ESTABLISHED and conducted according to the -^ EEGrxATioxs adopted by tlie Counril .f ,^ublk ^..trurfon for Spp^ Cann.a. dated the 2nd of Augu 18o3 under the authority of the 4th and llth difXs 0 he X eth, the 4th and oth clauses of the 9t^Tnd the 2nd clause of the 120th section of the Upper ^C ^4 ^°'"'°°" ^'''"°^ ^<=*' 22nd vfct, XoTE.-This Book shall always be known by the number entered above. If it be lost, its nameTnd n«^! ber must stiU remain on the Catalogue and its n?ac^„ as possible. (See Library Regulations, No. tt.) *f Every Work must be retur,ied to the Librae,, J2d^ *^ Urbana: 1 3 APR 1970 Prof. Peter R. Knights Department of History York University Downsview, Ontario M3J 1 P3 w THE AMERICAN FARM BOOK: OK COMPEND OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURE : PRACTICAL TREATISE ON SOILS, MANURES, DRAINLmG IRRIGATION, GRASSES, GRAIN, ROOTS, FRUITS, COTTON, TOBACCO, SUGAR CANE, RICE, AND EVERY STAPLE PRODUCT OF THE UNITED STATES. WITH THE BEST METHODS OP PLANTING, CULTIVATING, AND PREPARATION FOR MARKET ILLUSTRATED BY MORE THAN 100 ENGRAVINGS. By R. L. ALLEN. AUTHOK or DliEAlES OF -' DOMEtTIC ANIMALS." AM EDITOB CW THE AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST " NEW YOEK: C. M. SAXTON, BARKER & CO., 25 PARK ROW. SAN FRANCISCO: H. H. BANCROFT & CO. 1860. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1849, by RICHARD L. ALLEX, lattie Clerk'i Office of the District Court of the United States fcr tne&>'ither» DiMrict of Xew Yo-fc # C. "W. BENEDICT, Sttreotyper, Ml Wtlliam ttreeU eor. of Frmnkftin. TO THE FARMERS AND PLANTERS OF THE UNITED STATES, This work is respectfully dedicated, with the hope that it will add its mite in sustaining and carrying forward the great agricultural improvements of the present day. To agriculture, The most healthful, the most useful. THE most noble EMPLOYMENT OF MAN, rather than to any other, or perhaps, than to all others combined, must we look for the permanent strength, the glory and happiness of our great Republic, THE AUTHOR. ADVERTISEMENT. Th« .V«w.»cvn Farm Book was first published two years since, \.i Irr the title of " A Brief Compend op American Agriculture." The favor with which it was received by the public, and its extensive sale, have induced a thorough revision, with the addition of several products not previously mentioned. The Southern department of the work has been enlarged from the personal observation of the Author, during two years residence at the South. For most of the Illustrations of southern plants, the author is indebted to original drawings made for him by Don Jose Maria de la Torre, of Havana ; and of those of the shade trees to the Publishers of Browa<*'s Trees of America. New York, January, 1849. PREFACE. The following work on American Agriculture is intended as one of the first in the series of lessons for the American Farmer. The size precludes its embracing any thing be- yond the shortest summary of the principles and practice by which he should be guided, in the honorable career he has selected. As a primary work, it is not desirable it should comprise so much as to alarm the tyro in agriculture with the magnitude of his subject. A concise and popular exposition of the principal topics to which his attention will necessarily be directed, will, it is believed, in connection with his own observation and practice, give him a taste for fur- iher research, which will lead him to the fullest attainment sn agricultural knowledge that could be expected from his ■rapacity and opportunities. Much of what is detailed in the present volume, has been tested by the writer's own experience and observation. For the remainder, he is indebted to various oral and written in- formation, derived from the best agriculturists, and especially from the valuable foreign and domestic agricultural periodi- cals of the present day. "Whenever original authority could be known or recollect ed, it has been credited ; but many even of the most recent discoveries, have already passed through such numerous hands, and received so many shades of alteration or improve- ment, that their authors would hardly recognize their own ▼1 PB.EPAC E . offspring. It woulii nc t be strange, therefore, if they had become incorporated in the mass of agricultural principles, without any indication of their origin. The same or similar discoveries and improvements, are also not unfrequently made without any interchange, by different minds and at remote distances. If any omissions of proper acknowledg- ment have occurred, the writer will be happy to correct them hereafter. To the experienced and scientific, this work may appear too commonplace — to the uninstructed, too enlargec^ or abtruse. It was not intended to reconcile impossibiUtles. The first must look to elaborate or complete treatises for the fullest information on the various subjects comprehended in this general summary. To the last, it must be answered, that what is here commimicated, is important to be known ; that modern agriculture, like all other progressive moderr sciences and arts, has necessarily introduced new terms fo. the explanation of new principles and new practices ; and the former must be learned before it e latter caji be compre- hended. INTRODUCTION Agriculture, in its most extensive sense, rrjiy be defined the cultivation of the earth with a reference to the produc- tion of vegetables, and the conversion of portions of them Lato animals, and a variety of forms, which are the best adapted to the wants of mankind. It is appropriately dis- tinguished by numerous subdivisions. Tillage Husbandry consists in the raising of grain, roots and other products, which require the extensive use of the plow and harrow to prepare the ground for annual sowing and planting. Grazing is limited to the pasturing and winter feeding of farm stock, and it requires that the land appropriated to this purpose, should be kept in pasturage for summer food, and in meadows to yield the hay necessary for winter's use. In its strictly technical meaning, grazing implies the rear- ing of farm stock till they have attained sufficient maturity for a profitable market, as far as this maturity can be secured 051 grass and hay. It, however, properly embraces in its minor divisions, the keeping of cows for the purposes of a dairy, and the support of flocks for the production of wool. Feeding, in its agricultural signification, consists in stall fattening animals. It is properly connected with tallage husbandry for the production of grain and roots, and by the free use of which, animals can be brought to a higher con- dition or ripeness, and they will thus command a much bet- ter price in market, than if fed exclusively on grass and hay nil INTRODUCTION. Breeding, technically defined, is restricted to the produc* tion of choice animals for use as future breeders by the judi« cious selection and crossing of the best specimens of the vari- ous distinct breeds of domestic stock. Horticulture embraces the entire department of garden- ing, the cultivation of trees, shrubbery, and fruits ; and these occupations are again variously subdivided. By Planting (or the occupation of planters), is under- stood the cultivation of extensive farms or plantations, for the exclusive production of one or more commercial staples, such as cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco, indigo, &c., and their preparation for a distant market. The term is peculiarly sectional, and its use so far as adopted in this country, is limited to the southern portion of it. All of the foregoing and various other occupations con- nected with the cultivation of the earth, are comprehended under the general head of Agriculture. Besides the varied practical knowledge which is indis- pensable to the proper management of every department of agriculture, its general principles and theoretical relations require a familiarity with the elements of History, Geology, Meteorology, Chemistry, Botany, Entomology, Anatomy, Zoology, Animal and Vegetable Physiology, and Mechan- ics ; and in their ultimate connection, they involve no incon- siderable share of the entire circle of human knowledge and science. In view of its intricacy, its magnitude, and its importance to the human race, we cannot fail to be struck with the peculiar \visdom of Deity in assigning to man this occupa- tion, when a far-seeing and vigorous intellect fitted him to scan with unerring certainty and precision, the visible works of his Creator, and trace their causes and effects through all their varied lelations. It was while in the sinless perfection of his original nature, when " the Lord God put him into INTRODUCTION. IX whe garden of Eden, to dress it and to keep it," and ag- riculture was his his sole occupation, that his godlike intel ligence enabled him, instinctively to give appropriate names, indicative of their true nature or character, " to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field ;" and so just and accurate was his perception, that " whatso- ever he called every living creature, that was the name thereof." In our present imperfect condition, a beneficent Provi- dence has not reserved a moderate success in Agriculture, exclusively to the exercise of a high degree of intelligence. His laws have been so kindly framed, that the hand even of iminstructed toil, may receive some requital in remunerating harvests ; while their utmost fulness ' can be anticipated, only where corporeal efforts are directed by the highest intelligence. The indispensable necessity of an advanced agriculture to the comforts and wealth, and indeed, to the very existenae of a great nation, renders it an object peculiarly worthy the attention and regard of the legislative power. In looking to the history both of ancient and modern times, we find, that wherever a people have risen to enduring eminence, they have sedulously encouraged and protected this right arm of Jtieir strength. Examples need not be given, for they abound in every page of their civil polity. Our own country has not been wanting in a moderate re- gard for Agriculture. By wise legislation in our National Congress, every item of extensive agricultural production within the United States, with the single exception of the inferior avooIs, is believed to be fully protected from foreign competition, by an unyielding and perfectly adequate impost on all such articles, as would otherwise enter into a success, ful rivalry with them from abroad. Many of our subordi nate, or state legislatrres, 1 ave also, by liberal provisions. X INTRODUCTION. given such encouragement to various objects, as they deemed necessary to develope the agricviltural resources within their jurisdiction. S ach have been the appropriations for numer- ous geological and other state surveys; the bounties on dif ferent articles, as silk, hemp, and some others ; and occa- sionally a small gratuity to encourage the formation and support of State and County Agricultural Societies. But while we "vvould not be unmindful of what has here- tofore been effected, our duty compels us to assert, that much yet remains to be done. A single suggestion for the action of the general government and states, is all that our limits will permit us to make. The organization of a National Board of Agriculture, com- posed of able and intelligent men, expressly selected for this purpose, whose sole duty it should be, to collect all informa- tion and statistics on the subject, and arrange and spread them before the people ; to introduce new and valuable for- eign plants., adapted to our soil and climate ; suggest im- proved methods of cultivation ; recommend and disseminate the most approved principles of breeding domestic animals ; indicate those best adapted to particular purposes or peculiar localities ; point out new avenues for the profitable disposal of our surplus products ; and recommend such laws or their modification, as might best subserve this interest ; in short, who should stand as sentinels and defenders on the w^atch- tower of this great citadel — this is the lofty duty, and should be esteemed the peculiar privilege of American leg- islation to accomplish. This was a favorite, yet not a fully digested plan of Washington, the suggestions of whose be- nevolent and comprehenscve mind were never followed but for his country's good. From the individual states, a ess commanding, but not less beneficial duty is required. Restrictions wisely impo- 6P(J upon the general goven nent, limit its action to such INTRODUCTION. XI measures only as are essential to the general welfare, and Buch as cannot properly be accomplished by any more cir- cumscribe i authority. More liberal and enlarged grant? from the people, give to ihe state legislatures the power of doing all which their constituents choose to have effected for their own benefit. Education in all its branches, is under their exclusive control ; and to endow and foster every institution which has a tendency to raise and improve the intellectual, the moral, and the social condition of the people, has ever been their cherished policy. Yet up to this time, no institution expressly designed for the professional education of farmers, has ever been established in this country. That far-seeing wisdom which characterizes the consummate statesman, and which regards the future equally Avith the present and past, has halted upon the threshold of the great temple of agri. cultural science, whose ample and enduring foundations have been commenced by the united efforts of the men of genius throughout both hemispheres. To aid with every means in their power in laying these foundations broad and deep, to elevate its superstructure, to rear its mighty columns, and adorn its graceful capitals, would seem most properly to come entirely within the province of the representatives of intelligent freemen, the great business of whose lives is the practice of agriculture. In addition to continuing and making more general and comprehensive the encouragement for other objects hereto- fore considered, it is the duty of each of the larger states of ::he Union, liberally to endow and organize an Agricultural College, and insure its successful operation within Its juris- diction. Connected with these, should be example and ex- perimental farms, where th^ suggestions of science should be amply tested and carried out before submitting them to the public. The mpjt competent men at home and abroad XI I INTRODUCTION. should be invited to fill a professional chair ; and if money would tempt a Liebig, a Boussingault, a Johnston, or a Play fair, to leave the investigations of European soils and products, and devote his mind and energies to the improve- ment of American husbandry, it should be freely given. These institutions should be schools for the teachers equally with the taught ; and their liberally-appointed labo- ratories and collections should contain every available means for the discovery of whai is yet hidden, as well as for the further development of what is already partially known. Minor institutions should of course be established at differ- ent and remote points, to scatter the elements of agricultural knowledge broadcast over the land, and bring them within the reach of the poorest citizens and the humblest capacities. By such a liberal and enlightened course, we should not only incalculably augment the productive agricultural ener- gies of our own country, but we should also in part, repay to the world at large, the obligations under which we now rest for having appropriated numerous and important disco- veries and improvements from abroad. If we have the ability which none can doubt, we should make it a point of honor to return in kind, the liberal advances we have thus received. It is to the rising generation these suggestions are made; the risen are not yet prepared for their acceptance. The latter have been educated, and become habituated to different and more partial influences. By their industry, intelligence, and energy, displayed in numberless ways, and especially by their protection of American labor, they have accomplished mwch for their own and their country's welfare — they are resolved to leave this glory for their successes. New York, J^ne, 184C AMEEICAN AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER I. SOILS. Soils are those portions of the earth's surface, which contain a mixture of mineral and vegetable or animal sub- stances, in such proportions as adapt them to the support of vegetation. Rocks are the original basis of all soils, Avhich by the convulsions of nature, or the less violent but lono* continued and equally etficient action of air, moisture and frost, have been broken into fragments more or less minute. There are various gradations of these changes. The Texture of Soils. — Some rocks exist in laro-e boulders or rounded stones, which thickly overspread the surface and mingle themselves with the earth beneath, o-ivino- to it the character of a rocky soil. The smaller sizes, but an equal prevalence of the same materials, distino-uish the sur- face where they abound, as a stony soil. A third and more mmute division is called a gravelly soil ; a fourth is a sandy soil ; a fifth constitutes a loam ; and a sixth, in which the parti- cles of earth are reduced to their greatest fineness, is known under the name of a clay soil. The two first mentioned, however, are not properly, dis- tinct soils, as the only support of any profitable vegetation, is to be found in the finer earth in which the rocks and stones are embedded. In frequent instances, they materially benefit the crops, by the influence produced from their shade, moisture, and protection from winds ; and by the gradual decomposition of such as contain lime, potash and other fer- tiUzing materials, they enrich the soil and contribute to the support of vegetation. Their decomposition is hastened by trie apparently worthless vegetable life which ihey yield to liio liviu'j; iiio.-ses that cling to tl '»ir .'-ides, nr.d every where* 14 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. penetrate their fissures ; thus imperceptibly corroding the solid structures and preparing them for future r.sefulness a? soils. If Ave add to the above, a peat or vegetable soil, we shall have the material divisions of soils, as distinguished by their texture. Besides these, soils are frequeii;ly to be seen, more or less extensive, which possess peculiarities entitling them to a distinct classification, and requiring a treatment, in some respects, different from any others. Such are the prarte soils, which, having been annually burnt over for ages, are highly charged with ashes and the alkaline salts. Such also, are the terre-gras lands in Louisiana, and the brick- mold of the East and West Indies, each of which requires peculiar management in plowing and cultivation. Other Classifications of Soils. — Soils are also dis- tinguished by their tendency to absorb and retain water, gravel and sand holding very little, while clay and peat readily absorb and retain a great deal ; by their constant satu- ration from perennial springs, which are called springy soils ; by the quantity of vegetable and animal matter they contain ; by their porosity or adhesiveness ; by their chemical charac- ter, whether silicious, argillaceous or calcareous ; by the quality and nature of the vegetation they sustain ; and lastly, and by far the most important, they are distinguished by their fertility or barrenness, the result of the proper adjustment and combination of most of the conditions enumerated. Deserts of sands, layers of rocks, stone or pure gravel, and beds of marl and peat are not soils, though containing many of their most important elements. It is apparent to the most casual observer, that soils fre- quently, and by almost imperceptible degrees, change from one character to another, and that no classification, however minute, will suffice to distinguish each. Seme obvious yet simple distinctions, which are usually recognized, must nevertheless be assumed for future reference. For this pur- pose, and to avoid unecessary deviations from Avhat should be a common standard, we shall adopt the arrangements as made by Professor Johnston, whicii is based principally upon their chemical constituents. " 1°. Pure clay (pipe-clay) consisting of about 60 of silica and 40 of alumina and oxide of .ron. for the most part chem- ically combined. It allows no silicious sand to subside when diffused through water, and rarely forms any extent of soil. 2°. Stro7tgesT clay soil (tile-clay, "nctuous clay) consists of SOILS. 15 pure clay mixed with 5 to 15 per cent, of a silicious sand, which can be separated from it by boilir g and decantation. 3'^. C/ay /oa7?i diifers from a clay soil, in allowing from 15 to 30 per cent, of fine sand to be separated from it by washing, as above described. By this admixture of sand, its parts are mechanically separated, and hence its freer and more friable nature. 4°. A loamy soil deposits from 30 to 60 per cent, of sand, by mechanical washing. 5°. A sa?idy loam leaves from 60 to 90 per cent, of sand, and 6°. A sandy soil contains no more than ten per cent, of pure clay. The mode of examining, with the view of naming soils, as above, is very simple. It is only necessary to spread a weighed quantity of the soil in a thin layer upon writing paper, and to dry it for an hour or two in an oven or upon a hot plate, the heat of which is not sufficient to discolor the paper — the loss of weight gives the water it contained. While this is drying, a second weighed portion may be boiled or otherwise thoroughly incorporated with water, and the whole then poured into a vessel, in which the heavy sandy j)arts are allowed to subside until the fine clay is beginning to settle also. This point must be carefully watched, the liquid then poured oft; the sand collected, dried as before upon paper, and again weighed. This weight is the quan- tity of sand in the known weight of moist soil, which by the previous experiment has been found to contain a certain quantity of water. Thus, suppose two portions, each 200 grs., are weighed, and the one in the oven loses 50 grs. of water, and the other leaves 60 grs. of sand,— then, the 200 grs. of moist are equal to 150 of dry, and this 150 of dry soil contain 60 of sand, or 40 in 100 (40 per cent.). It would, therefore, be properly called a loam, or loami^ soil. But the above classification has reference only to the clay and sand, while we know that lime is an important constituent of soils, of which they are seldom entirely destitute. We have, therefore, 7°. Marly soils, in which the proportion of lime is more than five but does not exceed 20 per cent, of the whole weight of the dry soil. .The marl is a sandy, loainy, or clay marl, according as the proportion of clay it contains would place it under th^ one or other denomination, supposing it to be 16 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. entirely free fiom lime, or not to contain more tlan five pe» cent.," and 8°. Calcareous soils, in which the lime exceeding 20 pei cent, becomes th-e distinguishing constituent. These are also calcareous clays, calcareous loams, or calcareous sands according to the proportion of clay and sand which are present in them. The determination of the lime also, when it exceeds five per cent., is attended with no difficulty. To 100 grs. of the dry soil diff"used through half a pint of cold water, add half a wine glass-full of muriatic acid (the spirit of salt of the shops), stir it occasionally during the day, and let it stand over night to settle. Pour off' the cleai liquor in the morning and fill up the vessel with water, to wash away the excess of acid. When the water is again clear, pour it off, dry the soil and weigh it — the loss wih amount generally to about one per cent, more than the quan- tity of lime present. The result will be sufficiently near, however, for the purposes of classification. If the loss exceed five grs. from 100 of the dry soil, it may be classed among the marls, if more than 20 grs. among the calcareous soils. Lastly, vegetable matter is sometimes the characteristic of a soil, which gives rise to a further division of 9-. Vegetable inolds, which are of various kinds, from the garden mold, which contains from five to ten per cent., to the peaty soil, in which the organic matter may amount to 60 or 70. These soils also are clayey, loamy, or sandy, according to the predominant character of the earthy ad- mixtures. The method of determining the amount of vegetable matter for the purposes of classification, is to dry the soil well in an oven, and weigh it ; then to heat it to dull redness over a lamp or a bright fire till the combustible matter is burned away. The loss on again weighing is the quantity of organic matter." The foregoing are only such general divisions, as possess properties sufficiently common to each, to require a treatment nearly similar. Besides their principal component parts, every soil must contain in greater or less quantities, all the elements which enter into the , composition of vegetables. They may have certain substances which are not necessary to vegetable life, and some one or all of such as are, may ba contained in excess; yet to sustain a healthy prolific vegeta SOILS. 17 tion, they must hJd, and in a form fitted tc its support, silex, alumina, carbonate of lime, sulphate of hme, potash, soda, magnesia, sulphur, phosphorus, oxide of iron, manganese, chlorine, and probably iodine. These are called the inor- ganic or earthy parts of soils, as they are found almost exclusively in combination with earths, salts, or minerals. They however, constitute from less than 0.5 (one half of one) to over 10 per cent, of all vegetables. In addition to these, fertile soils must also contain carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, which are called the organic parts of soils, from their great preponderance in vegetables and animals, of which they constitute from about 90, to over 99 per cent. d their entire substance. Clay Soils — their Characteristics and Treatment — Clay soils are usually denominated cold and wet, from their strong affinity to water, which they generally hold in too great excess for rapid or luxuriant vegetation. The alumina which exists in clay, not only combines with water forming a chemical compound, but the minute division of its particles and their consequent compactness, oppose seri- ous obstacles to the escape of such as comes in contact with it. Hence, the necessity of placing it in a condition to obviate these essential defects. The most effectual method of disposing of the surplus water in clay soils, is by underd raining. This draws off rapidly, yet by imperceptible degrees, all the excess of water, and opens it to the free admission of atmospheric air ; and this," in its passage through the soil, imparts heat and such of the gases it contains, as are useful in sustaining vegetation. When these are not constructed, open drains should be formed wherever water stands after rains. The slight ele- vation and depression of the surface made by careful plow- ing, will probably be sufficient, if they terminate in some ravine or artificial ditch, and have size and declivity enough to pass off the water rapidly. Clay soils are greatly improved by coarse vegeta,Lj# ma- nures, straw, corn-stalks, chips, &c., which tend to the sepa- ration of its particles. The addition of sand is very benefi- cial, but this is too expensive for large fields. Lime is also a valuable material for a clay soil, as by the chemical combi- nations which are thereby induced, the extreme tenacity of the soil is broken up ; while the lime adds an ingredient of fertility, not before possessed by it, perhaps, to an adequate extent. Gypsum has the same effect, in a more powerful 18 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. degree. Paring and burning, (by which, the surface con taining vegetable matter, is collected into heaps and fired, reducing the mass to a charred heap, which is theu spread over and mixed with the soil,) produce the same result. This is a practice which has been long in use in different parts of Europe ; but although attended Avith immediate and powerful results, it :s too expensive for general introduction into a country, where labor is high, and land and its product* comparatively cheap. Wherever frosts and snow abound, the plowing of clay lands for spring crops, should be done in the autumn if prac- ticable ; by which theii adhesiveness is temporarily destroyed, the earth is enriched by the suoavs, and tinely pulverized by the frost, and they are left in the finest condition for early spring sowing, and without additional working. If plowed in the spring, it should be done when they are neither too wet nor dry ; if the former, the earth subsequently bakes, and for a long time, it is almost impenetrable to the hoe or the teeth of the harrow ; if too dry, they are so compact as to be turned over only with great effort, and then in solid lumps. The action of the atmosphere, will pulverize these masses of baked earth after a time ; but not sufficiently early in most of our northern states, for the convenience or advantage of such crops as are immediately to follow the plowing. For much of the South, plowing clay lands in the autumn is worse than useless ; as the loose earth thus thrown up, is soon re- duced by the heavy winter rains to a compact surface, ap- parently as unfitted for cultivation, without subsequent plow- ing, as the incrustations of lava from a volcano. No soils are so tenacious of the manures which may be incorporated with them as the clays. They form an inti mate combination, both mechanical and chemical,* and hold • By mechanical, in the sense above used, is understood the external relation of bodies, which is nearly equivalent in its meaning in this connection, to artificial. Thus the clay envelopes the manure, and from its impervious character shields it from escape either by drainage or evaporation, and almost as effectually, as if it were enclosed in an earthen vessel. By chemical is meant, its internal or constitutional character. Thus clay not only absorbs the gases which are brought into contact with it from manures, from moisture and from air, as a sponge absorbs water ; but it also forms new combinations with them, which change the ori- ginal nature of these elementary principles, and from light evanescent gases, they become component parts of solid bodies, in which condi- tion they are retained till exhausted by the growing vegetation. These terras are important, and should be fully mderstood. Foi SOILS. 19 fhem securely against waste from drainage jt evRj^^)ration for an indefinite time, till the growing crops demand them. They also greedily seize upon and hoard up all such fertil- izing principles as are conveyed to them by the air and rains. We may mention as an example of their efficiency in abstracting vegetable nutrition from the atmosphere, that many of them, when thrown out from a great depth below the surface, and entirely destitute of organic remains (vege- table or animal matter), after an exposure for some months to its meliorating influence, become capable of bearing large crops, without the aid of manvxre. This is particularly true of the clays which rest on the Onondaga limestone, an eX' tensive group occupying the central and north-western part of New York. The clays are admirably adapted to the production of most of the grains, and the red and white clovers cultivated in the United States. These they yield in great profusion and of the best quality ; and so peculiarly suited are they to permanent meadows and pasturage, that they are styled by way of eminence, grass lands. They are justly character- ised as strong and lasting soils ; and when properly managed the purpose of still more clearly elucidating the subject to the mind of the young student, we give some further examples. If we take a piece of crystalized marble, compact uncrystalized limestone, and chalk, we shall have three substances exactly alike in their chemical character ; for they are all chemical combinations of carbonic acid and lime, associated together in precisely the same proportions. But in their external arrangements, as they appear in a recent fracture to the eye and touch, that is, in their mechanical arrangements, they are totally dissimilar. Again — If we take the pure lime, (quick lime), that is obtained from each of the foregoing by subjecting them to an intense heat, by which the carbonic acid is expelled, and pour upon it nearly one third of its weight of water, great heat is developed, and the lime both mechanical- ly absorbs, and chemically combines with it, forming a new compound, or salt, which is a hydrate of lime. If sand (mostly silex) be added to the lime with water, and mechan- ically mixed or stirred together and allowed to remain for a sufficient time, they will combine chemically, forming silicate of lime, the common mortar of stone masons. Sand (silex) stirred in with clay, (an impure alumina), is mechani- cally mixed ; if then subject to a strong heat as in making brick, they become chemically united, forming silicate of alumina, inseparable by any human means short of the chemists crucible. If we divide or separate a stick by splilting or cutting, it is a mechanical ; and if by burning or charring, it is a chemical change. Thus every alteration, either in nature or art, is referable to one of the above conditions oi changes. 20 AMERICAN AGRICCLTCRE. and put to their appropriate use, they are esteemed as among the choicest of the farmer's acres. Saxdy Soils and their Management. — The character and treatment of sandy soils, are in ahnost every particular the reverse of those of clay. They do not possess the property of adhesiveness, and they have but little affinity for Waaler, which escapes from them almost as soon as it falls. They have but a slight hold upon the manures which are diffused through them ; they are loose in their texture, and may be plowed at any time, but with most advantage when wet. The sowing or planting should follow immediately. As clay soils are much benefited by a mixture of sand, so likewise are sandy soils greatly improved by the addition of clay, yet in a much higher degree ; for though it would never pay, as a general rule, to add sand to clay, yet the addition of a few loads of the stiffest clay to a light sand, would in almost every instance, much more than compensate for the trouble and expense. For this purpose, the clay should be thinly spread in autumn, upon sward land previously plowed, and the winter's frost ■will effectually separate the particles. It should then be harrowed thoroughly and deeply in the spring, and subsequently plowed if necessary. Such a dressing on a light crawling sand, is more than equivalent to an equal quantity of the best manure, and will be permanent in its effects. Clay and sand are necessary to each other, as they both contain qualities which are essential to a good soil ; and that will always be found the best, which has the proper proportion of each. Sandy soils are improved by the frequent use of a heavy toiler ; it cannot be used too often. They require to be made more compact, and any treatment that secures this object, "will be advantageous. Lime, by its chemical action on the constituents of soils, while it separates clay, renders sand more adhesive ; and when cheaply obtained, it is always a profitable dressing for sandy soils, to the full amr ant they may require. Gj'psum, in considerable quantities, has an effect similar to lime, both on clay and sand ; and when added in smaller portions, pro- duces a striking increase in the crops of sandy soils. Clay marls, containing either carbonate, sulphate, or phosphate of lime, are of great value to sandy soils. Equally bene- ficial are ashes, leached or unleached, peat, or vegetable manures of any kind. Some calcareous sands, containing a large proportion of lime, like those of Egypt and exten- SOILS. 1^] sive regions in the Bai oary States, will produce IniKuriantly, if supplied with a sHght addition of manure and an abun- dance of ■water. Sandy soils can never be profitably culti- vated, till thsy have acquired sufficient compactness and fer- tility, to sustain a good growth of grass or clover ; and when once brought to this condition, they are among the most valuable for tillage, especially for such crops as require early maturity. They are, at all times, easily plowed and worked ; they re- quire no draining ; and tliough light and dry, are quick and kindly soils, giving an immediate and full return for the labor and manure bestowed upon them. When in a condition to produce grass, sheep are admirably adapted to preserve and augment their fertility, and by their incessant migrations over it, their sharp hoofs pack the surface closely, producing the same effect as the roller. Gravelly Soils are in some respects similar to sand, but much less desirable, being appropriately termed hungry. Like the latter, they are peculiarly leachy, but in an increased degree, permitting the rapid escape ot manures, both ly evaporation and drainage. Such as are calcareous or com- pocscd of limestone pebbles, are in a great measure not sub- ject to these objections ; as the disposing affinities of the lime, (of which enough will be found to exist in the soil in a finely comminuted or divided state, and in this condition is enabled to act efficiently,) have a tendency to retain the vegetable matters, thus compacting the soil, and holding whatever food of plants may from time to time be given to it, for the wants of future crops. Unless of this latter de- scription, gravelly soils should not be subjected to tillage, but appi'opriated to pasturage, when sheep will keep them in the best and most profitable condition of which they art capable. Loamy Soils being intermediate between clay and sand, possess characteristics, and require a treatment approximating to one or the other, according to the predominance of either quality. They are among the most desirable soils for the various purposes of agriculture. Marly and Calcareous Soils have always a full supply of lime, and like the loams, they frequently incline towards a clay or sand, requiring a management corresponding to their character. Putrescent and vegetable manures increase their fertility, and these are held Avith great tenacity till exhausted by ciops. In durability or lastingness, they cnniiot be ex- 22 AMERICAN AGRK ULTUKE. ceeded ; and ew are more profitable for cultivation oi grazing. Alluvial Soils, are such as have been formed from the washing of streams. They vary in their characteristics, from a mixed clay to an almost pure sand ; but generally, they combine the components of soils in such proportions as are designated by loamy soils, or sandy loams. When thus formed they are exceedingly fertile ; and if subject to the an- nual overflow of a stream, having its sources far above them, they usually receive such an addition to their productiveness, as enables them to yield large ■'•i-ops perpetually, without further manuring. They are for the most part easily worked, and are suited to the various purposes of tillage and meadows ; but when exposed to overflowing, it is safer to keep them in grass, as this crop is less liable to injury by a freshet ; and where sub- ject to washing from the same cause, a well-matted sod is the best protection which can be offered against it. Many of the natural grasses which are found in these meadows, yield a fodder of the highest value. Peaty Soils. These are composed almost wholly of peat, and are frequently called vegetable soils. They are exten- sively diffused between the latitudes of 40° and 60° north, at a level with the ocean, and are frequently found in much lower latitudes, when the elevation of the surface produces a corresponding temperature. They generally occupy low swampy levels, but sometimes exist on slight, northern declivities, where the water in its descent is arrested by a succession of basin-shaped cavities. Their peaty character is acquired, by the growth and par- tial decay, through successive ages, of various aquatic plants, the principal being the sphagnums and lichens. In swamps, many of which were probably small lakes in their origin, the peat is found of an unknown depth, reaching in some instances, beyond 30 and 40 feet. On declivities and occa- sional levels, the peat is sometimes only a few inches in thickness. It is of a blackish or dark brown color, and exists in various stages of decay, from the almost perfect state of fallen stumps and leaves, to an imperfectly defined, ligneous mass, or even an impalpable powder. In its natural state, it is totally unfit for any profitable vegetation, being saturated with water, of an antiseptic na- lure, whicii, for an almost indefinite time, resists putrefaction or decay. When throvra out of its native bed and exposed SOILS. 23 to drain for a few months, much of it is fit for fuel ; and it is always of advantage to the muck heaps, as an absorbent of the liquid and gaseous portions of animal and other vola- tile manures ; or it is of great utility when applied alone to a dry, gravelly or sandy soil Cultivation of Peat Soils. When it is desirable to culti- vate a peaty soil, the first process is to drain it of all the moisture which has given to it, and sustained its present character. The drains must be made sufficiently near to each other, and on every side of the bed ; or they must, at least, be so located as effectually to intercept and carry off all the springs or running water which saturates the soil ; jind they should be deep enough to prevent any injurious capil- lary attraction of the water to the surface. When it has been thoroughly drained, the hommocs if any, must be cut up with the mattoc or spade, and thrown into heaps, and after they are sufficiently dried, they may be burned, and the ^shes scattered over the surface. These afford the best top dressing it can receive. Sand or fine gravel, with a large quantity of barn- yard manure and effete lime, should then be added. On some of these, according as their composition approaches to ordinary soils, good crops of oats, corn, roots, &c may be grown ; but they are better suited to meadows, and vhen thus prepared, they will yield great burthens of clovL r, timothy, red top, and such of the other grasses as are adapted to moist soils. Subsequent dressings of sand, lime, manure and wood ashes, or of all combined, may be after- wards required, when the crops are deficient, or the grasses degenerate. Peat contains a large proportion of carbon, and the silicates in which such soils are deficient, (and which they procure only in small proportions from the farm-yard manure, but more largely from the sand or gravel,) are essential to be added, in order to furnish an adequate coating for corn stalks, straw and the valuable grasses. As they are exhausted, they must b^ again supplied or the crops will fail. Besides yielding an important food to the crop, lime is essential to produce decomposition in the mass of vegetable matter, as Avell as to combine ■with and aid in furnishina; to the grow- ing plants, such of their food as the atmosphere contains. Ashes are among the best applications, as they possess the Bilicates, lime, potash, and other inorganic materials of plants in great abundance, and in a form readily adapted to vegeta^ 24 AMERICAN AGEICULTURE. We nutrition. Gypsum is also a valuable mant;re for peaty soils. SUBSOILS Airo THEIH MANAGEMENT. The efficiency of soils in producing good crops, depends much on the subsoil. If this consists of impervious clay or hard-pan, which prevents the drainage of the water, it is evident, the accumulation of heavy rains will materially in- jure the vegetation above ; for it is certain, that while no- thing is more essential to productiveness than an adequate supply of moisture for the roots, nothing is more injurious than their immersion in stagnant water. If this description of subsoil be deep, the only remedy is thorough underdrain- ing ; if shallow, the crust may be broken up with the subsoil plow and gradually mixed Avith the surface soil, when the water will readily escape below. A variety of plows have been constructed for this purpose ; but unless it be intended to deepen the soil by an admixture of manures, they must not be used for bringing up the subsoil too rapidly, to mix with that on the surface. In ad- dition to the more ready escape of water, thus secured by breaking it up, the air is also admitted, which enables the roots to strike deeper, and draw their nourishment from a . much greater depth. The increased distance through which the roots penetrate, furnishes them with additional moisture during a season of drought, thereby securing a lux- uriant crop when it might otherwise be destroyed. This is frequently a great item in the profit of the farmer ; as, be- sides the increase of crop which follows a dry, hot season, when a full supply of moisture is furnished, the product is usually of better quality ; and the general deficiency of agri- cultural produce, which ensues from seasons of drought, makes his own more valuable. As a result of this practice, there is also a gradual increase in the depth of the soil ; as the fine and more soluble parti- cles of the richer materials above, are constantly working down and enriching the loosened earth below. In time, this becomes good soil; and this, in proportion to its depth, increases the area from which the roots derive their nutri- ment. So manifest are the advantages which have followed the use of subsoil plows, that they have been extensively introduced of late years, among the indispensable tools of file better class of asrricuiturisis. SOILS. 26 When ..le subsoil is loose and leachy, (consisting of an excess oL sand or gravel,) thereby allowing the too ready escape df moisture and the soluble portions of manures, the subsoil plow is not only unnecessary, but positively injurious. In this case, the surface soil should be somewhat deepened by the addition of vegetable matters, so as to afford a greater depth through which the soluble manures must settle, be- fore they can get beyond the reach of the roots ; and the eupply of moisture would thereby be much augmented. It .s better, however, to keep lands of this character in wood or permanent pasture. They are at best, ungrateful soils, and make a poor return for the labor and manure bestowed upon them. If there be a diversity in the character of the surface and subsoils, one being inclined to sand and gravel, and the other to marl or clay, a great improvement will be secured, by allowing the plow to reach so far down as to bring up and incorporate with the soil, some of the ingredients in which it is wanting. This admixture is also of^remarkable benefit in old or long-cultivated fields, which have become deficient in inorganic matters, and in their texture. The effect ^ lojig continued cultivation, besides ex- hausting what is essential to the earthy part of plants, is to breakdown the coarser particles of the soil, by the mechani- cal action of the plow, harrow, &c. ; and in a much more rapid degree, by the chemical -combinations, which cultiva- tion and manuring produce. A few years suffice to exhibit striking examples in the formation and decomposition of rocks and stones. Stalactites and various specimens of lime- stone, indurated clays, sandstone and breccias or pudding stones, are formed, in favorable circumstances, almost under our eye; while some limestones, shales, sandstones, &c., break down in large masses annually, from the combined effect of moisture, heat, and frost. The same changes, on a smaller scale, are constantly going forward in the soil, and much more rapidly while under cultivation. The general tendency of these surface changes, is towards pulverisation The particles forming the soil, from the impalpable mite ol dust to the large pebbles, and even the stones and rocks are continually broken up by the combined action of the vital roots, and the manures incorporated with the soil, by which new elements of vegetable food are developed and become available, and in a form so minute as to be imbibed by the spongioles of the roots ; and by the absorbent vessels, they 26 AMSRICAN AurRICULTURE. are afterwards distributed in their appropriate places in the plant. Wliere this action has been going on for a long period, a manifestly beneficial efiect has immediately fol- lowed, from bringing up and mixing with the superficial earth, portions of the subsoil wliich have never before been subject to cultivation. A subsoil which is permeable by water, is sometimes imperceptibly beneficial to vegetation, not only by allowing the latent moisture to ascend and yield a necessary supply to the plants; but a moisture frequently charged with lime and various other salts, Avhich the capillary attraction brings from remote depths below the surface. It is probably from this cause, that some soils produce crops far beyond the yield which might be reasonably looked for, from the fertili- zing materials actually contained in them. This operation is rapidly going forward during the heat of siunmer. The water thus charged with saline matters, ascends and evapo- rates at and below the surface, leaving them diffused throughout the soil. After long continued dry weather, a thin, whitish coatingof these salt.s, is frequently discernible on the ground. The enriching effect of these deposites, is one of the compensating results, seldom discovered or acknowledged perhaps, yet Avisely designed by a beneficent Providence, to secure a future and increased fertility from the temporary loss occasioned by drought. Where rain seldom or never falls, this result is noticeable in numerous, and sometimes extensive beds of quiescent (not shifting) sand. Deposits ofttimes occur several inches in thickness. Such are the extensive beds of impure muri- ate of soda and other salts, in the arid deserts of California ; in the southern parts of Oregon ; the nitrates found in India, Egypt, Peru, and various other parts of the world. ADDITIONAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS. Besides the qualities of soils already noticed, there are Beveral physical conditions which affect their value. They should be of sufficient depth, friable or easily pulverized ; they should possess the right color, and be susceptible of the proper admission and escape of heat, ai. anfl moisture. Jethro Tull, who wrote more than a century ago on the subject of agriculture, maintained that if a soil be worked to a proper depth, and perfectly well pulverized, nothing more is necessary to insure an indefinite succession of the rrost ?Oii^. 27 (uxuriant c/ops, without the aid oi manures ; aud 'A mus ba confessed, his practice gave some apparently strong confirnia tions of his theory. By carrying tillage far below the surface, thus se3uring the minute division of the earth to a great depth, and rendering it permeable to the roots, he insured the free access^of air and moisture, which are among the first and most important requisites in the growth of ^'ege- tables. But Tull wrote before agriculture became a science, and omitted to estimate the large amount of fertile ingredients, which every crop takes out of the soil, and which can only be supplied by the addition of fresh materials. A succession of crops would therefore, so far reduce the soil, as to render it necessary to add manures, or vegetation must inevitably fail. This careful, laborious practice, could only, for the time being, enhance the crop and prolong its available supplies ; yet in accomplishing even this object, his example is w^orthy of imitation by every tiller of the soil. Friableness of the Soil is a quality equally removed from the adhesiveness of strong clay, or the openness of loose sand. Good loam, and fertile, alluvial soils always possess this property. When stirred by the plow, the spade or the hoe, the earth ought to fall and crumble readily, although it should be Avet. Such a condition secures a ready admis- sion to the roots, Avhich thus easily per^^ade the soil, and draw their necessary support from it in every direction Under draining, and the addition of coarse manures to clay, fermented manures and ashes to sand, and lime and gypsum to both, will materially enhance their friableness. Color is an essential featiu-e in soils, and like friableness, it has an important relation to their capacity for heat and moisture. Dark-colored earths, and black in the highest degree, absorb heat more rapidly than an j^ other when exposed to a temperature above their own ; and it escapes with equal readiness when their relative temperature is reversed. A ?-ough pulverised surface, which is seen in the minute inequalities of a friable and well cultivated soil, produces the same result. During the heat of the day, and especially when the sun's rays fall upon the earth, the dark, friable soil imbibes the heat freely, and transmits it to the remotest roots ; thiis securing that warmth to the plant, v.-hicli s one of the necessary conditions of its growth. When the temperature of the air falls on the approach of evening, a reversed action »li the soil takes place, by which the heat as rapidly escapes ' „ „ .„ < 0.100 Soda, ditto 0.640 0.025 J —^ ? 0.013 Phosphoric Acid combined with Lime and Oxide of iron 0.651 0.060 trace 1.221 Sulphuric Acid in Gypsum.. O.Oll 0.027 0.034 0.009 Chlorine in common Salt.... 0.010 0.036 trace 0.003 Carbonic Acid united to the Lime 0.080 Humic Acid 0.978 1.304 0.44T Insoluble Humus 0.540 1.072 Organic substances contain'g nitrogen 1.108 1.011 100. 100. 100. 100. " Of these soils, the first had been cropped for 160 years successively, without either manure or naked fallow, The second was a virgin soil, and celebrated for its fertility. The third had been unmanured for twelve years, during the last nine of whi(?h it had been cropped with beans, barley, pota- toes, winter barley and red clover, clover, winter barley wheat, oats, naked fallow." — (Johnston.) Bergman found that one of the most fertile soils in Swe« SOILS. 31 den centained 30 per cent, of carbonate of lime. Chaptal analyzed a very productive soil in France, which gave near 25 per cent of the same, and seven of organic matter. Tillet even found one, and that the most fertile, which yielded 37.5 of carbonate of lime. Some of the best in the Missis- sippi valley, have yielded upon analysis, 20 per cent, of mag- nesian lime ; and of phosphate of lime, two to three per cent. Many other soils throughout the United States, contain an equal proportion of carbonate of lime. Such are ahvays the last to wear out, and the first to recover by the addition of manures, when suifered to remain uncultivated, or in a state of rest. 4^^ 32 AMERICAN AGRICULTTIRB. CHAPTERII. MANURES. While soils are permitted to remain in their » t^oTh state, or if denuded of their original foliage and used only i«r pas- lure, little or no change is perceptible either in tnei^ charac- ter or productive powers. A slight change, liowever, is gradually wrought in their texture and capacity for produc- tion, which is fully revealed in the lapse of centuries. The elevated mountain's side, and the steep declivities of hills, support an annual vegetation of more or less luxuriance ; and a portion of this, together with the broken twigs and the ■wasting trunks of fallen trees, are carried down by the rains, and become a rich addition to the lower soils on which they ultimately rest. Beside the vegetable matter thus annually removed from one spot and accumulated upon another, many of the fertilizing salts, which the action of the roots, or exposure to the atmosphere has rendered soluble, and the finer particles of earth, which the alternations of heat and frost, of rain and drought, have reduced to dust, are also washed out of the higher soils and deposited on the plains and val- leys below. Such doubtless, was once the condition of those secondary bottom-lands, which for ages, probably, received the rich deposits from other soils ; but whose present situa- tions, elevated beyond even the extraordinary rise of the rivers whose course is near, show some radical alteration of their respective levels, by which the inundations no longer contribute to their fertilization. These soils being well stored with the food of plants, and frequently to a great depth, will bear large suocessive crops for a long period : and they have in manv ipstances, been treated by their first occupants as if thev were inexhausti- ble. Of this description, were the James Hivet and other alluvial lands in Virginia, some of ^vhich Avere continued in uninterrupted crops of corn and tobacco for more than a f'en- tury, without the addition of manures. But they have 'oug since become exhausted ; and the more careful planters ar** MANURES. 33 now endeavoring to resuscitate those worn-out lands, which ought never to have become impoverished. Of the same character are most of the secondary bottoms on tlie Con necticut, the Scioto, the Miami, and otlier rivers. The first, although imder cultivation for more than two centuries, has fully maintained its productiveness, the necessary result of its minute subdivisions among intelligent farmers ; and the two latter, if properly managed, are capable of perpetual fertility. Although but a little more than half a century has elapsed since these last have been subject to the white man, they have, in too many instances, already been severely cropped. The writer has seen fields, which he was assured have yielded forty-seven large successive crops of corn, and ex- clusively from their own resources. A more careful tillage, however, is now becoming general. The lower alluvial bottoms that are frequently overflowed, and thus receive large coatings of manures, which are fully equivalent to the products taken off, are the only soils which will permanently sustain heavy crops Avithout the aid of man. Such are the banks of the Nile and the Ganges, and many of our own rivers, Avhich by the overflowing of their waters alone,, have continued to yield large annual burthens; the two former, probably for more than 4,000 years ; but they are thus supported, at the expense of a natural drainage of thousands of acres, which by this means, are proportion- ally impoverished. Manures, then, in some form, must be considered as absolutely essential to sustaining soils sub- jected to tillage. In their broadest sense, manures embrace every material, which if added to the soil, tends to its fertilization. They are appropriately divided into organic and inorganic ; the first embracing animal and vegetable substances, which have an appreciable quantity of nitrogen ; the last, comprehending only such as are purely mineral or earthy, and which in general, contain no nitrogen. These characteristics are sometimes partially blended, but they are sufficiently distinct for general classification. Much pertinacity has been exhibited by some highly intel- ligent minds, who should have entertained more liberal views, as to the peculiar kinds of manures necessary to support a satisfactory productiveness. We have seen that TuU maintained, that the deepening and thorough pulveriza- tion of the soil ^vas alone sufficient to secure perpetual fer-" tility. But this crude notion, it is evident to the most super* 9*- 34 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. ficjal modem reader, is wholly untenable. Some agricul- turists of the present day, howi?'/er, while they scout Tull's theory, (who was, nevsrtheless, a very shrewd man for his time), will yet claim as essential to successful vegetation, the existence in the soil, of but a part only of the food of plants. Thus, one asserts that the salts alone will secure good crops ; others maintain that the nitrogenous substances are the true source of fertility; while still another class refer to the presence of humus or geine, (the available product of vegetable and animal decay in the soil), as the only valuable foundation of vegetable nutriment in all manures. Truth and sound practice lie between, or rather in the combination of all these opinions. It has been shown in a preceding page (17th), that all fertile soils must have not less than fifteen, and more pro- bably sixteen, different simple or elementary substances, in various combinations with each other. All of the ordinary cultivated plants, contain potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, silica, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, suU phuric acid, phosphoric acid, chlorine, and frequently iodine ; each of which, excepting the two last, are in com- bination with oxygen. In addition to these, they also have carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. Other substances or ultimate principles may possibly exist in plants, which analysis may hereafter detect, but which have hitherto elu- ded the closest investigation. It is therefore obvious, that such principles as all fertile soils furnish to vegetables, must be contained in manures. It is no satisfactory answer to this position, to assert, that numerous experiments have apparently been successful, of growing plants in pure sand and water ; or with charcoal and the salts added ; or even that there are some atmosphe- ric plants, that fulfill their zoophytic existence in air. Growth may continue for a long time under such circum- stances ; but full maturity never arrives, and probably never can, withotit the available presence in the soil, of every element xohich enters into the composition of plants. Profitable farming requires, that manures embodying al these elements, should be added in sufficient quantities to the soil, to develope fully and rapidly, such crops as are sought from it. It becomes then, a matter of the highest consequence to the farmer, to understand not only what substances may be useful as rnac 'es ; but also, how r^ api^ly them in the bes* MANURES. 35 manner to his urops, so far as they can be made profitable. We shall first speak of the inorganic manures. ASHES. If any organic matter, whether animal or vegetable, be burned, an incombustible substance remains behind, called the ash or ashes. This varies in different plants, from less than one, to over twelve per cent, of their whole weight. It also varies with the different soils upon which they are found, with the different parts of the same plant, and in the different stages of its maturity. Thus, plants which grow on peaty or low wet soils, give a less proportion of ashes than those which mature upon soils that are dry, or rich in the sili- cates and salts. The bark, leaves and twigs, give much more of ash than the trunks of trees and stems of plants ; and in their early growth, they yield a much larger proportion than after they have attained maturity. The following table, constructed from several reliable sources, but principally from Spreugel, arranged in part by Johnston, will show the relative quantity of ashes found in Bome of the more important objects of cultivation. • a 1 05 •a o tn 6 «) c to a a a E 3, o '^< 3 EC o o J3 0 O c o u o s c a o CHLORIDES. Several of these have just been particularly enumerated. The remainder are composed of carbonic, nitric, sulphuric and phosphoric acids, silica and chlorine, in chemical com- bination Avith potash, soda, lime and the other bases or ash of plants. Although no one of these can fail to benefit crops, when rightly applied, yet the expense of most of them, will prevent their extended use. This can only be looked for, from those which are procurable at a cheap rate. The chemical laboratories, glass Avorks, and some other manufactories, afford in their refuse materials, more or less of these mineral manures, \vhich would well repay the farmer for removing and applying to his land. The most obvious that occur in this country, are all that will be here mentioned. OLD PLASTER. This is a true silicate of lime ; being formed mostly ct siliceous sand and lime,' chemically combined. For mea» dows, and for most other crops, especially on clays and loams, this is worth twice its weight in hay ; as it will pro- duce a large growth of grass for years in succession, and without other manure. This efi'ect is due, not only to the lime and sand, but to the nitric acid which they have ab- stracted from the atmosphere, and which they continue alternately (while in combination) to absorb from the air and give out to the growing plant. But the farmer cannot too carefully remember, that with this, as with all other saline manures, but a part of the ingredients only is thus supplied to vegetables ; and without the addition of the '^thers, the soil will sooner or later become exhausted. BROKEN BRICK AND BURNT CLAY. These are composed mostly of silicate of alumma, but they are generally mixed with a small quantitv of silicate of pot 3 50 AMERICAN AGRICtJ: TVRE. ash and other substance?. They are of much value as a top-dressing for meadows. In addition to their furnishing in themselves, a minute quantity of the food of plants, like old plaster, they serve a much more extended purpose, by condensing ammonia, nitric and carbonic acid, which they give up to the demands of vegetation. They seem to fulfil the same part as conductors, between the nutritive gases that abound in the atmosphere and the vegetables which they nourish, as the lighrning rods in leading the electricity from the clouds to the earth. CHARCOAL. When charcoal is scattered over the grou.-l, it produces the same effect as the foregoing, and probably in a greater degree ; as it absorbs and condenses t-lie va'"'ous gases within its pores, to the amount of from 20 to over 80 times its own bulk. The economy and benefit of such applica- tions, can be readily understood, as they are continually gleaning these floating materials from tlie air, and storing '.hem up as food for plants. Charcoal as well as lime, often checks rust in wheat, and mildew in other crops ; and in all cases, mitigates their ravages, where it does n^t wholly prevent them. BROKEN GLASS Is a silicate of potash or soda, according as either of these alkalies are used in its manufacture. Silicate of potnsh, (silex and potash chemically united,) is that material in plants, which constitutes the flinty, exterior coating of the grasses, straw, cornstalks, &c. ; and it is found in varying quantity in all plants. I^ is most abundant in the bamboos, cane, Indian corn, tlie stings of nettles, and the prickly spikes in burs and thistles. Some species of the marsh- grasses have these silicates so finely, yet firmly adjusted, like saw-teeth, on their outer edges, as to cut the flesh to the bone when drawn across the finger. Every farmer's boy has experienced a yet more formidable weapon, in the sli- vers from a cornstalk. It is to the absence of this material in peats and such other soils, as have an undue proportion of animal or vegetable manures, that we may attribute the imperfect maturity of the grains and cultivated grasses grown upon them, causing them to crinkle and fall, from the want of adequate support to the steni , and it is to the^ .• excess in sandy and cal- MANURES. 61 careous soils, that the straAV is always firm a..A upright, whatever may be the weight of the bending ear at the top. By a deficiency of silicates, we mean, that they do not exist in a soluble form, which is the only state in wliich plants can seize upon aiii appropriate them. The efforts of some roots in procuring this indispensable food, have been so irre- sistible, as to have decomposed the glass vessels in which they have been grown. Before using it as a manure, the glass shouH be reduced to powder by grinding. CRUSHED MICA, FELDSPAR, LAVA, THE TRAP ROOKS, &c. Feldspar contains 66.75 of silica; 17.50, alumina; 12, potash ; 1.25, lime ; and 0.75, oxide of iron. Mica consists of silica, 46.22; ahmiina, 34.52; peroxide of iron, 6.04, potash, 8.22; magnesia and manganese, 2.11. Most of the lavas and trap-rocks hold large quantities of potash, lime, and other fertilizing ingredients. The last frequently form the entire soils in volcanic countries, as in Sicily, and around Mount Vesuvius in Italy, in tlie Azores and Sandwich Islands ; and their A'alue for grains and all cultivated plants, is seen in the luxuriance of their crops and the durability of their soils. These examples illustrate the great influence of saline manures, and their near approach to an entire in- dependence in sustaining vegetation. Whenever they be- come exhausted by the severe usage they undergo, two or three years of rest enables them again to yield a remune- rating crop to the improvident husbandman. Granite, sienite, and some other rocks, yielding large proportions of potash and some lime, abound throughout the eastern portion of this country. The potash in them, is however, firmly held in an insoluble state ; but if they are subjected to a strong heat, they may then be easily crushed, when they yield the potash freely by solution. In this con- dition, they constitute a valuable top-dressing for almost every soil and crop. It is a subject of frequent remark, that the soil underneath, or in immediate contact Avith certain Avails, which have been erected for a long period, is much richer than the ad- joining parts of the same fields. This difference is probably due, in some measure, to the slow decomposition of import- ant fertilizers in the stone, which are washed dov/n by the rains, and become incorporated in the soil. The removal of stones from a fertile field, has been deprecated by many an observing farmer, as materially impairing it v productiveness. 52 america:< a. »riculture. In addition to the shade afforded by them agair^st an intense 6nn and protection from cold %vinds, their influence in con- densing moisture, and the beneficial effects which perhaps ensue, as in fibrous covering, the difference may be attribut- able to the same cause. SPENT LYE or THE ASHERIES Is the liquid which remains, after the combination of the lye and grease, in manufacturing soap. It is of great value for plants. Before applying it to the land, it should be mixed with peat or turf, or diluted with ten times its bulk of water. Five gallons of this lye, is estimated to contain as much potash or soda, according as either is used, a? would be furnished by three barrels of ashes. It has besides, a large quantity of nitrogen, the most valuable ingredient of animal manure, which, by judicious application, is either converted into ammonia, or serves the same purpose in yield- ing nutrition to plants. AMMONIACAIi LIQUOR (from the gas hoixses). This liquid is the residuum of bituminous coal and tar used m making gas, and holds large quantities of nitrogen, from which ammonia is frequently extracted. When used for laud near by, it may be carried to the muck heap in barrels ; and Vviien at remote distances, gypsum or charcoal dust may be added to the barrel, stirrmg it well for some time, and then closely covering i»^. The gypsum and charcoal soon combine with the ammonia, when the liquid may be drawn off, and the solid contents removed. It is a powerful manure and shotild be sparingly used. GUANO. GuaTio is derived exclusively irom the animal creation; but from its existence in a highly-condensed state, and in combination with large proportions of the salts, and having, by its accumulation through thousands of years, lost the dis- tinguishmg characteristics of recent animal matter, it may be almost considered as a fossil, and as properly enough classed under the head of inorganic manures. It is the re- mains of the excrements, food and carcasses of innumerable flocks of marine birds and seals, Avhich have made some of the islands in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, places of resort for rearing their young, through unknown ages. Peruvian Guano is fotmd on the islands of the Pacific, MANTRES. 5b near the coast of Peru and some of the headlands on the adja- cent shores, between latitudes 13° and 21° South. It is here deposited to the depth, sometimes, of 50 or 60 feet. Within the degrees above named, rain seldom falls; and there is little waste, either of the substance or quality of these vast accumulations, from the lapse of time or the action of the elements. The water-fowl which resort to this coast and the islands near it, subsist principally on fish ; and their feces are con- sequently, much richer in nitrogen than those of any species of the feathered tribes, excepting such as are exclusively carniverous. Peruvian guano is of a light, browi. color, resembling the yellowish earths or loam ; and it is beyond all comparison, su- perior to any other guano yet discovered, or than other manures hitherto known. The following average analysis of Dr. Ure, shows that this description of guano, contains the important and rarer portions of animal manure, in propor- tions far beyond that of any animal matter in its natural combinations. In every 100 parts, there are, of Organic matter containing nitrogen, including urate of ammonia, and capable of affording from 8 to 17 per cent, of ammonia by slow change in the soil, 50 Water 11. Phosphate of lime 25 36 Ammonia, phosphate of magnesia, phosphate of am- monia and oxalate of ammonia, containing from 4 to 9 per cent, of ammonia, 13 Silicious matter from the crops of birds, 1 Its character, as correctly indicated by such an analysis as the above, and which is fully sustained by the astonishing, and generally profitable results that follow its application has rendered it, though of recent introduction, one of the most popular manures, both in America and Europe. It has been known and appreciated by the Peruvians from time immemorial ; and by its liberal use alone, combined with irrigation, they have for ages, produced the most abun- dant crops of Indian corn and wheat. It was scarcely known in Europe till 1840. Extensive experiments were then made with it in Great Britain. These were so satis- factory, that over 375,000 tons have since been imported mto that country in a single year, African or Ichaboe and Fatagonian Guano have been brouofht into this conntrv to a limited amount. They have 54 AMERICAN AGKICULTURE, been used with some advantage, but theii value is far below that of the Peruvian. The first introduciio7i ofGiuxno into this country, was in 1825. It was used in a few gardens to a limited extent, and then forgotten. Soon af'.^r its succ^essful appearance in England, its importa ;ion was commenced in the United States. Owing to the diminished value of our agricultural products as compared with those of England, the progress of our im- portation has been slow ; but it has been steadily advancinjr. and will probably reach the amount of 20,000 tons for the ensuing year (1850). It already occupies the rank of a staple import ; and its constantly-increasing use hereafter, along the Atlantic and Pacific borders of t^e United States, may with certainty be predicted. Giiano is ajjplied upon nearly all crops and soils ; but it is, perhaps, most suited to such of the latter, as approach to sandy loams. " From 200 to 500 pounds per acre, is a proper dressing, the largest quantity being required for the more sterile soils. It should be thoroughly mixed for a few days, with five times its bulk of vegetable mold or loam, and some charcoal or gypsum, after breaking the lumps and sifting in alternate layers. Avoid the use of lime or ashes in the com- post, as they tend to expel the ammonia ; and keep it under cover, beyond the reach of w^ater or rains till used. It may then be scattered broadcast, upon meadows or grain, or placed near the seeds, or young plants in the hill. A double application has been attended with the best effects ; tht earliest, producing a rapid and luxuriant growth of stalk, and a later one, filling out the grain, far beyond what could have otherwise been expected. The white or small grains, corn, potatoes and other roots, melons and other fruits, flowers, &c.,&c., are all susceptible of the presence of guano, and are greatly benefited by it, whenever there is sufficient moisture, fully to develope its ingredients. When used for steeps, one pound of guano is added to ten or fifteen gallons of water, then stirred well together and closely covered, (to prevent the escape of the ammonia,) for 24 hours or more, when it will be ready for use. In watering the plants, avoid sprinkling the liquid upon the stems or leaves, or it may burn or injure the plants. Tue surface should be freshly stirred, to admit the liquid near the roots. As a soak for seeds previous to planting or sowing, it is frequently of great benefit \xi hastening germination and pro MANURES. 8d motiug growth ; but great care should be used that it be not made too strong. SOOT. Like ashes, soot has its origin exclusively from vegetables, but may, with them, be properly treated under the present head. It holds ammonia, charcoal and other important fer- tilizers, and is used at the rate of 50 to 200 bushels per acre. Soot produces its greatest effects in moist weather, and in dry seasons it has sometixnes proved positively injurious. I* may be sown broadcast over the field, and harrowed in ; or mixed with such other manures in the muck heap, as are in- tended for immediate use. The ammonia has a great ten- dency to escape, which can only be prevented by adequate absorbents, such as peat, muck, rich turf, tan bark or other vegetable remains. Many experiments made with it, have proved contradictory. In some, it has been .shown to be useless for clovers ; while it has proved of great service to several of the grasses. Salt, when mixed with it, enhances its effects. In an experiment made in England with pota- toes, on three separate acres of land of equal quality, one ■without manure gave 160 bushels; one manured with 30 bushels of soot yielded 196; and the third, which received the same quantity of soot and seven bushels of salt, yielded 236. The salt insures for it that degree of moisture, which is prcbabl)' essential to its most beneficial action. 56 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE, CHAPTER III ORGANIC MANURES. THE PRINCIPLES CONSTITUTING ANIMAL AND VEaETABLB— PUTRESCENT OR ORGANIC MANURES. From the table in the foregoing pages on the ashes of plants, it is shown, that in burning dried vegetables, they lose from about 95 to 99 per cent, of their whole weight. The matter that has been expelled by heat, consists of four substances or ultimate principles ; carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, of Avhich carbon makes up from 40 to 50 per cent., or about one half of the whole. Carbon constitutes all of charcoal but the ash ; nearly all of mineral coal, and plumbago or black lead ; and even the brilliant diamond is but another form of carbon. The properties and uses of carbon are various and important ; its agency in the growth of plants alone, concerns us at the present time. Carbonic Acid. — When any matter containing carbon is burned, its ultimate particles or atoms combine with the oxygen which exists in the atmosphere, and form carbonic acid, consisting by weight, of six of the former and sixteen of the latter. When animals inhale air into their lungs, a similar union takes place ; the carbon contained in the sys- tem being brought to the surface of the lungs, and after uniting with the oxygen, is expelled as carbonic acid. Pure limestone or marble loses 46 per cent, of its weight by burning ; and all of this loss is carbonic acid, which the lime slowly absorbs again on exposure to the aii, or to such substances as contain it. It is evolved by fermentation ; and if the surface of a brewer's vat in full activity, be closely observed in a clear light, it may be seen falling over the edges, when it is gradually absorbed by the air. Its dersity is such, that it may be poured from one open vessel 'nto another, withou* material loss. It is this which gives to CROANIC MANURES. 67 artificial soda water and to mineral springs, (as the Sara- toga,) their sparkling appearance and acid flavor. It abounds in certain caves, stinken pits, and wells, which de- stroy animal life, not from any intrinsic poisonous qualities, but from its excluding oxygen, which is essential to respi- ration. And it is from the same cause, that death ensues to such as are confined in a . "nse room where charcoal is burnt. This acid is an active and important agent in the inces- sant changes of nature. It is everywhere formed in vast quantities, by subterranean fires and volcanoes. Though heavier than atmospheric air, it mingles with it, and is car- ried as high as examinations have yet been made, consti- tuting in bulk, about one part in 1,000 of the atmosphere, and something more than this in weight. Gay Lussac ascended in a balloon 21,735 feet, and there filled a bottle with air, which analysis showed to be identical in composi- tion with that on the surface of the earth. Carbon is one of the great principles of vegetation, and it is only as car- bonic acid, that it is absorbed by the roots, leaves and stems of vegetables, and by them is condensed and retained as solid matter. Oxygen, hj'^drogen and nitrogen, when uncombined with other substances, exist only as gases. The first makes up nearly one half of all the substances of the globe ; and with the exception of chlorine and iodine, it constitutes a large part of every material in the ash of plants. It forms rather over 21 per cent, by measure, and 23 by weight, of the whole atmosphere ; and about eight parts out of nine, by weight, of water, hydrogen making up the remaindep-. It is absorbed and changed into new pioducts by the respiration of animals, and it is au essential agent in combustion. Oxides are com- posed of it, in union with the metals and alkalies ; and most of the acids, when it is combined with other substances, as nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. Its presence, indeed, is almost itniversal, and the agency which it exerts in vegeta- ble nutrition, is among the most varied and intricate mani- fested in vegetable life. Hydrogen is the lightest of all the gases. It is but n the weight of the atmosphere, and re the weight of oxy- gen ; and from its great levity, it is used for filling balloons On applying a lighted taper, when brought into contact with atmospheric air, it burns with a light flame, the corn- bustion forming water. 3* A8 A^rERiCAN agricul: jre. It is largely evolved from certain springs, in connection witli carbon or sulphur. This is called carburetled and sul phuretted hydrogen, an offensively pungent and inflamma- ble gas. So abundantly is this emitted from the earth in some places, that it is used fo: economical purposes. The inhabitants in the village of Fi edonia, New York, light their buildings with it ; and some of the salt manufacturers in the valley of the Ohio, apply it to evaporating the water of the saline springs. Carburetted hydrogen is the gas now employed for lighting cities. It is manufactured from oils, fat, tar, rosin and bituminous coal, all of which yield large quantities of carbon and hydrogen. Both the carbon and hydrogen are entirely consumed with a briiliant light, when inflamed and exposed to the oxygen of the atmosphere. It is the residuum of the volatile portion of these substances, after driving off the gas, which makes the ammoniacal liquor so useful as a manure ; all the nitrogen, with a part of the hydrogen, remaining in the liquid. In combination with chlorine, one of the elements of salt, it constitutes the muriatic, one of the strongest of the acids. Ammonia. — The most frequent condition in which hy- drogen is mentioned, in connection with vegetation, besides water, is when combined with nitrogen, in the proportion of three of the former in bulk, to one of the latter ; and by weight, 17.47 of the first, to 82.53 of the last, in every 100 parts, composing the volatile alkali, ammonia, which is about xs the density of the atmosphere. By strong com- pression at a low temperature, it may be condensed to a liquid, having rather more than f the specific weight of water. It is never found in a tangible shape, except in combination with acids, formimg carbonates, nitrates, sul- phates, and muriates of ammonia. Nitrogen exists in the atmosphere to the extent of about 79 per cent. The principal purpose it appears to fulfil in this connection, is in diluting the oxygen, which in its pure state, acts with too great intensity on animal life, in com- bustion, and all its varying combinations. So great is the attraction of undiluted oxygen for iron, that a wire, plunged into a jar of oxygen gas and ignited by a taper, will readily take tire and melt into irregular drops. This is nothing more than an illustration of the principle, exhibited in an intense degree, in the gradual rusting which takes place in the air at its ordinal y temperature ; or the more rapid for- mation of the scales under the heat of the blacksmith's forgo. OaGANIC MANURES. 69 AH are simple oxidations of the metal, or the combination of oxygen with iron ; and we see in the comparison, the immensely-accelerated effect produced by the absence of nitrogen and an augmented temperature. Nitric acid is another compound of great importance to vegetation. It is simply nitrogen and oxygen, the identical materials which compose the atmosphere, combined in differ- ent proportions, 26.15 parts by weight of the former, and 73.85 of the latter, in every 100. This acid, in union with potash, forms nitrate of potash or saltpetre ; and with soda, forms nitrate of soda. The last is found in immense beds, and lies upon and immediately under the surface of the earth, in China, India, Spain and elsewhere. From Cniliit is ex- ported in large quantities ; and has been of late years, exten- sively used in Ezigland, as a manure. It has been deemed relevant to our subject, to say thus much, respecting some of the most striking characteristics of those four simple principles, which make up an average of more than 98 per cent, of all living vegetables. And here, a mo- ment's reflection irresistibly forces from us, an expression of wonder and admiration at that Wisdom and Omnipotence, which, out of such limited means, has wrought such varied and beautiful results. Every plant that exists, from the ob- scure sea-weed 100 fathoms below the surface of the' ocean, to the lofty pines that shoot up 300 feet in mid-air ; and from the clinging moss that seems almos^t a part of the rock on which it grows, to the expanded banyan tree of India, with its innumerably-connected trunks, overshadowing acres ; every thing that is pleasant to the taste, delightful to the eye, and grateful to the smell, equally with whatever is nauseous, revolting and loathsome, are only products of the same ma- terials, slightly differing in association and arrangement. BARN-TAKD MANURE. The first consideration in the management of manures is, to secure them against all waste. The bulk, solubility, and peculiar tendency to fermentation, of barn-yard manure, ren- ders it a matter of no little study, so to arrange it, as to preserve all its good qualities, and apply it, undiminished, to the soil. A part of the droppings of the cattle, are neces- sarily left in the pastures or about the stacks where they are fed ; though it is better, for various reasons, that they should never receive their food fror.i the stack. The manure thus left in the fields, fchould be beate^ uj) and scattered with UghU 60 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. long -handled mallets, immediately after the grass shoots ip the spring, and again before the rains commence in the au- tumn. With these exceptions, and the slight waste Avhidi may occur in driving cattle to and from the pasture, all the manure should be dropped either in the stables or yards. These ought to be so arranged, that cattle may pass from one directly into the other ; and the yard should, if possible, be furnished with running water. There is twice the value of manure wasted annually, on some farms, in sending the cat- tle abroad to water, that would be required to provide it for them in the yard for fifty years. Keep the premises where the manure is dropped, as dry as possible ; and for this purpose, the eaves may project seve- ral feet beyond the sides of the building, so as to protect the ma- nure thrown oiit of the stables from the Avash of rains. The barns and all the sheds should have eave troughs to carry off the v/ater, which if saved in a sufficiently capacious cistern, would furnish a supply for the cattle. The form of the yard ought to be dishing towards the centre ; and if on sandy or gravelly soil, it should be puddled or covered with clay to prevent the leakage and escape of the liquid manure. The floors of the stables may be so made, as to permit the urine to fall on a properly prepared bed of turf, placed under them for its reception, by which it would be effectually retained, till removed ; or it should be led off by troughs into the yard, or what is more desirable, to a muck heap. It is better to feed the stra\v and coarse fodder, which can always be advantageously done by cutting them with a straw-cutter, and mixing it with meal or roots. When it is not thus consumed, it may first be used as litter for the cat- tle, and as it becomes saturated with the droppings it should be thrown into the yard. If the cattle are fed under sheds, the whole surface ought to be covered with such straw and refuse forage as can be collected ; and if there is a deficiency of these, peat or any turf, which is well filled Avith the root** of grass, and espe- cially the rich wash from the road side may be substituted The manure may be allowed to accumulate through the win ter, unless it be more convenient to carry it on to the fields When the Avarm weather appproaches, a close attention to the manure is necessary. The escape cf the frost permits circulation of the air through it, and the increasing heat of the sun promotes fermentation and decomposition. JLong and Short Manure. — The question has beepi ofteo ORGANIC MANURES. 6r mooted, as to the comparative advantages of long and short manure — the fermented aiid unfermented. This must de- pend on the use for './hich they are designed. If intended for Ihe garden beds, for loose, light soils, or as a lop dressing for meadows or any Jirops, or if needed to kill any noxious seeds incorporated with the heap, it should be fermented ; if for hoed crops in clay or loamy soils, it should be used in aa fresh or unchanged a condition as possible. Loose soils are still further loosened for a time, by long manure, and much of its volatile parts is.lost before it is reduced to mold. Ad- hesive and compact soils, on the contrary, are improved by the coarsest manures. These tend to the separation of the earth ; and all the gases which are set free in fermentation, are combined and firmly held in the soil. Decomposition of Manures. — Three conditions are essen- tial to produce rapid decomposition in manure ; air, mois- ture, and a temperature above 65° ; and these, except in frosty weather, are generally present in the heap. The gradual chemical changes going on in all manures, but most actively in the excrements of the horse and sheep, when they have sufficient air and moisture, induce an elevation, which keeps them always above the temperature of the sur- rounding air. If the manure be trodden compactly, and satu- rated with water, the air cannot circulate ; and if its tempera- ture be likewise kept down, it will be preserved a long time unchanged. The fermentation of manure should go forward, when thoroughly blended with all the vegetable and liquid fer- tilizers about the premises, and also including ashes, charcoal, gypsum and coal-dust ; the last three substances combining with and retaining the ammonia as it is formed. Over all these should be placed a good coating of turf, peal, or fine mold, which will absorb any gases that escape the gypsum, and other absorbents. Old mortar or effete lime may also be added, for the iorma- tion of nitric acid. It draws this not only from the materials in the heap, but largely also from the nitrogen of the an- ; it having been ascertained in the manufactm^e of sali-petre, (nitrate of potash,) that the amount of nitrogen in the salt, is greatly increased above that in the manure used. The fibsorption of nitre by lime, in a course of years, is very large. as is shown by the practice of the Chinese farmers, who to secure it for manure, will gratuitously remove the oid plan- ter on walls and replace it with new. Tf required to hasten decay -smd especially, if there be in 62 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. tractabJe vegetables, as broom and other corn-stalks, or such as have seeds that ought to be destroyed, they may be well moistened and thrown together in layers, three or four inches thick ; and on each may be strewn a liberal coating of fresh, unslacked lime, reduced to powder. This promotes decompo- sition, and when it is far enough advanced, the whole may be sparingly added to the general mass, as the lime will by that time have become mild. When remote from the cattle yard, these coarse materials may be at once burned, and the ashes added to the soil ; or they may be buried in furrows, where the ground will not be disturbed till they are entirely rotted. When thoroughly decomposed, the manure heap will have lost half its original weight, most of which has escaped as water and carbonic acid. It may then be carted on to the ground, and at once incorporated with it ; or if intended for a top dressing, it should be scattered over it, immediately before or during wet weather For the protection of the manure, it would be well to cover it with a roof, and convey off all the Avater from the eaves. This will prevent any waste of the soluble portions and promote the escape of mois- ture, by the free circulation of air, which to the extent of this evaporation, will lessen the labor of hauling. Tanks for holding Liquid Manure have long been in use. They should be convenient to the stalls and yards, and with tight drains, convey into them every particle of the urine and drainage from the manure. Incompact clay, they may be made by simply excavating the earth, and the sides can be kept from falling in, by a rough wall, or by planks sup- ported in an upright position, by a frame-work of joice. But lu all cases, the cisterns should be closely covered, to prevent the escape of the ammonia, which is developed while fer- menting. In porous soils, it is necessary to construct them with stone or brick, laid in water-lime or cement. When partially filled, fermentation will soon take place in the tank, and especially in warm weather ; gypsum or char- coal should then be thrown in to absorb the ammonia. A few days after decorr.position commences, it should be pumped into casks and carried upon the land. If intended for water- ing plants, it must be diluted sufficiently to prevent injury to them. The qumtity of water required, will depend o*:^ the strength of the liquid, and the time it is applied ; mucl less water being necessary to dilute it in a wet, than in a dry time. By fernnnting in thi open air and undiluted. ORGANIC MANURES. Od it has been foul. d, that in six weeks, cow's urine will lose nearly one-half of its solid matter or salts, and ^ of its ammonia ; while that which had been mixed with an equal quantity of water, lost only A of the former, and | of the latter. The stables and troughs leading to the tank, should be frequently Avashed down and sprinkled with gypsum. This last will absorb much of the ammonia, which would othe. wise escape. Some loss of the volatile matter must be expected, and the sooner it is used after proper fer- mentation or ripeness, as it is termed, the greater will be the economy. Liquid Manure applied to the Muck Heap). — As a gene- ral rule, it is more economical and a great saving of labo^ to keep the urine above ground, and mix it at once with the manure ; but in this case vegetable or earthy absorbents must be adequately supplied ; and in addition, the heap ought frequently to be sprinkled with gypsum or charcoal. Rich turf, the wash of the road -side, tan bark or saw-dust, and all refuse vegetables may be used for this purpose, being so placed that the liquid can run on to them, or be deposited where it can be poured over the heap. The same protec- tion, of a rough, open shed, should be given to tliis, as to the other heaps, to facilitate evaporation and prevent drenching from rains. When fully saturated with the urinary salts, and all is properly decomposed, it may be carried out for use,' or closely covered with earth till wanted. The decomposi- tion is in a great measure arrested, by covering with com- pact earth, thoroughly trodden together ; this prevents the access of air, which is essential to its progress. A simple yet economical mode of saving the liquid manure, is sometimes adopted in Scotland, and is thus detailed : " We divide a shed into two compartments ; one of which we make water-tight, by puddling the side walls Avith clay to the height of two feet, and separated from the other compartment by a low, water-tight wall or boarding. This is the fermenting tank, which is filled half or three-fourths full of pulverized burnt peat, and the liquid manure from the stables and pig-styes, directed into it. This is mixed up vvith the pulverized peat, and allowed to remain three or four weeks, till the decomposition seems about completed being occasionally stirred after the composition has become about the consistency of gruel. The whole is then ladlea with a pole and bucket, over the low partition into the se- cond floor, which is also three parts filled with the carboc* 64 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. ized peat ; and as the second floor is meant merely as a filtei, we have it lower on one side than the other, by Avhich means, in the course of a day or two, the carbonized peat is left comparatively dry. The water having passed ofi" at the lower side, the first or fermenting floor is again tilled as be- fore, and the contents of the second floor, if considered satu« rated enough, are then shovelled up into a corner, and al- lowed to dry till used, which may be either immediately, or at the end of twenty years, as scarcely anything will eff"ect it, if not exposed to the continued washing of pure water, or exposed to the influence of tlie roots of growing plants. By being thinly spread on a granary floor, it soon becomes per- fectly dry, and suited to pass through drill machines. The mixing of the carbonized peat with the liquid ma- nure, on the first or fermenting floor, is for laying hold of the gaseous matters, as they escape during the fermentation ; perhaps other substances may secure these more eff"ectually, but none so cheaply. By this plan, a great many desiderata are at once obtained. You get free of over 900 parts out of every 1,000 of the weight and bulk of manure, by the ex- pulsion of the water; ^vhile at th-e same time, all the fer- tilizing properties contained in it, are combined with light, cleanly, and portable mjiterials, and possessed of the peculiar property of holding together the most volatile substances, till gradually called forth by the exigencies of the growing plants. Lastly, you get free of the tank, hogshead, and watering cart, with all its appendages, and are no more bothered with overflowing tank, or overfermented liquid, with weather unsuited to its application. You have merely to shovel past the saturated charcoal, and shovel in a little fresh, and the process goes on again, while the prepared peat lies ready for all crops, all seasons and all times." Value of Liquid Manures. — The urine voided from a single cow, is considered worth $10 per annum, in Flanders, where agricultural practice has reached a high state of ad- vancement. It furnishes 900 lbs. of solid matter, and at the price of $50 per ton, for Avhich guano is frequently sold, the urine of a cow for one year is worth $20. And yet eco- nomical farmers will continue to waste urine and buy guano I "The urine of a cow for a year will manure 1| acres of land, and is more vahiable than its dung, in the ratio by bulk, of seven to six ; and in real value as two to one." — {Dana ) How important, then, that every particle of it be carefully husbanded for ths crops. ORGANIC MANURES. 65 The average urine of the cow, as analyzed by Sprengel, contains 92.6 per cent, of water ; that of the horse, 94 ; the sheep, 96 ; the hog, 92.6 ; and the human, 93.3. The re- mainder is composed of salts and rich food for vegetables ; but the human is far richer in these than any other. The ouantity and value of urine, varies much in different speci- mens from the same or similar subjects, and depends on the food and liquid taken into the stomach, the loss by perspira- tion and other circumstances. SOLID ANIMAL MAITORES AND THEIR TREATMENT. Of these. Horse dung is the most valuable and the easiest to decompose. If in heaps, fermentation will sometimes com- mence in 24 hours; and even in mid- winter, if a large pile of fresh manure be accumulated, it will proceed with great rapidity. If this is not arrested, a few weeks, under favorable circum- stances, are sufficient to reduce it to a small part of its origi- nal weight and value. Boussingault, one of the most care- ful observers of nature, as Avell as an accurate, experimental chemist, states the nitrogen in fresh dried— horse dung to be, 2.7 per cent, of its Avhole weight. The same manure laid in a thick stratum and permitted to vindergo thorough de- composition, loses Jo of its entire Aveight, and the remain- ing tenth when dried, gives only one per cent, of nitrogen. Such are the losses which follow the neglect of inconsider- ate farmers. Peculiar care should therefore be taken, to arrest this action at the precise point desired. Salt scattered through the heap, Avill materially lessen the activity of de- composition. It is better, however, to add turf as it accu- mulates, in addition to the salt, if it is to remain long before being composted or carried on the land. The manure of Sheep is strong and very active, and next to that of the horse, is the most subject to heat and decom- pose. The manure of Cattle and Stvine being of a colder nature, may be thrown in with that of the horse and sheep in alternate layers, or it may remain in heaps by itself if more convenient. - If fresh manure be intermixed with straw and othef ab- sorbents, (sea- weed, peat, turf, tan-bark and the like,) and over this a thick covering of earth or peat be placed, this ex- ternal coating will combine with any volatile matters, which fermentation developes in the lower part of the mass, and preserve most of it from waste. Frequen' .Earning of the 66 amer:ca» a&riculture. manures, is a practice attended with no benefit, but with the certainty of the escape of much of its valuable properties. Many farmers assign a distinct or peculiar merit to the different manures. Much of this opinion is fanciful ; for there is frequently more difference in the comparative value of that from the same species, and even the same individual, at different times and under different circumstances, than from those of different species. The diversity in mamires tnay arise horn several causes. The more thoroughly the food is digested and its nutritive qualities extracted, the less is the value o/ the manure. Thus, on the same quantit)'^ and quality of food, a growing animal, or a cow in calf or giving milk, yields a poorer qual- ity of feces and urine, than such as are not increasing in weight ; and if the animal be actually losing condition, the richness of the manure is very much increased. T^ie quality of food adds materially to this difference, the richest giving by far the most valuable manure. Those animals which are kept on a scanty supply of straw or refuse hay, yield manure little better than good turf, and far infe- rior to the droppings of such as are highly fed. The imper- fect mastication and digestion of the horse and mule, in comparison with the ruminating animals, the ox and sheep, their generally better quality of food, and the fact, that for the greater part of their lives they are not adding to their carcass, is the cause of the increased value of their manure. Their solid feoes are also much richer than those of the cow, as they void less urine and this is of an indifferent character. In a long series of careful experiments, made at Dresden and Berlin by order of the Saxon and Prussian governments, it was ascertained, that uumanured soil which would yield three for one sown, when dressed with cow dung, would give seven ; with horse dung, ten ; and with human, fourteen. For the purpose of showing the proportions of the various elements which compose the farmer's manure heaj), an analy- sis from jMr. Richardson is subjoined, of some taken frona the farm yard in tie condition usually applied to the field. Water Organic matter Inorganic sa)t( Fresh 64.96 24.71 10.33 100.00 Carbon Hydrogen . Oxygen Nitrogen . Ashes Di ried at 212". 37.40 5.27 25 62 1.76 SO.Od lOCUW ORGANIC MANURES. 67 INORGANIC MATTERS. Portion solubl e in muriatic acid. Solub; e in wat** Silica 27.01 Potash . 322 Phosphate of lime 7.11 Soda . 2.73 Phosphate of magnesia 2.26 Lime . 0.34 Phosphate of iron 4.63 Magnesia . 0.26 Carbonate of lime 9.34 Sulphuric atld . 3.27 Carbonate of magnesia 1.63 Chlorine . . 3.15 Sand 30.99 Silica . 0.04 Carbon 83 Alkali, and loss 3.14 13.01 86.99 The following is from other specimens of fresh farm yard manures, analyzed by Messrs. Allen and Greenhill. Farmyard Farmyard ^ JIanure from Kent. Manure from Surrey Per-Centage of Ash - - 9.2 9.6 Silica . . 70.79 71.32 Potash . . 3.32 5.14 Soda ... . . 0.92 1.68 Lime . - 6.90 12.3-2 Magnesia - . 0.56 0.82 Common salt - 1.43 1.22 Pho.<;phate of iron . 2.04 2.03 Phosphate of alumina - - 1.53 2.54 Sulphuric acid . . i.yg 1.57 Phosphoric acid 1.5S 1.27 Manganese a trace 99.76 99.91 By knowing the composition of the added manures and the subtracted crops, the farmer can keep an intelligent account of debt and credit with his fields. If he could make an exact estimate of the portion of the soil that might be- come soluble in the course of the growing season, (available for the present crop), and carry into this account also, the sum of the elements exhausted by drainage and evaporation, as ^vell as those added from the atmosphere, rains and dews, and appropriated to vegetation or permanently fixed in the soil, he would then be able, at all times to know, precisely what additional ingredients {special manures) would be necessary, and in what proportions, to secure the largest amount of aay required crop, POXJDRETTE AND URATE. Poudrette is the name given to the human feces after being mixed with charcoal dust or charred peat. By these it is disinfecled of its effluvia, and when dried, it becomes p 68 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. convenient article for use, and even for remote transpovtation. The odor is sometimes expelled by adding quick lime, but this removes with it much of the ammonia, and on this account should always be avoided. Urate as well as poudrette, has become an article of commerce. It is manufactured in large cities by collecting the urine, and mixing with it l-6th or l-7th of its weight of ground gypsum, and allowing it to stand several days. The urine combines with a portion of the ammonia, after which it is dried and the liquid is throAvn away. Only a part of the value is secured by this operation. It is sijmetimes prepared by the use of sulphuric acid, which is gradually added to urine and forms sulphate of ammonia, which is afterwards dried. This secures a greater amoiint of the valuable prop- erties of the urine ; but even this is not withoL waste. NigJit Soil. — From the analysis of Berzelius, the excre- ments of a healthy man, yielded water, 733 ; albumen, nine ; bile, nine ; mucilage, fat and the animal matters, 167 ; saline matters, twelve ; and undecomposedfood, 70 — in 1,000 parts. When freed from Avater, 1,000 parts left, of ash, 132 ; and this yielded, carbonate of soda, eight ; sulphate of soda, with a little sulphate of potash, and phosphate of soda, eight ; phosphate of lime and magnesia, and a trace of gypsum, 100; silica, sixteen. Human -urine, according to the same authority, gives in every 1,000 parts, of water, 933 ; urea, 30.1;uric acid, 1.0 ; free acetic acid, lactate of ammonia, and inseparable animal matter, 17.1 ; mucus of the bladder, 0.3 ; sulphate of potash, 3.7 ; sulphate of soda, 3.2 ; phosphate of soda, 2.9 ; phos- phate of ammonia, 1.6 ; common salt, 4.5 ; sal-ammoniac 1.5 ; phosphates of lime and magnesia, Avith a trace of silica and of fluoride of calcium, 1.1. Urea is a solid product of urine, and according to Prout, gives of carbon, 19.99; oxygen, 26.63; hydrogen, 6.65; nitrogen, 46.65 — in 100 parts. The analysis of Woehler and Liebig differs immaterially from this. Such are the materials, abounding in every ingredient that can minister to the production of plants, which are suffered to waste in the air, and taint its purity and healthfulness ; or they are buried deep in the earth beyond the reach of any useful application ; and even in this position, (frequently in villa- ges, and always in cities), they pollute the waters with their disgusting am^ p ^isonous exudations. The water from ORttANJC MANURES, 69 ;TUe of the wells in constant use in Boston, examined by Dr. Jackson, fiave an appreciable per centage of night soil ! Treatment of Night Soil. — No perfect mode has yet been devised of managing night soil. For compactness and facility of remo\al, we suggest, that in cities, metallic boxes of sufficient capacity be placed in the privies, so arranged as to be easily taken out in the rear, for the purpose of empty ing their contents. To prevent corrosion, they may be made of composite or galvanized metal. In the country where it can be at once applied, tight wooden boxes may be used with hooks on the outer side, to which a team may be attached for drawing it out wherever required. The boxes should have a layer of charcoal dust, charred peat or gypsum at the bottom, and others successively as they become filled. These materials are cheap, compact, and readily combine with the volatile gases. Sulphuric acid is more efficient than either, but more expensive. Quick-lime will neutralize the odor, but it expels the enriching qualities ; and if it be intended to use the night soil, lime should never be jnixed with it. Both the charcoal and peat condense and retain the gases in their pores, and the sulphuric acid of the gyp- sum leaves the lime, and like the free acid, combines with the ammonia, forming sulphate of ammonia, an inodorous and poAverful fertilizer. Ra^v peat, turf, dry tan-bark, saw- dust and ashes are all good ; but as more bulk is needed to effect the object, their use is attended with greater incon- venience. From its great tendency to decompose, night soil should be immediately covered with earth, when exposed to the air. It is always saved by the Flemings and Chinese ; the former generally using it liquid, and the latter, either as a liquid, or mixed with clay and dried like brick. The sole use of this manure, guano, ashes, charcoal, lime, gypsum and other salts, effectually prevents the propagation of all weeds. Its value, like all others, depends much on the food from which it is derived ; it being richest when large quantities of meat and other nutritive food is consumed. The difference in the products from the best hotels and poor- ly supplied work-houses, though not in proportion 1 1 the first cost of the food consumed, yet bears no inconsiderable ratio to it. THE EXCREMENTS OF FOWLS. These contain both the feces and urine combined, and are neyt to night soil in value. They should be kept dry, or 70 AMERICAN AGr>.:OULTURE. what is better, mixed at once with the soil, or with i com- post where their volatile matters will be retained. They are very soluble, and when exposed to moisture, are He ble to waste. Since these contain the essential elements of guano, the economy of saving them must be apparent, to tiiose who buy the imported fertilizers at so large a cost. FLESH, BLOOD, &c. When decomposed, these substances afford all the mate- rials of manure in its most condensed form. Whenever pro- curable, they should be mixed with eight or ten times their weight of dry peat, turf, tan-bark or rich garden mold. A dead cow or horse thus buried in a bed of peat, will yield 12 or 15 loads of the richest manvire. Butchers' offal when thus treated, will yield ten times its weight of more valuable manure than any from the cattle yards. HAIR, BRISTLES, HORNS, HOOFS, PELTS, THE FLOCKS AND WASTE OF WOOLEN MANUFACTORIES AND TANNERIES. These are all rich in every organic material required by plants ; and when mingled with the soil, they gradually yield them, and afford a permanent and luxuriant growth to every cultivated crop. Most animal substances contain from 15 to 18 per cent, of nitrogen; and when it is considered, that this is a greater amount than is afforded by an equal quanti- ty of saltpetre, and about two-thirds of that contained in ni- tric acid, (one of the most condensed and powerful manures), the recklessness and waste is apparent, of throwing dead ani- mals and similar manures by the road-side, and allowing them to decay above ground ; thus robbing the soil of its just dues, and afflicting the nostrils of the community with what if rightly appropriated, might minister to the necessaries and even to the luxuries of mankind. FISH. Fish are extensively used in this and other countries for manure. The moss-banker, alewives and other fish frequent the Atlantic coast in countless numbers in the spring and summer, and are there caught in seines, and sold to the far- mers by the wagon-load. They are sometimes plowed into the soil with a spring crop ; or they are more frequently used for growing corn, for which purpose, one or two fish are placed in each hill and buried with the seed ; or they are turned under near the young corn, at the first running of the ORGANIC MANURES. 71 plow in cultivating. This was the system adopted by the Aborigines of our country, in raising their maize on exhaust- ed lands, long before their occupancy or even discovery by the whites. There is waste in this practice, as the soils used for corn are generally light and sandy ; and the slight, silicious covering imperfectly combines with the putrefying fish, and much of their gases thereby eludes the plant, to the excessive annoyance of the olfactories of the residents, for miles around. The proper method of using them, is by composting with dry peat, in alternate layers of about three inches in thick- ness of fish to nine of peat, and over the whole, a coating of two or three feet of peat is placed. A few weeks of warm weather suffice to decompose the fish, which unite with the peat, no perceptible effluvia escaping from the heap, so ef- fectual is its absorption. A strong acid smell is, however, noticeable, originating in the escape of the acidifying or an- tiseptic principle contained in the peat, which has kept it for ages in a state of preservation, and whose expulsion is the signal for breaking up its own structure. It now passes rapidly into decay, and is soon lost in a mass of undis- tinguishable, vegetable mold, the fruitful bed of new and varied vegetable forms. This compost may remain without injury or waste for years. Two or three ^veeks before using, it should be overhauled and intimately mixed, when another fermentation commences witli an elevation of temperature. When this ceases, it may be applied to the land. This com- post will be found adapted to nearly all soils and crops. COTTON SEED. This is yielded at the rate of 200 to 400 lbs. per acre, and is a valuable manure. It would doubtless be more profitable if first made to yield the oil which it contains, to the amount of about 20 per cent, and use the residuum as a manure ; or to feed it, when properly prepared, to the stock, and use their manure for the fields. Where this is not done, how- ever, the seed ought carefully to be saved and applied to the land, at the rate of 60 to 80, or even 100 bushels per acre. It may be scattered broadcast, and plowed in during the winter, where it will rot before spring ; or it may be thrown into heaps and allowed to heat, and when vitality is destroyed, it may be plowed or drilled in, or thrown upon the corn hills and buried with the hoe or plow. 72 ■ AMEB.ICAN AGRICtTLTUSlE. SEA WEED Is a powerful aid to the farmer, when within convenienf distances. It is thrown upon the sea-coast by the waves in large winrows ; or it is carefully raked up from the rocks or bottom of the bays, either by farmers or those who make it a business to procure and sell it. It may be used as beddinif for cattle or litter for the barnyard, or added directly to tne compost heap. Where the distance for carrying it would prevent its use, it may be burned, and the ashes removed to the land. It has much more saline matter than vegetables which grow on land, and yields a more valuable manure. PEAT. This substance is seldom found in this country, in the purity that characterizes it in many parts of northern Europe. There, its nearly pure carbonaceous quality admits of its extensive use as fuel. In the United States, it is generally mixed with the wash from the adjacent elevations, which renders it more easily susceptible of profitable cultiva- tion in its native bed, and scarcely less valuable as a fer- tilizer when applied to other lands. In six different speci- mens from Northampton, and four from other localities in Massachusetts, Dr. Dana found an average of 29.41 soluble, and 55.03 insoluble vegetable matter; and 15.55 of salts and silicates, in every 100 parts. His researches have led him to recommend the mixture of 30 lbs. potash, or 20 lbs. soda ash ; or what is more economical and equally efficacious, eight bushels of unleached wood ashes with one cord of peat as it is dug from its bed ; or if leached ashes be used, they should be mixed in the proportion of one to three of peat. This he considers fully equivalent to pure cow dung in value. He also estunates the salts and organic matter of four cords of peat, as equal to the manure of a cow for one year. The opinion of Mr. Phinney, of Lexington, Mass., founded on close observation and long practice, is, that one part of green cattle dung, composted with twice its bulk of peat, will make the whole equal in value to the unmixed dimg. Peat in its natural condition, contains from 70 to over 90 per cent, of water. It should be dug from its bed in the fall or winter, for the purpose of draining and exposing it to the action of the atmosphere, when it will be found to have lost about two-thirds of its bulk. In this state, it still holds about 65 per cent, of water. It may then be carried into the cattle yards, and used for making composts in any wa:^ desired. ORGANIC MANURES. 73 RICH TURF. Much of this is full of the roots of grasses and decayed vegetables, and is a valuable absorbent of every species of animal or other manures. Whenever it can be procured oy the road-side or other waste places, it should be used for this purpose. It is frequently filled with the seeas or roots of weeds, which ought to be killed preparatory to using as manure. A mutually beneficial effect is produced, by mix- mg turf with lime, by which the turf is speedily rotted, and tne obnoxious ^veeds killed ; and the lime is thus becoming equally fitted to act beneficially when applied to the soil, as if already incorporated with it. Some weeks after mixing to- gether, the heap will be in a fit condition to receive every description of manure. SWAMP MXTCK OR POND MUD. Under certain conditions, this is a more valuable addition to the muck heap, or more properly, a foundation for it, than either of the preceding. Especially is this the case, when there is no outlet for the water and sediment ; and the mud, besides containing a large proportion of salts, the result of ages of evaporation, is the receptacle of the remains of myriads of minute shell fish, animalculee, infusorias, the spawn and exuvise of frogs and other occupants. Ducks and vari- ous aquatic birds fill themselves to repletion, when ranging through a pond thus daintily supplied ; the contents of which are even much more adapted to the promotion of vegetable than animal life. Such reservoirs of vegetable nu- trition, are mines of wealth to the farmer, if judiciously ap- plied ; nor can he justify meagre returns from his fields, while this remedy is within his reach. MANXTRINa WITH GREEN CROPS. This system has within a few years, been extensively adopted in some of the older-settled portions of the United States. The comparative cheapness of land and its pro- ducts, the high price of labor, and the consequent expense of making artificial manures, renders this at present, the most economical plan which can be pursued. The design in this practice is primarily, fertilization ; and connected with it, is the clearing of the ground from noxious weeds, as in fallows, by plowing in the vegetation before the seed is ripened ; and finally.the object is to loosen the soil and place it in the mel- Imvest condition for the crops which are to succeed. Its re- 4 74 AMERICAN AGRICU- Ut fi. suits have been entirely successful, when steadi.y pu.sued, and with a due consideration of the objects sought and the means by which they are to be accomplished. Lands in many of our eastern States, which have been worn out by improvident cultivation, and unsalaeble at .$10 an acre, have by this system, while steadily remunerating their proprietors by their returning crops, for all the outlay of labor and expense, been brought up in value to $50 per acre. The full benelit of green crops as manures seems only to De reahzed where there is sufficient lime in the soil. Cal- careous soils, or such as have a large proportion of lime, however they may have become exhausted, when put under a thorough course of treatment, in which green croj^s at proper intervals are returned to them, are soon restored to fertility ; and when lime does not exist in the soil, the appli- cation of it in the proper manner and quantity, will produce) the same effect. Gypsum and ashes are the best substitutes, when lime or marl is difficult to be procured. This system of improvement, varies with almost every indi- vidual who practices it, according to the quality of his land, the kind of crops to be raised, the facility of procuring ma- nures, the luxuriance of particular crops, and other conside- rations. We shall state merely, the general principles in this, as in most other subjects, and leave to the farmer's judg- ment, to apply them according to his circumstances. It is always better to commence this system, while the land is in good condition, as a luxuriant growth of vegetation is as profitable for turning in, as for cropping. Buckwheat, oats, rye, and some of the grasses, have been used for this purpose in this country; and spurry, the white lupine, the vetch and rape in Europe ; but for the northern portion of the Union, nothing has been hitherto tried, Avliich is so well fitted for the object, as red clover. CLOVER rOR GREEN MANURES. This is Sv ited to all soils, that will grow anything profita- bly, from sand, if possessing an adequate amount of fertility, to the heaviest clay, if drained of its superfluous Avater. The seed is not expensive, its growth certain and rapid, and the expense of its cultivation trifling ; wliile the return, on a kindly soil, and with proper treatment, is large. Added to this, and very much increasing its merits, is the abundance of its long tap roots, which penetrate the ground to a great depth, anc". l)reak up the stiff soils, in a nanner peculiarly bene* ORGAN.C MANUKES. . 75 ficial to suc^ oeding crops. The material yieldec ay the roots and stubble, is of itself equal to a good dressing of manure. It has the further advantage, of giving two or more years of growth from one sowing, and of maintaining itself in the ground thereafter, by self seeding, when not too closely crop ped ; and it is equally suited to profitable pasturage and.win ter forage. If the first season's growth be luxuriant, after the re- moval of the grain upon which it was sown, clover may be pastured in the autumn, or suffered to fall and waste on the ground, the first being the most economical. The following year, the early crops may be taken off for hay, and the se- cond, after partially ripening its seeds, may be plowed in ; and thus it carries with it, a full crop of seed for future growth. It is usual when wheat is cultivated, to turn in the clover when in full flow-erin July, and allow the ground to remain undisturbed till the proper time for sowing the grain ; when it may be cross-plowed if necessary, or the wheat may be sown directly on the ground and harrowed in. This system gives alternate crops of grain and clover, and with the use ot such saline manures, as may be necessary to replace those abstracted from the soil; it will sustain the greatest fertility. "With a slight dressing of these, when the land is in good con- dition, the first crop of clover may be taken off, and yet al- low a sufficient growth for turning in. It is customary, however, to adopt a three or four years course of cropping, in which grain, roots, corn, &c. alternate with clover and barn-yard manures ; and this we think the most judicious practice, when the land is within convenient dis- tance of the manure. If the fields are remote, a still longer course would be preferable, where stock and particularly sheep are'kept ; as they might be allowed to pasture the field during a much greater time. Sheep would remove only so much of the forage as remains in their carcass ; while milch coavs and working animals would, of course, carry off a greater amount, the first in the milk, and the last in their manure, dropped while out of the field. THE cow PEA, Like the pole bean, of which it seems to be a kindred genus, grows with a long vine and abundance of leaves. It is deemed the best of the fertilizers for the Soiith. It v,'ill there mature in the same field with the corn, after that has ripened ; or it wL. grow two crops in one season, from tM^o 76 AMERICAN AGRICr I TORE succt-ssive plantings. This is also a valuable fodder for cat- tle and sheep, and the ripe peas are a profitable crop. Like a luxuriant growth of clover, it requires the roller to pre- pare it properly for the plow, when turned under previous to the decay of the vines. The cow pea is an economical fer- tilizer, in consequence of its broad, succulent, bean-like leaves, drawing nitrogen and carbonic acid largely from the air , but its slight fusiform roots, do not effect that mechanical divi- sion so beneficial to many adhesive soils, which is produced by the long tap roots of the clover. Spurry is extensively used as a fertilizer in the north of Europe, (Flanders, Germany and Denmark), and as forage for cattle, both in its green and dry state. It is admirably adapt- ed to the lightest sands, where it is said to grow with more luxuriance and profit, than any other of the cultivated plants. It may be sown in the fall, after grain or early roots, and plow- ed under the following spring. Three crops may be grown on the same land in one season. Van Voght says, by alter- nating these crops Avith rye, it will reclaim the worst sands, and yield nearly the same benefits, if pastured off by cattle ; while it adds materially to the advantages of other manures applied at the same time. It grows spontaneously in many of our fields, as a weed ; and its cultivation on our lightest eands, which are too poor for clover, might be attended with the best effects. Like the cow pea, however, it is deficient in the deep, tap roots, which give much of their efficiency to the clover and Avhite lupine. WHITE LUPINE (Lupinus albus.) This plant has not, to my knowledge, been introduced as a field crop in this country ; but from the great success which has attended its cultivation in Europe, it is a proper subject of consideration, wiiether it might not be advanta- geously introduced among us as a fertilizer. It grows freely in all except calcareous soils, and is best suited to such as have a subsoil charged with iron. It is hardy, not liable to in- jury from insects, grows rapidly and with an abundance of stems, leaves and roots. The latter protect the plants from drought, by penetrating throvigh the sv;bsoil for a depth of more than two feet, which they break up and prepare, in the most efficient manner, for succeeding crops THE ADVANTAGES Or GREEN MANTTRES Consist pit' :i xpally in the addition of vegetable matter. ORG^^MO MANT3RES. 77 which they furnish to the soil. The presence of this, aids in the liberation of those mineral ingredients, Avhich are there locked up, and which on being set free, act with so much advantage to the '•'•op. The roots also, exert a power in ef- fecting this decomposition, beyond any other known agents, either of nature or ai :. Their minute fibres are brought into contact with the eleme.its of the soil, and they act upon them with a force peculiar to themselves alone. Theii agency is far more efficacious for this purpose than the in tensest heat or strongest acids, persuading the elements to give up for their own use, Avhat is essential to their maturity and perfection. By substituting a crop for a naked fallow, we have all the fibres of the roots throughout the field, aid- ing the decomposition which is slowly going forward in every soil. Clover and most broad-leaved plants, draw largely for their sustenance from the air, especially when aided by the application of gypsum. By its long tap roots, clover also draws much from the subsoil ; as all plants appropriate such saline substances as are necessary to their maturity, and which are brought to their roots in a slate of solution, by the up-welling moisture from beneath. This last is fre- quently a great source of improvement to the soil. The amount of carbon drawn from the air in the state of carbonic acid, and of ammonia and nitric acid, imder favorable cir- cumstances of soil and crop, is very great ; and when buried beneath the sxu-face, all are saved and yield their fertility to the land ; ^vhile such vegetation as decays on the surface, loses much of its value by evaporation and drainage. In the green state, fermentation is rapid, and by resolving the matter of plants into their elements, it fits the ground at once for a succeeding crop. Additional manures cannot be more particularly specified here. It is sufficient to add, that every portion of vegeta- ble or animal substances, and many "vvhich are purely mine- ral, may be used on the fields with the utmost advantage to the farmer. Intelligent observation, experience, and that knowledge which he will acquire from the best modern ag- ricultural writings of the present day, will enable him to adapt them in the most judicious manner, to his soil and crops. THE FALLOW SYSTEM. As a means of enriching lands, this was formerly much practised, but it is now em rsly discarded by intelligent 78 AMERPCAN AGRICULTURE. farmers It consists in plowing ap the land and exposing it naked to the elements, ^vhenevel• the exhaustion by tillage requires it. This practice is founded on the principle, that plants 'gradually exhaust the soil of such soluble food, potash, soda, and other materials, as are necessary to their support ; and unless they are again given to it in manures, in a form suit- ed to their immediate appropriation by plants, time is requisite for dissolving them in the soil, so as to enable them again to support vegetation profitably. Besides the loss resulting from the frequent idleness of the land, naked fallows have this further disadvantage, and especially in light and loose soils ; they are exposed to the full action of the svm and rains, and by evaporation and drainage, are exhausted of much of their soluble, vegetable food. This system, bad as it is, may yet be absolutely necessary, where grain alone is iraised and no inaniire is applied. But it is always avoidable, by substituting fallow crops, as they are termed, potatoes, swede turneps, and other well-hoed crops, with manure ; or clover, or other green crops, as above detailed ; by w^hich the land is cleared of weeds and suffi- ciently enriched for succeeding cultivation. If they have been kept in good condition by top-dressing, meadows are equally fitted for the ditferent species of grains or other crops, as if the land had been fallowed ; and pastures ansvyer the same purpose, without the aid of other manures than such as have incidentally accumulated apon them. TERIGATION AND DRAINING. 79 CHAPTER IV. IRUrGATION AND DRAINING. Irrigation may properly enough be classed under the head of manures; as the materials which it provides are not only food for plants, but they aid also in procuring it from other sources. "Water is of indispensable necessity to vegetable life ; and the great quantity of it demanded for this purpose, is in most climates, amply provided by nature in the stores of rain and dew which moisten the earth, and especially during the early growth of vegetation, when it is most required. In countries where rain seldom or never falls, as in parts of South America, Egypt, and elsewhere, the radiation of heat from the surface, is so rapid under their clear skies, that excessive deposites of dew, generally supply the plants with all the moisture which they need. The same effect takes place in our transparent, summer atmos- phere, throughout most of the United States ; and it is to the presence of copious dews, on our rich, well cultivated fields, that much of the luxuriance and success is due, which has ever attended enlightened and judicious American husbandry. Besides the moisture that abounds in the atmosphere, (but which is not always available in rains and dews to the extent desired for the wants of vegetation), and that wi.ich imperceptibly ascends from remote depths in the earth, and contributes to the support of plants ; it is a practice coeval with the earliest history of agriculture, to bring artificial waters upon the cultivated fields and make them tributary to the support of the crops. In many countries this sys- tem is indispensable to secure their maturity ; for although dews accomplish the object in a measure, they do not sup- ply it in the quantity required to sustain a vigorous growth. We find, in looking to the practice of Egypt and the B?^bary States in Africa ; of Syria, Babylon, and other parts of Asia ; Italy, Spain ai:d elsewhere in Europe, in each of which husbandry ear/^.y attained a high rank, that irrigation 80 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. was extensively introduced. Damascus is one of the most ancient cities on record, (for it is mentioned in Genesis as existing nearly 4,000 years ago); and notwithstanding its numerous successive masters, and its frequent plunder and devastation, it is still a flourishing city, though in the midst of deserts. This is no doubt owng to the waters derived f"rom the " Abana and Pharpar, rivers of Damascus," which are conducted above the city, where they gush from the fountains, and thence overspread the gardens and water all the adjacent plain. Had it not been for irrigation, Damas- cus Avould doubtless, ages ago, have followed Palmyra, the Tadmor of the wilderness, into utter abandonment and ruin. On no other principle than a systematic and extensive prac- tice of irrigation, can we account for the once populous condition of Jiidea, Idumea, and other vast regions in the East ; many of which, to the eye of the modern traveller, present nothing but the idea of irreclaimable sterility and desolation. The possession of the ♦' upper and nether springs," "was as necessary to the occupant, as possession of the soil. In those countries where the drought is excessive, and rains are seldom to be dejieuded upon, \vater is led on to the fields containing all the cultivated crops, and is made subser- vient to the growth of each. But in the United States, and in the middle and northern part of Europe, where the vege- tation ordinarily attains a satisfactory size without its aid, irrigation is confined almost exclusively to grass or meadow lands. All ivaters are suitable for irrigatio7i, excepting those containing an excess of some mineral substances, deleterious to vegetable life. Such are the drainage from peat swamps, from saline and mineral springs, and from ore beds of various kinds ; but those are most frequent, in which iron is held in solution. Of tilt spring or ordinary river waters, those are the best which are denominated hard, and which owe this quality to the presence of sulphate or carbonate of lime or magnesia. Such waters as are cnarged with fertilizing sub- stances, that have been Avashed out of soils by recent floods, are admirably suited to irrigation. Dr. Dana, est'.mates the quantity of salts in solution, and geine or humus 'vegetable matters), which were borne sea-ward past Lowell, on the Merrimac Rive' in 1838, (a season of unusual freshets), as reachUig the enormous amount of 810,000 tons; enough to have given a good dressing to 100,000 acres of land. Turbit^ IRRIGATION AND DRAINING. 81 Waters that nave flowed out of the sewers of cities, or past slaughter-houses and certain manufactories, and received the rich contributions of vegetable food thereby afforded, are the most beneficial. Meadows thus irrigated, in the neighbor- hood of Edinburgh, have rented by the acre, at the large sum of $250 per annum ; a price predicated not only on the enormous amount of grass yielded, but on the high prices at which it was retailed in that city. But when none of these can be procured, pure spring water, apparently destitute of any soluble matters, may be advantageously used. Additional effects of Irrigation. Besides its drainage oi fertile matters from remote distances, which are deposited on the fields overflown, water freely absorbs the gases, (car- bonic acid, oxygen and nitrogen, &c.,) in proportions alto? gether different from those existing in the air, and brings them to the roots, by which they are greedily appropriated; and in its onward, agitated progress over the field, it again absorbs them from the air, again to be given up when de- manded by the roots. When the water is permitted to remain stagnant on the surface, this good effect ceases ; and so far from its promoting the growth of the useful and cul- tivated grasses, they speedily perish, and a race of sour and worthless aquatic plants spring up to supply their place. Another and i'niportant office that water fulfils in minis- tering to the groicth of vegetation, is in disposing the soil Jo those changes, which are essential to its greatest fertility. Gypsum requires 460, and lime 778 times its bulk of water at 60° Far. to dissolve them. Others among the mineral constituents of plants, also require the presence of large quantities of water, to fit them for acting on the soil, and to adapt them for vegetable assimilation. TIME FOR APPLYING WATER TO MEADOWS. In those regions where the winters are not severe, water may be kept on the fields during the entire season of frosts. This prevents their access to the ground, and on the ap- proach of warm weather, the grasses at once start into life, and yield an early and abundant growth. But in general, this system cannot be successfully practiced. The water may be admitted at proper intervals, freely during the spring and early part of the summer, when vegetation is either just commencing or going forward rapidly. It is sufficient to flood the surface thoroughly, and then shut off the watej K* 62 AMERICAN AGRICULTtTRE. for a time. In very dry weather, this may be done with advantage every night. Continued watering under a bright 6un, is an umiatural condition with upland grasses, and can never be long persisted in without proving fatal to the ji. Neither should the water be applied after the grasses have conuneuced ripening. Nature is the proper guide in this, as in mos -f the operations of the farmer ; and it will be seen, how careful she is, in ordinary seasons, to provide an affluence of rains for the tommencement of vegetation, while she as carefully withholds them when it approaches maturity. Immediately after the grass is cut, the water may be again let on as occasion requires, till the approach of cold weather. Pastures may be irrigated from time to time, as the weather may demand, throughout the entire season. THE MANNER OF IRRIGATING. This must depend on the situation of the surface and the supply of water. Sometimes, reservoirs are made for its reception from rains or inundations ; and at others, they are collected at vast expense, from springs found by deep excavations, and led out by extensive subterraneous ditching. The usual source of supply, however, is from streams or rivulets, or copious springs, which discharge their water on elevated ground. The former are dammed up, to turn the water into ditches or aqueducts, through which it is con- ducted to the fields, where it is divided into smaller rills, till it finally disappears. When it is desirable tp bring more water upou meadows than is required for saturating the ground, and its escape to fields below is to be avoided, other ditches should be made on the lou'er sides, to arrest and convey away the surplus water. The advantages of irrigation are so manifest, that they should never be neglected, when the means for securing them are within economical reach. To detennine what economy in this case is, we have to estimate from careful experiment, the equivalent needed in annual dressing with manures, to produce the same amount of grass as would be gained by irrigation ; and to offset the cost of the manure, we must reckon the interest on the permanent fixtures of the dam and sluices, and the annual expense of attention and repair. The quality of grass from irrigated meadows is but slightly inferior to that grown upon dry soils ; and for pas- turage, it is found that animals do better in dry seasons upon the former, and in wet. upoi the atter. In Europe, where IRRIGATION AND DRAINING. 8S the disease is common, sheep are more liable to ''■ot upoa irrigated and marshy lands, than on such as are free from excessive moisture. The kind of Soils suited to Irrigation — Light porous soils, and particularly gravels and sands, are the most bene- fitted by irrigation. Tenacious and clay soils are but slight ly improved by it, unless first made porous by underdraining. It is not only important that water be brought on to the ground, but it is almost equally important, that it should pass off immediately after accomplishing the objects sought. The increase from the. application of icater, is sometimes fourfold, when the soil, the season and the water are all favorable, and it is seldom less than doubled. Many fields, which in their natural condition, scarcely yield a bite of grass for cattle, when thoroughly irrigated, will give a good growth for years, and without the aid of any manures. UNDER DRAINING HEAVY AND TENACIOUS CLAY LANDS. The advancement of agriculture in this country during the few last years, and the high price of farming lands and their products, within convenient distances of our larger markets, fully justify the commencement of an intelligent system of draining on such lands as require it. This system has for many years been introduced and largely practiced in England and Scotland, and has resulted in the most signal success. The plan first adopted was, to excavate the land in paral- lel lines, at intervals of 16 to 25 feet, and to a depth of two or three feet, forming a slightly-inclined plane on the bottom, which was from three to six inches wide, and gradually en- larging as it approached the surface. The narrowest drains were arched with inverted turf and clay, at such distance from the bottom, as wovtld leave the requisite space for the escape of whatever water might filter through the soil. Others were formed with continuous arched tiles, laid on a sole, (a flat tile of the same material,) or on a board placed on the bottom, forming an uninterrupted conductor. Larger ditches were filled with rubble-stone, in some instances brush, to a sufficient depth, and then covered with soil. In all cases, the smaller ones communicated by their outlets, with a large, open drain, which led the water from the field. These drains were always below the reach of the ploAV, thug leaving the whole surface c ■ the lands free from any obsiruc tion to cultivatioji Si AMERICAN AGRICULTLRIsr. ' Two recent improvements have been introduced, which materially diminish the expense, while they enhance the benefits of the system. They consist in sinking the drain to four feet, and using burnt clay or tile pipes, one and a half to three inches in diameter, and 12 to 18 inches in length, connected together, by allowing the descending end to enter the next beloAV it, as a socket, or by placing the ends close to each other. The slight opening at each joint, with small holes perforating the top of the tiles, is found to be sufficient to admit all the water which falls into tlie drain ; Avhile the increased depth at which the drainage takes place, draws the water from a much greater distance. With the depth indicated, it has been found, that the drains instead of being required once in 16 feet, may be placed at intervals of 35 to 40, and accomplish the object with equal success, a?id in less time. Tlie expense -of the former plan, was from $20 to 330 per acre, while the last is only from $12 to SI 8. For some of the stifTest clays and loosest gravels, these deep drains are not so well suited ; as the water scarcely filters through the stiff sttbsoil of the former, and drains too deeply from the latter. The advantages of nnflerdraining ^xe numerous and im- portant. Tlley take away all the surplus water which exists in heavy or tenacious soils, and which in wet seasons, is a seri- ous impediment to the successful growth and perfection of vegetation ; thus always hisuring a ftiU crop, when frequently, not one-fourth of a crop is matured on similar uudrained soils. They are susceptible of earlier preparation for the re- ception of crops in spring, by furnishing a dry, warm soil, ^vhich would otherwise not admit of cultivation, except in an advanced stage of the season ; thus enabling the farmer to raise a greater variety of products, where only a few were adapted to the soil before ; and to these, it gives several weeks additional growth, and an improved quality. The soil is also more porous and friable, and therefore, much more easily tilled. It saves all the trouble and ^vaste of sur- face drai'js and open furrows, which require that much ol the field be left almost in an unproductive state, to serve as conductors of the surplus ■u^ater. The rains falling on the convex surfaces of the lands, run olf rapidly into the fur- rows, and not only withhold from the soil those benefit, which would result from their absorption, but they carry with them much of the fine soil, which is thus allowed to Avaste. Rain water is o* arged with some of the most importaui IRRIGATION ANU DRAINING. &0 elements of nutrition for plants, and especially contains cxuv siderable proportions of carbonic acid and ammonia, li these be permitted to percolate through the soil, the roots of the plants, or in their absence, the elements of the soil itself aDsorb and form permanent combinations with them. Air also holds vegetable food, and it is necessary that this should penetrate through every portion of the soil where the fibres of the roots exist. Soils which are saturated with Avater, do not admit of any air, unless the small proportion combined with the water ; and from all such, this vital adjunct of vegetation is excluded. The porosity of the land thus se- cured, facilitates the admission and escape of heat, and this last condition is of the utmost consequence iu promoting the deposition of dews. The dense mass of saturated soil is impervious to air, and remains cold and clammy. By draining it below the soil, the warm rains penetrate the entire mass, and there diffuse their genial temperature through the roots. Immediately pressing after these, the Avarm air rushes in, and supplies its portion of augmented heat to the land. Porous soils thus readily imbibe heat, and they as readily part with it ; every portion of their own surfaces radiating it, when the air in contact with them is below their own temperature. This condition is precisely what is adapted to secure the deposit of the dews, so refreshing, and during a season of drought, so indispensable to the progress of vegetation. Dew can only be condensed on surfaces, which are beloAV the temperature of the surrounding air ; and rapid radiation of the heat imbibed during the warmth of a summer's day, is necessary to secure it in profusion for the demands of luxu- riant vegetation, in the absence of frequent showers. An insensible deposit of moisture, precisely analogous to dew, is constantly going forward in deep, rich, porous soils. Wherever the air penetrates them, at a higher temperature than the soils themselves possess, it not only imparts to them a portion of its exccess of heat, but with it also, so much ot its combined moisture, as its thus lessened capacity for re- taining latent heat, compels it to relinquish. To the reflect- ing mind, imbued with even the first principles of science, these considerations will be justly deemed of the highest con- sequence to the rapii and luxuriant growth, and full devel- opment of vegetable life. Another essential henejit derivable from drained Lands, consists in the advantageous u»« which can be made of tht 86 AMER JAN AGRICrLTURE. subsoil plow. If there be no escape for the moisture which may have set- led below the surface, the subsoil plow has been fouud inj u-ious ra.;her than beneficial. By loosening the earth, it admits a larger deposit of Avater, which requires a longer time for evaporation and insensible drainage to discharge. When the -water escapes freely, the use of the subsoil plow is attended with the best results. The earth being thus pulverized to a much greater depth, and incorpo- rated with the descending pa tides of vegetable sustenance, affords an, enlarged range for i le roots of plants; and in pro- poriion to its extent, furnishes thorn with additional means of growth. The farmer thus has a means of augmenting his soil, and its capacity for production, wholly independent of increasing his superficial acres ; for with many crops, it mat- ters not in the quantity of their production, whether he OAvns and cultivates 100 acres of soil, one foot deep, or 200 acres of soil, half a foot in depth. With the latter, however, he has to provide twice the capital in the first purchase, is at twice the cost in fencing, planting and tillage, and pays twice the taxes. The underdrainedand subsoiled fields have the further advantage, of securing the groAvth and steady de- velopement of their crops during a season of drought ; as they derive their moisture from the atmosphere in part, as before explained, and from greater depths, which are fre- quently unaffected by the parching heat. This secures to them a large yield, while all around is parched and withered.* A more enlarged and general, or what may justly be termed, a philanthropic view of this system, will readily de- tect considerations of g;reat moment ; in the general heathful- ness of climate, which would result from the drainage of large areas, that are now saturated, and in many instances covered with stagnant waters, and which are suffered to pol- lute the atmosphere by their pestilential exhalations. SPRING AND SWAMP DRAINING. Springs are sometimes discovered, not by a free or open discharge of their water, but in extensive plats of wet, boggy lands, which are of no further use than to mire the cattle, and bear a small quantity of inferior, bog hay. These springs * The ex; erienced reader will sometimes notice the same ideas, re- jeated under different heads. He must bear in mind, that this work is intended /or learners; and that it \3 of more consequence, thoroug;hly to impress their minds with imj ortant principles, that to study brf vi* ty in communicating them. ir.ItlG^TION AND DRAINING. 8/* should be sought, at the highest point where the ground appears moistened, and led away to a ravine or rivulet, by a drain, sufficiently deep to prevent the escape of any of the water into the adjacent soil ; unless, as it sometimes happens, the position and quality of water are suited to irrigation, when it may be condu«ted over the field for that purpose. Siccoyij^s and Peat beds occur frequently in a hilly country - These aie low, level, Avet lands, whose constant saturation with water, prevents their cultivation with any useful plants The first object in etfecting their improvement, is to find an outlet for the escape of the water, to a depth of three to five feet below the general surface, according to the area to be re^ clainz^vl ; the greatest depth above specified, being frequently necessary to the effectual drainage, a ^ all times, of an extend- ed field. If the water in the swamp has its origin in numer- ous springs from the adjoining hills, a ditch should be dug around the entire outer edge, where it meets the ascending land. If the water be derive.d from a rivvilet, a broad ditch should be made as direct as possible from the entrance to its outlet, and deep enough to lead off" all the water. If this is found insufficient, additional ones may be made wherever required. CHAPTER V. MECHANICAL DIVISION OF SOILS. SPADING. After selecting a proper soil and placing it in a proper condition, by manuring, draining, &c., the next most import- ant consideration is, the further preparation of the land fo» the reception of the seed. In small patches of highly-culti- vated land, spading is resorted to, for breaking up and pul- verizina; the ground more effectually than can be done witn the plow. This is the case with many of the market gardens, in tha neighborhood of our large cities, and with large portions of Holland, Flanders and other countries of Europe. It L» even contended b; many intelligent and 88 AMEPaCAN AGRICULTURE. practical farmers in Great Britain, where labor is about half, and land and agricultural products are nearly twice the average prices ^vith us, that spade-husbandry can be adopted for general tillage crops, with decided advantage to the farmer. However this may be abroad, it is certain it cannot be practised in this cciintry, to any extent, imtil some very remote period. There are many important advantages in the deep and minute division of the soil, resviltiug from the very thorough spading practised by the best gardeners, which we should endeavor to incorporate in every tillage system, Avith the use of the plow alone. This may be done, and the advan- tages of spade-husbandrj'^ measurably secured, and at one fourth the expense, b}." the use of the best surface and sub- soil plows, if strong teams and skilful ploAvmen are employed to work them. PLOWING. This is the most important of the mechanical operations of the farm. The time, the depth and the manner of plowing must depend on the crops to be raised, the fertility and char- acter of the soil, and other circumstances. The above is a cut of the Eagle plow. This is a good model of a two-horse plow ; being easy of draught to the team, and turning a deep, wide furrow, with little effort to the plowman. It is made with a cast-iron mold-board, share and land-side, all in detached parts, which are easily re- placed when worn. It has the dial-clevis at the end of the beam, which is an important improvement for controlling the direction of the plow and regulating its depth. Also the draft-rod, which is guided by -he clevis, ajid attached to the beair. near *,he handles. The wheel lessens the MECHANICAL DIVISION OF SOILS. 89 draught, facilitates turning the ploAv at the end of the fur- row, and regufiates its depth. The cutter or coulter, which is made of "wrought iron, "vvith steel edge, divides the sod or earth before the plow, thus lessening the draught, and giving a smoother edge to the furrow. Plowing Clay lands. — Whenever practicable, these should be plowed in the fall, for planting and sowing the ensuing spring. (Foi exceptions, see page 18; and for fur- ther directions and observations on the subject of plowing, see management of soils preceding, and various subsequent tillage crops.) The tenacity of the soil may thus be tem- porarily broken up by the winter frosts, its particles more thoroughly separated, and the whole mass reduced to a finer tilth than can possibly be effected in any other manner. A still further and important advantage from this practice ensues, from the attraction existing between the clay and those gases that are furnished from the atmosphere, snow, rains and dews. In consequence of being thus thrown up and coming in contact, with them, it seizes upon the ammo- nia and carbonic and ni'i^ric acids, which are in the air, and holds them for the future'use of the crops ; while their great affinity for manures, effectually prevents the waste of such as are in it. There is an additional benefit sometimes deri- vable from this practice, in turning over the soil late in the season, and after such worms and insects as are injurious to the crops, have taken up their winter quarters. They are thus thrown out and exposed to the elements, when they are too chilled to seek seclusion again, and are thus destroyed. The furrows of clay soils, should be turned over so as to lap on the preceding, and lie at an angle of 45°, as il'ustra- ted by ♦^he following cut : w Fig. 2. and for this purpose, the depth of the furrow slice should be about 1 wo thirds its width. Thus a furrow six inches deep, should be about nine inches wide ; or if eight inches deep, it should be twelve inches wide. This will allow of the furrows lying regularly and evenly, and in the proper posi- tion for the drainage of the soil, the fres circulation of air, and the most etHcient action of frosts, which in this way, have access to every sid? of them. Land tluxs thrown up. 90 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. is found to be finely pulverized after the frosts leave it, and it is comparatively dry and ready for use, some time earlier than such as is not plowed till spring. For sowing, land prepared in this manner requires no additional plowing, but it is better fitted for the reception of seed that it can be by any further operation, unless by a slight harrowing, if the surface is too rough. The different kinds of grain or peas may be dibbled in, or sown broad-cast and covered by the narro^v. If soAvn. very early, the grass and clover seeds require no covering, but find their best position in the slight depressions which are everywhere made by the frost, and which the subsequent rains and winds* fill up, and cover sufficiently to secure a certain growth. When a field is intended for planting, and is thus plowed in the preceding autumn, in some instances, and especially Avhen the soil is full of vegetable manures, (as from a rich green sward), a single furrow, where the seed is to be dropped, is all that is necessary to be plowed in the spring. If the land has been previously cultivated, (not in SAvard), and is designed for planting, a stiff clay is sometimes ridged up, by turning a double furrow, one on each side, and so close together, a^ partially to lap upon a narrow and unbro- ken surface ; thus leaving tlie greatest elevations and de- pressions, which can conveniently be made with the plow. This is shown by the annexed cut. a, a, is surface of the unplowed ground, b, b, h, portions of earth not turned by the plow, c, c, c, furrows turned over, d, d, d, furrows lapped on the preceding. By this means, the frost and air have a greater surface to act upon, than is afforded by thorough plowing, unless it be in a firm sod, Avhich will maintain its position Avithout crumbling. The advantage of a dry surface and early working, are equally secured by this latter method ; and to prepare for planting, the furrows need only to be split, by running a double-mold- board plow through their centre, when they are ready for the reception of the seed. Flowing sandy or dry Soils. — These require flat plowing, and this may be done when they are either quite wet or dry, but never till wanted for use. By exposure taieat, rains and MECHANICAL DIVISION OF SOILS. 91 winds, the light soluble manures are exhaled or washed out, and they receive little compensation for this waste, in any- corresponding fertility tl .ey derive from the atmosphere in return. To insure tlat plowing on an old sward, the depth of the furrow should be about one half its width, and the lands or ridges, should be made as wide as possible. This will give more evenness and uniformity of surface, and is an object of importance, where it is to be again laid down as a meadow. Some prefer for this purpose, to use the shifting mold-board, side-hill or swivel plow, by all of which names it is known. This can throw the furrow always in the same di- rection, and is a right or left hand plow as may be required. Depth of Ploiving. — All cultivated plants are benefitted by a deep, permeable soil, through which their roots can penetrate in search of food ; and although depth of soil is not. fully equivalent to its superficial extension, it is evident, that there must be a great increase of product from this cause. For general tillage crops, the depth of soil may be gradually augmented to about twelve inches, with decided advantage. Such as are appropriated to gardens and horticultural pur- poses, may be deepened fifteen, and even eighteen inches, to the manifest profit of their occupants. But whatever is the depth of the soil, the ploAV ought to turn up the entire mass, if within its reach ; and what is beyond it, should be thorough- ly broken up by the subsoil plow, and some of it occasional- ly incorporated with that upon the surface. The subsoil ought not to be brought out of its bed, except in small quantities. It should then be exposed to the atmos- phere during the fall, winter and .spring, or in a summer fal- low ; after which, and as a necessary preparation for a crop, it should receive such mam" ss as are necessary to put it at once into a productive condition. The depth of the soil can alone determine the depth which the plow should work ; and when the former is too shallow, the gradual deepening of it should be sought, by the use of proper materials for im- provement, till the object is fully attained. Two indift'erent soils of opposite characters, as of a stiff clay and sliding sand, sometimes occupy the relation of surface and subsoil towards each other" and when intimately mixed, as they may fre- quently be oy deep plowing alone, and then subjected to the meliorating influence of cultivation, they will frequently produce a soil of great value. Cross ploiving is seldom necessary, except to break up tough s\\ ard or tenacious soils, and the former is more ef- 92 AMERICAN AGRICUHtrtvE. fectually subdued by one thorough plowing, in which the sod is so placed, that decomposition Avill rapidly ensue ; and the latter is more certainly pulverized, by incorporal ing with it such vegetables, and fibrous or iinfermented manures, as will produce the same result as the decaying sod. The pre- sence of these in the soil lessens the labor of cultivation, and greatly increases the product. Subsoil Ploiving . — This is a practice of comparatively recent introduction, and it has been £.;tended with signal benefit, from the increase and certainty of the crop. It is per- formed by subsoil plows, made exclusively for this purpose. The objects to be accomplished, are to loosen the hard earth below the reach of the ordinary plow, and permit the ready escape of the water, which falls upon the surface ; the circu- lation of air ; and a more extended range for the roots of the plants, by which they procure additional nourishment, and secure the crop agamst drought, by peneirating into the re- gions of perpetual moisture. An. important additional advantage results from their con- tinued use, m the deepening of the soil This inevitably follows from opening the subsoil to the meliorating influence of the elements, and from the accumulation of vegetable' matter in the roots. These penetrate deeply into the earth, and are left to decay in the bed where they originate. An increased value in the soil has been noticed bv observins: ao-- nculturists, to the extent, in many instances, of over five per cent, per annum, from the use of this imnlement. In the rich, compact, deltal lands of Louisiana and elsewhere, the writer has seen the soil made loose, elastic and friable, throughout the whole field, by running a laxge subsoil plow to its utmost depth, at a distance of four feet between the furrows. The entire mass of soil, seemed to be thoroughly worked {mellowed), io the depth which the plow reached, al- though run at these comparatively remote distances. When all the circumstances are favorable to the use of the subsoil plow, an increase in the crop of 20 or 30 and some- times even 50 per cent, has been attributed to its ooerations. Its maximum influence on stiff soils is reached, onlv where uuderdraining has been thoroughlj^ carried out. Its benefits have been more than doubtful, when used in an impervious clay subsoil, where it makes further room for storins; up stagnant water ; and i' is evident they can only aggravate th* faults of such subsoil' as are naturally too loose and leachy MECHANICAL V VISION OF SOILS. 93 PLOWS, AND OTHER FARM IMPLEMENTS. There are plows for almost every situation and soil, in ad- dition to several varieties which are exclusively used for the subsoil. Some are for heavy lands and some for light ; some for stony soils, others for such as are full of roots ; while seve- ral varieties of plows are expressly made, for breaking up the hitherto untilled prairies of the West. Some are adapted to deep and some to shallow plowing ; and some are for plowing around a hill and throwing the furrows either up or down, or both ways alternately ; others throw the soil on both sides, and are used for furrowing and plowing between the rows of 3orn or roots. Every farm should be supplied with all that are entirely suited to the various operations required. There is frequently great economy in having a diversity of im- plements for all the different purposes to be accomplished ; and although one of unusual construction may seldom be called for, yet its use for a few days or even for a few hours, may sometimes repay its full cost. The farmer will fiiad in the best agricultural ware-houses, all the implements necessary to his operations, with such descriptions as will enable him to judge of their merits. Great attention has been bestOAved on this subject, by skil- ful and intelligent persons, and great success has followed their efforts. The United States may safely challenge the world, to exhibit better specimens of farming tools than they now furnish, and their course is still one of improvement. There are numerous competitors for public favor, in every description of farm implements ; and an intelligent farmer cannot fail to select such as are best suited to his own situa- tion and purposes. The best only should be used.— There has been a " penny wise and a pound foolish" policy adopted by many farmers, in their neglect or refusal to supply themselves with good tools to work with. They thus save a few shillings in the first outlay, but frequently lose ten times as much by the use of indifferent ones, from the waste of labor and the ineffi- ciency of their operations. A farmer should estimate the value of his own and his laborer's time, as well as that of his teams, by dollars and cents ; and if it requires thirty, ten, or even one "per cent, more, to accomplish a given object with one instrument than with another, he should, before buying one of inferior quality, carefully compute the amount his false ecnumy in the purchase will cost him before he has done v( .th it. Poor men, or those who wish to thrive can ill yi AMERICAN ii J-.ICULTI RE afford the extravag^tice of buying inferior tools, at howevei low a price. The best are always the cheapest ; not those of high or extravagant finish, or in any respect nnneccssari- ly costly ; but such as are plain and substantial, made on the best principles and of the most durable materials. To no tools do these remarks apply with so much force, as to plows The improvements in these have been greater than in any other instruments ; the best saving fully one half the labor formerly bestowed in accomplishing the same work. HARROWING. The object of the harrow, is three fold ; to pulverize the land, to cover the seed, and to extirpate weeds. Unless the land be verj"^ light and sandy, the operation should never be performed for either object, except when sufficiently dry to allo"\v of its crumbling down into a fine, mellow surffvce, under the action of ihe harrow. There are several varieties of harrows in use ; the triangular and the sqttare, both sometimes hinged and sometimes double ; with long teeth and Avith short ones, some thickly set together, and some wide apart. For pitlverizing firmly-sodded or still clay lands, a heavy, compact harrow is required, Avith strong teeth, sufficiently spread ; and for lighter lands, or for cover- ing seed, the more expanded harroAv, with numerous small and thickly-set teeth. To pulverize well, the harroAV should move as quickly as possible, so as to strike the lumps forci- bly, and knock them to pieces ; and for this purpose an active team is required. When the land sinks much under the pressure of the horses' feet, 1 ght animals, as mules or ponies, are preferable. THE ROLLER. This is an important implement for many fields. It is al- ways usefitl for pulveriziu!! the soil, w^hich it does by breaking- down such clods and Ivimps as escape the harrow, and tliu.« renders the field smooth for the scythe or cradle ; and it is equally so on meadows, Avhich have become uneven from the infiitence of frost, ant-.\ills, or other causes. It :'s ser- viceable in covering seed, by pressing the earth firmly around it ; thus securing moisture enoitgh for germination. But its greatest benefit is with such sandy soils, as are not sufficiently compact to hold the roots of plants firmly and retain a suitable moisture. With these it is invaluable ; and the proper use of the roller has, in some instances MECHANICAL. DIVISION OF SOILS. 95 doubled the product. Its effect is similar to that produced by the frequent treading in a foot-path; and the observhig farmer will not have failed to notice, the single tliread of thick, green sward, which marks its course over an other- wise almost barren field of sand or loose gravel. The thick- ly-woven, emerald net- work, that indicates the sheep-walks on similar soils, is principally due to the same cause. Those portions of the pasture which have been thus compressed, will be found to contain a thicker, greener herbage, which > earlier in spring and later in autumn, and much more relished by the animals cropping it, and apparently more nutritive, than that on other parts of the field. ivoUers are variously constructed. The simplest form is a single wooden shaft, with gudgeons at each end, which rest in a square frame, made by fastening four joists together; a tongue for drawing it being placed in one of its sides. A box may be attached to this frame, for tlie purpose of hold- ing stones and weeds picked up in the field, and for weight- ing the roller according to the work required. The best rollers, however, are of cast iron, made in sections of about a foot in length. As many of these may be placed on a single axle as are required. This division into short sections, facilitates turning on the axle, either back or forward, and prevents the unsightly and objectionable furrowing of the earth, Avhich occurs in turning with the long, solid roller. Some are made of stone, but these are very liable to break, and are equally objectionable in turning, as those made of wood. The larger the roller, the greater is the surface brought into contact with the ground, and consequently the more level it leaves it. To accomplish this object without too much increase of weight, rollers are frequently constructed with heads at the ends, and closely covered like a drum. For dividing compact, clay lumps, or scarifying meadows, they are sometimes made with large numbers of short, stout, ingular teeth, projecting from the outer or rolling surface, which penetrate and ciash the clods, and tear up and loosen ♦^he old turf and moss of meadows. THE CULTIVATOR Has a light frame, in the form of a triangular or wedge- harrow, with handles behind, like those of a plow, and with several small iron teeth in the frame, somewhat resembling a doubie share plow. The teeth are usually of cast iron, and 96 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. when properly made 2i\\^ chill-hardened, as is the case with those portions of the plow most liable to \vear, they are un- doubtedly the most economical and best. They are rarely made of wrought iron, but more frequently of steel. They are of various sizes, slightly differing in construc- tion, and are of great utility in stirring the surface of the ground and destroying weeds. By an expanding attachment, they are capable of being adapted to any width of row. THE CORNPLANTER AND DRILL BARROW Are useful for dibbling iji seeds, and when the surface ia mellow, they will open the furrows for the reception of the seed, which it drops, covers, and then rolls the earth firmly over it. The small drills are trmidled along like a wheel- barrow, by hand ; and the larger, for field sowing, having several fixtures for drilling, are drawn by a horse. These are suited to the smaller seeds. Cornplantersare made to plant corn, beans and peas, which they do at the rate of ten acres per day, and Avith entire uniformity as to quantity of seed in a hill, depth of covering and distance. STTRFACE OR SHOVEL PLOWS. These are a cheap and light instrument, much used in England, and to some extent in this country, for paring the stubble and grass roots on the surfaces of old meadows. These are raked together into heaps, and "with whatever addition there may be of earth or clay, are burnt, and the ashes and roasted earth scattered over the soil. There is an apparent objection to this practice, from the expulsion of the carbon and nitrogen stored up in the plants ; and from the \vaste of the coarse material of the decaying vegetables, which is so useful in effecting the proper mechanical divi sions of clay soils. But by a reference to what has been said, on the efficiency of burnt clay or broken bricks, their great utility as fertilizers \v\\\ be seen. This and the ash of the plants remain ; and both are useful in quickening the action of soils, and accelerating those changes, so beneficial to vegetation ; and even the re-absorption of the atmosphe- ric gases, it is probable, will more *han compensate for those expelled in burning. The effect is further salutary, in de- stroying grubs, insects and their larvae, and the seeds oi aoxious weeds. THK GRA3SKS MEADOWS. ETC. 97 CHAPTER VI. THE GRASSES, CLOVERS, MEADOW'S AND PASTURES The order designated by naturalists as GramincB, is one of the largest and most universally diffused in the vegetable kingdom. It is also the most important to man, and to all the different tribes of graminiverous animals. It includes not only what are usually cultivated as grasses, but also rice, millet, Avheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, sugar-cane, broom-corn, the wild cane and the bamboos, the last sometimes reaching 60 or 80 feet in height. They are invariably charac- terized as having a cylindrical stem ; hollow, or sometimes as in the sugar-cane and bamboos, filled with a pith-like sub- stance ; Avith solid joints and alternate leaves, originating at each joint, and surrounding the stem at their base and form- ing a sheath upwards, of greater or loss extent ; and the flowers and seed are protected with a firm, straw-like cover- ing, which is the chaflf in the grains and grass seeds, and the husk in Indian corn. They yield large proportions of sugar, starch and fatty matter, besides those peculiarly animal pro- ducts, albumen and fibrin, not only in the seeds, but also, and especially before the latter are fully matured, in the stems, joints and leaves. These qualities give to them the great value which they possess in agriculture. Of the grasses cultivated for the use of animals in England, there are said to be no less than 200 varieties ; while in the occupied portion of this country, embracing an indefinitely greater variety of latitude, climate and situation, we hardly cultivate twenty. The number and excellence of our natural grasses, are probably unsurpassed in any quarter of the globe, for a similar extent of country ; but this is a de- partment of our natural history, hitherto but partially ex- plored, and we are left mostly to conjecture, as to their num bers and comparative quality. Their superior -ichness and enduringness may be inferred, from the health and thrift o the butfalo, deer and ofher wild herbivora^ ; as well as from t>-- g-owth and fine conditiop of our lomestic animals 5 98 AMERlCAy AGRICULTL'RS. throughout the year, when ]>ern.itled to raiige over tue woods, and through the natural prairies and bottom lands, where these grasses abound. The Avriter has seen large droves of the French and InJian ponies come into the set- tlements about Green Say and tiie Fox River in Wisconsin, in the spring, in good working condition, after winteriijg, entirely on the natural grasses and browse north of lat. 44°. Timothy, Cat's Tail dr Herd's Grass (Phleunipratense.) -For cultivation in the nortl em portion ol I the United States, I am inclir ^d to place the Timothy first in the list of tte irrasses. It is indigenous to this country, and flourishes in all soils except such as are wet, too light, dry, or sandy ; and it is found in perfection on the rich clays and clay loams, \vhich lie between 38*^ and 4-i° north latitude. It is a perennial, easy of cultivation, hardy and of luxuriant growth, and on its favorite soil, yields from one and a half to two tons of hay per acre, at one cutting. Sinclair estimates its value for hay ^vhen in seed, to be double that cut in flower. From its increased value Avhen ripe, it is cut late ; and in consequence of the exhaustion from maturing its seed, it produces but little aftermath or rowen. For milch cows or young stock, it should be cut when going into fioAver, and before the seeds have been developed, as it is then more succulent. It vegetates early in the spring, and when pastured, yields abundantly throughout the season. Both the grass and hay are hiahly relished by cattle, sheep, and horses ; and its nutritive quality, in the opinion of practical men, stands decidedly before any other. It is also a valua- ble crop for seed an acre of prime grass yielding from 15 to 25 bushels of iJean seed, which is worth in the market from $1 50 to $4 50 per bushel ; and the stalks and the chaff that remain, make a useful fodder for most kinds ol stock. It may be sown upon ^vheat or rye, in August or Septem- ber :r in the spring. When sown either alone, or with other grasses, early in the season, and on a rich soil, it Avill pro- duce a good crop the same j'-ear. From its late ripening, it is not advantageously groAvn Avit'i clover, unless upon heavy clays, which holcl back the clove:. I have tried it with the northern or mam-.:oth clover, or :lay, and found the latter Fig. 4. T7IE g; ::s, MEADOW ^, etc thougn iiostly m full blossom, still pushing out new .ranches and buds, when the former was fit to cut.'^ The quantity o seed required per acre, depends on the soil and its condition iwelve quarts on a fine mellow tilth, are sufficient, and equal to twice this quantity on a stiff clay. Heavier seed- ing than this may be practised with advantage, and especial- ly, where it is desirable to cover the surface at once with a thick sward. Fig. 5. Fig. 6 Fig. 7. _ Meadow Fox Tail {Alopecurus pratensis Fig. 5) This IS a favorite grass in England, both for meadows and pasture. It grows early and abundantly, and gives a lar^e quantity of aftermath. It is best suited to a moi.st soil, bog clay or loam. It is indigenous to the middle States. feMooTH Stalk Meadow, Green, Spear or June Grass. he erroneously called Blue Grass of Kentucky (Poaprd temis Fig. 6), is highly e. American farmers, and probably with sufficient reason. It is a di- minutive grass, affording conside- rable nutriment in a condensed form, and is adapted to a winter pasture. It growls on a moist clay or boggy soil. It is probably on / such, and in moist climdies only, /| that it attains its full size, charac- ^ ter and value. Many results have ^J. , been attained with it in England "y^ and Ireland, wliich would seem to commend it, as a valuable forage Fia. 19. plant, in its appropriate soil and elimate. Several of the florin family abound in this coun- try, among which is the squitch, couch, or quick grass, which are considered as jests m the cultivated fields. i04 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. The Sweet-scented Vernal Grass [Anthoxanthum odoratum, Fig. 20) is an early and valuable grass, which exhales that delightful per- fume so characteristic of much of the east- ern meadow hay. It is also a late as well as an early grass, and luxuriates in a dry sandy loam. It affords two, and some- times three crops in a season. Poa Alpina (Fig. 21), Aira caspitosa (Fig. 22), Briza media (Fig. 23), and the Agrostis humilis, and Agrostis vulgaris, as well as the Hard and Sheep's Fescue, before noticed, are all sweet, pasture grasses, and excellent for lawns. These, Fig. 20. and a large variety of other dwarf grasses, abound on our uncultivated uplands, mountains and wood- lands, creeping in through the neglect, rather than the care Fig. 21. Fio. 22. Fig. 23. of the husbandman. They yield a nutritive herbage for the herds and flocks ; and an almost perennial verdure to the landscape, equally grateful to the rustic eye, or a cultivated taste. Ribbon Grass (Phalaris afnericana) is the beautiful stri- ped grass, occasionally used for garden borders. It has been highly recommended for swamps, to which, if transplanted, it is alleged that it will supersede all other grasses, and af ford a fine quality of hay, of an appearance quite dfferent from the upland growth. The writer tried several exper: ments, both with the seed and roots, on a clay marsh, but witli THE GRASSES, MEAIOWS, ETC, 105 out success. Its proper pabulum is probably a rich carbona- ceous soil, such as is found in an alluvial s^vamp or peat bed. Gama Grass ( Tripsaciim dactyloides) is found growing spontaneously on a naked sand beach, in Stratford, Ct., and in other places on our eastern coasts. It has occasionally been much lauded at the North, M'here it is a coarse, rough grass ; and it seems generally, to be little prized at the South. But we have recently, the opinion of some iirtelligent men in that section, that it is much relished by stock ; as they frequently eat it so close to the ground, as soon to extirpate it. We .«ihould conclude, therefore, that it is a valuable grass for some sections of the United States, v.?' pre the soil and locality are suited to it. The Egyptian, Syrian or Guinka Grass {Sorghum halpense, Fig. 24), known by various other names, is a native of our southern States, in many of its va- rieties, although it has been import- ed from abroad. I have seen it growing in profusion on Long Island, Charleston, S. C, and in southern Mississippi. It grows like a very slender, miniature Corli- ss stalk, from four to six feet high, with a strong stem, a large grassy ^""■- 24. leaf, and bears a stately seed-stalk, tufted with flowrets, which, however, so far as they have come within my knowledge, do not bear a fully-ripened seed in this country. That imported from the Mediterranean, grows with great vigor. Its roots are tuberous, large and prolific ; and equally Avith the rich, succulent leaves and stalks, when the latter are young, they are at all times greedily devoured by stock. Dr. Bachman, of South Caro- lina, considers it a stock-sustaining plant, far superior to any other grown at the South. It is difficult to remove when once embedded in the soil, and the cotton planters look upon its introduction into their cultivated fields, with unmingled apprehension. Bermuda Grass (Cynodmi dactylon, Lin. — Paspaluni dactylon, Deccan., Fig. 17). — This is considered by Mr. Spalding, an experienced planter in Georgia, who examined them both critically, from specimens which he raised to- gether, as che Doub grass of India, so much commended 5* lOG AMERICAN AGRICTJI TURE. by Sir William Jones, and so highly prized by the Brah- mins. It is by the agriculturists of the South, deemed an invaluable grass, yielding four or five tons per acre on good meadow. Mr. Atileck, of Mississippi, states the yield of three Fig 25. cuttings, at five to six tons i)er acre on common meadow, that it loses only 50 per cent, of its weight in drying, and is consequently the hardest grass to cut. It is one of the most nutritive grasses known, and is of great value to the river planter. It loves a warm and moist, but not wet soil. Crab Grass is considered (unjustly as I think) a pest by the cotton-planters, for equally, perhaps, with the Bermuda, it is a rich and nutritious grass. It comes up after the crops are laid by (received their last plowing and hoeing), and grows rapidly as the cotton or corn matures and dries ; and by the time they are ready to remove from the field, has frequently attained so large a growth, as to afford a crop of hay. Even considered as a fertilizer alone, it is a valuable assistant to the planter. When the corn or cotton is young, the ground requires working to an extent sufficient to keep down this grass, solely Avith a reference to preserving its porosity — its dew-condensing, dew-absorbing proper- ties. When the crop is sufficiently matured to need no fur- ther care, the grass shoots forward rapidly, and absorbs largely from the floating elements of the air. Winter Grass is known on the low, moist fertile soils of Mississippi and adjoining States. It springs up in the au- tumn, grows all Avinter, and seeds in the spring. It fattens all animals that feed upon it. The Muskeet Grass, found growing on the plains of Mex- ico and Texas, is considered one of /he best of the indigenous grasses. I \\: 'e seen it growing on the plantations of Louisi- ana, where it has been successfully transplanted. Grama [La Grama, or the grass of grasses) is held in the highest estimation b}'' the Mexicans. It attains a me- dium height, and is deemed the most nutritious of the natural grasses in oar southwestern, frontier prairies, in California, and parts of Mexico. It grows on dry, hard, gravelly soils, on side hills, the SAye^ls of the prairies, and the gentle eleva- THE GRvSSES, ITEADO'iVS, ETC 107 tions in the valleys. The principal value is found in the numerous seeds, whi ih are retained in the pods with great tenacity, long after the> are ripe, serving as a luxurious food for all the graniverous beasts and fowls of the regions where it is grown. The Buffalo G/riss is found intermixed with the Grama and seldom grows more than a few inches in height. It forms a thick, sOft herbage, on which the traveller walks with ease, and reposes when weary, Avith delight. It yields a rich sustenance to countless herds of wild horses and cat- tle, butfaloes, leer and antelopes. Tornillo or Screio Grass. — This grows in great profu- sion in the region of the two last grasses ; but is most con- spicuous on the table lands, and between the rivers and creeks, the tall grass of the lower levels, giving place to it as the surface ascends. It is taller than the buffalo, with broader leaves. It bears a seed-stock eight or ten inches high, surmounted by a spiral-shaped pod, an inch long and one-fourth of an inch in diameter, which contains ten or twelve roundish, flattened seeds. The herbage is not re- lished by animals, but the ripened seeds yield a food of great richness, on which umumerable herds of wild cattle fatten for slaughter. Horses, mules and most other animals and fowls subsist upon it. — (Z);-. Lyman.) The Prairie Grasses abound in the western prairies, and are of great variety, according to the latitude and circum- stances under which they are found. They afford large sup- plies of nutritive food both as pasturage and hay. They possess different merits for stock, but as a general rule, they are coarse when they have reached maturity, and are easily injured by the early frosts of autumn. Some of the le- guminosae or wild pea vines, which are frequently found among them, yield the richest herbage. We are not aware that any of these grasses have been cultivated with success. The Pony Grass (Fig 26) may be mentioned, as one of the best of the winter grasses in our western States. It grows in close, thick, elevated tufts, and continues green all winter. It is easily detected under the snow by ammals, from the little hommocs Avhich everywhere indent its surface, Tkc Wild Rtct which lines '^ ^ S M U s. V "a •is I3)0B w I paesuissejSojI-a 2 i :^ aq; JO '8niBAl> *^ ajenoijjodojjjSJ ^ ■pass at naq^ •ajoe auo ui Jj; J.jBta aAiirjjnu ' 3A&3 sui jp f9 aUIAjp UI SSOIj^SlS; I paiJp uaqM » — ! aJDB Jad lAYr^'^*' • i "^ it i ^ z^ •^ . 0 '^ 1 ■"• •I''' Oi 1^ [■' r3 . I*- i) n O CD — — Us o ] •naajs uaq.tt j g 3I3B Jai ■}A\ "^"^ C^O, T* -?»—;— rt:OjwOXi .:: -c I =■. I- I- -:: c x o X • - • C* — M — X — 1 O O I X -71 ^ 1 ' X I-". -^ t^ p.qsia.tt oaq.^i^i llHiHS l|i,|:i|!l|| III si c i^iss »S- z-slc «S=: »S« gS AGRICI r^TrHE. to check further accumulatio i. This is then the proper time for plowing up the field, and renewing again its accustomed round of crojDs. If desirable, the clover may be imperfectlj'' sustained on some soils, for a few years, by the addition of gypsum, bone-dust, ashes and other manures, which will de- velop and mature the ripened seeds ; but the greater tena- city of otlier plants and grasses, will soon reduce it to a minor product in the field. Complaijit is sometimes made among farmers in England, whose fields have been often in this crop, that their land is clover sick. This arises, simply, from the exhaustion of the land of some of those principles peculiar to clover, Avhich are needed to prepare them again for bearing good crops, Ro- tations and judicious manuring are the only remedies for this, or similar deficiencies with other crops. Importance of the Clovers. — The great value of the dif- ferent clovers as forage, was well known to the ancients. They were extensively cultivated by the early Romans, and since that period, they have been extended throughout a large part of Europe. They were not introduced into Great Bri- tain till the 16th century, but have since constituted a profita- ble branch of its husbandry. Their importance has long been acknowledged in tho United States. The nutritive matter, altl\ough rc«»atively less than fromsome of the grasses, is yet, in the amount per acre, fully equal to the average of any other forage crop, which is produced at the same ex- pense. It is easily and cheaply raised ; it is liable to few or no casualties or insect enemies in this country ; and its long tap roots are powerful auxiliaries in the divi.sion and improvement of soils. Its broad, succulent leaves derive a large portion of their nutriment from the atmosphere ; and while it aff'ords a product equal to the best grasses, it draws a large part of it from the common store-house of nature, without subjecting the farmer to the expense of pro- viding it in his manures. It is as a fertilizer, however, that it is so decidedly supe- rior to other crops. In addition to the advantages before enumerated, the facility and economy of its cultivation, the great amount yielded ; and lastly, the convenient form it offers for covering with the plow, contribute to place it far above any other species of vegetation for this purpose. All the grains and roots do well after clover ; and wheat especially, which foil nvs it, is more generally free from disease than when sown with an} :)the: manure. The introduction oi THE GRxVSSKS, MEADOWS, ETC. 121 clover and lime in connection, has carried up the price of many extensive tracts of land, from $10 to $50 per acre, and has enabled the occupant to raise large crops of wheat, where he could get only small crops of rye ; and it has fre- quently increased his crop of wheat three-fold, where it had been previously an object of attention. It is a common observation of intelligent farmers, that they are never at a loss to renovate such lands as will pro- duce even a moderate crop of clover. Poor clay lands have been brought to a clover-bearing state, by sowing an early and late crop of oats in the same season, and feeding them off on the ground. Poor, sandy soils may be made to sus- tain clover, with the aid of manure, ashes and gypsum, com- bined with the free use of -the roller. This object is much facilitated by scattering dry straw over the surface, which affords shade, increases the deposit of dew, and prolongs its effects. Whenever the period of clover-producing is at- tained, the improvement of the soil may be pushed, with a rapidity commensurate with the inclination and means of the owner. Harvesting Clover Seed. — After taking off one crop, or pasturing the field till June, or to such time as experience shows to be the most proper, the clover should be kept un- molested, to mature a full crop of seed. Early mowing re- moves the first weeds, and the second growth of the clover is so rapid, as to smother them and prevent their seeding, and the clover is thus saved comparatively clean. It is then mown and raked into very small cocks, and when dried at the top, they are turned completely over without breaking ; and as soon as well dried, they may be carried to the threshing floor, and the seeds beaten out with sticks, light flails, or with a threshing machine. An instrument with closelj^-set teeth and drawn by a horse, is sometimes used for collecting the clover heads from the standing stalks, from which the seed is afterwards sepa- rated. If wanted for use on the farm, these heads are some- times sown without threshing. The calyx of the clovers is so firmly attached to the seed, as to be removed with difh culty ; but if thrown into a heap after threshing, and gently pressed together, a slight fermentation takes place, and the seed is afterwards readily cleaned. A fan or clover machine may be used for cleaning the seed for market. The pro- duce is from three to six bushels per acre, which is worth to the farmer, from $3 to $5 per bushel, of 60 pounds. 6 122 AMERICAN AGH.ICULT.-RE. Southern Clover (T. fnedium) is a smaller specieii tluii the T. pratense, and matures ten or fourteen days earlier. The soil best suited to it, is nearly similar to that required by the northern clover ; but it succeeds much better on a light, thin soil than the latter, and it should be sown thicker. Strong clay or rich, loamy soils will produce much heavier crops of the larger kind. Experience alone will determme which of these kinds should be adopted, under all the cir- cumstances of soil and fertility, and the uses for which ii is designed. White Creeping Clover ( T. repens, Fig. 27). — There are several varieties of white clover, all of Avhich a;e hardy, nutritious and self-propagating. Wherever they have once been, the ground becomes filled ^vith the seed, which spring up whenever an opportunity is afforded them for growth. They are pecu- liarly partial to clay lands having a rich vegetable mold on the surface ; and the addition of gypsum, Avill at all times give them great luxuriance. Their dwarf character renders them unfit for the scythe, while the dense- ly-matted mass of sweet, rich food, ^'°- 27. ever growing and ever abundant, makes them most valuable for pasture herbage. The Yellow Clover, Hop Trefoil or Shamrock ( T. procumbens), like the white, is of spontaneous growth, very hardy and prolific. It bears a yellow flower and black seeds. It is one of those unostentatious plants, which though never so^vn and little heeded, help to make up that useful variety, w^hich gives so much value and permanence to our best pasture lands. Another variety of the yellow clover grows to the heigh', of 24 to 30 inches, in most of the States, and bears a pro- fusion of flowers and seeds. This is a good forage for sheep, and an excellent fertilizer for the land, but is not mucli relished by cattle or horses. Many other of the minute Clovers and LEauMiNos.E, THE Wild Pea, and other species of this family, abomid in our untilled lands, and add greatly to the nutr tive character of the forage, although their merits and even their existence are scarcely known. THE GRASSES, MEADJWS, ETC. 123 Cetmson or, Scarlet Clover (T. i?icarnat'irii, tig. 28) is a native of Italy, and mucl. cul- tivated in France. It bears a long head, of bright scarlet flowers, and in southern Europe is a profitable crop. Although it was introduced into this country many years since, it has not hitherto commended itself to particular attention as an object of agriculture. LucERN (Medicago sativa, Fig. 29) is 'one of the most productive plants for forage, ever grown. It was extensively cultivated by the Greeks, and other nations of antiqui- ty ; and it has been a prominent object of attention in Italy, Spain, France, Holland and Flanders. Its relative value as compared with clover ( T. pratense), is decidedly inferior, while its abso- lute value per acre, is much greater. It was early introduced into this country. Chancellor Livingston published his experiments with it from 1791 to '91, by which he esti- mates that he cut in one season, at the rate of 6| tons per acre, in five cuttings, yielding a profit of ovef §.35 an acre. It bears three or foui crops per annum, containing from three to eight tons of hay. Those who have cultivated it, pronounce Flo. 59. it hardy, and as npable of successful growth in this country as clover ; but tu reach the highest product, it requires a richness of soil and carefulness of culti- vation, which would give an enormous produce to its more humble rival. Manner of Cultivation. — It must have a deep, dry, loamy soil, free from weeds, and Avell filled with manure. A suita- ble crop to precede it is corn or potatoes, heavily manured and kept clean. Tlien plow in the fall, and add 40 bushels crushed bones per acre ; and early in April, harrow tho- roughly, and sow in dril»ls, from one to two and a half feet apart, at the rate of eight to ten pounds of seed per acre. Stir the ground and extirpate the weeds with the ?ultivatoi 124 AMli:RIC;.N A<5RICULilJEE. and hoe, carefully pulling out by hand any that may l« found in the drills. It may be lightly cropped the first year, and more freely the second, but it does not attain full maturi- ty till the third. The roots strike deep into the ground, and being a perennial, it requires no renewal except from the loss of the plants by casualties. It should be cut before growing too large, and cured like clover. Liquid manure is good for it, as are also gypsum and ashes. Barn-yard manure is occasionally necessary ; but to avoid weeds, it must be thoroughly fermented to destroy the seeds. It is sometimes sown broadcast, but the rapid progress of weeds and grass in the soil, "will soon extirpate it if they are suffered to aroAv ; and there is no means of effectually eradi- cating them but by cultivating the iucern in drills, and the hoe and cultivator can then Iceep the weeds in subjection. It is one of the most desirable plants for soiling. From the care and attention required, the cultivation of Iucern is properly limited to an advanced state of agriculture and a dense population, wiiere labor is cheap and products high. In the neighborhood of large cities, it may be advantageously grown and in all places where soiling is practiced. San-Foin {Hedysarum onohrycliis. Fig. 30), the esparcette of the French, is a native of the chalk soils of Europe, and is best adapted to strong calcareous lands. On such, it is a profitable herbage, as the roots penetrate to a great depth, and yield large burdens of nutritious fodder. It will also grow successfully in deep garden molds. Though often at- teiupted, we are not aware that it has been raised to any extent in this coun- try. Bokhara or Sweet-scented Clo- ver [Melilotus major) is a tall, shrub- like plan', growing to the height of 1''%. four to six feet with branches, whose Fig. 30. extremities bear uumerous smo'l white flowers of great fragrance. When full grown, it is too coarse for forage, but if thick and cut young, it yields a pro- fusion of green or winter fodder. It should be sown in the spring, with about two pounds of seed per acre, i i drills 16 to 20 inches apart. It must be kept clear of weeds and cul- tivated like Iucern It requires a rich, mellow, loamy soil THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. 12a Spitrry {Spergnla arvensis. Fig. 31) might probably be introduced into American husbandry for forage, Avith decided advantage. It is a hardy plant, and grows spon- taneously in the rnddle States. Its chief merit consists, in its growing on soils too thin to bear clover. On such, it can be judiciously used to bring them up to the clover-bearing point, from which they can be taken, and carried forward much more rapidly by the clovers. Van Voght says, " it is better than red or white Fig. 31. clover ; the cows give more and bet- ter milk when fed on it, and it improves the land in an ex- traordinary degree. If the land is to lie several years in pasture, white clover must be sown with it. When sown in the middle of April, it is ripe for pasture by the end of .May. If eaten off in June, the land is turned flat and ano- ther crop is sown, which affords fine pasture in August and September. This operation is equivalent to a dressing of ten loads of manure per acre. The blessing of spurry, the clover of sandy lands, is incredible when rightly em.ployed." Three crops can be gro\vn upon land in one season, Avhich, if turned in or fed on the ground, can be made a means of rapid improvement to the soil. PASTURES. It is too often the case, that pastures are neglected, and like woodlands, are allowed to run to such vegetation as un- assisted nature may dictate. As a necessary consequence, their forage is frequently meagre and coarse, and incapable, either in quantity or quality, of supporting half the number of cattle in a poor condition, that might otherwise be full- fed from the same surface. But if "we consider, that pastures furnish most of the domestic stock with their only food, for seven months of the year at the North, and generally for nine or ten months at the South, they may well be deemed worthy the particular attention of the farmer. Pastures ought to be properly divided, and it is a diffi- cult point to determine between the comparative advantages of small ranges, and the expense and inconvenience of keep- ing up numerous divisions. The latter require a large out lay on every farm, not only for the first cost of :viftexials and 126 AMERICAN AGRICTTLTTTRE. the ajinual repairs, but from the loss of land occupied by them ; and they are further objectionable from their harbor- ing weeds and vermin. Yet it is beneficial to give animals a change of feed ; and the grass comes up evenly and grows iindisturbed. if the cattle be removed for a while. There is a iuri-her advantage, in being able to favor some particular individuals oi .'.asses of animals. Thus, fattening stock ought to have the best feed ; milch cows and working ani- mals the next ; then young stock ; while sheep will thrive on shorter feed than either, and greedily consume most plants which the others reject. By this means, a field will be thoroughly cleansed of all plants ^vhich animals will eat, and the remainder should be extirpated. The same care ought to be taken to prevent the propagation of weeds in pas- tures as in other fields. Many of these, mullen, thistles and the like, multiply prodigiously from sufferance, and if un- checked, will soon overspread the farm. Every pasture, if possible, should be provided with run- ning water and shade trees, or other ample protection against a summer's sun. The last can at all times be secured by a few boards, supported on a light, temporary frame. Exces- sive heat exhausts, and sometimes sickens animals ; conse- quently, it materially diminishes the effects of food in promo- ting the secretion of milk, and the growth of wool and flesh. All grounds immediately after long rains, whether in early spring or late autumn, and especially, after the winter's frosts have just left them, are much injured by the poaching of cattle, if allowed to run upon them. Clay lands and those which have been recently seeded, are peculiarly susceptible of injury from this cause ; and from such fields and at such times, every animal should be rigidly excluded. On late and off early, is a good rule to be adopted for spring and fall pasturing. Wherever the grasses disapjiear, fresh seeds should be added and harrowed in ; mosses must be destroyed ; they should be properly drained, and every attention paid to them that is bestowed on the mowing lands, except that they sel- dom reqixire manures. But ashes, gypsum, lime and bone dust may sometimes be applied to them with great profit. Pastures should take their course in rotation, when they get bare of good herbaae or full of weeds, and it is possible to break them up advantageously. Though many choice, natural forage plants may thus be destroyed, yet if again turned into grass at the ps')per period, and they are sown GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 127 with a plentiful stock of assorted grass seeds, on a rich and well-prepared surface, they will soon place themselves in a productive state. CHAPTER VII. GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. WHEAT (Triticnm). Fie. 32. Fig. 3S. Fig. 34. Spring Ba.ld AVheat. Winter B&ld Whc.w Wi>-rER Bearded Wheat. This is one of the most important and most generally cultivated of the cereal grains (or gra?.?es as they are bo- tanieally termed), thou2:h both rice and maize or Indian corn, contribute to the support of a larger population. It is found in every latitude, excepting tho.~e which approach too "learly to the poj'esor equator ; but it can be profitably raised, 128 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. only within such as are strictly denominated temperate Linnseus describes but six varieties, yet later botanists enu merate about thirty, whi'** of the sub-varieties, there aie several hundred. The only division necessary for our present purpose, is of the winter wheat [Triticuni hyber7iicm), and spring or summer wheat ( T. cBStivum). The former requires the ac- tion of frost to bring it ^o full maturity, and is sown in au- tumn. Germination befv^re exposure to frost, does not, how- ever, seem absolutely essential to its success, as fine crops have been raised from seed sown early in the spring, after having been saturated with w^ater and frozen for some weeks. It has also been successfully raised, when sowed early in the season, v/hile the frost yet occupied the ground. Spring and winter wheat may be changed from one to the other, by sowing at the proper time through successive sea- sons, and without material injury to their character. The latter grain is by far the most productive ; the straw is stouter ; the head more erect and full ; the grain plumper and heavi- er, and the price it bears in market, from eight to fifteen per cent, higher than that of spring wheat. This difi'erence of price depends rather on the appearance of the flour and its greater whiteness, than on any intrinsic deficiency in its substantial qualities. The analysis of Davy gave in 100 parts of CJluten, Spring wheat of 1801, 24 Best Sicilian winter wheat, 21 Good English winter wheat of 1803, 19 Blighted wheat of 1804, 13 The above analysis gives the greatest nutritive value to the spring v/heat, as the gluten (animalized matter) cons i- tutes the most important element in flour. It will also le noti jed, that the Sicilian yields about two per cent, more gluten than the English, which enables the flour to absorb and retain a much larger proportion of water when made into bread. This is what is termed by the bakers, strength ; and when gluten is present in large proportions, other qual- ities being equal, it adds materially to the value of flour. American Avheat also contains more gluten than English, and that from the southern States, still more than that from the northern. An eminent baker of London .'■ays, American flour will absorb f: Dm eight to fourteen per cent, more of it* Insoluble starch, , matter. 70 6 74 5 77 4 53 34 GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION, 129 owr. weight of water, when manufactured into bread or bis- cuit, than their own ; and another reUable authority asserts, that wliile 14 lbs. of American flour will make 21 5 lbs of bread, the same quantity of English flour will make only 18i lbs. As a general rule, the drier or hotter the climate in which the grain is raised, the greater is the evaporation, and the more condensed is the farina of the grain, and consequently the more moisture it is capable of absorbing when again ex- posed to it. Certain varieties of wheat possess this quality in a higher degree than others. Some manures and some soils also give a diff'erence with the same seed ; but for or- dinary consumption, the market value (which is the great consideration with the farmer), is highest for such wheat as gives the largest quantity of bright flour, with a due pro- portion of gluten. Other prominent differences exist among the leading cultivated varieties of wheat, such as the bearded and bald or beardless ; the white and red chaff; those hav- ing large and strong stalks ; or a greater or a less tendency to tiller or to send out new shoots. There is great room for selection in the several varieties, to adapt them to the differ- ent soils, situations, and climate for which they are desifrned. P reparation of t}tela7id for soioing. Wheat is partial to a well-prepared clay or heavy loam, and this is improved, when it contains either naturally or artificially, a large pro- portion of lime. Many light, and all marly or calcareous soils, if in proper condition, will give a good yield of wheat. Lime is an important aid to the full and certain growth of wheat, checking its exuberance of straw and liability to rust, and steadily aiding to fill out the grain. A rich, mel- low turf or clover ley is a good bed for it ; or land which has been well manured and cleanly cultivated in roots or corn the preceding year. Fresh barn-yard manure applied directly to the wheat crop, is objectionable, not only from its containing many foreign seeds, but from its tendency to excite a rapid growth of weak straw, thus causing the grain both to lodge and rust. The same objection lies against sowing it on rich, alluvial or veo-e- lable soils ; and in each, the addition of lime or ashes, or both, will correct these evils. A dressing; of charcoal, ha^in many instances been found an adequate preventive ; anu so beneficial has it proved in France, that it has been extensive- ly introduced there for the wheat crop. A successful exam- ple of uninterrupted cropping with wheat, through severaJ 6* i3C AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. years, has li een furnished by a Maryland farmer, who used fresh barn -yard manure, with lime. But this is an exception, not a rule ; and it will be found that profitable cultivation requires, that wheat should take its place in a judicious ro- tation. The great proportion of silica in the straw of cereal grains, (amounting in wheat, barley, oats and rye, to about four fifths of the total of ash from the grain and straw), shows the necessity of having ample provision made for it in the soil, and in a form susceptible of ready assimilation by the plant. This is afforded by ashes, and from the action of lime upon the soil. Depth of Soil is indispensable to large Crops. — The wheat plant has two sets of roots, the first springing from the seed and penetrating downwards, while the second push themselves laterally, near the surface of the ground, from the first joint. They are thus enabled to extract their food from every part of the soil, and the product \vill be found to be in the ratio of its extent and fertility. Under-draining ana sub-soil plowing contribute greatly to the increase of crops, and it is essential that all surface water be entirely removed. Wheat, on heavy clay lands, is peculiarly liable to winter kill, unless they are \vell-drained. This is owing to suc- cessive freezing and thawing, by ■which the roots are broken or thrown out. When this is done to a degree that will materially diminish the crop, the naked spots may be sown with spring wheat. Any considerable portion of the latter, will lessen the value for sale, but it is equally good for do- mestic use. The land should be duly prepared for the recep- tion of the seed, by early and thorough plowing, and harrow- ing, if necessary. Selection and preparation of Seed. — Many persons se- lect their seed by casting, or throwing the grain to some distance on the floor, using only such as reaches the farthest. This is a summary way of selecting the heaviest, plumpest grain, which if Sprengel's theory be correct, is attended with no advantage, beyond that of separating it from the lighter Beeds of chess or weeds. It is certain, that the utmost care should be taken in removing everything from it but pure wheat, and this should be exclusively of the kind re- quired. When wheat is not thoroughly clea:, ""d by casting, a si^fe or riddle may be used ; or it should eve,, be picked over by hand, rather than sow anything but the pure seed. Previous to sowing, a strong brine ought to be made of salt and water, and in this the grain is to be wrshed foT GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 131 five minuter, taking care to skim off all liglit ar.d foreign seeds. If the grain be smutty, tlis washing should be re- peated in another clean brine, when it may be taken out and intimately mixed with one twelfth its bulk of fresh pulverized quick-Hnie. This kills all smut, cleans out weeds from the grain, and insures early and rapid growth When the seed is not smutty, it may be prepared by soak- ing or sprinkling with stale urine, and afterwards mixed with the lime ; and if well done, this also will prevent smut, though the first is most certain. (See varieties of seed fol- lowing, for further directions.) Quantity of Seed and time of sowing. — On well pul- verized, ordinary wheat soils, about live pecks of seed are sown to the acre, while rough laud, clay soils and such as are very fertile, require from six to eight. In Maryland, but three pecks are frequently sown, and some of the best crops have been raised from only two pecks of seed to the acre, on a finely-pulverized soil. It takes more seed when full and plump than wheii shrunken, as there may be nearly two of the latter to one of the former, in the same measure. A dif- ference is to be observed according to the wheat, some need- ing more than others. A large quantity of seed, produces an earlier groAVth of light stra^v and head, but does not usually increase the aggregate crop. There is always a tendency in wheat and most of the cereal grasses, to tiller or send out new shoots for future stalks. This is a law of these plants, which comijels them to make the greatest effort to cover the whole ground ; and sometimes a single seed will throw out more than 100 stalks. In early sowing, the wheat tillers in the autumn; in late sowing this is done in part only, till the ensuing spring. Thick sowing, is a substitute for tiller- ing, to the extent that would other wise be induced, and is equi- valent to an earlier sowing of a smaller quantity. The time for sowing in the northern States, is from the 10th to 20th September. If sown earlier, it is liable to attack from the Hessian fly, and if later, it does not have time to root as well ; and is in more danger of being thrown out by the frosts or oi winter killing. Late sowing is also more subject to rust the following season, from its later ripening. Sowing. — When the ground has been well mellowed, the seed may be sown broadcast and thoroughly harrowed in Rolling is a good practice, as it presses the earth closely up on the seed and facilitates germination ; and as soon as the seed is covereC, the water furrows should be cleaned out. i32 AMERICAN AGKltULTUKE. and again late in autumn, and early in the following spnnir In northern Europe, it has been found a preventive against winter killing on strong clays, to sow the wheat in the bot- tom of each furrow, six inches deep, and cover it with tiie succeeding one. The wheat thus planted, comes up as soon as on the fields sown broad-cast and harrowed, grows more vigorously, withstands the winters and produces large crop*. Plowing in wheat with a light furrow, is perhaps, under any circumstances, better than harrowing, as the wheat is there- by all buried, and at a more suitable depth than can be done by the harroAV. The roughness of the furrows when lefr without harrowing, is advantageous in heavy or clay lands, and only injurious in light qr sandy. After Culture. — Harrowing in the spring, adds to the growth of the crop, by loosening the soil; and the loss of the few plants thus destroyed, is much more than compensa- ted by the rapid tillering and vigor of those \vhich remain. Sowing in drills and hoeing between them, is much prac- ticed in Europe. The additional amount thus frequently raised, would seem to justify the adoption of this mode of cultivation in this country; and it should at least be done, so far as to give it a fair trial. On light soils, rolling the Avheat both in fall and spring, is highly advantageous. When the growth is luxuriant, decided benefit has attended feeding oif the wheat on the field in the fall or spring, tak- ing care to permit the animals to go on, only when the ground is firm. Enemies of Wheat. — These are numerous. It is subject to the attack of the Hessian fly, if sown too early in the fall, and again the ensuinir spring, there being two annual swarms of the fly, early in ]May and September. When thus invaded, harrowing or rolling, by which the maggots or flies are displaced or driven off, is the only remedy of much avail. Occasionally, other flies, and sometimes wheat worms commit great depredation. There is no effectual remedy Icnown against any of these marauders, beyond roll- ing, brushing and harrowing. Dtisting the grain with lime, ashes and soot, have been frequently tried, as have also the sprinkling them with urine, dilute acids and other liquids oi steeps. Fumigating them in the evening, when the sinoke creeps along through the standing grain, has been often t "ied, but without decided success. For this last purpose, a sn; ■>ul- dering heap of damp brush, weeds or chips, is placed on the v.'indward side of he fiel ! ; and its efficacy may be increasejJ GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 133 by the addit'on of brimstone. Whenever obnoxious to these attacks, the only safety is, to place the crop in the best con- dition \ D withstand them, by hastening its growth, and by the propagation of the most hardy varieties. An application of nnleached ashes in damp Aveather, will sometimes dimin- ish the ravages of worms at the root. Quick-lime has the same effect on all insects with which it comes in contact ; but it should be carefully applied to avoid injury to the plants. Smut is a dark brown or blackish, parasitic fungus, which grows upon the head and destroys the grain. The only remedy fur this, is washing the seed in two or three succes- sive strong brines, and intimately mixing and coating it with quick-lime before sowing. Rust atfects the straw of wheat while the grain is form- ing, and before it is fully matured. It is almost always present in the field, but is not extensively injurious except in close, showery and hot (muggy) weather. The straw then bursts from the exuberance of the sap, which is seen to exude, and a crust or iron-colored rust is formed in longitu- dinal ridges on the stalk. It is generally conceded, that this rust is a fungus or minute parasitic plant Avhich subsists on the sap ; but whether it be the cause or consequence of this exudation is not fully determined. There is no remedy for this when it appears, and the only mitigation of its ef- fects, is to cut and harvest the grain at once. The straw in this case will be saved, and frequently, a tolerable crop of grain, which partially matures after cutting ; w^hile if suffer- ed to stand, both straw and grain will be almost totally lost. The only i^reventives experience has hitherto found, are the selection of hardy varieties of grain, which partially resist the effects of rust ; sowing on elevated lands where the air has a free circulation ; the abundant use of saline manures, salt, lime, gypsum, and charcoal; the absence of recent animal manures ; and early sowing, Avhich matures the plant before the disease commences its attack. Harvesting. — The grain should be cut immediately after the lowest part of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is yet in the dough state, and easily compressible between the thumb and linger. Hepeated experiments have demon- strated, that wheat cut at this time, will yield more in meas- ure, of heavier Aveight, and a larger quantity of sweet, white flour. If early cut, a longer time is required for curing bp fore storing or threshi'\gr. 134 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. Threshing is usualh' done among extens.ve farmers, with some one of tlie large machines taken into the field, and driven by horse power. The vise of these enables the farmer to raise some of the choicest kinds of grain, whose propaga- tion before their introduction was limited from the great difiicuLy of separating the grain from the head. He can also push his wheat into market at once, if the price is high, \vhich is frequently the case immediately after harvest ; and he saves all expense and trouble of moving, storing, loss from shelling and vermin, interest and insurance. For the moderate farmer, a small single or double horse machine, or hand threshing in whiter, where there is leisure for it, is more economical than the six or eight horse-thresher. Mowing or Stacking. — When stored in the straw, the grain should be so placed as to prevent b*^^<^'ng or mouldin*^. Fig. 35. Fig. 36. Unless very drj% when carried into the barn, this can only be avoided by laying it on scaffolds, ^vhere there is a free circulation of air around and partially through it. If placed in a stack, it should be well elevated from the ground ; and if the stack be large, a chimney of lattice or open ^vork should be left from the bottom, extending through the centre to the top ; or a large bundle may be kept at the surface in the middle, and drawn upwards as the slack rises, thus leav ing an opening for circulation, entirely through the centre of the grain. Additional security would be aftbrded bysimilai GRAIN AND ITS .'TJLTIVATION. 136 openings at suitable intervals, in a horizontal direction. Mice and rats may be avoided, by laying the foundation of the stack on posts or stones, elevated leyond their reach, and covered at the top with projecting caps. Weevils sometime-s affect the grain after storing. These may be almost if net wholly prevented, by thorough cleanliness of the premises where the grain is stored. The cut on the preceding page, Fig. 35, shows a frame for stacking, combining the advantages of circulation through the centre, and an elevation which secures the grain from the depredations of vermin. Fig. 36, shows a stack com- plete, which is better made and more neatly finished than i<^ too often done in this country. It is an important item of husbandry, so to stack grain as to avoid loss from the ad- mission of rain. No inconsiderable share of the stack, is thus frequently destroyed. The straw and chajf of wheat should never be wasted. This is the most nutritious of the cereal straws. It yields good fodder to cattle in time of scarcity, and is always good for this object, Avhen cut and mixed Avith meal or roots ; and particularly, when early harvested and well cured. Turneps and straw are the only food of half the cattle, and most of the sheep, throughout Great Britain, and no where do they thrive more rapidly, or better remunerate their own- ers, than in that country. It is of great use also, as bedding for cattle and as an absorbent of animal and liquid manures. It furnishes in itself the best manure for succeding grain crops ; containing large proportions of the salts or ash required. When threshed on the field and not wanted for cattle, it should be scattered over the ground, and either plowed in or suffered to decay on the surface. VARIETIES OF SEED. Much depends on the judicious selection of seed. Some ioils are peculiarly adapted to wheat growing, and on these should be sown tiie finest varieties, which are generally of a more delicate character. Wheat on other soils is liable to many casualties, and on such, only the hardier kinds should be propagated. Careful and repeated trials with different varieties of seeds, on each field or on those which are simi- lar, will alone determine their adaptation to the soil. There are several choice varieties of winter wheat in cultivation in the United States, some of which stand higher in one, and some in another se-ition Some in high repute abr^d 136 AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST. have been introduced into this country, and proved to be valuable acquisitions ; while others have been found decided- ly inferior to many of the long adopted varieties. Experi- ment alone Avill enable the farmer to decide as to their value for his OAvn grounds, however high they may stand else- where. When of a fine quality, and found to produce well on any given soils, their place should not be usurped by others, till repeated trials have shown their superiority, either in yield or character. But when the acclimated grain is infe- rior, other seed from remote distances, even if no better in quality, may properly be substituted for it, as a decided benefit has been found to follow a change. Wheat and nearly all seeds are found to be more produc tive, when taken from a soil inferior to the one intended for sowing ; and it is claimed that such as havo been produced, either in a warmer or colder climate, will ma :ure earlier. It is not essential that the fullest, heaviest grain be sown. Sprengel affirms, that seed somewhat shrunken, is more cer« tain to give a good yield thau the choicest seed ; and numer- ous trials would seem to favor this conclusion. The grain designed for seed should be well ripened before harvesting. From the ever-varying character of the different kinds of seed, their superiority at one time and on one locality, and their inferiority at other times and in other situations, it seems almost superfluous to give a particular enumeration of the present most popular kinds. A brief mention of such only, as stand high in public favor in this country, with some of their most striking peculiarities, is all that our limits will admit. The Improved Flint is extensively cultivated in the fine wheat-growing country of western New York, where it was introduced in 1822. It is hardy, and withstands the winters remarkably well. A striking improvement in the strength of its straw has been observed, which at first in- clined to lodge, but it is now erect and firm till fully ripened. The heads are also fuller and longer than when first intro- duced ; thdM^erry is plump and Avhite, yielding a large pro- oortion of choice flour ; and it is retained in the head with greater tenacity, Avhich is a decided advantage in harvest- ing, ■w^here threshing machines are substituted for the flail. The Old Genesee Red Chaff is a bald, white wheat, first cultivated in the same region, in 1798 ; and for a long time it was the decided favorite. Since 1820, however, it has been ver^ubject to ru^ t and blast ; but when circumstances arp GRAIN AND ITS 3ULTIVATION. 137 lavorable, it is still found to be highly productive. In other localities, its cultivation may be attended with the most satis, factory success. The White May of Virgi?iia was a choice variety, and extensively raised in the neighborhood of the Chesapeake Bay, in 1800, but is now nearly extinct there. It has been cultivated in New York for ten years, is a good bearer and very heavy, weighing frequently 66 lbs. per bushel. It ripens early, in consequence of which, it escapes rust. The Wheatland Red is a new variety, discovered and propagated by Gen. Harmon, of Monroe Co., N. Y., by whom it Is held in high estimation. It produces well and ripens early. The Ke7itticky White- Bearded, Hutchinson or Canor- dian Flint is very popular in western New York, where it has been rapidly disseminated since its first introduction, some twelve or fifteen years since. It is hardy, a good yielder, with a short, plump berry, weighing 64 lbs. per bushel. It requires thicker sowing (about 25 per cent, more seed) than the improved flint, as it does not tiller as well, and unlike that, it shells easily, wasting much unless cut quite early. The English Velvet Beard or Crate Wheat has a coarse straw, large heads, a good berry of a reddish hue, and is well suited to the rich, alluvial, bottom lands, where its firm straw prevents its lodging. It is a fair yielder and tolerably hardy; but its long beard is a great objection to its introduction on such lands as are suited to the finer kinds. The Yorkshire or E7iglish Flint or Soules Wheat has been recently introduced, and is similar in its leading features to the old Genesee. The White Provence is a new and favorite variety, but its slender stalk frequently subjects it to lodging. It is only suited to the finest calcareous wheat soils. The Blue Stent has been raised with great success in Pennsylvania, where it resisted smut and rust when all other kinds in the vicmity, ^vere affected by it. The Mediterranean is a coarse wheat with a thick skin, yielding a dark floiu:. It resists rust and the fly, is a good bearer, and may be profitably grown where other choice kinds fail. The Egyptian, Smyrna, B,eed, Many-Spiked, or Wild Goose Wheat is also a hardy variety, with t thick straw, which prevents its lodging. 133 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. PRODUCTION or NEW VARIETIES OE WHEAT. Besides introducing valuable kinds from abroad, and the improvement of such as we now have by careful cultivation, neAv varieties may be secured by hybridizing or crossing. This is done by impregnating the female organs of the floAvers on one plant, by the pollen from the male organ of another. The progeny sometimes differs materially from both parents, and occasionally partakes of the leading qualities of each. Among those thus produced, some may be found of peculiar excellence, and worthy of supplanting others, whose value is declining. The effect of this crossing, is striking in the ear of corn, where the red and white, the blue and yellow ker- nels are seen to blend in singular confusion over the whole ear, each differing, too, in size, shape and general qualities. Observation will sometimes detect a new variety of wheat in the field, self-hybridized, the result of an accidental cross. If this has superior merit, it should be carefully secured and planted in a bed by itself for future seed. Propagation may be extended with incredible rapidity by dividing the plant. The English Philosophical Trans- actions ffive the result of a trial, made bv plantina; a single grain on the 2d of June. On the 8th of August, it was taken up and separated into 18 parts, and each planted by itself. These were subdivided and planted, between 15th of Sep- tember and 1.5th of October, and again the following spring. From this careful attention, in a fertile soil, 500 plants were obtained, some containing 100 stalks bearing heads of a large size ; and the total produce within the year, was 386,840 grains from the single one planted. SPRING WHEAT. This requires a soil similar to that of winter grain, but it should be of a quick and kindly character, as the grain has a much shorter time to mature. The ground must be well pulverized and fertile. The best crops are raised on land that has been plowed in the fall, and sown ^vithout addi- tional plowing, taking care to harrow in thoroughly. When planted early, the Avheat rarely suffers from the fly, as it at- tains a size and vigor that Avithstands any injury from the fly when it appears. In certain locaUties, where the fly abounds and the M'heat has not been early sown, it is found necessary to keep back the young plants, till the disappear- ance of the fly. Large crops have been obtained under fa- vorable circumstances, wlier sowi'. a? late as the 20th May. ORAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 139 VAEIETIES. The Black Sea Wheat is oue of the most popular kind'- at present cultivated. Of this there are two varieties, the red and the white chaff, both of which are bearded. The former is generally preferred. This wheat has yielded very profitable crops. The flour from this, like that from the Mediterranean wheat, is of a dark color. The Siberian is an excellent wheat, and has been much raised in this country. It produces a full, fine grain, is hardy and a good bearer. The Italian has also been extensively cultivated, and held in high estimation ; but it is now generally giving place to the preceding, where both have been tried. There are some other varieties which bear well and are tolerably hardy. Excellent spring grahi has been produced, by early sowing from choice winter Avheat, which has re- tained most of the characteristics of the original, under its new summer culture. In large sections of this country, wheat has been seriously injured by winter-killing and other casualties ; and wherever tliese prevail, and the soil is suited to it, .spring or summer wheat may be advantageously intro- duced. A proper attention to the selection of seed and the preparation of the soil, will generally insure a profitable re- turn. If the market value of this wheat is not as high as the winter grain, it may at least afford all that the farmei and his laborers require as food ; and he will generally find, if not in a wheat-growing region, that he can dispose of his surplus crop among his neighbors before the next harvest comes round, and at satisfactory prices. RYE (Secale seroale). This is extensively cultivated in the northeastern and middle Atlantic States. It is grown on the light lands of Ohio and Michigan, and as the supporting elements of wheat become exhausted in the soil of the rich agricultural States of the West, rye will take its place in a great measure on their lighter soils. Most of the eastern States produced wheat when first subjected to culti\'ation ; but where lime did not exist in the soil, the Avheat crop soon failed, and it gradually receded from the Atlantic border, except in marly or calcareous soils, rye almost universally succeeding it. But the liberal use of lime, connected with an intelligent ap- plication of the agricultural impi-ovements of the present day, are regaining for wheat, much of its ancient territory. Rye resembles wheat in its bread-making properties, and 140 AMERICAN AGRICULTCRE. for this purpose it is only second to wheat, in those countries where it is cultivated. There is a peculiar aroma connected with the husk of the iirain, which is not found in the finely- bolted flour. The grain Avhen ground and unbolted, is much used in the New England States, for mixing into loaves wiih scalded Indian meal ; it is then baked for a long time, and is known as rye-and-Indian or hroicn bread. This possesses a sweetness and flavor peculiar to itself, which is doubtless owing in no small degree, to the quality above mentioned. Von Thaer says " this substance appears »o facilitate diges- tion, and has a singularly strengthening, refreshing and beneficial effect on the animal frame." E-ye is more hardy than wheat, and is a substitute for it on those soils which will not grow the latter grain with certainty and profit. Soil and C ultivation. — Neither strong clay nor calcareous iands are well suited to it. A rich sandy ioam is the natural soil for rye, though it grows freely on light sands and gravels, which refuse to produce either wheat, barley, or oats. Loamy soils that are too rich for Avheat, and on which it almost invariably lodges, will frequently raise an excellent crop of rye, its stronger stem enabling it to sustain itse ' under the luxuriant growth. The preparation of the Soil for Rye, is similar to tha for "vvheat; and it may be advantageously sown upon a rich old turf or clover ley, or after corn or roots where the land has been well manured, and thoroughly cleansed from weeds. There is not an equal necessity for using a brine- steep for rye as for wheat, yet if allowed to remain a iew hours in a weak solution of saltpetre or some of the other salts, it promotes speedy germination and subsequent growth. C ultivation. — There is but one species of rye ; but to this cultivation has given two loading varieties, the spring and winter. Like wheal, they are easily transformed into each other, by sowing the winter continually later through suc- cessive generations, to change it into spring rye, and the opposite course will ensure its re-conversion into winter grain. The last should be sown from the 20th of August to the 20th of September, the earliest requiring less seed, as it has a longer time to tiller and fill up the ground. Five pecks is the usual quantity sown, but it varies from one to two bushels according to the quality of the soil, the richest lands demanding most. It is a practice among many farmers, to sow rye on light lands, among their standing corn, hoeing it in, and leaving GRAIN AND ITS CULT1\ iTION. 141 the grovrnd as level as possible. On such lands, this is attended with several advantages ; as it gives the grain an early start, anc a moist, sheltered position, at a time when drought and a hot sun would check or prevent vegeta- tion. As soon as the corn is matured, it is cut up by the roots and placed in compact shocks, or removed to one side of the field, when the rye is thoroughly rolled. "When sown on a fresh plowed field, it should be harrowed in before roll- ing. Great success has attended the turning in of green crops, and following the fresh plowing with immediate sowing of the seed. This brings it forward at once. No after cultiva- tion is needed, except harrowing in the spring, and again roll- ing, if the land is light, both of which are beneficial ; for though some of the stools may be thus destroyed, the w'orking of the gromid assists the remaining plants, so as to leave a great advantage in favor of the practice. A friend of the writei had occasion to plow some land in the spring, Avhich joined a field of rye belonging to a neighbor. The owner claim- ed damages for supposed injury by the team and plow, which it was agreed should be assessed, on examination after har- vesting, when it appeared that the damaged part was the best of the whole field. An honest English yeoman receiv- ed several pounds from a liberal squire, for alleged injury to his ycung grain, from the trampling of horses and hounds in a fox chase ; but at harvest, he found the crop so much benefit- ted by the operation, that he voluntarily returned the money. If the rye is luxuriant, it maybe fed both in the fall and spring. Early cutting, as in wheat, produces more weight, larger measure and whiter flour. But whatever is intended for seed, must be allowed to ripen fully on the ground. Southern Rije differs materially in its manner of groAvth. from that cultivated in the North. I believe, however, this difference arises exclusively from dissimilarity of climate , and that, like the sectional sub-varieties of corn or maize, a few years' successive growth in a peculiar latitude, Avill give to either sprnes, the same characteristics as the longer accli- mated grain. It tillers remarkably, and grows with great luxuriance during fall and a part of winter, affording excel- lent forage for cattle, sheep, and other animals When the animals are taken off the following spring, the grain runs up to seed, yielding from 10 to 15 bushels of ripened grain to the acre. I saw a beautiful field of this, late in November, adjoining the mansion of Col. Wade Hampton, of South Carolina, which was devoted to the pets of the stables and 142 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. yards ; and especially to the numerous vari eties of fowls (aquatic and others), that seemed to revel on their fresh green pastures, in the absence of other herbage. Diseases. — Rye is subject to fewer casualties than wheat. Ergot or cockspur frequently affects it. This fungus is dis- covered, not only on rye, but on other plants of the order gramince. Several of these elongated, curved and brownish spurs appear on a single head, and they are most frequent in hot, wet seasons. They are poisonous to both man and beast ; and when eaten freely, they have generated fatal epidemics in the community, and emaciation, debility, and in some cases death, to animals consuming it. The sloiaghing of the hoofs and horns of cattle, has been attributed to ergot in their grass and grain. Rust like that which affects the wheat crop, and owing probably to the same causes, attacks rye. When this happens, it should be cut and harvested without delay. Rye for Soiling is sometimes sown by those who wish forage late in autumn and early in spring. For this purpose, it should be sown at the rate of three or four bushels per acre. If on a fertile soil and not too closely pastured, it will bear a good crop of grain ; and in some cases when too rank, early feeding will strengthen the stalk and increase the grain BARLEY (Hordeum, Fig. 33). Barley is a grain of extensive cultivation and great value. Like wheat and rye, it is both a winter and spring grain, though in this coun- try, it is alruost universally sown in the spring. There are six varieties, differing in no essential points, and all originating from the same source. Loudon says, in choosing for seed, " the best is that which is free from blackness at the tail, and is of a pale, lively yellow, in- termixed with a bright, whitish cast ; and if the rind be a little shrivelled, so much the better, as it indicates thin skin. The husk of thick- rinded barley is too stiff to shrink, and will lie smooth and hollow, even when the flour is shrunk "vvithin. The necessity of a change of seed from time to time, for that grj)wn in a dif- ferent soil, is in no instance more evident than in this grain, which otherwise becomes cc arse: every successive year. But in this, as in all othei grain, the utmost care should be taken thai the ieed is full bodied." GBAIN AND ITS ULTIVATION. 143 The principal varieties are the two and six rmved; the last being preferred for hardiness and productiveness in En- rope. The first is generally cultivated in this country, from its superior fullness and freedom from smut. There are nume- rous sub-varieties, such as the Hudson's Bay, which ripens very early and bears abundantly ; the Chevalier and Provi- dence, both accidental, of which a single stalk was first dis- covered among others of the ordinary kinds, and proving su- perior and of luxuriant growth, they were widely propagated : X\ie Peruvian, EgyjJtian, 2indoih.ex?'. New varieties may be produced by crossing, as with Avheat. Soil. — Barley requires a lighter soil than will grow good wheat, and a heavier than will bear tolerable rye ; but in all cases it must be one that is well drained. A mellow rich loam, ranging between light sand O- gravel, and heavy clay is best ^nited to it. Cultivation. — It may be sown as soon as the ground is siiriiciently dry in spring, on a grass or a clover ley turned over the preceding fall ; or it may follow a well-manured and cleanly-hoed crop. If sown on a sod, it should be lightly plowed in, but not so deep as to disturb the sod, and after- tvards harrowed or rolled. The soil must always be well pul- ferized. From 1| to 2^ bushels per acre is the usual allow- ance of seed, poor and mellow soils and early sown, requiring the least. Barley ought never to follow the other white grains, nor should they succeed each other, unless upon very rich soil. No farmer can long depart from this rule, without seri- ous detriment to his soil and crops. Barnyard manures must never be api>lied directly to this grain, unless it be a lio-ht dressing of compost on indifferent soils ; or in moderate quantity after the plants have commenced growing insprino". When the plants are four or five inches high, rolling will be of service if the ground is dry and not compact. This opera- tion gives support to the roots, destroys insects multiplies seed-stalks, and increases their vigor. Destroying Weeds in Grain. — When grain is infested with cockle, wild mustard or other weeds, they should be extirpat- ed by hand before they are fairly in blossom. If neglected till sometime after this, the seed is so well matured as to ripen after pulling, and if then thrown upjn the ground, they Avill defeat the effort for their removal. When too lux- jriant, barley like rye, may be fed off for a few days, but not too closely. The Harvesting cf barley must be seasonably done 144 AMERICAN AGRICU: lURE More caution is requisite in cutting it at the propc: time, than is necessarjf to observe with any other grain ; for if cut too late, its extreme liability to shell will cause much waste, and it will shrivel, if cut before it is fully matured. It may be stacked like wheat. The uses of Barley are various and important. In Eu- rope, it forms no inconsiderable part of the food of the in- habitants. The grain yields from 80 to 86 per cent, of flour, which, however, contains but six per cent, of gluten ; seven per cent, being saccharine matter, and 79, mucilage or starch. It is inferior in n 'trimeut to ■wheat and rye, but superior to oats. In this country, it is principall}'^ used for malting and brewing, and in some cases for distilling. When ground, it is more generally appropriated to fattening swine, though sometimes used for other stock. THE OAT (Avena sativa, Fig. 34). This grain is cultivated through- out a larger range of latitude, and on a greater variety of soil than any cereal. It \v\\\ grow on rich or poor, and on dry or moist soils ; on the heaviest clays and the light- est sands ; and it will generally pay as well on rich lands as any other crop. The average yield on good soils, is from 30 to 40 bushels per acre, and on the richest, when well cultivated, it has exceeded 120 bushels. It is exposed to fewer injuries than other grain, being seldom affected by rust, smut or insects. The wire worm is most destructive to it, espe- cially when sown on fresh sod. The most effectual mode of extir- pating these and other troublesome insects, is to turn the sod over, late in the fall, iust before the severe winter frosts. They thus become p,(; 34 chilled, and incapable of seeking a safe retreat from their fatal effects. If not plowed at that time, it should be done immediately before sowing in spring, when by turning them into the bottom of the furrow, they GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 145 cannot find their way to the surface in time to injure the plant seriously, before it gets beyond the reach of their attacks. Varieties. — Of these, Loudon mentions nine as being well defined and entirely distinct, besides which there are many local or recent sub-varieties. He says, " The White or Common oat is in most general cultiva- tion in England and Scotland, and is known by its white husk and kernel. The Black oat, known by its black husk and cultivated on poor soils in the north of England and Scotland. The Red oat, known by its brownish red husk, thinner and more flexible stem and firmly-attached grains. It is early, sufi'ers little from winds, meals well, and suits windy situations and a late climate. The Poland oat, known by its thick -white husk, awnless chaff, solitary grains, short white kernel, and short stiff straw. It requires a dry warm soil, but is very prolific. The Black Poland oat is one of the best varieties ; it sometimes weighs 50 lbs. to the bushel. The Friezland or Dutch oat has plump thin-skinned white grains mostly double, and the large ones sometimes awned. It has longer straw than the Poland, but in other respects resembles it. The Potato oat has large, plump, rather thick-skinned, white grains, double and treble, with longer straw than either of the two last. It is now almost the only kind raised in the north of England and south of Scotland, and brings a higher price in London than any other variety. The Georgian oat is a large-grained, remarkably profita- ble variety and on rich soil, in good tilth, has produced more than any other variety. The Siberian or Tartarian, is by some conceded a distinct species. The grains are black or brown, thin and small, and turned mostly to one side of the panicle, and the straw is corjrse and reedy. It is little cultivated in England, but is found very suitable for poor soils and exposed situations. The Winter oat is sown at the rate of two bushels per acre in October, the plants are luxuriant and tiller well, and afibrd good winter and spring pasture for ewes and lambs, and when these are shut out, it affords an ample crop of grain in August." The Imperial oat is the heaviest raised in the United States, and by many is preferred tc all others. It is a clean, 7 i 146 AHEB.ICAN AGRICULTTJKE. bright, plump, heavy grain, yielding a large j/roportion of flour and nutritive matter. It is hardy and prolific in the northern and middle States. The Hopetown oat originated from a single stalk, first discovered in 1S24, by Mr. Sheiiff, in a field of potato oats. It is distinguished by its exceeding height, and superior pro- duce when sown on rich soUs. The Dyock oat is a recent sub-variety of the Potato oat, and it is claimed for it, that it exceeds the last in the num- ber of bushels yielded per acre, and also in the weight of the grain and the quantity of meai. The Skinless oats, greatly commended in Ireland, have been tried in this country ^vithout much success. They have shown a tendency to degenerate rapidly, the necessary eflfect of previous highly-artificial cultivation. There are many other varieties which have a partial or local popularity. From the readiness with which new kinds are produced, careful attention and observation on the part of the farmer, will enable him to detect from time to time, such as may have a decided value over others for particular localities. A superior kind was discovered in a field of com- mon oats in Oneida County, N. Y., some years since, and *tom the produce of one stool, it became \videly disseminated, and has uniformly proved both hardy and prolific. The variet}' most cultivated in the United States is the Com- mo?i Wliiteoat, which is hardv and a ffood bearer, weisrhing from 30 to 34 lbs. per bushel. The Black oat is preferred in •western New York, aud some other sections of the country. Repeated trials have been made with the Potato oat, a heavy grain, weighing from 3-5 to 45 lbs per bushel, but its merits have not hitherto proved conspicuous, enough to justify its usurpiuff the place of the older and long-tried varieties. The Egyptian oat is much cultivated south of Tennessee, and is said to be the onl)^ oat that will mature with certainty in the southern States. It is a grain of medium size, but plump and hea\y ; sound, hardy and moderately prolific. It is sown in autumn, and after yielding winter and sprng pastutage, gives from 10 to 20 bushels of ripened grain to an acre. Cultivation. — In this country, oavS are sov.ti at the rate of two to four bushels per acre, during all the spring months, and sometimes, though rarely, in June. The earliest sown are usually the heaviest and n.ost productive. They may occupy a turf, or follow any of tie well-man" xred, hoed crops. GRAIN AND n-S CULTIVATION. 1 47 as mentioned in the preceding grains. No appaitn^ advan- tage has been derived from steeps for the prevention of smut as in wheat, the impervious husk of the oat, apparently arresting the hquid, and preventing its penetration to tho kernol. Sowing salt broadcast over the land, at the rate of two to six bushels per acre, has been found of use to tho crop, both in furnishing it with a necessary manure and by kilhng insects. The seed should be well harrowed in and rolled, and no after attention is required, except to destroy the prominent weeds. Harvesting. — Oats frequently ripen unevenly, and if there is a large proportion of such as are backward, the proper time for cutting \vill be, as soon as the grain in the latest, may be rubbed out of the straw by hand. The oat is suffi- ciently matured for harvesting after it has passed the milk state, and is easily compressed between the thumb and finger. The lower part of the stalk will then have assumed a yel- low color, and ceases to draw nutriment from the soil. If cut at this time, the straw is better for fodder and other uses , the grain is fuller ; the husk lighter ; and the loss from shelling, which is frequently a great item when left too late, is avoided. Oats, when very tall, are most profitably cut with the sickle, and when lodged, Avith the scythe ; but when erect and of medium height, with the cradle, or an ap- proved reaping machine, which is by far the most speedy and economical ; and this leaves them in a suitable position for binding into sheaves. They may be stacked like wheat. The uses of oats are various, and differ materially in dif- ferent countries. In Scotland, Ireland and many other countries, oat meal is much used as human food; and for this, the Imperial oat or some one of the heavy kinds is pre- ferred, as they aflbrd a larger pre portion of meal and less of husk. Scotland draws no inconsiderable part of the support for her entire laboring population, from this meal. It is formed into small thin cakes and eaten with milk, butter or molasses, or it is mixed with Avater or milk and made into a kind of pudding, under the name of stirabout, a favorite dish, which is said to be palatable to those accustomed to it. They are but little used for human food in this country, and only by emigrants, Avho bring their early habits with them. They are prepared by kiln-drying and hulling, then grinding and bolting, when required to i'eparate the flour. The meal -s scalded before using, and mixed with about half its weight of wheat flour, when made into bread. It is sold by the apothecaries to invalids, iix whom it is valuable, from (48 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. its light, digestible character. It is also stured into water, making an excellent beverage for laborers in hot weather. The principal nse of oats in the United States, is as food for working animals, for which they are unrivalled. Oafs are sometimes used when ground for fattening cattle, sheep and swine; b.:t for this puipose.they are surpassed by corn barley, peas or boiled potatoes. They are an excellent fod der for stock sheep, and for them, are mosi economically fed in the straw. All stock will do well upon them, when har- vested early, and cut previous to feeding, in a suitable cut- ting box. Anali/sis. — Davy found in 1,000 parts of Scotch oats, 743 of soluble or nutritiv-e matter, containing 641 of mucilage or starch, 15 saccharine matter, and 87 gluten or albumen. Those of England, gave 59 of starch, six of gluten, two of saccharine matter, and 33 of husk in 100 parts. INDIAN CORN, (Zea maize). This next to the grasses, is by far the most important crop of the United States. The quantity this country is capable of raising, Avould fail to command belief, even if fairly stated. Its capacity \vill never be fully known, till a demand from abroad shall stimulate production much beyond u'hat it has ever per- manently realized heretofore. The census return for 1840, gave 387,- 000,000 bushels ; and for 1843, the estimate of the whole product of Indian corn in this country, was over 400,000,000 bushels. The effect of this immense production of a sta- ple article, is felt in every depart- ment of our agriculture ; and is conclusively shown by the Ioav pri- ces of beef, pork, mutton, human food, whiskey and high wines, to all of which, corn is made largely to contribute. Nearly all the beef and pork of the vast and fertile West, and much m the North and South is made from it. Corn seems to have been created for this western hemis- phere. It is raise.d ir. boundless luxurinnce, from the frozen ss^^=- Fig. 37. GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 149 regions of Canada, almosi lo the Straits of Magellan. It riots in the fierce blaze a'^ our cloudless western sun, and it is here that it attains the highest perfection. Its most pro- lific area on this continent, lies between 42° North, and SB'' South latitude, deducting a limited portion of the equa torial regions. Close attention in its cultivation is necessary, when receding from these limits towards the poles, on ac count of a deficiency of sun for ripening it. In such locali- ties, the smaller and earlier kinds should be planted on a warm soil, so as to mature before, the first frosts. Varieties. — There is no one of the cereal grains or grasses, which manifests itself under such multiplied forms as maize. From the little shrubby stalk that grows on the shores of Lake Superior, to the palmetto-lU f" corn of the Mexican val- leys ; and from the tiny ears ana flattened, oJosely clinging grains of the former, the brilliant rounded little pearl, or the thickly-wedged rice corn, to the magnificently elongated, swelling ear of the Kentucky, \vith its deeply-indented gourd-seed, it is developed in every grade of sub-variety. The kernels are long, round or flat, or shriveled like the sweet ; and their color is white, yellow, blue, red or striated ; yet each contains the same principles of nutriment, combined in somewhat difiereut proportions, and contributes for equal weights, nearly in the same ratio, to the support of man and the lower orders of the animal creation. The analysis of corn as given by Dr. Dana, is in 100 parts, of flesh-forming principles, (gluten and albumen) 12.60 ; fat forming, (gum, sugar, starch, oil, woody fibre,) 77.09 ; salts, 1.31 ; water 9. The yellow contains more oil or fatty mat- ter than the \vhite, and therefore yields a stronger or richer, food. This quality gives greater intensity to the peculiari- ties of flavor ; and by those not accustomed to its use, it is not relished so well as the white. This is shown by the preference given to the latter in England and Ireland, where it has been recently introduced as a staple article of food. The large proportion of oil in this grain, increases its tend- ency to rancidity, Avhen exposed to a hot and moist climate, un- less previously prepared to resist this influence by kiln-drying. Besides the kinds in general cultivation in this country, varieties have been occasionally introduced from abroad, of a character so diff"erent, as almost to entitle them to the dis- tinction of independent species. Such are the Chinese tree mm, bearing its slender ears at the extremiti.-s of several expanded branches ; th( Egyptian, witl;its iiJ^'i^jt-hke head ; 160 AMERICAN AGRICTTLTURB. the Oregon, with its separate husk or envelope fcr every dis- tinct kernel. But if we narrowly watch the vagaries of nature, ^ve shall detect deviations from the ordinary stand- ards of our domesticated varieties, ^vhich approximate so closely to the most fanciful of the exotics, that we are com- pelled to believe, that all those which have hitherto come \vithin our notice, originated from one common head ; and that the peculiarities of every description, are OAving to the difference of soil, climate and culture, and the carefully- cherished eccentricities of nature, aided by a skillful science or well practiced art. It is needless to particularize the many popular kinds of corn under successful cultivation in thiJs country. They are found to vary with almost every degree of latitude and longitude ; and there are not unfrequently, nmnerous kinds held in deservedly high estiination within a single district. From these, there will be no difficulty in selecting such as will best repay the farmer's attention. The Soil for Corn must be dry, rich and well-pulverized. Neither strong clay or poor wet lands will jield good crops of corn. Land can scarcely be too rich for it ; and the fresher and less fermented the manure a^jplied to it, unless on liffht, sandy soils, 'he better it will be for the crop. A great error is committed in raising corn, as with most of our tillage crops, from not having the soil sufficiently enriched ; though this error is diminished in the case of such as will not bear an excess of manure. Corn is a gross feeder, and necessarily ranges over a great space in search of food. It has a large amount of stalk, leaves and grain to provide for in a few weeks, and its increase vvill be commensurate with the supply of food. A clover ley or rich grass sod is an excellent preparation for corn, with the addition of manure when required. But the manure should always be scattered broadcast, plowed and well harrowed in. The roots will be certain to find it, and in consequence of its general diffusion and consequent gradual absorption by the crop, the development of the ear and grain will correspond with that of the stalk and leaves. When manured in the hill on poor soil, it comes forward rapidly, and this induces an extension of the roots and foliage, entirely disproportioned to the elements contained in the eol' ; and finding a support wholly inadequate to a corres- ponding maturity, the crop is limited to the overgrown stalks and leaves and a small proportion of grain. The Selection of Seed should be made with the utmost GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. \5\ care, not only from the best varieties, but the best seed of the particular kind desired. Some of the choicest have been brought to their present perfection, by selecting only the earliest and largest ears from the most prolific stalks. This ought always to be done before the corn is gathered in the field, where there is an opportunity for comparison. Hyhridizmg Corn, like that of other grain, is easily ac- complished, and its results are marked and frequently bene- ficial. The probable identity in origin of all the varieties, is evinced by the rapid change exhibited in the most di- verse kinds when their locality is changed. The small, early corn of the North, becomes the tall, later-maturing corn of the South, after being cultivated for two or three seasons in Louisiana ; and the Oregon, with every kernel safely encased in its separate calyx, in the climate of New York, soon exchanges this partial covering for the more com- prehensive husk. Similar changes are characteristic of every variety ever coming within our notice. Preparation of Seed. — Repeated experiments have de monstrated the great utility of steeping corn for one or two days before planting, in a solution of saltpetre. This accele- rates the growth of the plant, and is a protection against birds, squirrels and mice, and for a while it will keep ofi" worms. An effectual remedy against these depredations, is to add half a pint of boiling tar to a peck of seed, stirring the corn briskly for several minutes, as the tar is added, till every ker- nel is thinly coated with it. This supersedes the necessity of the worse tlian absurd remedy of scare-crows. The crows and other birds are of great advantage to the farmer on all his fields, as they pick up numberless insects, grubs and worms, which infest the ground and destroy, or seriously in- jure the vegetation. Instead of driving them from the corn grounds, they should be enticed there, by every proper means ; and by rendering the grain distasteful, their appe- tites are sharpened for the Avorms and insects, the less con- spicuous, but more fatal enem.ies of the grain. Planting. — Corn may be planted in hills three to five feet asimder, leaving from three to five stalks well spread in each hill, according to the kind of seed and quality of land Some plant in drills, but this is objectionable when raised for the grain, as the trouble of cultivation is greater, without increasing the yield. Thick planting gives fewer ears upon a stalk and those of less size. The time of planting at the North, ifi usually the first three weeks of May, depending I5S AMERICAN AGRICULTXTKE. much on the season, liate frosts will sometimes cut down the first leaves, without destroying the germ ; but it is al- ways best to defer planting till all apprehensions of it are removed. In the more southern States, earlier planting is desirable, and it is there put into the groiuid from February to April. To give regulari:y to the rows and facilitate after culture, the furrows for the seed should be struck out each way ^vith the utmost exactness, and twice the corn planted that is necessary to remain. It requires to be covered about two inches deep. The surplus plants can be pulled up a the second hoeing, ■u'hen all fear of injury is past. If the land is light, it should be laid flat before planting, and after this, rolled compactly. Planting machines have been recently invented for putting in this srain, which greatly diminish the labor, -while they perform the operation more perfectly. A light horse, or mule and boy can furrow and drop the seed, cover and roll, from eight to twelve acres per day ; and with entire uni- formity as to distance, depth of covering, and quantity of seed in each hill. Cultivation. — The ground may be stirred when the plants first show themselves. This is most economically done with the cultivator or light plow, and if the operation be frequent and thorough, there will be httle use for the hoe. Hilling or heaping the earth around the plants should al- ways be avoided, except with very heavy soils, or such as are liable to an excess of i. Disture ; in all other cases it should remain flat. Stirring the groimd in dry weather, is peculiar}^ beneficial to corn and all hoed crops. Some omii it then from fear of the escape of moisture, but its efi'ect is precisely the reverse, for nothing so certainly produces fria- bleuess, porosity and unevenness in the soil ; and this we have shown, under the heads of soils and draining, facili- tates the admission and escape of heat, v.'hich inevitably secures the deposit of large quantities of moisture, even in the driest and most sultry weather. Corn and other crops that were withering from excessive drought, have been at once rescued from its eifects, by a thorough use of the plow and cultivator. Well-drained, dark-colored, and rich porous fioUs will be found to sufl"er much less in drought, than others which lack these characteristics. Harves'ing. — If there be no danger of early frost, the com may be suflTered to stand till fully ripe ; though if the stalks are designed foi fodd^'-, they are better to be cut wiiei? GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION 153 the grain is well glazed, and this should be done in all cases where frost is expected. Scarcely any injury occurs either to the leaf or grain, if the corn be cut and stooked, when both would be seriously damaged from the same exposure it standmg. The stalks of corn ought never to be cut above the ear, but always near the ground, and for this obvious reason. The sap which nourishes the grain, is drawn from the earth, and passing through the stem, enters the leaf, where a change is effected, analogous to what takes place in the blood when brought to the surface of the lungs, in the ani- mal system ; but with this peculiar difference, however, that while tht blood gives out carbon and absorbs oxygen, plants, under the influence of light and heat, give out oxygen and absorb carbon. This change prepares the sap. for condensa- tion and conversion into the grain. But the leaves which thus digest the food for the grain are above it, and it is while passing downward, that the change of the sap into grain principally takes place. If the stalk be cut above the ear, nourishment is at an end. It may then become firm and dry, but it will not increase in quantity ; while if cut near the root, it not only appropriates the sap already in the plant, but it also absorbs additional matter from the atmosphere which contributes to its weight and perfection. Corn must be perfectly dried in the field, and after this husked and carried into an airy loft, or stored in latticed or open barracks. The stalks may be housed, or carefully stacked for fodder. Many of our western farmers allow both grain and stalks to stand in the field till wanted for use, when they are fed in an adjoining enclosure. This is a wasteful practice, and cu i only be justified by the very low price of grain. Where labor is not relatively too high, it is better to grind or crush the corn and cob, and cut the stalk : then mix all together, dampening and slightly salting the mixture some time before feeding it. Could a comprehen- sive machine be invented for grinding the whole mass of stalk, husk, cob and grain together, it would save much of the food, and the labor both in preparing and digesting it. When fodder is high, the stalks and leaves will repay the expense of cultivation. Freparat.ion of Corn for a distant viarket requires that the grain be not only well cured, sound and dry, but that it be properly kiln-dried. This expels tho moisture, and de. 7# 164 AMERICAN AGRICULTITRE. eiroys that vitality, which impels it to absorb dampnct%6 when- ever exposed to it, as a preliminary aid to germination ; thus carrying out that great law of reproduction, impressed by Deity on every organic structure, Avhether animal or vege- table, " whose seed is in itself." By the operation of kiln- drying, it becomes mere matter divested of vitality, and may then be carried into all climates with impunity. Corn for Soili?tg. — Corn has recently been much culti- vated for fodder, and for this p:rpose, the soil must be in high condition and well pulverized. It may be sown broadcast and harrowed in, at the rate of three or four bushels per acre. But a much better method is, to sow thickly in drills, and stir the ground Avith a light plow or cultivator. The sowing may be done early or late, though the first is most success- ful. It should be cut before the frosts touch it, and dried previous to housing. Several tons of excellent forage have been raised in this way, from a single acre. In a report to the Pedee Agricultural Society of South Carolina, it is as- serted, that 138,816 lbs. of green corn stalks have been cut from one, acre in a season, weighing when dry, 27.297 lbs. The Uses of Corn in this country are numerous. It is largely fed to fattening and working animals, but must be cautiously given to the latter, and especially in hot weather. It is extensively manufactured into high Avines and whiskey, the consumption of Avhich as a beverage, evinces a sad per- version of one of the best gifts of nature. It is converted into oil, molasses and sugar to a very limited extent ; and is variously and largely applied to domestic uses. While green it is boiled or roasted in the ear ; or it is cut from the cob and cooked with the garden or kidney bean, which forms the Indian succotash. Wnen ripe, it is hulled in a weak ley, then boiled and known as hulled corn, a most convenient and acceptable dish in the frontier settlements, remote from mills ; or it is parched over a hot tire, affording a delicious lunch, and a convenient provision for hunters, as popped corn. Hominy or "iamp is a favorite dish, and consists of corn coarsely ground and boiled in water ; and hasty j^ud- ding Ai^exs from this, only in being made of fine meaJ. The meal may be compounded Avith milk and eggs into jonny- cakes, puddings, griddles and other delicacies, universally esteemed for the table ; and when scalded and mixed witli the flour of wheat or rye, it imparts additional swuetness to bread, wiiil ^ it scarcely diminishes its proportionate nutritive properties GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 155 RICE (Oryza sativa, Fig. 38). This grain probably contributes directly to the support of a larger iiumber of the human family than any other plant. In China, and nearly the whole length of the southern part of Asia ; throughout the in- numerable and densely populated islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans ; in the south- ern part of Europe, and a large extent of Africa ; and through no inconsiderable por- tion of the North and South American con- tinent and its central islands, it is extensive- ly grown, and forms the staple food of the inhabitants. Rice requires a moist soil, and is much more productive when subject to in- undation. A hot sun is also necessary to mature it ; and as a result of these two es- sential conditions, its culture is limited to regions much more circumscribed than are Fig. S8. allotted to Avheat, maize, or some of the usually cultivated plants. I subjoin, from an excellent article on rice and its cultivation, addressed to the Avriter by Dr. Cartwright, a practical planter of Mississippi. Varieties of Rice. — " Of these there are many, but I am in- duced to believe that they are all essezitially aquatic. All the varieties, yet discovered, flourish best uzider the inundation sys- tem of culture ; yield more to the acre, give less trouble, and re- quire less labor. But each variety grows well on light, moist uplands without irrigation, when cultivated with the hoe or plow. The product, however, is so mvieh less than by the irri- gation system, and the laborof tillage so much more, that the upland producer never can compete successfully with the low- lander. The former may curtail his expenses by growing rice for domestic uses, but he cannot profitably, produce it for sale. Besides the ten-fold labor ^vhich rice on upland requires in comparison Avith that cultivated by the irrigation system, it cannot be so\vn thick enough to make a large yield per acre. Space must be left for the plow or hoe to till the rice, which is not necessary in those localities where it can be overflowed at will, and the Avater drawn off as occasion may require. Cultivation of hcMand Rice. — The method pursued ou the rice lands of thi lower Mississippi, is 6.: sow the rica 156 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. broadcast about as thick as wheat, and harrow -t in with a hght harrow having many teeth ; the ground being first well plou'ed and prepared b}^ ditches and e nbankments for inunda- tion. It is generally sown in March, and immediately after sowing the water is let on, so as barely to overflow the ground. The water is withdraAvn on the second, third, or fourth day, or as soon as the grain begins to swell. The rice very soon after comes up and grows finely. "When it has attained about three inches in height, the water is again let oil, the top leaves being left a little above the Avater. Com- plete immersion would kill the plant. A fortnight previous to harvest, the water is drawn off to give the stalks strength, and to dry the ground for the convenience of the reapers. A different method is practiced in the northern part of Italy. The seed is sown in April, previously to which it is soaked a day or two in water. After .sowing, about two inches of water is let in upon the ground. The rice comes up through the water, which is then dravv^n off to give the plant strength, and after some days, is again let on. The rice is more apt to mildew under this practice, than our meth- od, of letting the water on about the time the Italians draw it off. The same measure of ground yields three times as much Mice as tcheat. The only labor after sowing, is to seo that the rice is properly irrigated ; except in some localities where aquatic plants prove troublesome, the water effectual- ly destroying all others. The rice grounds of the lower Mississippi produce about seventy-five dollars worth of rice per acre. The variety called the Creole white rice, is con- sidered to be the best. Cultivation of Upland Rice. — In the eastern part of the State of Mississipi, called the Piney woods, rice is very generally cultivated on the uplands. Although it cannot be made a profitable article of export, yet it affords the people of the interior an abundant supply of a healthy food for them- selves, and a good provender for their cattle, and makos them independent of the foreign market. Unlike other kinds ol gram, it can be kept for many years in a warm climate, without spoiling, by winnowing it semi-annually, which prevents the weevil and a small black insect that sometimes attacks it. It is cultivated entirely with the plow and harrow, and grows well on the pine barrens. A kind of shovel plow ilrawn by one horse, is driven tl rough the unbroken GRA N AND ITS CULTIVATION. 157 pine-forest ; not a tree being cut or belted, and no grubbing being necessary, as there is little or no undergrowth. The plow makes a shallow furrow about an inch or two deep, the furrows about three feet apart. The rice is dropped into them and covered with a harrow. The middles, or spaces be- tween the furroAvs, are not broken up until the rice attains several inches in height. One ox two plowings suthce in the Piney woods for its. cultivation — weeds and grass, OAving to the nature of the soil, not being troublesome. A similar method of cultivation obtains on the prairie land of the north- western States. Rice, like hemp, does not impoverish the soil.* On the contrary, it is a good preparatory crop for some others, as Indian corn. The pine barrens of Missis- sipi would produce rice ad infinitum, if it were not that the land, after a few years, owing to the sandy nature of the soil, becomes too dry for it. It has been ascertained by Arnal, that twelve pounds of wheat flour and two pounds of rice will make twenty-four pounds of an excellent bread, very white and good ; whereas, without the addition of rice, 14 pounds of flour will only make 18 pounds of bread. Like other kinds of grain, rice adapts itself to the soil and climate, and particular mode of cultivation ; but if the seed be not changed, or selected from the best specimens of the plant, it will ultimately degene- rate. Thus in Piedmont, after a long series of years, the rice became so much affected with a kind of blight called the brusone, as ro compel the Piedmontese to import fresh seed in 1829, from South Carolina. The American rice intro- duced into Piedmont, escaped the brusone, but it was seve- ral years before it adapted itself to the soil and climate. Some years ago, a traveller, finding rice growing in great perfection on the mountains and highlands of Asia, particu- • If this remark be limited to the lowland rice, we fully agree with it ; as the water and the materials it holds, either in suspension or solution, and to which it is exposed through so long a period of its growth, afford the greater part of the nutritive matter appropriated by the plant. But if applied to upland rice, we must dissent in toto ; for the rich, life-sustaining principles of this grain, draw largely on the soils where water is not present; for like the white grains, the wheat, oats, and barley., its narrow, grass-like leaves do not draw much from the atmosphere. The intelligent writer indirectly concedes this in the followlni; sentence but one. The soil becomes too dry for it, simply because it is exhausted of those vital, fertilizing principles, the salts and carbonaceous Clatters, which help to sustain the re- quisite moisture in the soil, and which is one of the beneficial results of their presence in it 158 A^rERTCAN AGRICULTURE. larly Cochin China, named it Hz sec or dry rice, and seni the seed to Europe, where n.any experiments were made with it. It yielded no better than any other kind of rice, and was found Uke all others to succeed best when inundated. The reason why it yielded so much more in Asia than in Europe can be readily accounted for, by the natural inundations it receives from the excessive rains during the monsoons. No variety has been discovered which yields as much out of the water as it does in it. There are many localities in the United States, where the culture of dee by the irriga- ting system, would rather serve to make ",he surrounding neighborhoods healthy instead of sickly. 1' is generally ad- mitted, that a given surface of ground completely inundated, is much less unhealthy than the same surface partially in- undated, or in transitu between the wet and the dry state. Hence mill-ponds which partially dry up in the summer, are fruitful sources of disease. Some of the best rice is said to grow on the bottom of mill-ponds. Nothing more is ne- cessary, than to make the bottom perfectly level, and then to overflow the whole surface just deep enough to keep the top leaves above water. As if to show that unhealthi- ness is not necessarily connected with, the culture of this valuable grain, nature has imposed a law upon it, ordering that it should flourish better when overflowed with pure running water than with the stagnant waters of impure lakes and marshes. There are two kinds of rice, which are said to succeed best on uplands, the long and the round. The former has a red chaff, and is vejry difficult to beat. The latter shakes out, if not cut as soon as ripe. They nevertheless succeed best under the inundation system of culture. In the eastern hemisphere, rice is cultivated as far North as the 46th degree of latitude. The climate of the United States is better suit- ed to it than that of Europe, because our summers are hotter. In the northern part of China, the variety called the imperial rice, or riz sec de la Chine (the oriza sativa mutica), is more precocious than any other, is said to yield a heavy harvest, and to constitute the principal food for the people of that populous region. But it has succeeded no better in Europe than any other kind of rice. The best rice lands of South Carolina are valued at five hundred dollars per acre, while the best cotton lands sell for a tenth part ci" that sum, proving that rice is more profitable than cotton The profits of a crop should no so much bees- GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. loO timated by the yield per acre, as the number cf acres a labor- er can till. After the land is properly prepared for inunda- tion, by levelling, ditching, and embankments, a single indi- vidual can grow almost an indefinite quantity of rice. Rice is no doubt ultimately destined to supersede cotton in a large portion of Mississippi and Louisiana." The varieties of Rice most grown in South Carolina and Georgia, whi"h have hitherto been the greatest rice-produc- ing States of he Union, are the Gold-seed rice, the Guinea, the Common White, and the White-hear ded. There are several other /arieties, but generally inferior to the foregoing. The best are produced by careful cultivation on soils suited to this grain, and by a careful selection of seed. In 1839, South Carolina produced over 66,000,000 lbs.; Georgia, 13,400,000 ; Louisiana, 3,765,000 ; and North Caro- lina, 3,324,000, no other State producing one million pounds. Rice will keep for years uninjured, if allowed to remain in the chaff or husk as it is gathered, in which condition it is called paddy. From the immense extent of our lowlands throughout the delta of the Mississippi, which, if subjected to the wet tillage of rice, may be considered of inexhaustible fertility, we may expect at some future day, to surpass every other portion of the globe in the quantity, as we noAV do in the quality ot our rice. MILLET (Panicum milliaceum) . This is the species of millet usually grown in the United States. In its form and the manner of bearing its seeds, the millet strongly resembles a miniature broom corn. It grows to the height of two to four feet, with a profusion of stalks, heads and leaves, which furnish excellent forage for cattle. From 60 to 80 bushels of seed per acre have been raised, and with straw equivalent to one or two tons of hay ; but an average crop may be estimated at about one third of this quantity. Owing to the great waste during the ripening of the seed, from the shelling of the earliest of it before the last is matured, and the frequent depredations ot birds which are very fond of it, millet is more profitably cut when the first seeds have begun to ripen, and then harvest- ed for fodder. It is cured like hay, and on the best lands yields from two to four tons per acre. All cattle relish it, and experience has shown it to be fully equal to good hay. Cultivation. — Millet requires a dry, rich, and well pul- verized soil It will grow on thiit soil, but best repays on 160 AMERICAN AQRICULTUEE. the most fertile. It should be sown broadcast or in drills from the 1st of May to 1st of July. If for hay and sown broadcast, 40 quarts per acre will be required ; if sown in drills for the grain, eight quarts of seed will suf- fice. It will ripen in 60 to 75 days with favorable Aveather. Whende- .signed for fodder, the nearer it can approach to ripening, without waste in harvesting, the more valuable will he the crop. Indian or Grand Millet (Sor- ghu7)i vulgare, Fig. 38).^ — This mil- let is much cultivated in Asia Minor, Egypt, Arabia, the West Indies, and elsewhere. It grows from four to six feet high, affording a large quan- tity of forage, and much seed or giain, which is known as Guinea corn. This is gromid into flour and used by the laborers where grown. It is also an economical food for cat- t.e, swine, and fo\vls. It is not raix'd to any extent in the United States, but might be advantageously F,G.38. introduced into the southern States. Buck- Wheat, or Beech- Wheat {Polygonum fa gopy rum. Fig. 39), is a grain much cultivated in this country. It grows freely on light soils, but yields a remunerating crop only on those which are fertile. Fresh manure is partic- ularly injurious to this grain. Sandy loams are its favorite soils, especially such as have lain long in pasture, and these should be well plowed and harrowed. It may be sown from the 1st of May to the 10th of August, but in the northern States, this ought to be done as early as June or July, or it may be injured by early frosts, which are fatal to it. It is sown broadcast, at the rate of three to six pecks per acre, and harvested when the earliest seed is fully ripe. The plant often Fio. 39 continues flowering after this, and when the GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 161 early seed is blighted, as is often the case, the plant may be left till these last have matured. As it is liable to heat, it should be placed in small stacks of two or three tons each, but it is better to thresh out the grain at once. If not perfectly dry, the straw may be stacked with layers of other straw, and when well cured, it will be a valuable fodder for cattle. Sheep will feed and thrive as well on this straw as on good hay. Uses. — This grain is ground and bolted and the flour is much used for human food. Before grinding, the hull or outer covering should be removed. When thus prepared, the flour is as white and delicate in appearance as the best rye, it is equally light and digestible, and is scarcely inferior to wheat in its nutritive properties. The grain is used for fattening swine, but is most profitable when mixed with corn. Poultry thrive upon it. Buckwheat was formerly employed as a fertilizer, but for this object it is inferior to the clovers, in all cases where the soil is capa- ble of sustaining them. Its rapid growth will insure the maturing and turning under of two crops in one season. There are other varieties than the one specified, but none of equal value for general cultivation in this country. Canary Grass {^Phalaris canariensis. Fig. 40). — This, like the millet, is an annual, and is used like many other species of the family of grasses, both for the seed and forage. Its chief use, however, is as a food for the canary, and other feathered pets. It is sown quite early in the season, in drills, 12 to 18 inches apart, at the rate of two or three pecks per acre; in a rich, well-pulverized loam ; lightly covered, and kept clear of weeds by the cultivator and hoe. It is cut when fully ripe, and allowed to remain for some time ex- posed to the dews or rain, to loosen the chaff, which otherwise is very dill 3u't of removal. 162 iMERICAN AGRICULTITRE. CHAPTER VIII. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. THE PEA (Pisnm satiTXun). The pea, bean, tare or vetch, lupine, the clovers, and some other plants, are all embraced in the botanical order LeguniinoscB. The pea is valuable for cultivation, not only for the table, but for many of the domestic animals. It is largely fed to swine, sheep and poultry. For the former, it should be soaked, boiled or ground. If land is adapted to it, few crops can be more profitably raised for their use. It ripens early, and when beginning to harden, they may be fed with the vines, and the animals will masticate the whole, and fatten rapidly. The Soil. — The heaviest clays will bear good peas, but a calcareous or Miieat soil is better. Strong lands produce the best crops, but these should be made so by manures pre- viously applied, as the addition of such as are fresh, increases the growth of haulm or straw, and sometimes dim.inishes both the quantity and quality of the pea. WhensoM-n on a poor sward, the manure should be spread before plowing. A dressing of well-rotted manure increases the crop, and is a good preparation whe^i intended to be followed by wheat. Varieties. — Of these there are many. The earlier kinds are generally indifferent bearers, and their cultivation is Mmited almost exclusively to the garden. Of those for field culture, the marrow-fat are among the richest of the peas, and they are preferred for good lands. The small yellow are perhaps the best for poorer soils. There is a very pro- lific husli-pca grown in Georgia, bearing pods six or seven inches long, which hang in clusters, on a short upright stem. The pods are filled with a white pea, which is highly es- teemed for the table, either green or dry. In that latitude, they bear two or three crops in one season. Cultivation. — Peas should have a clean fallow or fresh, rich sod, Avell harrowed. They are not affected by frosts, and may be sown as soon as the ground is dry. This will enable them to ripen in season to plow for Avheat. They LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 163 are very liable to attack from the pea-bug, which deposits its eo-g in the pea while in its green state, where it hatches; and the worm, by feeding on the pea, diminishes its weiglit nearljr one half. Here it remains through the winter, and comes out as a bug the following season. To avoid this pest, some sow only such seed as has been kept oy»r two years, while others sow as late as tlie 15th to the 25th of May, which delays the pea till after the period of its attacks, but this latter prac- tice seldom gives a large crop. It may be killed by pouring boiling water upon the seed, stirring for a few minutes, and then draining it off. Peas are sometimes sown in drills, but most usually broadcast, at the rate of two or three bushels per acre. It is better to plow them in, to the depth of three inches, and afterwards roll the ground smooth, to facilitate gathering. When sown in drills, they may b^ worked by the cultivator, soon after coming up. The growth is pro- moted by steeping the seed for twenty or thirty hours in urine, and then rolling in ashes or plaster. Harvesting is accomplished by cutting with the sickle or scythe, or what is more expeditious, when fully ripe so that the roots pull easily, with the horse rake. When thus gathered into heaps and dried, they may be threshed, and the haulm carefully stacked for sheep fodder. If this is se- cured in good condition, cattle and sheep will thrive upon it. Peas are frequently sown with oats, and when thus grown, they may be fed to sheep or horses as harvested or threshed, or made into meal for swine. The Cow or Indian Pea, freqiiently called the Stock Pea. The Southern Bean would be a more appropriate name for it, as it is grown exclusively in the southern States. It is a desirable crop, either as a fertilizer, or as food for domestic animals. Its long vines and succulent leaves, which draw much of their substance from the air, and its rapid and lux- uriant growth, particularly adapt it to the first object ; while its numerous and well-filled pods, and its great redundancy of stem and leaf, afibrd large quantities of forage. This is improved for cattle, when harvested before the seed is fully ripe. It is sown broadcast, in drills, or hoed in among corn, when the latter is laid by for the season. If in drills, it may be cultivated in its early stages by the plow, shovel-harrow, or cultivator. It can be cut with the scythe, or drawn to- gether with a heavy iron-toothed harrow, or horse rake, as with the common pea. It requires a dry, mellow soil, and is (.veil suited to clays 164 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE, THE BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris). The bean is often a field crop in this country, and espe cially in the northern and middle Statos. It is principally used for the table, either green or dry. It is a palatable and highly condensed f(3od, containing much in a small compass. In proportion to its weight, it gives more nutriment than any of the ordinary vegetables ; according to Einhof, yield- ing 84 per cent, of nutritive matter, while wheat gives only 74. It has, in common with the pea and vetch, though in a greater proportion, a peculiar principle, termed legumin, which is analogous to casein, the animal principle in milk. This is convertible into cheese, and in its nutritive proper- ties, it is essentially the same as the fibrin of lean meat, the albumen of eggs, and other animal matters. There is no vegetable we produce, which so nearly supplies the place of animal food, as the bean. Soil. — The bean is partial to a quick, dry soil. Too great strength of soil, or fresh manuring, gives a large quantity of vine, without a corresponding quantity of fruit. C%dtivation. — The land should be finely pulverized, and if at all inclined to wet, it should be ridged. Beans are tender plants and will not bear the slightest frost, and as they grow rapidly, they will be sure to ripen, if planted when this is no longer to be apprehended. The seed is exposed to rot if put into the ground in cold, wet weather, and the land should, therefore, be previously well warmed by the sun. The bush beans are the only kind used for field planting, and of these there are several sub-varieties. The long gar- den beans, white, red or mottled, are great bearers, of fine quality, and early in maturing. This is important, when other crops are to succeed the same season. They are usu- ally planted in hills, about two feet apart, and also in drills, and covered with two inches of fine earth. They have been sown broadcast, on clean, dry soils, and produced largely. When planted in drills, from five to eight plants should be left in each, according to their proximity ; or if in drills, they need from six to eight pecks of seed to the acre. Harvesting. — When the beans are fully formed, and there is danger of frost, pull and throw them into heaps, in which condition the frost scarcely affects them. If the ground is not wanted for other vises, they may stand till the latest pods assume a yellow color. They are pulled with ease when the plant is mature, as the fibres of the root are LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 16S b by that time dea.^. This is more quickly accomplished with an iron hook-rake, or if the stalks are partially green, they can be mown. If the vines are not dry, let them remain for a while in small heaps, and afterwards collect in larger piles, around stakes set at com-enient distances, with the roots in the centre and secured at the top by a wisp of straw. "When well dried, thresh, clean and spread them till they are quite tree from dampness. Uses for Farm stock. — The straw or haulm is an excel- lent fodder for sheep, and it ought always to be stacked for their use. Sheep are the only animals which eat them raw ; and for them, no species of grain is better suited than the bean, when fed in moderate quantities. Swine, cattle and poultry, will thrive on them when boiled. Sixty bushels have been raised on an acre, worth from one to two dollars per bushel. THE ENGLISH FIELD BEAN (Vicia faba). Is cultivated under many varieties in Europe, and partic- ularly in Great Britain, as a field crop for the use of horses and other animals. Among these are tlie Windsor, the tick, the long pods and others. Arthur Young prefers " the common little horse-bean as being more generally marketa- ble." I have raised several of these varieties, and although entirely successful, have found them less adapted to our cli- mate and agriculture, than the ordinary crops. They prefer a strong clay, or loamy clay soils. THE TARE, VETCH OR FITCH ^V. sativa, Fig. 41). Of this there are two kinds, the winter and the spring, both of which are hardy and productive. It is deemed an important crop in Europe, where it is much cultiva- ted for green fodder or soilino- and frequently it is used as pasturage, or cut and cured for hay. It is par- tial to clay, but grows indifferently on any rich soil which is not too dry. It is sown broad -ast or in drills, but generally the rormer, on Avell-pulverized lands, and covered with the harrow, demanding no after attention except the exter- mination of weeds. Tares have Fia. 41. 166 aXEKIOAN agricitlturb. hitherto been little grown in this country, but in certain soils and situations, they may be introduced as a substitute for clover, where, from any cause, the latter does not grow successfully. All domestic stock are fond of them. THE PINDAR, GROUND PEA, OR PEA-NTTT (Arachis hTpogcea). This is a legumen and is cultivated with profit in the south- ern States, on light, loamy or sandy lands, where it yields from 30 to 60, or even 80 bushels per acre, besides furnish- ing much haulm for forage. It is planted in hills, or sown in drills four to five feet apart, and worked with a light plow or cultivator, immediately after the plants thow themselves above ground. They soon overspread the whole surface. When properly matured, the roots are loosened by a fork and pulled up by hand, and after curing, are put under cover for winter's use. They contain a large quantity of oil of a superior quality and flavor, which is suitable for the table and various purposes in the arts. The peat-nut is in high repute for its fattening qualities, when fed to stock. Swine are particularly partial to them ; and if allowed to run on a field containing both them and corn, they vr'M remain among the pea-nuts till entirely ex- hausted, resorting to the grain occasionally, for a change of food. They can lie in the ground all winter, uninjured by frosts or rains. They are much used for human food, after drying and baking. THE WHITE LUPINB (Lnpinus albns, Fig. 42). This plant is sometimes raised in southern Europe, where the seed is used as human food. It was cultivated by the Romans, and others among the ancients, for the same purpose. It is frequently used as a forage plant, for which purpose the whole plant is cut and fed green, rr cured as hay. It is sometimes made use of as a fertili- zer, for which it is well adapted. It requires a similar soil and culti* vation with the rea. Fia 4S. &OOT8. 107 CHAPTER IX. ROOTS. THE POTATO, (Solanum tuberosum). The potato is a native of the American Continent. It is found in a wild state both in Buenos Ayres and Chili, and was probably discovered in the same condition by the early settlers of North America. It was supposed to have been taken into Spain and Italy, early in the 16th century, by Spanish adventurers, as it "was cultivated in those countries in 1550. In 1588, it was introduced into Vienna from Italy ; and also into Eng-land, probably as early as 1586, by the colonists of Virginia, who were sent out by Sir "Walter Ra- \eigh. On its first introduction into Europe, it was con- sidered a delicacy ; and it is not until ^vithin a comparatively recent period, that it has found its way into both conti- nents as an article of agricultural attention, and an almost indispensable food for man and beast. Yarieties. — These are almost illimitable. In form they are round, oblong, flat and curved or kidney-shaped ; they vary in size from the delicate lady-finger to the gigantic blue-nose ; their exterior is rough or polished, and of nearly every hue, white, yellow, red, and almost black ; and the surface is sometimes smooth and even, with the eye scarcely discernible ; or deeply indented with innumerable sunken eyes, like the Pvohan and Merino. The interior is equally diversified in color ; and is mealy, glutinous or watery ; sometimes pleasant and sometimes disagreeable to the taste. They likewise differ in ripening earlier or later, and in beinc adapted in some of their varieties to almost every peculiarity of soil. New kinds are produced at pleasiire, by planting the seed found in the balls. The tubers obtained in this way, are small the first season, but with careful culture, will be large enough the second year to determine their quality, when the best may be selected for propagation. The earliest are easily designated by the premature decay of the tops. The varieties may also be increased from tlie seed bv 168 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. hybridizing, or impregnating the pistils of one flower by the pollen from another ; and in this "way, some of the best and most valuable kinds have been procured. Such as haA'e no flowers are more productive of tubers, as there is no expendi- ture of vitality in forming the seed. They may be compelled to flower, by removing the small tubers from the roots as they form. The best Soil for Potatoes is a rich loam, neither too wet nor too dry. Cool and moist soils, like those of Maine, Nova Scotia and Ireland, and especially, if in rich, fresh sod, give the best flavored potatoes, and such as are the least liable to disease. A calcareous soil yields good potatoes, and generally sure crops, and Avhere there is little lime in the soil, it should be added. Ashes, salt and gypsum are excel- lent manures, and in certain instances, have astonishingly increased the product. Crushed bones also greatly improve a potato soil. Fresh manures will often affect the taste of the potato unpleasantly, and when necessary to apply them, they should be scattered broadcast and plowed in. Select such seed as experience has decided is best adapted to the soil, and the use for which they are to be appropriated. Some are careful to cultivate the most mealj^ for the table, and plant those which give the greatest yield for their cat- tle. This is sometimes mistaken policy, as what are best for man, are generally best for cattle ; and although the farmer may get a much greater weight and bulk, on a given quantity of land of one kind, these may yield a less quantity of fat and flesh-forming materials, than those afforded by a smaller quantity of some other variety. Experiment has shouTa, that of " three varieties grown in Scotland, in 1842, ih.e cups gave 13| tons per acre, containing 2 -,\ tons of starch; the red dons yielded 14i, tons and Ifo of starch ; the white dons,\'a\ tons, and 2iV of starch, and the kidney has even given as much as 32 per cent, of staroli." — [Johnston.) There is also a difl^erence in the relative proportions ol gluten. The potato contains in its new and ripe state, about 2\ per cent., which diminishes by long keeping. It is im- portant for this, as for an indefinite number of other practical matters, to have agricultural laboratories of unquestionable rehability, where the errors of superficial observation may be detected ; and where the real superiority of one product over another, and theii variations induced by soils, manures and treatment, may be established beyond the possibility of a doubt. ROOTS. 16> Planting. — To produce abundantly, potatoes re([uire a fertile soil, and if not already sufficiently rich, spread manure on the surface before plowing. If a tough sod, plow the preceding fall ; or if friable, it may be done just before plant- ino" ; but in all cases, the land must be put in such condition as to be perfectly loose and mellow. Hills are the most con- venient for tillage, as they admit of more thorough stirring of the ground with tlie cultivator or plow. Medium size, uncut potatoes have been ascertained, from numerous experiments, to be the best for planting, but when seed is scarce, it is sometimes economical to divide them. Two potatoes should be placed in each hill ; or if in drills, they should be planted singly, ten inches apart. The distance both of hills and drills must depend on the strength of the soil and the size of the tops, some varieties growing much larger than others. Cover with light mold to the depth of fom" or six inches, and if the soil be light, leave the ground perfectly level ; if cold, heavy or moist, let the hill be raised when finished. Subsoil plowing is of great benefit to potatoes, as to most other crops, whenever the soil will justify its use. The sets cut from the seed-end, give a much earlier crop than those from the root. Cultivation. — When the shoots tirst appear above the ground, run the plow through them and throw the earth well to the plants ; and no injury results, if the tops are par- tially, or even entirely covered. The hoe is scarcely required, except to destroy such weeds as may have escaped the plow. The ground should be several times stirred before the tops interfere with the operation, but never after they come mto blossom. Very large crops have been produced by top- dressing with compost, or well- rotted chip manure, soon after the plants make their appearance. This is carried to the field and spread from a light, one horse cart, the wheels passing between the rows ; but the same results would pro- bably be attained, by placing the land in the best condition before planting, if followed by the nicest cultivation after- wards. There is some gain to the crop, when the buds are plucked before they come into blossom. Harvesting and Storing should not be commenced until the tops are mostly dead, as the tuber has not arrived at full maturity before this time. They may then be thrown out of the hills by a double mold-board plow, or by a potato hook, or some other hand implement. They ought not to be exposed to the .«un for any length of time, but may dry on 8 170 AMEillCAN iGRlCULTUKE. the surface in u. cloudy day, or be gathered intc sm&J nenps, with some of the tops spread over them, until freed from the surface moisture, when the}'' may be stored. Thost; selected for seed, should be placed in small piles in the field ; or in thin layers in a cool, dry place in the cellar, where the air is ex- cluded and no heating' or injui-y can occur. Those intended for winter consumption, may be put in dry bins or barrels in the store-room, and covered with straw and dry sand, or loose earth, to prevent the circulation of air. Such as are not wanted till the following spring, may be kept on the field, if there be not sufficient room in the cellars. It is better Avhen thus stored, that they occupy an excavation on the north side of a hill, iu a porous soil. If shaded by trees, it will lend to shield them longer from the heat of the sun, and they may thus be kept till Jmie, before opening. They are gen- erally stored in the level field, in an excavation one or two feet deep, four or five wide, and of any length required. They are piled as high as they can be conveniently ridged up, then covered with straw, carefully placed over them like shingles on a house, and covered lightly with earth till the severe frosts, when they should be adequately covered to protect them from rains and frost during winter. A partial heating and sweating take place soon after storing, and till this is complete, a loose covering of straw is all they re- quire. A ditch lower than the base must encircle the heap when the soil consists of clay, from which dn outlet conducts away all the water, as any left upon them will inevitably produce decay. Diseases. — The potato has long been subject to the curl. From nvimerous experiments made in Scotland to a'void this disease, it has been found, that seed from potatoes which ■were gathered before fully ripe, gave a much better and surer crop. It would be well to try the experiment in this country'', where there is any deficiency of product from want of full and healthy development. Potatoes are also affected by the scab and gruh, against whose attacks there is no remedy, unless in a change of seed and locality. The rot has for scA^eral years produced serious and in creasing injury to the potato crop, threatening starvation in Ireland, and causing great loss and suffering in several otiiei coimtries in Europe. Its effects have also been extensively felt in the United States. Numerous and scientific examina- tions have been made on Jhe subject. The proximate cause '■s supposed to be a fungus, but what are the reasons for it» ROOTS. 171 late rapid extensicn, and .he remedy for its ravages, have not yet been satisfaclorily ascertained. Preventives of Rot. — Under the following circumstances rot has not appeared, when adjoining fields have been nearly de- stroyed by it. 1. By using unripe seed, or seed which has been exposed to the sun, light and air, and well dried for ten days after digging, and afterwards stored in a dry place in small parcels, where air is excluded till the moment of plant- ing. 2. By the use of lime, some of which is placed in the hill and the potatoes dvisted with it, and also from the use of charcoal and salt, gypsum or other salts. 3. By the absence of fresh barn-yard maniu'e, or if used, by adding largely of lime or saline manures. 4. The use of fresh sod, which has long been untilled. This has been found more efficacious than any other preventive, although it has occasionally failed. The sod may be plowed in the fall, or lefc till late in May or early in June, when it has a good coating of grass; then turn over the ground and furrow it lightly, to receive the seed without disturbing the sod. Or they may be planted by using a sharpened stake three inches in diameter, with a pin or shoulder ten inches from the bottom, on which the foot may be placed for sinking the holes. These should be made be- tween the furrow slices at the proper distance for drills, and a single potato placed in each, which may be covered with the heel. 5. Sound, early varieties, early planted, have also escaped. I have thus secured a good yield, almost wholly ■free from disease ; and even those affected did not appear to commimicate disease to others. It has also been found that some very late planted have escape! rot ; and if it be an epi- demic, it may be, that both by early and late planting, the peculiar stage of vegetation when fhe fungus appears, is in a great measure avoided. But tiie investigations on this impor- tant subject are still in their infa?^cy, and nothing has thus far been ascertained, which can \*'^. justly considered as hav- ing determined principles of univfir.sal application; yet it is to be hoped that the zeal, intellii>euce and general interest which are now combined for this object, will ere long de- tect, what has hitherto evaded the severest scruiiiy of scien- tific research. Arresting the disease has in some iostances '-leen su :cessfi.il. by mowi'ia: off the tops when they arp. found defective. This practice would be injurious to laealthy plants, but may be adopted, like that of cutting grain when struck by rust, if it will secure even a part of the crop. When disease appears 172 AMI irCAN AGR CULTURE in such ELS are dug, they should be carefully sorted and the sound ones well dried, then placed separately in layers and covered with ashes, burnt clay, or fine dry mold. These act as absorbents of moisture, and prevent contagion from such as may be imperceptibly affected. They may also be cut in slices and dried, or crushed and the farinaceous part ex- tracted. By this means the potato will be made to yield nearly all its nutriment. It is found that this disease affects the tissues (the nitrogenized or albumenous part) of the potato only ; and for this reason, potatoes which have not been too long or too deeply injured, will yield nearly their full amount of fat for animals or storch for the manufacturer. Uses. — Besides being on almost indispensable vegetable for the table, potatoes are boiled and mixed Avith flour or bread, to which the,y impart a desirable moisture and an agreeable flavor. They are sliced, dried and ground, and much used in Europe as flour, and by the confectioners in their various products. They are also manufactured into tapioca, and when nicely prepared, it is scarcely distinguisha- ble from that of the manioc. In all of these and some other forms, they enter into consumption as human food. They are also used in large quantities by the manufac- turers of starch ; to some extent for distilling ; nnd in a less degree for making sugar. The refuse of tht pulp, after extracting the starch and the liquor drained from it, are used for cleansing Avoolens and silks, which they efiect with- out injury to the color. But by far the greatest use of pota- toes in this country, is for stock-feeding. They are eaten with avidity by all the brute creation, either cooked or raw. For cattle and sheep, they are equally nutritious in either condition. For horses, they are improved by steaming or baking. Swine and most poultry will subsist on them raw, but will fatten on them only when cooked. Their good ef- fects are much enhanced by mixing with meal when they are hot, v.^hich partially cooks it. THE SWEET POTATO (.Convolvulus batatas, Fig. 4i) Is a root of very general growth, in the southern, and it is much cultivated in the middle sections of the United States. It is scarcely surpassed by any esculent for the table, and it is greadily eaten, and with great advantage, by every species of stock. Soil. — A dry, loamy soil, inclining to sand, is best fo them ; and this should be well manured with compost scatter ed broadcast, bef :)re working the ground, and thoroughly pul 6 ROOTS. 173 verized by repeated plowing and harrowing. It should then be thrown into beds four feet wide with the plow, and in the centre of these, strike a light furrow to receive the seed, if the soil is dry, or plant it on the surface, if moist. The use of a subsoil plow in the beds before being thrown up. if of great benefit to the plant. FiQ. 42. Cultivation. — When the season is sufficiently long to mature them, the potato may be most conveniently planted, by cutting the seed into slips, and laying them six or eight inches apart in the place where they are to mature. Large potatoes divided into pieces of a proper size, are better for seed than small ones uncut. These should be covered about two inches with light mold. When they begin to sprout, the plow may be run close to the rows on either side, to remove the earth and allow the full benefit of the sun and air to the roots, and as the plant advances in its growth, the earth may be gradually restored to them by the plow and hoe. Where the vines are so large as to be injured by the plow, the hoe alone should be used. The hill or drills may then be made broadly around the plants, hollowing towards them, to afford a full bed of rich, mellow earth, and to retain the rain which falls. They are fit for scatherino- when the vines are dead. W hen the .seas :)n is short or early potatoes are wanted , plapt J 74 AMERICAN AGRICUL fURE. on a hot bed, i jlIs of warm manure, with a covering of four inches of fine mold. After splitting the potatoes, place them on this and cover with three inches of light earth. As the sprouts appear, draw and transplant them after a rain, in the same manner as before suggested with the roots. When early vegetated, a bushel of seed will, in this manner, supply plants for an acre. The preservation of the Siveet Potato thi jugh the tvinter is often difficult. A careful seclusion from air and light, and the absence of frost and absolute dryness seem to be essential to their preservation. They are frequently kept, by piling in heaps on dry earth, which are siill more secure with a layer beneath of corn stalks or dry pine boughs, six or eight inches deep. On this, pack the roots in piles six feet in diameter. Cover with corn stalks and dry earth, and protect this with a roof of boards, and a ditch deep enough to carry off all water. There must be a hole at the top, slight- ly stopped with straw, to permit the escape of heated air, and to preserve uniformity of temperature. There are numerous varieties of the sweet potato, -white, red, yellow, &c. They yield from 200 to 300 bushels per acre, and under favorable circumstances, sometimes double this quantity. THE TCJIINEP (Erassica rapa). The flat English Txirnep was introduced into this country with our English ancestry, and has ever since been an object of cultivation. When boiled, it is an agreeable vegetable for the table. Its principal value, however, is as a food for cattle and sheep, by which it is eaten uncooked. Its comparitive nutritive properties are small ; but the great bulk which can be raised on a given piece of ground, and the fa- cility and economy of its cultivation, have always rendered it a favorite with such farmers, as have soil and stock adapted to its profitable production and use. The proper soil for it is a fertile sand or well-drained loam. Any soil adapted to Indian corn will produce good turneps. But it is only on new land, or freshly-turned sod, that they are most successful. An untilled, virgin earth, with the rich dress- ing of ashes left after the rece it burning of accumulated vege- table matter, and free from weeds and insects, is the surest and most productive for a turnep crop. Such land needs no manure. For a sward ground, or clover ley, there should be a heavy dressing of fresh, unfermented manure, before plowing. ROOTS. 175 Cultivation. — Turneps are sown from the 15th of .iune to the 1st of August. The first give a greater yield ; the last, generally a sounder root, and capable of longer preservation. The ground should be plowed and harrowed immediately be- fore sowing, as the moi.'^ture of the freshly-turned earth in- sures rapid germination of the seed, which is of great import- ance to get the plants beyond the reach of insects as soon as possible. They may be sown broadcast, at the rate of one or two pounds per acre, and lightly harrowed, or brushed and rolled ; or :t is better that the seed be sown in drills, when a less quantity will suffice. A turnep drill will speedily ac- complish the furrowing, sowing, covering and rolling at a single operation. The crop will be materially assistetl by a top dressing of lime, ashes, and plaster, at the rate of fifteen or 20 busliels of the first two, and one and a half to three bushels of the last per acre. When the plants show them- selves and the leaves are partially expanded, the cultivator or hoe may be freely used, stirring the ground well, and ex- terminating all weeds. Ruta-Baga or Sicedes Tur?iep. — The introduction of this is comparatively recent, and it proves to be more worthy of attention than the English or white turnep. It will grow in a heavier soil, yield as well, give a richer root, and it has the great advantage of keeping lono-er in o-ood condi- tion ; thus prolonging the winter food of cattle when they most need it. Cultivation. — It is usually planted after Avheat or corn ; but if a virgin soil or old pasture sward is chosen, it will materially lessen its liability to insects and other enemies. It is generally sown in drills, about two feet apart ; and on heavy lands, these shoula be slightly ridged. The plants must be successively thinned, to prevent interfering with such as are intended to mature, but enough should remain to pro- vide for casualties. Where there is a deficiency, they may be supplied by transplanting during showery weather. They^ should be left six or eight inches apart m the drills, The Swede turnep is a gross feeder, and requires either a rich soil or heavy manuring ; though the use of fresh ma- nures, has been supposed to facilitate the multiplication ot enemies. Bones, ground and drilled in with the seed, or a dressing of lime, ashes, gypsum and salt, are the best applica- tions that can be made. The Swede should be sown from the 20th May to the 15th June, and earlier than the English t'lxnep. as it takes longej to mature ; and two or three weeks 176 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. inort; of growth, frequently adds largely to the product. An early sowing also gives time to plant for another crop in case of failure of the first. Enei7iies. — The turnep is exposed to numerous depreda- tors, of which the turnep flea-beetle is the most inveterate. It attacks the plant as soon as the first leaves expand, and oftei destroys two or three successive sowino-s. The black caterpillar, sLigs, wire-worms, and numerous other insects, grubs and aphides prey upon and greatly diminish the crop. Remedies have been tried to an almost indefinite extent, but none hitherto, with more than very partial success. Liberal sowing and rapid growth best insure the plant from injury ; and to eflTect this, the seed should be plentifully sown in a rich soil, and if possible, when the ground is moist. Before sowing, the seed should be steeped in some prepara- tion, which experience has shown will the most quickly de- velop the germ. Solutions of the nitrates or sulphates, urine, soot-water, liquid guano, or currier's oil, impregnate the first leaves with substances distasteful to their early ene- mies, and thus a short respite from their attacks will be se- cured. Gypsum, ashes, bone-dust and poudrette drilled in with the seed, are excellent forcers for the young roots. Charcoal dust applied in the same way, has been found to increase the early growth from four to ten-fold. When the fly or bug is discovered, the application of lime, ashes or soot, or all combined, should be made upon the leaves, while the dew or a slight moisture is on them. This leads the young plant along, and kills such enemies as it reaches. Stale urine, diluted sulphuric acid, (oil of vitrol,) and other liquid manures will have the same eftect. Ducks, chickens, young turkeys and birds will devour innumerable quantities, and their presence should always be encouraged not only on this, but on most of the fields. Dragging the surface with fine, light brush, will lessen the slugs aiid insects. The ground should be plowed just before winter sets in, which exposes the worms and the larvae of insects to the frost, when they are unable to work themselves into a place oi safety. The seed should not be planted on ground recently occupied by any of the order of plants cr«c//er^, (cabbage, radish, mustard, charlock and water-cress), as they all afi'ord food for the enemies of turne]->s, and thereby tend to their multiplication. Harvesting may be defi^rral till the approach of cal*5 ROC rs. 177 weather ; and in those sections of the country not affected by severe frosts, when on dry soils, they may be allowed to win- ter on the field. Otherwise, they should be pulled during the clear autumnal weather. This is accomplished most expeditiously with a root hook, which is made with two or more iron prongs attached to a hoe-handle. The use of a bill hook ->r sharp knife will enable the operator to lop off the leaves with a single blow, when they are thrown into convenient piles, and afterwards collected for storage. The Storing may be in cellars or in heaps, similar to po- tatoes, but in a cooler temperature, as slight heat injures them, while frost does not. If stored in heaps, one or more holes should be left at the top, which may be partially stopped by a wisp of hay or straw, to allow the escape of the gases which are generated. The feeding of Muta-Bagas to cattle and ^Zfeejo is always in their uncooked state. They arc better steamed or boiled for swine ; but food for these, should be sought from the more fattening products of the farm. They may be fed to horses in moderate quantities, but they cannot be relied upon for them, as they are too bulky for working animals. Their place is much better supplied for horses, by the carrot or potato. Their true value is as food for store and fattening cattle, milch cows and sheep, as they furnish a salutary change from dry hay ; being nearly equivalent as fodder, to green summer food. They should be washed before feeding, if too much dirt adheres to them ; but if grown on a light soil, the tap roots lopped off, and otherwise properly cleaned, they will not reqviire it. They may be sliced with a heavy knife, or more summarily cut up while lying on the barn- floor, with a sharp spade, or root sheer, which is made with a socket handle and two blades crossing each other in the centre at right angles, or by some of the numerous improved cutting machines. With an abundance of turneps and a small supply of stra^v, hay may be entirely dispensed with for cattle and sheep, except during very cold weather. Many of the best English breeds, are kept exclusively on turneps with a little straw, till ready for the shambles. The varieties of turneps are numerous. After selecting such as will give the largest crop of the most nutritous roots, the next object in the choice of particular varieties, should be to adapt them to the most economical use. Some will keep much longer than others, and if wanted to feed late in the ssasoK, it may be necessary t") take a variety, intrinsically 8* / 178 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. less valuable than another, which must be earlier con- sumed. The English turnep should be first led, as it soonest wilts and becomes pit! y; then follow with the others accord- ing to their order of maturity and decay. The leaves yield good forage, and if unmixed with earth 'nay be fed green or dry to cattle. The value of turneps to th.s country .s trifling in compari- son with that of many parts of Europe. In Great Britain alone, this value probably exceeds one hundred millions of dollars annually. But its culture here is much less desirable ; as our drier climate and early and severe winters are not as well adapted to its production, and economical preservation and feeding as those of England, and its numerous enemies render it an uncertain crop. These objections are increased by the important fact, that it enters into competition with Indian corn, which generally gives a certain and highly re- munerating return. It may sometimes, however, take the place of corn with advantage ; and the turnep or some of the other roots should always occupy a conspicuous place as a change, in part, for the winter food of cattle and sheep, THE CAEROT (D?acu8 carota). This is one of our mo^t valuable roots. It is a hardy, easi- ly-cultivated plant; it grows in almost every soil, and is next to the potato in its nutritive properties. The soil which best suits it is a fertile sand or light loam; but it will grow on such as are more tenacious, if well drained, and deeply worked. The success of this and the parsnep, depends much on the depth to which their roots can reach. Deep spading or subsoil plowing is, therefore, mdisp&nsable to secure large crops, and the ground should be thoroughly pulverized. Barnyard manures, composted with the ditTerent salts or ashes, or chip dung, are best for them. It is desirable to have the manures well rotted, for the double object of killing obnoxious seeds, and mixing in- tunately with the soil. The varieties chiefly %ised for field culture are the long red, the orange, and white Belgian. The last, under favora- ble circumstances, attains huge dimensions ; and from its roots growing high out of the ground, it is supposed to draw more of its nourishment from the air, and consequently, to exhaust the ground less, while it is more easily harvested. But it is conside»-ably below the others in comparative value ROOTS. 179 Planting. — The carrot should be sown in drills, 16 to 20 Inches apart, when the ground has become warm and dry. The seed is best prepared by mixing with fine mold or pou- drette, and stiiring it well together to break off the fine beards ; then sprinkle with water and allow it to remain in a warm place, and occasionally turn it to produce equal de- velopment in the seed. It may remain 10 or 15 davs before sowing, and till nearly ready to sprout. It then readily germi- nates, and does not allow the weeds to get the start. The frequent use of the cultivator and entire cleanliness from weeds, are all that is necessary to insure a crop ; unless it be convenient to give it a top dressing of liquid manure, which the Flemings always do, and which no crop better repays. Two pounds of good seed will sow an acre. Any deficiency of plants may be supplied by transplanting in moist weather. Six inches is near enough for the smaller kind to stand, and eight for the larger. They are subject to few diseases or enemies, excepting such as can be avoided by judicious selection of soil and careful tillage. The harvesting may be facilitated by running a plow on one side of the rows, when the roots are easily removed by hand. The tops are then cut and the surface moisture upon the roots dried, when they may be stored like turneps and potatoes. They ought to be kept at as low a temperature as possible, yet above tlie freezing point. On the approach of warm weather, they will spxout early if left in heaps ; and if important to preserve them longer, the crown should be cut off and the roots spread in a cool, dry place. Uses. — Carrots are chiefly grown for domestic stock. Horses thrive remarkably on them, and some judicious farmers feed them as a substitute for oats. But their intrin- sic value in weight, for their fat and flesh-forming properties, is less, in the proportion of about five to one. For their medicinal properties, however, and the healthful effects re- sulting from their regular, but moderate use, they would be advantageously purchased at the same price as oats, or even corn, if they could be procured no cheaper. They are good for working cattle, and unsurpassed for milch cows, produ- cmg a great flow of milk, and a rich yellow cream. Sheep and swine greedily devour them, and soon fatten, if plenti- fully supplied. The Dutch sometimes grate them, and with siigar and salt, make a pickle Or their choicest table butter They are also employed in distilling. The average yield, on good land, may be estimated at about .300 bushels of tha 180 AilERICAN AGRICULTtTRB. smaller, and 450 of the Belgian or white, pur acre ; but with extra cu.'ivation, 1,000 bushels of the last have been raised. THE PARSNEP cPastitiaca sativa). The parsnep is frequently cultivated as a field crop, and il is nearly equal to the carrot in its value. The soil may ht heavier for par sneps than for carrots, and they will even thrive on a strong clay, if rich, well pulverized and dry. Large crops can only be obtained on deeply fertile and well pulverized soil. They should be sown early, as frosts do not affect them, and they require a long time to come to ma- turity. Drilling, at a distance of 20 inches apart, is the proper mode of planting, and they should be thinned to a space of six or eight inches. It requires four or five pounds of seed per acre, Avhich must be of the previous year's growth, as older does not readily vegetate. No preparation of the seed is necessary. The subsequent cultivation is similar to that of carrots, and they will generally yield more under the same circumstances of soil and tillage. They are little sub- ject to disease or enemies. The best variety for field culture, is the Isle of Jersey. The gathering should be deferred till the following spring, unless wanted for u'inter's use ; as they keep best in the ground, where they are uninjured by the intensest frost. But particular care must be observed in allowing no stand- ing water on them, or they will rot. When taken up in the fall, the roots should neither be trimmed nor broken, nor should the tops be cut too near the root. They must be stored in a cool place and covered carefully with earth, as exposure to air or even moderate heat wilts them. Uses. — The parsnep is one of our most delicious table vegetables. It is an excellent food for swine, either raw or cooked, and for cattle, milch cows and sheep, it is highly prized. Qualey says, "it is not as valuable for horses, for though it produces fat and a fine appearance, it causes them to sweat profusel}^ ; and if eaten when the shoot starts in the spring, it produces inflamation in the eyes and epiphora, or weeping." The leaves of both carrots and parsneps are good for cattle, either green or dried. Gerarde, who wrote in 1593, says, "an excellent bread was made from them in his time." They have also, like the carrot, been used for distillation, and are said to affo-d a very good vinous beverage ROOTS 181 THE BEET (Beta). Thero are but two varieties of the beet in general usefoi the field, thz Sugar beet and Mangold-wicrzel, both of which have several sub-varieties. They are of various colors, red, pink, yellow, white or mottled, but color does not seem to affect their quality. The conditions under which they grow are similar. Beets do well in any soil of sufficient depth and fertility, but they are perhaps, most par- tial to a strong loam. If well tilled, they will produce large crops on a tenacious clay. We have raised at the rate of 800 bushels per acre, on a stiff clay, which had been well supplied with unfermented manure. The soil, camaot be made too rich ; and for such as are adhesive, fresh or un- fermented manures are much the best. The planting should be in drills, 20 to 24 inches asunder, at the rate of four to six pounds of seed per acre, buried not over an inch deep. The seed should be early planted, or as soon as vegetation will proceed rapidly ; but it mu.st first be soaked, by pouring soft, scalding water on it, allowing it to cool to blood heat, and remain for one or two days, then roll in plaster and drill it in. The husk of the seed is thick and scarcely pervious to moisture, and without previous tho- rough saturation the seed will not readily germinate. TJie culture is similar to that of carrots and parsneps. They should be thinned to a distance of about eight inches, and all vacancies filled with strong thrifty plants. It is bet- ter to sow thick enough to avoid the necessity of transplant- ing, for in addition to the time and expense of this operation, the new plants will not thrive as well as those which grow in their ranks from the seed. The above distances are suit- able for the sugar beet. The mangold-wurzel attains a larger size, and the spaces may be increased. The practice of plucking off the leaves for cattle-feeding, is objectionable, as it materially interferes with the growth of the plants. Scarcely any disease or enemy troubles it, except when young. It is then sometimes, though rarely, attacked by grubs or small insects. Harvesting may be commenced soon after the first leaves turn yellow, and before the frosts have injured them. The tops must not be too closely trimmed, nor the crown of the roots or its fibrous prongs cut from such as are destined for iate keeping. If intended for early winter use, they maybe abrid{jed a trifle, and af ter i he surface is d'y, stored like othe-» 182 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. roots They do not need as effectual protection as potatoes ; for if the frost reaches them under a covering of earth, it will gradually nitlidraw on the approach of Avarm weather, and leave the roots uninjured; but they will not keep as long as ff untouched by the frost. A slight opening for the escape of the gas, as with other roots, should be left at the top, and partially guarded with straw. Uses. — The beet is a universal favorite for the table, and of great value for stock. Domestic animals never tire of it, and swine prefer it to any other root excepting the parsnep. I have kept a large herd in the best condition through the winter, on no other food thai^ the rav/ sugar beet. They possess additional merit, from their capa>>ility of resisting decay longer than the turnep, and frequently beyond the carrot and parsnep. They will be solid, fresh and juicy, late in the spring, if properly stored ; and at a time too when they are most wanted for ailing sheep or cattle, milch cows or ewes, or for contri ^ning to the support and health of any of the farm stock. When fed to fattening animals, they should follow, and never precede the turnep. It has been found, that animals continue steadily to advance in flesh, after being carried to a certain point with turneps, if shifted on to the beet ; but in repeated instances, they have fallen back, if changed from beets to turneps. Davy found in 1,000 parts, the following quantity of nu- Iritive or soluble matter. — AVhite or English turnips, 42; Swede, 64 ; mangold-wurzel, 136; sugar beet, 146. This order of nutritive quality is followed by Boussinjrault, though he places the field beet and Swede turnep, at nearly the same point. Einhof and Thaer, on the contrary, place the Swede before mangold-wurzel. But in feeding to animals, unless for an occasional change, the roots should be given out in the order named. The sugar beet is seen to be more nutritious than the Jtiangold-wurzel ; it is equally hardy and productive, and more palatable to stock, and of course is to be preferred as a farm crop. The former has been largely cultivated in France and Germany, for making into sugar, where it has been en- tirely successful, because protected by an adequate impost on the imported article. Their conversion into sugar, has repeatedly been attempted in^ this country, but it cannot sustain a sue jessful competition with the sugar cane. From tl e experiments of Darracq, it has been found that ROOTS 183 in summer, the beet yielded from 85 lo 4 per cent, of sugar; but in October, after the commencement of frost, it gave only syrup and saltpetre, and no crystalizable sugar. When used for this purpose, the residiuim of the pulp, after ex- pressing the juice, is given to cattle. When wilted, the leaves are also fed to them, but caution, and the use of dry food in connection, is necessary to prevent their scouring. What are not thus used, are plowed in for manure. The beet is also distilled prnd yield.'- ibout half the product of potatoes. NOTE. On the following pages, I append the table of nutritive equivalents of food, compiled by Boussingault, as a conve- nient refereiace, though not entirely reliable in all cases. For it will be seen, from what has before been said, that the par- ticular plants, vary, not only according to the season and soil, but frequently also, according to the particular variety, subject to analysis. He says : " In the following table, to the numbers assigned by the theory, I have added those of the whole, which I find in the entire series of observations that have come to my knowledge. I have also given the standard quantity of water, and the quantity of azote, con- tained in each species of food. W^hen tlie theoretical equi- valents do not differ too Avidelyfrom those supplied by direct observation, I believe that they ought to be preferred. The details of my experiments, and the precautions needful ni entering on, and carrying them through, must have satisfied every one of the difficulties attending their conduct ; yet all allow how little these have been attentively contemplated, and Avhat slender measures of precaution against error have been taken. In my opinion, direct observation or experi- ment is indispensable, but mainly, solely as a means of checking, withi:: rather wile limits, the results of chemical analysis," 184 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. •}inB3 -nissnog; o ; ; . • : i- ; c • ■ •aapuy 2 : : . o . • ■ ; e-. ; ; ; :i : : •ajjni\r 2 : '■ i i§ •ao}3ip;i\; 2 : : . . o : :S •aauqos 2 : • to ! X o rr '•—, to • — — — • — . o : i : = 'z;j3.Mq3(;; 2 : : :SS : 1 :88 : : : : . TT .q. • • . . •zjtreaa 2 : : • o . . . ; CI . . . aisEquioa 2 : : . 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'I ■ i o o .■i§.S2g to t- . to ei S • o .roooooc'ooxrrou,o.r.^.,^-o^-,;oc. '.7 ;'3 . ^ ■ a. '. » • a : 0 ' S a '.i ; 2- o a > 0 a.' J ^ 3; St ; e : 3 J 0 xi i ' ip. i- 3 3 s J - i - ^T a 5 J -• 5 1) ) : .- 1 *n^ £. ; 0 ■ J s 3C 3c 5C a c 32 • • < f-o?S i \ 3 • 3 3 3 - ^ 3 ! ; < I ii i « 2 1 3- ; £ : ! is * < 5 i IB6 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. THE JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (Helianthns tnberosns). This plant is a native of Brazil, but it has hitherto been little cultivated in this country. Loudon says the name Jeru- Balem is a corruption of the Italian word girasole, (sun- flower), the blossom of which it closely resembles, except in size. It fiorurishes in a moist, loose soil or sandy loam, with little care except to thin out the plants and prevent weeds. It is hardy, very productive and easily cultiva- ted in drills, three or four feet apart. The planting may be done in March or April. As it is not injured by frost and is prolific, it will spread rapidly and often becomes a nui- sance in the garden. The product is enormous, sometimes overrumiing 2,000 bushels per acre. Its nutritive qualities are much less than those of the potato ; but its greater pro- ductiveness and the facility of raising it, ^vould seem to en- title it to more g-^neral favor. Boussingault considers it an improving and profitable crop, from its drawing its nitrogen largely from the atmosphere. It is pecuiiarlj^ fitted for spring food, as the fodts lie uninjured by the vicissitudes of the weather, and may be taken out in perfection after most other roots are gone. The artichoke is used in this country, both for human and animal food. The roots are generally eaten as a pickle or salad. Loudon says, " they may also be.eaten boiled, mashed in butter, or baked in pies, and have an excellent flavor." The tops when cut and cured as hay, afford a good fodder for cattle, and the roots are excellent for sheep and other stock. Swine will thrive upon them through the winter, and do their own harvesting wien the ground is not locked up by frost. 3R00M CORN. 187 CHAPTER X. mSCELLANEOUS OBJECTS OF CULTIVATION ' BROOM COHN (Sorghum saccharatnm). So far as I am acquainted with its history, this is a pro- duct peculiar to America. In its early growth and general appearance, it resembles Indian corn. It grows to the height of ten or twelve feet, with a perfectly upright stalk, from which an occasional leaf appears ; and at the top, a long compact bunch of slender, graceful stems is thrown out, familiarly termed the brush, which sustain the seed at and near their extremities. Soil. — The best soil for broom corn, is similar to that required for Indian corn or maize. It should be rich, warm, loamy land, not liable to early or late frosts. Spring frosts injure broom corn more than maize, as the roots do not strike so deep, nor has it the power of recovering from ne effects of frost equally with the latter. The best crops are ..sually raised on a green s"ward, turned over as late as possi- ble in the fall, to kill the Avorms. Clay lands are not suita- ble for it. M.anure. — Horse or sheep manure is the best for this plant ; and if mixed with much straw or other vegetables, they shovild be well rotted before applying. If the land is in good condition, three cords or eight to ten loads to the acre, is enough for one dressing. This is usually placed in hills, and 12 to 15 bushels of ashes per acre may be added with great advantage. Plaster, at the rate of two to four bushels per acre, is also beneficial. The addition of slacked lime helps the ground, affords some food to the crop, and is destructive to worms. Poudrette, at the rate of half a pint to each hill at planting, or Peruvian guano at the rate of a table-spoonful mixed in a compost with ten times its quantity of good soil, is an excellent application, especially it the land is not already rich enough. Repeating the above quantities awund the stalks in each hill, after the last hoeing, v^ill add materially to the crop. 188 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. Planting. — Broom corn should be planted in hills two feel apart, in rows two and a half to three feet distant. If the seed is good, drop 15 to 20 seeds in a hill, an inch and a half deep, to ensure eight or ten thrifty plants, which are all that must be left after the second hoeing. The time of planting must de- pend on the climate and season. The 1st of May is about the time in latitude 40°, ■and 10th to lothin42'^; but let it be as early as possible, yet late enough to escape spring frost. Mellow the ground well with a harrow before putting in the seed. Thick planting gives the finest, toughest Iwush. After Culture. — As soon as the plants are visible, run a ctiltivator between the rows, and follow \vith a hand hoe. Many neglect this till the weeds get a start, which is highly prejudicial to the crop. The cultivator or light plow should be used afterwards, followed with a hoe, and this may be repeated four or five times with advantage. Break the tops before fuUj^ ripe, or when the seed is a little past the milk ; or if frost appears, then immediately after it. This is done by bending down the tops of two rows towards each other, for the convenience of cutting afterAvards. They should be broken some 14 inches below the brush, and allowed to hang till fully ripe, -when they may be cut and carried un- der cover, and spread till entirely dry. The stalks remain- ing on the ground, may be cut close, or pulled up and buried in the furrows for manure, or burned, and thus be restored to the earth to enrich it ; or they may be carried to the yard to mix in a compost, with the droppings of the cattle. Cleaning the Brush. — Unless some larger machine is used, this is most rapidly accomplished by passing it through a kind of hetchel, made by setting upright knives near to- gether, or it may be cleaned by a long-toothed currycomb. By the use of the hetchel, none of the little branches are broken, and the brush makes a finer, better broom. We have seen horse power machines used for cleaning the seed with great rapidity, in the Miami Valley. The average yield is about 500 lbs. of brush per acre. It varies according to season or soil, from 300 to 1,000 lbs. The price also va- ries materially, ranging from three to sixteen cents per pound ; the last being seldom obtained unless in extreme scarcity, A good crop of seed is matured in the Connecti- cut Valley, about tvv o years out of five. When well ripened, the seed will average three or four pounds for every pound of the brush. A single acre has produced 150 bush- els of seed, though 25 to 50 i« i more common vield. It 189 weighs about 50 lbs. per bushel, and is usually sold at 25 to 35 cents. The uses of Broom Corn are limited to the manufacture of brooms from the brush ; and the consumption of the seed when ground and mixed with other grain, in feeding to fat- tening or working cattle, sheep and swine, and occasionally to horses. Brooms manufactured from it, have superseded every other kind for general use in the United States, and within a few years, they have become an article of extensive export to England and other countries. The brush and wood for the handles are imported separately, to avoid high duties, and are there put together, and form a profitable branch of agricultural commerce to those engaged in the traffic. The cultivation of broom corn has, till quite recently, been almost exclusively confined to the northeastern States ; but it is now largely raised in the Western. Their fresh, rich soil, how- ever, does not yield so fine and tough a brush as that grown in the longer cultivated fields. FLAX (Linum usitatissimum, Fig. 43). This is one of the oldest cultivated plants of which wo have any record ; and its habitat or re- gion of naturalization, extends from the torrid to the frigid zones. Its long, silken fibres, which come from the outer coating or bark of the stem, have been used for the manufacture of linen, from time immemorial. The absolute quanti- ty at present grow:., is probably equal to any preceding age ; but relatively, it is falling behind the product of cotton, which is rapidly on the increase. Flax is still a profitable crop, for in addition to its use as a material of clothing, the seed is of great value for its oil, and the food it yields to cattle ; and for the latter ''■"' '"'■ purpose, the whole plant is sometimes fed with decided advantage. The proper soil for Flax, is a good alhivial or vegetable loam, equally removed from a loose sand or tenacious clay. In a very rich soil, the fibres grow too coarse, and on a poor soil, the crop will not make a profitable return. Fresh barn- ^'ard manures are not suited to it, and they should, in all casea where necessary for a proper fertility, be added to the pre- 190 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. ceding crop. A rich sod which has long lain i;: pasture or meadow, well plowed and rotted, is the best for :t. Lime in small quantities, may be incorporated with the soil, but the Flemings who raise flax extensively, never allow it to follow a heavy liming till seven years intervene, as they consider it injures the fibre. A good wheat, is generally a good flax soil. Salt, ashes and gypsum are proper manures for it. The last has the greatest effect, if applied after the plant is developed and while covered with dew or moisture. All the saline manures used as a top-dressing, benefit the plant and check the ravages of worms, which frequently attack the young plants. Cultivation. — On a finely-prepared surface, either of fresh sod or after corn or roots, w^hich have been well manured and kept clear of weeds, sow broadcast, from sixteen to thirty quarts per acre, if wanted for seed, or two bushels, if wanted for the fibre. When thin, it branches very much, and every sucker or offshoot is terminated by a boll well loaded with seed. When thickly sown, the stem grows single, and with- out branches, and gives a long, fine fibre. If the soil be very rich, and fibre is the object of cultivation, it may be sown at the rate of three bushels per acre. There is a great difference in seed ; the heaviest is the best, and it should be of a bright brownish cast and oily to the touch. It must be lightly harrowed or brushed in and rolled. When three or four inches high, it may be carefully weeded by hand, and for this, it is best to employ children ; or if adults are put on the field, they should be barefoot. Any de- pression of the plants by the feet will soon be recovered by the subsequent growth, which, on good soil, will be sufficient- ly rapid to prevent the weeds again interfering with it Grass seed or clover may be sown with flax without any detriment to it, but the flax ought to be too thick on the field to allow them to grow well ; and in pulling the flax, they will be very likely to be uprooted. Harvesting. — When designed for cambrics and tha finest linen, flax is pulled in flower ; but in this country it is seldom harvested for the fibre till the seed is entirely formed, and although not ripe, most of it will mature on the stalk without any prejudice to the fibre. If required for seed, it must be left standing till the first seeds are well ripened. It is then gathered and bound in small bundles, and when properly dried, is placed under cover. If it falls HEMP. 191 ^efore ripening, it should be pulled at once, whatever its stage of growth, as this is Ihe only means of saving it. After Management. — After removing the seed by draw- ing the heads through a comb or rake of finely-set teeth, called rippling, the usual method of preparing flax in tnis country, is by dew-rotting, or spreading it thinly on a clean sward, and turning it occasionally till properly prepared, after which it is put into bundles and stored till a convenient period for cleaning it. This is a wasteful practice and gives an inferior quality of fibre. WatcV'Totting is the best plan of preparing it, which is done in vats or small ponds of soft water, similar to those used for hemp. This gives a strong, smooth, silky fibre, and without waste, and worth much more either for sale or for manufacturing, than the dew-rotted. Various steeps for macerating, and machines for preparing it have been used, which materially increase its marketable value ; but it is generally got out on the brake by hand, Avhcn the farmer is most at leisure. A crop of the fibre may be estimated at 300 to 1,000 lbs.; and of seed, from 15 to 30 bushels per acre. There are no varieties worthy of particular notice for ordinary cultivation. Great benefit is found to result from a frequent change of seed, to soils and situations differing from those where it has been raised. The seed is always valuable for the linseed-oil it yields, and the residuum of the seed or oil-cake, stands deservedly high as a feed for all ani- mals. The entire seed when boiled, is among the most fat- tening substances which the farmer can use for animal food. Flax, like most other plants grown for seed, is an exhaust- mg crop, but is not when pulled or harvested before the seed matures. The Flemings think flax ought not to be raised on the same soil ofteyer than once in eight years. As a means of promoting the industrial interests of the country, the raismg of flax, like that of hemp, cotton, wool and raw-silk, is an object of national importanci This value does not, like wheat, pork, butter, &c., end with thei! preparation for market, but constitutes a basis for other in dustrial occupations, after leaving the hands of the fannar Each should be produced to the extent, at least, of supplyin" our own maimfactures with the raw material, for making the fullest amount of fabrics we can consume at home oi profitably export abroad. HEMP (Cannabis sativa). large portions of our western soils and elinutu, are pecu- 192 A^MB&ICAN AGRICULTURE. liarly adapted to the production of hemp, aud for many yeais it has been a conspicuous object of agricultural attention. We have not yet brought the supply to our full consumption ; as we have till recently, imported several millions annually, either in its raw state, or as cordage, twine, sail-duck, osnaburgs and other manitfactured ar- ticles. But the increased attention and skill bestowed on its cultivation, combined with our means for its in- definite production, will doubtless soon constitute us one of the largest of the hemp-exporting countries. The Soil for hemp may be similar to that of flax, but with a much wider range, from a uniform standard ; for it will thrive in moderately tenacious clay, if fertile, and well pulverized ; and it will do equally well on reclaimed muck beds, when properly treated. New land is not suited to it till after two or three years of culti- vation. A grass sod or clover bed is best for it, v\'hen plowed in the fall or early in winter. This secures fine pulveriza- tion by frost and the destruction of insects, and especially the cut- worm, which is very injurious to it. If not already suffi- ciently mellow, it should be re-plowed iu the spring, as a deep, fertile tilth is essential to its full vigor and large growth. CtUtivation. — Early sowing produces the best crop, yet it should not be put in so early as to be exposed to severe frost ; aud where there is a large quantity planted, conveni- ence in harvesting requires that it should ripen at different periods. The farmer may select his time for sowing, ac- cording to his latitude, and the quantity cultivated. From the 10th of April to lOtli June is the fullest range allowed. The choice of seed is material, as it s important to have a full set of plants on the ground ; yet an excess is injurious, as a part are necessarily smothered after absorbing the strensrth of the soil, and thev are besides, in the wav of the harvesting, without contributing anything to the value ol the crop. Seed of the last year's growth is best, as it gene- rally heats by being kept over, which can be avoided only by spreadin'T; tliiu. From four to six pecks per acre of good UBMP. 93 seed is sutiicieiii. The best is indicated by its weight and bright reddisli color. It is usual to sow broadcast, harrow in lightly both ways, and roll it. A smooth surface is mate- rial in facilitating the cutting. Sowing in drills would re- quire less seed, give an equal amount of crop, and materially expedite the planting. This should always be done before moist weather if possible, as rapid and uniform germination of the seed is thus more certainly secured. If the soil be very dry, it is better to place the seed deeper in the ground, to reach a proper moisture, which can be done with the plow. If sown in drills and well covered, it might be pre- viously soaked so as to secure early germination in the ab- sence of rains. I quote from an excellent article on hemp raising, in the American Agriculturist, by the editor, A. B. Allen. Cutting. — " No after cultivation is necessary. When the blossoms turn a little yellow, and begin to drop their leaves, which usually happens from three to three and a half months after sowing, it is time to cut the hemp ; if it stands a week or ten days longer than this, no other detriment will ensue except that it will not rot so evenly, and becomes more la- borious to break. Cutting is now almost universally prac- ticed in preference to pulling. Not quite so much lint is saved, but the labor is easier and all subsequent operations, such as spreading, stacking and rotting. The lint also is of a better color and finer fibre, and the roots and stubble left in the ground and plowed under, tend to lighten the soil, and are equivalent to a light dressing of manure. If the hemp i.« not above seven feet high, it can be cut with large and sf^cong cradles, at the rate of an acre or two per day ; but if !»nove this height, strong brush scythes must be used, about txvo and a half feet long. Drying and Securing. — As fa-t a^; cut, spread the hemp on the ground, taking care lo keep the butts even, when if tne weather be dry and warm, it \v\\\ be cured in three days. As soon as dry, couimence binding into sheaves, and if des- tined for water rotting, it ought to be transported to dry jfiound convenient to the pools, and then secured in round stacks, carefully thatched on the top to keep out the rain ; t)ut if designed for dew rotting, it should be secured in large ricks, in the same field where grown. The reason why these are to be preferred is, that less of the hemp is thus exposed to the weather, and the more and better the lint when rotted and broken out. 194 AM'f-nCAN AGRICULTURE. The Ricks should be 30 to 40 feet long, and 15 to 20 feet wide, the best foundation for which is logs laid down for the bottom course, six feet from each other, then lay across these, rails or poles one foot apart. As the hemp is bound in sheaves, let it be thrown into two rows, with suf- ficient space for a wagon to pass between. While the process of taking up and binding is going on, a wagon and three hands, two to pitch and one to load, is engaged in hauling the hemp to the rick, and stacking it. Thus the pro- cess of taking up, binding, haulirg, and ricking, all proceed together. In this way five handf^ Avill put up a large rick in two days and cover it. For rr.aking the roof of the rick, it is necessary to have long homp, from which the leaves should be beaten off. In this state only will hemp make a secure roof. In laying down the hemr,, begin with the top ends of the bundle inside, and if they do not fill up fast enough to keep the inside of the rick level, add, as occasion may require, whole bundles. Give it a rounded fonnat each end, and, as it rises, it must be widened, so as to riia^ke the top courses shelter the bottom ones. After it is twelve feet high, com- mence for the roof, by laying the bundles crosswise, within a foot of the edges of the rick, building the top up roof- shaped, and of a slope at an angle of about forty-five de- grees. For the covering of the roof lay up the bundles at right angles to its length, the butt ends down, and the firsi course resting on the rim of the rick as left, one foot in width. Lap the bundles in covering the roof in courses, as if shingling a house. Commence the second course by re- versing the bundles, placing the .op ends down, and then go on lapping them as before. Begin the third course of shingling with the butt ends down, letting the first hang at least one foot below the edge of the roof, to shed off the rain from the body of the stack. Unbind the bundles, and lay the covering at least one foot thick uith the loose hemp, lapping well as before, and for a weather board, let the top course come up above the peak of the roof about three feet and be then bent aver it, towards that point of the compass from wliich the wind blows least. If the work has been faithfully performed, the rick may be considered as finished, and weather proof, and it requires no further binding. The rick should be made when the weather is settled, for if rain falls upon it during the process, it will materially injure the aemp. There ought always to be a sufficient number of vEMP. l9a hands : i the field to gather, bind the shocks, an-\ nnish the ricking n a single day. Time of dew rotting. — The best time for spreading hemp for dew rotting, is in the month of December. ' It then re- ceives what is called a Avinter rot, and makes the lint of the hemp a light color, and its quality better than if spread out early. But where a farmer has a large crop, it is desirable to have a part of his hemp ready to take up late in Decem- ber, so that he may commence breaking in January. Tu accomplish this object, a part of his crop may be spread about the middle of October. It would not be prudent to spread earlier, as hemp will not obtain a good rot if spread when the weather is warm. The experienced hemp- grower is at no loss to tell when the hemp is sufficiently watered. A trial of a portion of it on the break will be the best test for those who have not had much experience. When sufficiently watered, the stalks of the hemp lose that hard, sticky appearance or feel, which they retain till the process is completed. The lint also begin;' to separate from the stalk, and the fibres will show themselves, like the strings of a fiddle-bow, attached to the stalk at two distant points, and separate in t«he middle. This is a sure indication that the hemp has a good rot. Shocking after breaking and rotting. — When the hemp is dry, put in siiocks of suitable size, without binding. Tie all the shocks together with a hemp-band, by drawing the tops closely, to prevent the rain from wetting the inside. Each shock should be large enough to produce from fifty to sixty pounds of lint. If the hemp be considerably damp when taken up, leave the shocks untied at the tops until they have time to dry. If not well put up, they are liable to blow down by a strong Avind. To guard against this, it is desirable, when commencing a shock, to tie a band around the first armful or two that may be set up and then raise up the parcel so tied, and beat it Avell against the ground so as to make it stand firmly, in a perpendicular direction. The balance of the shock should now be set regularly around the part as hereii:i directed. If hemp be carefully shocked, it will receive little or no injury till the weather becomes warm. In the meantime it should be broke out as rapidly as possible. If the operation be completed by the middle of April, no material loss will be sustained. If delayed to a later period, loss of lint will be the consequence. Cool, frosty weather is much the best for hemp-breaking. If the l96 AMERICAN AGUICULTURE. fiemp is good, tirst-iate liaixls on the the common hemp break, Avill clean two hundred pounds per day. The ordina- ry task for hands is one hundred pounds.' — Beatty. HemjJ-brake. — The hand hemp-break is made like that for flax, only much larger ; the under slats on the hinder end are 16 to 18 inches apart, at the fore-end they approach within three inches of each other. The slats in the upper jaw are so placed as to break joints into the lower as it is brought down on to the hemp. After breaking out the hemp, it is twisted into bunches, and sent to the press-house to be bailed, and is then transported to market. Water rotting. — The best plan for water rotting is in vats under cover, the water in which is kept at an equal temperature. The hemp thus gets a perfect rot at all sea- sons of the year, in seven or ten days, and when dried, is of a bright, greenish, fiaxen color, and is considered by many, of a better qualitj^ than the finest Russian, and it brings as high a price in market. These Aats may be easily con- structed and managed, and if built in a central position, by a company of planters on joint account, they would be but of small expense to each, and all in turn could be accommo- dated by them. The hemp is first broken previous to rot- ting, in a machine, Avhich is moved by steam power ; this lessens the bulk greatly, by ridding it of most of its woody fibre ; but the process is not essential to rotting in vats. If to be rotted in spring or river Avater, artificial pools or vats must be formed for this purpose, which should not be over three feet deep, otherwise the hemp is liable to an unequal rot. It will require plank placed upon it weighted down with timbers or stones, in order to keep it \vell under Avater. Mr. Myerle recommends vats 40 feet long, 20 feet wide, and two feet deep. The hemp is thus kept cleaner Avhile rot- ting, and the hands can lay it down in the vats and take it out without getting wet, which is important to the health of the laborer. These vats greatly facilitate the operation, and they can be fed with water and ha^e it run off at plea- sure, without loss from the hemp. AVater rotting in streams, requires a longer or shorter period, according to the season. In September, Avhen the water is warm, ten days is general- ly sufficient ; in October, about fifteen, and in December, thirty days or more. For the latitude of Kentucky, October and November are considered the best months for the opera- tion; and it is then easiest done, gives more lint, and as good a sample as if deferred later." Raising Hemp Seed. — This requires another system ol HEMP. 197 cultivation, but on a siinilar soil, whic' should be in the finest condition as to fertility an 1 pulverizat:()n. An old pasture or meadow heavily manured and plowed in the fall, and well pulverized in ftie spring, furnishes the best soil. I quote from Judge Beatty's essay on practical agricul- ture : " The seed should be planted either in hills or drills. 1 prefer the former, because it admits of easier and better cul- tivation, as the plow can be used both ways. It is usual to plant five feet apart, each way, and suffer four or five stalks to stand in a hill until tlie blossom hemp is removed, aiid then reduce the number so as not to exceed two stalks in a hill. Thus there would be two seed plants for each twenty- five square feet. It would be a better practice to make the hills three feet six inches apart, each way, and thin theliemp to three stalks in a hill, till the blossom hemp appears ; at the proper time, cut out the blossom or male hemp ; and if ne- cessary a part of the seed hemp, so as to reduce the latter to one stalk in the hiil. The ground for hemp seed, having been well pulverized by plowing twice, and running the harrow, lay off as above directed, and plant in the same manner as corn. Twelve or fifteen seed should be scattered in each hill. Soon after the hemp comes up, run a small plow both ways, once in a row. If the groimd is not foul, the plowing may be delayed till the hemp is a few inches high, which will enable the plowman to avoid throwing the dirt on the tender plants. The hoes should follow the second plowing, and clean away the weeds, in or near the hill, and thin out the hemp to seven or eight stalks. These should be the most thrifty plants, and somewhat separated from each other. Repeat the plowing to keep the ground light and free from weeds. When the plants are about a foot liigh, the hoes slio aid again go over the ground and carefully cut down any weeds or grass which may have escaped the plow. The plants should be still further thinned out at this time, leaving but four in a hill, and some fine mold drawn around the plants, so as to cover any small weeds that may have come up around them. After seed hemp has attained the height of a foot and a half, it will soon be too large to plow, but it ought to have one plowing after the last hoeing. The ground, by this time, will hav3 become so mrch shaded by the hemp plants, as to prevent the weeds from growing, and nothing morj need to be done but for a man to follow the plow, and 198 iMERlCAN AGRICULTCRE. if three and a haiT feet be the distance of the hills apart, re- diice the number of plants invariably to three, taking care to remove those which the last plowing may have broken. When the seed hemp has so far advanced as readily to distinguish the male from the female plants, let all the blos- som hemp be cut ou*, except one stalk in every other hill, each way. This will leave one stalk of male hemp for every four hills. These, together with the stalks which after- wards blossom, will be sufficient to fertilize all the seed- bearing plants, aud secure a crop of perfect seed. After the blossom plants have remained until they have discharged their pollen, which can be easily ascertained by dust ceasing to flow from them when agitated, they, also, should be cut down. Some top the seed plants when five or six feet high, to make them branch more freely, but this is not necessary where but one or two seed-bearing plants are suffered to re- main in each hill." A seed-beannsr hemp crop is a great exhauster of land, while such as is grown only for the fibre, takes but a moder- ate amount of fertilizing matter from the soil. Unlike most crops sown broadcast, it grows with such strength and luxu- riance, as to keep the weeds completely smothered ; and it may, therefore, be 2TO'«ti for many successive seasons on the same field, without the latter becoming foul. Its entire monopoly of the ground, prevents the growth of clover or the grasses in connection with it. The seed yields an oiloi inferior value, but when cooked, it affords a fattening food for animals. COTTON (Gossypium, Fig. 44). Within the last few years, this has become the leading agricultural export of the United States. The total amount of the cotton crop in this couutrv, in 1845, was estimated at about 850,000,000 lbs., and for 'l 848, nearly 1,000,000,000. This enoimous product has mainly grown up within the last 60 years. Even as late as 1825, our total production was within 170,000,000. The introduction of Whitney's cotton gin, in the latter part of the last century, gave the first decided movement towards the growth of American cotton. Previous to this, the separation of the cotton seed from the fibre was mostly dene by hand ; and the process was so slow and expensive, as to prevent any successful competition "with the foreign article. This incomparable invention, which clea'aes.'. 1,000 lbs. i: the same tin:? a few pounds could be COTTON. 199 eleaii?i without it, overcame the only obstacle to complete success ; and millions of acres of the fertile lauds of the South and West are now annually covered with the snowy product. The increase seems to know no check or abate- ment ; as with the lessening price and increasing quantity, the demand seems constantly to augment. Climate and Soil. — Cotton will grow in some of the middle States, but with little profit north of the Carolinas and Tennessee. The soil required is a dry, rich loam. Light sands and tolerably heavy clays will produce cotton, but with much less profit than the loams. Fig 44.. Planting. — During the winter, the land intended foe planting should be thrown up in beds, by turning several fur- rows together. These beds may be four feet from centre to centre for a moderate quality of upland soil, and tive feet for the lowlands. But these distances should be increased with tiie increasing strength of the soil, to seven and eight feet, and in some instances, even to a greater distance for the strongest lands. These may lie until the time of planting, from 20tl- of JNIarch to 20 th of April, when no further danger 200 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. from frost is apprehended ; then harroTv, and w:th a light plow, mark the centre of the beds and soav at the rate ol two to five bushels per acre. A drilling machine might be made to answer this purpose better, and save much time. An excess of seed is necessary, to provide for the enemies of the plant and other contingencies. If all the seed germinates, there will be a large surplus of plants, -which must be re- moved by thinning. There is an advantage in mixing the seed before it is so^vn, with moistened ashes or gypsi^m, as it facilitates sowing and germination. It should be buried about an inch deep, and the earth pressed closely over it. The cotton plant, in the opinion of Dr. Philips, is hardier, even, than corn, when properly treated. He contends, and I must say, with a great deal of apparent reason, that thick planting is to be deprecated, and that but two or three pecks of prime seed should be sown to the acre. This ^vould expose each plant to the atmosphere, and give it op- portunity and room to deA-elop a strong stalk with abundant foliase ; and he asserts, when thus grown, a frost that will cut down corn, will leave the youeg cotton plant uninjured. There is a great disadvantage in exposing the long, spindling shoots, that have grown up among a croAvd of others, to the sun, wind and frost, when they are thinned out. A tempo- rar}' check is thus always given to the plant, and frequently, a permanent injury is sustained in consequence of it. The varieties of seed used for uplands are the Mexican and Petit-Gulf, both of similar origin, but the latter is better selected and has been kept pure. New seed -n'hich has been brought from a distance, ought to be substituted for the old as often as once in three years. The beneficial effects of this practice would probably be enhanced by bringing it from a different soil, and more especially, such as had grown upon one of inferior quality to that intended to be planted. The Petit-Gulf, raised near Rodney, in Mississippi, is universally esteemed the best seed, and it will frequently yield from one to tAvo hundred pounds more of cotton per acre than the average of such as is produced elseAvhere This difference has arisen, in part at least, from the great care used in the selection nnd management of the seed and it may be, and probabh is, in part due to some peculiai difference in soil or localitv, that better prepares the seed foi an abundant yield when transferred to remote fields. The cultivation is performed with various instruments, the bull-tonffue or scooter, the shovel, double shovel, the sweeu COTTON. 20 the harrow, the cultivator and the hoe. One or rriore of the former must be used to pulverize the land and uproot and clean off the weeds ; while the last is necessary to carry this operation directly up to the stem of the plants. The culture is thus summarily stated by Dr. M. W. Philips, of Missis- sippi ; " Commence cleaning the cotton early, and cleaji it well; return to it as sooy as possible, throw earth or mold :o the young plants, and _f the ground be hard give it a thorough plowing ; keep the earth light and mellow and the plants clear of grass and weeds." The plants are thinned at every hoeing, till they attain a height of three or four inches, when they are allowed to stand at intervals of about eight or ten inches for a medium quality of soil. This dis- tance should be largely increased when it is richer. Enemies and Diseases. — Cotton is subject to the cut- worm, the army-worm, and boU-Avorm, the slug, the cater- pillar, cotton lice, gTa>&hoppers, rot, sore shin anJ rust. 1 have seen no remedies prescribed for either, but suggest for experiment, the exposure of the two former to fros'tf by plowing just before its appearance. Late planting, and when the season is so well advanced as to give a rapM and uniform growth, is one of the most effectual preventives against disease or injury from insect enemies. The free use of lime and salt, and similar manures might arrest or miti- gate the effects of all. Birds should also be encouraged upon the fields, as they would destroy numbers of the worm and insect tribes. It has been claimed that the introduc- tion of the Mexican and Petit-Gulf varieties, is the most ef- fectual remedy, as they are hardier kinds, are less the object of attack and have a greater ability to withstand it. Harvesting is commenced when the bolls have beo-un to expand, and the cotton is protruded. This is continued as the bolls successively ripen and burst their capsules. It is done entirely by hand, the picker passing between two rows and gleaning from each. The cotton is placed in a bag cap- able of containing fifteen or twenty pounds, which is^huno- upon his shoulders or strapped upon his breast. — These are emptied into large baskets which are taken, when filled, to tlie gin-house. I quote the above authority : " Having all things ready for picking cotton, I commence early, and as soon as the hands can gather even twenty pounds each. This is advisable, not only in savinir a portion of that from being destroyed, if rains should fall,' which often do at this season, (al)out the middle of August), but for another reason ; 202 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. (.assiug through the cotton has a tendencj'^ to open out to sun and air, the limbs that have interlocked across the rows, and hastens the early opening. On low grounds, especially, much loss is incurred in some seasons from the want of the sun to cause an expansion of the fibre within the boll, so as to cause it to open. The boll is composed of five divisions, in each of which there is a parcel of cotton wool surround- ing each seed, there being several in each lock of cotton. When green, these fibres lie close to the seed, and as it r: pens, the fibres become elastic, the boll be:;oming hard and brownish. The Sea Island has only three divisions, as also the Egv'ptian, which is only the Sea Island of the best va- riety, with black seed, smooth, and a yellowish tuft of fibres on the small end ; they are both from Pernambuco. Some of the cotton we plant has only four divisions, but I think five gene ally. Tliere is a peculiar art in gathering the cotton from the boll, which can only be acquired by practice ; manj^ gather equally fast Avith either hand. The left hand seizes the stem near the open boll, or the boll between the two middle fin- gers, the palm of the hand up ; the fingers of the right hand are inserted tolerably low down in the boll, a finger on each lock of cotton ; then, as the fingers grasp it, there is a slight twisting motion, and a quick pull, which, if done well, w^ill extract the contents. Cotton should be gathered frotn the field as clean as possible, taken to the scaffolds and dried until the seed will crack Avhen pressed between the teeth, not crush or mash, but crack with some noise. It should be frequently turned over and stirred, and all the trash and rotten pods taken out, while this is done, to insure its drying earlier. If seeds are wanted for planting, gin the cotton imme- diately, and spread the seed over the floor some five inches thick, until perfectly dry. If the cotton-seed be not- wanted, pack the seed-cotton away in the house, to remain until a gentle heat is discovered, or until sufficient for ginning. After it has become heated, until there is a sensible feeling of warmth to the hand, and it looks as if pressed together, open and scatter to cool. This cotton will gin faster, have A softer feel, is not so brittle, therefore not so liable to break by rapidity of gin, and has a creamy color ; the wool has imbibed a part of the oil that has exuded by the warmth of seed, and is in fact restored to the original color. I have known of "> \;umber of sales made of this description of cot- COTTON. 203 ♦on, and even those who are most strenuous against the seating, admit it bore a better price." The cotton is theu ginned and baled, when it is ready for market. Topping Cotton between the 20th July and 20th August \s practiced by many planters with decided success. It is generally considered highly beneficial in dry seasons, but not in wet, and that in tluoe years ovit of five it is attended with particular advantage to the crop. SEA-ISLAND COTTON, This crop is raised on the islands and low lands that bor- der the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. If removed from this locality, the fibre seems immediately to degene- rate. It requires, in many respects, a treatment unlike that of the upland. I insert an article by Thomas Spalding, Esq., an experienced and intelligent planter, who has lono- been engaged in its cultivation : " The Sea-Island cotton was introduced into Georgia from the Bahamas. The seed was from a small island near St. Domingo, known as Ar- guilla, then producing the bestcotton of the western world. It in no way resembles the Brazil cotton, which is the kidney-seed kind, introduced some years later, and which, after trial, Avas rejected in Georgia. It came in small par- cels from the Bahamas, in the winter of 1785 ; and gradually made its way along the coast of Georgia, and passed into Carolina. The winter of 1786 in Georgia was a mild one, and although the plants of the Sea-Island that year had not ripened their seed, it being a perennial, and subject only to be killed by frost, it started the next season from the roots of the previous year, its seed ripened, and the plants became acclimated. Many changes have come over this seed since that time, from difference of soil, culture, and local position, and above all, from careful selection of seed. But the cause is yet to be discovered, why the gain in finenses of Avool, is lost in the quality and weight of the product ; for in spite of a zeal and intelligence brought to act upon the subject without parallel, the crops are yearly diminishino", until to grow Sea-Island cotton is one of the most profitless pursuits within the I'-iiits of the United States. Planting. — When the first seed was introduced, it was planted in hills prepared upon the level field, at five feet each way ; but it was soon found to be a very tender plant, liable to suffsr by storms, by wind, by drought, and by ex- cess of rail: The quantity -^^ seed was therefore increased^ 204 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. and the plants multiplied. If the seed is at first covered more than two inches, it will not feel the influence of the sun, and will not vegetate later in the season ; that is, in April. You must give from three to four inches of covering to preserve the moisture, or you ftill from an opposite cause, the wind and sun drying the soil too much for vegetation. In most countries, after sowing the seed, the roller is applied ; but in cotton-planting, in our ridge-husbandry, the foot in covering the seed and pressing down the earth, well supplies its place. Preparing the land. — Early in February, clean the rested fields, and either burn off the fennel-weeds and grass of the previous year, or list them in at five feet apart, to serve as the base of the future ridges or bed. There is much difference of opinion upon the subject of burning or listing in. I am inclined to take the first opinion, believing that the light dressing of ashes the field receives from burning off, is more beneficial to the soil than the decay of the vege- table matter, and renders it less liable to produce what is a growing evil, the rust; a species of blight, much resembling the rust or blight upon wheat, and which takes place about the same period, just as the plant is putting out, and pre- paring to ripen its fruit. For many years it has been the practice, among experienced planters, to divide the enclosed fields into two portions ; the one at rest, the other in culture. Ridging. — The land being listed in short lines across the entire field, at five feet apart, the operation of ridging is ccm- nienced about the first of March. The ridges occupy the entire surface, the foot of one ridge coniiuencing where the other ends, and rising about eight inches above the natural level of the land, thus presenting a surface almost as smooth, and almost a* deeply worked, as a garden-bed. This is done but a few days ahead of the planting, and the ridge Is from two to two and a half feet broad at top ; it is then trenched on the upper surface with the hoe, six inches wide, and from three to six inches deep, depending upon the period of planting. (Quantity of seed per acre. — A bushel of seed is gener- ally sown to the acre, I believe half a bushel is better ; for where the evil comes, whether the worm, wind, drought, or wet, there is no security in the many, but where they come up thin, they soon grow out of the way of injury. After-culture. — The cultivation of Sea-Island cotton is carried on by the hand -oe, and the qiianuty is always lim- COTTON. 205 ited to foul acres to the laborer. The operation ol weedinle-ba7ided, are more or less cul- tivated. Some of these were brought into Georgia at an early day, and thence transferred to Louisiana. Those I have seen have a large stalk of great succulency, but yield- ing a juice decidedly inferior to the Creole. Some additional varieties, such as ?/ie^reyca??es, intermixed with the ribbon, and occasionally others have been introduced, but they are not of superior quality, or of general cultivation. S>oil. — The cane will flourish in a great variety of soils, varying between the extremes of a stiff clay and a light sandy loam, provided the former be Avell drained and fertile. The soil best suited to it is a fertile loam, well supplied with lime, and such as will yield the best crops of Indian corn. Some of the best and most enduring soils in the "West In- dies and elsewhere, contain large quantities of lime and the phosphates. The most profitable sugar plantation in Louisiana, has a profusion of shells scattered over it, in every stage of decomposition. &eed Cane. — This plant is always propagated by cuttings. These ought to be provided from the best cane of the pre- ceding season. From the use of the um"ipe tops and close, negligent planting, it is supposed the Creole cane has degen- eiuted to its present diminutive size. There is lea* vigoi I THE SUGAR CANE. 209 and giowth usually from tops than from the ripened cane; thoug 1 where these are matured and a portion of the ripe stalk is left with it, the resulting crops, under the most fa^orable circumstances, are scarcely distinguishable. Fine growth frequently follows planting ilie tops, where the land is new and fertile ; but it is the exception and not the rule ; and good husbandry dictates a reliance on sound, mature cane only, for general use. There is no doubt, that in ac- cordance with the general laws of vegetation, the cane crop would be benefitted by a change of the plant cane from one section of country to another. But as this would be at- tended with so much trouble and expense as to preclude the undertaking, the only remaining means available for secur- ing improvement or preventing deterioration, is to be found in planting the best qualities of seed cane. preservation of the Cane. — This is kept from the period of cutting till planting, by simply placing it on the dry sur- face of the field, in beds or mattresses, as they are techni- cally termed, of about two feet in depth, and having the tops shingling or overlying the ripe portion of the stalk. The tops should lie towards the soi;th, to prevent their being Ufted and frozen from severe north winds, which sometimes occur. Thick beds preserve a more uniform temperature, and repel the approach both of frost and the sun's rays ; thus serving the double purpose, besides their preservation from frost, of preventing fermicntation during fall and winter, and germination on the approach of spring. It is well to preserve an excess of seed cane, as continued and severe spring frosts may cut do^vn and destroy so many young shoots, as to leave a deficiency, unless partially re- planted. Many assert the cane will keep better by being cut soon after a rain, so as to be bedded Avith the sap vessels full, and that dry rot follows when cut after a lonsr drouo-ht. Some, however, allow it to lie on the ground and wilt for two or three days after cutting, and think when thus treated, it keeps equally well. Cane u-Jtich is intended for grindi?7g is often thus se- cured, when severe frosts are anticipated. It requires ad- ditional labor to top and trim it when thus harvested ; but a good yield of sugar is in this Avay often secured, which might otherwise be lost. Preparation for planting. — Wliere the land is new (as much of it is, that is noAV appropriated to cane), it is inva- riably light and full of vegetable matter. Shallow plowing, 2l0 AMERICAN AGKIOULTURE. and wide distances between the rows, are here justified The cane grows luxuriantly in such soils, and where there is a deiiciency of warm weather to mature it fully, as in Louisia .la, room is required to allow a free circulation of air, and the full benefit of the sun, to ripen it before the ap- proach of frosts. From seven to ten feet is near enough fox the rows, but these should contain from two to three con- tinuous lines of good plant cane. Where the land is fertile, wide row^s, if well cultivated, will produce an equal quan- tity as if planted closer, and there is much less expense and labor in planting and tending the crop. Land that has been long in cultivation, may be planted nearer ; but if sufficiently fertile, as it ought always to be, it should never be nearer than six feet, and under certain circumstances, may extend to nine. It was formerly the practice to plant a single line of seed cane, in rows from two and a half to four feet apart ; but this system has been given up, as it was found troublesome in cultivating, slower in ripening, and it is believed materially and permanently to have lessened the size of the cane first introduced. Some planters make their cane beds every sixteen feet, planting in each, two rows at a distance of four feet, and leaving a space between every alternate row of eleven feet. There is a great advantage in these wide spaces, as the trash (tops, leaves, and all dead vegetable matter left on the ground), and bagasse (megasse, [Fr.] the residuum of the cane after expressing the juice), can all be buried between the widest spaces, and remain undisturbed till decomposed, without prejudice to the growing crop. On light or sandy lands, these materials may be burned and the ashes applied to the soil ; but in adhesive or clay lands, good husbandry requiies that all this should be buried, as the vegetable de- cay (carbonaceous matter or humus), not only contains every element for the reproduction of the future crop, but it effects a mechanical division in the soil, of great value to its poro- sity, friability and productiveness. Occasionally, the trash is buried at the foot of the plant, in which situation the earth is kept constantly uj^on it. Some place the cane at a distance of ten or twelve feet, and plant corn between the rows, which matures and withers before the cane reaches its full size. Others sow the cow pea, while still occupied with cane, to renovate the land ; but neither practice seems to meet with general favor, as they interfere with the main purpose of planting, which is to produce the greatest quau- THE SUGAR CANE. 211 tity of mature cane, an object that can only be secured bv its thorough and exclusive cultivation on the field. The land should be deeply broken up with a two or four horse plow. If light or sandy, it may be plowed flat ; but if stiff, or too much inclined to wet, it should be thrown into beds. Great advantages have generally followed the use of the subsoil plo^v, when run a foot below the bottom of the turning furrow, and immediately under the rou's to be occupied by the cane. This is the more important, as no opportunity will again occur for breaking up this portion of the field, till the plant is renewed. The plowing may be done at any convenient time between October and March ; but on plantations where the har resting and grinding are going forward, it is seldom the plows can be started before the last of December, or early in January. The plowing should never long precede the planting, unless in stiff soils, which need the meliorating influence of the atmosphere to crumble the massive clods ; nor in the.'^e, beyond the period necessary to effect this object. A fine bed of well-pulver- ized earth is thus secured for the plants to root in, and afford its nourishment to the young shoots. Planting. — This may be done any time between Octo- ber and April. There is a greater certainty of a good crop if in the ground by the first of March. The occupations of harvesting, grinding, plowing, &c., will usually postpone the commencement of planting till January. On the land pre- viously well plowed, open a wide furrow with the fluke or double mold-board plow. Clean this out \vith the hoe of a uniform width, by the removal of any clods that may have fallen in after the plow. With the increased width now usually adopted by the best planters, not less than three parallel seed stalks should be planted. These ought to be precisely in line, and at least four inches apart ; and it is better to place them so that the eyes may shoot out horizon- tally, and thus come up at the same time and on opposite sides of the stalk. Cover with sufficient earth to prevent freezing from any weather that may follow. On the ap- proach of spring, remove the earth to the depth of one or two inches. Light spring frosts "will not otherwise injure the cane, than to cut down the young shoots, and thus de- lay the grow'h till new leaves appear. The danger is in re- moving so much of the earth as to expose the roots to freezing. Cultivating — Throughout most of X«ouisiana, the cane SI 2 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. yields three crops from one planting. The first season it is called plant cane and subsequently, ratootis. In the tro- pical climates, the West Indies and elsewhere, ratoons will frequently continue to yield profusely for twelve or fifteen years. On new and peculiarly favorable spots in this coun- try, the ratoons will produce equal to the plant cane for several years, occasionally for six or eight ; and sometimes, as on the prairies of Attakapas and Opelousas, and the higher northern range of its cultivation, it requires to be replanted every year. The cultivation is alike in each, after the young shoots make their appearance ; previous to which, the ratoons shovild be barred off and scraped on the approach of settled warm weather. The former consists in running the plow near the rows and throwing the earth from them ; and the latter, in removing the soil from the surface. The sun's influence is thus sooner felt upon the roots, and an earlier and more prolonged growth is secured to the cane. But if these operations are performed too early or too closely, subsequent frosts may seriously injure the plants. Scrap- ing has in some instances been partially accomplished by a large and cumbersome machine, but thus far it seems not to have been generally adopted. One could probably be con- structed for the accomplishment of both purposes, that would save much labor and produce a uniformly beneficial result. Soon after the young plants have made their appearance, the earth is gradually thrown to them by repeated plowings, and the hoes are made auxiliary to this object, and to keep- ing the cane clear of weeds. There is a great advantage in wide planting, as the two-horse plow can be used for culti- vatino-. With these, a greater width and depth of furrow is secured, by which one plowman with two mules, will perform nearly double the amount of work, and do it much more thoroughly, than with the single ploAv. There is generally a larger growth from this deep and efiicient plow- ing ; and where weeds, and especially the coco grass abound, great economy in subdr ing these is secured by the use of the large plow, as it is thus so deeply bvu-ied, as to find its way to the surface only after long intervals. When the cane has acquired such a height and expansion of leaves as to shade the ground effectually, w^hich if all preliminary operations have been well performed, will be by the first of June, the last furrows are thrown to the roots and the earth slopes gradually to the centre ; forming an eleva- ted support lo -'is plcr.ts, and a depression between, which THE 8^aA3. CANE. 213 serves as a drain for the surplus rains. Many intelligent planters run a large subsoil plow two or three times be- tween the rows, which serves to loosen the soil for the greater extension of the roots, and this also more effectually drains the land. Throughout the operation of cultivating, after the ratoons have been barred otF in the spring, care should be observed to avoid catting or breaking the roots. This caution is applicable to all plants, but especially to the cane, which requires all the aid from its roots to mature be- fore the approach of cold weather. Deep plowing, both in breaking up and in cultivating, is essential to good sugar crops, on all lands that have long been subject to tillage. On the alluvial lands of the Missis- sippi, fresh upturned soil, exposed to the surface for the first time, always brinies with it new supplies of food for the plants ; and the more perfect and general the pulverization of the soil, the greater is the space afforded for a range to the roots. Good implements and good plowmen are essen- tial preliminaries to a good sugar crop. Harvesting. — In the West Indies and most other foreign States where grown, the cane fully ripens. This is true, also, with some of that on Tampa Bay, Florida, the cultiva- tion of which has recently been considerably extended. But in Louisiana, the cane never fully matures. It begins to ripen at the foot of the stalks in August or September, and advances upwards at the rate of about six inches per week. The proper period for cutting, would be just previ- ous to the heavy or black frosts {^freezes they are generally called) ; but as it requires several weeks to secure tli£ crop, much of which would be liable to great injury if left beyond the proper period, the harvesting is generally commenced by the middle of October, and steadily followed up till com- pleted. This is done by striking off the top (unripened stalks), then stripping the leaves by a single downward stroke of the knife on either side, and another blow severs one or more stalks at the foot. The cane is then thrown into carts and hauled to the mill, where it should at once be ground, boiled, granulated and put up for market. The moment of interference with the nat\ al condition oi .he plant, is the signal for breaking up its normal or healthy condition, and sending its elements rapidly forward on a new ca.reer of change. The exquisitely-arranged crystals of sugar, which may be seen with the microit«cope, closely wedged in their appropriate cells withii the siliciouB rind of 214 AMERICAN AGRICCLTCEE. the Stalk, are susceptible to the slightest alteration in any portion of the plant. By cutting it at the bottom, the ail gains access to the exposed cells, the sugar combines with the oxygen of the atmosphere and induces the first step to- wards decomposition, called the vinous fermentation, by which alcohol is developed. A second speedily follows, termed the acetic (the distinguishing peculiarity of vinegar), and this, if not arrested, soon terminates in the destructive or putrefactive fermentation, by which a!' the useful or nu- tritive properties of the cane are destroyec, and its materials are converted into their original elements, or are Avorthless for any purpose but manure. This change goes forward slowly \vith the sugar cane, while the temperature is low, but rapidly as it becomes elevated. Slight frosts in autumn are beneficial rather than injurious, as by deadening the leaves and tops they check vegetation, and stimulate rather than retard the ripening of the plant. When severe frosts are apprehended, it will justify cutting the cane as rapidly as possible, and matrassing as before de- scribed, under the head of the preservation of cane. When thus shielded from the approach of the elements by the over- lying cane, and at a period when the average temperature is near the freezing point, scarcely any change is perceptible for many weeks. The same result follows when remaining slightly frozen for an indefinite period. But the mo- ment a thaw commences, the nitrogenized matter of the stalk mingles with the sugar, through the rupture caused by the expansion of the cells from frost, the oxygen of the air gains access, and fermentation begins, after which it is im- possible to convert the saccharine matter into sugar. Molas- ses, alcohol and vineofar are the only forms Avhich the crys- taline matter of the cane can then be made to assume. The amount of the products of cane, depends on several circmnstances, the kinds planted, the soil, the season, man- ner of grinding, and the subsequent treatment in its conver- sion into stigar. The quantity of the crop of sugar varies from 500 to -3,000 pounds per acre, the last amount only being realized under the most favorable circumstances. In good seasons, and \vith skillful treatment, 2,000 pounds are often obtained ; but owing to adverse causes, and negligent management, it is doubtful whether the average crop of the country comes up to 800 pounds per acre. Tlie composition of cane of a medium quality, is water. THE SUGAR CANE. 215 72; woody fibre, 10; and sugar, 18; in ever j' 10 J parts; yet, notwithstanding the water and sugar (juice) constitute 90 per cent, of the cane, the best horizontal rollers have been made to express from 70 to 75 per cent, only, while '.he more imperfect grinding often reduces this below 50 per cent. It is estimated that the average product is about oG per cent, of juice, leaving 34-90ths or more than one third of the entire quantity still m the bagasse, and wholly unavailable for any economical purpose. This shows a great deficiency in the mechanical operations of sugar-making ; and it is the more to be regretted, as we knoAV that the mi- nute grains of sugar exist as perfec. in the cane, as in any subsequent state of its granulation. Boussingault asserti, t hat he has seen the juice of the cane, iindei the skillful treat nient of the chemist yield nothing but crystalizable sugar. Value of the products of cane for animal food. — Large quantities of the molasses have heretofore been used for dis- tilling into alcohol, but the manufacture of this has mate- rially lessened of late, and a salutary change has been made in its disposal. When it would not bring a remunerating price for exportation, as has sometimes been the case in the West Indies, it has been mixed with other materials, and fed to stock. It is healthful and exceedingly fattening to animals. Its great value for conversion into fat will be readily seen, by comparing the elements of eacli. Sugar, which is identical Avith syrup and molasses, except that the two latter contain more ^vater, and often some salts and other impurities, in suspension, has been analyzed by several chemists, with slightly varying results. According to the following authorities, it consists in every 100 parts, of Lussac St, Thenard. Berzelius. Prout. Ure. Oxygen, 50.63 49.856 53.35 50.33 Carbon, 42.47 43.265 39.99 46.38 Hydrogen, 6.90 6.875 %.&& 6.29 Fat, according to Chevreul, consists of 79 carbon ; 11.4 hy- drogen ; and 9.6 of oxygen. Thus, it will be seen, that fat and molasses, are identical in their constituents, though va rjing in their relative proportions ; and it Avould be fairly inferable from theory, as it has been found in practice, that no food is better suited to the easy and rapid conversion into animal fat, than sugar and molasses. TJie process of Sugar-making , is one ratlier belonging to the arts, than to agriculture ; and r.y limits will prevenl <316 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. any description of it. Much attention has been devoted to the subject within the last few years, and great improve- ments have been the result. But when fully carried out in detail, so large an expenditure is required, as to preclude their adoption by the mass of moderate planters. The ap- paratus of Messrs. Degrand, Derosne, Cail, E-illieux, and others, including defecators, steam-jackets, Dumout filters, vacuum pans, steam-j)ipes, and other improvements, may in whole or in part be advantageous to the large planters, and by many of these they have been adopted. It is much to be desired, that the two objects of raising the cane and converting it into sugar, could be separated, like most other purely agricultural and mechanical opera- tions. This change in the arrangement of sugar produc- tion, would effectually break up the aristocratic feature which characterizes our present sugar estates, and which is at such utter variance with nearly all the other branches of our agricultural pursuits. Sugar estates might then be divided among smaller proprietors, each of whom, by hav- ing a common market for his cane, would receive its full value, whether it were one or one thousand acres. We should thus witness an improvement in both the rearing of the cane and its manufacture, which is not likely to be so fully or speedily attained in any other way. Manures for the cane. — If the alluvial bottoms of Louis- iana and other fertile lands are properly managed, they will never become exhausted by the cultivation of cane. Tired of it they may be, as land is of any one constantly-recurring crop ; but exhaustion will never be realized, if the elements constituting the stalk, and not converted into sugar, be re- turned to the soil. This is done, simply by burying the ba- gasse and trash. If the former is burned, as is sometimes the case \vhere there is deficiency of fuel, the ashes should be carried to the field. The elements of the sugar, which is the only portion necessarily or permanently Avithdrawn from the field, are sitch as abound in the atmosphere, rains and dews, and are profusely brought to it, by every passing breeze and every falling shower. The inorganic or earthy portions are, therefore, the essential constituents to be return- ed to it. To show the proportions of these, the analysis of \he ash of the cave is subjoined, as given by Mr. StenhousS; THK SUSAR CANE, 217 ANALYSIS OR THE ASHES OF THE SUGAR CANE. Silicia Phonph'c acid Sulphuric acid Lime Magnesia Potassa Soda ! .... ! Chlo'. potass'm 3.27) Chlo'. sodium.. 2.02 1 45.P 3.76 6.66 9.16 3.66 •2o.o0 42.90 7.99 10.94 13.20 9.88 12.01 1.39 1.69 3 46.46 8.23 4.65 8.91 4.50 10.63 7.41 9.21 41.37 4.09 10.93 9.11 6.92 15.99 8.96 2.13 o I 6 4'6i49|.'j0.00 S.lOl 6.56 7..52 6 40 5 78 5.09 15.61]13.01 11.93 13.69 0.57 1.33 , 3.95! 3.92 8 I 9 45.13 4.88 7.74 4.49 11.90 16.97 1.64 7 25 17.64 7.371 7.97 2.34 3.93 32.93 16.70! 17.12! 26.38 6.20 6.03 5.8' 5.48 31.21 11.14 7.64 10 j 11 ~~aO 48.73 04 2.90 .31: 5.35 64 11.62 63 5.61 09 7.46 ... 16.06 4.29 2.271 12 8.01 1.93 14.36 5.30 11.14 0.84 3.83 " Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, were very fine, full-grown canes, from Trinidad, consisting of stalks and leaves, but without the roots, Nos. 5, 6, and 7, were similar canes from Berbice ; No. 8, from Demarara ; No. 9, of full-grown canes, but with leaves, from the Island of Grenada; No. 10, from Trelawny, Jamaica, consisting of transparent canes in full blossom, grown about six miles from the sea, and manured with cattle dung ; No. 11, of transparent canes, from St. James', Jamaica, growing about two hundred yards from the sea, being old ratoons, and also manured with cattle dung ; No. 12, young, trans- parent canes, three and a half miles from the sea, and ma- nured with cattle dung, guano and marl. — Pi'of. Shepard.'^ Herapath foimd that 1,000 grains of the cane when burned, left but 7i grains of a.sh, which was made up of inorganic bases, in nearly the following proportions, viz. : silicia, 1.8; phcsphate of lime, 3.4 ; oxide of iron and clay, .2 ; carbonate of potash, 1.5 ; sulphate of potash, .15 ; carbonate of magne- sia, .4; and sulphate of lime, .1. • The amount of fresh cut cane from an acre is sometimes enormous, exceding, probably, in some instances, 30 tons ; but where the trash and bagasse are restored to the. soil, nothing more is required to sustain its fertility ; yet there may still be a failure of the crop from the neglect of rota- tion. Many throw out their land to accomplish this object by rest; and while thus lying apparently idle, an important change is wrought in the soil by the action of a new class of vegetable roots, the ^veeds and such chance vegetation as may happen to occupy the field, which rapidly prepares it for its accustomed crop. But this end is attained more certainly, by a dense covering of such plants as may be best adapted to the purpose. Some alternate with corn, but this will be seen to violate a cardinal principle laid down under the head of rotation, as it approaches too nearly to the cane in its character. Corn may take its place in the fields, but 10 218 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. with far less benefit, regarded as a feature of 'ix>tation, tk ji if they were occupied 1 y the cow pea or some other plants, widely differing in their peculiarities from the cane. When the pea has been on the ground for one or two years, and especially if the crop has been turned under, an immense growth of the cane has followed. Where manures are sought for exhausted fields, the table of the ash of cane would indicate that potash, in some form, is highly essential, as well as lime, salt, the sulphates and phosphates. These, and the other fertilizing materials, can generally be procured in adequate proportions from stable manures, if the latter are to be had ; but where there is a deficiency of them, the land may be restored, by adding most or all of the following materials. Potash is one of the leading manures required by the cane ; and this may be procured from various sources. Ashes will afford it with the most economy, and in the greatest abundance. It is yielded by the slow decay of vegetable matters, and stable manures. It is also procured from the decomposition of many species of rocks and stones. Lime, marl or ground shells. These are mostly pure carbonate, with sometimes a slight addition of the phosphate of lime. Immense quantities of these exist in large deposUes, throughout the lower delta of the Missis- sippi, and with such a tendency towards decomposition, as to be easily broken down by an efiicient mill. Gypsum (sulphate of lime) is an ap^iropriate and economical manure, Ground bones (phosphate of lime) ; salt (chloride of so- dium), and charcoal, are all etticient manures for cane. Drainage, deep, thorough under-drainage, is peculiarly necessary in preparing the sugar lands of Louisiana to yield their utmost burthen, and choicest quality of sugar canii. Drainage should not be limited to surface ditches. It should embrace a systematic net-work of nnder-drains, Avith tiles deeply laid below the surface, and beyond the reach of the sub-soil plow, even when buried in he deepest depressions between the rows. All ""he advantages enumerated under the head of draining (Chap. IV.) will apply here. The cane on such thoroughly-drained lands, will commence growing earlier in the spring than on tlie undrained ; it will grow faster during summer, it will continue growing longer in au- tumn, ripen earlier and mature a larger portion of the stalk, and yield a sounder, richer juice. Tiie expense and constan; repair of s iiface drains will be saved ; the large proportion MAPLE SUGAR. 2111 of the field now taken up by them and their banks, wjl be avoided ; there will be no damage lo the crop from exces- sive rains ; no baking on the surface, or washing ot the fmei particles of the earth into the ditches. The land taved by this system would pay for carrying it out ; and sometimes, even a single crop would full) repay it, which might other- wise be lost by long continued rains. The cane would always be better, and could by no possibility be worse than it now is. Where there are stiff lands, and the object could be achieved by no other means than by the disposal of one half the plantation, it is probable the annual net profit de- rivable from the remainder, when thus improved, would be greater than the whole without it. A system of under- drainage, would of course, necessarily imply the use of lead- ing ditches and draining wheels, wherever adopted through- out the low-lands of the Mississippi Valley. Until this greai desideratum can be accomplished, the most complete arrano^e- ment of surface drains should be fully carried out. MAPLE SUGAR. The Sugar, Rock, or Hard Maple Tree (Acer sacckart' num, Fig. 46), is among our most beautiful shade, and most valuable forest trees ; and it stands next to the sugar cane in the readi- ness and abundance with which it yields the materials for cane sugar. When refined, there is no difference either in appearance or quality, between the sugar from the cane, the maple or the beet. In the brown state, Fig. 46. tliG Condition in which it is sent to market, when made with care and formed into solid cakes, it retains its peculiar moisture and rich aromatic flavor, which makes it more acceptable to the nibblers ol sweets, than the most refined and highly scented bon-bons of the confectioner. The quantity made in this country is very large ; thouo-h from the fact of its domestic consumption, and its se'dom reachino- the principal markets, there is no estimate of he ao-oregate production which will come very near the truth. The product for Vermont alone, for 184-5, was estimated at over 10,000,000 lbs. The quantity supposed to be annually sold in the city of New York exceeds 10,000 hhds.. Both the sugar and syrup are used for every purpose for which the sugar from the cane is employed. The sugar maple extends from the most northerly limits «!20 AMERICAN AGE.ICULTURB. of Maine and the shores of Lake Superior, to .he banks of tlie Ohio. Farther south it is rarely found. The cane and maple approach each other, but scarcely meet ; and never intermingle as rivals in the peculiar region which nature has assigned to each. In some sections of the country, the sugar maple usurps almost the entire soil, standing side by side like thick ranks of corn, yet large and lofty, and among the noblest specimens of the forest. Immense quantities of these are to be found throughout the original forests of our northern, western, and middle States. I have seen them for miles in extent, near the borders of Lake Superior — a con- tinuous wilderness of the sugar maple. I have also seen them in Wisconsiji, near Lake Michigan, as they are found in the natural sugar orchards of that beautiful State. In these, they grow in open laud among the rich native grasses, their tops graceful and bushy, like the cultivated tree ; and but for their greater numbers and extent, and their more picturesque grouping, one "would think the hand of taste and civilization had directed, Avhat nature alone has there ac- complished. Amidst those beautiful orchards, or in the depths of those dense dark woods, the Indian wigwam and the settler's rude cabin may be seen, filled with the solid cakes and mo-koks,* each of M'hich contain from 30 to 60 lbs., of their coarse-grained, luscious sugar. The season for draiving and crystalizing the sap is in early spring, u'heu the bright sunn)'' days and clear frosty Qights give it a full and rapid circulation. The larger trees should be selected, and tapped by an inch augur, to the depth of an inch and a half, the hole inclining downward to hold the sap. At the base of this, another should be made from three eighths to half an inch diameter, in which a tube of elder or sumach should be closely fitted to lead it off. A lude contrivance for catching the sap is by troughs, gen- erally made of the easily-wrought poplar ; but it is better to use vessels which admit of thorough cleaning, and these may be suspended by a bail or ] andle from a peg driven into the tree above. When the sugar season is over, the holes ought to be closely plugged, and the head cut off * I\Io-kok — -\n Indian sack or basket, with flatti^^h sides and rounded ends, similar in ashion to a lady's travelling satchel. They are made perfectly tiijht, from strips of white birch bark, sowed with thongs of elm. Many of ;he sap buckets are made of the same material, but different in form. The small mo-koks, tastefully crna- mented with various-colored porcupine quills and filled with maple sugar, are sold as toys. MAPLE SUGAR. 2%k evenly with the bark, which thus soon grcws over the wound. If carefully managed, several holes m«,y be made in a thrifty tree without any apparent injuiy to it. The barbarous, slovenly mode of half girdling ihe trunk with an axe, soon destroys the tree. The sap is collected daily with buckets, which are carried to the boilers on the neck, by a milk-man's yoke. Ifthequan tity be great and remote from the sugar fires, a hogshead may be used for this purpose. This is placed on a sled, with a large hole at the top, covered with a cloth strainer, or a tunnel similarly guarded, is inserted in the bungl ole. The primitive mode of arranging the sugary, is with large re- ceiving troughs placed near or partially within the cabin, and capable of holding several hundred gallons of sap. The boiling kettles are .suspended over the fires, on long poles supported by crotches. The process of sugar making 1 give from the statement of Mr. Wood worth, of Watertown, N. Y., who obtained the premium from the State Agricultural Society, for the best sample of maple sugar, exhibited at the annual fair of 1844. The committee, who awarded the premium, say " they have never seen so fine a sample, either in the perfection of the granulation, or in the extent to which the refining process has been carried ; the whole coloring matter is extracted, and the peculiar flavor of maple sugar is completely eradi- cated, leaving the sugar fully equal to the double refined cane loaf sugar. The statement says : " In the first place, I make my buckets, tubs and kettles all perfectly clean. I boil the sap in a potash kettle, set in an arch in such a man- ner that the edge of the kettle is defended all around from the fire. This is continued through the day, taking care not to have anything in the kettle that will give color to the sap, and to keep it Avell skimmed. At night I leave fire enough under the kettle to boil the sap nearly, or quite to syrup, by the next morning. I then take it out of the kettle, and strain it through a flannel cloth into a tub, if it is sweet enough ; if not, I put it 'n a caldron kettle, which I have hung on a pole in such a manner that I can swing it on and off" the fire at pleasure, and finish boiling, then strain it into the tub, and let it stand till the next morning. I then take this, and the syrup in the kettle, and put it altogether in the caldron, and sugar it off. To clarify 100 lbs. of sugar, I use the whites of five or six eggs, well beaten, about one quart oi new milk, and a spoonful of saleratus, all well mixed 222 AMERICAN AGKIJULTURE. with syrup before it is scalding hot. I keep a moderate fire directly under the caldron until the scum is all raised ; then skim it off clean, taking care not to let it boil so as to rise in the kettle before I have done skimming it ; when it is sugared off, leaving it so damp that it will drain a little. 1 let it remain in the kettle until it is well granulated ; I then put it into boxes, made smallest at the bottom, that will hold from 50 to 70 lbs., having a thm piece of bo.' .-d fitted in, two or three inches above the bottom, which is bored full of small holes to let the molasses drain through, which I keep drawn off by a tap through the bottom. I put on the top of the sugar in the box, two or three thicknesses of clean, damp cloth, and over that a board well fitted in, so as to exclude the air from the sugar. After it has nearly done draining, I dissolve it, and sugar it off a2;ain, wing through the same process in clarifying and draining as before." When sap is not immediately boiled, a small quantity of lime water should be added to check fermentation, which prevents the granulation of the syrup. A single tree has yielded 24 gallons of sap in one day, making over seven pounds of sugar ; and in one season it made 33 lbs. Trees will give an average of two to six pounds annually. TOBACCO cNicotiana, Fig. 47). This narcotic is a native of North America, and has been an object of extensive use and culti- vation in this country since the first settlementjOf Virginia, in the latter part of the 16th century. It formed for a long time the princi- pal export from that colony and Maryland. It is still largely cul- tivated there, and has since become an object of considerable attention in the middle and western States, and to some extent in the northern. Fig747.^' ""^ '^^^^ ^^^^ ""'^y ^^ ^ light, loainy sand or alluvial earth, well drained and fertile. New land, free from weeds and full of saline matters, is best for it ; and next ta this, is a rich grass sod which has long remained untilled. The seed should be sown in beds which must be kept clean, as the plant is small and slow of growth in the emly stages of i i existence, and easilj smothered by weeds. TOBACCO. 223 l( not ncv. iy cleared, the beds ought tj ie burned with a heavy coating of brush. Cultivatiori. — Pulverize the beds .'inely, and sow the seed at the rate of a table spoonful to every two square rods. I'he seeds are so minute, that sowing evenly is scarcely attainable, luiless by first mixing with three or four times their bulk of fine moid. This should be done sufficiei.+ly early, to secure proper maturity to the plants in time for trans- planting, (by the last of February or early in March south of the Ohio, and about the first of April north of it), cover- ing lightly and completely rolling or treading down the earth. The plant appears in 15 or 20 days, and will be fit for transplanting in six or eight weeks. This should be done in damp weather, and the plants set singly, at a dis- tance of two and a half to three feet each way. The after culture is like that of corn, and consists in frequently stirring the ground with the plow or cultivator and hoe, and keep- ing down weeds. The places of such plants as fail, or are blighted, should be at once filled up, and all worms de- stroyed. Tlie pi-iming, topinng, suckering and uvrming are necessary operations. The first consists in breaking ofi four or five of the leaves next the ground which are value- less ; the second is taking off the top to prevent the seed stalk from developing, and is regulated by the kind of tobac- co. " The first topping will always admit of a greater num- ber of leaves being left ; and in proportion as the season ad- vances, fewer leaves should be left. The heavier kinds of tobacco are generally topped early in the season, to twelve leaves, then to ten, and still later to eight. The lighter kinds are topped to a greater number of leaves. If the soil is light, fewer leaves should be left." (^Beatty.) Suckering consists in breaking off the young side shoots, which should be done immediately after they make their appearance. Worms of very large size and peculiarly destructive to the finer qualities of tobacco, abound during a part of the sea- son. These can only be removed by repeatedly picking off by hand. • Harvesting may be commenced with such plants as nave matured, which is indicated by greenish yellow spots on the leaves. This will generally occur in August at the South, and in September at the North. The stem of the plant is cut near the surface and allowed to 'vilt on the ground, but ttot 'ji'posed to a hot sun. If there is danger of this, cut 224 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. only in the morniLg or evening, and when pi »pei y wilted, which will be in a few hours, it may be carefully carried to the drying house, where it should be hung up by twine tied to the butt end of the stalk, and suspended over poles at dry- ing distances with the head downwards. The ckculation of air is necessary in the dry houses, but there n ast be entire safety against storms or winds, as the leaves are liable to break by agitation, and rain seriously injures them. AVhen the stem in the leaf has become hard, it is sufficiently dried. This takes place in good weather, in two or three months. The leaves may be stripped in damp Aveather when they will not crumble, and carefully bound in small bundles, termed hands, and then boxed for shipment. The varieties of tobacco are numerous, not less than twelve being cultivated in America. They soon adapt them- selves to the different soils and climates where they are grown. The most fragrant are produced in Cuba, and these are exclusively used for cigars. They command several times the j)rice of ordinary kinds. The tobacco of Maryland and the adjoining States is peculiarly rich and high flavored, and is most esteemed for chewing. Much of the peculiarity of tastf^ and aroma, and the con- sequent value of tobacco, depends on the soil, and the prepa- ration or sweating of the plant after drying. The former should not be too rich, and never highly manured, as the flavor is thereby materially injured, though the product will be increased. Yet it is an exhausting crop, as is seen by the large quantity and the analysis of the ash ; and the soil requires a constant renewal of well-fermented manures, and particularly the saline ingredients, to j)revent exhaustion. , Tobacco contains nitrogen and the alkalies in large quanti- ties, and but very little of the phosphates. The ash is shown in the analysis of Fresenius and Will, to consist, of potash, 30.67 ; lime (mostly with a little magnesia), 33.36 ; gyp- Euiu, 5.60 ; common salt, 5.95 ; phosphates, 6.03 ; sihca, 18.39; in 100 parts of the ash. The inferior kinds contain a large proportion of lime, and the superior [ualities, the largest of potash. The customary method of burning fuel on the beds de- Bigued for tobacco, and the use of freshly cleared and burnt lands, by which the largest crops of the best quality are ob- tained, shows conclusively the proper treatment required. By each of these operations, the gromid is not only loosened in the best possible manner, ;.! d all insects and weeds di' INDIGO. 225 etroyed, but the salts and especiaLy potash in an available form, are produced in the greatest abundance. Some ot the best soils in Virginia have been ruined by a constant succession of tobacco crops, the necessary result of neglect in supplying them with the constituents of fertility so largely abstracted. The yield per acre is generally from 1,500 to 2,500 lbs. Ifis a profitable crop when the besi kinds are cultivated, under favorable circumstances of soil and climate. The total esti- mated product of the United States for 1843, was over i8o,- 000,000 lbs., of which Kentucky furnished 52,000,000, and Virginia nearly 42,000,000 lbs. Missouri, Ohio and other western States are rapidly becoming large producers. INDIGO (Indigofera tinctoria, Fig. 48). Indigo was formerly cultivated in the southerj States, to a limited degree, but the introduction of cotton, the great profits Avhich it yield- ed, and its consequent rapid extension, drove the culture almost entirely on ta foreign soils. The decline in the price of cotton from large productioh, the increasing consumption of indigo in this country, together with the dimia- ished price of other southern staple.?, will probably again make it an object of agricultural attention in those States where the soil and climate are suited to it. We have no detailed history of its cultivation in the United States, f'«- -i^- and I quote from Lo don. He says, " it is one of tlie most profitable crops in Hindostan, because labor and land here are cheaper than any where else ; • and because the raising of the plant and its manufacture may be carried on without even the aid of a house. The first step in the culture of the plant is to render the ground, •wliich should be friable and rich, perfectly free from weeds and dry, if naturally moist. The seeds are then sown in shallow dr Us about a foot apart. The rainy- season must be chosen :'or sowing, otherwise if the seed is deposited in dry soil, it heats, corrupts, and is lost. The crop being kept clear of weeds is fit for cutting in two or three months, and this may be repeated in rainy seasons every six weeks. The plants must not be allowed to come into flower, as the leaves in that case become dry and hard and the indigo produced is 10* 226 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. of less val ie ; -or must they be cut in dry weather, as they would not fpriug again. A crop generally lasts two years. Being cut, the herb is first steeped in a vat till it has become macerated, and has parted with its coloring matter ; then the liquor is let off into another, in which it undergoes the pe- culiar process of beati.ig, to cause the fecula to separate from the water. The fecula is let off into a third vat, where U remains some time, and is then strained through cloth bags, and evaporated in shallow wooden boxes placed in the shade. Before it is perfectly dry it is cut in small pieces of an inch square ; and is then packed in barrels, or sowed up in sacks, for sale." Indigo can only be raised to advantage in our most south- ern States. The soil requires to be dry, finely pulverized, and rich. The seed is sown early in April, in drills about eighteen inches apart, and the weeds are kept down by the hoe. It should be cut with the sickle or scythe, when the lower leaves begin to turn, and just before the plant is going into flower. This period occurs in this country, about the middle of summer. A second crop may be taken the first of autumn, and in hotter climates, even a third. The consumption of indigo in this country already amounts lo betAveen two and three millions of dollars annually. There are several varieties indigenous to the southern States, and one or more in the northern, which yield inferior dye. MADDER (Rubia tinctorum. Fig. 49). The root of this plant is Tised for several dyes, but principal- ly for the rich madder red ; and it has been recently an object of attention in the United States. The intro- duction of this, with numerous other articles consequent upon the ex- tended growth of our manufactures, shows the intimate and mutually beneficial effects of as&r^ciating the two leading industrial occupations of agriculture and manufactures. The principal cause which has pre- vented its cultivation among us thus far, has been the long time required for maturing a crop. I subjoin a description of its culture from M'' )>a'.eliara. HADDER. 227 Soil and preparation. — " The soil should be a deep, rich, sandy loam, free from weeds, roots and stones. Al- luvial bottom laiid is the most suitable, but it must not be wet. If old upland is used, it should receive a heavy coat- ing of vegetable earth, from decayed wood and leaves. The laud should be j)lowed very deep in the fall, and early in the spring apply about one hundred loads of wtll-rotted manure per acre, spread evenl) azid plowed in deeply, then harrow till quite fine and free from lumps. Next, plow the land into beds four feet wide, leaving alleys between three feet Avide, then harrow the beds with a fine light harrow, or rake them by hand so as to leave them smooth and even with the alleys; they are then ready for planting. Preparing sets and plaiiting. — Madder sets or seed roots are best selected when the crop is dug in the fall. The horizontal uppermost roots with eyes are the kind to be used ; these should be separated from the bottom roots and buried in sand, in a cellar or pit. If not done in the fall, the sets may be dug early in the spring, before they begin to sprout. They should be cut or braken into pieces, contain- ing from two to five eyes each. The time for planting is as early in spring as the ground can be got in good order, and severe frosts are over, which in this climate is usually about the middle of April. With the beds prepared as directed, stretch a line lengthwise the bed, and with the corner of a hoe make a drill two inches deep along each edge and down the middle, so as to ^ ^ve three rows to each bed, about two feet apart. Into these kills drop the sets, ten inches apart, covering them two inches deep. Eight or ten bushels of sets are requisite for an acre. After-culture. — As soon as the plants can be seen, the ground should be carefully hoed, so as to destroy the weeds and not injure the plants ; and the hoi ing and weeding must be repeated as often as weeds make their appearance. If any of the sets have failed to grow, the vacancies should be filled by taking up parts of the strongest roots and trans- planting them ; this is best done in June. As soon as the madder plants are ten or twelve inches high, the tops are to be bent down on to the surface of the ground, and all ex- cept the tip end, covered with earth shoveled from the middle of the alleys. Bend the shoots outward and inward, in every direction, so as to fill all the vacant space on the beds, and about one foct on each side. After the first time cover- ).ijg, repgaf. the v ceding when necessary, and run a single 228 AMERICAN AGRIC ULTtTRE. norse plow through the alleys several times to keep Ih ? earth clean and mellow. As soon as the plants again be come ton or twelve inches high, bend down and cover them as before, repeating the operation as often as necessary, which is commonly three times the first season. The lasf time may be as late as September, or later if no frosts occur. Bv covering the tops in this manner, they change to roots, and the design is to fill the gromad as full of roots as possi^ ble. When the vacant spaces are all full, there will be but little chance for weeds to grow; but all that appear must be pulled out. The second year. — Keep the beds free from weeds ; plow the alleys and cover the tops, as before directed, two or three times during fhe season. The alleys will now form deep and narrow ditches, and if it becomes difficult to ob- tain good earth for covering the tops, that operation may be omitted after the second time this season. Care should be taken when covering the tops, to keep the edges of the beds as high as the middle, otherwise the water from heavy showers Avill. rim off, and the crop suffer from drought. The third year. — Very little labor or attention is required. The plants will now cover the whole ground. If any weeds are seen, they must be pulled out ; otherwise their roots will cause trouble when harvesting the madder. The crop is sometimes dug the third year ; and if the soil and culti- vation have been good, and the seasons warm and favorable, the madder will be of good quality ; bat generally, it is much better in quality, and more in quantity, when left until the fourth year. DiggiJig and harvesting. — This should be done between the 20th of August and the 20th of Sei^tember. Take g sharp shovel, and cut off and remove the tops with half an inch of the surface of the earth ; then take a plow of ihe largest size, with a sharp coulter and a double team, and plow a furrow outward, beam-deep, around the edge of the bed ; stir the eartii with forks, and carefully pick out all the roots, removing the earth from the bottom of the furrow ; then plow another fiirrow beam-deep, as before, and pick over and remove the earth in the same manner ; thus pro- ceeding until the whole is completed. WasJiing and drying. — As soon as possible after digging, take the roots to some running stream or pump to be washed. Take large, round sieves, two and a half or three feet in diameter, with the wire about ns fine as whea". sieves ' or. MADDER. 229 if these cannot be had, get screen-wire of the rigLt f.neness and make frames or boxes about two and a half feet long, and the width of the wire, on the bottom of which nail the wire. In these sieves or boxes, put half a bushel of roots at a time, and stir them about in the water, pulling the buncnes apart so as to Avash them clean ; then, having a platform at hand, spread the roots about two inches thick for drying in the sun. Carry the platforms to a convenient place, not far from the house, and place them side by side, in rows east and west, and Avith their ends north and south, leaving room to walk between the rows. Elevate the south ends of the platforms about eighteen inches, and the north ends about six inches from the groinid, putting poles or sticks to support them — this will greatly facilitate drying. After the second or third day drying, the madder must be protected from the dews at night, and from rain, placing the platforms one upon another to a convenient height, and covering the uppermost one wiUi boards. Spread them out again in the morning, or as soon as the danger is over. Five or six days of ordinarily fine weather will dry the mad- der sufficiently, when it may be put away till it is conve- nient to kiln dry and grind it. Kiln drying. — The size and mode of constructing the kiln may be varied to suit circumstances. The following is a very cheap plan, and sufficient to dry one ton of roots at a time. Place four strong posts in the ground, twelve feet apart one way, and eighteen the other ; the front two four- teen feet high, and the others eighteen ; put girts across the bottom, middle and top; and nail boards perpendiciilarly on the outside, as for a comanon barn. The boards must be well-seasoned, and all cracks or holes should be plastered, or otherwise stopped up. Make a shed-roof of common boards. In the inside put upright standards about five feet apart, "vvith cross-pieces, to support the scaffislding. The first cross-pieces to be four feet from the floor ; the next two feet higher, and so on to the top. On these cross-pieces, lay small poles about six feet long and two inches thick, four or five inches apart. On these scaffolds the madder is to be spread nine inches thick. A floor is laid at the bottom to keep all dry and clean. "When the kiln is filled, take six or eight small kettles or hand furnaces, and place them four or five feet apart on the floor (first securing it from the fire with bricks or stones), and make fires in them with charcoal, *>eing careful not to make any of the fires so lar^e as to 230 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. ecorc.i ll.e madder over them. A person mua: be in con- ^ant attendance to watch and replenish tlie fires. The heat wil. ascend through the whole, and in ten or twelve hours it vill all be sufiiciently dried, which is known by its becomins; brittle like pipe-stems.* Breaking and grinding. — Inmiediately after being dried, the madder must be broken and ground immediately, or it will gather dampness so as to prevent its grinding freely. Any common grist-mill can grind madder properly ; and when ground it is fit for use, and may be packed in l3arrels, like flour, for market." Quantity per acre. — Mr. Swift, of Ohio, has raised 2,000 barrels per acre in one crop of four years growth, at a nett profit, including all charges of rent, labor, &c., of $200 per acre. The roots of madder are also a good food for cattle, but the expense and delay of producing it, will preclude its use for that purpose in this country. • wo AD (Isatis tinctoria, Fig. 50). Woad is largely used in this country for dyeing, but generally, as a base for blues, blacks and some other colors, and for these it supplies the place of indigo. There are several varieties of woad, but the common biennial plant is the only one culti- vated. • Loudon says: — " The soil for ivoad should be deep and perfectly fresh, such as those of the rich, mellow, loamy, and deep vegetable kind. Where this culture is carried to a considerable degree of perfection, the deep, rich, putrid, allvivial soils on the flat tracts fjo. 50. extending upon the borders of the large rivers, are chiefly employed for the growth of this sort of crop ; and it has been shown by repeated trials, that it answers most perfectly when they are broken up for it im- mediately from a state of sward. * This seems to be a simple way of accomplishing the object, and within every one's reach ; but as carbonic acid gas is thus constantly generated and closely confined, and by its gravity will occupy the lower strata of air, the greatest caution will be necessary for the per- son attending or the kiln drying, to preven' injury to himself VVOAD. 231 The preparation of the soil, wlie:.i woad is lo be grown on gras> land, may either be effected by deep plowings, with the aid of the winter's frost, cross plowing and harrow- ing in spring ; by deep plo\ving and harrowing in spring ; by paring and burning ; or by trenclr-plowing, or spade- tienching. The first mode appears the worst, as it is next to impossible to reduce old turf in one year ; and, even if this is done, the danger from the grub and ^vire-worm is a suffi- cient argument against it. By plo\ving deep in February, and soon afterwards sowing, the plants may germinate before tlie grub is able to rise to the surface ; by trench-plowing, the same purpose will be better attained ; and, best of all, by spade trenching. But a method equally effectual with the first, more expeditious, and more destructive to grubs, insects, and other vermin, which are apt to feed on the plants in their early growth, is that of paring and burning This is, however, chiefly practiced where the sward is rough and abounds with rushes, sedge, and other plants of the coarse kind, but it might be had recourse to on others, with benefit. The mode of sowing is generally broad-cast, but the plant might be most advantageously grown in rows, and cultivated with the horse hoe. The rows may be nine inches or a foot apart, and the seed deposited two inches deep. The quantity of seed for the broad-cast method is five or six pounds to the acre ; for the drill mode, two pounds are more than sufficient, the seed being smaller than that of the turnep. New seed, where it can be procured, should always be sown in preference to old ; but, when of the latter kind, it should be steeped for some time before it is put into the ground.— The time of sow^ing may be ex- tended from February to July. Early sowing, however, is Is another article exclusively used by the manufacturers for the purpose of raising a nap, or combing out the fibres, upon the dressed surface of woollen cloth or flannels. The consump- tion cannot of course be extensive, being limited exclusively to this demand. There is but one kind cultivated. A bastard variety of spontaneous growth exists in portions of our middle States, which resembles the useful teasel, with this peculiar difl"erence, that the ends of the awns or chaff on the heads are straight, instead of hooked, which renders them perfectly worthless. Cultivation. — The teasel is a biennial, requiring two years to mature. It is sown on a deep, loamy clay, previ- ously well plowed and harrowed, in drills 20 inches asunder, leaving a plant in every 10 inches; or, if planted in hills, they maybe about 16 inches apart. The ground should be kept light by occasional stirring, and free from weeds. The plants are generally stronger and more thrifty if alloued to mature where sown ; and to accomplish this, the interme- •liate spaces between the hills may be annually planted •v'th new seed. Many adopt the plan of sowing in beds 236 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. and transplanting. — Although hardy, there is sometimes an advantage in covering the young plants with straw during the winter, v/hich can be conveniently done only when they are compactly placed in beds. Gathering. — Those intended for use should be cut with a stem eight inches long below the head, just as it is going out of flower when the awns are the toughest ; and as these mature at diiferent times in the same plant, they should be cut successively as they come forward. Those intended for seed, which should always be the largest, strongest heads, must be suffered to remain till ripe, when they can be gathered and threshed with a flail. Spread the others thinly, and dry under cover where no moisture can reach them. They may then be assorted into three parcels, according to size and quality, and packed in large sacks, when they are ready for market. The crop on good soils \vell cultivated, may be stated at 150,000 to 200,000 per acre, worth from $1,50 to $2.00 per thousand. The use of teasels has been to a considerable extent su- perseded in this country, within a fe^v years, by the intro- duction of metallic nappers. These consist of thin, steel plates, with fine teeth arranged compactly on a shaft, forming a continuous cylinder of slightly projecting teeth, which are almost indestructible by use. MTJSTAHD.. There are two speoies of mustard raised in the United States ; tlie white [Sinapis alba, Fig. 52), which is most usually cultivated as a forage plant ; and the black (S. nigra, Fig. 53), generally raised foi the seed. It require^ a rich, loamy soil, deeply plowed and well harrowed. It may be sown either broad-cast, in drills about two feet apart, or in hills. Mr. Parmelee, of Ohio, thus raised on 27 acres, 23,850 lbs., which brought in the Philadelphia market, $2,- 908 ; an average of over $100 per acre. The ground on which it is planted must be frequently Fia. 62. Fig. HOIS, 237 stirred and kept clear of weeds. Wher, matured, it should ba careiuDy cut with the scythe or sickle, and if so ripe as to shell, laid into a wairon box with tight canvas over the bottom and sides, so as to prevent waste. As soon as it is perfectly dry, it may be threshed and cleaned, when it is ready for market. The white mustard is a valuable crop as green food for cattle or sheep, or for plowing in as a fertilizer. For feed- ing, the white is much preferred to the black, as the seed of the latter is so tenacious of life, as to be eradicated with difficulty when once in the ground. The amount of seed required per acre is from eight to tAventy quarts, according to the kind and quality of the land, and the mode of planting or sowing. It may be sown from early spring till August, for the northern and middle States, and till the latter part of September for the southern. The crops yield from 25 to 30 bushels per acre. Both are excellent fertilizers for the soil. THE HOP, (Humulus lupulus, Fig. 54). There are several varieties of hops, indigenous to this country. They groAV best on a strong loam or well- drained clay, with light sub-soil. If the latter be retentive of water, the hop will soon dwindle or die. If made sufficiently rich, it will flourish on light loam or gravels ; but a new, strong soil is better, and ilu's requires little or no manure. The most de- sirable exposure is a gentle slope to the south : but this shosld be where there can be a free circulation of air amidst fhe tall vege- table growth, which characterizes the luxuriant hop field be- yond every other northern crop. Cultivation. — If the land has been long in use, it should be dressed with compost and alkaline manures ; or what is nearly equivalent, with fresh, barnyard manures, on a pre- viously well-hoed crop, made perfectly fr-je of all weeds, and Fig. 54, AMERICVN AGRICULTTTB-E. deeply plowed and harrowed. Then mark out :he groiiud at intervals of six feet each way and plant in the intersection of the furrows, and unless the ground be already rich enough, place three or four shovels of compost in each hill. The planting is done with the new roots taken from the old hills, which are laid bare by the plow . Each root should be six or eight inches long and must contain two or more eyes, one to form the root, and the other the vine. Six plants are put in a hill, all of which should be Avithin the compass of about a foot, and covered to a depth of five inches, leaving the ground level when planted. The first season, the interme- diate spaces between the hills may be planted with corn or potatoes, and the ground carefully cleared of weeds, and frequently stirred. No poles are necessary the first year, as the product will not repay the cost. The ground should re- ceive a dressing of compost the following spring, and the plants be kept well hoed and clean. Poles may he prepared at the rate of two or three to each hill, 20 to 24 feet long, and selected from a straight, smooth under-growth of tough and durable wood, from four to seven inches diameter at the butt end. These are sharpened and firmly set with an iron bar, or socket bar with a wooden handle, in such a position as will allow the fullest effect of the sun upon the hills or roots. When the plants have run to the length of three or four feet in the spring, train them around the poles, winding in the direction of the sun's course, and fasten below the second or third set of leaves, where there is sufficient strength of vine to sustain them- selves. They may be confined with rushes, tough grass, or more easily \vith AvooUen yarn. This operation is needed again in a few days, to secure such as may have got loose by the winds or oth '.r causes, and to train up the new shoots. T)ie gathering of h vs takes place when they have ac- quired a strong" scent, at which time the seed becomes firm and brown, and the lowest leaves begfiu to change color. This precedes the frosts in September. The vines must first be cut at the surface of the ground, and the poles pulled up and laid in convenient piles, when they may be stripped of the hops, which are thrown into large, light baskets. Or the poles may be laid on long, slender boxes with handles at each end, (to admit of being carried by ^wo persons), and as the hops are stripped they fall into the box. Be careful to select them free from leaves, stems and iirt. HOPS 239 Cultivating the second year. — After gathering in the fall, iii-e hops should be hilled or covered with compost and all tue vines removed. The following spring when the ground i^- dry, the surface is scraped from the hiJ, and additional compost is added, when a plow is run on four sides, as near as possible without injury to the plants. All the running roots are laid bare and cut with a sharp knife within two or three inches of the main root, and the latter are trimmed if spreadhig too far. It is well to break or twist down the first shoots and allow those which succeed to run, as they are likely to be stronger and more productive. Cutting sliould be avoided unless in a sunny day, as the profuse bleeding injures them. The poles will keep much longer, if laid away under cover till again "wanted the following spring. Curing or drying. — This is an important operation. It may be done by spreading the hops thinly in the shade and stirring them often enough to prevent heating. But when there is a large quantity, they can be safely cured only in a iviln. The following mode is recommended by Mr. Blanchard : " For the convenience of putting the hops on the kiln, the side of a hill is generally chosen. The kiln should be dug out the same bigness at the bottom as at the top ; the side walls laid up perpendicularly, and filled in solid with stone, to give it a tunnel form. Twelve feet square at the top, two feet square at the bottom, and at least eight feet deep, is deemed a coiavenient size. Sills are laid on the top of the walls, having joists let into them like a floor ; on which laths, about one and a half inches ^vide are nailed, leaving open spaces between them three-fourths of an inch, over which a thin linen cloth is spread and nailed at the edges of the sills. A board about twelve inches wide is set up on each side of the kiln, on the inner edge of the sill, to form a bin to re- ceive the hops. The larger the stones made use of in the construction of the kiln, the better; as it will give a more steady and dense heat. The inside of the kiln should be well plastered with mortar to make it completely air-tight. Charcoal made from yellow birch, sound hickory or maple is the only fuel proper to be used in drying hops. The kiln should be well heated before any hops are put on, and care- fully attended, to keep a steady and regular heat. Fifty pounds of hops, when dried, is the largest quantity that should be dried at one time, on a kiln of this size, a:id unless >j<'cessary to put on that quantity, a less would dry cetter. MO AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. The green hops should be spread as evenly and as light as possible over the kiln. The fire at first should be mode- rate, but it may be increased as the hops dry and the steam is evaporated. The hops, after lying a few days, will gather a partial moisture, called a sweat. The sweat will probably begin to SHbside in about eight days, at which time, and before the sweat is off, they ought to be bagged in clear dry weather. As the exact time when the hops will begin to sweat, and when the sweat will begin to subside or dry off" (the proper time to bag them), will vary with the state of the atmosphere, it will be necessary to examine the hops from day to day, which is easily done by taking some of them from the centre of the heap. If on examination you find the hops to be very damp, and their color altering, which Avill be the case if they were not completely dried on the kiln, overhaul and dry them in the air. Hops should not remain long in the bin or bag after they are picked, as they Avill very soon heat and become insipid. The hops should not be stirred on the kiln until they are completely and fully dried. Then remove them from the xiln into a dry room and lay in a heap unstirred until bag- ged. This in done ^vith a screw, having a box made of plank the size of the bag into ^vhich the cloth is laid and the hops screwed into the box, so constructed that the sides may be removed and the bag sewed together while in the press. The most convenient size for a bag is about five feet in length, and to contain ajpout two hundred and fifty pounds. The best material is coarse, strong, domestic tow cloth ; next to that, Russia hemp bagging. Those who have entered considerably into the cultivation of hops, build houses over their kihis, which are convenient in wet weather, otherwise, a kiln in the open air would be preferable. It is necessary to have these buildings well ven- tilated with doors and windows ; and to have them kept open night and day, except in wet weather, and then shut those only which are necessary to keep out the rain. Or if a ventilator was put in the roof it -would be found advan- tageous. I have seen many hops injured bo-th in color and flavor by being dried in close buildings. Where the houses over the kilns are large for the purpose of storing the hops, make a close partition between the kilns and the room in CASTOR BEAN. 241 which the hops are stored, to prevent the damp steam from the kilns as it will color them, and injure the flavor and quality." Diseases. — Hops are liable to attack from variovis insects, blight, mildew, &;c. There is no effective remedy of general application for either. The best preventives are new or fresh soil, which is rich in ashes and the inorganic manures, and in a fine tillable condition to insure a rapid growth, by which the hops may partially defy attack ; and open plant- ing, on such positions as will secure free circulation of air. When properly managed, hops are one of the most produc- tive crops ; but their very limited use will always make them a minor object of cultivation. THE CASTOR BEAN, (Ricinus communis, usually called Falma Christi, Fig. 55), Is a native of the West India islands, where it grows with great luxuri- ance. It is culti- vated as a field crop in our mid- dle States, and in those bordering the Ohio River on the North. It likes a rich, mel- low bed, and is planted and hoed like corn. It at- tains the height of Fig. 65. five or six feet, and bears at the rate of 20 to 28 bushels per acre. The seed is separated from the pods, bruised and subjected to a great pressure, by which it yields nearly a gallon to the bushel, of cold-pressed castor oil, which is very much superior to that extracted by boiling and skimming. The last is done, either with or Avithout, first slightly roasting. This oil forms not only a mild cathartic, but with some is an article of food. Its separation or conversion into a limpid oil for machinery and lamps, and into stearine for candles, has lately much in- creased its valuable uses. ARROW ROOT (Maranta arundinaoea. Fig. 56). This plant is very extensively cultivated in South Ameri- 11 242 AMERICAM AGRIC'JL . UEK. ca, the West India Islands and in 1' Idiida. It requires a lights loamy, fertile soil of good depth. It is pro- pagatecl by dividing ;the roots and planting 'in drill?, 12 to 18 inches apart. The ground requires stir- ring occasionally, and to be kept clear of weeds. When a yeai old, the roots are taken up, well washed, then reduced to a pulp by bruising or grinding. The pulp is then pass* ed throv;gh a sieve, and after the fecula or starch has settled, FJg'5*- the water is poured pflF. The sediment is again washed in pure water, then dried, in which condition it forms the arrow root of com- merce. This constitutes a light digestible food for invalids, but affords little nourishment. It is essentially the same as potato flour and tapioca, o;- the product of Manchot or sweet cassava. G-INSING- (Panax quinquefoliam, Fig 57). This plant is indigenous to the northern, middle and western States, where it grows spomaueously on the hill-sides when shaded by the forest trees. It yields jmmerous fleshy roots, of a yellowish color, from one to three inches long, which are dug, washed and dried, when th^y are ready for ."iiarket. It has a sweetish and slightly aromatic taste, and con- tains considerable proportions ol gum and starch. It possesses little merit as a medicine, though highly esteemed for its imaginary virtues by the Chinese. The shipments TEA lLANT. 243 from this country for China have sometimes reached nearly half a million of dollars for a single year. It has not been cultivated to any extent in this country. THE TEA PLANT (Thea bohea and T. viridis, Fig. 58). This planthas been introduced to some extent, into various parts of the United States within the last few years, x. grows extensively in China, between the latitudes 27° and 32° ; and in the Island of Japan, it flourishes as far north as 45°. It is propagated by planting two or three seeds together, at a distance of four or five feet apart each way, in the bed where they are to grow, in a dry, silicious soil, of moderate fertility, and general!}^ on the hill-sides. In the northern provinces of China, the tea plant occupies a rich, sandy loam. It requires little attention, except to be ^ '°- ^^- kept clear of weeds. The leaves are plucked when the planthas attained a three years growth, and when dried, constitute the tea of commerce. The leaves are picked three times in a season. The first, and but partially expanded leaflets, yield the best quality of tea, known in Europe and America as the Imperial. The next picking gives an inferior quality ; and the third yields the lowest in value. These are again subdivided, into an almost endless variety of sorts or chojys. The leaves are cured by heating them under cover, on iron pans, from which they are taken while hot and carefully rolled by hand. This operation is performed tAvo or three times, and all the moisture thoroughly expelled, when it is assorted into various qualities and put up for sale or use. The tea plant becomes unthrifty and stunted under the close harvesting of the leaves ; and at the age of six to ten years, requires to be partially cut down, to secure a fresh growth of thrifty shoots. The immense and increasino" con- sumption of this article will justify the fullest exppriments at the South, with the view of adding this to our exces.-ively limited list of soutliern staples. An extensive effort is at this moment made in Georgia and the Carolinas, by a gentle- man from New York, for the establishment of tea planta tions in each of those States. I saw several thousand choice ^44 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. plants juSt imported from Europe, on their way to those States, and which, I learn, have been subsequently trans- planted and are growing finely. The plant has been cultivated in Brazil, France and Algiers, for many years, but it has succeeded only in the former country, to much extent. The soil of Algiers has been found too dry and the climate too hot ; while in France, little attention has thus far been devoted to it. SILK. This valuable product has been more or less an object of attention in this country, since its early settlement. It was raised on a limited scale in the then southern Provinces, lonf before their separation from Great Britain ; and for more than a century, good sewing silks hav;^ been made, to a small amount, in various places in New England. Occa- sionally, strong, domestic silk fabrics have been manufac- tured, which had the merits of comfort and almost perpe- tual durability, but with little pretension to style or conven- tional taste. The enormous importations of silk into this country, in 1836, exceeding $20,000,000, awakened the attention of our countrymen to the great value of this material ; and a speculation in the morus multicaulis mulberry, at that time thouo-ht to be the best species for the silk worm, was the result, w^hich, for a time, almost rivalled the tulip mania of Holland. The general effect, however, was beneficial. It scattered the material for the support of the silk worm throughout the country, and induced an attention to the rearing of this useful but humble servant of the pride and luxury of mankind, that might not have been realized to the same extent for many years subsequent.- There is a large and increasing attention to this subject, but I regret to add, the production of our raw material is far below the demand in this countiy, while the manufactured article is largely imported. My limits will not admit of minute directions for the management of a cocoonery, nor is this essential to a suc- cessful result. Moderate intelligence and skill, with close attention, will enable almost any one to produce the raw silk to a profit. Varieties of the Mulberry for feediyig. — The kinds of trees best suited to the health of the worm, and the weight and value of its product, are the Alpine and Canton The SILK. 245 foliage of these is more solid and nutritious than the raulti- caulis, and on rich or wet ground, they are far preferable to any other. The multicavxlis, though very succulent and watery in moist land, and therefore liable to induce disease in the worms, is still a prolific and healthful food for them Avhere grown on dry or upland soils. Many others of the mulberry family are more or less suited to the object ; and even some of the indigenous, uncultivated varieties of this country, have been found to answer a very good purpose for 'ceding, where other sources of supply had failed. Manner of planting the Mulberry. — The usual system noAV adopted, is not to raise the trees in orchards to theii full size as formerly practiced, but to sow or plant tJiickly, in drills or hills, and cut the sprouts and young branches as they shoot out. This gives an immediate return for the planting ; and it enables the person engaged in this enterprise, to commence his operations, without the long delay conse- quent upon the remote maturity of the trees. Variety of ivorms. — The peamit is usually esteemed the best variety, being more hardy and productive, and yielding generally a finer quality of silk. There are several others, as the white, the sulphur, &c., which possess much merit. Reari?ig and mayiagement. — The eggs must be kept in a cool, dry place, till ready to be hatched, the temperature not exceeding about 50^ Far. When the mulberry leaves begin to make their appearance in the spring, the eggs may be exposed to a temperature of about 65°, then gradually raised to 75°. At this last degree of heat, from seven to ten days will be sufficient to hatch the eggs. Immediately commence feeding with fresh, but not wet leaves ; and supply them as wanted, till the worm has at- tained maturity and is ready to wind the cocoon. During the period of moulting, Avhich occurs four times in the life of the worm, their customary food should be withheld from them. Some wilt the leaves partially before feeding, which is well enough as a preventive to an excess of water in their food. The temperature of the room occupied by the Avorms, should be kept at about 75°. A slight variation from this is not objectionable ; but where it varies materially, artifi- cial means must be resorted to for maintaining a nearly \\n\- form temperature. Cleanliness in feeding and removing the excrements and deaJt wo ms i'- '.mportaut ; aud there 246 AMERICAN AGRICC- TURE. ehould be a frje circulation of air, without exposing them to moisture and the depredations .of birds, rats, or mice. Chlo- ride of lime is an excellent purifier for \he cocoonery. When ready to spin, which may be known by their ceas- ing to eat, raising their lieads, and clambering about their feeding boards, the Avorms may be supplied with poplar or other branches ; or wisps «f straw tied at the upper end, and spread at the bottom, for the worm to crawl upon and at- tach his cocoon. The straw may be secured by bracing it between two shelves. Breeding. — After remaining about eight days, a sufficient number of the best cocoons should be first selected for breeding. These must be nearly equal in the quantities of male and female worms, the first being generally indicated by a pointed end, and somewhat drawn in at the middle ; while the latter is nearly alike at either end. In about fourteen days the millers come forth and couple. After a connection of twelve hours, throw away the males, unless there is a deficiency, when they may be retained for further use ; but the progeny is not generally so strong as wlien the male is used but once. Soon after, the female voids a brownish matter, when she is placed on a clean paper or muslin, and put away in a dark place, where she lays her eggs and dies. From 100 to 120 pairs of millers will produce an ounce of eggs. Each female lays from 300 to 500 Qggs^, averaging about 350. An ounce of eggs contains about 40,000. If well saved from good millers, and safely kept, they will nearly all hatch and produce good worms. Our climate is admirably adapted to the production of the silk-worm, as is shown by the fact, that while an average of 30 to 60 per cent, of the whole worms are lost in Europe, from climate, food, and irremediable dis- ease, scarcely five per cent, are lost in this country, under care- ful management, from Piedmontese Reel. Fig. 53. the same Causes. Reeling. — The cocoons may be reeled immediately after they are formed, if ©jnvenieut. If to be kept foi any time, SILK REELS. 247 the chrysalis must be stifled, which is done by exposure to a hot sun for two or three days, or baking in an oven at a temperature of about 200°. sin Fig. 61. Fig. 59 is tlie most approved Piedmontese reel. Fig. 60 and 61 is a lately adopted French reel, represented in twt views. A simple reel may, however, be made by any me- chanic, that will an^ver tlfe purpose for making domestic silk, but not if designed for sale. The reeling for market is a very nice operation, and requires a good reel and an experienced reeler, though both are easily procured with a little atten- tion. When ready for reeling, place the cocoons in clear, soft water, raised nearly to the boiling point, then gently press them under with a light brush of broom-corn, and the fibres of the silk will adhere. After taking off the outer co- vering or tow, the silk is run rapidly on the reel, wath enough threads to make the fibre of the required size. Keep the Avater pure by skimming, and changing as often as necessa- ry. The silk is then allowec. to dry immediately, when it may be packet": for market. 248 AMERICAN AGRICULTUllB. CHAPTER XI, FRUITS. The production of a variety of fruits, to the extent at least of his own wants, ought to occupy th*.- attention of every farmer. The soil and climate of the United States, are al- most everywhere suited to their cheap and easy propaga- tion. They are a source of profit for the marliet, they are useful for stock, and they afford some of the choicest and most economical luxuries for domestic use. Success in their cultivation may at all tunes be secured, by a judicious selec- tion of trees, soil and location, and by an intelligent and pro- per attention thereafter. THE APPLE. The locality for the apple orchard must depend entirely on the climate and soil. In warm latitudes, a northerly ex- posure is best when not subject to violent ^vinds, as these from any quarter, are liable to blast the fruit while in blos- som, and blow it from the tree before it is ripe. It is im- portant to protect an orchard from the bleak winds which prevail in its immediate neighborhood, by n judicious selec- tion of the ground. A warm and sunny exposure subjects the buds in spring to premature swelling, and these are often cut off by the severe spring frosts that follow ; when a colder position would retard their budding until the season was sufiiciently advanced for their protection. Soil. — All the varieties of soil between a stiff, unyielding clay and a light, shifting sand, are friendly to the apple. The soil best suited to the perfection of fruit is a moist, fria- ble, calcareous loam, slightly intermixed with fine gravel. This may run either into a sandy loam, which usually rests upon a sub-soil of sand or gravel, or into a clayey loam with a sub-soil of stiff clay. Either of these is a good soil for the orchard. The ground should be rich enough for the production of good :;rops of grain, roots or grass. This degre* 11* FRUITS. 249 cf fertility is absolutely necessary for the thrifty growth of the tree, and its existence in a healthy and vigcfois state. Springy or wet laud is decidedly objectionable, and if the farmer can appropriate no other for this purpose, it should be well drained, either by under-ground ditches or open trenches, sufficiently deep to carry off the water for a depth at least of two feet below the surface, so as to leave the soil which is perforated by the roots, in a warm and active state. Rocky and stony soils of the above descriptions, are usually well suited to the growth of fruit trees. The stones keep the ground moist, loose and light. Some of the finest fruits grow where there is scarcely room to place the roots of the tree between the rocks. But a sufficient area of earth is ne- cessary for an ample growth of wood, and the full size of the tree at maturity. Stiff clays and light blowing sands, under very nice culti- vation, will grow fruits ; but they require active manures. Clays should be often plowed, particularly in the fall, that the soil may be ameliorated by the winter frosts. The sands require compact culture and appropriate manures. All such as are suited to ordinary crops on these lands, will promote the growth of trees. But it is preferable to appropriate soils more suitble for the orchard, as the fruit will be larger, fairer and better flavored, and the trees of much longer duration. Planting. — The soil shoulU be prepared by deep plowing, before planting the trees. The sub-soil plow will accom- plish this more effectually than can otherwise be done. Then dig the holes from three to six feet in diameter and twelve to eighteen inches deep, according to the kind of soil and the size of the tree. The more compact the soil the deeper and larger should be the hole. When ready to plant, let enough of the best or top soil be thrown into the bot- tom of the hole, so that the tree may stand about one inch lower than when removed from the nursery. Take vip the tree so as to injure the roots as little as possible. If any be broken cut them off, either square or obliquely, with a fine saw or sharp knife. When left in a bruised or broken con- ditition they will canker and decay in the ground ; but if thus cut off, numerous rootlets will spring out at the termi- nation of the amputated root, which strike into the soft earth and give increased support to the tree. Should the soil be poor, the roots must be covered and the holes filled with good earth. If the hole be small, the surrounding land hard, and the roo .s bent up and cramped, the tree cannot 11* 2o0 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. grow ; tut if it finally survives after a long time of doubt and delay, it creeps along with a snail's pace, making little re- turn to the owner. When the tree is crooked, confine it with a strau' band to a stake firmly planted in the ground. This is the best ligature, as it does not cut the bark, which small cords often do, and it gradually gives waj" as the tree increases in size. When thus planted, Avell manured and well looked after, the tree thrives, and in a few years, re- wards the owner with its delicious and abundant fruit. The season of pla}iting may be any time after the fall of the leaf in autumn, till its re-appearance in the spring, pro- vided the ground be not frozen. Early spring is to be pre- ferred for planting stone fruits. They may be removed while in embryo leaf and blossom with entire success, but it is better to do this before the bud is much swollen. If one time be equally convenient Avith another, fall planting is to be preferred for fruit generally, as the earth then becomes settled about the roots early in the following season. This is particularly advantageous when the spring is succeeded by a severe summer's drought. The transplanting of trees is an operation of the greatest importance to their success More fruit may be reasonably anticipated for the first ten years, if not forever, from one tree Avell planted, than from three indifferently done. It sometimes occurs in removing trees from a distance, that they arrive at their destination after the ground is frozen. In such cases, a trench should be dug in soft earth and the trees laid in it, at an angle of about 45°, three or four inches apart, the roots, carefully placed to prevent breaking, and the earth piled on them for a foot up the trunk, and eight or ten inches over the roots. This will preserve them until spring without detriment to their future growth, and it is often done by nurserymen and others, who re- move their trees from one location to another without loss Apple trees should never be planted in the orchard at a less distance than from thirty to forty feet ; the distance to de- pend on the fertiiitj- of the soil and the kind of tree, some growing much larger and throwing out their tranches more laterally than others. If too near, the trees do not receive the requisite quantity of sun and a free circulation of air, both of which are essential to the size, flavor and perfection of fruit. Cultivation. — A pre ;iousI y uncultivated or virgin soil is !he best for an orcharfl ; but if such is not available, thep FRUITS. 251 Buch as has beei. long in pasture or meadow is jnost suitable. The most efficient manures are swamp muck, decayed leaves and vegetables, rotten wood, chip manure, lime, ashes, gypsum and charcoal. Trees draAV their food mostly (rom the soil, and to supply the elements of their growth in abundance, the earth must occasionally be renewed with those materials which may have become partially or wliolly exhausted. When carefully plowed and cultivated in hoed crops, orchards thrive most rapidly, if care be taken to pro* tect the trees from damage either to the trunks or roots. All tearing of the roots is objectionable. The ground should be kept rich and open, so as to be pervious to the rains, the sun, and the atmosphere. Under these conditions the trees will thrive vigorously. When lands are in meadow, a space of three to six feet in diameter around the trunk, according to the age and size of the tree, ought always to be kept free from turf. Pastures are so bared by the tread of animals, and the closeness of their cropping, that the roots of the trees get their share of benefit from the sun and rains. From this cause, pastures are better suited to orchards than mowing lands ; for the latter are so completely covered by the rank growth of grass, that the tree suffers, and without the aid of manures, and the annual loosening of the ground for afev/ feet around, the tree in some cases dies from exhaustion. All kinds of cereal grains are bad for orchards, except, perhaps, buck- wheat. The preparation of the ground for this crop, by early summer plowing, is highly conducive to the growth of trees; and its nutriment being drawn largely from the air, it rol)S the roots of a small amount only of the materials in the soil. A neighboring farmer, whose management many years since came under my notice, had a small mowing lot ad- joining his barn and cattle sheds, which was surrounded With a stone wall. The soil was a moist, gravelly loam, every way fitted for the growth of the apple, as was shown by there having been several flourishing orchards on similar soils in the immediate vicinity. He filled this with apple trees set in small holes at the proper distances, the rows terminating close to the wall on each side, and also near his barn and sheds. Afte* setting ou;, the trees were staked, and then left to grow as best they could without further cultivation. Those remote from the wall and buildings re- mained stationary for aever^' years, while those under their 252 AMERICAN AGRIC ; LTURE. influence, after two or three years, liegan to show a 'vigorous growth. The grass was ren oved annually, and the trees received no cultivation, save perhaps a bushel or two of chip manure occasionally thrown around them. Twe:ity years after they were planted, the trees next to the wall and buildings were thrifty and had attained a large size, while many of the others had died, a few had grown to one fourth the size of the outer ones, and others were still smaller, mossy, and showing signs of a premature old age. Not one third of the trees gave any return of fruit. The wall and buildings kept the soil next them light and moist, while that in the more open field spent all its energy upon the grass. To make an orchard profitable, the soil must be properly culti- vated, till the trees have attained a considerable growth, and show so much vigor and thrift, that their expanded roots may be safely left to provide their own nutriment. Priming. — This operation must commence at the plant- ing of the tree, the top of which should always be in pro- portion to the size and number of the roots. If the top be high and spindling, shorten it so as to throw the lateral shoots into a graceful and branching form. The limbs may commence about six feet from the ground. Pruning should be done aimually, as the labor is then trifling ; and the expenditure of vital force in maturing wood which is afterwards to be cut off, is thus saved, and the branches to be removed being small, the wounds readil)' heal. In this case, no covering is required for the Avouud, as one season's growth will heal it. The top should be sufiiciently open to admit the sun and air. The best time for trimming is when the f-ee is in blooin, and the sap in full flow. The proper instrument is a fin? saw or sharp knife, and the limb should be cut ofl" close to the remaining branch. The sap at this time is active, and is readily converted into new bark and Avood, which speed- ily forms over the cut. But this is a busy season with the farmer, and if he cannot then prune his trees, he may do it when more convenient, taking care to secure the wounds by an efficient covering of salve. Old trees, or such as are growing vigorously and have been long neglected, often require severe trimming, which should always be done in May or June ; and when the ^vounds are large, they must be covered with a coat of thick, Spanish-brown paint or grafting wax. If they are Irft exposed, and the growth of the t/ee be sl:w, decay will often take place before thev FRtnTs. 253 are healed Too much care cannot be used in these ope- rations. In large trees, a ladder ought always to be ai hand, to avoid breaking the limbs by the weight of tho operator. If by too close planting the branches of dilfer- ent tress be brought into contact, thorough pruning is ab- solutely necessary, as without it, good fruit cannot be obtained. Grafting ayid budding. — These operations are so simple, and usually so w^ell known by some individual in every farming neighborhood, that no description of either opera- tion is necessary. Graftiyig xoax of the best kind is made with four parts of rosin, one of tallow and one of beeswax, melted and stirred together, then poured into a vessel of cold water. As soon as cool enough, work and draw it out by hand, like shoe-makers' wax, until it is entirely pliable. It may then be used immediately, or laid up and kept for years. The mode of applying it is known to every grafter. Scioyis must be the growth of the preceding year, and cut from well ripened, thrifty wood, in the months of Janu- ary, February or March, before the buds begin to swell with the flow of the spring sap. Tie them up and keep in a moist, cool place, a cellar bottom, or box of moss or earth till ready for use. When circumstances require it, grafts may be cut at any time after the fall of the leaf, but the months indicated are best in all localities north of lat. 40°. The best time for budding is in July and August. This sliould be done while the sap is in flow and the bark is loose, as at no other time is success certain. Selection of trees. — Select these from seedlings. Suck- ers from the roots of mature trees are objectionable, as tend- ing to throw up suckers themselves, which are always troublesome. When they appear, cut them close to the root or stem, and if properly done they will rarely sprout anew. Planting the seed. — If the farmer wish to raise his own trees, he can sow the seed or pomace in rows in the fall. After they come up in the spring, weed and hoe them like aay vegetable. When a year old they should be carefully taken up, the tap root cut ofl" and replanted in rows four feet apart, and at least a foot distant in the rows. They should be regularly cultivated till they are one and a half or two inches diameter at the base, at which time they are fit for the orchard. These operations are, however, the appro- priate business of the nurseryman, for ^^•llose guidance thevo 854 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. should alwa/s be at hand some standard ■work :>n the culti- vation of fruits. Of these, Kenrick's, Downing's and Hovey's are at present the best American treatises. Gatheri/:g and preserving . — For immediate use, apples may be shaken from the tree. For winter consumption or packing for market, they should be carefully picked by hand with the aid of ladders, to avoid bruising the fruit and injur- ing the limbs. To preserve apples, the best method is to lay them carefully into tight barrels or boxes immediately after picking, with a thin layer of perfectly dry chaff on the bottom , fl,nd after being lightly shaken together, another layer of chaff on the tojD may be added, though this is not essential. They may then be tightly headed or covered so as to exclude the air. Then put the boxes or barrels away into a dry place, and keep as cold as possible above the freezing point. But if slightly frozen, they will not be injured if suffered to remain unpacked till the frost leaves them. When thus managed, the^ will keep as long as they are capable of pre- servation. Bins in the cellar are good for ordinary use, if closely covered. When exposed to the air, warmth or moisture, apples soon decay. If too dry, they wilt and become tasteless. They are sometimes buried in the earth like potatoes, but this impairs the flavor and gives them an earthy taste ; and they seldom keep so well after removal in the spring as Avhen they have been stored in barrels. For farm stock, apples are healthful and fattening, and the better the quality of fruit the more valuable are they for this object. A variety of both sweet and sub-acid should be cultivated. The saccharine matter of the apple is essen- tially the fattening property, and this abounds in some kinds of the sub-acid. Animals like a change in their food as well as man, and both sweet and sour may be fed to them alter- nately. When the soil and climate are adapted to them, food from apples can probably be more cheaply supplied to stock in the northern States, than from any other plants of artificial cultivation, excepting grass and clover. Swine have been often fatted upon them with an occasional change to grain ; and when fed to horses, cattle and sheep, with hay, ihey are almost equivalent to roots. That tree must be badly cultivated, which in ten years after planting, will not produce five bushels of apples in a season, and these at ten cents a bushel give an annual revenue of fifty cents a tree, or twenty dollars pjr acre for stock-feeding alone. At twenty years old, tht tre^ will double that product casual- Fnrr_*. 255 ties excepted ; and as tins estinate is based on their least valuable use, an increased profit may be anticipated from their conversion to other purposes. Good apples are rarely worth less than twjnty-five cents a bushel ; often three or four times that amount. The presence of swine among any kind of fruit trees, greatly conduces to their thrift. Besides the support of the swine derived from the fruit, their con- sumption of windfalls secures the destruction of such insects as are injurious to the trees or fruit, and the manure they drop, together with the loosening of the earth, resulting from constant rooting and the tread of their sharp hoofs, is of essential advantage to the growth and healthfulness of the trees. Sheep, turkeys, ducks and chickens answer the same purpose in a considerable degree, when suffered to fre- quent the orchards in sufficient numbers. Making cider. — Good fruit is indispensable to the making of good cider. The suitable time fo^ grinding is in October and November, and apples designed to be thus appropriated should ripen in these months. Such as are slightly acid are preferable for this purpose. As far as practicable, the fruit should be of one kind, fully ripe, but sound and undecayed. The mill must be thoroughly cleansed with hot water, and capable of grinding the pomace fine. This should lie in the vat at least forty-eight hours after grinding, and be turned once or twice before its removal into the cheese. Pomace so exposed, absorbs large quantities of oxygen, thus under- going a necessary preparation for its conversion into good cider. All fruits are subject to this change, to a certain extent, just before ripening. When their juices are express- ed or the pulp broken and exposed to the air, this effect is increased, and constitutes the saccharine fermentatio7i. In both cases, the result is to increase the palatable and nutri- tive properties of the fruit, by converting their starch, gum and other vegetable matters into sugar. When the pomace has been sufficiently pressed, it may be fed to cattle, sheep or swine, and the liquor put into barrels under cover, and allowed to remain till the pulp or fecu- lant matter has been thrown out at the bung ; and to aid its removal the barrel should be kept full. The second fermen- tation is the vinous, and by it a portion of alcohol is developed. This fermentation is slowly continued afterwards in the enclosed cask, until it reaches from six to nine pei sent. When fer rientation apparently subsides, take a clean cask, in which a smtU quaJitityof sulphur has been burned. 256 ' AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. to arrest any subsequent tendency of the liquid to change, draw the cider into this and buna; tightly to exclude the air. The addition of charcoal, raisins, mustard seed or fresh meat produces the same effect as the ignited sulphur. After standing two or three months, closely confined, and in a cool place, it may be drawn off and tightly bottled for use. Its long preservation and improvement will depend on its being kept cool and well corko-i. In addition to its possessing a small proportion of alcohol, it then contains large quantities of carbonic acid gas, ■which occasions its rapid effervescence when uncorked, and gives to it that peculiarly pungent and agreeable flavor, so highly relished in the best spo ■"'mens of the Newark cider. Vinegar. — If the cider be allowed to remain in the cask in which it is first placed, and exposed to a warm temperature, it continues greedily to absorb oxygen, and quickly under- goes another fermentation, called the acetic, by which it is converted into vinegar. If intended solely for this purpose, the best and richest fruits give the strongest, best-flavored and soundest (most reliable) vinegar. When it has acquired its perfection, the vinegar should be kept air-tight and at a low temperature. Best varieties of apples for cultivation. — Almost every section of the apple-growing regions of America, has a greater or less variety peculiar to itself; and their valuable properties appear more fully developed in these localities than when removed to others. Such should of course be retained when of extraordinary excellence. There are some, however, which are of more general cultivation, cosmopolites throughout the apple climates, of fine quality, and possess- ing all the excellence of which the genus is capable. Thirty different kinds for each section or State will probably include all which it is desirable to cultivate, and for any one location perhaps twenty is sufficient. I mention below, the names of 30 standard varieties, all of which are now in successful cultivation in different parts of the United States and Canada. They are described by Downing, in his late work on the fruit trees of America, 1845. Sitmmer Apples. — Early Harvest, Red Astracan, Large Yellow Bough, Williams' Favorite. Autumn Apples. — Golden Sweet, Fall Pippin, Graven- stein, Jersey Sweeting, Pumpkin Russet (by some, the Bellebonne), and Rambo. Winter Apples. --'Wesi^elA Seek-no-farther, Baldwin, FRUITS. 25T Black Apple, Yellow Belle fleur, Detroit, Hubbardston Nonesuch, Green and Yellow Newtown Pipf in. Northern Spy, Blue Pearmain, Peck's Pleasant, Rhode Island Green Jng, American Golden Russet, English Russet, Roxburs Russet, Swaar, Ladies' Sweeting, Talman's Sweeting, Esq p^is Spitzenberg, Waxen A^iple, Wine Apple. THE PEAR. The pear is one of the most luscious, wholesome and pro- fitable of the market fruits, though not comparable to the apple for variety and general use. In a good soil and under proper cultivation, it is both vigorous and hardy. It is bud- ded and grafted like the apple, and requires the same treat- ment ; it is as easy of propagation, frequently attains a greater size and age, and although longer arriving at matu- rity, it is a more abundant bearer. Its" favorite soil is a clay loam. It needs little pruning, but usually it throws out an upright, graceful head, free from excessive bushiness. The trees may be planted 30 feet apart, an abundance of sun being requisite to full bearing and the perfection of the fruit. Diseases. — The pear is seldom subject to more than one formidable disease, the fire blight, and to this, it is more ex- posed in some localities than others. The disease manifests itself generally in mid-summer, in the sudden witherino- of the leaves on one or more branches. The only effec°ual remedy is to cut off and burn the diseased limb, immediately upon its discovery. The causes are imperfectly known, but it has been variously ascribed to the presence of minute in- sects, to the excessive flow of sap, and to the severity of the winter. Gathering and preserving the fruit. — Many pears re- quire to be picked just before they are ripe, and allowed to mature in the shade. They thus acquire a rich, juicy character they would not otherwise attain. Those intended for market or for long keeping, should be hand-picked and laid in a cool place ; and when perfectly dry, put up in casks like apples. Winter pears may be packed for preservation like winter apples. The varieties to be selected depend entirely on the object of their cultivation. For market, the best and most popu- lar kinds only should be chosen ; and for family use, an equally good selection should be made of those maturint' throughout the entire season. '^ I subj( in, i'j their order of ripKiing, a dozen cho ce kinds, 858 AMERICAN A3RICULTITRE. the cultivation of which has thus far been thoroughly suc- cessful, and the qualities universally approved. The most of these are pears of American origin, which are to be pre- ferred as promising more durability, hardiness and perfect adaptation to our climate and soils. I quote from Downing on fruits. Sumyner a?id Early Autumn Pears. — Bloodgood, Dear- born's Seedlings, Bartlett or Williams' Bon Chretien, Ste^'%ns' Genesee. Autumn Pears. — Beurre Diel, Seckel, Dix, White Doy- enne or Virgalieu, Duchess D'Angouleme. Winter Pears. — Beurre D'Aramberg, Columbia, Winter Nelis, Priuce's St. Germain. THE QUINCE. This is also a valuable market fruit. It makes a rich, highly-flavored sweetmeat, and to this use it is entirely limited. The tree is easily raised by suckers and cuttings, and should be planted fifteen feet apart, in a rich, warm, heavy soil (a clayey loam is the best), rather moist, and in a sunny exposure where it will be sheltered from cold and severe winds. The wash of a barn-yard is its best manure, and it repays equally with the apple, for good cultivation. The fruit is large, sometimes weighing a pound, of h rich, golden color, and generally free from worms and other imperfections. It ripens in October and November. The oransfe quince is the best variety for common cultivation. The tree requires but little pruning. The trunk may be entire for tv/o or three feet, or branch from the ground by two or more stems. The top should be kept open to admit the sun and air, and the trunk freed from suckers. When thus treated, it will live long and produce abundantly. THE CHERRY. Aside from the value of its fruit, the cherry is an orna- mental shade tree, hardy and vigorous in its growth, and easy of propagation. It should be planted like the apple. For 'culinary purposes, the common red cherry is perhaps the best. This may stand sixteen or twenty feet apart, according to the soil and situation. The large Mazard or the English cherry requires more room, and if on a deep, warm, sandy loam, its favorite soil, it should be planted two rods apart as it grows to a large size. It will flourish luxuri- antly on a clay loai'. or an opea gravel, provided the soil be FRUITS. 259 rich and deep ; but on these, it demands more careful culti- vation. It seldom requires much pruning. Care must be used with this as with all other fruit trees, to give it an open head and to keep the limbs from crossing and chafing each other. The varieties most in use are the Common Red, Kentish or Pie Cherry, almost universally cultivated, the English Mayduke, Bktck Tartarian (Grafiion or Yellov/ Spanish,) the largi Red Bigarreau, Elton, Belle de Choisy and the late Duke. These will form a succession of six weeks in ripening and embrace their entire season. The cherry is remarkably free from disease, and usually requires but ordinary care in its cultivation. THE PLUM. The plum affords some of the most delicious of our culti- vated fruits. It prefers a strong clay loam, but does well in nearly all soils, except a light sand. It should be planted like the apple, though on a more limited scale, as it has a smaller and less vigorous growth. The proper distance is sixteen to twenty feet. There are two formidable impedi- ments in the cultivation of the plum. One is an insect, which attacks the "wood, and deposits its g.^^ in the smaller branches. This is followed by a large swelling or excres- cence and if suffered to remain, will soon destroy its produc- tiveness. The surest remedy is to cut off the branch at once and burn it. The Curculio commits its depredations on the young fruit, soon after the blossoms disappear. These are frequent- ly so destructive as to kill the fruit of an entire orchard. Several methods of destroying them have been suggested, of Avhich the most simple and effectual is, to plant the trees in such places as will admit the swine and poultry to feed upon the fallen fruit and insects. Salt sprinkled around the tree in the spring, is said to destroy them. The smoke of rotten wood, leaves and rubbish which have been burned under the trees when in blossom, has sometimes proved beneficial. Paving the earth under the limbs to prevent the burrowing of the insects, and some other remedies are re- commended. This is a serious evil, requiring more obser- vation and experiment than it has yet received. Varieties. — The common Blue or Horse plum is cultiva ted in numerous sub- varieties. Some of these are very goo^ others uf^erly worthless. Good plums are as easily raised as poor ones, and these only ought to hi cultivated. Young 260 AMEE.CAN AGRICULTURE. trees bearing an indifferent fruit, can be headed down and grafted as readily a.i apples, but this requires to be done a month earlier in the spring, and before the buds begin to swell. The best kinds are the Yellow, Green, Autumn, Bleecker's, Imperial, Prince's Yellow, Frost, Purple and the Red Gages ; Coe's Golden Drop, the Jefferson, the Grange, the Washington, the Columbia, Smith's Orle?is, and the Red Magnum Bonum. This last variety is more Uable to the attacks of the curcu- lio than many others. But its vigorous growth, great pro- ductiveness when not attacked, and its excellent quality lor the table render it a desirable fruit. For dryi?ig, the Ger- man prune is perhaps the best, although several of the plums above named answer an excellent purpose. I have enume- rated a larger variety of plums from the ditficult}' of cultiva- ting the peach successfully in many parts of the northern States. They ripen nearly at the same time, and though not as delicious nor generally as popular, they are the best sub- stitutes for it. Although liable to several diseases, the pium is more hardy and durable than the peach, and its cultivation is comparatively easy. THE PEACH. In the early settlement of our country and on virgin soil, the peach was easily propagated, free from disease, an abundant bearer and comparatively long-lived. If we ex- cept tlie first feature in its early history, we shall find it generally, differing widely in each of the others at the present day. It has become subject to so many casualties, as to have been almost entirely discarded in large sections of the United States, where it once flourished in the highest perfection. It is now most frequently reared on an extensive scale for market, by those wlio make it an exclusive business. Its favorite soil is a light, warm, sandy or gravelly loam, in a sunny exposure, protected from severe bleak winds. Thus situated and in favorable latitudes, it grows with great luxuriance and produces the most luscious fruit. In western New York, and on most of the southern borders of the great lakes, the peach grows more vigorously and lives longer than in any other sections of flie United States, frequently lasting 20 to 30 years, and bearing constantly and in abundance. Peaches are produced in immense quantities on the light soils near the Atlantic coast, m the States of New Jersey FRUITS. 861 and Dela ware. The crop of a single proprietor often amounts to $5,000, and sometimes exceeds $20,000 annually. None but the choicest kinds are there cultivated, and these are innoculated upon the seedling when a year old. They are transplanted at two and three, and are worn out, cut down and burned at the age of from six to twelve years. The proper distance for them to stand, is sixteen to twenty feet apart, according to situation, soil and exposure. Con- stant cultivation of the ground is necessary for their best growth and bearing. Diseases. — The peach is liable to many diseases, and to the depredations of numerous enemies. The Yellows is the most fatal in its attacks, and this can only be checked by the immediate removal of the diseased tree from the orchard Of the insects, the grub or peach worm is the most destruc- tive. It punctures the bark, and lays its egg beneath it at the surface of the earth. When discovered, it should be killed with a penknife or pointed wire. A good preventive is to form a cone of earth a foot high around the trunk about the first of June ; or if made of leached ashes, it would be better. Remove this heap in October, and the bark wil . harden below the reach of the fly the following year. Varieties. — The best kinds in succession, from early to late, are the Red and Yellow Rareripes, Malacatune, Early York, Early Tillotson, George the Fourth, Morris' Red and White Rareripes, Malta and Royal George. These succeed each other from August to October. THE APRICOT AND NECTARINE. These are of the peach family, but generally inferior as a fruit and much more difficult of cultivation, being peculiarly liable to casualties and insects. They require the same kinds of soil and cultivation as the peach, with a warmer exposure. As they are propagated solely as an article of luxury and are not wanted or general use, I omit further notice of them. THE OlATE (Olea europaea). This, next to nsed by capillarity, will cofnbine in such proportions as to form nitric acid through the agency of moisture and of neu- tralizing bases, such as lime, magnesia, potash or soda." — ( Urc). The condition of the soil is precisely analogous to the artificial nitre beds, deducting their excess of manure and calcareous matter. These exist to some extent in every soil, and it is probable, i;nder similar circumstances they will produce an amount of nitric acid proportionate to their OAvn qiaantity, which in every case will be particularly felt by the crops. We have the shade, moisture, and capillary condition similar to those of the nitre beds, for the forma- tion and condensing of the acid, ■which, in this instance, is washed down into the soil by every successive rain, instead of being carefully preserved, where formed, as is done by the roofing of the beds. The question is one of sufficient consequence to induce further trials, imder such circumstan- ces as will be likely to afford data for estimating the precise force or influence of these several causes and conditions of the soil. ELECTRO CULTTTEE. The application of electricity to growing plants is a sub- ject which has occupied the attention of scientific men for many years, and apparently without arriving at any bene- ficial result. That it is capable of producing unusually rapid growth when applied to vegetation, we have too many examples to admit of any doubt. A stream of elec tricity from a galvanic battery, directed upon the seeds or roots of plants under a favorable condition, has sometimes produced an amount of vegetable development within a few hours, which Avould have required as many days or even weeks to produce, in the ordinary course of nature. An egg has been hatched in one fourth the usual period of incubation ; and every dairy maid is aware of the accel- erated change in the milk, from the presence of a highly electrical atmosphere. A thunder storm will sour milk in two hours, that Avould otherwise have remained unchanged fur as many days. B< t after all the efforts hitherto made to secure this agent for the advancement of the farmer's operations, a careful review of the entire results obtained, compels us to acknowledge, that no application of electricity is yet developed, which entitles it to the consideration of practical agricultiuists. When we oonsider, however, the power and alraos universal present • and agency of elen- 280 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. tricity, we must confess our confidence, that the leseawLci) of science will hereafter detect some principles of its opera- tion, which may be of immense value to the interests oi agriculture. Electricity is probably the principal, and perhaps the sole agent in producing all chemical changes in inert matter ; nor is it improbable, its agency is equally paramount in the changes of vegetable, and to a certain extent also, of animal life. Independent of human agency or control, it forms nitric acid in the atmosphere during thunder showers, which is brought down by the rain, and contributes greatly to the growth of vegetables. It is also efficient in the deposit of dews, and in numberless unseen ways, it silently aids in those beneficent results, which gladden the heart, by fulfil- ling the hopes of the careful and diligent husbandman. But until something is more definitely established in relation to its principles and eff'ects, the prudent agriculturist may omit any atte)ition to the subject of electro culture. EXPERIMENTS AMONG- FARMERS. A great advantage would result to agriculture, if every intelligent farmer would pursue some systematic course of experiments, on such a scale, and with such variety as his circumstances justified, and give the results if successful, to the community. It is with experiments in farming, as was said by Franklin, of a young man's owning wild lands ; " it is well for every one to have some, if he don't have too manyy They should be his servants, not his masters ; and if intelligently managed and kept within due bounds, they may be made to subserve his own interest, and by their pro- mulgation, eminently promotive of the general good. It is fully in accordance with another maxim of that wise head, that when it is not within our power to return a favor to our benefactor, it is our duty to confer one on the first ne- cessitous person we meet, and thus the circle of good offices will pass round. The mutual communication of improvements of any kind in agriculture, has the effect of benefiting not only the com- munity generally, but even the authors themselves ; as they frequently elicit corrections and modifications which mate rially enhance the value of the disco\'ery. These experi ments should embrace the whole subject of American agri- culture ; soils and their amelioration ; manures of every kind, alkaline, vegetable and pi;#:resceu;, and their effects oa THE UTILITY OF BIRDS. 281 iifFerent soils and crops ; plants of ever- -ariety, and theii daptat-on to different soils, under different circumstances, and with various manures ; and their relations to each other, both as successors in rotation, their value for conversion into animals and other forms, and their comparative ultimate profit ; the production of new varieties by hybridizing and otherwise ; drainins, both surface and covered ; the improve- ment of implements and meclianical operations, &:c., &c. They should also extend to the impartial and thorough trial of the different breeds of all domestic animals, making ulti- mate profit to the owner the sole test of their merits ; cross- ing them in different ways, and under such general rules as experience has determined as proper to be observed y their treatment, food, management, &c. Although much has been accomplished within the last few years, the science and practice of agriculture may yet be considered almost in its infancy. There is an unbounded field still open for ex- ploration and research, in which the efforts of persevering genius, may hereafter discover mines of immense value to the human family. THE UTILITY OF BIRDS. These are among the most useful of the farmer's aids, in securing his crops from insect depredations; and yet manifest as this is to every observing man, they are frequently pursued and hunted from the premises as if they were his worst ene- mies. The martin, the swallow and the wren, which may almost be considered among the domestics of the farm; and the sparrow, tha robin, the blue bird, the wood-pecker, the bob-a-link, the thrush, the oriole, and nearly all the songsters of the field accomplish more for the destruction of noxious flies, worms and insects, which are the real enemies of the farmer, than all the nostrums ever invented. And hence the folly of that absurd custom of scare-crows in the growing corn-fields and orchards, to which I have before alluded. The chickens and ducks do the farmer more benefit than injury in the garden and pleasure grounds, if kept out of the way while the young plants are coming up. A troop ol .young turkeys in the field, will destroy their weight in grass- hoppers every three days, duringtheiryrevalence in summer or auiumn. A pair of sparrows, while feeding their youug, consume over 3,000 caterpillars a week. One hundred crows devour a ton and a half of grubs and ins3cts in a season. Even the h?\"k and the 3wl, the objects of generil aversion. 282 AMERICAN AGRICULTUKE. rid the fields and woods of innumerable squir els, moles and field mice. The last are frequently great de_)redators upon the crops, after having exhausted the stores of worms aiad insects which they first invariably devour, and to this ex- tent these little quadrupeds are tliemselves benefactors. The smaller species of the hawk and owl, when pressed by hunger, will resort to grubs, beetles, crickets and grass- hoppers, in the absence of larger game. That loathsome monster the bat, in its hobgoblin flight, destroys his bulk of flies in a single night. Slight injury may occasionally be done to the gniin and fruit by the smaller birds, and when thus intrusive, some temporary precaution will suffice to prevent much loss. But whatever loss may thus occur, the balance of benefit to the farmer from their presence, is generally in their favor ; and instead of driving them from his grounds, he should encourage their social, chatty visits by kind and gentle treatment, and by providing trees and pleasant shrubbery for their accommodation. TOADS, FROGS, &c. Shakspeare has said, ' The toad, ugly and venomous, Wears yet a precious jewel in its head. Deducting the venom we shall find the poet right ; for we can no more attempt the defence of his beauty, than that of the muck heap ; but we can well excuse his unprepossessing exterior, for the sake of the jewel which he wears in his tongue. This, like that of the chamelion, of which he ;s a cousin-gernian, he darts out with lightning rapidity, and clasps the worm or insect prey within its glutinous folds, which, with equal rapidity, is transformed to his capacious maw. Apparently dull, squat, and of the soil's hue, what- ever that may be ; he sits quiet and meditative, yet watchful in the thick shade of some overgrown cabbage ; and as the careless insects buzz by, or the grub or beetle crawl lazily along, unheedful of danger, he loads his aldermanic carcass with the savory repast. Sixteen fresh beetles, a pile equal to his fasting buUc, have been found in the stomach of a sinijle toad. The frog, traipsing over the wet fields, amid the long grass or thick weeds, procures his summer subsistence in the same Avay as his seeming congener ■'.he toad, and with equal benefit to the farmer. FENCES. 283 The striped snake is a harmless object about the farm premises, and like the toad, he is als;) a great gormandiserot worms and insects. The sole drawback to his merits, arises from his frequently feasting on the toad and frog. The black snake is sometimes destructive to young poultry, and he is a fierce and formidable foe to all whom his couiage induces him to attack. Jle charms the old birds and robs their nests both of eggs and young; but his con- sumption of superfluous squirrels and field mice, perhajjs, fully atones for his OAvn delinquencies. FENCES. In many countries which have long been under cultivation, with a dense population and little timber, as in China and other parts of Asia, Italy, France, Belgium, Holland and other parts of Europe, fences are seldom seen. In certain sections of the older settled portions of the New England States, a similar arrangement prevails. This is universally the case over the wide intervals or bottom lands which skirt the banks of the Connecticut River, where periodical inundations would annually sweep them away. Wherever this system is adopted, cultivation proceeds without obstruc- tion, and a §teat saving is made not only in their original cost, but in the interest, repairs and renewal ; all the land is available for crops ; no weeds or bushes are permitted to hide their annoying roots and scatter their seeds over the groimd ; no secure harbors are made for mice, rats or other vermin; the trouble and expense of keeping up bars or gates are avoided ; and a free course is allowed by the conceded roads or by-paths, for the removal of the crops, carrying on ma- mires, and the necessary passing to and fro in their cultiva- tion. These are important advantages, which it would be well for every community to consider, and secure to the full extent of their circumstances. The inconveniences of this arrangement are trifling. When cattle or sheep are pastured where fences are wanting, they are placed under the guidance of a shepherd, who with the aid of a well-trained dog, will keep a large herd of ani- mals in perfect subjection within the prescribed limits. In the unfenced parts of the Connecticut valley (where exten- sive legislative powers reside in the separate to\vns, which enable? each to adopt such regulations as best comport with the'.r own interests), no animals are permitted to go upon the "uifenc'jd fields till autumn; and the crops are requirefJ 284 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. to be removed at a designated time, when each occupant is at liberty to turn upon the common premises, a number of cattle proportionate to his standing forage, which is accurate- ly ascertained by a supervisory board. A certain number of fences are necessary for such fields as are continued in pas- ture through the season, but unfortunately, custom in this country has increased them beyond all necessity or reason. It rests with the farmers to abate such as they deem con- sistent with their interests. The kind of fences required, must vary according to the controlling circumstances of the farm. In those situa tions u'here stone abounds, and especially if it is a nuisance, heavy stone fences (broad and high) are undoubtedly the most proper. AVhere these are not abundant, an economical fence may be constructed, by a substantial foundation of stone, reaching two or two and a half feet above ground, in Avhich posts are placed at proper distances, with two or three bar holes above the wall, in which an equal number of rails are inserted. Post and rail, and post and board fences are common where there is not a redundancy of timber. The posts should be placed from two and a half to three feet below the surface, in the centre of a large hole and sur- rounded by fine stone, which must be well pounded down by a heavy, iron-shod rammer, as they are filled in. The post v/ill not stand as firmly at first as if surrounded by dirt, but it will last much longer. The lower end should be pointed, which prevents its heaving with the frost. If the position of the post \vhi!e in the tree be reversed, or the upper end of the split section of the trunk which is used for a post, be placed in the earth, it will be more durable. Charring or partially burning the part of the post which is buried, will add to its duration. So also will imbedding it in ashes, lime, charcoal or clay : or it may be bored at the surface with a large auger, diagonally downwards and nearly through, then filled with salt, and closely plugged. The best timber for j^osts in the order of its durability, is red cedar, yellow locust, white oak and chestnut, for the northern and middle States. I recently saw red cedar posts in use for a porch which, I was assiired had been standing ex- posed to the weather previous to the Revolution, a period of over 70 years, and they were still perfectly sound. The avidity with which silicio us sands and gravel act upon wood. renders a post fence expensive for such soils. There are large \x>rtions of our country where timbex FENCES. 285 abounds, especially in the iincleared parts of it, where the zig-zag or worm fence is by far the most economical. The timber is an incumbrance and therefore costs nothing ; and the rails can be cut and split for 50 to 75 cents per 100, and the hauling and placing is still less. With good rails, well laid up from the ground on stones or durable blocks, and pro- perly crossed at the ends and locked at the top, these fences are firm and durable. Sfaki?i.g the corner^ by projecting rails gives an unsightly appearance at all times, and is particularly objectionable for plowing, as it considerably increases the waste ground. The same object is obtained by locking the fence when com- pleted, with a lona: rail on each side, one end resting on the ground and the other laid into the angle, in a line with the fence. More symmetry and neatness is secured, and a trifiino" amount of timber saved, by putting two small upright stakes, one on each side of the angle, and securing them by a Avhite oak plank, six inches wide by eighteen inches long, with holes to slip over the posts, after most or all of the rails have been laid. Any additional ones laid over this, keep the yokes or caps in their place, and the whole is thus firmly bound together. Besides the timber designated for posts, rails may be made from any kind of oak, black walnut, black and white ash, elm and hickory. Ttirf and clay fences have been tried in this country \vithout success. The frosts and rains a)'e so severe as to break and crumble them down continually. Cattle tread upon and gore them ; and against swine and sheep they scarcely offer any resistance. Wire feyices have been tried successfulhj . They are Sja'le with a greater or less number of wires and of sizes varying from No. G to No. 12, according to the style of building and the purposes to be answered. If wanted for the larger animals, the wires should be stronger, and 286 AMERICAN GRICULTURE. placed higher; if for the lesser, they may be of smaller wires, run nearer together and closer to the ground. Fig. 62 shows one of the plain fences, secured by iron or wooden posts, as may be preferred. Fig. 63 is a Avire fence, more elegant in design, but much niDre expeusive. In this, the upright wires are secured by longitudinal iron bars. It is equally efficient with the former, and much more orna- mental, and is a pretty appendage about the pleasure grounds. The wire may be prepared against rust from the elements, by galvanizing, or they may be painted after being put up. Fig. 63. Where wood abounds, rails may perhaps, make the most ecoijomical fences. But where there is a deficiency, wire is undoubtedly the cheape;;t. They possess, also, the further advantage of much gro-.ter durability; and the facility for removal, at little trouble or expense whenever required. 7" hurdle or light moveable fence is variously formed of coitlage, wire or wicker work, in short panels, and firmly set in the ground by sharpened stakes at the end of each panel, and these are fastened together. This is a con- venient addition to farms where heavy green crops of clover, lucern, peas or turneps are required to be fed off in successive lots, by sheep, swine or cattle. The sunken fence or wall is by far the most agreeable to good taste, and it is perfectly efficient. It consists of a ver- tical excavation on one side, about five feet in depth, against which a wall is built to the surface of the ground. The opposite side is inclined at such an angle as "will preserve the sod against sliding, from the effects of frost or rain, and is then turfed over. A farm thus divided, presents no obstruction to the vicAV, while it is everywhere properly walled in, besides affording good ditches for the drainage of water. These sunken fences are sometimes raised a conple of feet above the ground, which increases the protection, and at a less cost than deepening and widening the ditch. Good fences, at all times kept in perfect repair, are the cheapest. Most of the unru.y animals are taught their HEDGES. 287 habits through the neg.'.gence of their owiisrs Fences that are half down or which will easily fall by tl e rubbing of cattle, will soon teach them to jump, and throw down such as they are unable *,o overleap. For the same reason, gates are better than bars. When the last are used, they hould be let down so near the ground that every animal •an stejD over conveniently ; nor should they be hurried over ;o fast as to induce any animal to jump. In driving a flock of sheep through them, the lower bars ought to be taken entirely out, or they be allowed to go over the bars in single file. ' Animals will seldom become jumpers except through their owner's fault, or from some bad example set them by unruly associates ; and iinless the fences be perfectly secure, such ought to be stalled till they can be disposed of. The farmer will find that no animal will repay him the trouble and cost of expensive fences and ruined crops. HEDGES. These have, from time immemorial, been used in Great Britain and some parts of the European continent, but are now growing unpopular with utilitarian agriculturists. They occupy a great deal of ground, and harbor much ver- min. A few only have been introduced in this country, and they will probably never become favorites among us. For those disposed to try them as a matter of taste or fancy, ] enumerate as best suited to this object, the English haw- thorn, beautiful and hardy; the holly, with an evergreen handsomely variegated with yellow spots, and armed at the edges with short stiff thorns ; the gorse or furze, a prickly shrub growing to the height of five feet or more and bearing a yellow blossom. These are much cultivated in Europe as defences against the inroads of animals ; while numerou3 other less formidable shrubs, "ke the ivilloio s.ndi privet are grown for protection against winds; and when sufficiently large and strong, they aI?o serve for cattle enclosures. Buckthorn Hedge (Fig. 04). In America the huckthorn was first introduced bv Ml 288 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. Derby, of Massachusetts, and by him was considerably dis- seminated through the United States. It has proved a hardy, thrifty plant, entirely suited to the purpose. The foregoing figure shows the thorn hedge, which is imperv^ious to any intruder when properly trained. The Osage oraiige grou's spontaneously in the southwestern States, and is successfully cultivated in most of the eastern and portions of the north- ern. Its rapid growth and numerous, thick, tough branches and thorns, render it an effectual protection to fields. The Cherokee rose, for the southern States, is by many deemed the most economical and efficient. It grows with great rapidity, some of the runners reaching forty feet or more, and it is hardy and enduring ; but it occupies much room and is frequently troublesome about the fields from its super- abundant growth. The wild peach, which abounds in many of the southern forests, furnishes one of the most beautiful hedges when tastefully managed, as I have seen it in Mis- sissippi. I have fenced with the native thorn of western New York, with entire, success. The MicJiigan rose and the siveet briar, both hardy and of luxuriant growth, and some other species of the native rose, have been tried and proved efficient. The crab apple and icild plum, with their thick, tough branches and formidable thorns (especially the latter), with proper vr-.5.ining; will be found a perfect stop- page against animals ol' all kinds. The yellow locust and acacia have been sometimes used ; and the wild laurel, an evergreen of great beauty at all times, and especially so with .*s magnificent blossoms, would form a beautiful hedge wherever the soil will give it luxuriant growth. There are a variety of other trees and shrubs of native growth, which may be employed for hedges; but it is unnecessary to spe- cify them, as each can best select for himself such as are suited to his own peculiar soil and circumstances. SHADE TREES. In such situations and numbers as may be required around the farm premises, these are both ornamental and profitable. They have, too, a social and moral influence, far beyond the mere gratification of the eye en* the consideration of dollars and cents. In their freshness and simplicity, they impress the young mind with sentiments of purity and loveliness as enduring as life. From the cradle of infancy, consciousness first dawns upon the beauty of nature beneath their grateful .shade ; the more boisterous sports of childhood seek their SHAKE TREES. 289 keenest enjoyment amid their expanding foliage ; and they become the favorite trysting place when the feelings assume a graver hue, and the sentiments of approaching manhood usurp the place of unthinking frolic. Their memory io after life greets the lonely ^vande^er amid his trials and vicis- situdes, inciting him to breast adversity till again welcomed to their smiling presence. Their thousand associations repress the unhallowed aspirations of ambition and vice; and when the last sim of decrepid age is sinking to its rest, these venerable monitors solace the expiring soul with the assurance, that a returning spring shall renew its existence beyond the winter of the tomb. Trees ought not to be too near the buildings, but occupy such a position as to give beauty and finish to the landscape In addition to danger from lightning, blowing down, or the breaking olT of heavy branches, there is an excessive damp- ness from their proximity, which produces rapid decay in such as are of vi^ood, besides its frequently affecting to a serious degree the health of the inmates. Low shrubbery that does not cluster too thickly, or immediately around the house, is not objectionable. Trees are ornamental to the streets and highways, but should be at such a distance from the fences, as will prevent injury to the crops and afford a kindly shade to the wayfarer. In certain sections of the middle and southern States, where the soil is parched from the long sultry summers, it has been found that shade trees rather increases than diminishes the forage of the pastures ; out through most of the middle and northern States, they are decidedly disadvantageous, as the feed is found to be sweeter and more abundant beyond their reach. For this reason, such trees as are preserved exclusively for timber should be kept together in the wood-lots, and even many that are designed for necessary shade or ornament, may be grouped in tasteful copses, with greater economy of ground and manifest improvement to the landscape. In the selec- tion of trees, regard should be had not only to the beauty of the tree and its fitness for shade, but to its ultimate value ds timber and fuel. In the range of selection, no flora of either hemisphere will compare with the number, variety, and beauty of our North American forest trees. Of the oak, we have 50 species, while all Europe has but 30, Europe has 14 species of pines and firs ; Asia, 19 ; Africa, South America, and 13 290 AMERICAN AGKICOLTtTRE. Polynesia — each, two ; Australia, one ; wh /le North Amer- ica has 40, and the United States alone over 20. The Oak, of which Fig. 65 affords a spier, did specimen, is one of the most maguificent, as it is one of the longest-lived of the forest tribes. It 'S to be regretted that many of the specios are so slow of groAvth, that they seldom tempt their cultiva- tion by the utilitarian of this country, who looks only to the speedy enjoy- ment of his labor. Many of those which have descended to us from pre- ceding generations, combine much of the beauty, and all of the grandeur we can expect in a shade tree. The Black Oak (Fig. 66), on soil adapted to it, is a tree -r ^, of commandina; beauty and stalwart growth. The foliage appears late, but is unsurpassed for depth and richness of color, and highly- polislied surface ; and it retains its summer green, long after the early frosts have mot- tled the ash, and streaked the maple with ?s% their rainbow hues. When grown on dry °" ■-' " and open land, both fuel and timber are firm, compact and lasting. (Figs. 67 and 68), of which two speci- .. '/ - mens ^are o-iven, jrrows The Pin Oak lCT' rapidly and with great beauty, when transplanted into an open space. It af- fords a timber of great strength and excellence. Some others of our nor- '.hern oaks yield a fine . hade, and good timber and fuel when grown in open grounds. The Live Oak (Fig. 69) often flourishes as far as 35' .^^ ^M^ north ; but is not found in perfection north of ls.,^i^ Louisiana. It grows rapidly, and assumes a ^ great variety of shapes in its earlier growth, %^ but most frequently appears as in Fig. 69 Sometimes, though rarely, il branches stiffly upwards like the ash ; occasionally t is seen dipping its long, drooping boughs into the water, some feet belcw the surface of Pio.«9. the bank which supports its roots; and SHADE TREES. 291 more often it imitates the maple. B it it most frequently tlirows its branches out abruptly, and nearly at right angler witli the trunk, like the apple ; or gracefully arches upward till the flexile twigs descend from the outer extremity, form- ing a beautiful and usually flattened dome, Avith a diameter sometimes exceeding 150 feet. It renews its foliage gen- erally once in tAvo years, and then gradually, thus always affording a dense niass of living green. Many other species of evergreen oaks, which never grow nortii of about 37° within the States, do not vary materially in appearance or character from the live oak. For ship-building, the live oak is esteemed the strongest and most durable timber. TJie Elm when standing isolated, is one of our most beau- tiful and imposing trees. It grows to an immense size, with gracefully projecting limbs and long pendant branches. It is liable to few diseases, and the fuel and timber are good for most purposes. Every one who has seen the patriar- chal elms Avhich grace the beautiful villages of the Connec- ticiit valley, and other old towns of New England, must wish to see them universally disseminated. The Rock or Sugar Majyle, before mentioned on page ,-s..,. 219, (Fig. 70), lias a straight trunk and reg- vilar upward-branching limbs, forming a top ,-~ of great symmetry and elegance. Besides •. the ornament and thick shade it affords, it gives an annual return in its sap, v/hich is converted into syrup and sugar. The fuel is not inferior to any of our native trees, the timber is valuable, yielding the beautiful glossy bird's eye maple so much esteemed for furniture, and various other purposes. The Black Walnut (Fig. 71) is a stately, graceful tree yielding excellent wood and durable timber ; and besides its extensive use for plain, susbtantial furniture, the knots and crotches make the ricn, dark veneer- ing, which rivals the mahogany or rose wood in brilliancy and lasting beauty. In a fertile soil, where only it is found in its native state, it bears a rich, highly flavored nut. The While Ash has a more slender and stiffer top than either of the preceding, yet is light and graceful. The fuel is good, and the timber unequalleu in value for the carriage maker. 892 AyERICAX AGE-ICrLTCRE. There are two species of willow usually cu.tivated zb shade trees. The White Wiliovc (Fig. 72, "vrhich is rather a superannuated spe- cimen) generally occupies a lov/, moist situation, on the brink of some rivulet or stream It is nearly valueless except in the shade it affords. The bright orange twigs and branches furnish an unfaili-ig supply of primitive whistles for the youngsters in the spring. The Weeping Willow is a tree of variegated foliage, and long flexile twigs, sometimes trailing the ground for yards in lengih. Its soft, silver}- leaves are among the earliest of spring, and the last to maintain their verdure in autunm. But its wood is of little value. The Locust (Fig. 73) is a beautiful tree, of rapid growth, flowering profusely, with its layers or massive flakes of innumerable leaflets of ihe deepest verdure. The wood is unrivalled for durabili- ' ty as ship timber, except by the live-oak ; and for jxjsts or exposure to the weather, it is ex- ceeded only by the savin or red cedar. It has ■"f late years, been subject to severe attacks and Fig. 73. great injury from the borer, a ■tvorm against whose ravages hitherto, there has been no successful remedy. The Button-icood, Sycamore, Plane-tree or Water-beach, by all of which names it is kno^vn in different parts of this coimtry, is of gigantic dimensions when occupying a rich and moist, alluvial soil. One found on the banks of the Ohio measured 47 feet in circumference, at a height of four feet from the ground. Its lofty mottled trunk, its huge irregular limbs, and its numerous pendant bails (in which are com- pressed myriads of seeds with their plumy tufts, that are wafted to immense distances for propagation), have ren- dered it occasionally a favorite. They are often seen on the banks of our rivers, almost constituting a hedge ; and sometimes they completely span streams of considerable size. The wood is cross-grained, and intractable for work- ing, and the timber is of little use except for fuel. The Magnolia {Mag)iolia grandijlora) is a splendid south- ern evergreen, with a beautiful fir or cone- like top, bearing leaves greatly increased in size and thickness beyond those ol the evergreen oaks, and of equally deep, perennial verdure. Among these, the arge snow v.-hite blossoms, six or seven ":n.ches in diamete. and of great fragrance, spangle.in leisure- SHADE TREES. 293 Fig. Fio. 76. ly succession, the whole circumference, during mDst of the *"*li months of May and June, Its timber is soft, but useful for some purposes. • The Pecan (Fig. 74) is a deciduous, nut- bearing tree, of the wahiut tribe, and grows in the same latitudes as the live-oak and maonolia. It is much taller than either, and somewhat resembles in its growth the rock maple of the North. The nuts are of considerable value as an article of food and export. The Paper Mulbernj (Fig. 75) is a handsome shade '-*"•■ tree. It is a native of Japan, and was introduced into this country in 1784. Its wood and timber are of little value ; but great merit is claimed for its leaves as forage for cattle ; for its .sap as a substitute for glue ; and for its bark as a material for both cloth and paper. It is hardy enough for any part of the United States, south of 42=". TAe Lomhardy Poplar (Fig. 76) is too well known to need description. It is strictly a foreigner, as its name imports, and was introducecf into this country only in tlie latter part of the last century, to any extent. For many years it was popular, and being of rapid growth and easily propagated by twigs of cuttings, it was soon disseminated through the country. Being short-lived, many of the earUest trees have long since died ; and a judicious taste has nearly exterminated the remainder. It has a prim, grenadier-like stiffnefis ; but their double files, which some- times line the country reads, add a pleasant feature to the distant landscape. Its wood and timber are alniost worthless, being light, porous and unsubstantial. The Tulip Tree (Fig. 77) is one of our most beautiful .,^S^^ native shade trees. It abounds on this •:' "~ ' \ continent, south of latitute 43", and a little ;.' ,^ distance from the Atlantic coast. It grows lofty and large, with a symmetrical top, of great beauty. It has a smooth polished trunk when young, which never becomes very rough a: jagged by age. It bears a profusion of delicate, greenish 294 AMERICAN AGRICwLTURE. colored, ."learly inodorous flowers, as large and not unlike the outline of the cotton blossom. Its timber is light and soft, but useful for .'nany purposes. The Ailaxtus (A. glandulosa, Fig. 78) has not been ex- tensively reared in t le United States, till within the last few years. 1: is hardy, and grows rapidly in latitude 42°, and south of it, throwing out its long, pinnated, sumach-like leaf, from 20 to 70 inches in length. It forms a pleasant shade imme- diately after transplanting, and will (con- tinue to grow rapidly and with great beau- ty till it attains a height of 50 to 70 feet. Some even exceed this size. The Chinese, from whom we get it, give to it the imposing name of the Tree oj Hea- ven. Its wood i« hard and compact, and of a deep, reddish color. It will receive some polish, and retains a slight lus- tre, sufficient to justify its use for cabinet work. TJic Ev.ropean Larch as shov.^n in fig. 79, is of many varieties, and is sometimes used in this country as a shade tree. For this object, the Recl- conecl and Weeping varieties are esteemed the most ornamental. There are several other varieties indigenous to America, close- ly resembling the former in all their peculiari- ties. They are more generally known in this country as the Hackmatack or Tamarack. Fig. ;y. They are partial to moist or swampy and cold soils. The timber is among the strongest and most durable. They sometimes grow to the height of 80 or 100 feet, and two to three feet in diameter. The Cedar of Lebanon (Fig. 80) endeared to the memo- ry of youth by a thousand incidents of biblical and profane history, is a tree of large size, and peculiar in its Avidely- outspreading branches. It is frequently vised as a shade tree in Europe, but sel- dom in this country. The great value of its timber may be inferred, from the fact that it was almost exclusively used in the building of the temple of Solomon, whose costly ma- terials and elaborate finish has never been equalled before or eince. There is one specimen growing at Throg's Neck, N. Y., two fee/, in diameter, that produces an abundance of cones annually, from which other trees can be grown. WOODLATTDS. 995 Fio. 81. Tk9 Hemlock, (Fig. 81), is a native of all the middle and northern States. It is an evergreen, slightly resinous ; and when growing in an open spacp, has a beautifully symmetrical top. It affords a dense and agreeable shade from its innumer- able leaflets. As fuel, it is better than the white pines, but inferior to the resinous or pitch pines, and for timber or lumber it is inferior to either for most purposes. The Balm of Gilcad (Fig. 82) is a native of this continent, and abounds in low, moist situ ations, among a great variety of other species ol the fir tribe. It grows well Avlien transplanted to open ground, where it is sufficiently moist, and sustains a handsome, pyramidal top, of deep ver dure. When young and thrifty, it has a thick foliage, but becomes thin and unsightly when old ; before which period, it should be removed from the ornamental grounds. Tloe Long-leaved Pine (Fig. 83) frequently known as Georgia 2Jitch j^inc, grows in great abundance from Virginia to the Gulf of Mexico. Immense quantities of pitch are an- nually gathered from the original forests, through the southern States ; but the princi- pal product is derived from North Carolina. Over 800,000 barrels have been exported from that State in a year, worth nearly $2,000,000. Fio. 83. When early transplanted into open grounds, it forms a fine shade tree. While young, the tufts of leaves are very long, bushy and graceful. The White Pine of the North is also a beautiful shade tree, when not too old. The foliage of all the pines and resin- ous trees, becomes thin and scraggy as they advance beyond middle aire. WOOD LANDS. There are few farms in the United States, where it is not convenient and profitable to have one or more wood lots at- tached. They supply the owner with his fuel, which he can prepare at; his leisure; they furnish him with timber for buildings, rails,r;posts and for his occasional demands for im- plem'^uts; they require little attention, and if well managed, will yield more or less forage for cattle and sheep. The 896 AMI-aiCAN AGRICULTURE trees should be kept in a vigorous, growing condition, as the profits are as much enhanced from this cause as any of the cultivated crops. Few American fields require planting ^vith forest trees. The soil is everywhere adapted to their growth, and being full of seeds and roots, when not too long under cultivation, it needs but to be left unoccupied for a time, and they will everywhere spring up spontaneously. Even the oak open- ings of the West, with here and there a scattered tree, and such of the prairies as border upon woodlands, when rescued from the destructive effects of the annual fires, will rapidly shoot up into vigorous forests. I have repeatedly seen in- stances of the re-covering of oak barrens and prairies with young forests, which was undoubtedly their condition be- fore the Indians subjected them to conflagration ; and they have indeed, always maintained their foothold against these desolating fires, wherever there was moisture enough in the soil to arrest their progress. In almost every instance, if the germs of forest vegetation have not been extinguished in the soil, the Avood-lot may be safely left to self-propagation, as it will be certain to produce those trees which are best suited to the present state of the soil. Slightly thinning the young wood may in some cases be desirable, and especially by the removal of such Avorth- less shrubbery as never attains a size or character to render it of any value. Such are the alders, the blue-beach and swamp-willow ; and where there is a redundance of the bet- ter varieties of equal vigor, those may be removed that will be worth the least when matured. In most woodlands, however, nature is left to assert her own unaided preferences, growing what and how she pleases, and it must be con- fessed she is seldom at variance with the owner's interest. Serious and permanent injury has often followed close thinning. In cutting over woodlands, it is generally best to remove all the large trees on the premises at the same time. This admits a fresh growth on an equal footing, and allows that variety to get the ascendancy to which the soil is best suited. En older settled States, where land and its productions are comparatively high, many adopt the plan of clearing oflf everything, even burning the old logs and brush, and then SOAV one or more crops of wlieat or rye, for which the land IS in admirable condition, from the long accumulation of vegetable matter and the heavy dressing of ashes thus rt> WOODLANDS. Z97 reived. They then allow the forest to esume its origina claims, which it is not slow to do, from the abundance of seeds and roots in the ground. Bvit unless the crop be valuable, the utility of this practice is doubtful ; as by the destruction of all the young stuff which may be left, there is a certain delay of some years in the after growth of the wood ; and the gradual decay of the old trunks and brush, may minister fully as much to its growth as the ash which their combustion leaves ; and the fertility of the soil is di- minished just in proportion to the amount of vegetable mat- ter abstracted by the grain crops which may have been taken off. Tlie proper time for cutting over the wood must depend on its character, the soil, and the uses to which it is to be applied. For saw-logs or frame-timber, it should have a thrifty growth of 40 or 50 years ; but in the mean time, much scattering fuel may be taken from it, and occasionally such mature timber trees as can be removed without injury to the remainder. For fuel alone, a much earlier cutting has been found most profitable. The Salisbury Iron Company has several thousand acres of land, which have been reserved exclusively for supplying their own charcoal. The intelli- gent manager informed me, that from an experience of sixty years, they had ascertained the most profitable period for cut- ting, was once in about sixteen years, when everything was removed of a proper size, and the wood was left entirely to itself for renewed growth. It has been found that this yielded a full equivalent to an annual interest on $16 to $20 an acre, which for a rough and rather indiff'erent soil, remote from a wood or timber market, will pay fully as much as the netl profits on cultivated land in the same neighborhoQj^^ The wood should be kept entirely free from sheep-^nd cattle, when young, as they feed upon the fresh shoots with nearly the same avidity as they do upon grass or clover ; and when it is desirable to thicken the standing trees by ap additional growth, cattle should be kept from the range til! such time as the new sprouts or seedlings may have attained a height beyond their reach. When it is necessary to bi-ing into woodland such fields as have not forest roots or seeds already deposited in a condition for germination, the fields should be sown or planted with all the different nuts or seeds adapted to the soil, and which it is advantageous to culti- vatje. Transplanting trees for a forest in this coimtry, cannot al 13* 'rtened. Large trees will seldom thrive when subjected to the neu^ condition in which they are placed, after the removal of the shade and moisture by which they have been sun'ounded. They will generally remain stationary or soon decay ; and the slight foothold they have upon the earth by their roots, which was suffi- cient for their protected situation while surrounded by other trees, exposes them to destruction from violent gales ; and they do not acquire or attain that beauty of top and .symme- try of appearance which should entitle them to preservation. If partiahties are to be indulged for any, they should be sur- rounded by a copse ofyoimger trees, by which they will be in a measure protected. Young stocks should be left in numbers greater than are required, as many of them will die, and from the remainder, selections can be made of such as Avill best answer the purpose designed. THE PROPER TIME FOR CUTTING TIMBER. Nine tenths of the community think winter the time for this purpose, but the reason assigned that the sap is then in the roots, shows its futility, as it is evident to the most su- perficial observer, that there is nearly the same quantity of sap in the tree at all seasox^s. It is less active in winter, and like all other moisture, is congealed during the coldest weather ; yet when not absolutely frozen, circulation is never entirely stopped in the living tree. Reason would seem to indicate, that the period of the maturity of the leaf, or from the las' of June to the first of November, is the sea- sen for cutting ','mber in its perfeyion. Certain it is, that PARilINO TOOLS. 299 W'e have numerous examples of the timber cut within this period, which has exhibited a lurabiUty twice or three times as great as that cut in winter when placed under precisely the same circumstances. After it is felled, it should at once be peeled, drawn from the woods, and elevated from the ground to facilitate drying ; and if it is intended to be used under cover, the sooner it is pr.t there the better. Wood designed for fuel, will spend much better when cut within the same periods, ana immediately housed ; but as this is generally inconvenient, from the labor of the farm being then required for the harvesting of the crops, it may be more economical to cut it whenever there is most leisure. Preservation of timber. — Various preparations of late years, have been tried for the more elfectual preservation of timber, which have proved quite succea»?ful, but the expense precludes their adoption for general purposes. These are kyanizing, or the use of carburetted azote (the base of prus- sic acid) ; a solution of common salt ; the use of corrosive sublimate, (a bi-chloride of mercury) ; pyrolignite of iron, formed from ii'on dissolved in pyroligneous acid, which is produced from the distillation of wood, or from the condensed vapor that escapes from wood fuel while burning, and which may be obtained in large quantities from a coal pit where charcoal is made. These will be absorbed by the sap pores and universally disseminated through the body of the tree, by sawing or cutting the trunk partially off while erect, and applying the solution to its base ; or it may be cut down, leaving a part of the leafy branches above the point of satu- ration, and apply the solution to the butt end. The leaves will continue to sustain the natural flow of the sap, which is both upward and downward, by the different conduits or sap vessels, thus distributing the artificial solution through- out the trunk. Beautiful tints are given to timber which is used for cabi- net work, by saturating it with various coloring matters. Although the expense of these preparations may prevent their nise for large, cheap structures, yet for all the lighter imple- ments such as wagons, plows, and tools generally, where the cost of the wood is inconsiderable in comparison with that of making, it would be economy to use such timber only as will give the longest duration, thougli its first price may be ten-fold that of the more perishable material. FARMING- TOOLS. Tlvjse sliould fffrm an important item pi' the farmer's ftt> 300 AMERICAN AGR '. JLTTJRE. tention, as upon their p'-oper construction depends much of the economy and success with which he can perform his operations. There have been great and important improve- menis within the past few years, in most implements, which have diminished the expense, while they have greatly im- proved the mechanical operations of agricultm-e. I have studiously avoided a reference to any of these, as there are many competitors for similar and about equally meritorious improvements ; and in this career of sharp and commenda- ble rivalry, what is the best to-day, may be supplanted by something superior to-morrow. These implements may now be found at the agricultural warehouses, of almost every desirable variety. Of these, the best only should be pro- cured ; such as are the most perfect in their principles and of the most durable materials. Cover the wood work with paint or oil, if to be exposed to the weather, and the iron or steel with paint, or a coating of hot tar, unless kept bright- ened by use. When required for cutting, they should al- ways be sharp, even to the hoe, the spade and the share and coulter of the plow. When not in use, keep them in a dry place. Plows, harrows, carts and sleds should all be thus protected, and by their longer durability they will amply repay the expense of shed room. They ought also to be kept in the best repair, which may be done at leisure times, so as always to be ready for use. [Some additional remarks on this subject Avill be found under the head of plows.] THE AGRICULTCTRAL EDUCATION OF THE FARMER. Though last mentioned, this is the first in importance to the farmer's success. It should commence with the thor- ouo-h, groundwork attainments everywhere to be acquired in our primary schools ; and it should embrace an elemen- tary knowledge of mechanics, botany, entomology, chemistry and geology, nor can it be complete without some acquain- tance with anatomy and physiology. The learner ought then to have a complete, practical understanding of the manual operations of the farm ; the best manner of planting, cultivating and securing crops ; he should be familiar with the proper management, feeding and breeding of animals ; the treatment of soils, the application of manures, and all the best practices and most approved principles connected vith agriculture. This v/ill be but the commencement of ihe farmer's educa/ion, and it should be steadily pursued ..(ronorh the remainder of his life. AORlCrLTtTRAr, EDUCATION, 3U} He muse hIso learn from his own experience, which is the most certain and complete knowledge he can obtain, as he is thus aware of all the circumstances which have led to certain results ; and he should also learn from the experi- ence of his neighbors, and from his personal observation on every subject that comes Avithin his notice. He will be particularly assisted by the agricultural journals of the present day, which embrace the latest experience of some of our best farmers, throughout remote sections of country, on almost every subject pertaining to his occupation. To these should be added, the selection of standard, reliable works on the various topics of farming, and of the latest authorities, which can be procured for direction and refer- ence. Agricultural colleges and schools should be added to this list of aids to farming, where experienced and gifted minds could be placed, surrounded by every means for conveying instruction in the fullest, yet most simple and effective manner, and with every requisite for practical ilh^stration. It can hardly admit of a doubt, that this neglected field will soon be efficiently occupied, and thus supply the only link wanting to the thorough education of the farmer. 502 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER XIJl FARM BUILDINGS Great neglect is manifest iii this country, in the erection of suitable farm buildings. The deficiency extends not only to their number, which is often inadequate to the wants of the farm, but more frequently to their location, arrangement and manner of construction. The annual losses which oc- cur in consequence of this neglect would, in a few years, furnish every farm in the Union with barns and out-houses fully adequate to the necessary demands for both. I will give briefly in detail, the leading considerations which should govern the farmer in their construction. THE FARM HOUSE. If this is required for the^occupation of the owner, it may Fig. 84. be of any form and .size his means and taste dictate. If for a tenant, and to be employed solely with a reference to it? value to the farm, it should be r.eat, comfortable and of cor' FARM BUILDINGS. 303 renieiit size. It should especially contain a cool, airy and ■ fio. 95 spacious dairy room, entirely free from access by any foul air from any direction ; unless the owner prefers one inde- pendent of the house, over a clear spring or cool rivulet, where, par- tially protected from the sun by a sheltering bank, half buried in the earth, and made, as it shoi;ld be, cf stone, the cool atmosphere within will afford the best safeguard against [flies and other insects, and preserve Pj^ g^ ' the butter and cheese in the finest condition. Stone or brick are the best materials for dwellings, as they are cooler in summer and warmer in winter ; and if comlbrt be the object of the farmer's toil, there is certainly no place where it should be sooner cor.sulted or more amply provided for, than in his own home. A. naked, scorching 304 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. exposure, equally with a bleak and dreary one is to be avoided. The design of a house is protection to its iiunates, and if there be no adequate shelter from the elements, it fails in its purpose. It should be tastefully birlt, as this need not materially increase the expense, while it aids a pleasant feature to the farm It ouiiiit to occupy a position easily FiG. 88. accessible to the other buildings and the fields, and yet be within convenient distance of the highway. It is desirable to have it so far removed as to admit of a light screen of trees, and nature will thtis add an ornament and protection in the surrounding foliage, which no skill of the architect can equal. Note. Per entg 84. 8.V s; in« ft. o< & O- o. ;'"' "> ;> X <4 rk (% ex, w ft. o. 1 1 n Fig. 102. e, e, e, e, e. e, mangers for feeding ; g, g, g, g, g, doors. This gives a large amount of room for the animals, forage, grain, or implements, in a small compass. Fig. 103 is an enclosed shed, suitable for cattle when the weather is not too cold, and if boarded more closely, Avould at all times afford desirable accommodations for sheep. It 310 AMERICAN AGR:0ULTURE. is not unlike many southern barns ; though these are mere frequently made much wider, with the centre enclos td for holding the grain and fodder. The roofs projecting far out on either side, furnish shelter for the mules, horses and oxen. Saving all the mam/re is one of the most important considerations in the arrangement of the barns, sheds and yards. The stables should have drains, that will carry off the liquid evacuations to a muck-heap or tank, and whatever manure is thrown out, should be carefully protected. The manure contains the future crops of the farmer, and unless he is willing to forego the latter, he must carefully husband the former. A low roof, projecting several feet over the ma- nure which is thrown from the stables, will do much to prevent waste from sun and rains. The eaves must be supplied with tight troughs to carry off the water, which may all be saved for the use of the stock, by leading it into tight cisterns or reservoirs. The mangers ought to be so constructed as to econo- mize the fodder. Box-feeding for cattle, I prefer, as in addition to hay, roots and meal may be fed in them without loss ; and v.'ith over-ripe hay, a great deal of seed may in this -way be saved, which will diminish the quantity neces- sary to be purchased for sowing. The fine leaves and small fragments of hay are thus kept from waste, which in racks, are generally lost by falling on the floor. Racks are objec- tionable, unless provided with a shalloAV box underneath, and they are especially to be avoided in foddering in the open yards. There is a loss in dragging the forage to them ; and too often this is done near a herd of hungry catt)e, thai gore each other, and are scarcely to be kept at bay by the FARM BUILinNOS. 311 3se of the sLontest goad. There is also a waste of the hay ;hat. falls while the cattle are feeding, and this is largely increased in muddy yards ; -^dded to which, the animals are exposed to whatever bad weather there may be while eating, which is at all times to be deprecated. SHEDS. Feeding in sheds is far better, and in many instances may tak':' the place of the stall or stable. They are frequently and very properly arranged on two sides of the cattle yard, ihe barn forming a third, and the fourth opening to the south, unless this is exposed to the prevailing winds. This ar- rangement forms a good protection for the cattle ; and con- necting the sheds with the barn is of importance in econo- mizing the labor in foddering. The racks or boxes are placed on the boarded side of the shed, which forms the outer side of the yard, and they are filled from the floor over- head. If the space above is not sufficient to contain the necessary quantity of fodder, it may be taken from the mows or scaffolds of the barn, and carried or dragged over the floor to the place wanted. The floors ought to be perfectly tight to avoid waste, and the sifting of the particles of hay or seed on the cattle and sheep. Unless the ground under the shed be quite dry, it is better to plank it, and it will then admit of cleaning with the same facility as the stables. A portion of the shed may be par- - titioned off for close or open stalls, for colts, calves or infirm cattle, and cows or ewes that are heavy with young. A little attention of this kind, will frequently save the life of an animal, and add much to their comfort and the general econo- my of farm management. The surplus straw, corn-stalks, and coarse hay can be used for bedding, though it is gener- ally preferable to have them cut and fed to the catile. WATER FOR THE CATTLE YARD Is an important item, and if the expense of driving the animals to a i emote watering place, the waste of manure thereby occasioned, the straying of cattle, and sometimea loss of limbs or other injury resulting from their being forced down icy slopes or through excessive m.id, to slake their thirst — if all these coasiderations are taken into account, 7hey will be found animally to go far towards the expense of supplying water in the yard, where it would at all timea be accessible. All animals require water in v/intcr, exct-pl 312 AMERICAN AG5.ICULTUUE. such as have a full supply of roots ; and though they some- times omit going to distant and inconvenient places where it is to be had, they may, nevertheless, suffer materially for the want of it. When it is not possible to bring water into the yard from a spring, or by means of a water ram, or it is not easily reached by digging, an effectual Avay of procuring a supply through most of the year is by the con- struction of Cisterns. — Where there is a compact clay, no further pre- paration is necessary for stock purposes, than to excavate the cistern of a sufficient size and depth ; and to keep up the banks on every side, place two frames of single joist around ^, near the top and bottom, between which and the banks, neavy boards or plank may be set in an upright position. The earth keeps them in place on one side, and the joist prevents their falling. They require to be only tight enough to keep the clay from washing in, as no appreciable quan- tity of water will escape from the sides or bottom. I have used such for years, Avithout repairs or any material waste of water. They should be made near the buildings ; and the rains carefully conducted to them by the eaves-troughs and pipes from an extensive range, will afford an ample supply. For household purposes, one should be made with more care and expense, and so constructed as to afford pure filtered water at all times. These may be formed in various ways, and of different materials, stone, brick, or even wood; though the two former are preferable. They should be perma- nently divided into two apartments, one to re- ceive the water, and an- p.,g 104. other for a reservoir to contain such as is ready for use. Alternate layers of gravel, sand, and charcoal at the bottom of the first, and sand and gravel in the last, are sufficient; the water being allowed to pass through the several layers mentioned, will be rendered perfectly free from all impurities. Some who are particu- larly choice in preparing water, make use. of filtering stones, but this is not essential. Occasional cleaning may be ne- FARtn Ba^LDIMGS. '^13 ccrfsary, and the substitution of new filtering materials will at all times keep them sweet. THE CARRIAGE HOUSE, STABLE AND GRANARY. The carriage house and horse stable sometimes occupy a building distinct from the barns and other outhouses, which is a good precaution against fire ; and where this is the case, it is frequently convenient to have the upper loft for a gra- nary. The propriety of having this proof against rats is obvious. Yet it should be capable of thorough ventilation, when the grain is damp or exposed to injury from -want of air. Entire cleanliness of the premises is the best remedy against weevil and other noxious insects. The corn-crib. — If there be more Indian corn on the prem- ises than can be thinly spread over an elevated, dry floor, it may be stored in a corn-crib. This ought to occupy an isolated position ; and must be made with upright lattice- work, and a far projecting roof, with the sides inclining from a vertical line towards each other, from the roof downwards, to avoid the admission of rain. The corn in the cob is stored in open bins on either side, leaving ample room in the centre for threshing, or the use of the corn-sheller. Close bins may occupy the ends for the reception of the shelled grain. All approach from rats and other vermin may be avoided, by placing the building on posts, with projecting stones or sheet iron on the top, and so high that they cannot reach it by jumping. A TOOL HOUSE AND WORK SHOP Ought always to have a place about the premises. In this building, all the minor tools may be arranged on shelves, or in appropriate niches, where they can at once be found, and are not exposed to injury or theft. Here too the various farming tools may be repaired, which can be done in those leisure intervals that often occur. Aynple shed room for every vehicle and implement about tlu farm should always be provided. Their preservation Avill. fully repay the cost of such slight structures, as may be required to house them. A wagon, p]ow% or any wooden implement, Avill wear out sooner by exposure to all weathers, without use, than by careful usage with proper protection. A horse poxcer, either stationary or movable, can be made to contribute greatly to the economy of farming operations. 314 AMERICAN AGRICUI.~i;kE where there is much grain lo thresh, or straw, hay or corn stalks to cut. With the aid of this, some of the portable mills may crusli and grind much of the grain required for feeding. Even the water may be pumped by it into large troughs for the use of cattle, the fuel sawed, and various other operations performed, which may add much to the con- venience of the farmer and save more expensive labor. A STEAMING APPARATUS. Where there are many swine to fatten, or grain is to be fed to cattle or horses, this is at all times an economical ap- pendage to the farm. It has been shown from several ex- periments, that cattle and slieep will generally thrive as well on raw as on cooked roots ; but horses do better on the lat- ter, and swme will not fatten on any other. For all animals excepting store sheep, and perhaps even they may be ex- cepted, grain or meal is better when cooked. Food must be broken up before the various anunal organs can appropriate it to nutrition ; and whatever is done towards etfecting th object before it is fed to the stock, diminishes the necessity for the expenditure of vital force in accomplishing it, and thereby enables the animal to thrive more rapidly and do more labor, on a given amount. For this reason, I appre- hend, there may have been some errors undetected in the experiments in feeding sheep and cattle with raw and cooked roots, which result in placing them apparently ok a paras to their value for this purpose. The crushing or grinding of ■the grain insures more perfect mastication, and is performed by machinery at much less expense, than by the animals consuming it. The steaming or boiling is the final step towards its easy and profitable assimilation in the animal economy. With a capacious steaming-box for ilie reception of the food, the roots and meal, and even cut-hay, straw and stalks may be thrown in together, and all will thus be most effectually prepared for nourishment. There is another advantage derivable from this practice. The food may at all times be given at the temperature of the anim: 1 system, (about 98'-' of Farenheii), and the animal heat expended in warming the cold and sometimes frozen food, would be avoided. The steaming apparatus is variously constructed. I havu used one consisting of a circular boiler five and a half feet long by twenty inches diameter, made of boiler iron and laiJ lengthwise on a brick arch. The lire is pla«ed underneatlj FARM BUILC;NGS. 315 and passes through the whole length and ovp ' one end, then returns in contact with the boiler, through side flues or pockets, Avhere it enters the chimney. This j'iA'es an ex- posure to the flame and heated air of about 10 feet. The upper part is coated with brick and mortar to retain the heat, and three small test cocks are applied at the bottom, middle and upper edge of the exposed end, to show the quantity ol water in it ; and two large stop cocks on the upper side for receiving the water and delivering the steam, completes the boiler. The steaming-box is oblong, sev'en or eight feet iu leno-th, by about four feet in depth and width, capable of holdino- 60 or 70 bushels, made of plank grooved together, and clamped and keyed with four sets of oak joist. A large circular tub, strongly bound by wagon tire and keyed, and holdins?- about 25 bushels is also used. The tops of both are securely fastened, but a two inch auger hole, protected by a leather valve, permits the escape of any excess of steam. The steam is conveyed from the boiler into these, by a copper tube attached to the steam delivery-cock, and it is continued into the bottom of the box and tub by a lead pipe, on ac count of its flexibility, and to avoid injury to the food from the corrosion of the copper. It is necessary to have the end of the pipe in the steaming-box, properly guarded by a metal strainer, to prevent its clogging from the contents of the box. Fig. 105. 1 find no difficulty in cooking 15 bushels of unground 316 AMERICAN AGEICULTURE. Indian com in tha tub, in the course of three or four hours, and with small expense of fuel. Fifty bushels of roots can be perfectly cooked iu the box, in the same time. For swine, fattening cattle and sheep, milch cows and working horses, and perhaps oxen, a large amount of food may be saved by the use of such or a similar cooking apparatus. The box may be enlarged to treble the capacity of the foregoing, without prejudicing the operation, and even with a boiler of the same dimensions, but it would take a longer time to effect the object. If the boiler were increased in proportion to the box, the cooking process would of course be accom- plished in the same time. Fig. 105 is a good form of a steaming apparatus, essen- tially similar in principle to the one described. ICE HOUSES. These, in the' rapid progress of improvement and the in- creasing comforts and luxuries of this country, are justly deemed an important addition to the farm buildings. They are frequently essential to the operations of the dairy, and the preservation of milk, butter and cream for a longer time, and in better condition, than is otherwise attainable. They are also useful for keeping meats, fruits, eggs and vegetables unchanged, for an almost indefinite period. "Whether this is done with reference to sending the articles to market at the most convenient or advantageous time, or to their con- siunption at home, it is equally consistent with economy. It is not necessary to dig into the earth for the purpose of securing a good ice house. Indeed, a large quantity of ice can be stored more cheaply by constructing the ice house above the surface of the ground. The main object is to secure isolation of the ice, cuid surround it tcith an adequate bar- rier of non-conducting materials. To do this effectually, a triple wall of p. auk or boards must be made, from six to eighteen inches apart, and the spaces between each compact- ly filled with straw or tan bark. The bottom must be equally Avell secured, and have drains for the escape of the water, yet not for the admission of air. The top has a double roof, and a thick coating of stra\v is spread over the ice. The preservation of ice depends, in addition to the foregoing, on the observance of principles, of which many are entirely neglectful. There should be no access to the ice except on the top, and the sides and ends must be perfectly tight Cold air being heavier thai: warm, in the ratio of its dimin« FARM BUILDINGS. 317 i8l\8d temperature ; it follows, that air which is near the freezing point, if sustained by tight walls, cannot be displaced by warmer air, unless a current is forced upon it from with- ovit, which must be avoided. As well may mercury be driven out of a vessel by pouring water into it. The cold air settles upon the ice and remains there permanently, and of course the ice has no tendency to melt even during the hottest Aveather. By adhering to these principles, ice may be kept for years, and almost without waste. It is important to put up ice in the largest, most compact blocks, and in the coldest weather. By the use of large pieces closely Avedged together, there is security against the circulation of air through the mass ; and by doing this in the severest weather, the ice goes into store with a greatly augmented intensity of cold. Some do not consider the difference in the tempera- ture either of snow or ice, when each are equally susceptible of degrees of temperature below 32°, as the atmosphere, metals, or other substances. If put into the store room at zero, ice must be elevated 32"^ before it rises to the melt- ing point, and it has, therefore, all this stock of cold (priva- tion of heat) which it must first exhaust, before it assumes the form of a liquid. A rigid observance of the above rules, will preserve ice anywhere, either above or below ground. The materials for farm buildings I have assumed to be of wood, from the abundance and cheapness of this material generally in tiie United States. Yet when not too expen- sive, or where capital can be spared for this purpose, brick or stone should always take their place. They are more durable, less exposed to fire, and they sustain a more equable temperature in the extremes of the seasons. Barns and sheds cannot, like houses, be conveniently made rat proof, but they may be so constructed as to afford them few hiding places, where they will be out of the reach of cats and terriers, which are indispensable around infested premises. These and an occasional dose of arsenic, care- fully an'd variously disguised, will keep their numbers within moderate bounds. If poison be given, it would be well to shut up the cats and terriers for three or four days until the object is effected, or they, too, might partake of it. LIGHTNIN& RODS. During the stiltry weather of American summers, thunder showers are frequent and often destructive to buildings. Tivis danger i.9 much increased for such barns as have just 31 C AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. received their annual stores of newly cut hay and grain. The humid gases, generated by the heating and sweating of the hay, which immediately follows its accumulation in closely-packed masses, offers a strong attraction to electri- city, just at the time when it is most abundant. It is an object of peculiar importance to the farmer, to guard hi« buildings, at such times, with properly constructed lightning rods ; and they are a cheap mode of insurance against fire from this cause, as the expense is trifling and the security great. It is a principle of general application, that a rod will protect an object at twice the distance of its height above any given point, in a line perpendicular to its upper termin- ation. Thus a rod attached to one side of a chimney of four feet diameter, must have its upper point two feet above the chimney to protect it. Its height above the ridge of a building, must be at least one half the greatest horizontal distance of the ridge from the perpendicular rod. Materials a7id manner of constructioyi. — The rod may be constructed of soft, round or square iron (the latter being preferable), in pieces of convenient length, and not less than 3-4ths of an inch in diameter. These should not be hooked into each other, but attached either by screwing the ends together, or forming a point and socket to be fastened by a rivet, so that the rod \vhen complete, will appear as one continuous surface of equal size throughout. If a square rod be used, it will attract the electricity through its entire length, if the corners be notched with a single downward stroke of a sharp cold chisel, at intervals of two or three inches. Each of these will thus become a point to attract and conduct the electricity to the earth. A bimdie of wires, thick ribbons, or tubes of metal, are more efficient con- ductors, than an equal quantity of matter in the solid round or square rods, as the conducting power of bodies, is in the ratio of tlieir surfaces. No part of the rod must be painted, as its efficiency is thereby greatly impaired. The upper extremity may consist of one finely-drawn point, which should be of copper or silver, or well-gilded iron, to prevent rusting. The lower part of the rod, at the surface of the ground, should terminate in tu'o or three flattened, divergent branches, leading several feet outwardly from the building, and biuried at the depth of perpetual moisture, in a bed of charcoal. Both ths charcoal and moisture are good ■conductors, and will ensure the passage of the electricity FARM BUILDINGS. 319 :ato the ground, and away from the premises. The rod may be fastened to the building by glass or well-seasoned wood, boiled in l-nseed oil. then well baked and covered with several coats of copal varnish. The conductors of electricity in the ordei of their con- ducting power, are copper, s'Ver, gold, iron, tvn, lead, zinc, f iatina, charcoal, black lead ;^plumbago), strong acids, soot and lampblack, metallic ores, metallic oxides, diluted acids, saline solutions, animal fluids, sea water, fresh water, ice above 0', living vegetables, living animals, flame, smoke, vapor and humid gases, salts, rarified air, dry earth, an^d massive minerals. The non-conductors in their order, are shellac, amber, resins, sulphur, wax, asphaltum, glass, and all vitrified bodies, including crystalized transparent mine- rals, raw silk, bleached silk, dyed silk, wool, hair and feathers, dry gases, dry paper, parchment and leather, baked wood and dried vegetables. Palladium, reckoned among the noble metals, was first discovered by Dr. Wollaston, in 1803. It has been found to possess a conducting power about 50 per cent, greater than copper, and consequently, is the best conductor knoAvii. This metal is not liable to oxidation, and is therefore, in every respect the most desirable material for the points or upper extremity of the rods, and for this purpose it has recently been extensively introduced. It will be ^een above, that water is a tolerable conductor of electricity, and when exposed to rain, all the non-con- ductors are liable to become temporary conductors. To secure them as non-conductors, it is therefore necessary to protect them from contact with rain or moisture. Rust or the oxides of metals, destroy their conducting power, and Vo secure them as conductors, it is essential to keeji the rods free from rust, paint, oil or varnish, leaving nothing on the exte br b"t the pure metal. r INDEI. Page Agricultural education... . 11,300, 301 Agriculture defined ~ importance of. ..« 9 — Vi legislation for 9 NatioDfil Board of 10 Ailantus, see tries. Air, essential to the roots of plants 85, 8G Alluvial soils, cliaracter, and man- agement of 22 Ammonia, how composed 58 Am.Tionical liquor, useful as manure 5i Anal vzrr.g soils II marls 23 Animal subsl:inc»-s for manure 70 Apatiie, see phosphate of lime. Apple, see fruits. Apricot, see FRriTs. Arrow-root, liow cultivated... . 241, 242 Artichoke, the Jeiosalern ItO cultivation and uses IJG Ash, the White, sceTRKEs. Ashes detinedand quantity in vegeta- ble.-^ 35 of what composed. ••...• 35 quantitv abstracted from the soil by criips 36, 270 economy of .IS manure 37 quantity to be applied 37 beneficial for grass and clover .. 37 coal, how applied 38 from marine plants 38 from peat how treated 38 B. Balm of Gilead, see treks. Banyan tree, see fevits. Barley 142—144 varieties, soil, and cultivation.. . 143 harvesting and uses 143, 144 Earns, how made 307 — 311 Beans, soil and cultivation ifU harvesting 164,165 uses 165 the English field 165 Beets, varieties, planting, and culti- vating \ 181 harvesting 181, 182 uses and analysis of. 182, 183 Birds, utility of 281, 282 Bones, of what composed 45 how treated and applied. .. 45 — 47 Breeding dt-fined 8 Bricks, broken, useful .^s manure... 4U Broom com, soil and manure for.... 187 planting and cultivating 188 «irepafing the brush and uses 1^8, 18J Buckwheat, cult nation and uses 160,161 Buildings for the Farm 302—319 BMttonwood, see treks. C. Calcareous soils, see marls and SOILS. Canada thistle 276 Canary seed, cultivation and uses... 161 Canp, see scoiR cane. Carbon, increases in meadows. ... 37, 38 described 56 Carbonates as manures 49 Carl>onic acid described 56 its properties 57 caution in u-sing 230 Carburetted hydrogen gas 58 Carriage house 313 Carrot, soil and varieties 178 planting and harvesting 178 its uses 179, 180 Castor bean, cultivation nf 241 Cedar of Lebanon, see trees. Cellars, how eonslructed 306 Chalk is carbonate of lime 197 Charcoal for roanHre 50 Chemical changes illustrated 18, 19 Cherry, see pr.riTs. Chloride of sndiara. see salt. Chlorides as manures 49 Chlorine essential in soils 34 combined with soda 7 Cisterns, how nl.^de... 312,313 Clay soils described 14, 15 how managed 17 — 20 useful as manure when burned 49, 50 Clovers, cultivation of. 117—127 common red or northern 117 cultivating 117, 120 cutting and curing 119 importance of 120 as a fertiliser 120, 121 harvesting seed 121 southi-rn 122 white or creeping 122 yellow or shamrock 122 crimson or French 123 lucern 123,124 sainfoin 124 Bokhara or sweet scented 124 Com, see Isdias corn. Cornplanter describfd 96 Corn crib, how made 313 Cotton, seed for manure 71 quantity raised in U. States 198, 199 climate and soil 190 planting 199, 20C varieties of seed 20'* ^ INDEX. 321 ?age Cotton, cultivation of 200, 2U I enemies and diseases i20l harvesting 201,20-2 saving seed 202,203 topping 203 jS«a-/s/u?id, wliere raised 203 preparation ot° land and planting 203, 204 afterculture 204,205 manuring and amount of crop.. 205 varieties of cotton seed .... 205, 206 changes in and uses of 206 Cultivator, use of. and how made 95, 96 Curculio described, how destroyed. . 259 Currant, see fruits. D. Dews, effects of 27, 28. 85 how secured 85 dew-point, when attained ... 27,28 Draining described, its advantages 83—86 spring and swamp 86, 87 Drill barrows, how used 96 E. Education, agricultural 11, 300, 301 Electricity, conductors and non-con- ductors of 319 Electro-culture considered 279, 280 Elm. see trees. Ergot or cockspur 142 Experiments among farmers .. . 280, 281 Fallow system described 77, 78 Farming, good only profitable 41 Feeding defined 7 Feldspar useful as manure 51 Fences, excess of in U. Stales 283—288 varieties and materials of . . 284, 285 wire 285, 286 hurdle 286 Fibrous covering, its advantages 27G— 279 Figs, see fruits. Fish for manure 70, 71 Flax, soil for 189, 190 cultivation and harvesting.. 190, 191 water-rotting and varieties of .. 191 its importance for manufacturing 191 Frogs, their utility - . 282 \ Pruiu 248—269 the apple 248—257 soil fi)r 248,249 planting 249, 250 cultivation 250—252 pruning 252, 253 grafting and budding 253 ] rearing and selecting trees. . 253, 254 i gathering and preserving the fruit 254 j value for farm stock 254, 255 making cider 255, 2.56 ' making vinegar 256 i best varieties 256,257 the pear 257,258 thequince 258! thecberry 338,3591 Page Fruits, the plum 259,260 the peach 200, 261 the apricot 261 the nectarine 261 the olive 261,2(>3 the orange 263, 264 the fig 204,265 the banyan 264 the grape 285,206 the currant 266 the gooseberry 266, 267 the raspberry 267 the strawberry 267 the cranberry 267,269 6. Geine defiued 34 Ginseng described, how reared in the United Slates 242.243 Gl.-iss, broken, for manure 50, 51 Gooseberry, see fruits. Grain and its cultivation 127 — 166 Granite useful as manure 51 Grapes, see fruits. Grasses defined 97 number cultivated 97 Timothy 98 meadow fox-tail 99 green (or blue) 99 roughish meadow 100 flat stalked meadow or blue.... 100 annual meadow 100 narrow leaved 100 redlop 100,101 upright bent 101 tall oat 101 the fescues 101,102 orchard or cock's foot 103 American or swamp 102, 130 biennial rye or ray 103 florin 103 sweet scented vernal 104 lawn and mountain 104 ribbon 104 ga^na 105 Egyptian or Guinea 105 Bermuda 105,106 crab 106 winter 106 muskeet 106 grama 106, 107 buffalo 107 tomillo or screw 107 prairie 107 poney 107 wild rice 108 tussac 108 arundo 108 value of American 108,109 sweet-scented, soft or holy 109 table of 110,111 sowing grass seeds 1 12 lands that should be in 112 — 114 means of renovating 114, 115 pasturing meadows IIS rotation in grasses,..., 119 S22 INDEX. Page Grassc, time for cutting > 115 lods in cuiing ■• 115 Gravelly soils, liow treated 21 Grazin}; defineii 7 Green crops for manure 71 Green sand, of wliat conipo*3d 44 its beneficial etfects 44 Guano, where found and from wliat derived 52 Peruvian, analysis of 53 African or Ichaboe 53 Patagonian •• 53 how applied 54 used as steeps 54 Gurneyism, see fibrous covering. Gypsum, if what composed 44 beneficial application of 44, 45 H. Harrowing 94 Hedges 287,288 Hemlock, see trees. Hemp 191—198 soil and cultivation 192 cutting', drying and securing 193 ricking 194 dew-rotting and shocking 195 brake and water-rotting 19(> raising seed 190—198 \ts uses 198 Horse powers, for the farm 313, 314 Hops, cultivation 01 237,241 Horticulture defined 8 Houses for the farm 302-304 Humus defined 34 Hydrogen described 57,58 useful in ammonia 58 I. Ice houses, utility of 316 how constructed 316,317 Implements for the farm 93, 94 Indian corn 1 48 — 154 quantity raised within the United States • 148 varieties of 149, 150 analysis of. 149 soil and preparation for J 60 selection of seed 150,151 hybridizing 150 preparation of seed 151 planting 151 cultivation of 152 harvesting • 152, 153 kiln-drying 153 for soiling and other uses 154 Indigo, cultivation of 225,226 Introduction 7 — 12 Iodine essenliiil in soils 34 Irrigation 79 — 83 waters suitable for 80 eft'ects of 81 time for applying 81 manner of 82 advantages of. 82, 83 quantity of grass from 82, 83 kind of soils for... ■•■• • — • •• f3 Page K. Kelp described.... t... 38 L. Larch, see trees. Lava, useful as manure 51 Leguminous plants 162 — 166 Lightning rods 317 — 319 materials for, and how made 318, 319 conductors of electricity 319 Lime described 39 its value to soils 39 its use with clover 40 how applied 41, 42 magnesian, its effect 42 quantity for land 42 applied to meadows 42 phosphate of — see bones. carlionate of, large quantity in soils 31 Locust, see trees. Loamy soils described 21 Lucern, how cultivated and value of 123,124 Lupine, the white for manure 76 how cultivated for food 166 M. Madder 226—230 soil, preparation and culture 227,228 harvesting 228,229 kiln-drying 229,230 preparation for market and pro- fits of 230 Maize, see Indian corn. Mangers, how made 300, 311 Magnolia, see trees. Magnesian lime, its effects on land.. 42 Manures 32 — 76 their inartificial effects 32, 33 defined and classed 33 partial, insufficient 34 what is requisite in 34 various inorganic defined and ap- plied 35 — 55 ashes 35 — 38 from coal, sea weed and peat... . 38 lime r 39-42 do. magnesian 41,42 marl 42,43 analysis of 43 shell sand 43,44 green sand 44 gypsum or plaster of Paris 44 bones 45 — 4T phosphate of lime 47 salt 47, 48 sulphate of soda 48 sulphate of magnesia 48 sulphate of potash 48 nitrate of soda 48 nitrate of potash 48 carbonates, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates, silicates, and chlo- rides 49 old plaster 49 broken brick •••«• 49 INDEX. 323 Page Manures, burnt clay 49 charcoal 50 broken glass or silicate of potash 50 crushed mica, feldspar, lava, the trap rocks, granite, slenite, &c 51 spent lye of the asherie^i 52 ammoniacal liquor 53 guano 52 — 55 soot 55 *Jrganic matiures 56-78 of what composed....56— 59, 06, 67 barnyard how managed. .59 — 67, 310 analysed 60, 67 long and short 60, 61 decomposition of 61,6 2 tanks for holding liquid 63 management of 63, 04 value of 64, 65 quantity voided by different ani- mals 65 various solid animal 65 — 67 quality of food affects 66 analysis of barnyard 66, 67 special manures defined 67 poudrette and urate 67,69 night soil 68, 69 excrements of fowls 69, 70 flesh, blood, hair, bristles, horns, hoofs, pelts, the waste of wool- en manufactories and tanneries 70 fish 70 cotton seed 7l seaweed 72 peat 73 turf 73 Bwamp muck 73 green crops for 73 advantagesof. 76,77 clover for 74 the cowpea 75 spurry 76 white lupine 76 Maple sugar where made 219 quantity of in United States... 220 season for and manner of tapping tiees 220, 221 mokoks for packmg it 220 making sugar 221, 222 Maple tree, see trees. Marble is carbonate of lime 19 Marls of what composed, and how applied 42,43 how analysed 43 green sand, see oreen sand. Marly soils described, and how treat- ed 15, 16, 21 Meadows how managed 97—127 Meadowlands should remain 112 — 114 Means of renovating 114, 115 See GRASSES. Mechanical division of soils.... 87 — 96 Mica, useful as manure 51 Millet, cultivation of 159, 160 Indian or grand 160 Xuck from swamps as manure 73 liulb erry , varieties for silkworms 244, 245 Page Mulberry for shade trees 236 Mustard, cultivation of the black... 293 the white 237 N. Nectarine, see fruits. Night soil, how treated 68,69 See POUDRETTE. Nitrate of potash for manure 48 of soda for manure 48 for steeps 48 Nitric acid described, its utility 59 formed in the shade 278, 279 Nitrogen described 38 Nutritive equivalents of food 183 table of 184,185 O. Oaks, see trees. Oats 144—148 varieties 145, 146 cultivation 146,147 harvesting 147 uses 147,148 analysis of , 148 Olive, see fruits. Orange, see fruits. Oxides described . ..., 57 Oxygen described 57 P. Parsnip cultivation anduses 180 Pastures 97 — 127 means of renovating 114, 115 how managed 125 — 127 Peach, see fruits. Pear, see fruits. Peas, soil for, and varieties 162 cultivation 162,163 harvesting 163 Pea, the cow or stock (Southern) 75, 163 Peanut, uses and cultivation of 161 Peat soils described 16 cultivating ^—24,87 analysed 72 for manure 72 ashes applied to laads 38 Pecan, see trees. Phosphate of lime, see bones. « used as a fossil 47 Phosphorite, see phosphate of lime. Pindar, see pea nut. Pine, the long leaved, see trees. the while, see trees. Planting defined 8 Plaster of Paris, see gypsum. Plows described 88,93 shovel 96 Plowing, principles of 88—92 claylands 89 sandy lands 90 depth of. 91 subsoil 85,86,81,93 Plum, see fhoits. Poplar, ee^ trees. 324 INDEX. Page Potato, varieties Df, and how pro- duced •• 167,168 soil, and qualities of I'iS planting and cultTvation IW harvesting and storing 160, 1?0 diseases 170 — I /v. prevention of rot. 171, 17'2 its uses 17'2 Potato, the sweet 172—174 soil 172,173 cultivation 173, 174 preservation of. 17'J Poudrette, defined and applied 67 Preface 4, 5 Profits from Targe crops 40, 41 a Quince, see fruits. R. Raspberry, see fruits. Rice, varieties of 1 55 cultivation of lowland J55, 136 of upland 156, 157 varieties and value 157 — 159 quantity raised in United Slate» 159 Roller, how constructed and used 94, 95 Roots, cultivation of 167—186 Rotation of crops 269—275 systems of. 274, 275 Rust in wheat 133 Ruta baga, see turnip. Rye 139—142 Soil, and cultivation of 140, 141 southern 141 forsoiling 141, 142 diseases in 142 S. aainfoin, cultivation of 124 Salt, of what composed, and how used for manure 47, 48 Saltpetre, of what composed 48 for sleeps.... 4ts, 49 Sandy soils, described and classed.. • 15 management of.. , . . 2i), 21 Seaweed as manure , 72 ashes from 38 Sheds, how made 311 necessity for 313 Shell sand, of what composed 43 its effects, and how applied.... 44 Sienite, useful as manure 51 Silicates, as manure 49 of lime defined and applied . . 19, 49 alumina 19 potash 50 Silk, quantity imported into the Uni ted States 244 best mulberry for 244, 245 varieties of worms 245 rearing and management of 245, 246 reeling 246, 2t7 Smut in wheat 133 Snakes, utility of 283 Pag* Soils, defined and texture of 13 classified and described 14 — 17 marly, classified and described 15-16 analysed 16 vegetable molds .... ifj clay, treatment of 17 — 2t! sand, described 1.1 how managed 20, 21 gravelly 21 loamy 2) marly and calcareous 2) alluvial 22 peats 22,23 subsoils and their management 24-26 made useful by subsoil plow 24 — 26 change in soils by cultivation. . . 25 change in soils witlwut cultiva- tion 32, 33 additional properties of 26—29 Jethro Til 11 's management with 27 friableness and color of 27 surface of soil important 27 dew-point in, when attained. ... 29 best for imbiliing water 28, 29' experiments with 28,29 necessity of fertilizing materials in 2br analysis of 30, 31 what all fertile soils must con- tain 34 Sole defined 83 Soot, how applied as manure 55 Spading 87 Spint lye useful as manure 52 Spurry, for green manure 75 ciiliiyatinn and uses of 125 Steaming apparatus, its utility 314 how constructed 314—316 Strawberry, see fruits. Subsoils and their management.. 24 — 26 Subsoil plowing 85,86,91, 92 Sugar, see maple sugar and suoar CANE. Sugar cane 206—219 history of in the United States 206—208 varieties of 208 soil for 208 seed cane 208, 209 preservation of cane 209 preparation for planting 209, 210 advantages of wide rows 210 renovating the land for.... 210, 211 planting 211 cultivating 211- -213 advantages of deep and thorough plowing 213 harvesting. 213, 214 quaniity of suear from cane. ... 214 composition of cane 214, 215 value for animal food 215 analysis of sugar 215 makingsugar. 215, 216 manures for cane 216 — 21? INDEX. 320 Page Sugar cane, analysis of the ash.... 217 quantity per acre -17 drainajieof cane fields 218, 219 Suipliate of lime, see oypsum. of soda for manure 48 of magnesia 48 potash ■IB Sumach, varieties of 234, 2,35 cultivation and preparing for market 235 Swamps reclaimed 87 Sycamoi«,_ see trees. T. Tanks for liquid manure 62 Tares, uses and cultivation of 165 Tea plant, how cultivated 243, 244 Teasle, or fuller's thistle, how culti- vated 2:15,236 Tillage, husbandry defined 7 Timber, time for cutting 2D8, 299 Timber, preservation and improve- ment of 299 Toads, utility of 282 Tobacco, soil for 222, 223 cultivation, priming, topping, worming, and suckering 223 harvesting 223,224 v.irieties, qualities, and analysis of 224 quantity produced 224, 225 Tools, the best, most economical, 299,300 Tool house for the farm 313 Frees, see fruits. for shade 288—295 how arranged 289 varieties of trees in North Amer- ica 289.290 the sugar maple 219—222,291 the mulberry 244,245,293 the oaks 290 the live oak 290,291 theelm 291 the black walnut 291 the white oak 291 the white and weeping willow . 292 the locust 292 the button wood or aycamore . . 292 the magnolia 293 the pecan 293 the paper mulberry 293 the Lombardy poplar 293 the tulip tree 293 the ailantus 294 the larch 294 the cedar of Lebanon 294 tbe bemlock 39£ Page Trees, the balm of Gi! cad 2H5 the long leaved pine 295 the white pine 29 "i Tulip tree, fee trkks. Tull, Jethro, histheory of cnltivalion 20, 27 Turf as manure 37 Turnip, flat EnglisI 174, I75 soil for 174 cultivation 175 Rutabaga 175-178 cultivation 175,176 enemies and remedies 176 harvesting 176^ 177 storing and feeding 177 varieties of 177, 178 value of. 178 U. Under-draining, see draining. Urate defined and applied 68 ITrea defined and applied 68 Urine analyzed 68 V. Vegetable molds 76 Vegetables, loss in drying 36 Vetches, cultivation and uses 165 Vinegar, to make 256 W. Walnut tree, the black, see trees. Water useful as manure 79 — 83 rain, how beneficial 84, 85 dissolves minerals 81 time for applying to meadows ... 81 for the cattle yard 311, 312 Weeds, how treated 27j, 276 to destroy in grain 143 Weld, cultivation of 232—234 Wheat, qualities of 127—129 preparing land for 129, 130 selection and preparation of seed 130 quantity of seed and time of sowing 131 manner of sowing 131, 132 after culture 132 enemies of 132.133 harvesting 133, 135 thrashing and stacking 135 varieties of seed 135, 138 spring 138,139 Woad, cultivation and use of. . 230—2.32 Woodlands, how managed 295 — 298 Woolen waste and rags, useful aa manure 70 J i r J Alt the Books on this Cat,iIo3,u.- ■•.•?/./ by Mail, to any pait of the Union, free of postage, upon receipt of Price. GATALOaUE OF BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE, FU BUSKED BY C. M. SAXTON, BARKER & CO., No. 25 PARK ROliV, NEIV YORK. SUITABI^ FOR SCHOOL, TOWN, AGRICULTtTRAL, &PIIIVATE LIBRARIES. &MESICAN FABMEB'S ENCYCLOPEDIA, $4 00 As A Book of Referexce for the Farmer or Gardener, this Work is superior to any other. It contains Reliable Information for the Cultivation of every variety of Field and Garden Crops, the use of all kinds of Manures, descriptions and figures of American insects ; and is, indeed, an Agricultural Library in itself, con- taining Iweloe hundred puges, octavo, and is illustrated by numerous engravingB of Grasses, Grains, Animals, Implements, Insects, &c., &c. By GonvEKNECR Emerson of Pennsylvania. AMERICAN WEEDS Am) USEFUL PLANTS, ... .160 An Illustrated Edition of Agricultural Botany ; An Enu- meration and Description of Weeds and Useful Plants which merit the notice or require the attention of American Agriculturists. By Wm. Daru.ngton, M. D. Re- vised, with Additions, by Gborge Tudrbbr, Prof, of Mat. Med. and Botany in the New York College of Pharmacy. lUu.^tratod with nearly 300 Figures, drawn expressly for this work. ALLEN'S (B. L.) AMERICAN FARM BOOS, 1 00 Or a OoxMpend of American Agriculture ; being a Practical Treatise on Soils, Manures, Draining, Irrigation, Grasses, Grain, Roots, Fruits, Cotton, Tobacco, Sugar Cane, Rice, and every Stiiple Product of the United SLUes ; with the best methods of Planting, Cultivating and Preparation for Market. Illustrated with more than 100 engravings. ALLEN'S (R. L.) DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS, • * 75 Being a History and Description of the Horse, Mule, Cattle, Sheep, Swine, Poultry and Farm Dogs, with Directions for their Management, Breeding, Crossing, Rearing, Feeding, and Preparation for a Profitable Market ; also, their Diseases and Remedies, together with full Directions for the Management of the Dairy, and the comparative Economy and Advantages of Working Animals, — the Horse, Mule, O.xen, &c. ALLEN'S (L. F.) RURAL ARCHITECTURE, 1 25 Being a Ccmplete Description of Farm Houses, Cottages and Out Buildings, comprising Wood Houses, Worksho] s, Tool Houses, Carriage and Wagon Houses, Stables, Smoke and Ash Houses, Ice Houses, Apiaries or Bee Houses, Poultry Houses, Rabbitry, Dovecote, Piggery, Barns and Sheds for Cattle, &c., &c. ; together with Lawns, Pleasure Grounds and Parks ; the Flower, Fruit and Vegetabio Garden ; also, the best method of conducting water into Cattle Yar.ls and Houses. Beautifully illustrated. ALLEN (J. FISK) ON THE CULTURE OF THE GRAPE, - - 1 00 A Practical Tre.^tise on the Culture and Tre-^tment of ths Grape Vine, embracing its History, with Directions for its Treatment in tho United States of America, in the Open Air and under Glass Structures, with and without Artificial Heat Maikd post paid upon receipt of price. 2 Books published by C. !M. Saxton', Barker & Co. LXEBICAS AECHITECT, 6 00 CoiiPRisixG Origi.val Design's of Cheap Cocxtry axd Villagb Residenc -s. w.th Details, Sp citicalioDS, f.-.vjs aa J Direclions, and an Estimate of the Cost of eacU LKsii,"^. Bv Joh-X W. Pjtch, ArcLiitecl. First aad Second Series, 4to, bound in 1 vol. AMERICAN FiaRIST'S GXTTDE, 75 Comprising the American Rose Ccxtcrist, a_nd Evert Imdy her own Flower Gardener. ASBY'S FBUrr GAEDEN, 1 25 A Treatise, Intended to Explain axd Illustrate the Physi- ology of Fruit Trees, the Theory and Practice of all Operations connected with the Propagation, Transplanting, Pruning and Training of Orchard and Garden Trees, aa Standards. Dwarfs, Pyramids, Espalier, &c. The Laying out and Arranging different kinds of Orchards and Gardens, the selection of suitable varieties for different purposes and localities, Gathering and Preserving Fruits, Treatment of Diseases, Destruction of Insects, Descr-.ptiou and I'ses of luiplfrei'iit?. kc. Illustrated with upwards of 150 Figures. By P. B.uirt, of the Mount Hope Xu.-serips, Rochester, N. Y. BEMENTS (C. N.) BABBIT FANCIER, 50 A Treatise on the Breeding. Rearing, Feeding and General Management DiRibbits, with Remarks if)-!!! their Diseases and Remedies, to which are added Full DiTL-ctious for the Constructiou ..f iliteh -s, Rabbitries, &c., together with Recipe.s f'lr Cooking and DreSSiug to.- tli._' f.ii/ie. B-autifuUy illustrated. BLAKE'S (REV. JOHN L.) FARMER AT HOME, - - - - 1 25 A Family Text Book fox the Country ; beio? a Cyclopedia of Agricultural ImpIem-.-nts and I'roJ-ictiou.s, and of the more important t'^>pics in Domestic Economy, Science and Literature, a.Iapted to Rural Life. By Rev. Ioh.v ],. Blake, D. D. ' BOUSSINGATJLT'S (J. B.) RURAL ECONOMY, 1 25 Or, Chemistry Applied to Agriculture ; presenting Distlnctly and in a Simple Manner the l'riucip!<-s of Farm Mauaicoracui, the Preservation aud Use of Manures, the Nutrition and Fool of Auimils, aud the Genera! Economy of Agriculture. The work is the fruit of a long life of stuily aud experiment, an i its perusal will aid the farmer greatly iu obtaining a practical an 1 scicntitic knowk- L'e o! his profession. BBOWNE'S AMERICAN BIRD FANCIER, 25 The BRf:EDiNG, Rearing, Feeding, Management and Peculi- arities of Cage aud H.'use B.r Is. Iikistratjd with engravings. BROWNE'S AMERICAN POITLTRY YARD, 1 GO Comprising the Origin, History and Description of thb Different Breeds of D<5mestic Poultry, with Cotnplcte Directions for their Breeding, Crossing, Rearing, Fattening and Preparation lor Market ; including si)ecific directions for Capouizing Fowls, and for the Treatment of the Principal Diseases to which they are subject, drawn from authentic sources and p>irsonal observation. Illustrated witb numerous engravings. BROWNE' S (D. JAY) FIELD BOOK OF MANURES, - - - - 1 25 Or, American Muck Book ; Treating of the Nature, Properties, Sources. History and 0peratio;;s of all the Principal Fertilizers and Manures in Common Use, with specific directions lor their Preservation and .\pplicatioa to the Soil and to Crops : drawn from authontii^ sources, actual exp'rienco and person.al observation, as combined with the Leading Principles of Practical and Scientific Agriculture. BRrDGEMANS (THOS.) YOUNG GARDENER'S ASSBTANT, - - 1 60 In Three Parts ; Containing Catalogues of Garden aud Flower Seed, with Prajttal Directions under each head for the Caitivatioa of Cu nary Vege- tables, Flowers, Fruit Trees, the Grape Vine, kc. ; to which is added a Calendar to each part, showing the work necessary to be done in the various departments each inoulb of the year. One volume octavo. BRTDGEMANS KITCHEN GARDENER'S INSTRUCTOR, H Cloth, 60 •' •« " " (loth. 60 Hdile ! post paid upon receipt of price. BooJcs published hy C. ^f. P^ttov. Barker & Co. BRIDGEMAN'S FLORIST'S GUIDE, ..... >i Ooth, 60 " " " Cloth. 60 BRIDGEMAN'S FRUIT CULTIVATOR'S MAJfUAL, - - y» Cloth, 50 " " ' " . . Cloth, 60 BRECK'S BOOK OF FLOWERS, 1 00 Ix WHICH ARE Described all the VAitictrs Hardy Herbaceous Perennials, Annuals, Shrubs, Plants and Evergreen Trees, with Directions lor thoir Cultivation. BUIST'S (ROBERT) AMERICAN FLOWER GARDEN DIRECTORY, 1 26 Containing Practical Directions for the Culture of Plants, in the Flower Garden, Hothouse, Greenhouse, Rooms or Parlor Windows, for every month in the Year ; with a Description of the Plants most desirable in each, the nature - of the Soil and situation best adapted to their Growth, the Proper Season for Trans- planting, &c. ; with Instructions for erecting a Hothouse, Greenhonse, and Laying out a Flower Garden ; the whole adapted to either Large or Small Gardens, with Instruc- tions for Preparing the Soil, Propagating, Planting, Pruning, Training and Fruiting the Grape Vine. BUIsrS (ROBERT) FAMILY KITCHEN GARDENER, ... 75 Containing Plain and Accurate Descriptions of all the Different Species and Varieties of Culinary Vegetables, with their Botanical, English, French and German names, alphabetically arranged, with the Best Mode of Cultivat- ing them in the Garden or under Glass ; also Descriptions and Cliaracter of the most Select Fruits, their Management, Propagation, &c. By Robert Buist, author of the "American Flower Garden Directory," kc. CHINESE SUGAR CANE AND SUGAR-MAKING, .... 25 Its History, Culture and Adaptation to the Soil, Climate, and Economy of the United States, with an Account of Various Processes of Manu- facturing Sugar. Drawn from authentic sources, by Charus F. Staxsbcrt, A. M., late Commissiouer at the Exhibition of all Nations at I/iudon. CHORLTON'S GRAPE-GROWER'S GUIDE, 60 Intended Especially for the American Climate. Being a Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine in each department of Hot- house, Cold Grapery, Retarding House and Out-door Culture. With Plans for the con- struction of the Requisite Buildings, and giving the best methods for Heating the same. Every department being fully illustrated. By William Chorlton. COBBETT'S AMERICAN GARDENER, 50 A Treatise on the Situation, Soil and Laying-out of Gardens, and the Making an 1 Managing of Hotbeds and Greenhouses, and on the Propagation and Cultivation of the several sorts of Vegetables, Herl>s, Fruits and Flowers. COTTAGE AND FARM BEE-KEEPER, 50 A Practical Work, by a Counti-y Curate. COLE'S AMERICAN FRUIT BOOK, 50 Containing Directions for Raising, Propagating and Manao- ing Fruit Trees, Shrubs aud Plants ; with a Description of the Best Varieties of Fruit, incln.liii- New and Valuable Kinds. COLE'S AMERICAN VETERINARIAN, 50 Containing Diseases of Domestic Animals, their Causes, Symp- tom> and Reme.lies ; with Rules for Restoring and Preserving Health by good managi.v m.'iil : .I'.so for TrainiJig and Breediiig. DADDS AMERICAN CATTLE DOCTOR, 1 00 Containing the Necessary Information for Preserving the Health and Curing the Diseases ol Oxen, Cows, Sheep and Swine, with a Great Variety ofOrigi'.iul R ■ciiies a:i I V.iluable Information in reference to Farm and Dairy Manage- ment, wliereljy every Man cm be his own Cattle Doctor. Tlie principles taught m this work are, th.at all Medication shall be sub.servient to Nature — that all Medicines must be sanative in their operation, and administered with a view of aiding the viuil powers, Instead of depressing, as herefc/fore, with the lancet or by poison. By G. II. Dai>d, M. 1> Veterinary practitioner. Mailed post paid vjxm receifit of prirr. Books pitblished hy C. M. Saxtok, Barker & Co. DADD'S MODEBN HOSSE DOCTOB, 1 00 An American Book for American Farmers ; Containing Practi« cal Observations on the Causes, Nature and Treatment of Disease and Lameness of Horses, embracing the Most Recent and Approved Methods, according to an euhghtened system of Veterinary Practice, for the Preservation and Restoration of Health. With illustrations. DADD'S ANATOMT AND FH7SI0LO6T OF THE HOBSE, Plain, . 2 00 " " " '• '* Colored Plates, 4 00 "With Anatomical and Questional Illustritions ; Containing, also, a Scries of Examinations on Equine Anatomy and Philosophy, with Instructions in reference to Dissection and the mode of making Anatomical Preparations ; to which is added a Glossary of Veterinary Technicalities, Tosicological Chart, and Dictionary of Veterinary Science. DANA'S UTJCK MANUAL, FOB THE XTSE OF FABHEBS, . . 1 00' A Treatise on the Physical .*nd Chemical Properties of Soils an 1 Cl)f^mi-try of Manures : including, also, the subject of Composts, Artificial Manures and Irrigailiia. A new edition, with a Chapter on Bones and Superphosphates. DANA'S FBIZE ESSAY ON MANUBES 36 Subm:tted to the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society fob Promoting Agriculture, for their Premium. By SAimx H. Dasa. DOMESTIC AND OBNAMENTAL POULTEY, Plain Plates, . . . 1 00 " " " Colored Plates, . - 2 00 A Treatise on the History and Management of Ornamental and Domestic Poultrj-. By Rev. EoMrxn .^^Atn Dixox, .\. M., with large additions by J. J. Kerr, M. D. Illustrated with sixty-five Original Portraits, engraved expressly for this work. Fourth edition, revised. DOWNINGS (A. J.) LANDSCAPE GABDENING, 3 50 Revised, Enlarged and Xewly Illustrated, by Henry "Win- throp Sargent. This Great Work, which h:is accomplished so much in elevating the •American TiiSle for Rural Improvements, is now rendered doubly interesting and valuable by the experience of all the Prominent Cultivators of Ornamental Trees in the United States, and by the descriptions of American Places, Private Residences, Central Park, New York, Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, and a full account of the Newer Decidu- ous and Evergreen Trees and Shrubs. The illustratinns of this edition consist of ieeen superb steel plate eitgravings, by Sjdlue, Hi.vshklwood, Dcthik and others ; besides . ELLIOTT'S WESTERN FBUTT BOOB, 1 85 A Xew Edition of this "Work, Thoroughly Revised. Em- bracing all the New and Valuable Fruits, with the Latest Improvements in their Cultiva- tion, up to January, 1.S59. especially adapted to the wants of Western Fruit Growers ; full of excellent illustrations. By F. R. Eluott, Pomologist, late of Oeveland, Ohio, now of St. Lonts. BVEBY LADY HEB OWN FLOWEB GABDENEB, .... 50 Addressed to the Industrious and Economical dnly ; containing simple and practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers : also. Hints for the Management of Flowers in Rooms, with brief Botanical Descriptions of Plants aod Flowers. The whole in plain and simple language. By LotnsA Johxsos. Mailed po^ paid upon receipt of price. Boohs published by C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. 5 FASM DEAINAGE, 1 qq The Principles, Processes and Effects of Draining Land with Sttmes, Wood, Drain-plows, Opon Ditches, aad especially with Tiles ; including T.ibles of Rainrall, Evaporation Filtration, Excavation, capacity of Pipes, cost and num- ber to the acre. With more than 100 illustrations. Bv the Hon. Henry F. French of New Hampshire. " '^-•>y.a, ui FESSENDEN'S (T. G.) AMEKICAN KITCHEN GAEDENEB, - - 50 Containing Directions for the Cultivation of Vegetabi es and (Guidon Fruits. Cloth. FESSENDEN'S COMPLETE FARMER AND AMERICAN GARDENER, 1 25 Rural EconoxMist and New American Gardener ; Containing a Compeadious Epitome of the most Important Branches of Agriculture and Rural hcoiiumy ; with Practical Directions on the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables, includ- ing,' Landscape and Ornamental Gardening. By Tuomas G. Fessenden. 2 vols, in 1. FIELD'S PEAR CULTURE, 1 00 The Pear Garden ; or, a Treatise on the Propagation and Cultivation of the Pear Tree, with Instructions for its Management from the Seeillin<; to the Bearing Tree. By Thomas W. Field. FISH CULTURE, 100 A Treatise on the Artificial Propagation op Fish, and the Construction of Ponds, with the Description and Habits of such kinds of Fish as are most suitable for Pisciculture. By IBeodatus Gahuck, M. D., Vice-President of the Cleveland Academy of Nat. Science. FLINT ON GRASSES, 1 26 A Practical Treatise on Grasses and Forage Plants ; Com- prising their Natural History, Comparative Nutritive Value, Methods of Cultivation, Cut- ting, Curing and the Management of Grass I^nds. By Ch-irles L. Fllnt, A. M Sucre, tary of the Mass. Stale Board of Agriculture. GUENON ON MILCH COWS, 60 A Treatise on Milch Cows, whereby the Quality and Quantity of Milk which any Cow will give may bo accurately determined by observing Natural Marks or External Indications alone ; the length of time she will continue to give Milk, &c., &c. By M. Francis Guenon, of Libourne, France. Translated by Nictolas P. Tri.st, Esq. ; with Introduction, Remarks and Observations on the Cow and the Dairy, by John- S. Skinner. Illustrated with numerous Engravings. Neatly done up in paper covers, 37 cts. HERBERT'S HINTS TO HORSE-KEEPERS, 1 25 Complete Manual for Horsemen ; Embracing : How TO Breed a Hok.se. How to Physio a Horse. How TO Buy a Horse. (Aixopatoy and HoMCEOPATHr How to Break a Horse. How to Groom a Horse. How TO Use a Hor.se. How to Dri\-e a Hor.«e. How to Feed a Horse. How to Ride a Hor.se. And Chapters on Mules and Ponies. By the late Hexky Wiluam Herrert (Fraxk Forrester) ; with additions, including Rarey's Mcthod of Horse Tami.vg, and Baucher's .'vsTEM OF HoR-^KiUNssup ; ulso, giving directions for the Selection and Care of Carriages .vi ! Harness of every description, from the City " Turn Out" to the Farmer's '• Gear," H.il a Bio,'raphy of the eccentric Author. Illustrated throughout. HOOPER'S DOG AND GUN, 50 A Few Loose Chaptkrs on Shooting, among which will bo found some Anecdotes and Incidents ; also Instructions for Dog Breaking, and interest- ing h'tler'i from Sportsmen. Dy A Bad Shot. HYDE'S CHINESE SUGAR CANE, 26 Containing its History, Mode op Culture, Manupacture Of- the Sugar, &x?. ; with Reports of its success in different parts of the United States. Mailed pout paid vpmi rceipi of pricf. 6 Boohs puhh'shcd h/ C. '^^. Saxtov. Barker & Co. JOHNSTON'S (JAMES F. W.) AGRICULTUEAL CHEMISTRli, - 1 26 Lectup'^s ox the Application* of Chemistry axd Geology to Ag-icuiiure. X'-w Ediiiciii, w.tU uu AppeU'lix. co:ituiiiir,g the Author's Experimuuts in Practical Asriciilwre. JOHNSTON'S (J F. W.) ELEMENTS OF AGEICIILTUEAl CHEM- ISTEY AND GEOLOGY, 1 00 With a Complete Axalyticaj, axd Alphabetical Ixdex, and an American Preface. Bj' Hon. Suiox Browx, Editor of the '■ New England Farmer." JOHNSTON'S (J. F. W.) CATECHISM OF AGEICULTUSAL CHEM- ISTBY AND GEOLOGY, 25 By James F. W. Johxston, Honorary Member of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, and author of " Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geoloiry." With an Introduction by Johs Pmos Nortox, M. A., late Professor of Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. With Notes and Additions by the Author, pre- pared expressly for this edition, and an Appendix compiled by the Superintendent of Education in Nova Scotia. Adapted to the use of Schools. LANGSTKOTH (BEY. L. L.) ON THE HIVE AND HONEY BEE, - 1 25 A Practical Treatise ox the Hive axd Hoxey Bee, Third edition, enlarged and illuslraled mtk numerous engravings.. This Work is, without a doubt, the best work on the Bee published in any language, whether we consider its scientific accuracy, the practical instructions it contains, or the beauty and completeness of its illustrations. LETJCHABS' HOW TO BUILD AND VENTILATE HOTHOUSES, • 1 25 A Practical Treatise ox the Coxstrcctiox, Heatixg axd Ventilation of Hothouses, including Conservatories, Greenhouses. Graperies and other kinds of Horticultural Structures ; with Practical Directions for their Management, in regard to Light, Heat and Air. Illustrated with numerous eDgravings. By P. B. Lecchajis, Garden Architect. LIEBIG'S (JUSTUS) FAMILIAB LECTUEES ON CHEMISTEY, - 60 Axd its relatiox to Commerce, Physiology, and Agriculture. Edited by JoHX G.^rdexer, il. D., UNSLEY'S MOBGAN HOBSES, 1 00 A Premium Essay ox the Origix, History, and Characteristics of this remarkable American Breed of Horses : tracing the Pedigree from the original Justin Morgan, through the most noted of his progeny, down to the present time. With numerous portraits. To which are added Hints for Breeding, Breaking aad Gene- ral Use and Management of Horses, with practical Directions for Training them for Exhibition at Agricultural Fairs. By D. C. Lixslet, Editor of the American Stock Journal. KOOBE'S BUBAL HAND BOOKS, 1 25 First Series, containing Treatises on — TiiE Horse, The Pists of the Farm, The Hog, Dojnamc Fowis, and The Hoset Bee, The Cow. Second Series, containing — . - . . i 25 E\THT Ladt her owx Flower Gahdexer, Essay ox Maitores, •^LEMETIS OF AGEICrLlXTtE, AjtERICAX KrrCHEX GARDEXKR, Bird Faxcler, Americax Rose Ccixtrist. Third Series, containing — 1 25 IDLES OX THE Horse's Foot, Vixe-Dreser's JIaxtax, Thb RABBrr F-ixcier, Bee-Keeper"s Chart, Weeks ox Bees, Chejiistrt Made East. Fourth Sfries, containing — - ... 1 26 P^isoz ox the Vixe, Hooper's Dog axd Gux, LnsiG'.s Fasuliar Lettep_s, Skiilfcl Housewifk, Browxe'8 Memoirs of Ixdiav Corji. _£ Mailed post paid upon rM'npt of price. Books published hij C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. MINES'S BEE-KEEPER'S MANTJAL, .... - - 1 00 JJeixo, a I'ltAcricAL Tkkatise on the IlisTORy AND Domestic Fcoiminy i,!' 111.' lldiicy li.'c, oiiiljruciiig a Full Illustration of the whole subject, with the Jlost Appriivi'il iktlioils of Managing this Insect, through every branch of its Oilturc ; tho result of many years" experience. Illustrated with many engravinea By T. B. JLi.NKit. J t, b MUES ON THE HORSE'S FOOT AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND, 60 With Cuts, Illustrating the Anatomy of the Foot, and contain- ing valuable Hints on Shoeing and Stable Management, in Health and in Disease. By \Vm. MilJES. MUBTJRN ON THE COW AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, ... 26 By M. M. MiLBURN, and revised by H. D. Richardson and Ambrose SxE'i'Kxs. With illustrations. MUNN'S (B.) PRACTICAL LAND DRAINER, 50 Being a Treatise on Draining Land, in which the Most Ap- proved Systems of Drainage are lixplaineil, and their Differences and Coraparativo Merits Discussed ; with full Directions for the Cutting and Making of Drains, with Remarks upon the various materials of which they may be constructed. With many illustrations. By B. MrxN, Lunlscape Gardener. NASH'S (J. A.) PROGRESSIVE FARMER, ---.*.. 60 A Scientific Treatise on Agricultural Chemistry, the Ge- ulogy of Agriculture, on I'lauls and Ajnimal?, Manures and Soils, applied to Practical Agriculture ; with a Catechism of .ScicntiHcand I'ractical Agriculture. By J. A. N.4SH. NEILL'S PRACTICAL FRUIT, FLOWER AND KITCHEN GARDEN- ER'S COMPANION, 1 00 With a Calendar. By Patrick Neill, Secretary of the Royal Caledonian Horticultural Society. Adapted to the United States from the fourth edition, revised and improved by the Author. Edited by (J. Emkr^ox, M. H., Ivlitor of ' The American Farmer's Encyclopedia." With Notes and Additions by \\. (i. I'.tRDEB, author of " Manual of the Strawberry Culture." With illustrations. NORTON'S (JOHN P.) ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE, 60 Or, the Connection between Science and the Art of Practical Farming. Prize Essay of the New York State Agricultural .Societv. By .Joii.v P. Nor- ton, M. A., Professor of Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. Adapted to the use of Schools. OLCOTT'S SORGHO AND IMPHEE, THE CHINESE AND AFRICAN SUGAR CANES, 1 00 A Complete Treatise upon their Origin and Varieties, Culture ' and Uses, their value as a Forage Crop, and Directions for making Sugar, Molasses, Alcohol, Sparkling and Still Wines, Beer, Ciiler, Vinegar, Paper, Starch and Dye Stuffs. Fully illustrated with Drawings of Approved Machinery ; with an Appendix bv I.eo.nard Wrav, of Caffraria, and a Description of his Patented Process of CrvsUUIizuig" the Juio of the Imphee ; with the Uitest American Experiments. By Hexry S. OLCon. PARDEE (R. G.) ON STRAWBERRY CULTURE, 60 A Complete Manual for the Cultivation of the Strawberry ; wiUi a Description of the Best Varieties. Also notices of tlie Raspberry, Blackberry, Currant, Goosi-berry am! Crape; with Directions for their Cultivali(Ui, and the Selection of the Best Varieties'. " Fverv process here recommended has been proved, the plans of others tried, and the result is hero given." With a Valuable Appendix, containing the observations ,-ind experience of some of the most sucees.ind, itixa Dimensions taken in Yards. With a Set of Useful Agricultural TabV« Mailed post paid upon receipt of price. 8 Booiks published by C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. PEESOZ' CULTUEE OF THE VTKTE, 26 A Xk«' Process for the Cl'ltuee of the Vine, by Persoz, Pro- fessor of t'l • Tac ilty ul' S-i -ic i< ijf Strxsboarg ; [liro'ctiiig Professor of the School of I'liar- macy of the same city. Tiiiuslated by J. O'C. Bakclat, Surgeon U. S. X. PHELPS' BEE KEXFEE'S CHABT, 25 Being a Brief Practical Treatise on the Instin'Ct, Habits and Maiiiufcmout of thi; Hoaev Bc-e, iu all its various branches, the result of mauy years' practical experience, whereby the author has been enabled to -livest the subject of much that has been considered mysterious and difficu!'- to overcome, and render it more sure, profitable and interesting to evciv one, than it has heretofore been. V.\- E. W. niEUV. QTTINBT'S MTSTEBIES OE BZE-EXEFINa EXPLAINED, • - 1 00 Being a Complete Analysis of the Whole Subject, Consistiiij^ of the Natural History of Bees ; Directions for obtaining the Greatest Amount of Pure Surjilus Honey with the least possible expense ; Remedies for Losses Given, and tiia Science of Luck fully illustrated ; the result of more than twenty years' experience lu extensive Apiaries. By M. Qdtn-bt. EANDALL'S (H. S.) SHSEP HXTSBAITDSY, 1 25 With an Account of the Different Breeds, and general direc- tions in regard to Summer and Winter Management, Breeding and the Treatment of Diseases, with Portraits and other engravings. By Hejtry S. RljiBAix. EEEMELIN'S (CHAS.) VINE DRESSEB'S MANUAL, ... 50 An Illustrated Treatise on Vineyards and Wine-Making, containing full Instructions as to Location and Soil, Preparation of Ground, Selection and Propagation of Vines, the Treatment of Young Vineyards, Trimming and 'Rainiag the Vines, Manures and the Making of Wine. SICHABOSON ON HOGS, 25 Their Origin, Varieties and Management, with a View to Profit and Treatment under Disease ; also, plain Directions relative to the Most Approved Modes of Preserving their Flesh. By H. D. Richardsox, author of " The Hive and the Honey Bee," &c., ic. With illustrations. EICHAEDSON ON THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE, - - . 25 With Plain Directions for Obtaining a Considerable Annual Income from this branch of Rural Economy ; also, an Account of the Diseases of Bees and their Remedies, and Remarks as to their Enemies, and the best mode of protecting the Hives from thc'ir attacks. By H. D. Richardsox. With illustrations. BICHABDSON ON DOMESTIC FOWLS, 25 Their Natur.ai. History, Breeding, Rearing, and Gener.u Management. By H. D. RicaARDS0\. With illustrations. BICHABDSON ON THE HOBSE, 25 Their Origin and Varieties ; with Plain Directions as to the Breeding, Rearing and General .MaMnpemeiit. with Instructions as to the Treatmc:jt of Disease. Handsomely illustrated. By H. D. Ri-THARnsox. BICHABDSON ON THE PESTS OF THE FABM, .... 25 With Instructions for their Extirpation ; being a Manual of Plain Iiirocf.ons for the C-rtain Destruction of every description of Vermin. W,ih num -rous i!liistralion~ on Wool BICHABDSON ON DOGS ; THEIB OBIGIN AND VABIETIES, - 50 Directions as to their General Management. With nnnjprim.s Oripinal Anecdotes. Also, Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. P..\ 11. D. RiciiARnsoN. Illustrated with numerous wood engravings. This IS not only a chvap, but one of the best works ever published on the Dog. SCHENCK'S GABDENEB'S TEXT BOOK, . * 50 Containing Directions for the Formation and Management of tb« Kitchen Garden, the Culture and Use of Vegetables, Fruits and Medicinal Hsrb» Mailed po^f paid iipon receipt of price. Hooks rmblished hy 0. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. "^ SHEPHERD'S OWN BOOK, 2c0 AVnii AX Account of the Different Breeds, Diseases and Ma<;- aKciii.'ul of ^heep, and Gouural i)ircctious in regard to Summer and Winter Mauagemo it, Rroeding and the Treatment of Diseases ; with illustrative engravings by Yoi"at» & Raxdali. ; embracing Skinner's Notes on the Breed and Management of Sheep in -'.o Uii;Il-i1 Stales, and on the Culture of Fine Wool. STEWART'S STABLE BOOK, 1 00 A Treatise ox the Management of Horses, in Relation to Pt.il>:i!ig, (iroomiug, Feeding, Watering and Working, Construction of Stables, Ventila- ti'>i, A;i,i.'ndagi*s of Stables, Management of the Feet, and of Diseased and I'efective Hiss. Dy John Stewart, Veterinary Surgeon. With Notes aad Additions, adapting it Ui .^mericf u Food and Climate. By A. B. Allen, Editor of the American Agriculturist. STRAY LEAVES FROM THE BOOK OF NATURE, - - - - 1 00 By ^[. yciiELE De Vere, of the University of Yirginia. Co.TTE.VTS : I. O.VLY A PEBBLE. n. Natcre in Motio.v. in. The Ocean and rrs Lob. IV. A Chat about Plants. V. Younger Years of a PijlNX, VI. Later Years of a Plant. VU. PI.ANT llntmES. Vm. U.VKNOWN TO.VGUES. IX. A Trip to the Moon. STEPHENS' (HENRY) BOOK OF THE FARM, 4 00 A Complete Guide to the Farmer, Steward, Plowman, Cattle- m.Vi.--l]>'i'hi'i-i1, Field Worker asd Dairy Maid. By Henry Stephens. With Four Hun- dri'l and Fil'ty illustrations ; to which are added Explanatory Notes, Remarks, &c., by J. S. Sklvxkr. Really ona of the best books a farmer can possess. SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE, 50 Or Complete Guide to Domestic Cookery, Tastf^ Comfort, and Eco'.iomy, embracing 653 Recipes pertaining to Household Duties, Jbe Care of Health, Gardening, Birds, Education uf Children, &c. , &c. By Mrs. L. G. Abell. SKINNER'S ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, 25 Adapted to toe Use of American Far.mers. By F. G. Skinner. SMITH'S (C. H. J.) LANDSCAPE GARDENING, PARES AND PLEASURE GROUNDS, 1 26 With Practical Xotes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks and Gardens. By Cn.iKi.ES H. ,1. S>rrrH, Land.scape Gardener and Garden Archi tect. With Notes and .\dditii)ii» by I.Kwis F. Alle.v, author of" Rural Architecture." THAER'S (ALBERT D.) AGRICULTURE, 200 The Principles of Agriculture, by Albert D. Thaer ; Trans- lated by WiLUAM SuAW and CiTuiuiRT W. Joilnson, Esq., F. R. S. W'th a Memoir of the .Author. 1 vol. 8vo. This work is regarded, by those who arc competent to judge, as one of the most v.aluable works that has ever appeared on the subject of Agriculture. At the same limo that it is eminently practical, it is philosophical, ami, even to tile general reader, re- markably entertaining. THOMAS' (J. J.) FARM IMPLEMENTS, 1 00 And the Principles of their Construction and Use ; an Ei.f, raciuary and familiar Treatise cm M<';, by W-jo-^rER A. Ft-\.\i)KK.s. WHITE'S (W. N.) GABDENING FOE THE SOUTH, - - - . 1 25 Or, the Kitchen and Fruit Garden, with the Best Methods for their Cultivation : tog.lher with Hints upon l,audscape and Flower Gardening ; con- taining Modes of Culture and Descriiitions of the Species and Varieties of the Culinary Vegetiibles, Fruit Trees and Fruit.s, and a Select List of Ornamental Trees and Plants, Adaoted to the Slates of the Union South of Pennsylvania, with Gardening Calendars for the same. By Wm. N. Whfte, of Athens, Georgia. YOUATT AND MABTIN ON CATTLE, 1 25 Being a Treatise on their Breeds, Manageme.vt, and Diseases, comprising a Full History of the Various Races ; their Origin, Breeding and Merits ; their capacity for B ef an i Milk. P.y W. Vocatt and W. C. I,. Martix. The whole form- inga Complete Gui Ic for th ■ Farm-r. the .■\mateur aud the Veterinary Surgeon, with 109 illustrations. E litod by Amhr.ise Stevtc.vs. YOUATT ON THE HOBSE, 1 25 Youatt on the Structure and Diseases of the Horse, with their Remedies : also. Practical Rules for Buyers, Breeders, Smiths, &c. Edited by W. C. Spoonor, M.R.C.V.S. With an Account of the Breeds in the United States, by Hexrt S. Randall. yOUATT ON SHEEP, ... 75 Their Breed, .Ma\.\ge.ment and Diseases, with Illustrative En- gravings ; to which are a Id • 1 R.Mnarkson the Breeds aud .Management of Sheep in the United Stiitcs, au 1 on tbj Culturi> of Fine Wool in Silesia. By Wm. Vocatt. TOUATT AND MABTIN ON THE HOG, - 75 A Treatise ox the Breeds, M.a.nagement, and Medical Treat- ment of Swine, with nirectiousfor Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams. By Wm. YOUAXT, V. S., and W. C L. JLurn.v. Edited by .\mbrose Stevens. lUrstrated with engravings drawn from life. Mailed post paid upon receipt of price. ^^ 1