esosedetebeses eee eon t rhe ) . Cr ee ee eed oreo wee oi oath te alt pie eee een ee eee SR Pe ae eon : alel ete elele” sledefelelelelede ey x todas oy be dove, 3 ine + . 7 ie i es "4 j \ i ie } i. ‘ is te 7 ve , ee eh F Vy ’ . a0 } i ' ; a f 7 a | , de ' Grae tiny ee | ; Meat Re F ( vey P a cele f f y Jae . , j aA ») ae j i ! ’ ; “i ie / ri he 2 ihe, , hi es i Ve fi 1D) } | j 4 ¥ ‘a ‘ fi ‘ a ; i (ta y ' * a | é Pi | f A i d >! \ / ‘ } ie t ewe) ie at Ns i | ey j i ue a Av ; ‘? ey th { hy, ‘i A ; op weit Ad 6 iia had Reo Ry MERICAN DAIRYING:2 A MANUAL FOR Butter and Cheese Makers. Ly By ARNOLD, A. M., Secretary of the American Dairymen’s Association, Dairy Contributor to the New York Tribune, Lecturer on Dairy Husbandry, &c. ROCHESTER, N:’Y.: RURAL HOME PUBLISHING COMPANY. 18.76. ‘ Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, BY L. B, ARNOLD, iy ae In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, DAG REMARKS. UrcEnT demands and frequent inquiries fora thoroughly practi- cal work on American Dairying, together with continuous ques- tions in regard to almost everything pertaining to the dairy, are the only apologies the author has to offer forthis volume. In its prepa- ration the aim has been to meet the wants indicated by the num- erous inquiries that have from time to time reached him, and to so condense its contents as to keep its cost within the reach of every dairyman, and at the same time to give as full and fair an exposition as possible of the subject of dairying as developed by practical experience in factories and dairies in the United States and Canada. This effort has made it necessary to omit some details which might have been interesting, and often to be con- tent with enunciating a general principle or fact without accom- panying it with the evidence on which it was based. The work is mainly the result of the investigations, observations and experiences of the author. He has avoided borrowing from foreign sources, preferring to confine himself to that with which he was familiar and of which he had knowledge—to that which is adapted to dairy husbandry in America—instead of drawing from outside and often doubtful sources, and speculating on what is conjectured or not positively known. The work is, therefore, not a compilation, but essentially original and American. The author has also avoided adopting or recommending new and doubtful ideas and processes. If he cannot lead aright, he does not mean to lead astray. He is aware of the deficiencies and imperfections of the work, but he is not aware that it contains anything false or pernicious. Hoping it may meet the wants of the intelligent and rapidly increasing number of men and women engaged in the important interest of dairying in the United States and Canada, the author submits the result of his labors to their - careful consideration and candid judgment. % EB x ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS. AMERICAN DAIRY SYSTEM, Ori i Associated Dairying, Influence of Dairy Production, Extent of - DAIRY FARMING, - - gin and Development of ~ Soiling Dairy Cows, Importance of - Dairying upon Exhausted Soils, Influence of Manure on Dairy Farms, Importance of - Liquid Excretions, Value of Products on Dairy Farms, Uniformity o Dairying, Limit of - - DAIRY STOCK, - - ae Dairy Breeds, Number of - Ayrshires, - - . Channel Island Cattle, - Ayrshire Milk, Quality of - Average Yield of Ayrshires, Average Yield of Jerseys, - Dutch or Holstein, - Jersey Cheese, Analysis of - Average Yield of Dutch Cows, Shorthorns, - - > Butter Globules in Shorthorn Milk, Character of Other Breeds, - Thoroughbreds, Deficient Numbers of - Grades of Milking Breeds, Value of HEREDITARY DESCENT, Laws of, as Appli How Qualities are Acquired and Lost, ** Taking Back,’ When it Occurs, Law of Transmission, Importance of Breeding from Similar ‘l'ypes, Milking Breeds, Perfection of Prepotency, First Effects of Old Creamer, Remarkable Vield, Jersey Cows, Remarkable Yield of ; Shorthorns Crossing on Native Stock, Effect 0 Selecting Dairy Stock, - Milking Quality, Illustration of Value, Dairy Cows, Length of Period of Milking Dairy of A. L. Fish, - Comparative Reliability of Different Breeds, DAIRY CATTLE, Annual Demand for - Where Selections Must Come From, External Indications of Milking Capacity, - ° Signs with No Significance, Signs which have Significance, Milk Mirror, Value of — - Skin, Significance of - - Cellular Tissue, Significance of - Breeds for Special Purposes, - Small Breeds, Localities Adapted to Large Breeds, Localities Adapted to Poor Milker, Sample of (Illustrated), f ed to Grades Vill Table of Contents. FOOD FOR DAIRY STOCK, - THE THE Circumstances which Affect Quantity Required, Considerations of Cost, - Considerations Affecting Quality, - - Influence upon Milk Secretion, - . Effect of Sudden Changes in - - - Changing from Hay to Cs - - Salt, Importance of - - - Soiling, When Advisable,_ - - - Fodder Corn, Value, - - - - Fodder Corn, When to Use, - - Fodder Corn, Character of Composition, - Lucern, - - - - - Clover, Red ~ : - - - Soiling, - - - - - Fal Feeding, - - - - - Bran, - - - - . Feed and Milk, - - = Ser ait - Early and Late Cut ye, - - - Food of Animals, - - - - Corn Stalks and Straw, - - - Daily Food of aCow, - - - - Food and Housing, - - - - Food at Time of Calving, . - - Condition of Food for Bovine Digestion, - Digestive Apparatus of Ruminants, - - The Course of Food, - - - - Feeding Meal, - - - - - Food Experiments, - - - Mode of Meeding of Ruminants, . - Digestion, - - Food for Milch Cows, - - - - Water, - - - - Provisions for Niater, - - - - DAIRY BARN, - - : - Barn of Peter Mulks,~ - . - - Provisions for Manure, - - - Stables and Milking, . . - - Conveniences of Fodder, - - - OCTAGON BARN, - . . - The Octagon Forn, - - = . Barn of E. W. Stewart, - - - - Adaptation of the Octagon, - . - Concrete Wall, - - - - - Water Lime Concrete for Foundations, - Quick Lime Concrete, Proportions : - Concrete Wall, Cost of ‘ - - REARING CALVES, - - - : E MILK Flesh-forming Material, - - . Substitutes for Natural Food, - - - Albuminoids in Milk, - - - - Fats in Milk, - - - - - Milk Magnified, - - - - - Specific Gravi rity, - - - - Sugar of Milk, - - - - Saline Constituents of Milk, - - Ash of Milk, Analysis of - - - Milk Secretion, - - - - Mammary Gland, Development of - - Mammary Gland, How Made, - . Mammary Gland, Arterial Branches of - Lactiferous Vessels, Description of - . Lactiferous Reservoirs, - - - - Table of Contents. | ix PAGE MILK, How Cows Hold Up Milk, Sty ea - oe ett - 136 Central Tendon Described, - - - . - 137 Divisions of Udder Dissimilar, - - - - - - 137 Divisions of Udder into — and Follicles, Z = = 138 Gland Cells, How Formed, - - = = = - 138 Gland Cells, Changes in - - - - = 139 Gland Cells Similar to Milk Globules, . - - - - 139 Milk Globules, Pellicle of, Not Caseine, - - - - 139 Milk Globules, Sometimes Fatless, - - - : - 140 Milk Globules, with Broken Pellicle, - - - - - 140 Colustrum, Formation of _ - = = < = - 141 Colustrum, Decrease of - - - - - 141 Colustrum, Connection with Milk Globiales, - - - 142 Colustrum, Analysis of - - : . . : E 143 Colustrum, Affected by Feed, - - - - - -- 144 Udder Affected by Feed, - - - - - - 145 Milk, Changes in, After Parturition, . - - - - 146 Milk, Quality Affected by Food 146 Tables Showing Changes of Milk by Disece of Time from Calving, 147 Milk, Quality Affected by Imperfect Nutrition, : 149 Milking Function, How to Prolong it, - - - - - 150 Milk Secretion, Effect of on Blood. ° - - . - - 151 Milk Secretion, by Nutrition, - = 5 = = = Fee Milk, Variation in Opacity of - - - . = £ 153 Milk. Solid Caseine in - = - 153 Milk, Quality Affected by Frequency of Milking, - - - 154 MIlk, Quality Affected by Time between Milkings, : - - 154 Milk, Difference between First and Last Drawn, - . - 154 Milk, Loss of by Absorption, - - - - : - 155 Milk, Affected by Breed, = - : : : “ 156 Milk of Ayrshire, - - - - - = “ - 157 Milk of Jersey, - - - - = : = = 157 Milk of Dutch Cow, - - - . . - : She Milk of Shorthorn, - - - : = % . 158 Milking, - - - - - - r = EEG Exciting Cows, - - = = = 160 Treatment of Cows ghile Milking, - = = : on SOX Manner of Milking, = - Es a = a 162 Regularity and Cleanliness of Milking, - . - - - 164 To Remedy Hard Milking, - = = : Sk x60 Changes in Milk, - . - : = = = - 167 Decomposition, - - - = - = = 17G Influence of Air on Milk, = - - 2 : 2 “OZR Odors of Milk, - - - = 2 E ‘ = 172 Spontaneous Coagulation, - - = = z 2 - 173 Experiences in Keeping Milk, - - - : E = 174 The Constituents of Milk, - - > 3 = : a eae Exposure of Milk, - : ; < s 176 x Microscopic Examination of Milk, - = = : 5 - 178 Milk from Unhealthy a - = . - - - 180 Effect of Treatment, - - 2 t = L - 182 ~Odor of New Milk, - - - 2 : = : 183 Evanescent Odors, - - - - = = 2 - 184 Gases from Curds, - - - = 2 2 2 185 Animal Odor, - ~ - : - 4 = = ea Animal Heat, - - : - = : u . 188 Milk in Warm Weather, = - - = = - 190 Volatile Oil, - - - = = s z < 191 Feverishness, - - - - = = s S - 192 Condition of Utensils, - - - = E z u 195 Carrying Milk, - - - - 2 t = - 196 BUTTER MAKING, - - . - = = a 198 Vessels for Setting Milk, - - - . . : - 199 Cream, - = - - = = £ = 203 * Table of Contents. BUTTER MAKING, Specific Gravity of Cream, Raising Cream, - Butter Globules, - ~ - Fats in Cream, - - - Difference in Gravities of Milk, - Effects of Temperature, - - - Skimming, - - Preparing Cream for Channa - When to Churn, - - - . Flecks in Cream, - - - é Coloring, - 2 S Churning. - 2 : Kinds of Churn, - - - Blanchard Churn, - - Temperature of Cream for Churning, Washing Butter, - The Higgins Process of Manipulation, Working Butter, - Butter Workers, - - - Salt for Butter, - - - - Salting Butter, - . - Packing Butter, - - - - Packages, - - - - The Adams BaCeage,, - - - Milk Rooms, - =i - A Model Dairy es ~ - - A Dairy Spring House, - Prof. Wilkinson’s Plan for eae House, Hardin’s Method, - Plan of Ice House, - - - BUTTER FACTORIES, - - : West Bangor Factory, - - - Cooling Milk, - - - Pans Used, - - - - Skimming Milk, - Processes Employed i in Factory Butter Making, Temperatures, Atmospheric Condensation on Goa Large Pan Si) - - CREAMERIES, - . - Elm Tree Creamery, - - - Harrison Creamery, - - - Purity of Pools, - . - Fast and Slow Cooling, - - - Economy in Labor, - - - Economy in Cream, . - - Winter Butter Making, - - Whey Butter, - - - Principles of Cheese Making, - Rennet, Action of - Effect of Heat in Cheese Making, - The Armstrong Vat, - - Acidity in Cheese fee - Setting of Cheese, - - Pressing Cheese, - - - Curing Cheese CHEESE FACTORIES AND FACTORY ‘MANAGEMENT, Willow Grove Factory, - - - Factories in the West, - : Delivering Milk to Factories, - - Factory Milk Can, - - - Carrying Milk,_ - - - - Ventilation of ‘Cans, - . : Delivering Milk, - - . - ~ za 243 ~*3I5 Table of Contents. xi PAGE CHEESE FACTORIES AND PALEORY MANAGEMENT. Motive Powers, - : - 317 Methods of Heating, - - - - < - 2 319 Use of Vats, FS = = - - - - - 320 Curd Cutters, 7 = = = - - - . 321 Curd Mill - -, - = = ~ = - 324 The Cheddar Pisces - - - : < : = 326 Treatment of Curd, - . - : = 2 = - 327 Working Tainted Milk, - - = - = : = 328 Working Sour Milk, : - - = = a - 330 Working Skim-miulk ‘Cheese, - = = 5 = : 331 Oleomargarine Cheese, - - - : : F - 334 The Ellsworth Method, - - - - : - - 334 Hay Cheese, - - - : e 2 . - 336 Curing Early Cleese, - - - < 2 - 2 337 Pressing Cheese, - - - e : - : - 338 Time of Pressing, . - - : - “ : L 340 Care of Cheese in the Curing Room, - - - . - 341 Boxing Cheese for Market, - = = = = < 342 Farm Dairy eheese Making, - = : 2 : - 342 APPENDIX, - - = 2 2 : “ 346 Hot Iron Test, - < = + _ : - 346 Testing Milk at Factories, - - - - : = 346 Rennet, z : < . - 347 Preparing Coloring for Cheese and Butter, - - - - 350 To Prepare Basket Annatto, : - = = _- 350 Boards of Trade, - = - P 2 350 Rules and Regulations fic a Board of Trade, - - . - 351 List of Apraratus, - = - = 352 Complete Outfit for a Cheese Fastacy, ae 400 Cans - - - 352 Form for Organizing a 2a Manufacturing Came see or Association, 353 Analysis of Cheese, -- 354 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. Ayrshire Cow, Georgie, Jersey Cow, Nella, Dutch or Holstein ‘Cow, Maid ae Twisk, Shorthorn Cow, - Milk Mirror, - Barn of Peter Mulks, - Barn of Peter Mulks, Plan of Bents of Keeler’s Barn, - Basement of Mr. Stewart’s Barn, Octagon Barn, - -. Fats in Milk, - - Udder, - Teat with Irregular Intesion Lobules,_ - - Ultimate Follicles, os Milk Globule with Broken Pellicle, Enlarged Poles. - Colustrum, . - Colustrum, -™ ee ; Fifth Milking, = - - Old Milk, - Plug for Enlarging Teat, Milk Cells, - Impurities in Milk, Milk Globules, - Milk from Stagnant , Water, Milk from Distillers’ plops, Milk Cooler, - Milk Vat, - - ‘Dash Churn, - - Blanchard Churn, - Butter Worker, - The Adams Butter Deedee: Chesebro’s Butter Jar, - Plan of Spring House, Sub-Earth Duct, - - Hardin’s Milk Cooler, Plan of Ice House, - Butter Factory, West Bangor, Butter Factory, West Bangor, N. Y., | Ground Plan of - N. Y., Elm Tree Creamery, Elevation of - Elm Tree Creamery. Ground on & of - Harrison Creamery, - Heating Apparatus, - Willow Grove Factory, Willow Grove Factory, Plan of Iron-Clad Can, - Can Ventilating Device, Economizer Engine, Cheese Vat, - - Curd Cutters, ale Syphon, - - - Curd Mill, - - Curd Sink’ on Castors, - - Io1 107 - IIo III - 128 134 138 140 - 141 142 - 143 144 166 179 181 - 182 200 - 202 225 235, 245 - 252 255 264 - 269 281 - 283 299 309 315 318 320 323 325 aa, a ‘ ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN DAIRY SYSTEM. From time immemorial the milk of domestic ani- - mals has been used as food for man, and its value as a wholesome and rich diet has been recognized from the earliest records, all the way down to the present date. The cow has been the chief animal from which to derive milk; but the sheep and goat, the ass and horse, the buffalo and deer, have each also been drawn upon to furnish for the gratification of the human palate and the support of human life, the pabulum nature designed for their own offspring. The milk of these animals is still largely employed as food by different nations, but in American dairying, only cow’s milk is used, and but very little milk from any other animal is ever used by, or even familiarly known to, the people of the United States. Cow’s milk is therefore only treated of in this work. Butter and cheese came later into use, but their origin, too, reaches so far back, that its precise date is lost in the dimness and obscurity of the distant past. r4 American Dairying. Though for many centuries in use, and always esteemed as health-inspiring luxuries, the progress which has been made in preparing milk and its pro- ducts for preservation and consumption, has been remarkably slow until within a very recent period. The slow advance in the quality and production of butter and cheese, is not without many parallels in rural industries. The modes of tilling the earth, the rearing of flocks and herds, and the culture of fruits and grains, have made equally slow advances. In all the avocations of men in which the laborers work in positions so isolated as to fail of quickly catching any progressive steps their fellows may make, advancement is always slow. To make much progress men must work socially, so as to learn of each other. No one makes much progress by work- ing alone. It was not, therefore, till associated dairy- ing came into vogue, and the numerous associations for mutual instruction and investigation were estab- lished, that dairying in this country, made any marked * advance. Since these agencies were adopted, it has on this continent shot ahead with a velocity that has astonished ourselves and attracted the attention of the civilized world. It is not my purpose to trace the history of dairy husbandry through the long and devious course from its origin down to the present time. It must suffice for me to allude in the briefest way to the rise of the system now in general use in the United States and Canada, known as the American system of dairying, and to pass at once to a study of its practical work- ings and philosophy. The system of associated dairying originated with Jesse Williams of Rome, N.Y., in 1851. Its origin is Origin, &c., of the American Dairy System. 15 regarded by many as accidental, but I do not so con- sider it. We had arrived at a stage in the progress of dairy husbandry where a closer study of the art, especially of cheese-making, began to be awakened, and men prominent for their skill and intelligence began to make their influence felt in the quality of cheese. Prominent among these early pioneers in the improve- ment of cheese-making were Harvey Farrington, who introduced and explained the use of acidity, and the effect of ripening milk for improving cheese; A. L. Fish, Harry Burrell, Jacob Ellison, R. D. Brown, Nathan Arnold, all of Herkimer Co.,and many others who might be named. These men, who in advance of Mr. Williams, became noted for their skill in cheese- making, are still living, and with the harness yet on, are still laboring in their old age, to advance the pro- gressive movement they did much in their earlier days to inaugurate. In 1844 acheese factory was built in Gocheu: Conn., by Lewis M. Norton, which is still in use by his de- scendant, Ed. Norton. The milk supplying this fac- tory was coagulated at the farms, and the curd taken to the factory to be converted into cheese. It was an easy step from the association of curds to the associa- tion of milk. The necessity of the plan introduced by Mr. Wil- liams, was becoming so apparent and so strongly felt, that it could not much longer have escaped recognition had not his clear head and practical ability put it in successful operation. There is evidence of this in the fact that the fundamental idea of his plan had also occured to others in different parts of the country, 16 American Dairying. and that a system, closely analagous, had been in operation in Switzerland for more than a century. This view does not detract anything from the credit due to Mr. Williams as the originator of the Ameri- can dairy system. ‘His leadership in the matter is fully recognized and acknowledged, and it entitles him not only to the credit of originality but to the profound thanks of the whole dairy public for his timely inau- guration of the most important improvement ever introduced in the dairy interest. The view I take of the part he played, makes him, like Ericson with his monitor, and as inventors generally are, a necessary link in the chain of progressive events. The circumstance which gave rise to associated dairying, was the fact that the products of Mr. Wil- liams’ dairy would sell for a higher price. than those of his son, living near by him. To secure for his son the same price he received for his own, he took his son’s milk ig with his own, who divided with him the cost of manufacturing and then shared with him pro rata, according to the pounds of milk each had fur- nished. This proved advantageous to both. It reduced the cost of manufacturing the milk of both, and en- hanced the price of the son’s cheese. From this hint the milk of one neighbor after another was taken into the partnership, till the dairy house of Mr. Williams became the general manufactory for the milk of the dairies around him. Thus the original idea as intro- duced by Mr. Williams, embraced mingling the milk of several herds in one manufactory so that the best skill of the neighborhood could be applied to the whole. This idea is now receiving a more extended application. One expert now often controls the oper- ations in a number of factories ranging from two to Origin, &c., of the American Dairy System. 17 twenty or more. In this way the rare skill of superior experts, is made available to its utmost extent. This extension of skill is the all important characteristic of the factory system as distinguished from private dairies. An occasional expert may be found tn family dairying, but it is not possible to find one in every family. The great bulk of products manufac- tured in dairies must be made by mediocre or inferior skill. But it is possible to find in a whole neighbor- hood one or more superior hands, and in the territory occupied by a number of factories it is always easy to find an expert whose skill can bring the products of all the factories he can preside over, up to the highest point of perfection known to the art. This new departure in American dairying has done as much, if not more, to elevate the standard of Ameri- can dairy products, than the original idea of associ- ating dairies. As yet, this advantage has been chiefly applied to cheese-making, but there is an equal neces- sity for applying it to butter-making, and even a greater necessity, since the butter interest>is, at least, three times as large as the cheese interest. EXTENT OF PRODUCTION. In consequence of the improved modes of manu- facture recently introduced, the business of dairying has rapidly expanded. It is believed, however, not to have reached the enormous magnitude some writers, who have taken it for granted the national census of 1870 was greatly at fault, have ascribed to it. There can hardly be a doubt that inaccuracies of greater or less magnitude always creep into the statis- tics of the census marshals, but they are as likely to vary in one direction as another, and in the aggregate , 8 American Dairying. they give a good approximation to the truth. In regard to the statistics of the dairy it is certainly a very easy matter for marshals to get, very exactly, the number of cows in the country. As the enumeration of cows is as easy as that of the population, we may assume that item to be correct. The total for 1870 is put down at 8,935,232. The amount of butter at 514,092,683 Ibs. This at the rate of roo lbs. to the cow, which, for the whole U. S., is a fair estimate, Would use the milk of . . «+ 5,140,926 cows. 162,929, 382 lbs. of cheese at 250 Tbs. to ‘the cow would wse tite milk Of ooo oc meen ae GEI.7O0> 9 255,500,599 gallons of milk sold of.......... 809,286 Sf Making a foal OF. .ouelucs cnc dwitoeaaanees 6,601,921. 53 Subtracting this from the whole number of cows, we have 2,333,411 cows to supply the home consump- tion of the farmers who produce milk, including their families and the help employed by them, which make up near one-third of the total population of the coun- try. This is a moderate allowance of cows for sup- plying so large a number of people with milk. I am led to the belief, therefore, that the totals as put down in the last national census are substantially correct. In 1870 our exports were 7 of our total product of cheese, and our home consumption 3%. If we suppose our home consumption has increased at the same rate as our export trade, it would make a present home cousumption of cheese of 112,725,605 pounds, and a total product of 204,446,555 pounds. Owing to an increased area of dairying in the West, the consump- tion of cheese in the West and South, where most of the Western cheese finds a market, has been largely increased. Allowing twenty millions for this extra increase of home consumption, it will give us, in Origin, &c., of the American Dairy System. 19 round numbers, a total annual product of cheese at present of 225,000,000 pounds, which cannot be far from the truth. Increasing the butter product at the same rate as that of cheese, we have 710 millions as the present annual product of butter. Unless the increase of cows since 1870 has been vastly greater than in any equal period in the past, the present number cannot vary much fron ten millions, the annual products of which would correspond closely to the above figures. I am aware that these estimates will look small to those who have had their imaginations stretched by the estimates of those who have based their calcula- tions on a supposed fer capita consumption of butter or cheese; and perhaps they ought to be somewhat enlarged, from the fact that in New York and Ohio especially, much of the milk which formerly made only butter, now makes cheese also from the same milk, thus increasing the aggregate product from a given number of cows; but it cannot swell the amount to anything like the estimates which have been cur- rent for the past few years. The last national census does not show the fer capita consumption of cheese in the United States to be as great as in some of the former ones, and there are good reasons why such a fact might be expected. In the first place, the factory cheese made for export is not suited to the taste of our people and it could not be expected that it would be consumed as freely as that which satisfied their taste better. Inthe second place, consumption has been stifled by crowding our markets with skim cheese, to a large extent insipid and indi- gestible, and such factory cheese as would not bear shipping. For these two reasons it is Believed by ee | 20 American Dairying. many, and I think with reason, that the fer capita con- sumption of cheese in the United States, instead of increasing as it ought, has been diminishing for several years. DAIRY FARMING. The introduction of the system of associated dairy- ing, and the increased attention and study it has attracted to the dairy interest, are steadily making the business of dairy husbandry a leading branch of rural industry. The more thoroughly the matter is investi- gated the more clearly does it appear that the dairy affords many advantages over grain-raising and the other ordinary branches of farming, especially in par- ticular localities; and as a natural consequence, this branch of farming is steadily gaining adherents in different parts of the country. In favorable seasons, the annual returns from a grain farm and a dairy farm, do not foot up with a very wide difference; but that difference, whatever it may be, is generally in favor of the dairy. But it is not the extraordinary margin of profit afforded by dairy farming that is making so many converts to the cause. The inducements which cause so many to give a preference to this industry are various; and first among them is the greater certainty it affords of uni- form results. All that portion of North America included in the north temperate zone, is subject to great climatic variations and sudden changes of Dairy Farming. 21 weather, which more or less affect and interfere with the farmer’s crops. Drought, early or late frosts, excessive wet and cold, and storms of wind and hail, are ever-and-anon, the occasion of unfilled bins and empty pockets in one part of the country or another. On the prairies of the Western States, it is estimated that the corn crop, (probably the most relia- ble crop,in that section), is seriously injured on an average once in three years. And all over the North- ern and Eastern States, crops are injuriously affected by drought or other cause, to serious extent once in about four years. Grass is more tenacious of life, and grows at a lower temperature than almost any other farm product. Nothing is so secure against varying climate and sudden changes of weather as grass; and as the operations of the dairy farmer are based on this crop, he can count on results much more nearly uniform than the grain-grower. The increasing practice of soiling dairy cows deivhin a part or the whole of the summer, is not only en- hancing the proceeds of the dairyman, but is render- ing him secure against the fluctuations of seasons, particularly against the almost never-failing recur- rence of midsummer droughts. He is yearly appre- ciating more fully the fact that by growing deep rooted plants—such as corn, lucern and clover—he can cheaply provide an unfailing and abundant sup- ply of excellent milk-producing food, which will carry his herd safely through long and severe droughts, that would dwarf his pastures and ruin his small grains. He can also, in the same way, eke out his winter’s store. The practice of soiling taken in connection with the certainty of grass, spring and fall, gives him a guaranty of uniformity in his annual products, that 22 American Dairying. hardly inures to any other farmer. Though his cattle are liable to accident and disease, the greater security which he thus enjoys against varying seasons and sudden freaks of weather, is equivalent to a consider- ble premium in favor of his mode of farming. A second consideration in favor of dairy husbandry, is the greater uniformity in the price of butter and cheese, as compared with other farm products. The markets are often glutted with the different varieties of grain, meat, wool, &c., the price running down below living rates, to be followed perhaps by inflation. In dairy products variations are not so great. Periods of activity and depression occur, but there are no such wide fluctuations as in the grain market. Great ex- tremes cannot be reached in the dairy. The cows of a country cannot vary suddenly. It takes four or five years to produce a cow—and the market cannot be suddenly glutted. In fact, the cows in any country generally maintain nearly a uniform ratio with the number of inhabitants, varying very little, if at all. On this continent it has remained nearly the same from the earliest settlement of the country to the present time, varying little from twenty-three cows to one hun- dred inhabitants. A similar uniformity has prevailed in England and other countries of Europe. The rela- tion, therefore, between the supply and demand of dairy products, cannot vary suddenly or very much. The relative proportions of butter and cheese may vary by reason of changes from the manufacture of one to the manufacture of the other; but an excess of cheese diminishes the product of butter, for the number of cows, and the aggregate of milk remaining the same, if more is devoted to cheese-making, less must be to butter-making, and vice versa, Prices run up and Dairy Farming. 2} down as the supply of either varies, but dairymen oscillate so easily from the manufacture of one to the other, that no great excesses or deficiencies can well occur. These circumstances have a controlling influ- ence, and will in the future, as they have done in the past, keep prices comparatively even. The greatest variations are occasioned by good or bad seasons, when the aggregate of dairy products is swelled or diminished. The difference in the severity of labor in grain- raising and dairy farming has also, probably, some influence in inclining farmers to the dairy ; but perhaps the strongest inducement is the little exhaustion it occasions to the fertility of the soil. How the usual modes of farming exhaust the fer- tility of the soil is well known. The stores of plant- food which untold ages had accumulated in the virgin soil are sapped away in a few short years of subjuga- tion to the plough. The depleting process seems destined to over-run the whole continent. It sweeps steadily on, keeping pace with the removal of the primeval forests, and leaves everywhere impoverished soils and diminished crops behind it. The exhaustion goes on till the yield is reduced below profitable cul- ture, when some new mode of operating must be adopted. There must be a resort to stock-raising, dairying, fallowing, rest, green crops, plastering or artificial manuring, to increase the yield to profitable results, for such results may always be accomplished. However low the fertility may be reduced there is always still left in the soil an immense wealth of plant food, though unavailable for present use, because locked up in insoluble compounds which require time and the action of the elements to unloose. Here then © 24 American Dairying. is a vast extent of land thus reduced, for the restora- tion of which dairy farming is most appropriate and inviting. It stops at once exhaustion, but does not stop income. It brings good returns from the first. Forage crops grow well where grain crops pay poorly. Seeding down to grass gives time for air and water, ‘heat and frost, to gradually unlock the tenacious com- pounds which hold the mineral elements of plants, as with a firm grasp, and lets them loose for the rootlets to feed upon, or to accumulate in the soil for future use. It gives time for the absorbent properties of the soil to take in elements of fertility from the atmos- phere, from the snows and rains, and from the dews of heaven. In this way a farm that has been run down may be made to growrich,andarichonericher, This problem is often worked out practically by farmers with such satisfactory results as to strongly induce others to “go and do likewise.” The manure-heap is the all-essential thing with the dairyman. His mode of farming allows him to con- sume the products of his farm on his own premises, and to return nearly all that is taken from the soil, back whence it came. There is a steady exhaustion going on upon a dairy farm as well as upon a grain farm, but it is small in comparison. It consists chiefly of phosphates that are carried away in the milk, and which may be easily restored with bone earth. The waste is so slow with ordinary care of the manure, that it is not usually felt for many years. By carefully saving all the liquid manure from the stables and the pens, the store which is already in the earth would hold out still longer. Thisa dairyman should always do. The liquid excretions of his animals are worth fully as much to the dairyman as the solid, because they Dairy Farming. 2s contain just what dairy farming is all the time in- clined to waste. To lose the liquid manure is to lose one-half the benefit to the farm from keeping a dairy. This fact is beginning to be pretty well appreciated. While dairymen are swelling the manure heap by every available means, they are at the same time adopting conveniences to save and utilize the valu- able liquids which in former days were allowed to waste. And this increased economy in manures makes the contrast between a farm and a farmer growing rich and one that is growing poor, so great as to attract the attention of observant men, who become persuaded, and keep more stock and plough less. An approximate certainty of uniform products and prices, a diminution of the severe labor of grain grows . ing, a cessation of its exhaustion of the soil, and the retention upon the farm of nearly all its fertilizing material to aid in restoring an impoverished soil to a rich and productive one, are considerations ‘which must in the future, as they do now, have great weight in leading intelligent farmers to exchange the plow for the milk pail. They are sufficient to warrant the inference that dairy farming is destined to follow in the wake of the grain grower, and, sweeping over the wide expanse of his westward march, to restore the lost fertility and bring back to productiveness the vast extent of land which his destructive habits have made poor. They will make dairy farming preferable to grain growing when the profits on dairy products shall fall to those of grain growing, and even below. Pet TO PAIR YING. The frst limitation to dairying is climate. If it is either too hot or to cold to keep cows comfortable 26 American Dairying. and healthy, their milk will be faulty and its products poor. The climate in the northern part of the United States and southern part of Canada, is generally favor- able. By protection against the heat of summer and the severity of winter, dairying may be successfully carried on some distance, either south or north of its natural limit. The second limitation is the supply of water. If an abundance of good, pure, fresh water, convenient of access, cannot be had, thoughts of dairying had bet- ter not be entertained. Pure wateris a “sine gua non” in dairying. It must be rwxning water, or at least fresh. Stagnant or even standing water should not be used: it is unsafe. Local limitations on this account often -WCCur, Going southward, the want of a supply of running water through the summer season, will often be found to bar the extension of successful dairying before the limit by climate is reached. Were it not for the lack of running water three months in the year, the Blue Grass regions of Kentucky would be as accessible to the dairy as many of the counties in Pennsylvania and New York, where little else than butter and cheese are now produced. Immense tracts of lands both west and south are debarred from successful dairying, be- cause, for one quarter of the year or more, they are without water, or without such as is suitable for the dairy. It will seldom be found a paying business to introduce dairying in any place where fresh running water is habitually wanting three or four months in the year. : The ¢hird limitation is the supply of food. The quality must be good, whatever it is. It is impossible to make good milk from poor material; and if such See Dairy Farming. Me, food cannot be supplied cheaply and abundantly it will restrict the operations of the dairy. The increas- ing value of land in the older settled portions of the continent, tends to increase the cost of cattle food, and to confine the limits of dairying on one side, while the increased occupation of new and cheap lands on the other, tends to the extension of the dairy in that direction. The immense extent of cheap land in the United States and Canada, will defy competition for an indefinite period, especially in the production of cheese. _Peculiarities of soil have been supposed to set the most rigid limits to dairying, especially to the cheese interest. But it is not easy to set definite bounds to the land from which good butter and cheese can only be made. Dairymen have been compelled to change their opinions in regard to the extent of dairying lands, and with more light they may have occasion for further modification. It is but a few years since the best informed dairymen believed that the limits of suc- ' cessful cheese-making were very narrow, and that the people of a few favored localities anticipated they would enjoy for ever the privilege of supplying the world with cheese. It is but a few years ago that New York supplied Canada and the Western States with cheese, because it was then supposed that good cheese could not be made in either place. Now Can- ada is not only supplying herself, but is sending to England some fifty millions a year of better cheese than New York then sent to Canada, and the Western States are beginning to imitate the example of their Canadian neighbors. For the last three seasons Wis- consin cheese has been well received in the British mar- kets, and during the past year, butter has been steadily 28 American Dairying. sold by the Board of Trade in Elgin, Ill, by the thousand pounds, at higher figures than were made at the same time for equal quantities, in any of the At- lantic cities. The writer had the satisfaction of in- specting in the hot weather in June, 1875, butter made at Marengo, Illinois, by Israel Bois & Son, and at Elgin, by J. H. Wanzer, which it would not be easy to excel in any locality, and this with only the facili- ties common and available to almost the entire vast region of the Northwest. In a letter to the Pennsylvania Dairymen’s Associa- tion last winter, J. H. Reall of Philadelphia, an exten- sive dealer in dairy produce, declared the Marengo butter the best he had met with from any source. Butter making it would seem can now be carried on successsfully anywhere that cows can be supplied with wholesome food and water, and where they can be maintained with a tolerable degree of health and comfort, and cheese appears to have no narrower limits. The condition and circumstances of the soil have, however, some influence upon the quality of milk and its products. In milk from low moist ground, for instance, the butyraceous and cheesy matter will be softer than in milk from land which is high or rolling. If the high land is sandy or gravelly, the contrast will be still greater. A difference has also been noticed in the products of milk from loamy soils, and those which are sandy or gravelly, both being alike rolling and the herbage the same. It is evident that milk different in quality should be treated differently. And if the treatment and manu- facture should in each case be varied to suit the varia- tions in the milk, the probability is that the results in each case would prove alike satisfactory. Dairy Stock. 29 My observations and experience incline to that belief. The present state of the art of manufacturing cheese applies to milk from land of medium moisture, and does not succeed well with milk from soils very wet or very dry. In a more advanced stage, a wider range may be taken. But at present dairymen are advised to avoid extremes. Loamy soils with a rolling surface that will retain moisture without being wet; soils on which grass will remain fresh and green nearly the entire season, and on which a turf may be retained for a long series of years, produce butter and cheese of the best quality, and feed at the least cost, and are © always to be preferred. DAIRY STOCK. Any breed of cattle worthy of being called a milk- ing breed, ought to have the milking habit so well established in its blood, that over half of the cows be- longing to it prove to be deep milkers. To fall short of this, would be to demonstrate that some other than the milking quality is the leading characteristic of the breed. | _ There are but three breeds of cattle in this country, which have attained to any considerable notoriety, that will stand this test. These are the Ayrshire, the Channel Island, and the Dutch or Holstein. But it is 30 American Dairying. not my purpose to discuss at length the peculiarities — of the different breeds, but to present only their more prominent characteristics so far as they will aid the dairyman in the selection of his herd. Besides, as this work is devoted to the practical operations of the dairy, the limited number of pages to which I am cir- cumscribed, would not permit an extended considera- tion of breeds, were I disposed to go more into details. AYRSHIRES. This is a breed of cattle which has come to us from Scotland, and takes its name from the county of Ayr. There is some disagreement as to the ultimate origin of the breed; but this, to the practical man, is a mat- ter of little consequence. The main thing which in- terests the dairyman is its possession of deep milking capacity, and the certainty with which this can be trans- mitted. These cattle have been long and successfully bred—by judicious selection and crossing, by liberal and appropriate food, and by care and constant milk- ing—to meet this demand. Developing an aptitude for turning food into milk, naturally abates the apti- tude for promoting an assimilation of flesh and fat and development of frame. The highest milking capacity is therefore rather unfavorable for size and strength of constitution, as in the milking season there is a tendency to convert everything into milk, instead of using it to build up and sustain bodily structure. The Ayrshire cow is not large, but of fair size. It is a good cow that will weigh 1,000 pounds. Nor is she remarkable for symmetrical proportions. She has indeed a clean, well-formed head—rather broad between the horns and tapering toward the muzzle— a Dairy Stock. Ufa tif) AUN COAT \ a La 3 WS. Cf fo GN A > / Fit SS \ \ D cq = io) Ca Me as Paes, ae ann sates 7 Milk. 131 in varying the butter and cheese made from. the milk that contains them. Among these volatile oils, is the one imparting the animal odor. They consist of essential oils in the food of the cow, which have not entered into the combination of fat in the globules, but remain loosely mingled with the milk. SUGAR OF MILK. The most weighty element in the dry solids of nor- mal milk is sugar; it constitutes about #5 of their weight. When separated and clarified it is perfectly white and forms into yery hard crystals, much harder than those of cane or maple sugar. It is harder than any of the vegetable sugars and has less saccharine flavor. The sugar of milk is remarkable for its very low sweetening power and for its stability. It issaid when pure to undergo no change neither in a crystalline or liquid state; but as it exists in milk it is very sus- ceptible to change, more so, probably, than any other element in milk; by absorbing oxygen it is with great rapidity and ease converted into lactic acid and is thus the cause of the sourness of milk. The rapid changes in milk and its unstable character, are due to the ease with which this sugar ferments. In Switzer- land it is largely separated for commercial purposes, but in this country it is not separated, but goes as _ food for swine, | SALINE CONSTITUENTS OF MILK. Like all the other solids in milk the saline constitu- ents are very variable, ranging from two-tenths to one per cent. of its weight, the average being about seventy 132 American Dairying. to seventy-five hundredths of one per cent. The most prominent ingredient in the ash of milk is phosphate of lime. This constitutes about one-half of the whole ash. The next largest is chloride of potassium, which amounts to about one-fourth of the ash, so that three- fourths of the ash of milk, or thereabouts, are made up of these two minerals. A cow giving 4,000 pounds of milk a year, exhausts the soil of twenty-eight to thirty pounds of mineral matter, one-half of which is phosphate of lime, and one-fourth chloride of potassium. The rest of the ash is made up of soda and chloride of sodium and the sulphates of iron and magnesia. Prof. Jas. F. W. Johnston quotes from Haidlen two — analyses of theash of milk, which will show how milk production exhausts the soil and how to restore the exhausted minerals. The analyses are as follows: THE ASH OF 1,000 LBS. GIVES Z. 2. Puospnate Of TIME: cc sc: oak waa han ems an DAT Ibs. 3.44 Ibs. Phosphate “OF magnesia. ics sce oad font eae 0.42 o 64 Phosphate of peroxide Of iroU....5.. +00 Oy Ss ao07 = Chloride of potassium........ omits aemcae i alias 1.53775 Shloride ol Sotngnt. : 2); mw cs eave mace sim ee ee O24 0:54, 45% HLEG SOMAL . c.see Meee Uh 2 aes s xm wines 6 een @i4a: 0.45 “ MILK SECRETION. As the form of a tool is indicative of the purpose it was made to serve, so the anatomical structure of an organ in an animal body affords an evidence of the function it was made to execute. The study of the udder. therefore is one of the most direct and efficient means of studying the way in which the secretion of milk is effected. I shall not assume the task of unraveling all the mysteries of milk secretion, but having given some attention to the structure of the Milk. : 133 udder, I shall venture a few observations descriptive of that organ, in hopes that what has proved very interesting to me, may at least afford something of interest to others. The extraordinary development of the mammary glands upon the domestic cow, is to a large extent, the work of art, since nature furnished only enough with which to elaborate food for the offspring. As art does not always use precisely the same means, it does not always lead in precisely the same direction with its developments. The irregularity of art shows itself in the development of the bovine udder. It is not always uniform, externally nor internally. It is not only different upon different breeds of cows, but it varies in different individuals of the same breed, and the corresponding parts of the same udder are not always uniform. For the sake of giving actuality to the description, I will describe an udder taken from a choice six year old cow, four weeks from the time of calving, and in as good a condition as it could well be for examination. Considered as a whole it was made up of four dis- tinct glands or lobes, one for each teat, bound together by membraneous tissue, and covered by a pouch of skin in which it seemed to be suspended, and to which it was snugly bound by the same kind of tissue which attached the lobes together, aud also by nerves, blood vessels, and minute tubes and tendons. While mem- braneous tissue surrounds the whole, each lobe has an envelope of its own, which is attached to the others where it comes in contact with them. An arterial branch of considerable size entered each lobe, and also several smaller ones, the origin of which was not traced, by which each quarter was sup- American Dairying. 134 So far as traced,’ the arterial branches were neither uniform in size nor in their © plied with blood. There was an evi- dent difference in the quantity of blood supplied to mode of division nor subdivision. Fig. I}. each quarter of the udder, and especially between the front and back lobes, and also between the two back But few observations were made upon the lobes. The lactiferous ves- venous system of this specimen. _ sels’ were more carefully observed. In each quarter of the udder these were entirely separated from each other, and in each were differently arranged. Milk, 135 Beginning at the lower end of the teats we have an aperture closed by an elastic band. Proceeding up the teat, we have in it a cavity enlarged in the middle, when injected, as seen in figure 13. At the top of three of the teats there was a diaphragm separating _ the cavity in each teat from a little larger cavity above it, with a hole in the middle of the diaphragm about the size of a pea. The cavities above the teats an- swered as little reservoirs for holding milk. That over the right hand teat, when distended, was about the size and shape of a turkey’s egg with the large end down. Those of the front teats were the size and form of a -hen’s egg. Over the left hind teat the diaphragm was wanting, and the cavity above opened directly into that of the teat as shown in figure 14. From the little reservoirs at the top of the teats were tubes running in different di- rections through each gland, which were frequently cut off by still smaller reservoirs distributed all through each gland, as indicated in fig. 12. These little reservoirs were more abundant, and larger in the lower and outer Pie Fe: parts of each lobe, diminishing in size and frequency as they rose toward the upper part. They varied in size from a hickory nut to a pin head. There was but a single one the size of a hickory nut, the majority of them were of the size of beans or peas and so down, till they disappeared in the upper part of the udder. The tubes which connect the reservoirs were, some of them, larger in the middle than toward the ends, 136 American Dairying. and by connecting with different reservoirs, anasto- mosed like blood vessels. At each end of the tubes, | where they enter and where they leave the reservoirs, ° is a diaphragm similar to those at the top of the teats, which stretches over a part of each end of the tube, leaving, as over the teats, a hole in the middle. The diaphragms at the top of the teats and at the ends of the lactiferous tubes are all alike made by an exten- sion of the mucous membrane lining the inside of the tube. Where it doubles over to form the edge of the aperture, it encloses a small cord which swells out the folds a little, giving the appearance of a hem running around the edge of the aperture. The contraction of | this cord closes the aperture. It is a very delicate thread. It is made up, not of fleshy fibers like ordi- nary muscle, but of very fine elastic fiber-like spiders’ webs, so fine that five hundred of them were judged to form one of these little threads. In the center of the udder and between the four glands isa large and strong tendon leading from the abdominal muscles and passing down between the four glands or lobes, where it soon divides up into branches like the brush of broom corn, which again divides and subdivides till the threads become too fine to follow with the unaided eye. These ramifications connect with the little cords just described and which appear to be terminations of the filaments of the tendon passing around the aper- tures in opposite directions, so that when the cow contracts the abdominal muscles by drawing up her abdomen as she always does when she holds up her milk, she pulls on these ramifications and closes all the apertures with one effort, and prevents the milk from flowing, It is in this way that cows ee ae ee Oe eee ee ee me Milk. 137 hold up their milk at will. When the abdominal muscles are contracted the tubes begin to close, first in the upper part of the bag where the apertures in _the diaphragms at the ends of the tubes are very small; a more vigorous effort closes the larger ones below, the last ones to close because the largest are those at the upper end of the teats. It requires a powerful effort to draw these so tight that milk will not pass through them, but when much disturbed, there are but few cows which are not able to close them perfectly. The minute filaments of this central tendon have attachments elsewhere than in the fibrouscords. They fasten all through the udder and in the skin, so that in holding back her milk, the whole udder is contracted and held firmly. These filamentary divisions were so extremely fine and difficult to trace that they could only be followed by dissolving away the soft parts with an acid. In each quarter of the udder the system of tubes were found to divide and subdivide each in a different way, so that when dissected out they were as unlike as the divisions and subdivisions of the branches of so many different trees. They all alike start from, or empty into, the reservoirs over the teats, but the num- ber of tubes starting out were in each case different and differently located. Twenty-three tubes led out of the reservoir at the top of one hind teat, and seventeen out of the other; twenty-one started from over one forward teat, from the other side the num- ber was less and differently arranged, showing an independent and special action in each division so far as secretions were concerned. The bulk of the udder is made up of a mass of cells and yascular membranes, through which the lactiferous 138 American Dairying. tubes penetrate. In the up- y, per part of the glands where /|the structure was less dis- turbed with reservoirs than below, the arrangement into y lobules was quite regular as in figure 15, which gives a magnified view. 4, Into these lobules the lac- tiferous tubes ramify with great minuteness to take up the | milk which the glands secrete. Magnifying one of these lobulated divisions till the ultimate follicles could be seen, we have a view as seen in figure 16. The follicles are covered with a membrane, the cells appearing upon the inside of it from which they seemed to eman- ate. The investigations and opin- 5, ions advanced by Dr. E. L. Stur-. ee tevant, of Mass., have been very oF en fully sustained in these examina-~- \¢% tions of the ultimate follicles which at twenty-eight days from the time the cow came in were in the best possible condition for studying. The gland cells, as he suggests, appear to start out of the inside of the membrane like blisters, whose contents are fat. Others follow behind them in succession, crowding them along, till the first formed separate and are shed off like leavesin autumn, or as sucking teeth give place to those which come after them, Fig. 16. Milk. 139 The liberated cells, completely enveloping a speck of fat, find their way out of the follicle through the vascular membrane which connects it with the minute terminations of the lactiferous tubes, where by the aid of the liquid part of the milk they are worked along through the system of tubes and reservoirs, till they pass out at the teat in the form of what are dif- ferently known as milk globules, cream globules, fat globules, and butter globules. When not filled with secretions the interior cavities of the follicles collapse and make the substance of the gland appear like a solid mass, but when cut into thin slices and highly magnified, it appears extremely vas- cular and exposes a great extent of surface. It then appears like a net work, or sieve, through which liquids could pass with great freedom. The secretion of the liquid portion of the milk evidently proceeds very slowly, but the yast extent of surfaces it has to exude from, enables the udder, as a whole, to collect considerable quantities in a given time That the milk globules were once gland cells, is corroborated, first, by the fact that they have-the same size; this was demonstrated by Dr. Sturtevant by actual measurement. Second, they have the same form; when viewing them under circumstances which would exhibit their exact form, I have found them to be alike, neither of them being exactly round. Third, the covering of the globule is a membrane, and not caseine, as many have supposed ; that itisa membrane is shown by the fact, that when treated with nitrate of silver the globules give the same reaction which is given by other membranes, em- bracing fat, (suet,) turning them to straw color. Caseine, when treated with nitrate of silver gives a I40 American Dairying. different reaction,turning black. Fourth, while it has been supposed by some, that specks of fat when float- ing in the liquid milk in which albumen and caseine are in solution, become coated over with solidified caseine and thus derive their delicate covering, others have supposed that the minute particles of fit become incisted while in the blood vessels, and that they are secreted from the blood ready formed. The fact that milk globules sometimes exist without containing any fat is a sufficient refutation of both of these theories. I have found that instances occur in which a part of the milk globules contained only serum so attenuated, that when dried down, the walls of the pellicle enclosing it would collapse and appear perfectly flattened, while others retained their rounded form, showing them to be filled with fat. In an extreme case the milk of a cow which would not make butter, had part of its globules filled with fat so that they remained round when dried, others with various degrees of depression, but fully one-half appeared to contain no fat at all, as they were perfectly flattened by drying. In several cases the pellicles covering the serum became adherent and shrunk and tore apart in sf i the middle from the edges sticking to ill i the glass, showing various fractures. An enlarged view of one of these frac- tures is shown in figure 17. By examining milk with the early 9 77. morning sun and turning the reflector so that the globules would cast no shadow, I have been able to use a stronger light and get better views than I could with the mid-day light. Under this mode of inspecting, several cases have been met with in which a part of the globules showed no fat, while Milk. t4t others showed to be part full, and the great bulk of them entirely full of fat. Though the gland cells of the udder are generally filled with fat, it would seem a very easy matter for some of them, under peculiar _ circumstances, to form without fat, and hence account for the occurrence of fatless globules in milk if the cells at length become globules, and it would be diffi- cult to account for them in any other way. COLUSTRUM. In the latter part of the period of gestation, by reason of a sympathetic influence exerted upon the udder, the blood vessels leading to and from it begin to enlarge, and the circulation in it to become more active, and assimilation more rapid, its whole struc- ture becomes increased in Size, and its vessels engorged with blood. The result of this unusual activity is increased heat, and presently the formation | of gland cells. These begin to form in the | follicles, to the sides of && which they remain at- tached, as in A, fig. 18. At birth, or a little before, the liquid part of milk begins to be secreted, holding sugar, caseine, albumen, and a Fig. 18. A certain mineral matters in solution, and to accu- mulate in the udder, when the gland cells begin to shed off, sparingly in heifers, but more freely in-older cows. At first the cells appear to break off very fre- nt F* 142 American Dairying. quently in clusters, peeling off some of the membrane of the follicle with them, as shown in figures 19 and 20, which are fac stmiles of the first milking of the cow whose udder has just been described. They were drawn by the aid of acamera and accurately engraved; they show some large and many irregular pieces of membrane, with more or less cells attached, which, Fig. 19. COLUSTRUM. from the feverish condition of the bag at that season, sloughed off with the cells before they fully became milk globules. As the inflammation abates and the action becomes more regular, the membrane disap- pears, and the cells only are mingled in the milk. When these clusters no longer appear, the milk is con- sidered fit for human use, or for manufacture into but- ter or cheese. Some dairymen are in the habit of - Milk. 14} saving the fifth milking; it is sometimes good, but oftener not. I give an illustration of the fifth milking of this cow. fig. 21, which seemed to be full as well as cows generally are at this time, in which specks of colustrum are seen. It often requires five or six, or more days, before they entirely disappear, according to the health of the cow and the extent of inflammation in Fig. 20. ‘COLUSTRUM. the udder. When the milk will boil without curding, it may be regarded as fit for use. This isan efficient and convenient test of fitness for use. The analyses of colustrum vary very widely in their per cents of fat as‘Well as other elements’ These dif- ferences are doubtless owing more to the particular _condition of the udder at the time of coming in, than to any other cause. 144 American Dairying. The treatment of the cow, at and previous to the birth of her offspfing, has very much to do with the condition of her udder and the quality of her first milk. Therecan hardly be a doubt that an abundance of fat in the blood, stimulates the formation and mul- tiplication of gland cells, and hence milk globules, and that a paucity of fat diminishes the extent of their Fig. 21. FIFTH MILKING. formation. It has been my observation for years, that where cows are fed chiefly on unstimulating and flesh- forming food before coming in, such as clover hay, pea meal, bran or shorts, the bag remains pliable and soft, and if the milk is drawn out in season, there is not’a very wide difference between the first milk and that which comes afterward. But if corn meal, oil meal, cotton seed meal, or other food, very rich in fat, Milk. I45 enters freely into the diet of cows before calving, their bags swell up to a very large size and are hard and inflamed, the follicles become distended as in B, figure 18, because of the greatly increased number of cells which the rich food has stimulated while they are still adhering, and they become hard and inflamed, and it is difficult to reduce the inflammation afterward; the colustrum is high colored and thick, and full of cells with pieces of membrane attached, and they continue inthe milk fora long time. It is not very uncommon for cases of garget, which ruin a part or the whole of the udder, to follow high feeding with food too rich in fat, before cows come in, especially in young heifers. The feed before coming in should be generous and nutritious, but it should abound in flesh-forming rather than in fat-forming elements. Early cut clover is one of the best things I have fed at such times, and corn meal and oil meal have proved the most danger- ous. After cows have been in milk awhile and their bags have become reduced, corn meal and similar food may be fed with altogether different results. The fat then goes rapidly into the milk, avoiding the accumulation of cells in the udder and the inflamma- tion which would otherwise follow. Previous to birth the same food would accumulate fat in the gland cells, swelling out and crowding the follicles as at B, in figure 18, because at this time the cells, though form- ing rapidly, are not shed. CHANGES IN. THE QUALITY OF MILK. _ Colustrum is the result, in part, of inflammation in the udder, and may occur at any time during the milk- ing season, but is less likely to occur in the later than in the earlier stages of giving milk. When after — 146 American Dairying. parturition the inflammation has died away and the globules float singly and freely in the milk, it may then be said to have assumed its normal condition; but the quality of milk does not remain stationary, it is constantly varying from the time a cow comes in till the milk ceases to flow. At first, or so long as the quantity continues to increase, as it usually does for a few weeks after coming in, the per cent. of water increases, and that of cream and caseine diminishes, though the aggregate products are, by reason of the increased quantity, constantly enlarging. When the flow begins to diminish, the quality begins to improve, and it continues to grow richer till near the close of the milking season, when it again begins to depreciate, when the cow dries up before coming in again. The globules vary in size, diminishing as the distance from the time of calving increases, or rather as the amount of secretion diminishes, for if by an abundance of rich food the flow can be kept up, the globules may retain their size. The quality of milk varies with the quality and sup- ply of food; if it is very succulent the water increases in the milk, but the increase of water cannot go beyond a certain limit, 90.5 water and 9.5 solids is the extreme limit I have met with by succulence and moisture in the food. On the other hand, by the use of food rich in the elements of milk and other circum- stances favorable, the extreme limit in the opposite direction has been 81.5 water and 18.5 solids. The former occurred in June, with a feed of grass and brewer’s grains, the latter in the fall with after feed and meal. The aggregate results of cheese and butter factories demonstrate this rule on a large scale. When cows Milk. | 147 “come in in the spring, the product, whether butter or cheese, from 1,000 pounds of milk, varies during the season, as indicated by the following tables which are the result of different factories in different years: Two factories, reported in 1868, by Asahel Burnham, of Sinclearville, Chautauqua Co., N. Y. NO. LBS. MILK - 1868. MILK. | CHEESE. FOR | I OF CHEESE. eS eee ee 227,276 | 24,058 9.44 OS a ae ee ee 481,648 | 49,919 9.65 MM ta eat wis g'<'b sais 40d s sie ui’ 529,406 50 444 10.49 Retire ear oS la was Joe 398,285 39,903 9.98 PIE cin cere ds wee sss 232,840 26,762 8.70 OO 100,132 12 132 | 1248t | 8.02 8.02 NO. LBS. MILK 1868. MILK CHEESE. FOR I OF CHEESE. | S68 ee che me fey 32,551 9.55 SRRMNE Mairi ei cid seve’ 6 sess 0» e 616.791 63,867 9.66 SS ee Gerlea'e 633,082 60,712 10. 42 PIRI atk AEs dividete nx «\2 472.619 47,769 9.89 PE PEMMDET. or. Wc. Cases be +s 323.603 aot S72 NS eg cw wid ine ae ee) wun 126,895 16,116 7 86 Cold Spring Factory, Whitewater, Wis., in 1870, reported by R. Wheeler. | NO. LBS. NO. LBS. ,NO. LBS. MILK 1870. MILK CHEESE TO.t+hB. RECEIVED.| MADE. CHEESE. SINE Did w'a's, bik a Gar wks dani aA 8,811 850 10. 36 te eds iss Sak wot apart 53,417 5,650, 9.45 (ee Se ne ae ae 75,010 7.740 9.69 NUNN etn 5 coal h oe baal bein 3 a va0 79,251 7,960 9.95 ES ges eee ee ee 70,788 7.164 g.88 September....... Ooh 9 wa wake 59,113 6,127 9 64 ate tai SS. Na Gost na 41,237 5,032 8.29 7.30 MEMENDCE. iv a's tics 6 c0.0 ws 4,297 588 148 American Datrying. ~~ Brook’s Creamery,. Little Valley, Cattaraugus Co., . N. Y. for 1871, reported in the Live Stock Journal : LBL. OF MILK 1871. LBS. LBS. OF poker MILK. PRODUCT. : PRODUCT. Bins Wes fee ees oe ee 106,431 11,124 9 567 MINES cp oot see wh - we 8 Oe es -| 298,263 32 399 g. 206 PUNY. =e evs! ek Sean dae ae ‘ate Lene 264,652 27,567 9.960 AGED Se ids so in oc reget 168,948 17,584 9.609 The Sulphur Spring Factory, Lowville, Lewis Co., N. Y., as reported by C. L. Sheldon, for 1871, shows the following in the different months: ILBS. MI’K FOR 1871 easgar’ es I LB. CURED MILK. CHEESE creda Mayo SA ep. ack ee be .--| 245,790 | 25,466 9.651 Pie ee. San ee ee one autee 390,796 39, 784 9.822 LE APA esl ein lan ec Mer YE) eae RE! 31,935 10.301 ATT Le, ee ae ees erase 227,396 | 22,408 10.147 BEDIEMIDEL... 5 sy kyeun~ ve be ee] ET55O0 19,954 g.215 ORTH nc ces cw ee eee 132,141 15,466 8.543 The factory of J. D. Ives, in Norway, N. Y., as reported by B. B. Moon, maker, for 1872 POUNDSIPOUNDS |LBS. MILK 1872. OF OF TO.PLE. MILK. |CHEESE.| CHEESE. BRAN CRy oo cits saan 32,479} 2,668} 11.73 |Skim milk. ! ANE a epee ena are age 123,611| 11,288} 10.95 |One mess skimmed. Le) See 306,737| 31,493| ° 9-42 |Whole milk. June.............|502,910| 52,256 9.63 do Mt) Serre ee 477,246| 48,126 9.91 do AUSUSt fn eee ee Ss 396,862] 41,620 9 53 do September: . s.5 340,339| 37,890 8.98 do Oct. to Nov. g...2/305,026} 36,184 8.52 |One mess skimmed. | 8.12 do do Nov. toto Dec. 14 52,017) ada Ree cheeky Ore ene nt ee ee The variations of milk through the season are dif- ferent, according to the condition and feed of the cows. The milk of cows having insufficient food or Milk. I49 of poor quality, not only give less milk, but what they do give is poorer in quality than the milk of cows well fed. The difference in quality caused by difference in feed, is much wider than dairymen are apt to suspect, and it often amounts to great injustice in the division of the proceeds of factories. In testing the milk of the different patrons of a factory by curding equal weights of their milk, and drying and weighing the curd, I have found the milk from one dairy to make 27 per cent. more curd than the same quantity of milk from another dairy delivered the same day, both being sound and pure. | Ten to fifteen*per cent. in the value of milk for cheese making is a very common difference in the lat- ter part of the season, a difference due wholly to quality and supply of feed. The wide variations which occur from this cause should be more carefully studied by dairymen, and some more exact mode of apportioning the proceeds of factories be devised. The least injury done to the patrons by way of water- ing milk or skimming, or saving out strippings, will receive the most prompt attention and punishment, whenever detected, and a most watchful care is always on the alert to guard against unjust loss in any of these ways; but one patron may bring milk which will make fifteen per cent. less cheese than that of another, and yet they divide equally and without com- plaint or suspicion of anything wrong. If the present inequality in the value of milk, especially for cheese- making were fully understood, it would not long be tolerated. The remedy is easy as will be shown in another place. Other circumstances than those of feed affect the quality of milk; pregnancy -is one of these circum- I50 American Dairying. stances. Of two cows giving milk alike at the start and continuing alike in respect to food and other con- ditions, except that one becomes pregnant and the other not, the one becoming with calf will soon begin to fail in the quality of her milk as compared with the farrow cow, and the further advanced in the period of gestation, the wider will be the difference in their milk. The milk of spayed cows is least affected by distance from the time of coming in. But whatever may be the situation of the cow, her milk will fail after a time. In a few exceptional cases, cows continue to give milk — continually for a series of years, whether breeding or not. The milk producing function is brought into activity from an extraordinary amount of blood driven into the udder by an enlargement of the arteries leading to it, the enlargement being occasioned by a sympathetic influence from the active state of the reproductive organs. The increased size of the arteries being due -to certain conditions, it is reasonable to expect that when the conditions have ceased to exist, the arteries would gradually fall back to their former size and activity, or nearly so, and this they do unless means are used to prolong their expansion and activity. As time advances, the stimulus being removed, the arteries by degrees diminish in size, and the supply of blood to the udder becomes less and less, till finally, it falls back to its normal standard, and the flow of milk keeps pace with this influx of blood, and the cow dries of her milk when the extra influx ceases. But the contraction of the arteries leading to the udder is in a measure under the control of the dairy- man; he can retard or hasten it at will. By causing the milk to be frequently removed from the udder he Milk. I5I ~ creates, as it were, a vacuum into which the pressure of blood in the arteries drives forward the newly forming milk to fill, The reaction of pressure in the milk tubes upon the arteries which supply the blood from which to elaborate milk to fill them when exhausted, is both direct and large. So directly are the milk tubes and arteries connected, that by injecting one- quarter of an udder with water and subjecting it to strong hydrostatic pressure, I have been able to drive water through the milk tubes into the arteries so rapidly as to make it drip in a stream from the main artery supplying that quarter of the bag with blood. The direct effect of relieving or not relieving the milk tubes of their contents is to hasten or retard the pas- sage of blood toward the udder, keeping up their expansion by an active passage of blood in one case, and allowing of contraction in the other, by retarding the motion and diminishing the quantity of blood passing through them. Frequent, perfect, and regular milking is, therefore, a very efficient means of promoting the flow of milk _and preventing change in its quality, for so long asa large flow can be maintained so long will it maintain its earlier characteristics. The secretion of milk has a tendency to diminish the volume of-blood by drawing both upon its liquid and solid elements. To keep up a flow of milk, this draft must be supplied by furnishing enough to restore the steady waste. A failure to do this for any con- siderable time, is not only to decrease the yield of mi:k during the lack of food, but to invite a hurried con- traction of the blood vessels connected with the udder. These once reduced, there is no enlarging them again till the occasion of another birth, and the supply of 152 American Dairying. ~ blood for making milk will be diminished to their reduced capacity, keeping down the flow permanently and shortening the time of its final cessation. Immense losses are sustained every year by dairymen from not comprehending this fact with sufficient clear- ness. A lack of fecd in the midsummer drought where shrinking has already begun, hurries the shrinking along; lasting several weeks, the reduction becomes permanent, and must remain the rest of the season. No after feeding can restore the former activity of the glands, for the vessels supplying them with blood have become reduced. The great value of soiling, when grass fails, lies in keeping up and prolonging the action of the mammary glands. The dairyman who appreciates this will never let his milch cows lack for food or drink. An instance will illustrate the effect of a defective supply of food upon the milk-secreting vessels. In visiting the farm of the Hon. Harris Lewis, in the fall of 1873, I found his cows, after the severe drought of that summer, giving an average of twenty-two pounds of milk a day; his heifers and farrow cows giving thirteen pounds a day, and his other cows twenty-four pounds each. Though the rains had come and the grass had revived, the average at the factories around him, where soiling had not been adopted, was thirteen pounds to the cow—just equal to Mr. L.’s heifers and farrow cows. The soiling more than paid for the cost in the dry season, and in the fall the large yield gave larger profits. But many dairymen complained that year that their cows did not pay for their keeping. The reader may possibly see why. | Variations in the quality of milk during the main part of the milking season are gradual, and for the Milk. FRY most part can only be noticed by comparing milk at periods remote from each other. When such com- parisons are made it will be found that the liquid part of the milk becomes less and less transparent, till toward the close of a long period of milk-giving, it becomes only translucent, and more or less of the caseine becomes solid and remains in minute particles suspended in the liquid like milk globules, but which upon standing, tend downward instead of upward. Opacity is also increased by a change in the condition of the fats and sugar. A part of the fats and probably the sugar, appear as glycerides, preventing the forma- tion of the butter. At this time it assumes a some- what gelatinous appearance, and something of an elastic consistency, so that it does not spread well 154 American Dairying. upon the glass, but draws itself up into bunches, as in figure 22, which is a View of milk near the time of drying up, and which would not make butter. The globules were scanty and very small. Though perfectly sweet when freshly drawn, it contained many particles of solid caseine, and was full of cloudy streaks, more or less dark, but not so dark as the figure indicates. The quality of: milk is affected by the frequency or remoteness of the times of milking. In trials of milk- ing once, twice, three times and five times a day, the most frequent milking gave the richest milk. Milk- ing every twelve hours, gave 12% per cent. cream; _ milking once in three hours, gave 17% per cent. The difference in the quality which may sometimes be observed between the morning’s and evening's mess, is chiefly due to unequal distance of time between milking—the milk being richer at night when the days are short, and richer in the morning when the nights are short. When the times between milkings are equal, the yield and quality have proved to be similar. A difference sometimes occurs where cows are more comfortable and quiet during the night than during the day, or the reverse, as when suffering by cold in winter, or by flies in summer, when more and richer milk follows the greater comfort. There is a well known difference between the first and last part of a milking. This is generally but erroneously supposed to be due to the rising of the richer part of the milk to the top of the udder; but no such circumstance could occur. All themotion milk is susceptible of in the udder, is from the follicles forward “towards the teats. It can not possibly move from the teats backward toward the follicles or ramification of the lactiferous tubes. As has been already mentioned Milk. 155 the ends of the milk tubes, where they connect with the little reservoirs, are capped with diaphragms. These, except at milking time, are kept constantly closed, so that milk, as it comes from the extremities of the tubes, can only pass into the reservoirs with which they connect, by being pushed along by the milk that is forming behind it. The theory, therefore, that cream rises in the udder must be entirely fallacious. It is confuted also by the fact that woman’s milk, in this respect, exhibits the same peculiarity as cow’s milk, the last being the richest; but if the cream could rise in the gland the last ought to be the poorest. The difference between the first and last part of a milking must have some other origin than that of the separation of the cream by rising. In the udder which has been described, the gland cells in the upper part were larger than those in the lower part, indicating that the richest part of the milk was secreted there, and as this would naturally be the last to come out, it would seem to account, in part at least, for the greater richness of the last part of the milking; but as no other udder has, that I am aware of, been examined with reference to this difference in its cells, it would be unSafe to make a general infer-. ence from this one case, though it is quite likely a general fact. Again, milk loses in quality by absorption while lying in the udder. That milk loses considerable from this cause, is evident from the fact, that when the flow is small it is all taken up in this way. Judging from the rough and jagged appearance of the globules which have lain long in the bag, the cream, especially, appears to suffer, but just to what extent it loses in this way, it is not easy to determine, 156 American Dairying. Thirdly, it must be evident that the milk globules, being solids, would meet with more resistance and. make less progress, in passing through fine tubes, © whose sides collapse, or lie against each other, than the purely liquid part of the milk would, and hence that they would fall behind the liquid portions of the milk in their journeys toward the teats. The larger globules would meet with more resistance and come forward slower than the smailer ones, and hence come out last, making the last part of a mess the best as well as the richest. Dr. Sturtevant thinks this cause suffi- cient to account forall the difference between the first and last part of the milking, and it certainly could not fail to make a very wide difference. MILK AFFECTED BY BREED. It is rare, if not impossible, to find two cows in any herd whose milk will be exactly alike. Each animal has a constitution peculiar to itself, and the milk secretion is moulded, in each case, by that constitution. There can be no doubt that all the elements of milk are modified by the constitutional peculiarities of the case, but observations have yet been almost exclusively confined to the fats,.and these even have been but lit- tle investigated? Cows having similar constitutions give milk similar in quality, hence the milk of a breed has an approximate uniformity in its characteristics. Thus in the milk of Jersey and Devon cows generally, the fat is deeply colored and abundant, and the globules are very large and comparatively uniform in size. Figure 23 is an illustration of average Jersey milk, in which it will be seen that the globules are large with but few small ones. Milk. 157 Dr. Sturtevant was the first to call attention to the size of butter globules in different breeds, and to him I am indebted for figures 23, 24 and 25. ‘Fig. 24. The flavor of Jersey butter is as characteristic as the appearance of its butter globules, and that of the Devons scarcely less so. In the milk of Ayrshire cows the globules are smaller, and in size unequal, a circumstance which is also quite common in the milk .of native cows. For view of Ayrshire milk, see figure 24. For view of Holstein or Dutch milk, see figure 25, in which the globules are small 0 and remarkably even in size, \ a striking peculiarity in the milk of the Dutch cow. The butter from this breed of cows_has specific qualities ; Fig. 25. it is neither high flavored nor high colored, but is of good quality and remarkable for its long keeping. The milk of this breed is well stored with fat, and is the richest in cheesy matter of any I have examined. 158 American Dairying. The milk of Shorthorn cows somewhat resembles that of the Dutch, but the globules are larger and not so uniform in size or quality. The milk of individual cows and of particular strains, varies more in color and flavor The common. stock of the country being derived from the different breeds which have from time to time been imported, by crossing and mixing in every conceivable way, develop in their milk the widest dif- ferences. There is no more uniformity in the quality of their milk than there is in the certainty with which individual characteristics are transmitted. In crossing, there is generally something of the form of the ancestors impressed ‘on the offspring, but the characteristics of milk are less likely to follow. The milk of grades is therefore liable to great uncertainty, but it is more uniform than in the common stock. The effects of cross-breeding upon the quality of milk is sometimes very strange. I have seen the characteris- tics of the milk of two distinct thorough breeds so completely wiped out by crossing, that none of the peculiarities of either could be recognized. Every variation in the constitutions of cows varies the quality of their milk, making it a matter of prime importance for every dairy farmer to know all he pos- sibly can in regard to the laws of hereditary descent. MILKING. Milking is an art that requires to be learned as much as any trade. An expert will, at sight, detect an unskillful hand as readily as a farmer would dis- tinguish a want of acquaintance with the use of an axe or a scythe by seeing one attempt to use either of Milk. 159 these tools. Any one who determines to do so, can milk a cow, or use an axe, or a scythe, after a fashion, but to do either to the best advantage requires skill and experience. There are three distinct points to be regarded in milking. The first relates to the treatment of the cow, the second to cleanliness, and the third to the manner of extracting the milk. The manipulations in milking are best learned by practice. But there is philosophy in milking as well as in everything else, and a right and a wrong way of doing it. Because the right way is the best, it should be pointed out and followed. However plain and simple the art of milking a cow may be considered, the particular manner in which it is done may have muca to do in modifying the profits of the dairy. A perusal of the description of the internal struc- ture of the udder, which will be found under the head of “Seeretion of Milk,” will explain the reason for certain conditions insisted on as essential. Otherwise, they may appear unimportant. The cow is naturally sluggish in her movements, and should not be hurried out of her natural gait. She should never be driven to the place of milking faster than a walk, and if she has far to go, the walk should be a slow one. Hurrying a cow when she is full and the weather warm, hastens the circulation of her blood, and heats both her blood and her milk. A very little heating of the blood perceptibly affects the milk. It increases its odor as well as raises its temper- ature, and modifies the butter or cheese made from it. On this account, driving cows with a dog is not to be recommended. We have seen the milk of a dairy numbering over thirty cows perceptibly affected by 160 American Dairying. the milk of a single cow driven in haste by a dog. She happened to be out at night and was accidentally left in a lot a hundred and fifty rods distant, when the herd was driven toa barn. Against our protest a dog was sent after her, and she came running to the barn, panting and frightened. In ten or fifteen minutes afterwards she gave about six quarts of milk, instead of ten, and it was hot and odoriferous. It was mixed with the rest of the milk, and, as was then customary, left through the night without any other cooling than it got by stirring. The extra odor of the feverish mess, acting as a ferment in the slowly cooling mass, made its impress upon the milk and curd of the next day. The milk of this cow was not natural till after several milkings. This was an extreme case. -Less heating and worrying produces less effect, but never fails to do injury. Unless the number of cows is very small, and they are all very quiet and peaceable, they had better be fastened in a milking barn or shaded stalls, rather than to be milked in an open yard. A large herd requires a yard so large as to give too much chance for dodging, running, hooking, and disturbing each other. It soon becomes trodden up and filthy, especially in moist weather. The practice of milking in open yards is rapidly going out of use, especially in large dairies. All harsh and violent treatment should be entirely avoided. Pain and fear, worrying and solicitude, are clearly detrimental to milk secretion, and never fail to make the cow hold back a part of her mess, if they occur at the time of milking. Kind and gentle treat- ment and quietude promote secretion, and are abso- solutely essential to drawing all the milk. “tae ey >. 4 ep ee ee ee ee ee ES ls” Milk. 161 The milker should be careful to avoid every occa- sioa of discomfort to the cow. He should keep her teats sound and healthy by oiling them, if they are inclined to chap or crack; he should also be careful to take hold soas not to pinch a part of them between the ends of his fingers and his hand, and he should see that his finger nails do not, like hawks’ claws, do violence to the teats when pressing them. If any thing occurs to disturb the cow, or make her start or kick, treat her kindly, soothe her with caressing tones, and abate the disturbance as much as possible. Use no harsh language or violence. All severity is sure to make a cow keep back all the milk she can. It not only fails to effect any improvement in the habits of the animal, but does positive injury, and makes matters worse by cultivating a fractious disposition in both cow and milker. The man who cannot govern his temper had better let milking alone. If a cow kicks or is uneasy, it should not be inferred that she is malicious; it is very likely because she is hurt, or in some way made uncomfortable, and the cause of discomfort should be found and removed. _ When milking is comfortably.and properly performed, the cow evidently enjoys the operation. She manifests her pleasure by her quiet and placid demeanor, and often by putting herself in a way to be milked, show- ing impatience if it is not done when she expects it. Kindness is by far the best agent for regulating the habits of the dairy. All unusual noises, or loud talk- ing and singing, should be avoided, because they excite the cow’s attention and prevent relaxation of her udder. A strange dog passing through the yard or barn, has made many a cow hold back a pint of her best milk. Whistling or low singing may have ho 162 American Dairying. particular effect upon the cow, but they had better be omitted because they retard work. The singing milker is very sure to be behind hand. A slow, quarrelsome, or noisy milker will waste more than his wages and had better be kept away from the cows. Each milker should have a good stool of his own and when he sits down to milk, should sit snug up to the cow. Getting off at arm’s length not only makes awkward and hard work for,the milker, but it exposes his every motion to the gaze of the cow, keeps her attention aroused, and gives her thee advantage of position if she should feel disposed to use it. Pail room enough to hold the whole mess should always be within reach of the milker, for, toward the last end of the milking, he cannot get up and sit down again, and get all the milk. When once begun a cow should not be left till she is finished. The pail being placed safely against catching dirt and spilling, let the work go on silently and as rapidly and quietly as possible, always using both hands. Milk the left hind teat with the right forward one and the right hind one with the left forward, changing teats often enough to relieve the pressure in the different parts of the udder about equally. Hold the left arm firmly toward the right leg of the cow, so as to be able to press it back and protect the pail with the least disturbance, if she should kick or step forward. If the milk is not soon extracted, the last part of the mess will be held back and permanently retained, when the milker probably thinks he has got it all, because it stops coming. A cow should, therefore, be milked quickly as well as quietly. It is natural for her to part with her milk ina few minutes. A calf wéll draw a large mess of milk in three minutes, anda Milk. 163 milker should come as near that time as possible. If the time of milking is much prolonged, she will become impatient and be sure not to “give down” perfectly. The quickest milker gets the most and the best milk, because he gets all the “strippings,” which are the richest part. If anything occurs to attract the attention of the cow, near the close of the milking, some of the best milk will be held back till the next milking, when it will have become the poor, blue milk that is first drawn. A double loss ensues from every such occurrence, because leaving milk in a cow’s bag always tends to diminish secretion. An hour is long enough to keep the herd confined, and milkers enough should be employed to complete the work in that time. This will require one hand to about ten cows, and that number is about as many as one can safely.milk at a time without danger of injury to the hands of the milker or to the cows. The num- ber had better be less than more. Each milker should have certain cows to milk, and he should milk the same ones every time, and in the same order, so as to divide the time equally. Changing milkers attracts the attention of the cow and excites a little feeling of cautiousness, and she does not “give down” as per- fectly as when always milked by the same person. When a cow is nearly milked, the hand, as it grasps the teat, should reach up a little above the teat, so as to press the milk down through the valve or contrac- tion at the upper end of it, and every time the milk is pressed out of the teat, the milker should pull down on it, not with a jerk, but gently. When the milk is nearly exhausted from the udder, this pulling down on the teat pulls open the contractions at the junctions of the tubes, and lets the milk run down; and is neces- 164 American Dairying. sary to procure all the milk. The omission of this operation leaves a part of the milk in the tubes and is what has made every milking machine a failure. Regularity is of prime importance. The cows should come slowly and peaceably into the barn yard, but promptly at a certain hour. Five in the morning and five at night are good hours. Some milk at five in the morning and seven at night, but it is not well to divide the time so unequally. Observations have shown that milkings twelve hours apart will give thirty pounds of cheese to the cow in a season, more than when they are ten and fourteen hours apart, and a greater inequality will make more difference still. So much has been said and written in regard to cleanliness in milking, and it is so obvious that milk which is to be used for, or to be manufactured into human food, should be perfectly clean, that it seems almest superfluous to call attention to the subject. But in spite of all that has been said, filthy practices continue in use. One of these is milking in the rain or when the cow is so wet that the water will run down her sides and Crip into*the milk pail. The hair and skin of the cow are covered with accumulations of perspiration, and to soak these up and rinse them down her sides into the milk, is as injurious as it is filthy. Another defect sometimes occurs from not thor- oughly cleansing the teats and udder before beginning to milk. A thorough brushing is always necessary to get off the loose hairs and dirt, and if the teats have become otherwise filthy, they should be washed, but not milked till they are dry. A pail of water anda cloth should always be at hand for this purpose. When milking is done in a stable there is sometimes Milk. 105, a neglect to provide absorbents to soak up liquid excrement, and to prevent spattering. This is botha violation of cleanliness and wasteful. It can easily be guarded against by the use of straw, sawdust, dried muck, or something of the kind. Still another filthy practice is that of drawing a little milk into the hand and wetting the teats with it before beginning to milk. Some milkers insist that this is not uncleanly; to which it is only necessary to reply that any person whose sense of neatness is so obtuse as not to discover, without argument, that the practice is a filthy one, is unfit either to milk or work about a dairy. Besides objections on the score of filth, the first milk drawn contains so little cream and so much saline matter, that it makes the surface of the teats, dry and harsh and inclines them to chap. If, after the milking is done, the pail is set aside and the teats wet with some of the very last strippings, that are little else than cream, there would be less objection to the practice. To mention in detail all the points that offend against cleanliness would be tedious. They must, for the most part, be left to the milker’s sense of neat- . ness, which certainly ought to be of an appreciative character. Uncleanly milking is quite too common. If all the milk of which butter and cheese are made could be taken to the dairy-house as undefiled as it exists in the udder, the price of those luxuries would be at once materially advanced. ° Drawing all the milk perfectly from the udder at every milking, not only prolongs the flow, but it keeps the bag in good condition. By leaving milk in the bag it becomes crowded and inflamed before the next milking, drying up the milk and injuring the bag. In 166 American Dairying. some cases the milk comes down very slowly, and occasionally it is not all drawn out by reason of hard milking. This may be overcome. It is occasioned by a too small hole in the end of the teat, which can be easily enlarged. The following illustration and man- ner of doing it, copied from a recent number of the NV. Y. Tribune, will sufficiently explain how: Make a small cone-shaped plug of ivory, bone or metal, or even hard wood, well oiled, as large as you can well insert in the end of the teat. By making a head on the large end of the cone, . and just above the head a little contraction (as shown in the figure), the plug when inserted in the end of the teat will remain © and keep the opening stretched till it will become sufficiently enlarged to milk as easily as you desire. It may be removed at each milking, and when the milking is done it may be inserted again, to remain till the next milking, and so on till the orifice becomes permanently enlarged to the right size. No harm will be done to the teat. To cultivate a habit of giving down rapidly and fully, fast and careful milking are necessary. Slow miikers seldom get all the milk, and the bag gets out of order in one way or another. Difficult milking is occasionally produced by a contraction of the orifice in the diaphragm which stretches over the top of the teat. The little cord which runs round the edge of the hole, contracts and knots up, closing the hole and making a hard bunch just at the upper end of the teat. Cases of this kind are more numerous than formerly, owing, I have no doubt, to feeding more corn meal and heating food than formerly before parturition. But sometimes it is brought on by too much pulling down on the teats when milking, especially where the Milk. 167 ’ milk is drawn by “stripping,” as it is called, with the thumb and finger, 7. ¢., the teat is held between the thumb and finger tight enough to keep the milk from flowing back, while they slide down the teat and crowd the milk out. This constant and severe pulling on the teat irritates the diaphragm and cord, and makes them pull up and occasion the bunch described, just above the teat. When this contraction has been car- ried so far as to make the bunch feel hard, there is no relaxation to it afterward. It has so proved in my experience. It can be remedied by cutting the cord -and diaphragm to make the hole larger. Itrequiresa considerable incision to prevent growing right up again. It does no harm to the udder to make the cut quite large. It is best done by inserting a flattened tube as large as can be crowded into the teat, and after pushing it up to the bunch, make the incision by pass- ing a blade through the tube, then turning at right angles and cutting again. It is best done when the bag is full of milk. SOURING AND OTHER CHANGES IN MILK. Milk, it is well known, is an unstable compound. It is constantly undergoing changes from the time it is formed in the lacteal glands until it is manufactured - or consumed. The moment it is secreted by the milk glands, and passed into the tube of the udder, it is attacked by thousands of busy absorbents, that begin at once to suck up and carry away, into the general circulation, the nutrient properties it contains. Milk twelve hours in the udder is a very different thing from milk when first secreted. Exposed to the action of the absorbents that line the milk tubes, it steadily ’ 168 American Dairying. loses, as it passes along, a portion of its fat, its albu- minoids, its sugar and water, and, probably, also a portion of its saline ingredients. When relieved from the action of absorbents within the udder and brought into contact with the air, other agencies begin at once to act upon it, inducing the changes which afterward occur. Unstable as milk appears to be, it does not perish from anything in the nature of its own elements, but is destroyed by influ ences foreign to its own necessary composition. If milk is drawn from the udder without being exposed to the air and sealed up tight, it neither sours nor taints, provided it is healthy and sound when it is drawn. But if exposed to the air it sours and decays. If a can of fruit or milk, which has been safely pre- served for an indefinite time, is opened so that its contents are exposed to the air, it will soon sour and spoil, showing that the agency which does the work of destruction is conveyed to the fruit or milk by the air. This observation, which must be familiar to. every dairyman, demonstrates that there is nothing in the nature or composition of the milk or fruit itself which causes it to change or decay, but that the cause existed only in the atmosphere through which it is conveyed to the milk or fruit. It is what the air contains and not the air itself, that destroys the milk or fruit in this case, for if a long tube filled with cotton be connected with the contents of the can, so that the air which will be admitted to it shall be filtered of whatever foreign matter it may contain, the contents of the can remain sound indefi- nitely, the same as when perfectly sealed. Milk absorbs from the atmosphere the seeds of a fungus plant, which grow and multiply and fill it with . > > M ~ & ce Meesiers Pry ee ¢ ae ee eens rs oye eS Milk. 169 their presence, and produce the souring. The seeds of the fungus that are concerned in the process of souring are very small, and are always floating in the air unseen and unsuspected. When developed they are of considerable size, so that they are readily seen with a magnifier of moderate power. They are shown at the bottom of the annexed figure, as they appear under a microscope with a magnifying power of 1,000 diameters. They have a distinct cylindrical form, and are known as arthrococcus, or jointed cells. Cold checks their growth, but never kills them. They are not injured at all by freezing and thawing, or wetting and drying. Nothing but heat kills them. -One of these cells, adhering to the sides of a milk pan, or in a cre- vice, may be dried in the most thorough manner pos- sible, and lie there for a week, a month, or even a year, without injuring it in the least. The moment it is moistened with warm milk, it swells up and springs into active growth, and in a short time its progeny may be counted by the million. Premature souring of the milk is the result. They grow most efficiently at blood heat, and nothing short of boiling heat is sure to kill them. A few destructive agencies get into milk through the body of the cow. One of these is represented by ‘the dots in the upper part of figure 26. They are called Micrococcus cells. They are exceedingly minute, and everywhere abundant. Their influence tends to pro- 170 2 American Dairying. duce decomposition. They are also active agents in digestion, and in the coagulation of milk, and in putre- faction. They do no particular injury to milk, unless kept too long, when they produce offensive putrefac- tion. They are killed with boiling heat. It is to kill these destructive agents, that we scald green fruit; and we seal it up air tight, while hot, to shut them away from it. They may be killed ia milk in the same manner, and if they are effectually shut out by sealing up air tight while hot, milk or sweet cream, as we have found by experience, will keep just as well as canned fruit, and for precisely the same reason. There is nothing, therefore, in the necessary com- position of milk which makes it sour or putrefy; that it is always matter foreign to itself which destroys it, must be evident from the fact that when all foreign agencies within it are killed by scalding, and those outside of it kept away by excluding the air from it, sweet milk will remain unchanged for time indefinite. Milk which has been thus kept sweet for a year or more, will sour in two days at 60 degrees, by simply letting common air come in contact with it. It is an opinion by no means uncommon among dairymen that milk spoils of its own accord, so to speak, and that it is of necessity short lived. But this, as we see, is an error, and the sooner it is discarded the better. The ready infection it takes from the air in which it may be placed, ought to be better appreciated. Ifthe fact that the short lived tendency of milk was occa- sioned, not because its composition necessarily impels it to destruction, but simply because it affords such a fertile field for developing and multiplying the minute seeds of fungus plants which are floating in the atmos- phere, was more clearly impressed upon the minds of a ee Milk. 71 all those who have the care of milk, they would be more cautious than they now seem to be, in regard to the quality of air which they allow to come in contact with it. It requires no long exposure to the air for milk to take an infection that will cause it to sour. A moment’s contact is usually enough. The germs of acidity multiply in milk with such astonishing rapidity, that a very few are all that is necessary to set the work a going. The influence of the air upon milk is not confined to the absorption of the spores which produce acidity ; spores of every other kind are taken in as well. Nor does the absorptive power of milk end with absorbing living germs; it takes in odors as freely as infectious germs. It is a fact which cannot be too strongly im- pressed upon the mind of every one connected with the care of milk, or the manufacture of milk products, that milk takes in every odor as well as the seeds of every ferment that blows over its surface. This absorbent power is not peculiar to milk alone. It belongs in common to all liquids. Water, placed in acellar containing decaying vegetation, soon tastes and smells of the decay, and becomes unwholesome to use. But milk, being full of oily matter and holding albuminoids and sugar in solution, offers to every species of ferment just what is most desirable for it to flourish in. Every odor that comes in contact with milk is grasped and taken in at once, and its grasp is never slackened. Once taken in, it is there perma- nently, and the seeds of every ferment that touches its surface find such a fertile soil to flourish in that they spring at once into vigorous growth, and multiply and quickly “leaven the whole lump.” The London Milk Journal cites instances where milk that had stood a 172 American Dairying. short time in the presence of persons sick with typhoid fever, or been handled by parties before fully recovered” from the small pox, spread these diseases as effectually as if the persons themselves had been present. Scar- latina, measles and other contagious diseases have been spread in the same way. The peculiar smell of a cellar is indelibly impressed upon all the butter made from the milk standing in it.- A few puffs froma pipe or a cigar will scent all the milk in the room, anda smoking lamp will soon do the same. A pail of milk standing ten minutes where it will take the scent of a strong smelling stable, or any other offensive odor, will imbibe a taint that will never leave it. A maker of gilt-edged butter objects to cooling warm milk in the room where his milk stands for the cream to rise, because he says the odor escaping from the new milk, while cooling, is taken in by the other milk, and retained to the injury of his butter. This may seem like descending to little things, but it must be remem- bered that it is the sum of such little things that determines whether the products of the dairy are to be sold at cost or below, or as a high priced luxury. If milk is to be converted into an article of the latter class, it must be handled and kept in clean and sweet vessels, and must stand in pure fresh air, such as would be desirable and healthy for people to breathe. Many other changes than those enumerated, occur in the milk room. The souring process once begun, continues till the sugar is converted into acid. The whey begins to separate from the thickened milk and the vinous fermentation sets.in, slowly forming alco- hol, which takes up the volatile oils, and the strong acid ferment preys upon the solid fats, to the detriment of the quality and quantity of the butter. If still per- i een hhh taki ’ ? | Milk. 173 mitted to stand, the alcohol is converted into vinegar, aggravating results. While these changes are going on, the micrococcus cells will be slowly decomposing the cheesy matter, and carrying it on to putrefaction. These are some of the changes which are ever pro- eressing under the eye of the dairyman, and he who can most successfully direct and control them is the one who reaps the best reward. SPONTANEOUS COAGULATION. It has happened every now and then, in cheese fac- tory practice, that milk has been found to coagulate without the presence of any sensible acidity. Well authenticated cases of this kind have occasionally appeared in the agricultural papers, and they have also been mentioned by dairymen at their meetings for public discussion. Their occurrence has been the occasion of surprise, and a good deal of wonder as to the cause of such a phenomenon, but no light has been shed upon the subject further than to find that there is always something the matter with the milk so affected. During all the hot weather of the season of 1873, cases of this kind were of frequent occurrence in the milk with which the city of Rochester was supplied. The city was furnished by numerous small dealers who brought milk in their wagons once a day, their farms being from three to five miles distant. Some of the dealers reported no trouble from any unusual thicken- ing, while others said their milk sometimes curdled before they could get it to their customers, without being sour to the taste, and when it was delivered apparently sound, customers now and then complained that it loppered while sweet. From our own observa- I74 American Dairying. tions of the keeping qualities of milk brought to the city, and from inquiries made of those who used it, it appeared that.the peculiarity complained of was much more extensive than even the milkmen themselves supposed; and that milk in which souring did not appear much sooner than is usual, often became thick upon an unusually slight developmeut of acidity. One milkman stated his experience substantially as follows: He lived three miles from the city, and delivered milk only in the morning; his night’s milk was Strained into his carrying cans, which were placed in tubs of water where they stood all night with the covers partly open; the morning’s milk was also cooled in the same way, but of course was not kept long enough. to cool so thoroughly as the night’s milk. He stated further, that he furnished a con- siderable number of families with pure morning’s milk, for the use of infant children. The milk for each family was put in a separate can, suited'to its amount, the cans for this purpose varying from one quart to six. These little cans were also set in tubs of cold water and cooled with the rest of the morn- ing’s milk. The premature thickening always arose with the morning’s milk, and oftener with the small cans than with the larger ones. With the night’s milk, there was no trouble. It kept longer than the morning’s | milk, and was therefore dealt out last. His experience was similar to that of many others, and represented a considerable share of the milk brought to the west half of the city. Cheese makers in different factories have reported to me several cases in which milk standing in a large body in the manufacturing vats through the night a ll a eee a ee Milk, 175 has been found in the morning to be more or less coagulated and yet perfectly sweet. The curds thus formed have been warmed and cut, treated in the -usual way and made into cheese which did not appear, when cured, materially different from cheese made with the use of rennet. There was no indication of acidity in the working of the curd or in the curing of the cheese more than is usual in the curd of sweet milk coagulated with rennet. I have met witha good many cases of this kind of spontaneous coagulation in which the tendency to acidity was not greater than is usual. In one case, milk as soon as drawn was put into a closely covered can and after being carried in a wagon for half an hour curdled in a few minutes upon being warmed to ninety degrees. This sample was not only perfectly neutral when it coagulated, but the curd and whey remained neutral six hours before they would respond to an acid test. The causes which brought about these seemingly strange results are neither new nor very materially different from those which produce ordinary coagu- lation. ' Milk is composed of water, caseine or cheesy mat- ter, albumen, sugar and certain mineral matters, all joined in achemical union. Butter is an outsider, so far as this chemical partnership is concerned, for it is only mechanically mixed, or suspended in this liquid combination. The caseine is. what becomes curd when it separates from the other members of the partnership. It is attached to the rest of its compan- ions by a very feeble affinity and becomes detached from them easily. A slight change in the mineral matter by the action of an acid, or in the sugar by the action of yeast, is sufficient to break off its connection 176 American Dairying. with the compound, when it becomes a solid instead of a liquid, and appears as we see curd in cheese- making and in loppered milk. A shock of electricity may, by changing the elective affinity of some one of the elements, produce the same result. When milk is left standing exposed to the air, two varieties of yeast are active in producing the coagu- lum. There is in milk, as has been before explained, when it comes from the cow, a very small quantity of yeast, similar to that in rennet. This multiplies, and would, in time, become sufficient to curdle the milk alone. Besides this, there is the lactic yeast, that is concerned in the souring, which falls into it abun- dantly from the air, that would also produce congula- tion, if it acted alone. But the two act’together and produce a coagulum sooner than either would acting by itself. The lactic yeast produces the greater effect, but that the curding of the milk is helped along and hastened by the aid of the former, may be known by scalding the new milk, when the yeast, born with the milk, will be killed, and the coagulation will come from the souring alone, but about one-third more time will be required to effect it. It is a fact which must have been noticed by almost every one who has the care of milk, that it does not always coagulate with the same degree of sourness, which may be accounted for by the varying quantity of yeast similar to that in rennet. The influence of the ferment in new milk varies, according to the treatment of the milk and the health of the cow from which it is taken. If new milk is covered up, so as to prevent the odor from escaping, it will very much facilitate the action of the rennet yeast. Agitation also helps it along. The health of the cow varies the quantity, to start Milk. I77 with. Any circumstance which produces a feverish condition in the animal will increase the coagulating agent in her milk in proportion to the amount of fever. The feverishness produced by eating too much or improper food; by drinking stagnant water; by wor- rying with dogs, or by exposure to a hot sun, will so increase the rennet yeast as to make the milk coagulate upon the first approach of acidity or even before, when without this extraordinary amount, a deeper souring would need to be developed before curding wouid result. These are general principles that relate to the action of milk everywhere, and are worthy the careful attention of all concerned in any way in the production or handling of milk. They cover the cause of the premature thickening of the Rochester milk, and that in the factories. Several samples of this spon- taneously coagulating milk have been analyzed and in every instance, a lack of butter and sugar and an excess of albuminoids was found, indicating a feverish condition in the cow. One of these analyses is given on a preceding page, in which the albuminoids were six and a half per cent., while the sugar was only two and the butter two and a quarter per cent. Such pro- portions only occur in a disturbed state of health. The cause of the tendency to premature coagulation in this sample was traced to stagnant water. Someof the dairymen around Rochester, who have not running streams on their farms, have supplied the defect with what are termed “pond-holes.” another one, having set milk two inches deep at 65°, and accomplished the same result, takes position on the other side and becomes an advocate of shallow setting under all circumstances. Each having weighed but half the facts, his arguments cover but half the ground. Butter Making. | Sr} Had both investigated more thoroughly, they might have been agreed in the position that all the cream can be obtained by either deep or shallow setting, if there is a proper adaptation of conditions; and they might go farther, and lay it down as a rule, that the warmer the room in which milk is set, the less should be its depth, and the cooler it is, the greater may be the depth. By having the foregoing general statements well grounded in the mind, and keeping in distinct remembrance the relation between temperature and depth, especially the important effect of a falling temperature, any one can, with a little experience, be successful in raising cream perfectly at any tempera- ture from 40° to 70°. It will become clear that, though certain temperatures are desirable, they are not abso- lutely necessary to obtaining all the cream. There is a great deal of talk about an even temperature for raising cream, and so far as the dairy room is con- cerned, it is desirable that it should be uniform, because it gives regularity to all the operations of the dairy and aids in securing uniform results, but so far as the single fact of raising the cream is concerned, it is better that the milk should not be kept at any one particular degree, but at a temperature steadily falling as long as possible. It is an iinportant item in heating milk before setting it, that it gives a wider range of temperature for it to fall through. Low cooling con- tributes to the same result, at the other end of the scale; but it is necessary to observe that, in using low temperatures, the depth and bulk of milk should be graduated to the warmth, so that the rising of the cream shall not be arrested by too soon bringing the temperature of the milk toa stand still. If the cooling is sufficiently rapid to prevent the milk from - 5 . 4 ‘ i 5 214 American Dairying. souring before the cream is all up, the slower the cool- ing the better, as the benefit of a falling temperature will be more fully availed of. This is one reason why cooling milk in cold air is better than cooling in cold water; the water being a better conductor than the air, brings the temperature to a stand still too soon. But, at the beginning, the rapid cooling will throw up cream faster than slow cooling, but the slow cooling produces the best results in the end. The greater the number of degrees of temperature through which milk falls while the cream is rising, the more perfectly does it come up, other circumstances being equal. Milk cooled from 80° to 6o° in twelve hours will not throw up its cream so rapidly nor so perfectly as when falling from’ 80° down to 4o’ in the same time. Facts like this have often been noticed and a wrong inference drawn from them. It is sup- posed because cooling to 40°, instead of 60°, makes the most butter, that cream rises better the lower the tem- perature. But this inference is unwarranted and untrue, for if a mess of milk is divided and one-half cooled to 60° and the other to 40° defore the cream is allowed to rise, and kept at those temperatures respect- ively, the cream will rise more rapidly and perfectly on the half cooled only to 60 degrees. This fact may be easily verified by experiment, and the general principle confirmed that cream rises better at high temperatures than at low ones when the /emperature ts unvarying. The other experiment will prove a very satisfactory demonstration of the fact in regard to the influence of raising cream while the temperature is depressing. Particular attention is called to these general facts, because some experimenters who are regarded as authorities, have fallen into the error just Butter Making. 2r4 alluded to. In effecting a separation between milk and cream, the influence of a falling temperature is so efficient and has been so long and so entirely over- looked, that it deserves a more extended notice than can here be given, but what has been said may be suffi- cient to direct attentionto it. The practices in Sweden and the experiments of Tisserand and others, in cool- ing to low temperatures, which are just now going the rounds of the agricultural press in this country as evidence that cold favors the rising of cream, are obviously the result of a /fad/img temperature rather than a Jow one, per se. Another important fact that affects the separation of cream, is the growth of minute organic germs in the milk, which, up to acertain point, is greater the higher the temperature. There are thousands of germs in all milk exposed to the air, that are ready to start up and grow when- ever the milk is warm enough for them to do so, and by their presence, hinder the upward passage of the cream globules. The sour milk cells, are the prin- cipal obstructions in the way of the rising of cream ; they begin to form long before the milk begins to appear thick. The growth of other germs do injury by altering the flavor. Organic germs are prevented from interfering with the rising of cream, either by retarding their growth by cooling the milk, or killing them by heating, SKIMMING. The time at which skimming should be done and the best mode of doing it, are also subject to modifica- tion by circumstances. The most general rule is to - 210 American Dairying. skim when the milk first begins to be sensibly sour. When milk is to be used only for butter making and is set in broad vessels with little depth, the rule of fitness for skimming is a certain consistency of the cream. When the cream becomes so thick that it will not flow back behind the finger as it is passed through it, it is time to skim. If the vessels are very deep and the temperature very low, this rule will not be appli- cable, for the cream will remain soft and flowing fora loug time after it is all up. Milk which is cooled down much below 50° while the cream is rising, remains sweet almost indefinitely. On such milk the cream continues to rise as long as it is sweet, but after sixty or seventy hours the quantity is almost inper- ceptible, and the quality so poor as to detract from the value of the butter more than will be added by increased quantity. The judgment of the operator must be the final appeal in all such cases. The sooner it is taken off after it is all up the better. Thereisno advantage in keeping cream standing exposed to the air longer than is necessary for it to rise. In my early dairy experience a skimmer was the only implement made use of for removing cream from milk, but with me it has long since been laid by as neither convenient nor appropriate for the purpose. The impression once generally prevailed, and does to some extent still, that the cream should be separated as completely as possible from the milk before churn- ing. But this is not best—the butter is better and more of it is obtained by charniny a portion of the milk with the cream. The cream and the milk taken with it, should constitute one-quarter of the milk. To churn less than this tends to injure the grain of the butter, by having too mach butter in proportion tothe “« Butter Making. 217 liquid in the churn. The butter suffers by friction with a small amount of liquid in churning, which is obviated with more liquid. On this account some of the best modern butter makers churn the whole milk ; but I do not regard this as necessary. Since it is desirable to have some milk go withthe cream, askim- mer is not the best instrument to remove it with. In its place I use a broad and shallow tin scoop resem- bling a dust pan or acurd scoop, which I pass under the cream so as to take in the top of the milk with it. The top of the milk often contains considerable butter which this mode of skimming saves, but which is lost in using a skimmer, and not unfrequently some of the thinner cream also. In deep setting cream should always be dipped off. PREPARING CREAM FOR CHURNING. From the time it begins to rise, cream is all the time changing till it is at last consumed by the products of the fermentation which goes on in the milk, if left stand- ing long enough. Azpeness is the term used to indi- cate the degree of advancement in this changing. The principal circumstance which affects the ripening of cream is temperature; the cooler it is the slower it ripens and wice versa. To produce the best result for general use and the largest yield, the cream to be - operated on should have a certain degree of ripeness which is indicated by a moderate sourness, and it should all be equally advanced. If some of it is sweet and some of it sour, or parts of it are of unequal sourness, the unlike parts will not churn in the same time and a part of the butter will be left back in the buttermilk. If a churning is to be composed of 218 American Dairying. cream skimmed at different times, the different messes should be well mixed and stand together twelve hours at sixty degrees. If it is colder, it should stand longer, as the changes are slower and it will take a longer time for it all to assume the same condition. If it is warmer than sixty degrees, less than twelve hours will make it all alike. Unless there is some special reason for churning immediately, it is better to let cream stand twelve hours before churning than to churn as soon as it is skimmed, for it is generally not all ripe. alike when skimmed, though all taken off of one ves- sel. The upper part which is exposed tothe air and light, generally ripens faster than the under side, if the air has humidity enough to keep the top soft, and it will require time after skimming and mixing to make it all assume the same condition. If the air is so dry as to dry the top of the cream, it will require time for it to soak up soft again. When the circumstances are such that neither of these conditions occur, there is no objection to churning as soon as skimmed, if enough for a churning is skimmed atatime. It is not well to keep cream very long after removing it from the milk. Butter makers often lose by keeping it too long. Cream changes faster than milk. It both sours and decays sooner than milk under the same circum- stances. This makes it necessary to keep the cream jar cooler than the milk, if it musf be kept, but it is better and safer to churn often. If thereis not enough - for a churning of the cream alone, it is better to add milk and let the churning go on, rather than keep the cream beyond the proper time. If the temperature of the cream is to be changed before churning it should be done gradually. The best way to doit is to place it in a tin vessel and surround Butter Making. 319 it with water, either cold or warm, according as the temperature 1s to be lowered or raised. FLECKS IN CREAM. White specks in butter come from different causes. There are at least two causes which seem to produce- this result: one is dried cream, but it is very seldom that dried cream produces the specks, for, if cream is dry when churned, unless the butter comes very quickly, churning long enough to bring the butter will dash the dried lumps to pieces. They will become soft and mingle with the buttermilk, and of course, no longer remain in lumps. But sometimes that may not occur; they may not beso broken up but that particles of cream stuck together will appear. The usual cause of flecks in butter is the coagulation of drops of milk by the action of germs in them. In the fall, when the cows are being dried off, and the milk remains some time in the cow’s bag, specks are very likely to appear. If a glass vessel that can be looked through is used, flecks may often be seen developing in the bottom. The growing germs will curdle a little milk and bythe fermentation which centers around that spot, gas will be formed in the fleck and it will become lighter than the milk and work its way up to the top, where it will be found in the cream. At another time, it will develop in the cream. The germ will coagulate a little bit of milk and remain there; and when churned, the lump of curd will not be broken to pieces. If such milk is scalded the white specks will not appear. | These specks are sometimes developed by the action of air and light. I have taken two pans 230 American Dairying. of milk from the same mess and set them side by side; one pan would have the specks in it, and the other would not. I was at first a little puzzled to account for this; but after a while, I found that the light, which shone into a window, struck one pan and developed the germs, thus making the specks. -The development was not so rapid in the other pan, because it was in the shade, so the specks did not appear. I have had them appear in one cow’s milk and not in another’s, when the milk of both cows was placed just alike, and subjected to the same influences, in every particular. Specks of dried cream may not injure the quality of the butter materially, but when the conditions of milk or cream are such as to develop flecks by coagulating specks of milk, I do not think as good buttercan be made. The specks in buttermay be dried cream, but they are oftener floating curd, made by the development of germs in the milk. A current of air will in a very short time produce flecks; it will ripen the germs that lie on the top of the cream, so that little specks will very soon form and be seen floating on the surface. It will bring other germs into the same condition, just as one apple rotting in a barrel will make half a dozen others rot around it. Those which form down in the milk are composed almost entirely of curd, the atoms of which are bound firmly together probably by the mycelium of the fun- gus which has occasioned their formation. Those which form in the cream are partly curd, but largely cream which do not break to pieces by the action of the churn. Some butter makers after the cream is ready for the churn, strain it to pulverize whatever there may be of flecks from dried cream or any other cause in it. The instrument used for this purpose is a cone-shaped Butter Making. 221 strainer, the pointed end of the cone being made of wire gauze, with a band of tin at the broad end asa support. An interior cone of wood is made to rotate over the gauze and crowd the cream through, pulver- izing any lumps and grinding flecks or fat to atoms if any there be in the cream. But this is a labor of doubtful utility. If the flecks come from dried cream the difficulty would be sufficiently removed by mixing and stirring the cream and letting it stand awhile before churning. It takes but a very short time for dried cream to soak so soft as not to be distinguished from the rest. If it would not do so, crowding it through the meshes of a wire sieve would not help the matter much. In case there are flecks it would be much better to leave them whole, as they would be much less likely to get mingled with the butter than in their pulverizgd state. They never churn in either case and their presence in the butter detracts from its good quality and keeping. Flecks usually come from a faulty condition of the milk, and the butter made from such milk should not be mixed with other butter, as it will not keep like butter from sound milk. They may be prevented by scalding the milk in which they occur to 130°, to kill the germs which occasion them. When the milk is very much affected a higher heat will be necessary. . COLORING. When butter is very pale its market value is enhanced by coloring it. This should always be done in the cream just before churning, and it is best done with annattoine or some preparation of annatto. No coloring should be added directly to the butter; it would be impossible to incorporate any coloring ma- 222 American Dairying. terial evenly with the butter after it has been churned, without injury to the grain of the butter, and I know of no material which could be used that would not injure the butter by direct contact. Somecolor butter with carrot juice, and a few doso whether it is to be sold or used at home, because they like the modified flavor given to the butter by the addition of carrot juice. But the great majority of consumers, especially those with cultivated taste, prefer the taste of good butter to that of carrots, and to all such the carrots do a double injury, for they injure the keeping as well as the flavor. The vegetable matter soon decays and works the destruction of the butter by its own decom- position. Butter makers can prepare their own alee by dissolving annattoine in potash, using equal weights of potash and annattoine, with wateg enough to give the strength desired. It is most convenient to make it concentrated. Some add as much sal sodaas potash, and- think the color is improved by the addition. When annatto is used it should be dissolved in strong ley and boiled, then strained, and when it has settled, the purc liquid turned off from the sediment. Artificial coloring for butter should always be sparingly used. The added hue is seldom, if ever, quite equal to the natural one, and if it is a little too strong it disfigures by giving an unnatural appearance. It requires some skill to prepare the coloring, which is only acquired by experience. ‘To be sure of having a good article and to avoid the muss which its prepara- tion generally makes, it is better for all small dairies, at least, to buy the small amount they use, ready made. The American preparation of Wells, Richardson & Co., Burlington, Vt., and that of Nicholson, are Butter Making. 223 among the best, and one or the other, or both, are for sale by all dealers in dairy supplies. CHURNING. Before discussing the process of churning and working butter, a brief explanation of what is under- stood by the grain of butter seems appropriate. It has already been stated that butter is made up of the fat globules in milk which adhere after having been divested of their delicate membraneous envelopes by churning, and that these’ little atoms of fat are themselves made up of several varieties of fatty ele- ments, such as stearine, palmatine and oleine. These fatty elements have in each globule not only a definite composition, but also a definite organization, as much so as that assumed by the several parts composing an egg. : When butter can be churned and worked so as to leave the disrobed granules of fat whole, or nearly so, if a piece of it at 60° or below is broken in two, it will show a clear and distinct fracture like broken cast iron, and when the fracture is viewed with a magnifier, it will show a granular structure. This unbroken and undisturbed condition of the granules of fat, is what constitutes the grain of butter. In this condition butter has its best flavor and best keeping quality. If the churning, working or hand- ling has been such as to mash and break the granules, the fatty elements composing them become mixed and the oily parts spread and give to the whole a greasy appearance, and the fracture, instead of being distinct like that of cast iron, will be more like a fracture of lard, green putty, or salve.: The more the atoms of fat a 224 American Dairying. are mashed and broken, the more the flavor is depressed and the sooner the butter spoils, just as an egg might be expected to spoil the sooner for having its contents disturbed and mixed up. The difference in the keep- ing of butter whether the grain is broken or not is very great. When thegrain isall right butter may be kept under great disadvantages and almost anywhere. If the grain is spoiled it will hardly keep long under any circumstances, and the flavor is about as much affected as the keeping. In all the processes, therefore, of making and hand- ling butter, the preservation of the grain should be kept constantly in view, and those methods adopted which will do it the least violence and have the least tendency to make it appear greasy. The right tem- perature too must be observed, for if too cold when manipulated, the granules will grind against each other and injure by the friction, and if too warm, the grain is spoiled by the too easy mixing of the softened fats. The object of churning is to divest the milk globules of their delicate membraneous covering without break- ing or disturbing the granules of fat within them. This is best done by a force in which motion and pres- sure are combined. Such a power is much better than motion and friction. Repeated impulses of motion and pressure act upon the entire mass at once and alike. Motion and friction act only upon such particles as the instrument used comes in contact with. Friction wears off the pellicles and does its work unevenly. The larger globules meet with the most friction and hence their pellicles are worn off first. These gather into lumps before the smaller ones become churned, If the churning continues till the smaller ones “come,” Butter Making. 225 the larger ones become over churned and greasy by the excessive friction. Pressure operates upon large and small nearly alike, and the globules of different sizes come nearer together and more per- fectly, producing more and better | butter. The devices for churning are very numerous. The one most extensively in use in this country is the old dash churn. It is also the hardest to operate; but when properly constructed it does its work in the best manner. To do ; : the best work they should be bar- i rel shaped, having a moderate {i swell in the middle, and the dasher hi Bi should be large enough to occupy \ three-quarters of the area of a horizontal section of the middle of the churn. The dasher should either be a complete circle or have the form of figure 36, the floats or wings being broad and whole instead of being narrow, notched and full of holes, as in figure 37. The large dasher as here figured, will require about once and a half as much power to operate it as the smaller and narrower one with its notches and holes, but it will give more and better butter and do its work in one-half the time, or in the same time at a few degrees lower temperature. The smaller the dasher the easier it works and the longer time it takes to bring the butter, and the poorer the butter. The more notches and corners and holes it contains, the more friction will it occasion, the more 226 American Dairying. will the grain of the.butter be injured, and the greater the tendency to become greasy. The most objection- able form of dasher I have met with on account of making the butter greasy, is the system of checks in figure 38. Fig. 38. There are other churns which operate essentially upon the same principle as the dash churn, and do their work easier. Among these I may name Bul- lard’s_ oscillating churn, which has a reciprocating motion, works easily, and produces its effect by caus- ing the cream to strike the ends of the rectangular box with a thud as it suddenly changes the direction of its motion, pro- ducing an effect upon the whole mass of cream equivalent to the stroke of a large dasher in a dash churn. The barrel churn revolving endwise, produces a similar effect ; so also the revolving rectangular churns, whether suspended at the middle of opposite sides, or at opposite corners, as in Whipple’s rectangular churn. These churns require considerable diameter, two feet or more, to make the cream fall far enough to produce a sufficient concussion in falling from side to side. - Butter Making. 227 Next to the old dash churn, the Blanchard churn is the most popular, a hundred thousand of them are said to be now in use.. It is cheap and durable, quickly cleaned and operates easily, and gives general satisfaction to its numerous patrons. It has recently become very popular as a factory churn, large sizes having been made specially for that purpose. BLANCHARD CHURN. The choice of achurn is sometimes of considerable consequence and sometimes not. . When butter is to be made from the milk of Channel Island cows, the Holderness or the Devon, the butter comes so easily that it makes little difference about the kind of churn or whether the cream is sweet or sour. With the milk of the Natives, the Ayrshire, the North Holland and the Shorthorn cow, the case is often quite dif- +.) 228 American Dairying. ferent. Their cream generally requires so much churning that the best apparatus to do it with must be selected or injury will be done to it. | The best temperature for churning is generally — sixty degrees, but it varies with circumstances. Sour — cream not only churns easier, but will come at a lower temperature than sweet, but it should not be /vo sour. If it is allowed to get very sour the quantity of butter will be diminished and the labor of churning increased, instead of diminished, and perhaps the cream injured so much that the butter will never come. When whole milk is churned it requires to be about four degrees higher than the cream of the same milk, both being in the same condition as to sourness. In the dash churn the temperature of the cream should vary with the size of the dasher. Cream, just a little sour, will churn well at 58° with a dasher equal to 34 of a horizontal section of the churn; if equal to %, it will churn well at 60° to 61°; if only equal to yy, it will require the cream to be 63° to 64°. Except- ing cream from the milk of Jersey cows, and milk of similar quality, sweet cream will require to be about four or five degrees higher than it would if sour, to churn in the same time. All other circumstances being the same, the amount of churning necessary to bring the butter increases with the distance from the time of calving, or to churn in the same time the temperature requires a slight but gradual rise. This increased labor of churning is occasioned by a gradual decrease in the | size of the milk globules. For this reason the milk | of farrow cows does not churn well with new milk. Cream from the milk of a cow eighteen months after — calving, requires about once and a half the time for ¢ Butter Making. 229 churning as at one month after calving. The conver- sion of cream into butter is greatly facilitated by scalding the milk or cream while it is sweet. The scalding may be done when the milk is first drawn, or at any time afterward, provided it is not postponed till souring begins. Winter churning is often very difficult and some- times impossible, without the aid of scalding, and the higher the scalding, the easier the cream churns. At other seasons of the year, milk, which is for some reason faulty, often has the labor of churning greatly abridged by scalding nearly to a boiling heat. At the commencement of churning the operation should be slow till the cream is well mixed, after which the speed may be increased to the uniform rate to which the churn is adapted. But in no case should it be very rapid or do great violence to the cream; a moderate motion makes the best butter. This is especially true when the butter begins to come. If the churning has been rapid before, it should slacken as soon as the butter begins to collect in visible lumps, as it will be more easily affected by the friction of the churn after the lumps form than before. It is generally customary to collect the butter intoa solid mass before leaving the churn—to “ gather” it. This is best done by cooling the contents of the churn gradually, as the butter begins to come or show signs of coming, and operating the churn slowly. Butter gathered in the churn always contains more or less buttermilk, which would soon spoil the butter if not removed. There are two ways of removing it. One is by kneading it in water or brine, and the other by kneading it without water. One is called “washing” and the other “working.” The former 230 American Dairying. removes it much more readily than the latter. As to which is the better way there are conflicting opinions. Some would not have their butter washed on any account, because they believe the flavor and the keeping of the butter are thereby injured; while others are equally tenacious in the use of water, and believe as firmly that the flavor and keeping are improved by washing. The flavor of butter which has been washed is dif- ferent from that which has not been washed. The difference between washed and unwashed butter is analagous to the difference between clarified and unclarified sugar. The former consists of pure sac- charine matter, the latter of sugar and some albumi- nous and flavoring matters which were contained in the juice of the cane mingled with it, which give a flavor in addition to that of the sugar. Brown sugar though less sweet, has more flavor than clarified sugar. When unwashed, there is always a little buttermilk and sugar adhering to the butter that give it a pecu- liar flavor in addition to that of pure butter, which many people like when it is new. Washing removes all this foreign matter and leaves only the taste of the butter pure and simple. Those who prefer the taste of the butter to the foreign ingredients mixed with it, like the washed butter best. Fhe assertion is often made, and many people believe, that water washes out the flavor of butter,.but it only cleanses the butter of the buttermilk, sugar and milk acid, which may adhere to it, just as clari- fying sugar removes from it the foreign matters which modify its true flavor. The flavor of butter consists of fatty matters which do not combine with water at all, and cannot therefore be washed away by it. Butter Making. 231 The effect of washing upon the keeping quality of butter depends upon the purity of the water with which the washing is done. If the water contains no foreign matter that will affect the butter, it will keep better for washing the buttermilk out than by work- ing it out. But if the water is hard from the presence of lime, or contains anything that could injure the butter by contact with it, washing becomes an injury instead of a benefit to its keeping. Nothing but the best and purest water should be used about butter. Very hard water is always objectionable. It is not, however, so objectionable as the water from wells, which contain a muddy sediment so full of organic matter as to become tainted. Water standing over such mud takes in the taint, and if used for washing butter, is sure to injure it for long keeping. There is -a good deal of well water, otherwise good, which is rendered entirely unfit for using about butter by reason of sediment at the bottom of the well. This is frequently the case in dry times when wells get low and the influx small, and the water in them is too slowly changed. I once saw a lot of nice butter spoiled entirely for table use, in twenty-four hours, by being washed with water from a well which was low, and the sediment in its bottom had become affected. It is not a very uncommon occurrence to find water in wells which people do not object to using for culi- nary purposes, so much affected by sediment as to be detrimental when applied to butter. For washing butter, brine is better than water alone, especially when the weather is warm and the butter soft. It cools the butter and takes up the buttermilk more readily than fresh water. In many cases it will prevent water from injuring butter that would be 232 American Dairying. objectionable if used without the salt. It is perhaps needless to say that the salt used for this purpose should be of the purest kind. _A new practice in manipulating butter in the churn is coming into use among fancy butter makers in New York and New England, by which a saving in labor and an improvement in the quality of butter is effected. As the plan originated with John Higgins, of Speeds- ville, N. Y., I will describe his method of working:. Mr. Higgins uses the dash churn with a large dasher as recommended on a previous page, and churns with | a slow stroke, about forty to the minute, till the butter begins to come, at which time the contents of the churn are 59° or 60°. He then turns in cold water, at two or three short intervals, till the cream rises high enough to prevent the dash from quite clearing it in its upward stroke. The water to inake this increase is made cold enough to reduce the contents of the churn to about 55. The motion of the dash is slackened to about twenty strokes per minute, and so continued till the whole mass of butter forms in granules of the size of small peas or finer, which it will always doif the tem- perature is sufficiently low. The granules of butter which are thus formed are very hard and compact, and entirely free from buttermilk in their interior. The | advantage of gathering in’this granulated form is, that the butter is perfectly freed from buttermilk by rinsing with cold water without any working what- ever, thus avoiding entirely the injury usually done to butter by that process. To effect this, Mr. H.’s practice is to dip or skim off the butter in any convenient way and put it into a vessel of water at 54°. A little stir- ring relieves it of so much of the buttermilk that a second washing cleanses it entirely. It isthen laid on Butter Making. 233 the butter worker and as soon as the water has drained off it is ready to salt. Six pounds of salt to I00 - pounds of butter are mixed with the granulated but- ter by stirring, and a few strokes of the lever bring the whole into a solid mass, which is set away ina cool room six hours, and then receives a light working when it is ready to pack. This method of gathering in a granulated form preserves the grain of the butter in the most perfect condition, and gives to it the highest flavor and the best keeping quality. It has been found that when butter is thus gathered in granules it may, as soon as rinsed, be at once put into vessels in its granulated form, without either working, salting or packing, and the vessel filled with strong brine and closely covered or tightly headed, and that it will in this condition keep unchanged for long periods. Butter made in July and put up in this way, was opened in the following January, and when the brine was rinsed off it was found to be just as fresh and sweet as when it came from the churn. Upon salting and working it into solid form for use upon the table, it had all the freshness and aroma of butter just made. This mode gives the finest gilt edged butter. WORKING BUTTER. The object of working butter is to free it from but- termilk, to mix salt’ through it evenly, and to make the mass as solid as possible. The less labor with which these ends can be accom- plished, the better for the butter. If well washed in the churn or in a butter bowl, very little working will free it from the water left in by washing; if unwashed, considerable working may be saved by pressing the 4 234 American Dairying. butter with a-damp linen or cotton cloth, alternating with the use of the ladle or lever. There are a great many devices in use for working butter—quite too many to be separately described. Some of them are very excellent and-convenient while others are only supposed improvements. For small dairies the common wooden bow! and ladle are in general use, and all things considered, are perhaps the best. For larger dairies, factory and creamery use, the slab and lever make a cheap and excellent worker, and one that is durable and easy to clean. The slab and lever do the work as perfectly as any of the more complicated workers I have examined, and cost the least and last the longest, and hence are in extensive use where large quantities of butter are manufactured. They are made of two inch white oak, maple or birch plank, three to six feet long and two to four feet wide at one end, and half as wide at the other. A thicker plank is often used. It stands on three legs and inclines toward the narrow end so as to drain off the liquid worked out of the butter, which is con- | ducted down the slope by means of a shallow groove on either side of the plank. A loosely fitting standard sets.in a hole at the middle of the lower end of the plank, resting upon a shoulder, and fastened in place by a pin through the end, which reaches down below the plank. Through a hole in this standard one end of the lever is inserted and the other is handled by the operator. The working is best done by pressing upon the butter with the lever which should be four inches through, and which may be square, octagonal, three-cornered, round, or flat on one side and round on the other, to suit the fancy of the workman. The structure of this simple butter Butter Making. 235 worker, if not already familiar, will be under- stood by figure 41. i With whatever machine the butter is worked the working should be done by pressing on the butter, and all rubbing, sliding, or grinding motion most carefully avoided, as it breaks the grain and makes the butter greasy. The temperature of the butter should be 58° to work with the best effect and greatest facility. If more than a few degrees either above or below 58’, the work will not be so perfectly or so rapidly done, and the grain will be affected, in one case by being too soft and the other too hard. It is a common fault with butter makers to work their buttertoo much. A watchful attention is necessary to guard against this. Not a stroke of the ladle or lever should be used beyond what is actually needed. Every unnecessary stroke tells on the quality. As soon as ready, the salt should be evenly incorporated, always doing it with the least possible labor, and then the butter set away for six to twelve hours for the salt to dissolve, and then worked again with a light working. Some dairymen are in the habit of working but once and packing as soon as salted. -This treatment will not spoil good butter, but when the finest quality is desired and the butter is to be long kept, the practice is not advisable. - When the salt is added to the butter it absorbs the water of composition and leaves the butter a little 236 American Dairying. porous. A short second working makes it.more solid. A firkin which will hold too pounds of butter worked once, will hold about 102 pounds of butter worked twice. The second working should be barely enough to press the mass firmly together and get out a part of the brine. To remove all the brine makes it too dry, but not to work out any, leaves too much in and the texture a little spongy. In selecting salt for use in the dairy, whether for butter or cheese, the purest made should be preferred. A reference to analyses is the most reliable guide for deciding the question of purity. The fancy of man- ufacturers often leads astray. There are several varieties of salt in use of which one or the other is tenaciously clung to by individual makers, and firmly believed to be better than all others, which in fact is © not at all superior to many of the rejected varieties. Among the best varieties of salt in common use for butter, may be named the Onondaga factory filled salt, the Ashton, Higgin’s, Marshall, Dean’s, Deakin’s, Boston, Worthington, Washington and others, which are all good. The Ashton has many favorites and is an excellent salt. Recent tests have proved the Onondaga factory filled equal to the best, and as it is generally cleaner than the Ashton, and a good deal cheaper than any of the foreign brands, it is more extensively used than any other, and is increasing in favor with fancy butter and cheese makers. It requires to be ground very fine as it does not dissolve quite so readily as some others. 4 Where an analysis is not accessible for judging of the purity of salt, a good test can be made by observing its behayiour in damp weather, If, when the weather Butter Making. 237 is damp, salt will attract moisture enough from the air to appear wet, it is unfit for putting into butter or cheese. Pure salt remains dry in wet weather. It may stand ina cellar all summer without being sensi- bly moist. It is the impurities in salt (notably the chloride of calcium) which attract moisture and make it appear wet, hence salt which will vary with every change in the hygrometric condition of the air should be rejected by dairymen as impure and unfit for their use. In salting butter regard need only be had to season- ing. For this purpose the quality is varied from one ounce down to one-half an ounce to a pound of but- ter, to suit the taste of different individuals and markets of the country. No increase of salt need ever be added for preserving butter. The smallest amount used for seasoning is always more than enough to do all that salt can do toward preserving butter. Its keeping depends chiefly on other conditions than salting. When, for long keeping, a stronger antiseptic power is desired than is furnished by the salt used for seasoning, it had better be supplied by saltpetre, rather than by adding more salt to injure the flavor of the butter. For this purpose the salt used for seasoning may be composed of five to eight percent. ot saltpetre, finely pulverised and mingled with it. This will aid in the preservation of the butter without injury to flavor. Some people object to saltpetre, fearing its effect upon health. No well grounded objection can: lie against its use on that account, unless an extrava- gant and needless amount of it is used. In the pro- portion suggested it is just as wholesome as salt, and ce American Dairying. like salt, enters into the nutrition of different parts of the body. . Sugar, when perfectly pure, has also a strong anti- septic quality when applied to butter, and may be used when it is known that the consumers’ taste will be suited with it. But many butter fanciers do not relish the modified taste given by the sugar so well as the taste of the pure butter, and hence its general use would be objectionable. PACKING BUTTER. In packing butter for preservation or for con- venience in transporting to market, it is necessary to guard, first, against its receiving any foreign taste or infection from the vessel in which it is packed ; second, against contact with the air; third, against the effects of unfavorable temperature, and fourth, against dam- age and loss by soakage. For the preservation of butter, metallic packages which would neither act upon, nor be acted upon by butter or anything it contains, would be very desirable, because first, they would avoid all loss and deteriora- tion by soakage, second, they would impart no foreign’ flavor to their contents, and third, they would afford perfect exclusion from the air. Pure tin answers this demand. It allows of no soakage and is not acted upon by butter, or the water, or salt, or acids it con- tains, and imparts no flavor to the butter, and is only deficient in protecting against temperature. A wooden envelope would afford this protection. But it is diffi- cult to obtain pure tin, as the tin of commerce is gen- erally more or less alloyed with some other metal which salt or lactic acid will corrode. Butter Making. 239 To obviate these difficulties, packages have been made of tin, enclosed with wood and lined with paraffine, which work very well but are rather expensive. Enameled cast iron has also been tried which is subject to the same objection as above, and also to - being affected by temperature. Various other means have been tried for the safe and convenient convey- ance of butter to market, but a package which will not affect the butter nor allow of soakage, and which will be air-tight and not be affected by temperature, and yet be so cheap as to go to the consumer with the butter without being required to be returned, is still a desideratum. Wooden packages, with all their faults, continue to be the chief means for storing and transporting butter. Most of the trouble which arises from their use is occasioned by a faulty preparation of the wood before using. Wood in its natural state is so porous as not to pre- vent access of air to the butter it encloses. It also contains sap which, from being dried down in season- ing, requires a long time to soak out, and gummy products which water fails to remove. If these are not taken out before use, they gradually work out by the agency of the salt in the butter, and injure it. Superheated steam or boiling hot brine will quickly take out of wood whatever of sap or gum it may contain. Brine is within the reach of every dairyman and is the most convenient agent for the general manufacturer. To do this effectually the package should be soaked with strong brine, made with pure salt, for two or three days; then this brine turned out and boiling hot brine turned in, filling the package to the brim. 240 American Dairying. When this has stood till it gets cold, the cask will be fit for use. All of the sap and gum which the salt in the butter can draw out will be removed, and the grain of the wood so filled with salt as to be effectually impervious to air. The heads or covers for packages, require the same treatment as the packages themselves. For preserving butter for any considerable time and for transporting long distances, firkins or barrel shaped packages which will hold about 100 pounds, _ are the most in use, and if prepared as above directed answer the purpose well. If soaked only in water, or if soaked in cold brine, the sap will not be so fully removed from the wood but what it will soak out into the butter and injure more or less of the part which lies next to the wood. But when prepared as described, the butter next to the wood is just as good as that in the middle of the cask. The practice of the best dairymen in using firkins is to take out one of the heads and cover the other with salt half an inch to an inch deep. It is then packed nearly full and perfectly solid, so as to have no air spaces at the side of the package, leaving room on the top of the butter to put on a layer of salt equal to that on the bottom head. A circular piece of fine bleached muslin, having a diameter half an inch greater than the top of the butter, is wet with — brine and laid over the butter, which should be very even and smooth. Then with a wooden tool shaped like a gouge with a thin edge and with a cur- vature corresponding to the side of the package, the edge of the muslin is neatly pressed down between the outside of the butter and the cask. The package is then filled with salt and headed, and taken to the cellar or place of keeping, and the end having the Lutter. Making. 241 muslin on, turned down. In the head which was before down, but is now up, a 5% hole is bored anda saturated brine of pure salt pened onto the head till the space under the head is filled with brine and the top of the head well covered. fr * i » Ri 34 . # EKS & - Ween ROWNE SYRACUSE. N. ¥ 4 ——— % Nai make factory Checse Making. 319 venience and safety, and is ready for use when shipped and is set up without any mason work. The engine attached to it is simple in structure and is easily and safely managed by workmen of ordinary skill, and has an adjustable cut-off for economizing the use of steam. The four-horse power boiler is adapted to a factory of 400 cows, varying the size up or down for a greater or less number. Messrs. Jones & Faulkner, of Utica, N. Y., long and prominently known as dealers in dairy apparatus, and to whom I am indebted for various illustrations, also build an excellent boiler and engine for dairy purposes, as also do other parties, but which I have not space to illustrate. There are different ways for warming milk and heating curds. The agent most generally preferred is dry steam, which must be very carefully distributed to prevent heating different parts of the vat unequally. To secure even heating, some workmen fill the space between the vats with water, and heat the water by dis- charging steam into it. Others heat the water by a direct application of the fire, and others still do the heating by throwing a jet of steam directly into the milk and whey. I have usedallthese methods. Throw- ing the steam directly into the milk or whey to be heated, is the simplest and cheapest way; dry steam between the vats is most convenient; and water heats most evenly and holds heat the longest, but is most difficult to control. | | The vats used’in the manufacture of cheese are built nearly alike, all being composed of a tin vat for hold- ing the milk, within a wooden envelope, having a space between the two for steam or water to heat or cool the milk as required. The tin vat is fitted witha 320 American Dairying. frame, and handies for holding it in place, or lifting it out at any time desired. Fig. 617. Some are fitted with a heater under them, or at- tached to one end, making what are called self-heat- ers. Others are made for heating with water only. § The form here illustrated -in figure 61 is the one generally used. If there is more than one vat, the morning’s milk, as it arrives, should be divided so as to be mixed half and half with the night’s milk. The coloring, if any is used, may be applied at any time after the cream is stirredin. It is only es- sential that it should be well’ mixed before the rennet is, putin. > The rennet should be in read- iness and as soon as the milk intended for the vat is all in, it should be added and well stirred to be evenly mixed through the whole mass. The stir- ring should continue till near the timé the coagulation is expected to begin, and then the vat should be closely covered and left for the milk to come to rest before the curd begins to form. The mode of heating to warm the milk is not essen- Oa eS L aes ee ee eee ae hes Factory Cheese Making. j2r tial, if only there is left no steam leaking on, nor hot water about the vat, to make an unequal heat in any part of it while the curd is being formed. The tem- perature of the milk when the rennet is applied varies according to the condition of the milk and the’par- ticular mode of making intended to be carried out. When the milk is in a normal condition and cheddar cheese is intended to be made, the rennet is applied, by a majority of makers, at 84° and enough rennet put in to show signs of curding in ten to fifteen minutes, and to become firm enough to cut in about forty-five minutes. When the curd has be- come of the right consis- tency for cutting, which is determined by its parting with a clean fracture as the finger is passed through it, it is cut with the Young’s perpendicular curd knife, both lengthwise and cross- wise of the vat, and then with the horizontal knife, which leaves the curd in half faci cubes,.”, His then left standing till the curd is Fig. 62. Fig. 63. nicely covered with whey, PERPENDICULAR HORIZONTAL say fifteen minutes. Then (ae owe with the hands, the curd is stirred from the bottom, care- fully bringing .as much of the bottom as possible to the surface, especially if any part has been missed with the curd knives, so that it may be made fine like . the rest, and so that the mass of curd shall be loosened up as much as possible, to be in a condition to heat 322 American Dairying. evenly. When this is done the heat is let on and the curd warmed up very gradually, five or six degrees, and gently stirred to keep the curd from packing and therefore heating unevenly. The heat should then be shut off for fifteen or twenty minutes to give time for the lumps of curd to get warmed through, so that the inside of the lumps shall have the same temperature as the outside, but moderate stirring should be con- tinued to prevent packing while the heat is off. As soon as the heat is supposed to have penetrated through the lumps of curd, so that they have the same temperature inside as outside, the heat may be turned on again and the mass raised five or six degrees more in the same way as before, and after another interval, repeated, bringing the whole up to 96 or 98 degrees. The stirring at first is best done by hand, afterward, when it begins to harden, it may be-stirred witharake. The whole time of heating shou!d occupy an hour and a half or two hours. The more gradual it is done the better. Up to this point in the process, the practices of manufacturers are very uniform, vary- ing but little from the course here indicated. Beyond this, they differ considerably. The leading features in the different courses pursued deserve attention. The one by which the finest cheese is made is of English origin, and is known as the Cheddar system, and will be first described. The English method is not strictly followed by American manufacturers. It is varied in different ways, but the underlying principle is not lost sight of in the various deviations from the English mode. Mr. S. A. Farrington, of Pennsylvania, who derived his practice directly from English experts, and who is quite successful in making after the Cheddar plan, proceeds as follows, taking the work from the Factory Cheese Making. 327 time when the heating is done. After the heat is turned off, and the whey and curds, and water under the vat, if any, have assumed a uniform temperature and there is no longer any danger of heating unevenly, the stirring ceases, to let the curd pack on the bottom of the vat and the fine particles, which may be floating in the whey, settle and adhere to the rest. When this has been done, the syphon (fig. Bie is ee As the whey drawn off, the vat is 2 tipped a little, and the curd heaped up against the sides of the vat and left to drain. If the weather is cool, a Lit- tle heat is let in and the vat covered to keep the temper- ature about 98° In warm weather this will not be re- quired. In this condition the whey is steadily draining out and the curd becoming more firmly packed. As soon as it has become ssuffi- ciently adhesive to hold to- gether, say in 15 or 20 min- utes, it is cut into chunks convenient to handle, and turned over, so that all parts shall be affected alike. This is repeatec at intervals of twenty or thirty minutes, till the curd is advanced to the proper stage for salting and pressing. This stage is determined by the appearance and smell of the curd. When sufficiently ripened the curd becomes tough and stringy, and when pulled apart, splits instead of breaking, showing a fibrous structure similar to that which may be seen in pulling apart the SYPHON. 324 American Dairying. muscular fibers in lean beef when boiled. At this stage, it assumes a distinct and peculiar odor which it is difficult to describe. It has something of the sick- ening smell of animal odor, but is more like that of the cows’ breath than anything else I can compare it with. As the curd approaches the proper degree of ripe- ness it is allowed to cool gradually, so that when it is ground the bits of curd will not so readily adhere again, as they would do if kept near 98°. If the curd mill is operated by hand, it may now be set on the vat, that the curd as ground may fall back into the vat. If the mill is operated by power, the curd is put = into a curd sink, \\ and run under the mill and ground Mi fine enough to admit of salting evenly. A _ curd mill which will cut the curd fine, in- stead of bruising it to pieces, is prefer- eae red, the only object being to make the curd fine for the sake of even salting. Two anda quarter to two and a half pounds of salt to 1,000 pounds of milk is applied, and when cooled to 70° the curd is put to press. When the milk is all right, this process produces a fancy cheese. Others let the whey all remain on the curd till it begins to show indications of acidity, then draw off the whey and treat as above, or decide when the curd is ready for the press by the hot iron test. TW T tc oe ‘ jj ge OA a SOT I2 00 No. 8—For from 50 to 75 gallons of cream............++- 40 0O No.g— ‘SS 75 to 150 Ot aoe Rete ies cael 45 OO Pawer muey aor any Size CII... sc ecu s ase cess tesa os 2 50 If they do not give satisfaction, or prove to be as represented, they may be returned to the agent of whom they are purchased, at our expense. The Factory sizes (Nos. 8 and 9) are found to be exactly what is needed in large Dairies or Factories, where power is used. They have the unqualified commendation of every one who has used them. Send toany dealer in really first-class dairy imple- ments for our goods. They all keep them. We furnish free, on application, our ‘‘New Butter Manual, ” and Descriptive Circulars. Send for them. ‘‘ GET THE BEST.” *SOLE MANUFACTURERS, PORTER BLANCHARD’S SONS, OH COL G. IN... dea. ; 355 THE DAIRY ROOM OF THE WORLD, AND THE ONLY PERFECT SVSIEM OF COs ING AND VENTILATING AUTOMATIC- ALLY, AND MAINTAINING .THE SAME TEMPERATURE SUMMER AND WINTER, WITHOUT PETE OSE OOF ATR: eer een PATENTED JANUARY, 1876, BY J WILKINSON, Baltimore, Md, A& Send 25 Cents and Stamp for full description. Address, until November next, J. WILKINSON, Chief Superintendent of the Agricultural Depart- ment International Exhibition, Philadelphia, Pa. BURDICHK’S SELF-LOADING HAY WAGON. sie MACHINE is warranted to load one ton of hay in two minutes, and drops it out upon the barn floer, or beside the stack, without stopping the team, only to hook a ehain. Price « ' $200. Price of wagon without any machine $100. ‘Address, H. P. BURDICK, Alfred, Allegany Co., N.Y, : WHITMAN & BURRELL, Little Falls, N.Y. Send for complete Illustrated Circular of all Apparatus and Furnishings for CHEESE AND BUTTER FACTORIES! New METHOD oF MANUFACTURE GIVEN. . General Agents for the Celebrated Blanchard Churn, French Burr-Stone Grist Mills, &c. We manufacture largely CHEESE-BOX HOOPS, Rims and Heading, and ship in bundles ready to make up into CHEESE- BOXES, TOBACCO DRUMS, &c. Economizer Improved Boiler & Engine. THE ONLY BOILER FOR DAIRYMEN AND FARMERS. Highest award of the Committee on Boilers for Cheese Factory purposes, at the American Dairymen’s Convention, a very large assemblage, at Rome, to the ECONOMIZFR, over all others on ex- hibition. The best Portable Steam Enginein market. Boiler all wrought iron. Every part made upon honor. All bearing parts made to take up wear. Engine warranted of best iron and steel. Nothing cheap but price. Fire passes underneath boilerto the back, thence through the flues and up the stack. Prices.—Three-horse Power, $350; Four-horse Power, $400; Five-horse Power, $450; Eight-horse Power, $575. THE ONLY RE- TURN FLUE es Agricultural iz) ENGINE [Refer to page 107 in Report on Factory Apparatus, in Annual Report of American Dairymen’s Association, for 1876. | HIGHEST PREMIUMS at twenty-two important Fairs and Expositions, including American Institute test of three months— 73 and ’74—fer PORTABLE BOILERS AND ENGINES. It is the most economical YET POWERFUL Agricultural Engine in the market. It has No Fire TILE TO SHAKE LOOSE or get broken. THE FIRE IS RIGHT IN THE CENTER OE THE WATER IT- SELF—ALL THE HEAT Is UTILIZED. It can not scale up, and will last a life-time. There can be no possibility of sparks, for the fire goes to the rear end, then back to the front through the return flues, so that all sparks are entirely consumed. ([33"-A careful examination will convince any party of its great superiority. Jas" EVERY ARTICLE OF OUR MANUFACTURE FULLY GUARANTEED, WELLS, RICHARDSON & CO.’S PERFECTED BUTTER COLOR. E TAKE PLEASURE in offering to the Dairymen of America this preparation, as the perfect result of our long continued experiments in the preparation of an Artificial color for their use, In our Perfected Butter Color, we have succeeded in combining the bright yellow coloring principle of the Dandelion blossom with the previously well known ‘‘Golden Extract,” thereby se- curing a bright golden tint, so exactly like the highest grade of June butter, that 10 expert can detect it, even by actual compari- son of the artificial with the natural color. ; We claim for it every point wanted ina PERFECT Butter color, viz: Ist PERFECT COLOR. The butter never turns toa reddish tinge, but always keeps its bright golden color. 2d. PERFECT FREEDOM FROM ANY TASTE OR SMELL, that can be imparted to the butter. 3d. PERFECT KEEPING QUALITIES, It does not mold, sour, or spoilin any manner. Heat or cold have no effect upon it. It,has a decided tendency to preserve butter, whereas butter colored with-carrots, annatto, etc., will often spoil or turn to a dull reddish tint. 4the PERFECT ECONOMY IN USE. It requires no labor, as it is a fluid that is put with the cream into the chnrn.~ It is cheaper than any other coloring, being put up in three sizes, selling at 25 cents, 50 cents and $1.00, which color respectively 300, 750 and 2.000 pounds of butter. We warrant it to add at least five cents per pound to the value of white butter, a return of one dollar for every cent it costs. IMPORTANT PROPOSITION, In order to give every one an opportunity to give this color a trial, we will send samples sufficient to color 50 pounds, post paid, to any address, on receipt of ten cents. Address, WELLS, RICHARDSON & CO., Burlington, Vt. WELLS, RICHARDSON & CO.’S GOLDEN EXTRACT of ANNATTO. A liquid extract of Annatto, pure, brilliant, permanent, econo- mical. The best color for cheese, far surpassing in Strength, Purity, Quality and durability of Color and Cheapness, any pro- duct, liquid or otherwise, ever offered to Dairymen. Its strength is extraordinary—one gallon giving a good color to 20,000 lbs. of cheese, or more. The color is uniform, and per- manent, and just that bright shade best adapted to the English market. Itis cheaper for cheese makers than any other coloring, Send for circulars giving full particulars. cow THE AMERICAN DAIRY SALT COMPANY, SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF THE “ates” DAIRY & TABLE SALT AT SYRACUSE, N. Y.-s, Respectfully call the attention of Dairymen and others to the quality of the Salt now being manufactured by them. Having for many years past been engaged in perfecting the various processes for the manufacture of this Salt, and by adopting the best modes and machinery for the purpose, they fecl warranted in saying to the consumer that the article now produced is superior to any other, either of foreign or domestic production. The following is a correct analysis of our Salt, and also of the celebrated Ashton’s English Salt, made by Chas. A. Goessmann, Ph. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Massachusetts Agri- cultural College at Amherst, Mass.: Ashton Salt. Onondaga Factory Filled. eGOrIe OF DOUMLM oso) oie: sein ciggw ain «icin s 97-65 98.28 SHipharevst Moumne s,s. Ges w clea ae oe os 1.43 0.91 Sulphate of Macnesia... 2.56 5.05055 0.05 .06 Chionde off Macnesia. 32. o.55.00...15.- 0.06 00 SD batenOl SOUS ook at Recits cies oa 00 03 LPS AUIS OTT TET ee ne ea .05 12 MAC Ige te fa lerees! wie s)eien-tieiatan areieie cvs s'eis 5s 76 .60 100.00 100.00 Circulars in regard to various tests made with this Salt in comparison with the best foreign article, also certificates from a large number of the best dairies in this State as to its quality, may be had on application to J. W. BARKER, Secretary, Syracuse, N.Y., to whom orders for Salt may also beaddressed. It is also forsale by Agents of the Company in principal Western Lake Ports; by ROBT. GEER, No. 10g Pier, Albany, N.Y., and by Salt Dealers generally throughout the State of New York. Inquire for ONONDAGA FACTORY FILLED DAIRY SALT. J. W. BARKER, Pres’t and Sec'y, THOS, MOLLOY, Treas. SYRACUSE, N. Y. “A SUccESS.”’’ (See Prof. ARNOLD’s Opinion, page 257.) ~ HARDIN’S Hk Cooler CIRCULARS FREE. Address, = 8 , 0 — L S. HARDIN, ee Lowisville, Ky. Wa Adams’ Patent Butter Case. NORRIS & BRO., Proprietors, 31 Prospect St, - CLEVELAND, O. For price, terms, or other information in regard to this Butter Package, address as follows: For New York and Eastern States— LEWIS T. HAWLEY, Syracuse, N. Y. Hon. HARRIS LEWIS, Franxrort, N.Y. For Illinois and lowa— C. C. BUELL, Rock FALts, ILL. And for all other States and Territories, the Proprietors. ORDERS FOR CHIOICE TABLE BOTTLE Packed in these Cases, promptly filled and shipped to any part of the world with safety. NORRIS & pita. Pope CHARLES MILLAR & SON, MANUFACTURERS OF Cheese & Butter- -Making Apparatus, Combining all the Latest Improvements. DEALERS IN Cheese Factory & Dairy Furnishing Goods, Send for Illustrated Circular and Price List. , 127 & 129 GENESEE STREET, UTICA, N. Y. Our New PorTABLE BOILER AND ENGINE, er IRON se seh ” 4s the best i in America, rie fe i UGHS MILK TESTER. Thisisan instrument for testing the value and quality of milk It will tell if milk has been skimmed, watered, or taken from a cow that has garget or any other disease that will affect the quality of the milk. It is simple in construction and operation, and is rapid- ly going into use in the best Butter and Cheese Factor- ies in the country. Riser defentts and Rights to use sold by ALVIN MIDDAUGH, Friendship, N. Y. H 283 ge -¢ as ds 7 1 ay a ch t A ie ) id fi 7 i os , 7 bi wr 8 7 {Ux of! ad ; be ' | ow “ j + } 44 ’ ‘ i ‘4