant cell has of resisting the attack of some other cell (a disease germ) is developed in the same way that any other power is developed, and that is by exer- cising in a particular way the powers previously in existence. A man gets his muscles more powerful by exercising them, and in no other way. A plant gains in its power of resisting a particular disease by growing in the presence of and by fighting that disease, and in no other way. When plants of a non-resisting variety are grown on sick soil,—soil which !s infected with disease germs,—some of them die and some survive to produce seeds. If seeds are taken from the sur- vivors and again planted on sick soil, some resultant plants live and some die. After a few generations of this process, all of the plants left have powers of resisting the particular disease involved, and few or none die when raised in presence of that disease. It is said that in this process the weaker plants are killed and the more resistant ones survive. This process is called “selection,” and the theory of selection is based on the assump- tion that some of the plants of the “non-resisting”’ variety have more resistance than others. It is also based on certain other assumptions which we will consider later. But I think that before we get through, it will be seen that the selection theory in the production of disease resistance is an illusion, and that selection has nothing to do with the matter. Also, that the art of man is not capable of causing selection to have any part in the production of disease resistance, 96 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST For some months I have been in correspondence with a considerable number of Agricultural Experiment Stations on the question of producing disease resistant plants, and here I will refer to some of the experiments at two of these as being illustrative of points which I wish to call to the attention of readers. At Pullman, Washington, Dr. EF. F. Gaines has been ex- perimenting on the production of disease resistance in a vari- ety of plants. Referring to a variety of wheat he says that “selection within a pure line under conditions favoring maxt- mum infection has not changed the resistance of a given vari- ety during five generations.”” Speaking of another variety originating in a cross he says that “the immune selections have not changed in genetic characteristics during the seven generations that they have been grown in the smut nursery.” Here we see that when other conditions remain constant, selection accomplishes nothing in the way of increasing the disease resistance of the plants being experimented upon. At the Agricultural Experiment Station at Agricultural College, North Dakota, Professor H. L. Bolley planted one seed from a non-resisting variety of flax on soil which was slightly infected with wilt disease, but not infected enough to kill the plant. From the plant thus grown on slightly sick soil he took one seed which he planted on soil slightly more infected than the year previously. From this second plant he took one seed and planted it the third year on soil still more infected. And so on. In regard to this process, Prof. Bolley says that he has “never been able to procure a full-fledged wilt-resisting plant from the first generation,’ but that after six or seven years of this procedure he has flax plants which will thrive on soil so heavily infected that the original stock “could not produce — THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 97 a single plant to the acre.” He also says “‘it is evident that the resisting ability increases from year to year, from gener- ation to generation, even in a pure, pedigreed strain which came originally from a single non-resisting seed.”’ In this operation of producting fully resisting plants from non-resisting stock there is no trace of selection. There were no deaths of weaker plants and survival of more resis- tant ones. It is a plain case of resisting power increasing from generation to generation, and the thing to be considered is the source of that increase. The experiment just described is not affected in the least by the fact that Bolley carried on another experiment at the same time at another place on an- other plant. Neither would it be affected if he had carried on a thousand other experiments at a thousand other places. Nor would it be affected by any accident which happened to any one of such other experiments. Flax is a self-fertilized plant not known to cross_ polli- nate when left to itself. When the experimentor gets resis- tant plants from non-resistant stock, the pedigree of the re- sistant plants is that set forth in the experiment stated. Noth- ing in the way of improvement by selection would appear if he sowed a whole field with seeds instead of planting one seed, and part of the resulting plants should die. |The death of one plant does not add anything to the resisting power of a sister plant on the other side of the lot, and increased resisting power is the thing which was obtained. There is a sharp distinction between the experiments re- ferred to by Dr. Gaines and those carried out by Prof. Bolley. When a pure line is raised year after year under uniform dis- ease infection, selection is powerless to bring about any 1m- provement in disease resistance. When a pure line is raised year after year under gradually increasing infection, improved 98 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST disease resistance keeps pace with that increased infection without the use of selection. When seeds from non-resistant plants are sown on dis- ease infected soil, the fact that some die and others survive is not evidence that the survivors had greater inherent resistance than those which died. Soil which is supposed to be uni- formly infected is in fact spotted. Disease producing bac- teria are in colonies and are not uniformly distributed. Plants which fall on heavily infected spots are killed, while those on lightly infected spots survive. Under these conditions, some _ will live and some will die if they all have the same degree of resistance. Even when different seeds have inherent differ- ent degrees of resistance, the most resistant ones may die by reason of falling on heavily infected spots, and the least re- sistant ones may survive by reason of falling on lightly in- fected spots. The appearance which is called “selection” comes from different degrees of infection, and not from dif- ferent degrees of resistance. It may be assumed that uniform infection gradually in- tensified would result in selection in the strict meaning of the term, and that ordinary infection in a large field has parts which are near enough to the uniform to bring about that re- sult. That this is not so may be seen by referring to the char- acteristics of living protoplasm wherever it has been found. One of the most fundamental of characteristics is that the powers.of protoplasm increase when exercised, and that such development extends indefinitely under continually increasing exercise. While there is no known limit to the development of powers by exercise, the observed development is not uni- form under uniform exercise. Rapid development, slow de- velopment, and apparrent cessation of development are inter- spersed along a period of activity. In studying mental de- ve oe THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 99 velopment under training, psychologists find times when train- ing seems to produce no results, and they designate such pauses as “plateaux of learning.”’ Dallinger subjected little animals called flagellata to gradually increasing temperatures. Beginning with those living in water at 60 degrees, Fahr., he found that he could increase the temperature quite rapidly up to 73 degrees at which point he had to hold it stationary for two months be- fore he could increase it further without killing them. Past this point he was able to increase the temperature rapidly again up to 78 degrees, at which point he had to hold it for eight months. He found several other sticking points on the way of getting them to live at 158 degrees, which point was reached in about six years. Under continued training a horse will continue to gain in trotting power up to some point beyond 17 years of age, but not in every year of that time. Sometimes there will be a lapse of one year and sometimes a lapse of two years in which training appears to accomplish nothing, but if training be continued, rapid improvement comes on again. In differ- ent horses these sticking points come at different times in life. The same thing is found in milk production by cows. When regularly milked, production continues to increase up to 12 years of age, but not in every year of that time. As in horses. these sticking points come at different times in different cows. By a great many tests of different kinds we find that powers in plants are developed the same as they are in ani- mals, and that the development of disease-resisting powers comes under the same laws as the development of other powers. Applying these principles to the matter under con- sideration, it will be seen that in a field of plants growing under disease conditions, at any given moment some plants 100 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST are gaining rapidly, some plants are gaining slowly, and some plants are in a resting stage as far as the development of dis- ease resistance is concerned. If the degree of infection be in- creased so that some but not all plants are killed, those that will be killed are those which happen at the time to be in a resting stage. As all plants, superior and inferior alike, have to go through resting stages at irregular intervals, it will be seen that causing such deaths is not a process of weeding out inferior ones. Disease resistant plants have been produced under vary- ing circumstances at different experiment stations, but the one circumstance which cannot be omitted is that they must be grown under disease conditions. A plant or an animal de- velops disease resisting power in fighting a disease, and dis- sease resistance is a heritable thing. | The obvious inference is that the acquired resistance is inherited. The stock argu- ment against that is that disease kills the weaker plants and leaves the stronger, and that this selection brings about the improvement. It has just been shown that selection does not operate as it is assumed to operate, but the main argument against the selection theory is that killing a weak plant does not add to the strength of a strong plant, and the thing ob- tained is increase of disease-resisting power. No one has shown any process of increasing any power in any other way than by exercising the powers previously in existence. PLANT NAMES AND THEIR MEANINGS—XVI THE CRUCIFERAE By Wit arp N. CLutE HE fifteen hundred or more species of Cruciterae form a very distinct and characteristic group. So nearly alike are the flowers of the different species, that the botan- -ist finds them practically useless for classification and is obliged to resort in most cases to seed characteristics for a satisfactory differentiation of his specimens. The flowers are peculiar for having four instead of five parts in each whorl. The stamens however, are six in number and con- sist of two whorls, one of four and one of two stamens, the latter somewhat longer than the others. In the majority of the Cruciferae the petals spread out in the form of a cross and from this circumstance the family name, which means “cross-bearers,” is derived. The species are commonly called cresses but contrary to the general assumption the word cress is not derived from cross. The family is occasionally known as the Brassicaceae, a name founded on the genus to which the cabbage belongs but Cruciferae is a very old name and almost universally used. Nearly all the plants of this group are characterized by a pungent juice which has made them valued as pot-herbs or condiments. None of the species is poisonous but many are practically inedible because of an unsavory taste. The genus Nasturtium, to which the horse-radish belongs, is typical of these pungent herbs and is properly named from the Latin nasus tortus which is literally “nose twister.” Cardamine is 102 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST a genus whose name is reputed to be that of some ancient species of cress known to Dioscorides, but Wood says the name comes from Greek words signifying “heart” and “‘to strengthen” in allusion to its stomachic properties. Here, in- deed, the way to the heart appears to be through the stomach! St. Barbara is reputed to have discovered the medicinal ver- tues of the plants dedicated to her under the name of Bar- barea. It may be that a certain amount of sanctity is requir- ed to perceive such healing virtues, for ordinary mortals con- fess that the plants have none, except that like many others they may be used as antiscorbutics. Erysimum is said by Gray to be from the-Greek meaning “‘to draw blisters,” ’ but Wood, again, says the name means “‘to cure,” in this being apparently willing to go a bit further than his contemporary in endorsing the virtues of the plants. More important than any of the preceding in popular estimation are the plants in the genus Alyssum which are re- | regarded as useful in the cure of hydrophobia. The generic name comes from a Greek plant once used against hydro- phobia, according to Gray, but Wood says it comes from a privative and the Greek word for rage and that it was used to allay anger by the ancients. Since the plant will not cure hydrophobia it is fair to assume that Wood's derivation is the correct one though this may arouse anger in some quar- ters instead of allaying it. The name of Draba, given to the little whitlow grass, is said to mean acrid or biting and was originally applied by Dioscorides to some species of cress now unknown. An unusual number of genera in this group have been named in honor of botanists and patrons of science. There is first the American moss student, Leo Lesqueraux, after which Lesquerella is named and also Dr. M. C. Leavenworth THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 103 a southern botanist who discovered the plants since called Leavenworthia. Berteroa is for Carlo Guiseppe Bertero a Piedmontese botanist, Neslia is named for J. A. N. de Nestle of Poitiers and Conringia is for Prof. H. Conring of Helm- stedt. Count F. G. de Bray of Rouen is honored by Braya. In contrast to generic names in other families, though quite natural under the circumstances, none of our cruiferous genera is named for the appearence of the flowers. The nearest we come to it is in Hesperis, the name of the dame’s violet which means evening and alludes to the fact that the flowers give off their perfume then. There is also Jodanthes which is literally violet-colored flower. Names referring to the seed-pods are numerous. Our familiar shepherd’s purse has a generic name, Capsella, which is the diminutive of capsa, a box. Our word capsule comes from the same source. ‘The flat pods of the plants in the genus (hlaspi account for this name from Greek meaning to crush. Svlenia and Lunaria both refer to the moon, the first being from the Greek and the second the Latin. Here the round flat moonlike pods gave origin to the names. Dipio- taxis is from the Greek and alludes to the two-ranked seeds and Lepidium means a little scale, which the small seed-pods resemble. Whether Lobulus meaning “a little lobe’ refers to the “two-lobed hairs” is a question. It may have originally referred to the capsules which in so many species are lobed. From the Arabic comes Arabis and Cakile. Brassica is the Latin name for the cabbage which is said to have been originally the Celtic bressig. Sisymbrium is an old Latin name for certain species of mustard and Camelina is the Greek for “dwarf flax” (chamae-linum). Dentaria is from the Latin dens, “a tooth.” in reference to the toothed projec- tions on the root-stocks of some species. Coronopus means 104 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST “crown” and “foot” and we expect to learn that it refers either to the flowers or the roots, but it is said to refer to the deeply cut leaves! The scientific name of the onion (Allium) is supposed to have given the generic name Alliaria to certain plants called garlic mustard in the vernacular. Raphanus, the name of radish, is from words meaning “‘quickly”’ and “to appear” which pretty accurately describes the behavior of this lively spring edible. It is not surprising to find that the cress family was one of the first families to be recognized when the early scientists were arranging plants in groups. The flowers are all so much alike that even the novice perceives the relationship. Al though the arrangement of the four petals in the form of a cross has given the name of Cruciferae or cross-bearers to the family, the word “cress,” by which the species are commonly known, is much older. From the earliest times the name cress, or as it is-often spelled in the language of northern Europe, cresse, krasse, cerse and kers, was the name of the plants belonging to the cabbage family. Incidentally it may be said that the phrase “not worth a curse” (kers), used to signify something of little value, was derived from the same word and originally carried no stronger implication. Another ancient term applied to many species of Cruci- ferae is “rocket.” This was originally derived from an edible species of the Old World, Eruca sativa, whose name the Italians corrupted to ruchetta, the French to roquette, and the English to rocket. The word “‘mustard’’ so commonly applied to members of this family comes from the name of new wine or “must.” The seeds of various species were made into a condiment mixed with must, as we now use vine- gar, and so derived the name of mustard. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 105 With the explanations of the terms rocket, mustard and cress in mind, most of the names of the Cruciferae become intelligible. Indeed, the terms just mentioned are used in connection with so many plants in this family that the sub- jec of common names, in consequence, becomes quite mono- tonous. Beginning with the long line of cresses, we have first of all the species of Arabis, nearly all of which bear the name of “rock cress’”’ from their preference for rocky places. Arabis Canadensis, however, though it lives on rocks, is gen- erally called “‘sickle-pod’” from the long, curving and con- spicuous pods. Arabis glabra is the “tower mustard” or “tower cress’ the name doubtless given because it grows on old towers in its native land though the name may refer to its own height in comparison with others of its genus. Two genera divide the honors as regards the designation of the true cresses. One is the genus Nasturtium which in recent years has been occasionally known as Radicula or Roripa. ‘To this genus, whatever it may be called, belongs the true “water-cress” (Nasturtium officinale). Among its other names are “well cress,” “water grass,’ “crashes,” “brown cress” and “brooklime.” The last mentioned name means simply water plant; the others are self-explanatory. Nasturtium sylvestris is the “yellow cress” or yellow water- cress” from the color of its flowers and “wood cress,” a translation of its specific name. The “lake cress,” “river cress” or “lake water-cress” is Nasturtium lacustre. An- other “‘yellow water-cress” is N. palustris which is more properly “marsh cress’ if its specific name means anything. The plant is also known as the “yellow wood-cress.” To the Nasturtium genus also belongs the familiar “horse radish” (N. Amoracia) whose name alludes to the pungency of its root and not to the animal suggested. In this and so many 106 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST other common names, horse simply signifies big or strong. The second cress genus is Lepidium which contains the “garden cress” (LL. sativum). This plant, like the water- cress, is of European origin; in fact, of our ninety-two species of Cruciferae, just about half are immigrants. The species just mentioned is occasionally called “golden cress,” and “olden pepper-grass,” the last term referring to its pungent qualities. “Tongue grass’? may have been suggested by the same characteristic. It may be noted in passing that “grass” frequently used in connection with the cresses, is probably a mispronunciation of the word cress. One of the commonest of our weeds is Lepidium Virginicum which is known as “wild pepper-grass” and “tongue grass.” Cage birds are fond of its seeds hence such terms as “‘bird’s pepper.” “bird- seed,”’ and “‘chickweed.”’ Several other species in this genus are called “pepper-grass.”’ Lepidium campestre, is, as the specific name indicates, the “field cress.” It is also known as “pepper-grass,”’ English pepper-grass,”’ “poor man’s pepper” and “‘glen pepper.’”’ Like some of its congeners it is “yellow- seed.”” It is also known as “cow-cress,” “‘crow-weed” and “false flax’? for no very obvious reason. The name of “Mith- ridate mustard” sometimes applied to this species belongs more properly to another cress Thlaspi arvensis. Coronopus procumbens is the “carpet cress,” or “herb ivy” from its creeping habit but it is more commonly known as “wart cress,” 99 66 “wart-wort,” ‘“‘sow’s grass,” “swine’s cress” or “‘buck’s horn.” All these are Old World names probably originally referring to some fancied use of the plant in curing warts and of no particular significance at present. The plants best entitled to bear the name of “false flax” are the species of Camelina for the common name is a literal translation of the scientific one. Camelina sativa is also known as “‘Dutch flax” in allusion to THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 107 its flaxlike leaves. The plant is also called “gold-of-pleasure”’ in reference to the yellow flowers but “oil-seed” and “Siber- ian oil-seed” have been inspired by more utilitarian qualities. “Madwort,” sometimes heard is due to a confusion of this plant with species of Alysswm which, in a way, it resembles. Another group of cresses are those belonging to the genus Cardamine. One of the most attractive plants of early spring is Cardamine bulbosa the “spring cress,” per excel- lence. A species of similar appearance is C. Douglasi known as “purple cress” and “mountain water-cress.” © Cardamune rotundifolia is another “mountain water-cress’ and is also called “American water-cress” and round-leaved water-cress.” Cardamine bellidifolia is the “alpine cress” and C. hirsuta is the “bitter cress,” “land cress”’ and lamb’s cress.” The last name is evidently derived from the one that precedes it and this in turn from the fact that the plant does not favor places as moist as the majority of the species require. An allied species, C. pratensis, is also called “bitter cress’ but it has many other names among which are “meadow cress,’’ derived from its specific name, and “milkmaid,” and “May-flower” from its color and time of bloom. The plant is, however, generally called “cuckoo flower” but Shakespeare’s cuckoo flowers was of a different color and is perhaps the marsh mart- gold (Caltha). Our plant, however, is certainly that “‘lady’s smock”’ to which the poet alludes in the lines. “When daisies pied, and violets blue, And lady-smocks all silvery white And cuckoo-buds of yellow hue Do paint the meadows with delight’’ BLUE DANDELIONS By NorMAN JEFFERIES B OTANICAL, scientists and amateur lovers of wild flow- ers will thrill in unison at the announcement in an autho- ritative journal heralding the discovery of an entirely new variety of a species whose type representative is, perhaps, more familiar to even casual observers than any other of our common flowers of roadsides and fields. Proclaiming in a recent issue the discovery after a nine years’ search cf what is proudly described by its fortunate finder as “the fabulous blue dandelion” the editor of the At- lantic Monthly in personal response to inquiries not only offers practical substantiation but assumes individual responsibility for the authenticity of the new variety. Those who study and collect our native and introduced species of wild flowers will understand the motive of the writ- er in seeking to secure from the Atlantic editor details in verification of the most remarkable botanical find of the cen- tury. Properly jubilant over the discovery of a new variety hitherto overlooked by scientific and amateur students, the editor promptly furnished what he regarded as proof positive, or, as he puts it, “the credence of his own senses.” To which he add “he has seen dandelion before—a good many of them and that this is a blue one he can swear most positively.” Which coming from the editor of that sacrosant repository of all learning, the Atlantic Monthly, should convince and doul-t- ful inquirer. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 109 The honor of the discovery belongs to Mr. Roger Sher- man Hoar, an authority on constitutional law, who in the summer of 1913, was accidently confronted by the first blue dandelion of which it is recorded that mortal eyes ever look- ed upon. Withholding tidings of his treasure trove until he could startle botanists all over the world by presentation of specimens raised by himself, Mr. Hoar carefully preserved and planted the seeds. But to use his own words: “ the next summer neither the seed nor the orginal plant came up and the blue dandelion was lost to the world.” Disappointed but not discouraged, Mr. Hoar with the true spirit of scientific investigation, did not relax his pur- suit until, in three widely separated parts of the country, he had found other specimens of the blue dandelion. His ac- count of the extraordinary discovery was then submitted to the Atlantic Monthly but was not given to the world until the editor, realizing the great importance of the subject, employed what appeared to him to be the best method of convincing himself of the existance of blue dandelions. And in a letter to me he declares he “has both seen and handled them.” As Mr. Hoar, warned by his first experience, has now taken all necessary precautions to ensure successful propaga- tion, there should be available now a quantity of seed for presentation to eager amateur and scientific wild flower col- lectors. Those who are interested are advised to write the editor of the Atlantic Monthly, Boston, Mass. BOTANY FOR BEGINNERS-—VII By WiLLarD N. CLure. HEN the beginner takes up a scientific key, it is enough for him if he is able to trace his plants correctly. He rarely bothers about how the key is constructed or what char- acters the maker seized upon to break up the world of plarts into smaller and more manageable groups. As a matter of fact, it is of little consequence what distinctions are used, pro- vided always that they unerringly refer each species to its proper group. Ina key to the common lobelias, for instance, it would be quite sufficient to’ use “flower scarlet” to distin- guish the cardinal flower from its relatives, but the same dis- tinction could not be made among the violets because there are no red species. Nor would such a division answer for large groups since it would place entirely unrelated forms to- gether. In selecting distinguishing features for their groups, the key-makers pretty generally adopt such marks as will place re- lated plants together, but the trouble is to hit upon characters that will indicate relationship. To group together all plants possessing palmate leaves would be a mistake, for single plants in any natural group may possess such leaves. Charac- ters taken from the flowers, however, are more certain. It is a commonplace to say that entire families have the same type of flower. We see this in the mints, lilies, roses, peas and mustard families, to mention only a few; we therefore find the main divisions of the keys depending on some character of the flower. Re ee Cn v pen THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 111 Upon examining a number of flowers, we find that they fall into two well-defined groups according to the number of the parts in each floral set. The numbers are three, four and five. The number of parts might seem to be an unstable thing to base a division upon, but the fact is that these numbers are practically unvarying in each kind of flower, and that other characteristics, as well marked, accompany them. For instance, the three-parted flowers have a single seed-leaf, scattered vascular bundles, and parallel-veined leaves, while the others have two seed leaves, bundles in circles, and_net- veined leaves. Such a distinction, therefore will divide the flowering plants into two distinct groups, which are common- ly called monocots and dicots according to the number of seed leaves they possess. Probably all can look back to their early days of botanizing and recall how carefully they read the distinctions between monocots and dicots in their key, and how after a few weeks of such investigations they recognized the differences at sight and started with the group to which the specimen in hand belonged. Older students naturally recognize lesser groups in the same way and begin still far- ther along in the key. A favorite distinction depended upon to separate the large plant groups into smaller ones, is the nature of the cor- olla. In some plants the petals are united into a saucer, tube or cup, while in others they are entirely separate and free. The ovary also offers easily recognized distinctions, some- times being borne within the flower and sometimes appearing to grow below it. The important fact is, that following such divisions we find our groups essentially alike. The flowers often become irregular by having some petals of different size from the others, and these latter almost invariably have the habit of turning sidewise. Their stamens are also great- 12 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST ly reduced in number, often only one to a flower. By the time we have used these distinctions for breaking up large groups into smaller ones, we find that the plants in each division be- gin to have recognizable resemblances and from this point on the key-maker selects anything that will serve his purpose for further segregations. Among other things, the number and position of the stamens, the number of carpels, the position. of the leaves on the stem, the number of seeds, the color of the flowers, and the shape of the leaves are favorite charac- teristics. The final arrangement of all these groups is as near as a linear sequence as it can be made, but since evolution has pro- duced types of many kinds, such a sequence is but an approxi- mation. It is the custom to place the monocots first and the simplest dicots next to them, though it is now known that monocots as a group are more complex that these latter plants. In deciding what are or are not simple types of plants the flowers are again considered. Those with separate petals or none at all, with many stamens and carpels, with regular flowers and superior ovaries are regarded as simple types, while the highest have united petals, few stamens and carpels, irregular flowers and inferior ovaries. According to this the dandelion is one of the highest types. Consult almost any kind of a key and the dandelion will be found to end the list. The main difference between a scientific key and one that arranges plants according to color, or habitat, or time of flowering, is that the scientific key is more exact and invari- ably groups related plants together. When one traces his plant by a scientific key he steadily moves toward that part of it in which all the plant’s allies are found, and is helped in his progress by the opportunity to compare his specimen with its relatives. By so doing, he gains much more than the name THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 113 of his plant; he also gets a working knowledge of the struc- ture and relationship of the whole plant world and acquires the ability of identifying unknown species with rapidity and ease. a THE LIFE OF A BOOK book is in many ways like a plant. It appears, fresh and vigorous, runs through a life-cycle of varying length and finally dies and disappears or perchance becomes a fossil on the shelves of the second-hand dealer. One unaccustomed to the methods of publishers is apt to regard a book somewhat as he does a loaf of bread, to be had at almost any time and anywhere upon demand, but books are not produced in that way. They appear in editions which might be likened to a crop of plants.. A book-crop may yield 500 or 1000 vol- umes and when these are used up no more are commonly to be had. The book turns out to be an annual and the pub- lisher usually declines to sow another crop of the same kind by bringing out a new edition. Occasionally a book takes with the public and becomes a perennial. Edition after edition is demanded but just how rarely this is the case with scientific books one may discover for himself by looking for second editions among the books on his own shelves. There are, however, even a few century- plants among the books. The dictionary is a good illustra- tion. The old editions die, but new ones constantly spring up from the parent stock. The evanscent character of most books, therefore, makes it desirable for one who decides to buy a particular example to get it at once, otherwise he may never possess it or if by chance he does secure it, he may be obliged to take a second- hand copy often at a large increase in price. 114 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST The great war made the book situation still more seri- ous by doubling and trebling the cost of everything that goes to the making of books. In consequence the publisher can no longer take a chance on a small edition of a new book. A failure costs too much. He must now be assured in advance that a work offered for publication will sell into the thousands. The decision as to what is or what is not a good book is thus shifted from the public to the publisher who is as likely to guess wrong as right, and so suppress many worthy manu- scripts. | Moreover, high costs require that stocks be turned over quickly. BmeNs TRICHOSPERMA.—The tickseed sunflower (Bi- dens trichosperma) belongs to that despised race known col- lectively as beggar-lice, beggar-ticks, pitchforks, cuckles and stick-tights, but by reason of its floriferousness, it rather lifts itself out of its class. In parts of Illinois, notably near the head of Lake Michigan, it fairly takes the landscape in late August and becomes the most abundant and most conspicuous of flowers. It grows in dense masses over wide areas and at the height of its season, no desert golden with rabbit-brush, no meadow taken by buttercups or rudbeckias, and no field of goldenrods can compare with it. It is the apotheosis of yel- low! The range of this species is given as swamps near the coast from Massachusetts to Virginia with a second area from New York to Illinois and Kentucky in which it is found. No reason has been given for this curious distribution and some small difference in the fruits indicate that the western plant may possibly be regarded as a variety. THE Manzanita.—The beautiful shrub found in the mountains of California and Arizona and known as the man- zanita is worthy of more extensive cultivation. The name means “‘little apple” as the small fruits that follow the bloom resemble the apple in color and taste. The shrubs may be recognized by their brownish-red trunks and branches. The flowers are a delicate waxy pink with red stems and are very fragrant. The wood, though small and twisted makes a won- derful stove-wood. It throws out an intense heat and leaves no soot—Mrs. O. A. Budd. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 161 Necraries oF Toap Lity.—The toad lily (Tvricyrtis hirta) which seldom blooms in the Northern States until after the first frosts have appeared, is a most interesting flower. Its three styles are surmounted by bifid stigmas which radiate from the center like the spokes of a wheel and leave six open- ings which are filled by the anthers of the six stamens. Nec- tar is secreted by the three outer members of the perianth— really the sepals—each of which has a rounded hollow at base in which are two nectar pits. Both petals and sepals are white but so thickly dotted with purple as to have a purplish effect. At the entrance to each nectary, however, the purple stops abruptly and is replaced by a pair of small orange-colored nectar guides. The petals lack nectaries but the appearance of the nectar guides upon them indicate, perhaps, that they secrete a small amount of nectar, also. Various kinds of bees frequent the blossoms but in northern latitudes the frost is almost certain to kill the aerial parts of the plant be- fore the seeds ripen. The toad lily is not found in every dealer’s catalog, but it is an attractive little plant and well worth adding to the garden. It is the very latest of the mon- ocots to bloom if we except the autumn crocuses which really ought to wait till spring. An illustrated account of our spe- cies appears in this magazine for October, 1920. SYMBIOSIS IN THE RuBIACEAE—The legumes have long enjoyed the distinction of bearing nodules on their roots in which live multitudes of bacteria capable of fixing atmos- pheric nitrogen in a form available for higher plants. This enables the legumes to live in soils in which other plants, lacking the friendly bacteria, would find existence difficult. Anybody who will dig up the nearest plant of clover or al- falfa may see these nodules for himself. It has been known for some time that certain members of the Rubiaceae also 162 FHE AMERICAN BOTANIST possess bacterial nodules, but the knowledge has not been very widely disseminated. L. A. Boodle in Kew Bulletin points out that several Indian plants belonging to this family have wart-like structures on the upper surface of their leaves in which such nitrogen-fixing bacteria occur. The bacteria have been named Bacterium rubiacearum and have'‘been found plentifully in Pavetta Indica and P. angustifolia. ‘The bac- teria cross from one generation to the next by way of the seeds ii Which they lie dormant until a new plant begins to grow when they gain access to its interior through the stomata. Ardisia crispa, one of the Myrsinaceae, is another plant re- ported to have nodules of this kind. OWNERS OF COMPLETE SETS.—Set 74 of this magazine is now the property of Lawrence College, Appleton, Wis. The University of Nebraska has also completed its set by se- curing missing back numbers and now should stand 75th in the list of owners. This set is of interest because it was originally the subscription of the late Dr. Bessey. Mr. F. L. Green, Greenwood. Ontario, Canada, lacks No. 124 (Febru- ary, 1920) to complete his set. If any reader can supply this number, we will be glad to forward it to Mr. Green. The small stock of magazines on hand makes it necessary to again advance prices. After January Ist, 1924, a set of the first 25 volumes will cost $20. CocKLE-BUR Potsonous.—Each year new instances of the poisonous nature of plants usually regarded as harmless, come to light. Things have come to such a pass that even the pig has to have a chaperone to keep him out of trouble. Investigations by the United States Department of Agricul- ture show that young cockle-bur plants may prove poisonous to hogs, sheep and cattle. They are especially harmful to young pigs. About a pound and a half of cockle-bur to a THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 163 hundred pounds of animal is sufficient to cause poisoning. Few animals succumb to the poison, however, being easily cured by being fed milk, bacon-grease, lard or linseed oil. GOVERNMENT PLAN’? [FMportations.—In the early days of this country, when seedsmen were less numerous than at present and communication more difficult, the national gov- ernment undertook to distribute seeds of useful plants in the interests of a better agriculture. The progress of time has made such distribution of little value, but it has been long persisted in, possibly because our legislators assumed that the receipt of a few packages of garden seeds each spring, would serve as a gentle reminder to the voter that his Congressman was on the job. In recent years another’ distribution of seeds and plants has been instituted by the Government which ap- pears to be of the highest usefulness. The plants that figure in this distribution come from the ends of the earth, sent in by botanical explorers, botanical gardens, experiment stations and private individuals interested in advancing horticulture. The number of different species thus distributed is now more than fifty thousand! As may be inferred such specimens are sent out to those only who have adequate means of testing them and a disposition to’ make careful records of their behavior un- der cultivation. The only criticism of the distribution that can be made is that the majority of the plants are such as thrive on- ly in the warmer parts of the world. What is needed is a special hunt for plants that will thrive in regions less favored by nature such as cold or arid regions. Oricins InpIcATED By PLANT NAmeEs.—lIt is well known that most of our tree fruits come to us from southern Europe and the region surrounding the Mediterranean, and accordingly we find their names derived from the Greek and Latin languages. Such are the peach, the pear, the apricot, 164 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST the nectarine, the damson, the plum, and the prune. These are anglicised forms of the old Greek and Latin names that have reached us after passing through some Romance tongue —French, Italian or Spanish. ‘here is, I think, but one ex- ception to this rule. The word, apple, is of the Teutonic stock and accordingly we find that the apple is the only tree fruit of any importance that is indigenous to the northern part of Europe. ‘The same is true of forest trees. The oak, holm oak, ash, beech, hornbeam, yew, hawthorn, holly, aspen, maple, lime, alder and elder all have Teutonic names, indicat- ing that they grew in northern countries in ancient times. The names of the cypress, elm, chestnut, poplar, fig, myrtle, box, sycamore, pine and larch are words of southern origin, showing that these trees came from the south. This principle runs through the whole list of plant names and therefore to know the region from which the name of any plant came, affords a fair presumption of the region where it is indigen- ous.—T. S. Lindsay in “Plant Names.” AMPHICHROMY IN Four-o’cLocK.—There are many spe- cies of plants which, under the hand of the plant breeder, produce flowers of different colors but cases of amphichromy, in which a single plant produces flowers of more than one color, are extremely rare. An interesting case of this latter kind has appeared in the writer’s garden in which a specimen of four o’clock (Mirabilis jalapa) which originally produced pale pink flowers has developed more versatility and now pro- duces red flowers, also, on some branches. As to the pink flowers, it may be said that a close inspection shows the pink to be due to a great number of tiny half-obscured red dots. One might almost conclude that the pink form is on the way to becoming ared one. ‘The four o’clock produces a great var- iety of color-forms ranging from white and yellow to deep THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 165 red and has been greatly mixed by crossing. In experiments with this plant it has been found that when two pale forms are crossed, a red-flowered form is produced. ‘This is explained by the theory that one plant has the material for making red flowers and the other has the determiner that causes the color to develop. In the plant under discussion it may be that the pale form is developing its own determiner. Its subsequent career will be watched with interest. The specimen mentioned is nine years old, at present, and has had an interesting his- tory. One year it was overlooked entirely and did not get back into the ground for eighteen months. During this time it had neither water nor soil. This might warrant one in suggesting that though it has been alive nine years it might with some reason lay claim to being only eight years old. The past summer it produced more than ten thousand flowers! THE LaArGcEst.—It is human nature to delight in mere size. At the country fair the prizes usually go to the largest and we commonly speak of the size of our home town before dilating on its intelligent citizenry. The largest ‘plants and plant parts, therefore naturally are of interest. The largest flower in the world is the Rafflesia, some specimens of which measure more than a yard across. The largest flower-stallk is said to be that of Furcroya gigantea from ‘which Mauritius hemp is obtained. It often reaches forty feet or more in height Credit for the largest inflorescense probably belongs to this plant also, unless some species of Agave can muster more flowers to a stalk. The largest leaf is that of Victoria regia, the giant water lily of the Amazon, which often mea- sures twelve feet across. The largest seed is the double co- count which weighs thirty pounds or more, but the largest fruit is undoubtedly the prize pumpkin, cynosure of everybody at the country fair. The largest herb is the banana and the 166 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST largest tree the redwood. The latter also has the thickest bark—18 inches or more in some cases. Which vine is the largest will have to be left to somebody more familiar with tropical botany than the writer. If anybody knows of larger specimens than here mentioned, we would be glad to hear from him. LONICERA TATARICA SPECIOSA.—One of the commonest species of honeysuckle in out-of-the-way places is Lonicera tatarica. It seems to have been a favorite with the old set- tlers and vies with the common lilac for a place in the old- fashioned garden. In spring when covered with its rather small, pale pink flowers, it is fairly attractive and is still often planted in parks and large estates. The ordinary form, how- ever, is so greatly inferior to other forms of the same species that one wonders how the original ever gets planted nowadays. The most attractive form has deep pink flowers nearly an inch across and borne in great profusion. When in flower it does not suffer in comparison with the red-bud, wild crab or any other shrub of its genus. In the dealers’ catalogues, the pink form is called the variety grandiflora, grandiflora rubra, splen- dens and pulcherrima. It is quite likely that each name may stand for a slight difference in form, for the species is quite variable. One should see the shrub in bloom to make sure of getting the best. AstER LaArvis.—Late in September in the Northern States, the asters begin to command attention by reason of their abundance, variety, and striking range of colors. One who examines a field of these plants soon discovers that sev- eral species commonly grow together though their color var- iations often give the impression that there are more species present than is the case. The New England aster is nearly always accompanied by a clear rose-colored form much hand- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 167 ssomer than the type and an albino form is not difficult to find. The most beautiful of all the aster species in the Middle West, however, is Aster laevis. whose large, deep violet-colored flower heads, borne in profusion are fully the equal of any plant cultivated in the flower garden at the same season. Why this plant is not oftener given a place beside the chrysanthe- mums is a puzzle. The plants seem fond of the waste land along the railroads and would make traveling by rail a contin- ual delight for some weeks in autumn were it not for the fact that thoughtful railroad officials, impressed with the beauty of bare cinders, send out a few laborers with scythes, just as the blooming season opens, to lay the plants low. Here and there, however, enough plants escape to provide the flower lover with the materials for a planting that will eclipse both the late garden asters and the early chrysanthemums. FRINGED GENTIANS.—Most people speak of the fringed gentian as if there was but one species of the kind in the world. No doubt this is due to the influence of Bryant’s poem on the subject, but it may be well to note that there is another spe- cies, Gentiana procera, found from New York to Iowa and northward into Canada. Gentiana crinita, however, is best entitled to the adjective “fringed” for the tips of its petals are cut into fine segments of some length, while those of G. procera are merely ciliate on the edges. In other respects the ' two species are much alike and the inexperienced might easily collect procera with the idea that he had found its more fa- mous relative. Westward the two species have practically the same range but on the east, crinita pushes up into Maine and south to Georgia. Quack Grass.—The farmer or gardener who does not know quack-grass (Agropyrum repens) is to be congratulated. It easily excels the Canada thistle in general pestiferousness 168 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST and is regarded by the Government as “‘the most notorious of all weeds and one that causes greater monetary loss than any other single species.’’ It comes originally from Europe but is now quite at home in America having spread widely in the Northern States but with, as yet, no disposition to in- vade the South. It is an active agent in the spread of the red rust of wheat but its eradication has none of the specta- cular features connected with it that are attached to the pursuit of the common barberry and it therefore appears to be immune from the attacks of the young college graduate. Legislators may legislate against the thistle but they know bet- ter than to go after the quack-grass. The latter simply defies the farmer, the barberry eradicator and everybody else. It will grow in any kind of soil, and spreads rapidly by slen- der under-ground runners. When once established it is next to impossible to eradicate. Plowing only serves to scatter the runners and spread the plant more widely. Hand weeding might in time be successful but if one relaxes his efforts for a single season, back comes the quack grass as bad as ever. Buckwheat and hemp, however, have the reputation of being able to smother it. It makes a fair grade of hay and like its close relative, wheat, its seeds may be used as human food. Flour has also been made from the underground runners, and these are said to have been so used in Bavaria during the great war. Notwithstanding the abundance of quack grass in America we annually import some 250,000 pounds of it, the supply coming mostly from Germany. From ten to twenty cents a pound is paid for it. ‘The imported grass is used in medicine under the name of dog-grass or as the physician is fond of writing it “radix graminis.” PURSLANE WITH DouBLE FLOWERS.—The common purs- lane or pursley (Portulaca oleracea) is a well-known fat little THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 169 weed that is often a pest in rich garden soil. It is a close rel- ative of the common rose-moss or portulaca (P. grandiflora) commonly cultivated in cottage dooryards but nobody would look to it for evidences of beauty.—Nevertheless L. H. Bailey reports a variety of this species (P. oleracea var. giganthes) which he found in cultivation in British Guiana, with flowers more than an inch across and completely double. It may be that others may find this latter plant worth a place in the flower garden, but the associations of this plant in the writer’s mind is such that it is doubtful if he could resist pulling it up before it bloomed. 0% EDITORIAL Re Beginning in 1924, it 1s our intention to issue this maga- zine on or near the beginning of January, April, July and October, instead of nearly two months later than those dates, as at present. This brings us more into line with the practice of other quarterlies and relieves us of explaining to new sub- scribers, each year, that the January number is issued in late February. Those whose subscriptions expire with this issue will naturally need to renew earlier to avoid the possible loss of one or more numbers. At present we are issuing only sufficient copies to take care of subscribers and continue the sets of back numbers still on hand. Often the supply of one issue runs out before the next is printed. In this connection attention may be called again to the fact that continuous sub- scriptions cost less than the annual subscriptions and may be paid for during the year when most convenient. Annual subscriptions are stopped at the end of the time paid for. se ER For a generation or more, the hunt for new species of plants has been pursued with astonishing intensity. It is to be feared, however, that in the excitement of describing species new to science, the species-maker has often yielded to the temptation to describe as novelties plants of very dubious standing. At one time the doctrine that any plant that dif- fered from others in a single constant character was a good species gained wide acceptance. Botanists employed their talents in discovering differences rather than in studying such ‘THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 171 differences to learn, if possible, whether they were of any special significance. On this basis, numerous old and familiar species were reported to be complexes from which a number of new forms could be derived. The result of such activities on the science of botany was to obscure what before was reasonably clear and to add to the perplexities of the begin- ning student who was too often lost in a maze of species which seemed all pretty much alike. For some time thoughtful students have felt that a re-examination of the evidence upon which such species were founded would be desirable, but the first tangible results of investigations in this direction have only recently appeared. Now the published results of such an inquiry into the species of Atriplex, Chrysothamnus and Ar- temisia by Frederic E. Clements and Dr. Harvey E. Hall seem to prove the desirability of similar studies in other gen- era. These investigators set out to examine, one by one, the characters relied upon to distinguish species in the genera mentioned with a view to deciding what are and what are not of diagnostic importance and thus establish a scientific basis for classification. | Unlike other students they did not rely solely upon herbarium material but studied the plants in the field from Mexico to Canada and also made numerous experi- ments with the plants under cultivation. Collectors of her- barium specimens are noted for selecting the more striking plants and in consequence such specimens are quite misleading and not representative of the form as a whole. In the study referred to it was found that many plants described as good species were mere freaks or founded on characters that vary greatly in all the species. The old way of making a species was to label it new if it looked different ; the new way endeav- ors to examine the differences to see if they are stable and of specific importance. In a survey as comprehensive as this it 172 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST was easy to decide what forms had departed enough from the original to be regarded as separate species. The investiga- tors looked for “natural units’? around which to group the insignificant forms which other authors had elevated to spe- cific rank. An effort was made to get at the evolutionary history and establish the degree of relationship between dif- ferent forms according to the lines of descent. Viewed in this light wholesale reductions were in order. In one case eighty-three species and forms were reduced to variations of a single variable species. The slender evidence upon which many species had been made was brought out, by tabulation of their variations. The object of these reductions was to make taxonomy and classification better serve the student; to make the naming of plants less difficult. It makes a great deal of difference whether the type of a given group is regarded as a species and all its allied forms sub-species and varieties, or whether all are called species of equal rank. Moreover, to have a proper regard for varieties is in line with our ideas of evolution. Further studies of this nature, which the authors promise us, will, we hope, make such work fashionable and in time give us Manuals in which classification will mean some- thing more than a mere list of apparently unrelated species. The results of the present study have been published by the Carnagie Institution of Washington. BOOKS AND WRITERS The fifth part of “American Plant Names” is about ready. This will complete the list of species and leaves only the index and finding list to be printed. * * * About ten thousand common names are included. * * * “Rhus Dermatitis” is the title of a new book by James B., McNair. * * * THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 173 The publisher translates this as “poison ivy” but it should re- ’ ally be “ivy poisoning ;” at least that is what the author dis- cusses. * * * ‘There are said to be twenty-nine cures for ivy-poisoning but the book costs $4 and is likely to leave the buyer wondering whether it would not have been cheaper to have consulted a reliable M. D. in the first place. * * * Macmillans are about to bring out a “Manual of Cultivated miants byl, H. Bailey. -* * * .If-there ever was a filler for a long felt want, this is it. * * * More is probably known about the relationships of the wild plants than about those we cultivate. * * * An “Illustrated Flora of the Pacific States” in three volumes is announced. * * * Specimen pages indicate that it is almost exactly like its name- sake on the opposite side of the continent, except that the price ishigher. * * * Norman Taylor is reported to have pub- lished a book with the title of “Botany; the Science of Plant Life.” * * * We have not seen the book or any mention of it in the public prints. * * * Perhaps the publishers are trying to keep ita secret. * * * Le Naturaliste Can- adien, the only magazine of natural history in America pub- lished in French, is celebrating its fiftieth anniversary. * * * Le livraison pour Juillet-Aout est une publication tres. in- teressante. * * * Botanists having named all the species there are, and then some, are beginning a retreat. * * * In the September Rhodora, M. L. Fernald decides that Lyco- podium sitchense is only a variety of L. sabinaefolium instead of a good species as formerly regarded. * * * We sug- gest Lycopodium porophylum as the next candidate to be re- duced if the forms of Selaginella apus can wait. Gebruder Borntrager of Berlin have begun the publica- tion of an extended work on plant structurss under the title of “Handbuch der Pflanzenanatomie.”’ ‘The first sections deal 174 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST with plant structures in general and are followed by an ac- count of the various plant groups. Nearly thirty German scientists are co-operating in the work under the editorship of Dr. K. Linsbauer. Several parts of the work have already been issued the latest being lieferung 9 “Das Tropische Par- enchym” by Dr. Fritz Jurgen Meyer. The issues are very well printed and clearly illustrated but the fact that the text is in German will necessarily limit its circulation on this side of the world. Lieferung 9 costs $1.10. It is difficult for the maker of a beginning course in bot- any to introduce much novelty into the text. The time-hon- ored sequence begins with the seed or root and discusses the other plant parts in their order and few authors have found it possible to depart from such an arrangement. In a new book by Edmund W. Sinnott on “Botany; Principles and Problems” the usual sequence is followed but the author has succeeded in giving his book a valuable individuality by a clear and straightforward presentation of the subject matter, by numerous original illustrations and last, but by no means least, by a series of some 800 “Questions for thought and discussion.”” The latter initiate a new departure in botanical study and cover a wide range of ideas which show not a lit- tle ingenuity and originality on the part of the author. Added to these is a rather extensive series of “reference problems” designed to facilitate further investigations of each phase of botany discussed. In the text, the author has not found it necessary to argue in favor of each point presented but has taken well-established facts for granted, a praiseworthy fea- ture in books designed for beginners. In addition to the dis- cussion of plant structure, there are chapters on heredity evolution and the great plant groups. A large number of the 240 illustrations are from original drawings by the author THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 175 and are an agreeable relief from the stereotyped forms to which we have long been accustomed. In all its features the book makes a most agreeable impression, and it will no doubt have a warm reception from teaching botanists. The book runs to about 400 well-printed pages and costs $3. — It is published by the McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. A generation ago the collection and identification of plants, the publication of floras and the making of manuals was perhaps the principal occupation of botanists, but the science has since moved on to other things—morphology, physiology, genetics and the like. Now there is rising a new phase of study known as ecology, which involves all the others, since it is the study of plants (and animals) in relation to their sur- roundings. Much of the matter published in this magazine would come under the head of ecology and much more is likely to be published since the field is right at the door of every stu- dent and is practically inexhaustible. The subject appears to have first received adequate recognition in Germany, but there is now a considerable literature in English. American students, however, have failed to produce books calculated to interest beginners in the subject; they have been so busy telling one another of their finds and conclusions that they have neglected the novice. In time we may hope for a better state of affairs here, but until then an attractive British book by A. G. Tansley, author of ‘Types of British Vegetation’ and editor of the Journal of Ecology will doubtless be appreciated. It is entitled “Practical Plant Ecology” and is written express- ly with a view to making the subject clear to beginners. In the opinion of the revewer the author has succeeded in making a very helpful volume. The idea that different forms of plants are associated in very definite groups called plant soci- eties and plant associations is developed,that these groups are 176 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST definitely related to the soil and climate of their habitat is shown, the fact that such societies may succeed one another in a given area is demonstrated, and the methods of studying the phenomena connected with the subject is carefully indi- cated. Incidentally one gleans from the book a clear impres- sion of the differences between British and American vegeta- tion which inhabit similar areas. The study of ecology is cer- tain to become more popular as it becomes more familiar and those who are inclined to investigate the subject would do well to see this book. It is published by Dodd, Mead and Co., New York. We all of us love trifles at heart; the shapes and aspects of things, the quality of sounds, the savors of food, the sweet and pungent odors of earth. We persuade our- selves, as life goes on, that these things are unimportant, and we dull our observation of them by disuse; but in all the essay- ists that I can think of, this elemental perception of things as they are is very strong and acute; and half their charm is that they recall to us things that we have forgotten; things which fell sharply and clearly on the perception of our younger senses, or bring back to us in a flash that delicate wonder, that undimmed delight, when the dawn lay brightening about us A. C. BENSON. and when our limbs were restless and alert. DREER’S DARWIN TULIPS November is the ideal month to plant Darwin Tulip bulbs in the garden. We have a grand collection of 24 distinct vari- eties in extra strong, well developed bulbs received from the lead- ing Holland specialists, which we offer as follows: 3 each of the 24 sorts (72 bulbs) for $4.00 6 each of the 24 sorts (144 bulbs) for $7.50 12 each of the 24 sorts (288 bulbs) for $14.00 25 each of the 24 sorts (600 bulbs) for $27.00 For those who do not care for named sorts we offer a superb mixture containing many colors for 50c. per doz., $3.25 per 100, $27.50 per 1000. If wanted by Parcel Post, add 10%. We still have a very complete line of other spring-flowering bulbs on hand. Send for Catalogue. HENRY A. DREER 714-716 Chestnut Street PHILADELPHIA, PA. WANTED: Seeds and plants from robust healthy specimens of our indignous Trees and Shrubs in Northern, Central and New England States. Botanists, Foresters, Gardeners and Plant Collectors who are interested in further informa- tion will please write NAPERVILLE NURSERIES NAPERVILLE, ILLINOIS WE SPECIALIZE IN Flower Seeds Flower Bulbs Native Plants Perennial Plants and Rock Plants There are native plants suitable for every corner of your garden, whether it is sunny or shady, wet or dry. Let us know your require- ments. RODERICK M. CROCKET 36 HILLCREST AVENUE CRANFORD NEW JERSEY PUDOR’S PUGET-SOUND IRIS EXCEL! Plan to Plant an IRIS GARDEN. I grow Acres of Iris—thousands of stock plants, which enables me to supply my customers in all parts of the country with big, sturdy, healthy rhizomes that satisfy. Our climatic and soil conditions are perfect. I grow all of the best old, and nearly all the new and rare varities. A descriptive list free for the asking. It also contains a list of many other choice GARDEN TREASURERS, GLADIOLUS BULBS, etc. PUDOR’S GLORY of PUGET-SOUND STRAIN of DOUBLE FLOWERING DELPHINIUMS Line bred and carefully selected for many years have resulted in a © few distinct varieties of Hybrids; wonderful shades of blue and mauve, separate and combined. Individual flowers as large, and larger than a Silver Dollar. Flower stalks 6 to 8 feet tall. My new illustrated, very comprehensive 50 page Iris Catalogue contains several valuable articles by such, Iris breeders as Bliss, Dykes, and Miss Sturtevant. It has a complete color classification, description and rating of nearly 250 of the world’s best old and newest varieties. It is free with every $2.50 order, otherwise 25cts. (worth much more.) OQ. M. PUDOR, Iris and Delphinium Breeder PUYALLUP, WASHINGTON, U. S. A. (Please, mention this magazine in writing) Kunder “They Never Disappoint” Entirely new possibilities are yours in the garden-growing of gladioli with Kunderd ruffled, improved plain-petal and primulinus hybrid varieties. These remarkable Kunderd Gladioli have won the enthusiasm of ex- perts and home growers all over the world for they are in a class by themselves, being unlike any others. They are wonderful of form as well as exquisite in colors. Write today for my 1923 catalog, which is actually a gladioli hand- book, describing nearly 400 varieties and containing my personal cultural instructions. A. E. KUNDERD, Box 84 Goshen, Ind., U. S. A. The originator of the Ruffled Gladiolus ee ee ee FRYER’S NEW IRIS I have thousands of mixed tall beard- ed iris seedlings that I am offering in a mixture for $6.00 per 100 plants, and will give 50 or more varieties in each order for 100 plants. As I am not naming one in 1000 you are liable to get something good, and the pleasure you will derive in watching them bloom will repay you for the small sum invested. ; Iris can be planted from the last of June until late fall, but if planted in July and August many of them will bloom the following season. I have a fine stock of Delphinium, and believe there are no better varieties to be found in the country. I am offer- ing them at $2.50 per dozen for two year No. 1 plants, and unless it is a large plant that has been divided there will be no two alike. They can be plant- ed from the first of August until late fall. If to be sent prepaid add one cent per plant to the third zone, and two cents per plant beyond that. My new catalog showing views of flowers in the field and other objects of interest free on request. WILLIS E. FRYER Mantorville - Minnesota iN rics SPECIALIST GROWERS OF THE PEONY and IRIS Our comprehensive price list covers the better of the standard varieties at nominal prices and the rare superfine varieties of recent French, English and American intro- duction. Clarence W. Hubbarp d& PEONIES & IRISES & 6144 Lakewood Ave. CHICAGO ECOLOGY Devoted to all Forms of life in relation to environment ESTABLISHED 1920 QUARTERLY Official Publication of the Ecological Society of America Subscription, $3 a Year Back Volumes $3.50 post free Sample Copy on request TEN PER CENT DISCOUNT on Volumes One and Two will be offered to all nstitutions plac- ing a subscription on the “till forbidden” basis. This OFFER HOLDS GOOD ONLY WHEN THE ORDER IS PLACED WITH THE BUSINESS MANAGER through any agency. DIRECT, and not Address all communications to ECOLOGY BROOKLYN BOTANIC GARDEN BROOKLYN N. Y. SPRAYING is as Essential as Fertilizing Successful cultivation demands a knowledge of the habits of plant insects and diseases, and the proper remedies for their con- trol, APHINE, an effective spray remedy against all sap-sucking insects, infesting flowers, fruits and vegetables, is free of the dis- agreeable odors and features of most insecticides. It invigorates plant life and is unexcelled as a wash for decorative plants. Aphine will not injure the most tender flower or foliage. FUNGINE, an excellent remedy for mildew, rust and other blights. It is readily soluble in water and contains no sedi- ment. Fungine does iot stain the foliage, but cleanses it. VERMINE, a soil sterilizer and vermicide. It destroys cut, wire, eel and grub worms, maggots, root lice and ants, and will protect your gardens and lawns from ravages under the soil. There is but one convincing way for you to become familiar with the merits of these products and that is to try them out for yourself. It will prove worth while. UPUDELELE TET ETT Sold by dealers in various sizes. APHINE MANUFACTURING CO. Manufacturers of Agricultural Chemicals MADISON, N. J. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST. A QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL BOTANY w EDITED BY WILLARD N. CLUTE Volume XXX. JOLIET, ILL. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. 1924 CONTENTS ILLUSTRATED ARTICLES MARKED WITH A STAR (*) Arbitration, A Plea for ..........Norman Jefferies 96 Sean Dne -PiOneers OF. Ut ning ec ade des eee ee 99 California Wilflowers, The Charm of... .Nell Crosby 2 Pandelion, The Quest of the Blue s....°.5..5..... Bee re mre ices Roger Sherman Hoar 15 bandgeuons, More .......5«.% Roger Sherman Hoar 49 Elementary Species of Rudbeckia ..Willard N, Clute — 158 Favorite Flowers....J. M. Bates; J. Milford McKee — 155 Meeting Summer Across the Prairie..O. A. Stevens 140 Pasque Flowers, The........ Fannie Mahood Heath sa | Mamictetions, ENGio is 2,0°s (iapcha waters Willard N. Clute *47 Perennial PVour-o'clocks .. . . 25403 Willard N. Clute *139 Reemeers Of Botagy? ihe ctw ae ae ee ean os eee 99 Plant Names and their Meanings... .Willard N. Clute EBACAEAR Sf) 27). 5 aR te CaM ean ees 5, 54 EE Ge loo tne Epo 0 ty ALE TA See een eDED SS Ba 103 Be MIAGONG os 5p 25 sens AMD EER Pe era ye le te ee 145 Eliane Ecotection, Practical... .20.- Willard N. Clute 68 Pesaro, ne asht A camst: thes. ine Sic... ines ain 6 = Neg Rudbeckia, Elementary species of...Willard N. Clute 158 orn. beatties, Lhe ...2. 0. one. Willard N. Clute *95 Taros of Tahiti and the Marquesas The, J. O. Stancliff 110 Tropical Plants, Conspicuous ..... .. A. B. Lyon 19, 64, 112 iets lp tr pe DHE uid. cutee «ate sre H, A. Rankin 156 SUPA a ae a are Soon ae Siete hk 36, 82, 130, 172 , iS STERIC VARTIY VV REVERS « 3 sicivid coded acl o Sah wk 57. Sa; 132 NOTE AND COMMENT Amphichromy again 34 Bittersweet Berries, Birds and 78 Cancer-root, clustered SE LOZ Ghestniuts Resistant) oer eee see 168 Color, Conspicuous flower ....169 Common Names, Accent .of..166 Common Names, More ....... 167 Corn-borer, European 2222-4: 127 Coruehan Cherry, he se eae. 120 Cottonwood, The wasteful .... 32 Cranberry, High-bush ........ 170 Crop-failure in 4000 years, No 73 Dandelion Distribution ....... 171 Dandelion, Red-seeded 25 Dash@enstel het ty nukeses eevee 126 Deathmotee Martin GC. a) b elmer 171 Desenthlollivien. ss ae eee 35 Development, Trend of ....... 31 Bxouc inees in) forestry sees 162 Erysiphe, Abundance of ...... 79 Erythronmum) Ay Bireak inane: 123 Beather tiyacimth: 7... wear 164 Flower-color, conspicuous 169 Flower, Name of, wanted ..... 28 Flowers of Willow-herb ...... 81 Forest, Squimel and ....5st.0- 127 Break ‘ny thronium:) Ay. eee 123 Galinsoga still traveling ...... 163 Gastentasi seer ntn eee 24 Grasseniite oye tate 128 Heathworts, Common Names Olig tis wor cl eitealee Chee 124 lvacinthh eaters seer een 164 [i PomopsiSsScanlete- Senne 165 icism iE nisatancy terrdores st oere eee 121 Johnny Appleseed ......... 26, 74 Lemons Oil-clands) of eee 77 London’ Pride 33-0 eee 75 Lycopodinms, Dahiti sae 80 Mian-of-the-earth 2.2.5 4eeeeee 164 Matches, 2. .ds see Di, Medicine, Plants used in ..... 72 Melanthium, Blooming of ..... 165 Milkworts” ...2.. . 30. 2 eee 26 Mouse Plagues thie. ae 167 Nature-knowlege needed 160 Needle-palm overspecialized ..125 Oikglands of Lemony nee 77 Pappoose, Red 4. see 122 Phlox argillacea in the Garden 78 Phlox for rock-gardens, New .160 Plant-lores Scientitic 2) e eee 30 Plant Names, Western ....... 32 Plants used in Medicine ...... 72 Prunella vulgaris nana {seer 170 Radish tiesva knot) seca IZA Rhubarb Leaves Poisonous ...122 Rudbeckias, (Green eee 28 Seasons in England, The...... 29 Snowballs and the weather... .161 Squirrelltand Borestss see eee 127 Star-grass in the Rockery .... 80 Stomatas a vbptmnd anita 14 Strawberry.) indians jase eee 27, Sweet Pea ‘tubers? 2 oe eee 129 Tamarix .anticulatas see 79 Tamarix, Flowering habit of.. 34 Trees in forestry, exotic sere 162 Tubers,; Sweet Pea ~ 4) =-e. cee 129 Vanilla-leaf in Commerce 163 Vines; Wargest' eh sae 76 Willow-herb, Flowers of ..... 81 Vol. 30. No.1 Whole Number 140 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST ————— JANUARY, 1924 40 Cents a Copy; $1.50 a Year WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. JOLIET, ILLINOIS The American Botanist A Quarterly Journal of Economic @ Ecological Botan WILLARD N. CLUTE, EDITOR SUBSCRIPTIONS.—The subscription price of this magazine is $1.50 a year or $2.50 for two years, payable strictly in advance. The magazine is not sent after subscriptions expire. i tant banks must contain ten cents for collection fees. The magazine is issued in January, April, July and October. | WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO., PUBLISHERS 207 WHITLEY AVENUE, JOLIET, ILL. Personal checks on small or dis- Entered as Mail Matter of the Second Class at the Post Office, Joliet, IIl. An Attractive Monthly Magazine — ] PUBLISHED BY THE WOMAN’S NATIONAL FARM AND GARDEN ASSOCIATION Read by thousands who love gardening; who observe in the signs of the times, the meaning of farming and gardening in home, economic and civic affairs today. Subscription Price $1.00 Per Year 1732 STEVENS BLDG., CHICAGO y NEW OR NOTEWORTHY PLANTS is the unique title of an equally uniaue catalogue which offers for sale NATIVE AMERICAN SHRUBS AND PLANTS for the enrichment of your garden. Su- perior nursery-grown and acclimat- ed stock, backed by more than a quarter century experience. You will enjoy reading this lit- tle book; there is nothing else like it; most of the plants cannot be obtained elsewhere. Write for your copy today. D. M. ANDREWS’ NURSERY BOULDER, COLO. American Fern Journal A Quarterly devoted to Ferns and Fern Allies, pub- | lished by i . t The American Fern Society — Subscriptions $1.25 a yeat ' Sent free to all members of The American Fern. Society. Annual dues $1.50 Life membership $25.00. Send for free sample copy: E. J. WINSLOW, Auburndale, Mass ry ae . . ; 4 * 4 4 ah Pa ey a e r THe Pasgue FLlowER.—Anemone Patens var. LIBRARY THE AMERICAN BOTANIST VOL. XXX. JANUARY, 1924 No. 1 But these young scholars who invade our hills, Bold as the engineer who felled the wood, And travelling often in the cut he makes, Love not the flowers they pluck, and know them not And all their botany is Latin names. Emerson. THE PASQUE FLOWER By Fannie Manoop HEATH. HE Pasque flower (Anemone patens, variety Nuttalli- ana) is the first flower to greet us in early spring. It is indeed a most pleasing sight to come upon a sunny, sandy slope or dry knoll of light soil where these flowers grow, as they are usually found in large colonies, each well establish- ed plant with from six to fifteen flowers, the ground liter- ally carpeted with the bright blossoms. Each stout, furry stem is from four to eight inches high, and crowned with blossoms from one and a half to two inches wide. The sepals form tulip-like cups of varying shades from almost pure white, thru all the shades of smoke blue, to a soft deli- cate purple, each with many golden anthers and numerovs pistils. The flowers are followed by fruit of long plumose tailed achenes in a globular, fluffy head. Pasque flowers are found over a wide range of terri- tory thruout the North-western United States and Western LSS) THE AMERICAN BOTANIST Canada. They do not take kindly to cultivation and are exceedingly hard to domesticate, yet when once established where conditions suit them they increase rapidly both from the seedling plants and the enlarging of the flower clumps. They are known by various common names, Pasque flower, wind flower, Mayflower and wild crocus being the most uni- versally used. I have also heard them called rock roses, from their growing on stony knolls, and prairie hen flowers because the prairie chickens sometimes eat them in early spring. THE CHARM OF CALIFORNIA WILDFLOWERS By NELL Crossy. RIVING or walking through the country in springtime, who is not delighted with the beautiful wildflowers that are to be found in the woodlands or dotting the grassy mead- ows? Most states can boast of many lovely varieties peculiar to their locality, but to California must be given the credit for producing such gorgeous profusion as to almost beggar des- cription. On the burning desert, over the fertile valleys, dotted among the stunted growth in the foot-hills and reach- ing far up into the mountains, in the spring and early summer such splendor of color-and bloom greets the eye that it 1s no wonder California is called “‘the land of flowers and sunshine.” With so many varieties and such abundance of bloorn literally carpeting the earth in many places, one cannot do the subject justice without going into lengthy detail, but I shall mention briefly, some of the most luxuriant specimens. In the early spring the brodiaea or wild hyacinth, takes the lead with its clusters of purplish blue blossoms, a very magnificent THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 3 flower, lasting for weeks. Fading finally to a pale blue, it disappears to be replaced by the wonderful California poppies which by this time turn the rolling hillside and wide plains in- to a flaming, living gold, in some sections covering miles with a wave of solid, unbroken color. Now blending with this brilliant ‘carpet of fire’ the blue lupin in direct contrast, blooms in wide spreading profusion, blanketing a sloping hillside with shadowy blue mingling with the gold of the poppies over a wide area. This flower lasts from early spring until well into the summer. It is similar to the larkspur which also adds its blue and white blossoms to the countless numbers adorning the country. Blue would seem a prevailing color. There are the mar- ianas, called California bluebells or baby blue eyes, from the deep Yale-blue of its delicate petals, which is found in more sheltered places and not so abundant. Then the chia, or rough leaved sage, a small feathery flower in ball-like clusters around a single spike and consisting of from one to four heads. Blooming later, its waves of delicate blue transform the land es far as eye can see, long after others have faded and gone. After the blossoms fade away the dried spike and heads remain standing, shaking out their small gray seeds over hillside and and plain. These seeds were formerly used by the Indians cf California for food, and are very nutritious. Again we have the owl’s clover, or pink paint-brush which blooms abundantly and for a long period, tinting the earth for miles. Others | should like to call attention to are the vervein, or wild heliotrope; the wild coreopsis; tidy tips, a yellow daisy; and the tiny cream cups, of pale yellow. These, with various others less noticeable, shading from deep to pale pinks, blues, yellows, and lavenders are too numerous to men- tion singly. 4 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST But I must speak particularly of the beautiful evening snow. Opening in the late afternoon, it covers the earth with its fragrant white mantle, like feathery snowflakes, to lie in heavier drifts in the lower places, there to watch the night through, only to close again when the morning light dispels the shadows and coaxes the tightly closed poppies to unfold their golden crowns to meet the blazing sun. To quote from “Ramona” by Helen Hunt Jackson, “Myr- iads of low blossoming plants, so close to earth that their tints lapped and overlapped on each other and on the green of the grass, as feathers in fine plumage overlap each other and blend into a changeful- color? * * * “Themcousdtiess curves and hollows and crests of hills in Southern California heighten these chameleon effects like nothing in nature except the glitter of a brilliant lizard in the sun, or the iridescent sheen of a peacock’s neck.” But even this borrowed description fails before the living splendor of California’s hills and plains, where mile after mile of dazzling color rolls in waves over the sun-drenched earth, with always one color predominating. | Here a long wave cf flaming golden poppies; there the shadowy purple bro- diaea or lupin. Now a vast wave of pink or yellow, again mingling hormoniously in flower and hue, they delight the eye and soul of all who are privileged to gaze upon this flow- er-decked land. PLANT NAMES AND THEIR MEANINGS — XVIII ERICACEAE. By WILLARD N. Chute ye HERE are tew plant families more attractive, or more celebrated -in song and story, than the Ericaceae or heath family. Spreading in thick-set colonies over vast areas, and covered, during the blooming season, with an abundance of showy flowers, they cannot fail to attract the eye, while the edible fruits which many species produce appeal to nearly all palates. In addition, their curious predilection for acid soils and their ability to flourish in sterile, uncultivated re- gions make them interesting subjects for investigation. Although the members of the group have numerous char- acteristics in common, a sort of flower personality, as it were, which makes the heaths distinguishable from other plants, they nevertheless possess individual peculiarities which ren- der each species easily separable from the others. There are also certain group resemblances that make possible the ar- rangement of the species in four or five fairly homogenous lesser divisions. In the older books these are usually regarded as sub-families under the general title of Ericaceae but in recent works they are often maintained as separate families. Under the latter arrangement we should have the pepper- bushes or Clethraceae, the blueberries and huckleberries or ‘Vacciniaceae, the pine-saps or Montropaceae, the shin-leafs or Pyrolaceae and the Ericaceae, proper. For the purposes of the present study, we shall follow the older classifications. The genus Erica, to which the true heaths and heathers belong, derives its name from the Greek word, Eriko, meaning 6 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST “to break’? in allusion to its brittle branches. — Brittleness, indeed, seems to be a family characteristic and the present genus is well selected to lead the group and give origin to the family name. Another genus of heathers is Calluna derived from words meaning “to brush or sweep” and refers to the use of the twigs for brooms. Among other names bestowed for some characteristic of the plants, is Rhododendron which is literally “rose tree.” | Rhodora, a genus maintained by Britton, but combined with Rhododendron by Gray, is, as one might surmise, also derived from the Greek word for rose. Still another genus swallowed by the all-devouring Rhododen- dron of Gray, is Azalea derived from the Greek word for arid or dry, possibly because the original species grew in dry places as some of the American species are known to do. This latter genus is kept separate by Biitton and in this we choose to follow him. One of the beauties of several codes of nomen- clature is that one may select first one and then another genus if he is not hampered by too great a veneration for consis- tency. The species of Rhododendron are called “laurel” and the name of the Chamaedaphne genus means “‘low laurel,” but it may be added that none of our laurels are at all closely related to the laurel of classic fame. Epigaea, the name of the trailing arbutus genus has a meaning not so very differ- ent from the one last mentioned since it means “upon the earth." The single drooping flower of the Indian pipe suggested its generic name, Monotropa, from the Greek for “one’’ and “turn,” and Monotropsis, another genus is, of course, “like Monotropa.” Closely allied to these two is the genus Pteros- pora which means literally “winged seeds.” The bearberry genus is Arctstaphyllos. From the fact that this species inhabits sand barrens and other sterile places THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 7 and has fruit that is attractive to the eye but is like ashes on the tongue, one feels that the vernacular name should be “bare-berry,”’ but the word from which it is derived is the Greek arktos, meaning bear, and that settles the matter. The latter part of the name means a cluster of grapes. Vaccinium, a typical berry genus, containing both the blue- berries and huckleberries ig said by Gray to be of obscure de- rivation and by Britton to mean blueberry, but other reports have it that it was originally Baccinium from bacca, a berry, and was made into the word we now use by the substitution of a V for the initial letter. Some authors derive the word from vaccinius which means “pertaining to a cow” and in corroboration of this theory point to the fact that some spe- cies are called “cowberries.”’ The cranberries, often consid- ered species of Vaccinium, are often placed in a genus of their own known as Oxycoccum. Since this word means literally “sour berry” the name seems most appropriate. | Another plant with an acid name is Oxydendron which nearly every- body will translate as “sour tree.’ Its common name is naturally “sour wood.” Letophyllum is from the Greek and means “smooth leaf.’’ For this genus Britton uses the name of Dendrium which is simply “tree” though the plants are not tree-like. It is possibly because so many other species of heath- worts are evergreen that the well-known wintergreen has no suggestion of winter in its technical name. Instead it is called Gaultheria in commemoration of a certain French physician, Hugues Gaultier of Quebec. Gaylussacia, the name of the huckleberry genus, honors a famous French scientist, Gay- _Lussac, and the well known mountain laurel is named Kalmia for Peter Kalm, a Swedish botanist who traveled in Eastern America in early times and published an account of his ad- 8 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST ventures. Lyonia is for John Lyon an early explorer of the southern Alleghanies. Loisleuwria is for J. L. A. Loiseleur- Delongchamps another French botanist. For this genus, Brit- ton uses the name Chamaecistus which means “low cistus” and is thus connected with the name of the rock-rose family. Archibald Menzies, a member of Vancouver’s expedition to the West Coast of America, brought home the first specimens of the genus which has since been called for him, Menziesia. Several mythological characters also figure in the names of the heathworts. The group of plants best represented by the little marsh rosemary was named Andromeda by Linnaeus for that Andromeda fabled to have been chained to a rock near the sea to be devoured by sea-monster. Cassiope another genus is for Cassiopeia the mother of .Andromeda. Phyllo- doce is named for a sea-nymph mentioned by Virgil. The genus now called Chamaedaphne was long known as Cassan- dra in honor of the daughter of Priam, king of Troy, and Leucothoe was named for the daughter of Orchamus who, according to Ovid, was once king of Babylonia. If names mean anything, it is likely that the plants in the genus Chimapluila might be called the true wintergreens for the name is formed of words meaning ‘‘winter’’ and “to love.” Their claims might be disputed, however, by Chiogenes which means “offspring of the snow.” Although the plant is ever- green, the snow in its name is said to refer ta the snow-white berries—a statement which we take the liberty of doubting! Moneses is Greek ‘for “single” and “delight” in allusion to the single though conspicuous and pretty flower. Clethra is the Greek for “alder’’ from some fancied re- semblance of our plant to the European alder which is now difficult to perceive. An equally obscure resemblance of the leaves of certain species to the pear tree accounts for the gen- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 9 eric name of Pyrola. The Labrador tea genus, Ledum, is borrowed from another European plant, having been named for the cistus or rock rose (Cistus ledon) of the Mediterran- ean region. The members of the Ericaceae are usually so attractive when in bloom that they appeal to all lovers of the beautiful. The flowers are rarely inconspicuous. Sometimes the blos- soms may be minute, in which case they make up the deficiency by appearing in great profusion, at others, clusters of fewer large flowers make the plants noticeable. When in bloom the heaths fairly take the landscape. There are, however, no true heaths, that is, no members of the genus Erica, in Amer- ica, but in their stead and occupying much the same habitats, are numerous species of blueberry. The heaths and heathers derive their names from growing in sterile and remote re- gions, which are known in the tongues of Northwestern Eu- rope by heath or words of similar sound. From the same word comes heathen which originally had no adverse connota- tion, but meant, simply, people lacking the advantages of cul- tivated society. The Old World “heather,” Calluna vulgaris, has become sparingly established along the New England coast but it has always been so well known in Europe as to have few other vernacular names. The name “ling”? some- times used is a very old Anglo-Saxon term said to have the same meaning as heather. From the use of its twigs in brooms it is occasionally known as “‘moor besom.” Our American heathers or, as we have noted, the species that approach the heathers nearest in habitat and appearance, are the various species of Vaccinium. The members of the group, almost without exception are familiarly called “blue- berries” from the color of the fruits, or somewhat less fre- quently as “huckleberries.”” The latter is an old term of un- 10 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST certain meaning applied to related European plants. As this name is used in America, however, it is regarded as more prop- erly belonging to the allied genus Gaylussacia. One of our commonest blue-berries is Vaccinium Canadense known from the taste of leaves as “‘sour-top” and from their texture as “velvet-leaf blueberry.” Vaccinium Pennsylvanicum, a rather diminutive plant, is “low sweet blueberry,” “early sweet blueberry” and “sweet juniper-berry.” The “high blueberry” or “swamp blueberry” is V. corymbosum and it is also called “high-bush blueberry’ and “giant whortleberry.” This last name is apparently derived from an ancient name for a smail bush and is in common use in the Old World to designate an allied species of Vaccinium. Vaccinium atrococcus. 1s the “black blueberry” if one can imagine such a contradiction of terms. Occasionally it is called “black high blueberry.” Still another “black blueberry” is the variety nigrum of V. Pennsylvanicum. The “late low blueberry” is V. vacillans. Vaccinium myrsinites, a southern. species with persistent leaves, is the “evergreen blueberry.” The “bog bilberry” V. uliginosum, is a plant common to the northern parts of both Hemispheres. It has been suggested that “bilberry” is but another form of “bull-berry,” given to distinguish this species from the “cow-berry.”” The term “blaeberry” applied to our plant is the Scotch for blueberry. ‘Bog blueberry” and “bog whortleberry” are other names for the plant. Vaccinium caespitosum is the “dwarf bilberry.”’ If the derivation of Vaccinium from the Latin word for cow is correct, we might consider Vaccinium vistis-Idaea as the typical species for its most common vernacular name is “cow-berry.”” It is found in cold and elevated regions on both sides of the Atlantic and such names as “wind-berry,” “wine berry,” “ling-berry,” rock cranberry,’ mountain cran- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 11 berry” ae self explanatory. From the color of the fruit the species is known as “red bilberry,”’ and “red whortleberry.”’ Yhe term “flowering box-berry” indicates a confusion of this plant with the true box (Buus) or perhaps is merely a reference to the similarity in the leaves. “Fox-berry” may have been given the plant in allusion to its inhabiting wild and rocky places, but the name sounds suspiciously like a variation of “box-berry.” A southern Vaccinium that often attains tree-like proportions is . arboreum. It is sometimes called iad “tree huckleberry,”’ but more often “farkleberry” or “‘sparkle- berry.” The significance of these names is so obscure that even the dictionaries are silent on the subject. Our species is often called “‘winter huckleberry” and ‘“‘gooseberry,” the latter name, of course, mis-applied. Vaccimum stamineum is also called “gooseberry” with slightly more reason for its fruits are greenish like those of the true gooseberry. The plant, however, is more often called ‘‘deer-berry” and ‘‘squaw huckleberry,” the last name doubtless applied in a disparaging sense for the fruits are scarcely edible. ‘“‘Dangleberry’”’ was probably given the plant because the berries hang down be- neath the leaves. Vaccinium melanocarpum is the “southern gooseberry.” Turning to what are regarded as the true huckleberries (Gaylussacia) we find that they are more often black than blue and the seeds, though hard are so brittle that they crack and snap when the berries are being eaten. Gavylussacia bac- cata is naturally known as “black snaps,” and “crackers.” This is also another of the “high bush huckleberries” and is also known as the “black huckleberry.’’ Another “dangleber- ry” or “tangleberry” is G. frondosa. This species is also the “blue tangle.” Gaylussacia ursina, on the strength of the specific name, is the “bear huckleberry” but it is not to be 12 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST assumed that bears confine their attention to this single species —they relish any of them. The “box huckleberry,” according to the books is G. brachycera though in the localities. where it grows it is known as “juniper berry.”” Gaylussacia dumosa, because of its small size, is the “bush huckleberry,” “dwarf huckleberry” and ‘‘gopher berry.” , Although many botanists include the cranberries in the genus Vaccinium, they are always given a separate section and not infrequently this section is raised'to generic rank as Oy- coccus. Following this latter course, our small cranberry is Oxycoccus palustris. It is found in the Old World also and is called “crane-berry,” “‘cran-berry,” “‘crone-berry,”’ “crow- berry” and “craw-berry.”’ It has been assumed that the cor- rect term is “crane berry” since the plants grow in wet places frequented by cranes, but the correct derivation seems to be “cran-berry” from cran, a marsh. ‘The plant is also called 99 66 ” the last name given because the plant usually grows in the moss of moors “marsh-berry,” “moor-berry” and “moss-berry, and bogs. ‘“‘Sour berry” and its variation “sow-berry” are intelligible as is also “swamp red-berry”’ and “European-cran- berry.” The larger cranberry (Oxycoccus marocarpum) is found only in America, and is naturally the “American cran- berry,’ and “large cranberry.” Among its other names are ’ “marsh cranberry” and “bearberry,” the latter term a misno- mer but one that is readily suggested by the size and habit of the plant. The “southern mountain cranberry” is O. erythro- carpum. There are probably few American heathworts with a lon- ger list of vernacular names than the “bearberry” (Arctosta- phyllos uva-ursa). ‘The plant is a conspicuous one in desert- like places and has medicinal properties as well which insures a variety of common names made by the very common people. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST1T 13 As noted in another part of these studies, this is truly the “bear-berry.” The generic name means a bear and a cluster of grapes, and the specific name means grapes and bear so that the derivation is doubly certain. Among common names are “red bearberry,” “‘bear’s grape,” ‘“‘fox plum,” “bilberry,” and “barren bilberry.”” ‘‘Univese-vine” and “‘uversy” are attempts of the unlettered to pronounce the specific name. In the drug trade, by the way, the plant is called “uva-ursa.” The rather large bright red and attractive fruits are devoid of juice which accounts for “meal-berry”’ and “‘meal plum.” Such names as ” “rock-berry,” “‘crow-berry,” “upland cranberry,” “hog cran- berry” ‘‘wild cranberry” and “mountain cranberry” are self- explanatory and mostly indicate a confusion of this with the true cranberry. ‘“‘Box-leaved wintergreen” is descriptive of the plant, though suggesting the aromatic wintergreen, while “barren myrtle,” “ground holly” and ‘“‘mountain-box”’ embody in different forms the idea that the plant has small, firm ever- green leaves. The term “kinnikinik,’”’ applied to this plant is of Indian origin. It was used by the aborigines for numerous plants adapted to smoking. We are unable to supply the meanings of “bralins,” “rapper-dandies” and “creashaks’”—if they have any! The only other Arctostaphyllos with a ver- nacular name is alpina which is known as the “black bear- berry.” The only species among the heathworts that excels the bearberry in the length of its list of vernacular names is an- other medicinal plant commonly known as “wintergreen’’ (Gaultheria procumbens.) but which is often named the “ar-. omatic wintergreen” to distinguish it from other plants of similar appearance. ‘The pungent oil that permeates all parts of the plant give reason for names like “spice wintergreen,” “ginger-berry,” “spice-berry,” “mountain tea,’”’ “Canada tea,”’ 14 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST “‘tea-leaves” and “‘tea berry.”’ ‘The bright red berries which, with the thick shining leaves, remain upon the plant all win- ter are responsible for ‘‘one-berry,’’ chicken-berry,” ’’part- ridge-berry,” ““deer-berry,” ““ground-berry,” “‘creeping winter- green,’ and ‘“‘spring wintergreen.” | “Eye-berry” probably alludes to the eye-like markings on the fruit made by the ca- lyx. “‘Ivy-berry” may be a reference to the leaves but it may also be a variant of “‘eye-berry.” ‘‘Ivory-plum”’ has the same derivation, probably. “‘Checkerberry,” very frequently heard in New England is of unknown origin but it is conjectured somewhat doubtfully to have been originally “‘choker-berry.” If “proclam,” “‘pippins,” “jinks,” “chinks,” “drunkards” and “red pollom” are anything more than children’s names for the plant, | am at a loss to account for them and would welcome suggestions. This is also another of the “kinnikiniks.” ABUNDANT STOMATA.—A leaf of Urgines maritima (sea onion), 1320 millimeters long and 35 millimeters wide (the width was found by eleven measurements 120 millimeters dis- tant from each other), having therefore a surface of 46,200 | square millimeters was examined for the number of stomata it possessed. A small piece of its lower epidermis was put on a slide and its size exactly measured. In a piece 16 millime- ters square 80 stomata were found or' five in each square mil- limeter. Multiplying the number of square centimeters in the under surface of the leaf by five, we find that there are present in it no less than 231,000 stomata, an astonishing number, indeed. It may be added that the upper side of the same leaf showed a similar number of stomata.—Edo Claas- sen, Cevleland, Ohio. THE QUEST OF THE BLUE DANDELION [Note: The following anonymous essay appeared in the Atlantic Monthly for December, 1922. It was from the whimsical pen of former Senator Roger Sherman Hoar, late of Concord, Massachusetts, and now of South Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It is the article referred to by Mr. Norman Jef- feries in our number for August, 1923. Since this essay ap- peared matters have moved swiftly with Senator Hoar’s dan-’ delions as he will relate in our next number in a sequel enti- tled “More Blue Dandelions.” ] First, let me state that there really are such things as blue dandelions. It came to pass in the following manner : In the summer of 1913, a certain country gentleman, living in a certain Massachusetts town, and actuated by the commendable New England urge to buy everything that ‘jined’ him, purchased an adjoining estate, which happened to be a nursery garden. Instead of merely ploughing under such plants as he did not need for his own garden, he very public- spiritedly threw the grounds open to his friends and neigh- bors, to take what they chose; and I, inter alios, availed my- self of the opportunity. Among the items which I took was one peculiar small plant with lily-like leaves. There were no others like it in the garden, and it could not be identified by any of the bot- anists to whom I showed it. Transplanted into my own garden, it received the most tender daily care, in spite of which (or, perhaps, because of which) it very nearly perished. Finally it bore a single flower, large and blue, closely resembling that of an aster. In due 16 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST time this lone flower went to seed, producing to my surprise a dandelion-blow as large as a tennis-ball. Then the truth dawned upon me that I had actually discovered the fabulous blue dandelion ! Of course, the thing to do was to wrap the blow in a piece of gauze and save the seeds. But, alas, procrastination is the thief of blue dandelions! By the time I got around to doing it, the blow had fallen (that is, the blow had blown), and only one smalf seed remained. The next summer neither the seed nor the original plant came up, and the blue dandelion was lost to the world. The following year, while touring in the Berkshires, I came upon a field of dandelions in seed. There were no flowers, it was true, but there could be no mistaking the lily- like leaves and the tennis-ball blows. Stopping the car, I eagerly crammed my pockets full of the precious seeds. On my return home, I planted a whole bed of them, and was overjoyed to have them all come up. 3ut this plant is a biennial. I should have to wait until the following June for the flowers. All summer I tenderly tended the bed. In the fall I matted it well with straw. In the spring the plants were still alive. Oh, joy! Tiny buds appeared. They grew and grew, and finally the longed-for day arrived. They burst into flower—bright yellow! Nothing further occurred in my quest until June, 1918, when I was stationed at Fortress Monroe, Virginia. Walk- ing along Buckroe trolley-line one day, near Old Point Com- fort College, I found a small clump of blue dandelions in full bloom. I was not to be cheated this time, for these really were blue; I saw them in flower. In a few days they would be in seed, and then T would return and my quest would be at an end. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 17 In a few days I| did return. But, alas, the trolley com- pany had mowed the right of way, and my blue dandelions were no more. The next spring found me still stationed at Fortress Mon- roe, in spite of frantic efforts to get overseas. But, just before dandelion time, I was transferred to another post, and in the haste of packing forgot to arrange for someone else to get the seeds for me. In June, 1920, and again in 1921, I wrote my borther officers at Fortress Monroe, beseeching them to walk out toward Buckroe and get me some blue dandelion seeds; but iny appeals produced merely ribald inquiries from some as to whether blue dandelions would be any more useful in violat- ing the Volstead Act than dandelions of any other color. One friend did finally have the decency to take the trip, only to report that the trolley company had filled in its right of way with cinders, thus covering up the spot where the precious flowers had used to grow. Nothing daunted, I again appealed in 1922, this time including the Reverend Father Superior of Old Point Comfort College. He succeeded in finding a clump of blue dandelions which had not been buried by the unintentional vandalism of the trolley company; but he also succeeded in losing my let- ter of inquiry. Nevertheless, realizing the seriousness of the situation, he made a frantic effort to reach me. The letter which he wrote me had my name wrong, the name of my company wrong, and it was addressed to the wrong city. Yet through one of those strokes of genius of the Post Office Department, which one reads about, but seldom sees, the letter reached me; and I at once ordered a shipment of the seeds. 18 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST But apparently there was more than one divinity shaping my ends. The very next morning, as I was walking along the railroad tracks in South Milwaukee, on my way to break- fast at the Bucyrus Steam-Shovel cafeteria, I spied a clump of blue dandelions in full bloom. Now, if I had not just heard from the reverend father, this sight would have filled me with supreme joy. But, as it was, it came as a sort of anticlimax. It was as if Sir Galahad, after nine weary years of search for the Holy Grail, had, re- turned home successful, only to find all the five-and-ten-cent stores displaying hundreds of Grails in their windows. But there was this consolation: these C. & N. W. dande- lions were n’t exactly blue—they were more of a purple. Then a horrible thought struck me! Perhaps my memory was at fault after all these years, and the original blue dandelions hadn’t been a true blue! Anyhow, I have collected the seeds and destroyed the plants. With these seeds and the ones received from the reverend father, I may be able to establish a monopoly, after all. My quest is at anend? Perhaps. And yet I cannot help feeling that there’s many a slip between the seed and the blue dandelion. Something may happen to my crop. I may yet be sorry that I have burned my dandelion plants behind me; that I have killed the plants that bore the golden seeds. CONSPICUOUS TROPICAL PLANTS Bee VEEERS in the Tropics, are always impressed by the curious forms of vegetation there encountered, but their reports of such things seldom include more than a casual mention of the species that interest them with perhaps some notes of their abundance. It is a rare occurrence for the tropical botanist to tell anything about the conspicuous fe‘- tures of the plants he discovers. The following account of some phases of Hawaiian vegetation, by Dr. A. B. Lyons, though published a long time ago, gives more information in such matters than is usual and is well worth a second appear- ance in print. One will find in Honolulu very few plants belonging to the aboriginal flora of the islands. Even the grasses and ‘the weeds are nearly all exotic. The few “indigenous” trees oc- casionally planted are after all not aboriginal, having been brought from the Polynesian islands further south by the first settlers. Very few species peculiar to the Hawaiian Islands are to be found anywhere except in the forests of the interior, where such species mostly originated. A few only of the 135 or more native ferns are commonly planted in gardens. The . one that will particularly attract attention is the bird’s nest fern (Neottopteris Nidus.), which is frequently placed in the crotch of a branching tree trunk, its favorite location in its habitat. One would not recognize it at first glance as a fern at all. Its fronds are quite entire, three to five feet long by five to seven inches wide, forming a regular crown. The foliage is rather that of an endogenous plant like the banana 20 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST than a fern, but the spores growing on its under surface betray it. The tree ferns, Cibotium and Sadleria, which abound in the forests and which are peculiarly Hawaiian species, you will rarely see in cultivation in Honolulu. They do not thrive in so dry a climate. This is unfortunate, for nothing could be more ornamental. ‘The finest of them is the pulu fern (Ci- botum Chamissot), whose uncoiling young fronds are clothed with a glistening silky capillary chaff of an old gold color, fine and soft as the finest wool; formerly collected under the vernacular name of pulu for filling pillows and mattresses-— the same thing that in Sumatra is known as pengawar djambi or paku kindang, used by surgeons as a haemostatic. The fern trees in the forests of Hawaii have trunks six to fifteen, even twenty feet high and six to ten inches or more (even two feet) in diameter. Among the indigenous trees occasionally seen in Hono- lulu is the bread fruit. The young trees are very beautiful while they retain their symmetrical pyramidal form. The ample dark green rigid leaves, more than a foot long, pin- nately lobed, make a very dense shade, and suggest the idea of extraordinary vigor, of growth, which is further impressed by the great green globes of its fruit. In the older trees the beauty of symmetry is lost, but there remains an air of sturdy self-assertion which seems to excuse their grotesque ugliness. Another tree, doubtless imported like the bread fruit, by the aborigines, although now one of the most common of the forest trees, is the ohia or mountain apple (Eugenia Malac- censis), occasionally planted in Honolulu, but not happy where there is so little rain. A noble tree it is, with its large, oval deep green, shining leaves, and the scarlet tassels of its nu- merous blossoms, but it is when the fruit is ripe that the tree THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 21 is in its glory—great clusters of the deep red, luscious-look- ing “apples” elinging about its branches and larger limbs everywhere. Juicy and refreshing the fruit is, but rather in- sipid. Conspicuous among the trees planted for shade in the city, as well as in its native haunts in the valleys of the in- terior, by the paleness of its silvery foliage, is the kukui or candlenut tree (Aleurites triloba). The fruit looks like that of our black walnut, but is larger and frequently contains two nuts. These are nearly as large as the English walnut, with a shell as hard as that of a hickory, from which are carved effective ornaments, black as jet and capable of receiving a high polish. The kernels are very oily and were used by the natives to make torches, being simply strung on a thin splint of bamboo, whence, to this day, a lamp is in the vernacular an ipu kukui. Another native plant, abundant in the mountains, you will often see planted for hedges, a Dracaena, more properly Cordyline but with green, not red or variegated foliage. The natives call it “ti” (pronounced like our word tea), and find many uses for it. The roots, which are three to six inches thick and several feet long, are baked or steamed in imus or underground ovens, sugar being produced abundantly in the process, although none is present in the uncooked root. The baked root is eaten, or rather chewed: like sugar cane, and the juice sucked from it, but the principal use made of it by the natives is to produce okolehao, a kind of whiskey. The leaves take the place of wrapping paper in the fish market or grocery store. Haolis (white people) make a bungle of put- ting up packages with it, but the native Hawaiian is very dexterous in its use, and the imitative Chinaman succeeds equally well. The Hawaiian shows the same kind of dexter- 22 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST ity in fashioning an extemporized drinking cup from a taro leaf. Banana trees are everywhere to be seen, but not generally planted for ornament. The trade wind blows too constantly to allow them to keep a whole leaf more than a day or two, unless under shelter of a house. \The stranger is surprised at the variety of- bananas, as different from one another as the varieties of pear or apple. Some grow on small “trees,” not more than six feet high; others run up fifteen, twenty and even twenty-five feet. The rapidity of growth is something amazing. Cut off the trunk of a half-grown plant; you find that it is made up simply of the sheaths of leaf stalks, the center occupied by the coming leaf, which immediately be- gins to push forward, so that in a few minutes it projects no- ticeably, and in half a day it will have grown out several inches. Your guide will point out to you as the traveler’s palm a plant which your botanist’s eye will recognize as a banana rather than a palm. Unlike the common banana, it is a branching, perennial plant, and another point of contrast— its great banners of leaves are so tough in texture that they are but little split to. pieces by the wind. ‘The flower clusters are lateral, not terminal and the bracts are persistent, so that the fruit is concealed from view. You find, however, that it resembles a banana in shape, although only four inches long. But the part of the fruit which in the banana is the edible pulp, is tough and horny, and your curiosity to know what is inside subsides after you have tried your knife on it a while. You will make a mistake, though, if you throw the refractory thing away. Take it home and let it lie a day ‘in the sun, and you will find that your curiosity was justi- fied. ‘The tough fruit yields to the persuation of the sun THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 23 and splits into three valves, which spread and recurve, re- vealing one of nature’s marvels. Each valve is found to hold two lines of seeds, each enveloped in a fantastic flannel jacket of a deep clear blue. What for? That is more than I can tell, but the bony bananas make very) pretty ornaments in a botanist’s collection. There is nothing beautiful about a guava tree (Psidiuin guaiava) except its pretty, white, rose-like flowers and its profusion of golden yellow, lemon-like fruit. The foliage is coarse and often disfigured by a black fungus growth, the habit straggling. It is rarely planted, but grows spontane- ously, forming over extensive tracts a dense chapparal. - Thousands of tons of the fruit go to waste every year. The plebian guava has an aristocratic cousin, called the man- darin guava, which forms an ornamental tree of considerable size, its trunk and branches smooth from exfoliation of the bark, its foliage of rather small obovate, thick, shining cora- cious leaves; the fruit small and quite acid. Very similar to this in foliage is the. strawberry guava, a small shrub; the fruit globular, an inch or less in diameter, red and of an agreeable flavor and borne in frequent, abundant crops. ‘The orange family is well represented, of course; the trees, orange, lime, lemon, shaddock, Chinese orange, citron, etc., having a very strong family resemblance, and all ornamental, particularly when in fruit. The trees naturally have a more luxuriant growth than in California but are not more prolific. (To be Continued.) &| NOTE and COMMENT BS GasTERIAS.—A little knowledge is not only a dangerous thing but it paves the way to numerous surprises. Some years ago, a friend gave me a little plant that she said was a cactus and although it was very unlike any cactus I had ever seen, I took her word for it and treated it accordingly, giving it gritty soil and a scant supply of water. Under this treatment it throve amazingly soon outgrowing the parent plant and send- ing out of its spiky heart a long, snake-like stem hung with tiny bells. These flowers should have opened my eyes but being busy with other things I gave them scant attention and it was not until I visited the Botanical Gardens in New York that I discovered my so-called cactus was a Gasteria, a member of the lily family. Well, of course when my attention was called to it, I saw that the tiny blooms did bear a family re- semblance to Solomon’s seal and others of that ilk, but who would ever suspect the spotted dagger-like thing (whose nick- name in our family is “spikes” ) could be a lily? After mak- ing this discovery, my first impulse, of course, was to give it richer soil and a more generous supply of moisture, but here Common Sense raised her hand and suggested that as the plant was doing so well on its scanty fare, it would be folly to make any change in treatment, so the soil is unchanged and the water supply only slightly increased. The plant is much finer than any specimen I saw at the Gardens so I must have un- wittingly stumbled upon the right treatment. I would like to know more of this particular branch of the lily family, but have not been able to find out much about it. Could we have THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 25 an article in the Botanist about it? I have a hazy idea that there has been such an article but cannot find it though I have the numbers for several years back.—Adella Prescott, New Hartford, N. Y. [The species of Gasteria are seldom seen in ordinary gardens, for all the species are evergreen succu- lents that require a greenhouse for their protection in the cooler parts of the world. They are, however, often found as house- plants in cottage windows and generally pass for cacti. The species are very closely related to the species of Aloe and by many botanists are still placed in the latter genus. All are natives of South Africa and should be given about the same treatment in cultivation as is given Aloes. In their native habitats the plants are found in desertlike regions and therefore require very little water for growth. They usually flower in our region in winter.—E. | RED-SEEDED DANDELION.—Dr. Bessey’s report on Tarax- acum erythrosperum in Michigan indicates that the plant is becoming abundant about there. I have been watching the species at Fargo since 1910 and believe there is no noticeable increase. The plant does not occur in the city or but very rarely. In and near the woods of the river it is quite common. At Manhattan, Kansas, about 1906-09 I observed it to be com- mon along the streets and have reported (Am. Mid. Nat. 3.:118) plants of it to begin flowering 8 days earlier than any of T. officinale. This was from plants along the walk kept under observation until fruit was mature. In 1907 I noted “Taraxacum in fruit up to Apr. 20 is mostly T. erythrosper- mum.” ‘The first fruits had been noted on Mar. 31 and of T. officinale on Apr. 5. At Fargo I have been unable to fol- low it so closely. The past spring, however, I made a few ob- servations on the two species growing together, and the first of each seemed to come into flower at the same date. I have 26 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST scarcely any fall records. At Manhattan, flower heads of T. erythrospermum were noted Nov. 11 and Dec. 15, 1916 with the additional note: ‘This has flowered abundantly this fall but I have not seen any flowers of T. officinale.” At Fargo I have not watched 7. erythrospermum in the tall. At the present writing (Oct. 7) a brief survey failed to show flowering or fruiting heads of it although 7. officinale is flow- ering quite freely —O. A. Stevens. MiiKWorts—Some plants are called milkworts because of their white juice or latex, others because they promote the flow of milk in animals and still others because they curdle milk and thus may be of use in cheese-making. The classic milkwort of this latter group in Pingwicula vulgaris which, in spite of its use, is still called butterwort. Among others of this class are the buttercup (Ranunculus bulbosus,) shepherd’s purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris,) the narrow-leaved plantain (Plantago lanceolata,) the nonesuch (Medicago lupulina) and the artichoke. The Poylgalaceae commonly referred to when the word milkwort is used, do not curdle milk. JoHNNy APpPLESEED.—No history of the apple in America appears to be complete without some mention of Johnny Appleseed, the half-crazy preacher who travelled up and down the Ohio valley about a century ago, scattering appleseeds and pious thoughts by the wayside. The ency- clopedias often fail to mention this unique character and in the absence of any very definite information about him, a delightful myth is gradually taking form. His real name seems to have been Jonathan Chapman. He was born in Boston in 1775 and died in the cabin of a poor settler in Allen county, Indiana, in 1847. His last resting place, how- ever, does not seem to be known. His first appeal to pub- “lic notice was in 1801 when he appeared in Licking county, THE AMERICAN BOTANIST , 27 Ohio, with a bible in one hand and a bag of appleseeds in the other. He was familiar to the Indians who held him in great awe as a mighty medicine man. He usually travelled barefoot and alone, his religion forbidding him to ride and thus take his ease “at the expense of his poor dumb brother.” He occasionally used a horse, however, to transport his bags of appleseeds. He called the apple the ‘chosen fruit of God” but believed the only way to propagate the tree was by seeds. He condemned the planting of cuttings and regarded all grafting and pruning as positively sinful. He abhorred the taking of life in any form and is said to have wept in pity over the body of a dead rattlesnake which had bitten him and which he had killed in the excitement of the moment. MatcuHes.—Not the kind that are made in heaven, but those which have a more sulphurous composition, are the matches referred to in this note. Of these the world uses five trillions annually, or, since figures are more impressive, 4,675,650,000,000. To furnish the match-sticks which everybody throws away so carelessly after use, large quanti- ties of white pine and aspen are required, and this timber must of course be straight grained and free from knots. Ac- cording to the Trade Record of the National City Bank of New York, the bulk of the world’s matches are made in the United States, Sweden, Japan, Russia, Germany, and Great Britain, the United States, of course, leading all the rest. INDIAN STRAWBERRY. Some strange plants were sent to me from Moorestown, N. J.—wild strawberries fruiting in October. The red berry is round with a short neck and looks like the one that comes in June except that the seeds stick out all’ over and brush off easily. Within, it is spongy and juiceless. Back of the berry are two circles of green; the inner consists of five calyx segments and alternating with 28 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST them are larger 3-toothed bracts. The bright berry with its wide green collar is very attractive. The fruit of our com- mon species grows in bunches, but here a single berry arises on a long peduncle among the leaves. Its leaves and man- ner of running over the ground is similar to our wild straw- berry. The books call it yellow or Indian strawberry. It is our only strawberry-like plant with yellow blossoms. It has become naturalized near Philadelphia and in the Southern States. Schuyler Matthews writes in “Familiar Flowers of Field and Garden” that it is not common. He found it once on Staten Island some years ago and has not seen it since. The botanical name is Duchesnea indica in honor of Antoine Nicolas Duchesne, a French botanist who mono- graphed the genus Fragaria in the early days.—WNell Mc- Murray. GREEN RupBecKkras.—A note in the, Botanist for De- cember 1907 tells of mutating Rudbeckias one of which had a green center. Dr. Beal suggested that this one should be called a green-eyed Susan. Many somewhat similar appear- ed near Sherborn, Mass., last summer and Mr. E. J. Smith of that place writes “The common Rudbeckias around here have been varying wonderfully. . Whole patches of them would have bright pea-green rays. Other flowers would have no rays but only the involucres which were enlarged to look like green rays and still others had in the middle a mass of short green prominences instead of the usual cone. They looked like green plush buttons about an inch in diameter.” —Nell McMurray. : Name oF FLowER WANTED.—I wonder if some one can give me a better name for the old-fashioned garden flower that we used to call cup-and-saucer. In a general way it re- minds one of the primrose with its rosette of woolly leaves. THE AMERICAN BOTANIS? 29 The little flowers were clustered like a primrose and were rich red with yellow markings. The center was shaped like a cup and surrounded by a flat limb like a saucer. I never could find them in a catalog and have not seen a plant for years. The plant was a perennial about as big around as a dinner plate and did not grow very tall. I should also like to know the botanical name of an old-fashioned perennial known as London Pride. It looks somewhat like a tall phlox with scarlet flowers and notched petals —Nell McMurray. [Dinathus barbatus, commonly called sweet William is often known as London Pride. It is likely that this is not the flower intended; if not, the plant may be Silene armeria which shares many common names with the species first mentioned. Bouncing Bet (Saponaria officinalis) is also called London Pride, a good illustration of the uncertainty of common names in designating a species.—Ed. | THE SEASONS IN ENGLAND.—In a climate with well- marked yearly seasons, different species of an association come to the height of their vegetative growth, flower and fruit at different periods of the growing season. These ac- tivities of different species are scattered throught the whole season, but the species tend to fall into distinct seasonal groups., In the British deciduous woodland, for instance, there are four seasonal groups of species and the flourishing of each gives seasonal aspect to the season. Thus we can distinguish the prevernal aspect of early spring (March and the first half or two-thirds of April in southern England, ) marked by the coming into prominence of such plants as the celandine (Ficaria verna), the wood anemone (Anemone nemorsa), and the primrose (Primula verna); in the ver- nal aspect (end of April and May) the trees come into leaf and flower and in the ground vegetation the bluebell (Scilla 30 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST nutans), stichwort (Stellaria holostea), weasel snout (Gale- obdolon luteum) etc., develop; in the aestival or summer aspect (June-August) a number of other species become prominent; and the autumnal aspect (September-November ) shows no fresh flowering plants in the woodland but is marked by the appearance of many fungi—A. G. Tansley in Practical Plant Ecology. [The autumn aspect of Brit- ish vegetation, if this a true description of it, is far behind our own. It is well-known that the other side of the world has no such wealth of goldenrods, sunflowers, asters, and other composites as we possess but we commonly assume other species to take their places. One can imagine what our autumn would be like with “ woodland” after August.—Ed. | Screntiric Piant-Lore—There is a-risk in recording no fresh flowers in the information about unusual plants and flowers unless one can give first-hand information; otherwise extraordinary state- ments get into print. For example, John Lindley in his “Nat- ural System of Botany” 2nd Edition, London, 1836, says of the true papaw (Carica papaya) “The tree has moreover the singular property of rendering the toughest animal substances tender by causing the separation of the muscular fibers; its very vapor does this. Newly killed meat suspended among the leaves and even old hogs and old poultry when fed on the leaves and fruit become tender in a few hours.”’ Miss Kings- ley, indeed, in her book on West Africa reports the same thing but is very skeptical about it. Lindley records other things which need verification. Thus of the horse chestnut “Handsome trees * * * remarkable for their large seeds. These seeds contain a great quantity of starch which renders them nutritive for man and many other animals.” Of the China tree (Melia Azederach) he says “The pulp that sur- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 31 rounds the seeds is said to be deleterious, but this is denied by Turpin who asserts that dogs and children in Carolina eat the seeds with impunity.” Gray in ‘Field, Forest and Gar- den Botany” says the horse chestnut is inedible and even pot- sonous. As to the China-berry, neither | nor any of my com- panions years ago in Carolina ate them, nor have I ever noticed birds eating them, much less dogs. Can you verify these statements of Lindley’s? His most extraordinary informa- tion, however is about certain of the Solanaceae. “It must also be remembered that if the fruit of the egg-plant (,Sola- num esculentum) is eatable it only becomes so after undergo- ing a particular process and that the tomato is always exposed to heat before it is eaten.” The common potato in a state of putrifaction is said to give out a most vivid light, sufficient to read by. This was particularly remarked by an officer on guard at Strasburg who thought the barracks were on fire in consequence of the light thus emitted from a cellarful of potatoes.” It was firewater that lit him up, I Laser: rather than rotten potatoes.—Robert A Benton. TREND OF DEVELOPMENT.—Why there should be but two lines of evolutionary development is not clear. Why not other lines, neither plant nor animal? Why is it, that the plant-animal did not evolve into more highly developed or- ganisms, such as motile trees, etc. There does not seem to be any obvious reason why a higher animal could not have developed, with chlorophyll bodies in its skin. "The obvious fact is, that up to the present day, at least, the plant animal has not proven to be one of nature’s most sucessful experiments. Perhaps, with changing earth conditions, the time may come when true plants and animals will prove too specialized for the new environment, and a new phase of evolution will find the plant animal type dominating the earth—Turtox News. a2 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST The possibilities of motile trees is quite attractive but it is probably fortunate, that plants have not gone further and like the animals, developed a voice. One. might be ravished in spring by the sweet voices of the trailing arbutus and hepa- tica, but think of the discords that might rise from a lawn covered with dandelions or a field of toad-flax! THe WastEFuL CotTtonwoop.—The behavior of the cottonwood or Carolina poplar at each recurrent autumn never ceases to be a mystery. When other plants merely cast their leaves, the cottonwood rather overdoes the matter by casting many of its branches, also. This wholesale destruction of wood made at considerable expense to the parent tree does not consist merely of the young twigs of the season, but ofter includes branches six or more years old. In a large major- ity of cases the buds on these twigs contain flower clusters so nearly complete that, their outlines may be easily made out ina longitudinal section of the bud. WESTERN PLAntT Names.—Regarding the names of plants of western distribution that you have included in parts 2 and 3 of “American Plant Names,” Calypso bulbosa is often referred to as “Venus’ slipper,” Solanuum triflorum is very commonly called “‘wild tomato” by ranchers and others and Symphoricarpos occidentalis is known variously, and often 29 766. incorrectly of course, as “‘stag-berry,” “quail-berry,” “June- berry” and “partridge-berry.”’ The name “buck brush” or bush is applied to several low intricately branched shrubs the name varying in application in different localities. Have you omitted the name kinghead from the list of appellations of Ambrosia trifida? I have seen this used a great deal in agri- cultural literature. | Now as to the species of Artemisia. I do not believe any of them are ever called “wormwood”’ by westerners, all of them are “sage.” Artemisia frigida is THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 33 “Rocky Mountain sage” or merely “mountain sage.” 4. lu- doviciana is often called ‘“‘wooly sage’ and A. tridentata is called “black sage’ about as often as “‘sage-brush.” Aster multiflorus is often called “button Aster.” I knew Brauneria purpurea as “niggerhead,” and Clements gives “golden eye” for Chrysopsis villosa. Gaura coccinea is called ‘‘butterfly weed” in Montana. Ocnothera pallida is generally called “tall white primrose” to distinguish it from the stemless spe- cies which are locally called “rock lily.” I believe you, or rather the authors you have at hand, have confused Gutierre- sia and Bigelovia. ‘The common name all over the west for the former is “torchweed” or “‘matchweed,” not as one might suppose from the abundance of bright yellow flowers but from the readiness with which the dry stems and resinous buds burn in the spring. Sometimes it is called “horseweed” be- cause nothing but horses will eat it. Some authors give “brown weed”’ but I have never. heard it called that name, am of the opinion that it is a corruption of “broom weed.” ‘The plant was actually made into coarse brooms by the early pio- neers. ‘“‘Rabbit-brush’’ or bush refers in common parlance of the west to the Various species of Bigelovia. ““Rabbit-weed and “rayless or false goldenrod” are less frequently used. Glycerrhiza lepidota is said to be called “Deseret weed” very commonly in Utah. And now does anyone know positively what plant Zane Gray meant by “purple sage?” I have half a dozen candidates for the honor, various species of Atriplex, Salvia and Artemisia—Mrs. M. E. Soth. [This note is an ‘excellent illustration of the way in which some common names get into print while others fail. Botanical authors are likely to give to each species the common names they have heard ap- plied to it. At the same time there are often numerous other names in common use of which they are entirely ignorant. 34 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST One of the objects of the observations on common names ap- pearing in this magazine, is the bringing to light of these ad- ditional names.—ED. ] FLOWERING Hasir oF ‘TAMARIX.—What are the flower- ing habits of the tamarix? I have noticed that two bushes of T. gallica on the campus have flowered twice during the sea- son the last two years. I am wondering if this is a regular habit of the plant since a brief survey of available literature seems to throw no light on the subject. . Last year I did not make a note of the date of the first appearance of flowers but remember that the plants were in full flower on June 19. When they flowered later in the summer I recorded the date —August 4. This year I have June 14 as the first of the summer period, and August 5 as the second. The weather has been quite different during the late summer of the two years, warm and very dry last year, considerable cool and rainy weather this year. As to the amount of flowers I cannot say, probably not so many in the second period but hardly a great difference—O. A. Stevens. [A tamarix received from Si- beria through the United States Plant Introduction Bureau under the name of Tamarix pentandra has bloomed twice a year for several years in our grounds; in fact it appears to bloom fairly continuously through the summer, though not as profusely as at the beginning of its flowering season. It may be added here that in the valley of the Rio Grande in New Mexico, the Tamarix is commonly used as a shade tree often reaching a height of 30 or 40 feet and blooming pro- fusely as late as August. This species is 7. gallica.—Entror. | AMPHICHROMY AGAIN.—The interesting note in the American Botanist for November, 1923, about four-o’clocks with flowers of two separate colors on the same plant, calls to my mind a case of amphichromy (thanks for the word, it is THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 35 a new one to me) which I have observed in the shrubby mon- key-flower of Southern California (Mimulus glutinosus). Normally the blossoms of this beautiful wilding are buff or salmon, but sometimes plants are found with narrower leaves and red flowers. These are classed either as variety puniceus or as a distinct species of this name. Near Pala and at some other stations in or bordering the San Luis Rey valley, a re- markable form of the shrubby mimulus occurs bearing flowers exhibiting a range of color on some plants from buff through orange and scarlet to a deep mahogany crimson on the same bush. This amphichromatic habit seems to be a confirmed one, as the same striking display of bloom was to be seen when I visited the neighborhood a couple of years ago after an absence of some years. In the hope of seeing what effect cultivation might have I made some cuttings, but they failed to root—C. F. Saunders, Pasadena, California. Desert Hoity.—So long and intimately has holly’ been connected with the Christmas festivities that the season is no longer considered complete without this plant or some form of vegetation resembling it. Inthe far West the Christmas berry or toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia) often does duty for its more famous prototype and in the desert regions of the South- west a species of atriplex (A. hymenelytra) with silver-gray, holly-like leaves is much used under the name of desert holly. It is said that a considerable trade in this plant is growing up, not only in its native region but in the eastern market to which it is sent in carload lots. 0 EDITORIAL e A little thought on the matter ought to convince anybody that it is impossible to make a common name for a plant. A species may have any number of vernacular names, that is, names in the common tongue, but unless one of these comes into common use it cannot properly be called a common name. A good many plants have no common names and are not likely to have any for they are so insignificant that the general pub- lic has never heard of them. The name-tinker, however, is never satisfied to let well enough alone and oblivious to the fact that there is a reason for every common name, attempts without reason to,supply names for such plants as lack them. It may be said without fear of contradiction, that common names in general are an unmitigated nuisance. They are never as accurate as the technical names and at times are actually misleading. Because the technical names are unfa- miliar, it has become a fad to regard them as difficult to pro- nounce and hard to remember. Such technical names as chrysanthemum, rhododendron, pentstemon, delphinium and nicotiana in everyday use is sufficient evidence that there is ro inherent difficulty in using the more accurate terms. When a plant has a real vernacular or common name, however, it may be worth studying for it actually contains some element of folk-lore, poetry, mythology, and the like, but the same cannot be said of the ‘““English’’ names which are usually mere translations of the scientific names whose only point of inter- est, is in showing how matter-of-fact the translators are. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 37 The great majority of our really common names originated in Europe and have been imported with our language. Since the genera on both sides of the Atlantic are pretty much alike, we have simply adopted the vernacular generic name and have added a distinguishing adjective to indicate the Am- erican species. Such common names as are wholly of Amer- ican origin were not devised with the idea of giving the plants common names, but are the names by which hunters, explorers and the early settlers called them for want of some- thing more definite. Occasionally, however, a manufactured name has clung to a plant when such name was apposite, as foam-flower for that plant otherwise known as false mitrewort. Among suggested names that have been extensively adopt- ed may be instanced Christmas fern given to a common spe- cies of wood fern by John Robinson, half a century ago, and houlder fern, offered by the writer for that species “damned by faint praise” as the hay-scented fern. Jack-in-the-pulpit is said to have been invented by Clara Smith and first named in a poem published in 1874 which had the distinction of being revised by Whittier. In general, however, the use of common. names, even in ordinary conversation, is to be deplored. They are really plant nicknames no more to be tolerated in good so- ciety than shorty, red, slim, fatty, and similar outcasts. BOOKS AND WRITERS After nineteen years of publication, Nature Study Re- vicw has succumbed to the fate the sooner or later overtakes magazines devoted to natural history. * * * It has been merged with the Nature Magazine of Washington, now beginning its second successful year. * * * Well, we are sorry to see an old publication go, but the new magazine 38 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST is a good one. * * * The Gazette of Germantown, Pa., is publishing a series of fern articles under the direction of the noted Pteridologist, James G. Scott. * * * The first number discusses Aspidium laserpetiifolium and reprints an illustration from American Botanist. * * * Books re- lating to plants are increasing in number. * * * Herbert Durand has recently issued a volume on “Taming the Wild- ings’ and Norman Taylor has put out the first part of a work devoted to the vegetation of Long Island. * * * The latter is a study of the vegetation of Montauk at the extreme eastern end of the island) * * * ‘The™yecten was once one of our favorite botanizing grounds. * * * “The Cultivated Evergreens” is a composite work edited by L. H. Bailey which contains contributions from a number of specialists. * *-.*- F. V. Coville discusses acid) ‘soil for broad-leaved evergreens. * * * These volumes, how- ever, do not much increase the total number of available botanical works for Henshaws’s “Mountain Wildflowers of America” has just gone out of print and so has Clute’s “Fern Collector’s Guide.” .* * * Several other books regarded as permanent fixtures in botany are on the verge. * * * Those who expect to own copies should heed the old adage to- “Git while the (gittin’ is good?) + * = * “hemes Departnient of Agriculture has issued a list of local names of migratory Game Birds. * _* * It performs the same ser- vice for these birds that “American Plant Names” is per- forming for the flowering plants. * * * Two more fas- cicles of L. H. Bailey’s “Gentes Herbarium” have come to hand. * * * QOne is concerned with the species of Rubus and their taxonomy and the other discusses the names of various cultigens. * -* * What is a cultigen?) *yeeeeee Well, it is what Bailey calls a cultivated plant that has de- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 39 parted so far from the original species as to need a signifi- cant name to designated it. * * * Lettuce and cabbage, for instance, are not at all like their wild ancestors. * * * Among domestic animals the cultigens are often still less like the originals. * * * . Somebody has said that the pug-dog has varied so far that it is not only a different species but a different genus! * * * Not to mention the dachshund which is “‘a dog and a half long and only half a dog high.” * * * Illinois has a new law protecting some of the wildflowers. * * * If you knowingly buy or sell any bloodroot or columbine taken from the lands of another in this State you may have to pay a fine of $100. * * * Among other plants protected is the insignificant Trillium sessile. * * * Cypripedium Iursutum is also included among protected specimens but the law will have to be amend- ed before it will protect any plant by this name. * * * Britton calls the yellow lady-slipper Cypripedium hirsutum and Gray bestows the same name on the tall pink and white Bpecics. * *. * . Here.is.asgood chance for the botanist to’ be called in as an expert witness. * * * A new text- book and manual of botany for beginners by the editor of this magazine is soon to appear. * * * Its claim to dis- tinction it that by its use one can learn all about botany with- out ateacher. * * * Well, we shall see! More than eight years ago, representatives of six impor- tant societies interested in gardening, acting as the “Joint Committee on Horticultural Nomenclature” undertook the herculean task of preparing a list of standard names of plants “in the trade” with a view to facilitating commercial transac- tions. The results of their labors have just come to hand as a volume of 458 pages with the title of “Standardized Plant Names.” This is a list of more than forty thousand entries, 40 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST alphabetically arranged, in which technical names, vernacular names, and synonyms are indicated by distinct faces of type. The fact that the societies concerned, which include practical- ly all American dealers in plants, have agreed to use the names listed for at least five years, makes this one of the most important books relating to plants ever issued. Those immediately in charge of the work are Frederick Law Olm- sted, Frederick V. Coville and Harlan P. Kelsey, but in com- piling the list they have had the advice and assistance of more than fifty specialists, and the work has proceeded with- out reference to the various “‘codes’”’ so dear to the heart of the technical botanist. In general the effort has been to select the names by which the plants have been most widely known in the trade and thus the dealer finds his customary usage backed by authority. The undertaking is one that has long been suggested by intelligent plantsmen and a similar course might be taken with reference to plants in general with good results; indeed, the various lists of nomina con- servanda adopted by the code-makers are recognitions of this principle. ‘Though the technical names in the new list are likely to be widely used, it may be doubted whether various other proposals made in the book will meet with as ready acceptance, especially those not in harmony with current English use, such as the telescoping of adjectives with the nouns they qualify to make ‘common names” and the omis- sion of the apostrophe in such names as Henry’s St. John’s- wort. It is difficult to see how crepemyrtle, possumhaw, wildbergamot and pinkscalegayfeather are any improvement over the usual way of writing them. ‘To be sure the last mentioned name is cut in two in the middle but by the rules of the game it should not be. Nor can we see how Welsh- poppy is less entitled to a hyphen than Chinese-poppy. In ‘THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 41 the selection of common names the committee has been un- fortunate in a considerable number of instances as when “blooming Sally” is offered in place of the widely-known willow herb, “snap-weed” for jewel-weed, ‘“‘potato-bean” for groundnut (Apios) and “trout lily” a fanciful name coined by Burroughs for the dog-tooth violet or adder’s-tongue. The great white trillium appears as “snow trillium” though Tril- lium mvale rightly bears this name. © The _ plantain-leaved everlasting is called “‘pussy-toes” in the list but it is doubtful if the nurseryman can work up enough sentiment to call it by this name. He is more likely to indicate it by another of its names, “moonshine,” and thus, at least, be up to date. The list even gives “Chamaedrys Germander” although ger- mander is but another form of chamaedrys. It might also be pointed out that “crow barberry” is. not an adequate trans- lation of Berberis empetrifolia, nor puzzle willow for Salix ambigua. Nor is Adiantum capillus-veneris by any twist “southern maiden-hair” for it grows the world around and extends to Dakota on this side of the world and to England on the other. Except for the manufactured ‘common names” however ,““Standardized Plant Names” is a worthy attempt to attach a single technical name to each species and one which bids fair to be successful. The technical botanist is not likely to look with favor upon the project since it robs him of half his stock in trade and disregards “priority” which brings him what C. G. Lloyd calls “personal advertising.” But the men with money invested in plants can afford to ig- nore the technical botanist. ‘‘Standardized Plant Names” is for sale by Harlan P. Kelsey, Salem, Mass., at $5 a copy. This is probably far below the cost of production. The book is from the press of the J. Horace McFarland Company and is an excellent example of book-making. 42 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST That modern plants have descended from ancient and simpler ones is held by practically all biologists, though the exact, or even the approximate, lines by which they have des- cended are still hidden in obscurity. In an attempt to throw more light on the whole problem of descent, Professor F. O. Bower of the University of Glasgow, has made a most comprehensive inquiry into the morphology and phylogeny of the fernworts, the results of which are to be published in a two-volume work on “The Fern.’”’ The group selected for investigation offers an attractive field for study since the forms are easy to distinguish from other groups, are abund- ant and widely distributed, and have a rich series of fossil remains by which they may be traced back to the ancient times. Professor ‘Bower believes that if the primitive type, from which all the others have descended, can be singled out, it may contribute important data bearing on the descent of land plants in general. In order to visualize this primitive fernwort, each separate character of ferns is examined in detail to decide what are, and what are not, primitive char- acteristics. A general idea of what the primitive progeni- tor must have been like is then obtained by uniting these characters into a single hypothetical individual. The fea- tures taken for extensive study are the morphology of root and shoot, the vascular system, the structure of the leaf, the dermal and other non-vascular tissues, spore-production, the gametophyte and the embryo. From a consideration of these the author concludes that the simplest fern plant was “a simple, upright, radial, rootless shoot, either unbranched or showing dichotomy.’ ‘The primitive fern leaf is regarded as being long-stalked with a distal dichotomy of narrow, separate simple-veined segments and the reproductive parts as large solitary spore-cases containing many spores. Com- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 43 paring these specifications with fossil fernworts of the De- vonian, a fairly close resemblance between the two is found to exist. It is further concluded from a study of the em- bryology of the fern that the evidence points toward a filamentous origin for even the most complex sporophytes. In the concluding yolume the author purposes to make a more natural classification of the fernworts than has yet been made by reconstructing the phylesis of the Filicales in the light of this new knowlege. Each of the seventeen chapters concludes with a very full bibliography of the sub- jects discussed and it is a matter of some chagrin that in several of the lists not a single American author is included,: and in the whole book, only two or three. The book is a tall octavo of upwards of 350 pages and is exceptionally well printed and illustrated. It is one of the Cambridge Botanical Handbooks, issued by the University of Cambridge and is to be had in America of Macmillan and Company, New York. The price is $7.50 net. . The great number of plants common to the United States and Great Britain makes it likely that two little books on the subject of plant names recently issued in London will find an appreciative audience on this side of the world. In “Plant Names,” by. T. S. Lindsay, issued by the Sheldon Press, the author has attempted to explain the meaning of the technical and vernacular names of British plants which usual- ly puzzle the novice. There are short chapters on the history of plant naming, on pronunciation, spelling, and gender, on names whose meanings are conjectural, as well as those de- rived from habitat, use, resemblance to other objects, medi- cinal virtues and the like. Then follows a descriptive list of the more common specific names with their definitions. Al- though the book contains less than a hundred pages, the auth- 44 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST or has managed to include all the more important terms and has made a very useful book. - “British Plant Names and their Derivations” by R. J. Harvey-Gibson, published by A. C. Black and Co., is really a compact little dictionary in which the generic and specific names of British plants are defined and their derivations given. The proper pronunciation of both are indicated. Although it contains but fifty pages, up- wards of 1500 terms are included. The price is $1.00. That of “Plant Names” is $1.25. Both volumes are obtainable in America from the Macmillan Co. The crow is nobody’s fool. “Live and learn’ is his motto; and he does both but especially the former in a way to excite the admiration of all disinterested observers. * * * * He has an unfeigned respect for agriculture and in fact may be said himself to have set up as a gentleman- farmer, letting out his land on shares and seldom failing to get his full half of the crop; and like the shrewed farmer he is, he insures himself against drouth and other mischances by taking his moiety early in the season.—BRrADFORD TORREY. FRYER’S NEW IRIS I have thousands of mixed tall beard- ed iris seedlings that I am offering in a mixture for $6.00 per 100 plants, and will give 50 or more varieties in each order for 100 plants. As I am not naming one in 1000 you are liable to get something good, and the pleasure you will derive in watching them bloom will repay you for the small sum invested. Iris can be planted from the last of June until late fall, but if planted in July and August many of them will bloom the following season. I have a fine stock of Delphinium, and believe there are no better varieties to be found in the country. I am offer- ing them at $2.50 per dozen for two year No, 1 plants, and unless it is a large plant that has been divided there will be no two alike. They can be plant- ed from the first of August until late fall. If to be sent prepaid add one cent per plant to the third zone, and two cents per plant beyond that. My new catalog showing views of flowers in the field and other objects of interest free on request. WILLIS E. FRYER Mantorville - Minnesota FCOLOGY Cisk BB | WE ARE SPECIALIST GROWERS OF THE PEONY and IRIS Our comprehensive price list covers the better of the standard varieties at nominal prices and the rare superfine varieties. of recent French, English and American intro- duction. Clarence W. Hubbarp d& PEONIES & IRISES & 6144 Lakewood Ave. CHICAGO Devoted to all Forms of life in relation to environment ESTABLISHED 1920 QUARTERLY Official Publication of the Ecological Society of America Subscription, $4 a Year } Back Volumes, I-IV, $4.25 each, post free. Foreign postage: To Canada, 10 cents; to other countries, 20 cents. Single numbers, $1.25 post free. Address all communications to ECOLOGY BROOKLYN BOTANIC GARDEN BROOKLYN N. Y. SPRAYING is as Essential as Fertilizing Successful cultivation demands a knowledge of the habits of plant insects and diseases, and the proper remedies for their con- trol. APHINE, an effective spray remedy against all sap-sucking insects, infesting flowers, fruits and vegetables, is free of the dis- agreeable odors and features of most insecticides. It invigorates plant life and is unexcelled as a wash for decorative plants. Aphine will not injure the most tender flower or foliage. FUNGINE, an excellent remedy for mildew, rust and other blights. It is readily soluble in water and contains no sedi- ment. Fungine does not stain the foliage, but cleanses it. VERMINE, a soil sterilizer and vermicide. It destroys cut, wire, eel and grub worms, maggots, root lice and ants, and will protect your gardens and lawns from ravages under the soil. There is but one convincing way for you to become familiar with the merits of these products and that is to try them out for yourself. It will prove worth while. APAUAADATANEDDAETOLEOOUODEOEUSTOE AT Sold by dealers in various sizes. APHINE MANUFACTURING CO. Manufacturers of Agricultural Chemicals | MADISON, N. J. Vol. 30. No. 2 Wits Nuthin! FAS fo AMERICAN BOTANIST | APRIL, 1924 40 Cents a Copy; $1.50 a Year _-—*WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO. oa JOLIET, ILLINOIS The American Botanist A Quarterly Journal of Economic @ Ecological Botany WILLARD N. CLUTE, EDITOR SUBSCRIPTIONS.—The subscription price of this magazine is $1. 50 a year or $2.50 for two years, payable strictly in advance. The magazine is not sent after subscriptions expire. Personal checks on small or dis- tant banks must contain ten cents for collection fees. The magazine is issued in January, April, July and October. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO., PUBLISHERS 207 WHITLEY AVENUE, JOLIET, ILL. Entered as Mail Matter of the Second Class at the Post Office, Joliet, Ill. FARM AND GARDEN An Attractive Monthly Magazine PUBLISHED BY THE WOMAN’S NATIONAL FARM AND GARDEN ASSOCIATION Read by thousands who love gardening; who observe in the signs of the times, the meaning of farming and gardening in home, economic and civic affairs today. Subscription Price $1.00 Per Year 1732 STEVENS BLDG., CHICAGO American Fern Journal A Quarterly devoted to 4 Ferns and Fern Allies, pub- 4 lished by | The American Fern Society Subscriptions $1.25 a year 4 Sent free to all members — of The American Fern — Society. Annual dues $1.50 — Life membership $25.00. __ Send for free sample copy. P ; E. J. WINSLOW, Auburndale, Mass. PENTSTEMON COBAEA. »? THE AMERICAN BOTANIST VOL. XXX. APRIL, 1924. No. 2 A wind that blows from out the south, Al sparrow’s song, a fleeting shower, And where but now a snowbank gleamed, The sun lies warm upon a flower. C. F. Saunders, Adapted. IMRARY Mic’ VoORS THE PENTSTEMONS BOTANICAL caw dt) st By WILLARD N. CLUuTE HOSE who confine their botanizing to the Atlantic Sea- board are likely to see very little of certain very attrac- tive plants, known as pentstemons. They may, to be sure, find a small species with purplish white flowers which was formerly called Pentstemon pubescens but now 1s to be look- ed for under P. hirsutus, and they may occasionally happen upon a taller and somewhat showier species with flowers suggesting those of the foxglove and appropriately named Pentstemon digitalis, but to see the really showy members of the genus, one must visit the territory west of the Missis- sippi. The genus seems to have its center of distribution in the Rocky Mountain region and the number of species increases as one goes westward. It is reported that there are approxi- mately 150 species of pentstemon- and in all this number very few are unworthy of a place in the garden. A number of the forms are found in Mexico, but with the exception of a single species in eastern Siberia, all are American. 48 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST Travellers in the west rarely fail to notice :the brilliant scarlet species known as Pentstemon Torreyi, or as most seed-catalogs have it, Penistemon barbatus Torrey. ~ It is one of the brightest and most abundant of plants in all desert-like places, especially in the Southwest. There is an- other form with rose-pink flowers in larger clusters found in Arizona. It does not seem to have been introduced into culti- ration and its name is at present unknown to me, but if cer- tain seedlings now in my possession mature, its identity should soon be discovered. It would be futile-to describe all the attractive species of the genus. A few bear yellow flowers but in the major- ity they are white, pink or blue, the blue perhaps predomin- ating. There is an exceedingly beautiful species in parts of Colorado which has pink buds and gentian blue flowers. It is likely that this may do well in cultivation if given a well- drained soil. Most of the species are found on _ banks where they are able to avoid standing water, though they appear to like plenty of moisture while growing. Among the large-flowered species are Pentstemon grandiflorus and P. cobaea. ‘The two are very much alike but may be distinguished by the fact that in P. grandflorus the leaves are smooth and entire, while in P. cobaea they are serrate and minutely pubescent. The species of gardens is usually regarded as P. grandiflorus but P. cobaea may possibly be occasionally mistaken for it. Good specimens of grandiflorus may reach a height of six feet, a size not at- tained by P. cobaea. The flowers of both are two inches or more long and not a little like canterbury bells in shape: With intelligent cultivation the plants ought to be capable of much improvement. | The P. cobaea makes a fine garden plant as it is seen from our illustration which was made from a photopraph of plants in my. garden. This species THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 49 grows readily from seed and if any reader cares to experi- ment with it, I shall be glad to send seeds in August for price of postage. MORE DANDELIONS By RoGER SHERMAN Hoar. “Oh, yes, | wrote ‘The Purple Cow’, I’m sorry, now, I wrote It. But I can tell you anyhow Pll kill you if you quote it!”’ HEN my “The Quest of the Blue Dandelion” appeared in the Atlantic for December, 1922, I little thought what a storm of trouble it would bring down upon my inno- cent head . But before coming to that point permit me to take up the tale of the quest where I left it, namely with a clump of blue dandelions blooming on the C. & N. W. right-of-way near the Bucyrus Company in South Milwaukee, and with a pack- age of the precious seeds on the way to me by parcel post from the Reverend Father Superior at Phoebus, Virginia. Alas, his seeds turned out to be merely chicory, which, by the way, ts blue and does have dandelion-like leaves; and the railroad mowed its right-of-way, which you will remem- ber is a habit of public Service corporations where blue dan- delions are concerned. One morning, as I walked along the tracks on my way to breakfast at Bucyrus cafeteria, | found the severed blooms lying still fresh amid the dewy hay. So I gathered them and placed them in a vase in my office. I could afford, now, to use the flowers as mere decorations, for already a twenty- 50 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST foot row of seeds from these same sprouts lay securely plant- ed in my garden. That day I was honored by a visit from a noted engi- neer of Teutonic extraction. The flowers drew his attention, and he inquired what they were. Striking an attitude, I declaimed that these were none other than the famous and fabulous blue dandelion! He sniffed contemptously, and remarked that there was a whole field of them near his home. Now, a prominent society woman and flower-lover of Milwaukee had recently averred that she had seen what she thought was the same plant near Fox Point. So I was a bit chagrined. Then a key-hole of escape loomed before me, as | remembered that the whole field of supposed blue-dandelions in the Berk- shires had turned out to be merely yellow, after all. »o I hazarded: “But yours are yellow, aren’t they?” “Oh, yes,’ he admitted, cheerfully enough, “but they are the same plant exactly. I can tell it by the leafs. I can tell it by the leafs.” In vain I explained to him that the whole point to blue dandelions was that they were blue. His card-catalog mind had indexed them by the “leafs”, and for him that was all there was to it. But as to my more recent troubles. The general run of botanists either do not read the Atlantic, or have put me down as a harmless lunatic, or re- gard my story as an allegory. But not so one of their num- ber. . This redoubtable antagonist (by profession a creator and purveyor of side-show freaks, and a botanist by avo- cation.) whipped his trenchant pen from its scabbard, and proceeded to demolish me in the interests of the thousands of THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 5] flower-lovers who otherwise might be “led far afield by the singularly erroneous article..” His long and witty letter, explaining just why there can be no such thing as a blue dandelion, unfortunately did not explain much, for it consisted almost entirely of quotations from my own essay, with sarcastic comments thereon. Not then knowing his profession, I could not surmise the real reason for his spirited attack. Nevertheless one sentence of his gave me an opening. He said: “There comes to mind the indignant conclusion of the Irishman at first sight of a hippopotamus: ‘There aint no such animal’.”’ I should have been a poor swordsman indeed (or rather, penman) to have missed such an opening, so I replied: “Your quotation is singularly apt, for you will remem- ber that there actually is such an animal as a hippopotamus, in spite of the Irishman’s indignant conclusion. By the same token, there actually is such a flower as the blue dandelion, in spite of your indignant conclusion. “By the way, speaking of animals, just how many quills does it take to make a porcupine? I note that you state that my article ‘would pass for a porcupine if errors were quills’ ; and yet you cite merely two alleged errors: namely, the lily- like leaves and the biennial habit of the blue dandelion. But probably you do not intend to be taken: literally, although requiring a most strict literality of me.”’ In his rebuttal, my enemy drew the following parallel to the editor of the Atlantic and himself : “It is as if Mr. Einstein made public a mathematical assertion that two and two make five, and escaped contradic- ‘tion until his feat of ledgerdemain came to the notice of Babe Ruth, who, to save the rising generation from futile perplexity, had the temerity to reprove the Euclidian protag- onist.”” THE AMERICAN BOTANIST mn ho Overlooking the fact that it would be far better to term .Einstein a Euclidian antagonist, still it is true that Einstein’s assertion that two and two make five has thus-far escaped contradiction ; and anyone who shall effectually disprove and reprove him will certainly knock a home-run in my estimation. But all this is beside the point. The important thing about the letter was that it revealed my correspondent as the author of the famous “Jersey Devil” hoax which once had this whole continent by the ears. Daily for several weeks the newspapers from coast to coast de- voted from one to three pages to weird accounts of the mon- strous terror, these accounts being made up mostly from nar- ratives of eye-witnesses. The seeming incongruity of see- ing the winged monster in California and New Jersey within a period of twenty-four hours was disposed of by the late Professor Langley in a column article, in which, computing the wing-spread from the published descriptions, he showed that transcontinental flight within the stated interval was pos- sible. Another scientific authority gave birth to the state- ment that the Jersey Devil furnished triumphant proof of his long-scouted contention that the so-called prehistoric-ani- mals still existed in subterranean caverns from which they might escape through fissures caused by seismic convulsions. For several weeks the night-flying menace was seen and heard in various parts of the country by many thousands of reput- able persons whose impressions were duly recorded in the newspapers, until finally the perpetrator of the hoax cashed © it in by capturing and exhibiting the beast! Now, as soon as this man revealed his identity to me by recalling the foregoing facts to my mind, I at once realized the cause of his hostility to me and to my blue dandelion: namely, that, being a professional hoaxer himself, he resented my poaching upon his preserves. THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 53 Letters from him now followed each other thick and fast. Failing to convince me that my quest had been fruitless (or rather flowerless), he turned to a well-recognized botanical authority and, misquoting my essay from memory, propound- ed a hypothetical question as to whether I could possibly. have discovered a real blue dandelion. Quick as a shot, his botanic majesty replied : “T have never heard the name applied without qualifi- cation to anything except Taraxacum, or with qualification to anything except a plant of the Compositae family with comparatively large, yellow, dandelion-like flowers. There- fore I say unreservedly that there is no such thing as a blue dandelion.” How simple! All you have to do is to define “dande- lion” as “Taraxacum or any similar yellow flower’,and of course there can be no blue dandelions. Selah! Whatever that may mean. With all due respect to my own profession, that botan- ist ought to be a lawyer. Or perhaps, from his readiness to condemn a fellow-man ex parte, he ought to be a Judge. About this time a lady in Washington, D. C., wrote me that she thought she knew the flower I meant, only it was pink. From then on there ensued a blessed respite, until the fall of 1923, when flower-lovers from all over the United States began to bombard me with requests for seeds of the blue dandelion. In this I think that I can see the fine Italian hand of my late antagonist, the vaude-villian. Unfortunately, my twenty-foot row of blue-dandelion plants, although flourishing with a tropical luxuriance, has not produced a single seed. Nothing to blow about, as it were. And so [ must deny the request of these myriad friends of my enemy. Probably he, with his characteristic literalness, will now 54 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST protest that he is not an Italian. But, be that as it may; I am through. And, as for the blue dandelion, “De mortuis, nil nisi bonum.” Perhaps I haven’t discovered the blue dandelion, after all. But, if not, I feel very much like the little boy from the ~ New York slums, who was out in the country for the first time, on a school picnic, and spied a blue-bird. “Oh, see the beautiful boid,” he exclaimed His teacher corrected him, saying: “You mustn’t say ‘boid .. That isnteat bold. ats a. indo “Well,” replied the little fellow sadly, “anyhow, it looks like a boid.”’ PLANT NAMES AND THEIR MEANINGS —XIX ERICACEAE— II. By WILLARD N. CLUTE EXT to the true wintergreens may come the false win- tergreens of the genus Pyrola, though to judge from the number of vernacular names embodying the idea of ever- green foliage which they possess we might be warranted in assuming that these are the true wintergreens and the others the false. Although the plants are often called “winter green” the group, as a whole, is as often known as “shin-leaf”. The name probably has nothing to do with shins, though the dic- tionary suggests the use of the leaves as shinplasters, but should really be “‘shine-leaf’’ from the glossy foliage of some species. In addition to “shin-leaf”, Pyrola elliptica is known as “wild lily-of-the-valley”, the white flowers faintly sug- gesting our familiar plant. Pyrola secunda is the one-sided wintergreen”, and P. asarifolia the “‘liver-leaf wintergreen” a cn THE AMERICAN BOTANIST the last mentioned name referring to the three-lobed leaves of the hepatica. Pyrola uliginosa is the “bog wintergreen”’ and P. minor, in addition to the inevitable “‘shin-leaf’’ is “wood lily”, though not at all lilylike. The term “lesser wintergreen” is probably only a book name made from the specific name. Pyrola Americana, or P. rotundifolia as it was formerly called, is our best known species and naturally has the most common names. “False wintergreen’, “shin-leaf’’, and “rough-leaved wintergreen” are most frequently heard. “Dollar leaf’’ refers to the rounded leaves and probably “cof- fee-leaf” also. The names “wild lettuce’, “Indian lettuce’, and“‘liverwort lettuce’, seem to indicate the use of the plants as food though they may refer to the shape or appearnce of the leaves. “Canker lettuce’ hints at medicinal properties which “consumption weed” emphasizes. The plant, however, has no value in the cure of consumption though used, like nearly every other wild plant in New England, at one time or another, as a medicine for that afflction which only rest, nourishing food and association with wild plants in the mass can alleviate or cure. This plant is known as “‘copalm” but for what reason is unknown. The term is often applied to the sweet gum of the Southern States and may possibly have some connection with “balm” or perhaps may be simply a mispronunciation of “‘copal.” Moneses uniflora, though no longer included in the genus Pyrola, is still the “one- flower- ed pyrola.” “Snow-drop,” another name for the plant has no significance. It is very probable that Pyrola Americana derives its reputation as a medicinal plant from being confused with the plant once known as Pyrola umbellata but’ which is more familiar to us as Chimaphila umbellata. © This latter plant really has medicinal qualities as its name “rheumatism-weed”’ 56 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST and “‘king’s cure’ attest, though it is seldom that kings have rheumatism, this disease being usually reserved for their poorer subjects. The best-known common name is “pipsis- sewa”’ undoubtedly of Indian origin. The Indians are said to have called it sip-si-sewa. “Prince’s pine’’ or “princess pine” indicate its use by royalty, generally. Any low ever- green plant is likely to be called a “pine’’ and so we have “pine tulip,” “noble pine,’ and by an extension of the idea, ” “Bitter wintergreen” and “bittersweet” re- ‘ratsbane” also “ground holly. fer to the taste of the leaves and possibly ‘ though the plant is in no way harmful to rats. “Love-in- winter” is a poetic if inaccurate translation of the generic term. Our only other species of Chimaphila is C. maculata almost universally called “spotted wintergreen.” It also bears the names of “rheumatism-root”’ and “‘spotted pipsis- sewa.”” The idea that the pipsissewas are harmful plants is again borne out by the names “ratbane,” “wild arsenic”’ and “‘dragon’s tongue’’ given to this species. Many fiower-gathers mentally associate other heath- worts with the wintergreens, especially Chiogenes hispidula best known as “creeping snow-berry” or “running birch.” Its foliage has the same flavor as the aromatic wintergreen and the black birch, which accounts for the last-mentioned name ‘The plant’s prostrate habit and snow-white fruits have suggested most of the other common names. It is called “mountain partridge-berry” through a confusion of the plant with the true partridge-berry (Mitchella). “Maidenhair- berry” is probably another popular misnomer. ‘“‘Moxie- berry” and “moxie-plum” are not even mentioned in the Cen- tury Dictionary and would therefore appear to have no origin in the tongues of the Old World. We suspect them to be of Indian origin. The word Moxa, however, is used in medicine to indicate a plant that may be burned close to THE AMERICAN BOTANIS! 7 the skin to relieve certain diseases. Our plant may have been thus used though there is no record of it. “‘Sugar-plum” is -a fanciful name but “ivory-plum” is more descriptive and, like the same term applied to the aromatic wintergreen, may have been derived from “ivy-plum”’ since “ivy” is a common term to designate evergreen plants of low stature. Among creeping plants one should not omit to mention the most famous of New England blossoms, the ‘‘May- flower” or “trailing arbutus”’ (Epigaea repens). Though not a lower of May in many parts of its range it seems fairly entitled to be considered one of the Mayflowers. The name trailing arbutus distinguishes it from the upright shrubby Ar- butus unedo of the old World. “Ground laurel’’ associates the plant with the true laurel to which, however, it is not closely related through several other members of its family are by courtesy called “laurel”, ‘Winter pink” is a poetic name and “‘shad-flower”’, “mountain pink” and “‘crocus’’, are clearly misnomers, or names transferred from. plants better entitled to bear them. Shad-flower, however, may have as much significance when applied here, as it does when associ- ated with species of Amelanchier. “Rough leaf” is a des- criptive named and “ivy” is another instance of low evergreen being called “ivy.”’ “Gravel-plant” has no reference to the soil but alludes to the medicinal virtues of the plant. There are a number of laurels among the heathworts, but none of them properly so designated if a_ relationship with the classical laurel is intended. The true laurel is Laur- us nobilis of Europe, a relative of our sassafras and spice- wood, which may be found in wooden tubs at the entrances of hotels, restaurants, and public institutions in America. Foremost among our own “‘laurels’’ is that magnificent shrub that annually glorifies the elevated regions from New Bruns- wick to Louisiana with a cloud of pink and white in spring. 58 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST This is Kalnua latifolia, the “mountain laurel” or “American laurel”’ which the prosaic New Englanders “damn with faint praise” by calling “‘calico-bush.” It is occasionally called “small laurel” and “wood laurel” and in the southern part of its range is known as “‘ivy,” “big-leaved ivy,” “ivy-bush” or even “poison ivy.” The name of “spoonwood” is said to have been given this plant because the wood was once used in mak- ing spoons, but it is doubtful if it was ever used in this way. “Clamoun”’ is a name difficult to understand. Perhaps it is an attempt of the unlettered to pronounce Kalmua, if not, our only recourse is to suggest that it is an Indian name! Kalmua angustifolia, second only to latifolia in beauty, is disparaged by such names as “lambkill,” “‘sheep poison,” “calf. ‘kall,” “kill -kid” and “sheep laurel.” All these vale lude to the poisonous foliage. “Dwarf laurel” refers to its height and “‘spoonwood ivy” to the reputed use of the wood. “Wicky” is probably an Indian name. Kalmia polifolia is the “pale laurel,” or “swamp laurel,” both names descriptive of the plant. The great laurel belongs to a genus allied to Kalmia and is named Rhododendrom maximum. It is also. known as “big laurel,’ “big-leaf laurel,’ “deer-laurel” and “horse laurel? « “Horse laurel” refers: to its “size 1m (comipanisan with Kalmua but “deer laurel” appears to get its name from the fact that it grows where deer are found. After laurel, the name most commonly used for our plant is “rose bay,” though the real rose bay is the oleander. Other names for plant are “bee laurel,” of no significance, “cow-plant,”’ per- haps akin to the term “‘sheep laurel’ applied to Kalmia, “mountain laurel’ by general consent a misnomer, and “‘spoon hutch” another allusion to the use of the wood in making spoons. Since the stems of all the laurels are scarcely of a diameter of a spoon it is a puzzle how any of them came to be THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 59 alled “spoonwood.” Rhododendron catawhiense is the mountain rose-bay” and FR. Lapponicum is the “Lapland ose-bay.”” Both species are also called “laurel.”’ Some slight differences in the flowers have given system- tists a chance to separate several deciduous species of /ho- odendron into the genus Azalea. Chief of these is the Mayflower” or “‘wild honeysuckle” (Azalea nudiflora). It s one of the few species that when in bloom dominate the indscape. It is not closely related to the true honeysuckles, ut its strong and pleasing fragrance causes it to share the ommon name. Among names derived from its color are pink azalea,” “swamp pink,” “river pink, and “purple aza- ea.”’ From the fact that it blooms at Whitsuntide it is nown as “pinkster” and “‘pinkster-flower,” the Dutch name or the season being Pinxter. Though all the species are alled “‘azalea” this is the one usually so named without quali- ying adjectives. The plant is also called “swamp honey- uckle’’and “election pink,” the latter name merely a fanciful ppellation of no significance. Azalea viscosa is the “white wamp honeysuckle’ from its color and place of growth, and ‘clammy azalea’’ for its sticky foliage. An arborescent pecies, A. arborescens, is known as “smooth azalea” and ‘tree azalia’”’. Azalea lutea, often known as A. calendulacea, L species abundant in the southern Alleghanies, has larger hhowy red or yellow flowers and is known as “‘flame-colored izalea,”’ “flaming pinkster,” fiery azalea”’ and ‘yellow honey- suckle.” The alpine azalea” is Loisleura procumbens. Its mly other vernacular name appears to be “trailing azalea.”’ \ famous New England plant, immortalized by Emerson, is the “rhodora”’ called variously Rhododendron Canadense, R.. Rhodora and Rhodora Canadense. ‘Through it it all, the vernacular name has continued unchanged, an example of ~ 60 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST stability that the technical name cannot approach though scientists have tinkered with it on many occasions. Leiophyllum buxifolium is still another myrtle, this time “sand myrtle”. Another name, “‘sleek leaf’, is merely a translation of the generic name and is probably not in ver- nacular use. Included in this group of low or creeping plants may be the “mountain heath’’ whose technical name is Phyllodoce coerulea. Another “mountain heath” is Men- zlesia glabella. A second species, M. pilosa, is the “minnie- bush” which name is regarded as the equivalent of Menzies’ bush. From the fact that the specific name of our only species of Cassiope is hypnoides, we derive the vernacular names or more probably the book names of “‘moss-bush”’ and ‘“moss-plant,” though the short stems and tiny leaves make the plant rather mosslike. According to the generic name, Chamaedaphne, the plant bearing it should be a low one, but our only species, the familiar “leatherleaf’ (C. calyculata) grows to a height of four feet’or more. The vernacular name refers to the small leaves which at the approach of cold weather don the colors of russet leather and remain on the plant until spring like a new sort of evergreen. The plant is very often known as “cassandra” since this was the generic name until very recently. Another remarkable plant inhabiting localities similar to those preferred by the leather-leaf is the “Labrador tea” (Ledum Groemlandicum ). Its evergreen, revolute leaves, covered with wool on the under sides, is often used for tea, hence the name. Still another heathwort that loves cold bogs is the “marsh rosemary” (Andromeda polifolia). This is also ” 99 ’ known as “bog rosemary”, “wild rosemary”, “moorwort’’, and “marsh holywort’. The last mentioned name, as well as “rosemary”, was undoubtedly given to the plant from some fancied connection with the Virgin, but rosemary in this case THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 61 means simply “dew of the sea”. Our plant in the old days was known as rosmarinus, sylvestre minus. PLANTs Usep 1n MeEpicINE.—Vendors of patent medi- cines are fond of emphazing the fact that their nostrums con- tain only vegetable ingredients, but the stock in trade of the regular physician does not differ much in this respect. Nor are most of the plants used in medicine imported from re- mote parts of the world. Probably the majority of them are dug up in our own woods and fields. Since there are a number of showy wildflowers in the list, a new aspect is put on the protection of our native flora. We may yet have to decide whether to “leave the dainty recluse to fulfill the law of its being’, or to tear it ruthlessly from the earth to as- suage our aches and pains. At the present time efforts are being made to grow several of the wildflowers in commer- cial quantities but thus far with only partial success. It is the same with many drug plants. We no longer hear of the vast sums to be made from a garden of ginseng. Doubt- less the ginseng-promoters are now selling oil-stock, or in- dulging in other get-rich-quick schemes. Contrary to general opinion, there in very little money in collecting drugs. The price for most plants, dried, is under fifty cents a pound and this does not pay for the time and labor expended in digging, cleaning and marketing. In this magazine for 1919 we have listed both the official and officinal drug plants of North America, but it may be well to mention here the species with showy flowers used in medicine, that are often regarded as wildflowers to be protected. The list includes devil’s-bit, colic-root, red trillium, blue flag, all the lady’s- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 73 slippers, Canada ginger, serpetaria, bug-bane, hydrastis, gold- thread, pasque-flower, mandrake, blue cohosh, bloodroot, squirrel-corn, sundew, wild indigo, cranesbill, Seneca snake- root, mallow, passion-flower, rock-rose, spikenard, angelica, bearberry, yellow gentian, buckbean, butterfly weed, bitter- sweet, vervain, elder, Indian tobacco, grindelia, dandelion, colt’s-foot, purple cone-flower, boneset and squaw-weed. All the foregoing are standard drugs. There is another list of plants that on occasion may be substituted for them among which we find sweet flag, Indian turnip, skunk-cabbage, water lily, hepatica, moonseed, celandine, agrimony, Jersey- tea, ginseng, trailing arbutus, milkweed, Collinsonia, mother- wort, pennyroyal, partridge berry, Joe-Pye-weed, rosin- weed, ragweed and yarrow. Clearly the protection of plants is rather more complicated than the mere securing of laws prohibiting the picking of wildflowers. — No Crop Far,ure in 4000 Years.—The arguments in favor of diversified farming as against a single crop system would vanish if there were any way to prevent that single crop from failing. No way to do this has been found, yet it is remarkable that lower Mesopotamia has operated prac- tically on the single crop system for at least 4000 years, and probably for centuries longer, without the record of one crop failure. Mesopotamia’s crop is dates which not only forms the staple food of the people but is that country’s chief ex- port. Since early biblical days the date palm has been care- fully cultivated there and writings on the subject that have been carefully preserved on brick tablets prove how much scientific knowledgs the date growers of those early times had gained. It was to water these date palms, that the first irrigation system known to man was devised.—WNattonal Nurseryman. 74 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST JoHNNy AppLESEED.—The note regarding “Johnny Appleseed” in the January number of this magazine has brought out several addional bits of information. Mr. S. H. Burham writes that the Macmillan Campany has issued two printings of a novel by the Rev. Newell Dwight Hillis under the tittle of “The Quest of John Chapman; the story of a forgotten hero.” According to Mr. Burnham, Harpers have also issued (1915) “Johnny Appleseed, the romance of the Sower,” by Mrs. Eleanor (Stackhouse) Atkinson. Rev. C. W. G. Eifrig, commenting on the statement that Chap- man’s burial place is unknown writes: This is an error. Last year I had the privilege of standing at the grave of “Appleseed.” This was in connection with the annual pil- grimage of the Society of Indiana Pioneers and the Indiana Historical Society to Ft. Wayne, Indiana. After all the historical spots in and around Ft. Wayne had been visited, including the sites of the various French, English and Ameri- can forts, the pilgrimage wound up at the grave of Johnny Appleseed. This is on the Rudisill farm about five miles north of the city. The grave is in the middle of a small cemetary, used only for a short time by the neigborhood. Chapman had died nearby at the farm home of William Worth. The grave has been supplied with a strong iron fence and a monument by the Indiana Horticultural Society, if | remember right. The inscription on the stone: “John Chapman ‘Johnny Appleseed’ died in 1843”. (not 1847 as stat- ed in the note in question). There is also a tablet erected to his memory in Swinney Park in Ft. Wayne. There are still apple-trees in and around the city, patriarchs of their kind, that are pointed out as having been planted by Johnny Appleseed. Appleseed was a unique character in the pioneer stage of that part of our country. It is said that in order to reduce the number of bundles containg his few belong- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST rh ings, he carried a cooking pot or a frying pan, or both, on his head instead of a hat. No wonder the Indians held him in awe! He was an adherent and student of Swedenborg. LONDON PrripgE.—Several readers have kindly supplied | the scientific name for the plant known as London pride, mentioned in the January issue. Although sweet William and bouncing Bet occasionally bear this name, the plant designated by our correspondent proves to be Lychnis chalce- donica. his, Miss Julia J. Noll notes, is more frequently called scarlet lightning or Jersualem cross. Mr. A. L. Truax writes: “This plant is more commonly called London pride than any other plant | know of and it also answers to the description—somewhat like a tall phlox with scarlet flowers and notched petals.” Dreer: of Philadelphia applies the name London pride to Saxifraga umbrosa. [So does Bailey’s New Manual—Ed]. The common sweet William is some- times called London tuft but I have never heard it called London pride. All of which is further illustration of the un- certainty and futility of the use of common names’. Mr. Howard Whitney remarks that Lychnis chalcedonica is per- haps the best known of its’ tribe and that Henderson says it is valuable because there are so few flowers of that color among our hardy herbaceous plants. There is a fine double variety also a double and single white as well as a rosy pink. Concerning the common names he says: “I believe that every plant has an entity and that this entity is represented by its name. While it is true that some plants are known by different names in different parts of the country, and some names represent different plants in different parts of the country, still after rejecting names given from whims and caprice and for mere convenience, there remain the suitable names, some of which go back into the past so far that their origin is not known. These represent the plants’ true names. 76 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST They could just as well be scientific as the technical names but people have not come to a sufficiently intelligent state to have plants classified that way. Red maple and red oak are just as true names as Acer rubrum and Quercus rubra. Latin is a foreign language and the only reason for retaining these names is that scientific persons throughout the world may have a language understood by all. Common names are part of one’s own language and should be used intelligently with the hope that some day they may become so exact and rep- resentative that a foreign terminology may be dispensed with. As to the identity of the cup-and-saucer plant also asked for, several have suggested it might be a bellwort, Campanula calycantha, but the suggestion of Miss Julia J. Noll and Miss Adella Prescott that itis probably the primrose called polyanthus is likely to prove the correct one. One of the pleasant features of conducting the magazine, is found in the ready response its readers make to appeals for help in solv- ing botanical puzzles. It is to be feared that Mr. Whitney does not look far enough into the suggested application of the common names. It would probably work when a plant collector was speaking to another in the same State, but how would we make the Germans, French, British, Russians and Japanese use our common names? Many of our common plants grow in the countries of the Old World and their common names should have precedence on the “saw-it-first’’ principle. Certainly we could not expect them to let us make the common names for them! Clearly technical names, written in a language that does not change, is best when we require accuracy. LARGEST VinEs.—In the November Botanist the edi- tor observes that “which vine is the largest will have to be left to somebody more familiar with tropical botany than the writer’. From my acquaintance with tropical vines it THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 77 seems to me that with but few exceptions their outstanding features is not size but floriferousness. The largest vines I have ever seen were scuppernong grape vines and I remem- ber reading once that the largest vine in the world was an very ancient grape-vine in England. Wild grapes grow very abundantly in Florida the vines sometimes covering lofty trees or covering small trees and shrubs so as to form im- penetrable thickets. In a story printed some time ago in a boy’s magazine the hero was lost in a Florida swamp and in the course of his wanderings became entangled in ‘“‘the sea- grape-vine’. This was amusing to those who know the sea grape for it is not a vine at all nor even a grape but a beau- tiful small maritime tree (Coccolobus uvifera). The fruit hangs in clusters, hence the common name.—Wre. W. 2. Diddell. OIL-GLANDS OF THE LEMON. leaves of the lemon tree (Citrus limomum) are fragrant It is well known that the though much less so than its flowers. To discover the seat of the fragrance, a small piece of the upper epidermis was put on a slide and carefully measured. It presented a sur- face of 100 square millimeters. It was then transferred to a microscope which revealed, as was expected, many oil dots. On account of their abundance it was thought of interest to know the number present in an entire leaf and they were counted with great care. In this small piece there were found 150 dots. In another piece from another leaf 110 dots were counted in an area of 70 square millimeters. In the entire leaf with a surface of 2570 square millimeters, there were, if evenly distributed in it as they seemed to be, 4040 oil dots. —Edo Claassen, Cleveland, Ohio. [In Mr. Claassen’s note on the number of stomata in a leaf of Urginea maritima, a piece of leaf 16 square miilimeters in size was set down as 16 mil- limeters square—a very different proposition. Fortunately 78 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST the computation of the number of stomata in a leaf was not affected by the mistake.—Eb. ]. PHLOX ARGILLACEA IN THE GARDEN.—Regarding that interesting plant of the Middle West, known as the silvery lavender phlox (2. argillacea) a correspondent writes: “My specimen has thived immensely in a light soil with sand sub-soil, forming a handsome clump of some 30 or 40 stems. A pleasing characteristic is the persistence of its leaves in autumn and the delightful yellow they take on. This clump was the last spot of color in the garden long after our domes- ticated phloxes and the peonies are dead and black.” Birps AND BITTERSWEET BERRIES.—A_ correspondent asks information regarding the belief that when young birds are caged, their parents will feed them bittersweet berries or other berries to kill them. This may be a very ancient and common superstitition but the writer of these lines has never before heard of it and will welcome more data regarding it. No doubt the parents of caged birds will visit them if pos- sible and perhaps carry them food, but it would be going too far to credit them with sufficient intelligence to understand - the meaning of captivity and the resolution to cause the death of their offspring rather them to leave them to endure it. This superstition is akin to another which has come down to us from hoary antiquity regarding the blasting root or spring-wurzel. It appears to have even antedated Aristotle, the so-called “father of natural history’. Various plants, conspicuous among which are the mandrake ( Mandra- gora) the herb Paris (Paris quadrifolia) and certain fern roots, were credited with magic powers. To obtain the charm, however, there was one standard way. One should find the nest of a woodpecker, swallow, or other bird nest- ing in holes and carefully stop up the entrance. As soon as the mother bird finds herself barred from her young, she THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 79 flies away and soon brings back a plant which laid at the en- trance will at once remove the obstruction, no matter how ‘strongly fastened. One then has only to frighten the bird away to secure the coveted prize. If this is merely laid in the keyhole, it will open any lock. There is also the celan- dine or swallow-wort (Chelidonium majus) with which the swallow restores the sight of any nestling which happens to be blinded. In early days more than one poor bird was blinded by ignorant yokels intent on securing the ‘“kenning- wort” by which even man himself was to improve his sight. Such superstitions have remarkable vitality. Country boys still split the tongues of crows in the hope of enabling them to talk and doubtless have not entirely ceased to look for the jewel in the toad’s head. ABUNDANCE OF ERystPpHE.—On the lower surface of a leaf of Jerusalem artichoke (/Telianthus tuberosus) with a surface of approximately 24,000 square millimeters, half of which was covered by the mildew, Erysiphe cichoracearum, there was found an average of 50 perithecia (fruit bodies) to each 40 square millimeters, or a total for the leaf of 15,000. The upper surface of the leaf, though covered by a thicker ycelium, seemed to possess a similar number of perithecia. s each perithecium usually contains four or five asci each (but often more) with two spores in each ascus, it is not stonishing at the proper time, to find this mildew on many pecies of Compositae, which order of plants it seems to pre- er to live on. A mildew hunter can hardly cross a_ field ithout noticing it—Edo Claassen, Cleveland, Ohio. TAMARIX ARTICULATA. Apropos of Tamarix discussed n the last Botamist they are growing a tree now in some parts f the Colorado desert of California which I have seen thirty eet high or more. It is locally called Athol—C. F. Saun- ers. [The different forms of Tamarix seem specially suited 80 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST to desert conditions. | One sees them used for shade and hedges in the driest regions, and everywhere they retain their green and thrifty appearance in marked contrast to the other desert things that are so uniformly gray-green.—Ed. | STAR-GRASS IN THE ROoCKERY.—The little woodland yellow star grass (Hypo.ris erecta or hir sustus ) adapts itself to the Rock Garden even where it gets full sunshine. A clump of it planted beside a friendly rock where its bulbous roots can be assured of at least a little moisture it will bloom continuously from May to October. Every day a fresh crop of golden stars open from numerous green buds to replace those that have shrivalled on their tiny stalks. | When one scape or stalk has exhausted all blooms another is growing alongside to take its place. Seeds are produced freely which help to enlarge the colony. The hairy grass like leaves turn bronzy in fall and finally disappear for the winter. Without the slightest protection these humble plants have come through three winters and four hot summers and appear to have increased in size and vigor. At no time does the Yel- low Star Grass make a great display but as a constant bloom- er it has few rivals among the humbler plants.—R. M. Crocket. Tanti Lycopopiums.-—One of the most pleasing dis- coveries I made’in the island of Tahati was a Lycopodium or Selaginella with flat, rather delicate sprays which produces fruiting cones at the tips of the branches somewhat ilke Ly- copodium Selago. It has often been regarded as a fern, but the resemblance to the tree-like ground-pine (L. obscurum ordendroideum), of New England and elsewhere, was so striking that it could not be mistaken. The fronds were very dark green and they favored steep, moist, shady banks and the sides of caves or hollows in the rock, dripping with moisture. The first place 1 found it was among the steep- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 81 est gorges of the Fautua, with the famous fall not far distant ; and I was subsequently as much surprised as I was delighted to run across the same beautiful lace of Nature sparingly along the wet, shady bluffs of the northeasterly coast. As in L. obscurum, some of the fronds are more wiry, brighter green and less lacy. The Lycopodium of dry ground (L. cerunum), is not so common in Tahati as in the Marquesas, where it grows to small tree height on the plateaus, forming thickets like grasses or cat-tail.—J. O. Staneliff. Flowers oF WiLLow-HERB.—The purplish flower-buds of the willow-herb (Epilobium angustifolium) have a fash- ion of drooping at the tip of the stalk and gradually lifting themselves up as they grow toward flowerhood. One of the striking features of the purple flower is its long-exserted pistil. When the stamens are ripe the pistil is like a purple bud on a white stem. As it lengthens the tip separates into four sections that curl back and are white on top. The slender pods when ripe divide into four parts that curl back just like the stigma, revealing and releasing the small brown seeds, each with a parachute to carry it away. From the bud to the ripe pod there is always a white streak on the side of the pod next to the ground.—WNell McMurray. ¢ EDITORIAL Re In this issue former Senator Hoar observes that he is through with blue dandelions, but we are inclined to doubt it. He may be quite willing to let the matter rest, but he does not know the temper of the botanist in quest of a new variety. After arousing the curiosity of all who read those two great magazines the Atlantic Monthly and the Americar Botanist, he should know that nothing will satisfy them but a real living blue dandelion and none of your dyed speci- mens, such as we are wont to solace the Irish with on St. Patrick’s day, will suffice. Blue dandelions and blue moons seem to be about equally rare, but since the old saying “Once in a blue moon” apparently admits of the possibility of there really being a blue moon, we infer that once in a blue moon there may be a blue dandelion! It is well known that the dandelion is the most highly specialized of dicots. Per- haps it has arrived at a stage in its evolution when, like the chameleon, it can change color. Surely the highest of plants ought not to be excelled in chromatic aberrations by a mere reptile. Personally, therefore, we shall continue to hold that there are blue dandelions, and though we do not believe in them and never expect to see one, shall still say with the poet “And then its hue! Whoever saw so fine a blue!” ee Old readers of this magazine know that we have three different subscription lists, but they probably do not know that only one of them is in a growing condition. The Patrons THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 83 list is dormant because it was closed some years ago, but since then we have lost only two names from it! The Annual list would be steadily increarsing but for the fact that it so con- santly loses to the Permanent list through new subscribers transferring to it. There are a number of advantages to be gained by becoming a“‘permanent” subscriber, and we suggest to all who think of taking the magazine for more than a year, that they investigate the possibilities of the list. We wel- come all annual subscribers but we are also glad when they become permanent supporters of the magazine. BOOKS AND WRITERS The folks in North North Carolina are now forbidden to think about evolution. * * * The Governor says he does not believe that man descended froma monkey. * * * Neither do the evolutionists but certain southern thought- throttlers have not discovered it yet. * * * Well, the Governor of North Carolina will still have a subject for con- versation with the governor of South Carolina though it may now savor more of Darwin than of Volstead. * * * Charles W. Bowles of Menlo Park, Calif. has issued an in- teresting “Outline of the Animal Kingdom” uniform with his outline of the plant kingdom published in this magazine for 1919.. * .* * “The tree that owns itself” has now another distinction: * * * It has called in a tree sur- geon to repair its broken limbs. * * * This magazine published an account of the tree with photograph in 1918. * * * They are planning a national Arboretum in Wash- Megne.) \*. * ‘Looks’ like a rgood “move, . Fen eit may be observed in passing that what appears to the largest Arboretum in the country is located in Joliet. * * * More than 600 acres with all the native trees and most of 84 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST the hardy exotics. * * * The author of “Wildflowers of the North American Mountains” writes from Switzer- land to say that the report of her book being out of print is incorrect. * * * ‘The book has changed its title, and also its publisher, but it is still the same old book. * * * C. F. Saunders is revising his “Finding the Worth-while in the Southwest” in anticipation of a new edition. * * * This reminds us that the second edition of Smalls “Flora of the Southeastern States’’-is about out * of, print. \feeeee Funny how some people wait till a book is sold out and then pay “advanced prices for ‘second-hand ‘copies.» = ayia “The Glorious Gladiolus”, reprinted from the Gladiolus Bulletin, tells all abut the history and cultivation of this sum- mer flower, (7%) *— Joi. Vondel; Sharon; Massiacmume publisher, * .* * -We are fond of the gladiclus bimawe never have time*to dig up the bulbs in the fall) “7 ae Tulips and daffodils look better to us. * * * Roswell B. Peters’ “Laboratory Guide in Biology” comes to make us glad: we do not live in ‘the Empire State. * * * ‘The book is excellent for the purpose intended, but it savors too much of the Standardized Course, with which New York 1s afflicted, to suit us. * * * We received some of our educa- tion in that State and remember the Regents exams. with feeling, * * * No, we did not intend to write with feelings of admiration. * * * We do not take stock in any brand of education in which a few of the elect tell the rest what to think. * * * Just imagine W. J. Bryan as Secretary of Education in the President’s cabinet! * * * A reader sends us a picture of sixty-one wildflowers found blooming in December and January in the Puget Sound re- gion. * * * About one-third are composites.,-* ("3 The celebrated climate of Los Angeles now has a_ worthy rival. * * * George B. Sudworth, of the Government THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 85 Forest Service is preparing a standard list of the common games of the Trees. * * * This makes. four or five “Standards” by which we can estimate the correct name of a tree in America. * * * If only somebody would de- cide which is the standard standard! ee ee What is the world coming to? Here is Sir Arthur E. Shipley writing of Biology as if it had something to do with life and actually daring to make a joke occasionally and to quote from such classics as “The Walrus and the Carpenter” and ‘The Toad and the Centipede”. He says in his preface that he intended to write a book which would make students of elementary biology think. Well, he has done it all right, but what the solemn scientist will think about it will be good and plenty. Quite likely the latter will secure a copy and sneaking into his study, lock the door and smile in security, but in public he will feel obliged to frown on anything ap- proaching levity in connection with science. And yet the book is good science and exact science. There is no trifling with the facts to make an entertaining tale. The author is simply alive and acts as if his subject were, too. He begins his volume by attempting to define life, quoting in this con- nection Dr. Johnson, Harry Lauder, Herbert Spencer and many others not forgetting the popular opinion that “Life is just one d d thing after another’! All the life pro- cesses common to plants and animals are discussed with nu- merous interesting examples of each and at the end the au- thor “ventures to hope that the book will not be without in- terest to the public that is not preparing for examinations”’ and thanks Heaven that this public is still in the majority. Not without interest? We'll say it is! Anybody from six- teen to sixty who picks it up is likely to read it through be- 86 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST fore laying it aside. ‘The title of the book is “Life; a book for Elementary Students”. It has 200 pages and many il- lustrations and costs $2.50. It is published by the Macmil- lan Co. And here is a new issue of the “Garden of a Commuter’s Wife’ making nineteen in all, if we have reckoned correctly. The book first appeared, anonymously in 1901 and has proved itself a hardy perennial, indeed. It is not to be supposed that this is a literal guide to the cultivation of flowers and vegeta- bles. Books of that kind do not have any such popularity. As a matter of fact, a better title for the book would have been “Fruits from the Garden of a Commuter’s Wife” for its charm consists in the delightful narrative of the experiences which the author, Mabel Osgood Wright, makes the commu- ter’s wife give of her attempts at renovating an old garden in Connecticut. A thread of plot runs through the book, concerned with the doings of the Commuter, the physician father, Mrs. Corkle, the Schmidts and various others. There is not enough plot to warrant the book’s being described as a novel nor enough gardening to place it among horticultural works, but the mixture of the two is possibly more attractive than either would be alone. This is a book for the seasoned gardener rather than for the novice, but if the latter will use his mind as well as his hands he may work up to it in time. Perhaps he would do well to read it now, anyhow, just for the suggestions it gives of what may be gotten out of a gar- den besides flowers and foods. ‘The book is from the Mac- mmillan Press and is well printed. | Somebody, however, should tell the printer that generic names of plants always begin with a capital. And how the book could go through nineteen editions and escape being called to account for its statement that Valentine’s day comes on Feb. 15, is beyond THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 87 the comprehension of the reviewer. The price is $1.50 a copy. Dr. L. H. Bailey’s long-expected “Manual of Cultivated Plants” has at last appeared. Superficially it is like Gray’s “Manual’”’ but a closer examination reveals many features that suggest the author’s ‘Cyclopedia of American Horti- culture”. It is very apparent that the author has worked with a sincere desire to enable gardeners, nurserymen and florists to identify the plants with which they work. Technical terms are reduced in number, the English equivalents being used when it possible to make the meaning clear in this way. There are clear and adequate keys to the families, genera, and species and the author has adopted the British custom of di- viding the technical plant names after the accented syllable as Dicen-tra, Frax-inus, Medica-go. A good many of the names made from proper nouns have been decapitalized, but the geo- graphic names still retain their initial capitals. This being a manual of cultivated plants, one searches in vain for even the showy flowers of our woods and fields unless they hap- pen to have been taken into the garden, but in their places are 1 host of exotics. With many of these we may be familiar but find them listed here for the first time with their relatives from other parts of the earth. A pleasing feature of the spe- cific descriptions is the matter of a more popular nature re- lating to the time of blooming, habitat, habit, uses, derivation of specific names, biographical notes, etc., that, as in the older Manuals, follow the more technical descriptions. Since so many of our cultivated plants come from the tropics it is no surprise to find the names of numerous families included that are not found in our ordinary handbooks. Among such ‘ J are Proteaceae, Pittosporaceae, Bombacaceae, Myrtaceae and Sterculiaceae. The families have changed their relative sizes, a, o. also. There are only two species of Carex listed but a wealth 8& THE AMERICAN BOTANIST of palms, aroids, lilies, amaryllises, legumes, orchids, roseworts and others which are either decorative or possess handsome flowers. The Compositae are comparatively few in number owing doubtless to the fact that so many of the species though possessing bright flowers are yet too weedy to be admitted to the garden. The author is silent as to the brand of nomen- cature used though it 1s evident that he adheres to the Vienna Code. This is in a way to be regretted since the names fail in many instances to agree with those in “Standardised Plant Names” recently issued which deals with the same plants. This however, cannot be helped for a technical ac- count of plants must be impeccable as regards accuracy. In- cidentally we note that the genus Euonymus has its old name back without mutilation, that Pentstemon is spelled (correct- ly), Penstemon and that the horse-radish, which has previously been fitted into 2 number of genera such as Cochleria, Nas- turtium, Roripa, and Radicula has been christened anew as Amoracia rusticana which is quite enough to make any veg- etable hot. The only typographical error we have noticed is Selimum for Selenium. The book is really more than a man- ual; it is a condensed encyclopedia into which the author has inserted many bits of information not essential to the nam- ing of plants but very welcome, nevertheless. The book con- tains more than 850 pages and represents a tremendous amount of work. It is to be regretted that all this makes it necessary to fix the price at $7.00. While this may keep some students from owning the work, it must be recognized that the day when a text-book could be purchased for a dollar or two has gone forever. Macmillan’s are the publishers. Growing the wildflowers may be regarded as a special branch of gardening, to excel in which requires an unusual amount of brains. Our ordinary garden flowers have been associated with man for so long that like some of our domes- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 89 tic animals, they have largely lost the power to look out for themselves, but it is quite different with the feral plants. These latter have consulted their own tastes only and in con- sequence are often exceedingly particular as to soil, exposure, and various other matters. Those who have attempted to cultivate. trailing arbutus, the pink lady’s slipper, the huck- leberry and bog plants, generally, are well aware of this. Not only may wild plants languish in our gardens, but their seeds often refuse to grow, unless they are specially treated. Inducing such plants to grow, therefore, becomes an accom- plishment that may come as a fitting climax to many adven- tures. Recently Herbert Durand has attempted to help mat- ters along by the publication of a book with the title of “Taming the Wuildings”. The book is uniform in size with the well-known field-books of Schuyler Matthews and the text also suggests these books, but here the resemblance ceases for the author begins with a discussion of natural soils and their treatment and follows this with directions for treating trees and shrubs and a list of the best varieties. Then come chapters on herbaceous plants and their cultivation, includ- ing descriptions of 184 of the best kinds and the book ends with further chapters on hardy ferns, heaths, plant protec- tion, wildflower and bird sanctuaries, rock gardens, etc. In the case of desirable plants the author indicates which may be transplanted from their haunts, which should be purchased and which are so rare that they should be protected in the places where they grow. At times one is inclined to disagree with recommendations of this kind. The common clematis, the May-apple and the bittersweet, for instance, do not ap- pear so difficult to transplant or so rare that one needs to buy them, nor do the bluebells (.Wertensia), wild phlox, or wild indigo need to be given sanctuary. Indeed, the last- mentioned becomes a real weed in proper situations. One 90 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST is likely to allow his own experiences to color opinions of this kind. These, however, are minor defects to be overlook- ed especially as the author always errs on the safe side. There are a large number of excellent illustrations and it is quite certain that the book will do much, not only to make our wildflowers more popular as garden subjects, but paradoxical as it may seem, lead to their greater conservation in the wild. All amateurs will have need to consult it frequently. a Phe novice will probably be astonished at the number of our native plants that are considered worth growing. The book is pub- lished by G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, and costs $3.50. Anybody contemplating the publication of a local flora and searching for a model would do well to consult Ellen D. Schulz’s “500 Wildflowers of San Antonio and Vicinity”. This is just such a book as any lover of wildflowers would delight to find upon going into a new locality. The plants are arranged in families with adequate keys for their identi- fication, but this is not what makes the book attractive. It towers above similar works in its method of describing the species. The author has not found it necessary to mention each part of each plant in technical language but has instead given a clear and accurate word picture of each, emphasizing only those features which render it attractive or serve to dis- tinguish it from its congeners. Ecpecial attention is paid to the common names of the plants, the time of blooming, uses and similar subjects. As one looks through the book he is reminded of the work of the earlier botanists written when botany was still the “amiable science’ and its devotees had the time to express the interet and admiration they felt for the wildflowers, as well as to record the shape and texture of each plant part. From this book one is likely to feel that he can soon get a working knowledge of the San Antonio “flora. There are nearly. fifty illustrations of important spe- THE AMERICAN BOTANIST> 91 cies which, though not essential to such a work, are never- theless desirable. This is probably the best book of Texan botany for the novice. It contains 250 pages and is for sale by the author at 1025 Summit street, San Antonio. The price is $2.50. : “The Pharmacist’s Botany’ by George B. Riggs, is in- tended primarily for students of the drug plants and there- fore omits much that ordinarily goes into a general course. The book, however, gives a short account of each plant part and then mentions the uses of such parts in pharmacy. The so-called spore plants are discussed briefly and the contribu- tion they have made to drug plants mentioned. The most interesting and attractive part of the whole work is that de- voted to the classification of seed-plants in which practically ull the species used in medicine, both official and unofficial, ire mentioned under their respective families. The student of medicinal plants might possibly welcome a more extended discussion of the principles found in drug plants with perhaps some account of their preparation for use. There are no di- ections for the laboratory work and the book is evidently ntended more as a source of information than as a stimulus 0 further investigation. The book, however, is the outcome f the author’s fourteen years experience in teaching the ubject and ought to meet the requirements in its particular eld. We note that the printers have stumbled over the word lawthorn. Unlike the well-known author, the plants of this ame do not spell it with an e. The book is published by he Macmillan Company, New York, at $4. The appearance of a new book for beginners in botany rom the Cambridge University Press again emphasizes the t that beginning courses are of necessity pretty much alike. xcept for the plants suggested for study, the book might ell have been written on this side of the world. The new 92 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST volume, entitled “Botany ;a Junior book for Schools’, by-R. H. Yapp of the University of Birmingham, contains twenty- seven short chapters, which beginning with the flower and its uses runs on through roots, stems, and other plant parts. Then follows matter of an ecological nature, stressed under such titles as ““How plants Pass the Winter’, “The Move- ments of Plants”, “The Migrations of Plants’ and ‘The Re- lationships of Flowering Plants’. Our students, however, might properly be confused by references to unknown but common British plants such as sycamore, the broad _ bean, and the groundsel the latter described as “a very familiar weed”. The book runs rather too much to technical terms to suit the majority of American teachers but it is apparent that the student taught by this book will be well taught. The illustrations, mostly by the author are clear, original, and at- tractive. The book is published in America by the Macmillan Company. The sports of hunting and fishing offer their tempta- tions to a greater number of young persons, but they do not afford continued pleasure to their votaries, like botanizing. The hunter watches his dog and the angler his line, but the plant-hunter examines everything that bears a leaf or flower. His pursuit leads him into all the green recesses of nature— into sunny dells and shady arbors, over pebbly hills and splashy hollows, through mossy dingles and wandering foot- paths, into secret alcoves where the hamadryads drape rocks with ferns and naiads collect the dews of morning and pour them into their oozy fountains for the perfection of their verdure —Wilson Flagg. > 4. a - ° fe ae ae ‘ hi 2 hi « . P ee: Boot Se i UI gh Hm gD ‘ 7, t Ry i Pea DREERS GARDEN BOOK is more than a catalogue—it is an indispensable guide to success in growing Vegetables and Flowers. Many thousands of amateur and professional gardeners rely wholly on its expert advice and are never without a copy. Hundreds of pictures, some in natural colors feature the Dreer specialties in Seeds, Plants and Bulbs and add much to the inter- est of the book, We will gladly send you a copy of this invaluable Garden Book free, if you will mention this pub- lication. HENRY A. DREER 714-716 Chestnut St., PHILADELPHIA, PA. [sie comer, 6.50 1916. Assistance exten te = aud graduates. Write for details. American Landscape School 87 H, Newark, N. ¥. As a Nursery growing ornamentals, we are looking for permanent source of sup- ply of seeds of indigenous trees, vines, shrubs and ever- greens of central and north- ern latitudes. Also plants of new finds, sorts, or hy- brids worthy of ornamental culture. Parties having anything of interest please write. NAPERVILLE NURSERIES . NAPERVILLE, ILLINOIS The American Botanist A Quarterly Journal of Economic @ Ecological Botany WILLARD N. CLUTE, EDITOR SUBSCRIPTIONS.—The subscription price of this magazine is $1. J a year or $2.50 for two years, payable strictly in advance. The magazine is not sent after subscriptions expire. Personal checks on small or dis tant banks must contain ten cents for collection fees. The magazine : issued in January, April, July and October. WILLARD N. CLUTE & CO., PUBLISHERS 207 WHITLEY AVENUE, JOLIET, ILL. Entered as Mail Matter of the Second Class at the Post Office, Joliet, Ill. FARM AND GARDEN | An Attractive Monthly Magazine PUBLISHED BY THE WOMAN’S NATIONAL FARM AND GARDEN ASSOCIATION Read by thousands who love gardening; who observe in the signs of the times, the meaning of farming and gardening in home, economic and civic affairs today. Subscription Price $1.00 Per Year 1732 STEVENS BLDG., CHICAGO A Quarterly devoted to Ferns and Fern Allies, pub- lished by . The American Fern Society { Subscriptions $1.25 a year Sent free to all members of The American Fern Society. Annual dues $1.50 Life membership $25.00. CZ Send for free sample copy : PENCIL COMPANY fi i PHILADELPHIA U.S.A. i E. J. WINSLOW, Auburndale, Mass ‘pmb A vmM0jADIJ—ALAVAG ONIAdMS AH, eR “ea, ; “2h THE AMERICAN BOTANIST MOL. XXX. JULY, 1924. No. 3 Never in its life has the sun seen shade, Never in its life seen a shadow where it falls; There, always there, in the sun-swept glade, It lurks below the leaf, behind bodies, under walls, Creeps, clings, hides—be it million, he it one— The sun sees no shadow and the shadow sees no sun. Lawrence Housman. LIBRARY 'EW YORK \NICAL “EN THE SPRING BEAUTIES | By Wii Larp N. CLutre | 3 is scarcely necessary to write of the spring beauty for * those who live within its range. From Nova Scotia to Sas- -katchewan and south to Texas and Georgia it 1s a common cand well-known plant in all suitable localities. It is especially fond of low woods and the banks of streams, but is disposed to shun the prairies and open spaces generally. Those who have suggested that this plant be protected by law must be residents of grassland regions. That the plant is in no need of protection in parts of its range, at least, is seen from our frontispiece which was made from a view in a piece of wild woodland near Joliet. Here the earth is so thickly strewn with blossoms and to give it the appearance of being covered with belated snow-drifts. ~) Although so abundant the flowers are rarely gathered in Buantity because the individual blossoms are rather evanes- nt and do not open well in the house. It seems to require 96 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST both warmth and sunlight to fully expand the corollas ané in their woodland haunts the flowers are seldom entirely op until ten o’clock. The usual color of the corollas is white, but the deep pink = veins of the petals give the flower a decidedly pink hue. Oc casionaly they are pink throughout and the writer has a plant in his garden that is uniformly deep rose-color. The flowering stems spring from a roundish tuber-like stem deep in the soil. This is edible and is said to taste like chestnuts when boiled. There are supposed to be two species of spring beauty in eastern America. The common one is Claytoma Vuir- giuca. It has slender leaves and many flowers in racemes. The second species is named C. Caroliniana and is described as having broader leaves and fewer flowers. The writer has ‘found many plants with leaves up to nearly an inch broad, but thus far has failed to find plants that looked sufficiently different from C. Virginica to be regarded as a separate species. If any reader of this has C. Carolimana in his re- gion, the writer would appreciate a leaf or flower-cluster. A PLEA FOR ARBITRATION NORMAN JEFFERIES HE hope that Mr. Roger Sherman Hoar would furnish corroborative testimony in support of his claim to dis- covery of blue dandelions or, after enlightenment or reflec- tion, would confess either error or playful jest, is not sus- tained by reading his latest article in the American Botanist. Mr. Hoar feels it necessary to reveal me as “by pro= fession a creator and purveyor of side-show freaks, and a ———— —— Ee -the Botamst is willing to infer that THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 97 botanist by avocation.”” For me to retort that my accuser is very well known to be an authority on constitutional law, and, obviously, not a botanist by avocation, would contrib- ute nothing to the point of the discussion. That point ts whether or not there is a plant that may be correctly called a blue dandelion. Mr. Hoar is on record with positive statements that he has found blue dandelions in Virginia, Massachusetts and Wisconsin. The editor of the Atlantic Monthly who pub- lished the discoverer’s account of the plant which, if veri- fied by reasonable authority, would electrify botanists the world over, has stated in a letter to me that he knows a dandelion when he sees one and that he has both seen and handled the blue dandelions in question. To which he adds that he must either believe in them or doubt the credence of his own senses. With the vagaries of variation in mind the editor of “once in a blue moon there may be a blue dandelion.”” Even amateurs will agree with Mr. Clute’s pleasant way of expressing a_blological truism. But we have been asked to believe that blue vari- eties of a species So prolific and fast running as Tararacun have existed in three widely separated localities without the knowledge of botanists, both amateur and professional. My cherished botanical avocation is confined to an ef- fort to become acquainted with the flowers of field and road- side, the floral wild folk frequently miscalled weeds. The bibliography of the subject is voluminous enough to cause despair to the collector. My own library is sadly incomplete and yet it numbers many works from first editions of old herbals by Gerarde, Parkinson, Turner and Fuchs to present day treatises. They cover a period of nearly 400 years dur- ing which no blue dandelion has been recorded and the oc- 98 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST currence of such an extraordinary floral phenomenon could hardly have escaped all of these vigilant eyes. Thus it is that the imputed existence of the blue dandelion that has con- cealed itself from all eyes but those. of Mr. Hoar and the editor of a Boston magazine cannot fail to excite doubt among students of botany. Mr. Hoar refers to a creation of my own imagination, the “Jersey Devil” and recalls that “finally the perpetrator of the hoax cashed it in by capturing and exhibiting the beast.”” I ask him to note that thus and in such manner did I give the public a chance to see for itself and draw its own conclusions. If Mr. Hoar can be persuaded to do something of the kind, the blue dandelion controversy can be settled for all time. He speaks of his “‘twenty-foot row of blue dande- lion plants” which “although flourishing with a tropical lux- uriance, has not produced a single seed.”’ With restraint I refrain from italicizing one or two words in the quoted sen- tences. It will be conceded that the editor of the American Botanist would be a competent arbiter in a matter of the kind and it is fair to assume that from his “‘twenty-foot row of blue dandelion plants” the fortunate owner will be will- ing to spare one specimen for Mr. Clute’s inspection and classification. This, as it seems to me, would be the short and straight road to either authentic recognition or repudi- ation of the genuineness of Mr. Hoar’s discovery. And in the event that it is officially decided that in the procession of botanical science the marchers are all out of step but Mr. Hoar and the Atlantic editor, I want to be the first to sug- gest that the new variety be named after the sharp-eyed dis- . coverers. An article in the Botanist in which I expressed belief that Mr. Hoar would share the fruits of his “discovery” ‘THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 99 with less favored plant collectors resulted, as he states, in bringing to him requests from “‘flower-lovers from all over the United States.” This may be accepted as evidence of the wide-spread interest that would be given to an authori- tative classification by Mr. Clute. With the hope that Mr. Hoar may be induced to submit one of his luxuriant specimens in time for decision in the coming issue | am sending him a copy of this proposal. And should be acquiesce | am sure that in the forthcoming num- ber of the American Botamst a good time will be had by all. THE PIONEERS OF BOTANY AN’S first interest in plants was undoubtedly connected with his need for food. From the very beginning it was necessary for him to know which plants were edible, which were harmless and which actually harmful, 1f he was to maintain or advance his interests among living things. The word botany, itself, under which we now arrange all of our knowledge relating to plants, comes from a Greek word mean- ing to eat and indicates how closely plants and foods were as- sociated in the minds of our primitive ancestors. Originally all food came from wild plants, but the desire to live well and to enjoy the best must have ultimately suggested the cultiva- tion of the more useful species. Plants other than food plants that early engaged man’s attention were those used in divination and incantations, in charms, for garlands and other decorations, and lastly as medicines. Among uncivilized peoples, however, there was seldom any great distinction made between herbs used for sorcery and those used for healing, and priest and physician were commonly combined in a single person, the medicine 100 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST man. It is likely that for ages man’s interest in plants did not go much beyond the phases here mentioned. In the course of time, however, a considerable body of useful infor- mation about plants must have accumulated, derived largely from the experience of hunters, fishers, farmers, physicians and others who came into contact with wild plants. At first this knowledge was probably handed down from father to son, but as it increased in amount it was ultimately written down for better preservation. Just who wrote the first book on plants it would be im- possible to say. At a very early date the Greeks, Arabians, “gyptians and other eastern peoples had a_ considerable knowledge of plants and there is even said to have existed a treatise on medicine as early as the fifteenth century before Christ. The Greeks, especially, took a keen interest in all phases of nature and they were among the first to regard plants as living things and not merely as food materials. Un- doubtedly many books about plants were written and_ since completely lost to the world. The first about which much information has been handed down to us was written about 400 years before Christ by a Greek named Aristotle. The treatise itself is unfortunately lost but much of it is familiar to us through references to it by later writers. Aristotle’s father was court physician to the Macedonian King Amyntas and, since the early physicians gathered the herbs and made the medicines they used, the boy undoubtedly grew up in a botanical atmosphere. At the age of 18 he went to Athens where he studied in the school of the great philosopher, Plato, and later became the teacher of the young Alexander, renowned as the conquerer of the world. Aristotle’s writ- ings are said to have comprised more than 300 books on al- most every phase of human knowledge. He 1s often styled the “Father of Natural History’ and is said to have had ——— THE AMERICAN BOTANIST 101 an idea of what we regard as the modern subject of evolution. After the death of Aristotle (in 322 B. C.) Theophras- tus, another Greek physician who has been associated with him in a school at Athens, wrote a book of his own entitled “The Natural History of Plants’ which was founded mainly on the observations of the rhizotomei or herb gathers. In this he described more than 500 species of plants. For several centuries after this, no book about plants important enough to be remembered was produced. The next work of which we have knowledge was a fifteen volume work on “Materia Medica” or history of medicinal plants written by Pedanius Dioscorides who lived in the first century after the Christian era. Among the Romans, the name of Gaius Plinius Secun- dus, or Pliny the Elder, holds first place in the list of writers on nature. Pliny was born in the year 23 A. D. and near the end of a busy life issued his famous “Natural History of Plants” consisting of 37 volumes. This work, like many of the early books, was largely a compilation of the thoughts and observations of others. In composing it he is said to have consulted no less than 200 volumes. It was his habit to make copious notes of all he read and at his death he left 160 volumes of such notes. Pliny’s thirst for knowledge at last led to his death. In the year 79, an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius overwhelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii. Pliny, who was in command of the Roman Navy, was with his fleet in the Bay of Naples and going ashore to better observe the occurence, lingered too long to make notes and perished with many of the inhabitants. For many centuries after Pliny and Dioscorides, little if any advance in botany was made. The fall of the Roman Empire about 500 years after Christ, and the overpowering of the intellectural nations by others hostile to culture, ex- 102 THE AMERICAN BOTANIST tinguished the light of learning in Europe for more than a thousand years. During the Dark Ages as this period was called, such scientific knowledge of earlier days as survived was preserved in monasteries and similar institutions.