2 ees iva takes Pree mr x RAID AILS SEE TAS SE LAR EEANASEGGS ee aes aat: Ber = aif tate cha hte ag ae A a S : : §: & Ss ie 4 ‘s x = 4 A) 4 cd ng yi OLE: wat LetEN re AKG 4 a e eo 3 aS ary: weal LKR Tas ats ; ae, o veRy ai 4 Cosy ature Ane f Aa | HAMEED Ta 7 CREASE PN we r u aot % & Wwe M3 Ss e, wa S & fi S Se z ; & > . pee = Sa Ro aa 7 Pt Soy ar COTTA ae che aoc een wn fe, ge HESS Ese fi of oS ke on _ Pe LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. AG O mer "6 Copyright Do : a GEO UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. | | (Nie SS ‘FR ad yi vm a Ped, > oh : (hs) : é Bale . a Lt Ae - A L aff ini ASM " LADS 1 PZ (WA SUMMER, ‘© AN AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY IN ONE VOLUME.” T EE AMERICAN FARMER. A HAND-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE FOR THE FARM AND GARDEN. CONTAINING INFORMATION ON THE SOILS; THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.—PLANTS,—THE KITCHEN GARDEN.—THE DAIRY.—FRUITS, FRUIT TREES, VINES, ETC.—DOMESTIC AND FARM ANIMALS.—POULTRY.—BEES AND SILK-WORMS.— ~ FLOWERS. — RURAL ARCHITECTURE. — HORTICULTURAL Woy OPERATIONS.—DISEASES OF PLANTS.—NOXIOUS INSECTS AND ANIMALS.— THE MANUFAC- } Y TURE OF SUGAR, WINE, CIDER, ETC. si INCLUDING TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Illustrated with nearly 400 Engravings. THITEENTH EDITION. RE-EDITED AND REVISED BY © F, W. O'NIELL, anp H. L. WILLIAMS. eo VE oO! ; ef) 2 | : ye ‘\ on - \ - et . } NEW YORK: E Copyright, 1880, by €. Wa GARLETON &CO:, Publishers. M.DCCC.LXXxX. SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION. 7 —~ —— PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. Tue very flattering approval with which Tae AMERICAN Far- MER’S Hanp-Boox has been greeted by the agricultural community, has encouraged the publisher to endeavor to extend its sphere of usefulness, by incorporating in its pages such additional material as the progressive spirit of agricultural inquiry has rendered available; hence, the reader will find the modest book, with which, perhaps, he was familiar in bygone days, now assuming dimensions of a more dignified and imposing character. Much of the matter now pre- sented in this volume for the first time, and which cannot be found elsewhere, except in books devoted to special subjects, is of a highly valuable as well as important nature, well deserving the undivided attention and careful perusal of all who are engaged in agricultural pursuits; and we trust it may have the effect to arouse an interest in the cultivation of many plants which have as yet attracted but little notice. The radical error of the American system of farming is that, throughout the greater part of the country, the attention of farmers and planters has been almost exclusively devoted to the cultivation of a few staple articles, such as wheat, rye, oats, Indian corn, (iii) iv PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. cotton and tobacco ; while many very profitable branches of rural economy, such as green crops, grape growing, fruit raising, and garden truck have met with comparative neglect. This has arisen in part from the tendency which people in general, of all professions, have to fall into ruts, and pursue a certain routine simply because it is routine. It requires some sudden shock or violent alteration to bring the masses into seeing the necessity of making any vital change in the course they have been pursuing. Within the last twenty-five years our country has sustained several sudden and important political and financial changes and convulsions that have had great and lasting effects upon agriculture, manufactures and commerce. California has shown her ability to be one of the greatest grain and fruit pro- ducing countries upon the face of the earth ; Texas has developed a capacity for raising stock and cultivating cotton and grain whic) has literally amazed even the most hopeful of her citizens; the great West pours out train after train of wheat, corn and pork in one con- tinuous stream. At first sight this would appear injurious, if not ruinous, to many of the older States, prolific as they are compared with most parts of the earth. But such is not the case. Fortu- nately almost simultaneously with these grand developments of agricultural richness, the manufacturing powers of the country took an immense stride in advance, and have created markets at the very doors of our farmers for every article which they can produce. Great improvements have been introduced in the culture of veg- etables and fruits. Our cattle have been so much bettered by judi- cious breeding that even English stock-raisers have bought bulls and cows from us at what seem almost incredible prices. The quality of our sheep has improved both in their meat-producing and wool- yielding. In every kind of market gardening there has also beena wonderful improvement. Fruits, large and small, have partaken of the same astonishing progress ; until nowit is a common thing to see in any of our city markets apples and pears, plums, nectarines, grapes, PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. Vj and the lesser fruits, that equal and in some varieties surpass those produced in the finest fruit raising countries of the world. The products of our dairies not only find a ready and remunerative sale in our own markets, but they command a quick and profitable sale in countries that have been deemed beyond our competition. Our leading statesmen, merchants and manufacturers have taken a lively interest in promoting in every way the heathful progress of agriculture. Knowing well that in acountry where that profession is profitably employed, fairly compensated and duly honored, not only does wealth accumulate, but man—the noblest product of every country—flourishes ‘‘ erect and free.” The many Agricultural Societies formed in the various States have had a very favorable influence upon the development of farming in all its branches, by bringing into comparison and competition almost every kind of grain, roots, fruits and dairy products ; as well as the different kinds of improved mechanical implements. Another great advantage springing from these societies and clubs is that they necessarily lead to the interchange of opinions, and a comparison of methods between men fully alive to the fact that there is no such thing as standing still in farming. The farmer’s motto is that of New York State, ‘‘ Excelsior.” A very profitable—though somewhat remote profit—will be found in the preservation and propagation of our forest trees. Their judi- cious cultivation will prove not only a source of wealth to the individual cultivator, but the country at large will be im- mensely benefited by the growth of the forests. Vast tracts of country, more or less mountainous, and now scalped of the grand foliage which once adorned them, may at little outlay be made to grow many of our noble native trees, the woods of which are daily becoming more and more valuable for ship and housebuilding and for the manufacture of furniture. Many vegetable oils and dyestuffs have been of late years much neglected ; their scarcity will produce a demand, and then they vi PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. must then rapidly advance in price. Under the appropriate head- ings, the reader will find full and accurate instructions as to the soil and mode of culture best adapted to the oil and dye-yielding plants, together with a statement of their uses, and of the methods of extracting their valuable properties. Recently, considerable attention has been directed to the introduc- tion of the Sorgho, or Chinese Sugar-Cane, and its congener, the Imphee, or African Sugar-Cane—both of which were opportunely discovered at the very period when, owing to a radically-defective system of cultivation, the exhausted plantations of Louisiana refused to yield their usual product of sugar. These plants have been fully treated of in this volume; as also the sugar-beet, a plant of inesti- mable value in France, where its culture, and the manufacture of sugar from its roots, profitably employ immense numbers of the population. Cotton, tobacco, and rice have likewise been lengthily discussed; and, as a vessel is now on its way to our shores with large quantities of tea-plants and seed, imported by the Agricultural Bureau of the Patent-Office, with a view to the introduction of the culture of this plant in the United States, it has been deemed ne- cessary to include a description of its varieties, together with their mode of culture, and the process employed for manufacturing the leaves into the tea of commerce. The silk culture, once an object of ephemeral attention, and, without good reason, consigned to obli- vion, has also received due attention; for it is, practically, a very important branch, and, within the limits of the Union, there are very few localities wherein silk cannot be produced with great advantage to the grower. Of equal importance are the instructions in regard to the management of vineyards, and the manufacture of wines, when the extent of country adapted to the growth of the grape is taken into consideration, together with the vast field which its culti- PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. vii vation presents for the profitable investment of surplus capital and labor. We take the liberty here to warn our farmer friends against two very serious and prevalent errors, which have already done much to retard the progress of desirable improvements in agricultural science —one of these is incredulity, which so obscures the perceptive faculties of the individual, as to prevent him from realizing the benefits to be derived from scientific investigation—the only solid basis of a really progressive agriculture; while the other is the opposite extreme — over-credulity, which induces improvident ex- penditures for new machinery, plants, seeds, manures, etc., that have not been thoroughly tested, by a series of careful experiments, and their adaptation to the particular locality clearly ascertained. In the case of new seeds and plants, one experiment should never be deemed a sufficient test; nay, even two, three, or four will sometimes be too few to determine whether they can be profitably cultivated ; and in no case should the farmer abandon the cultivation of any plant which has been recommended by competent and scientific agri- culturists, until, by repeated trials on a small scale, he has satisfied himself that it is either unsuited to the soil, or cannot be grown with profit. In the Appendix will be found a collection of Tables, of great service to the practical agriculturist, who, by their aid, may measure his own land; ascertain the weight of his cattle by merely taking their girth and length; find how many plants can be raised on each perch and acre of ground, at definite distances; learn what are the best mixtures of grass-seed for sowing on different soils, whether for pasture, mowing, or other purposes; determine how many heaps of manure will be required to cover an acre of ground at different viii PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. distances, as well as the number of loads to the acre ; and ata glance, satisfy himself as to the amount of ground he can plough per day, with certain widths of furrow slice, and at certain rates of speed. In the following pages we present our readers with engravings of different kinds of implements used in farming. They are such as have been thoroughly tested and have been found to fulfill the ob- jects for which they were intended. As almost every day brings before the public the claim of some in- ventor who desires to introduce a new article to lessen the demand for manual force, or to execute work with more rapidity and per- fectness, we cannot in justice to them or to contemplated purchasers do anything but advise buyers to make personal examination, with the assistance of experts, before laying out money for what may prove little or no improvements over the time-tested implements they already have in use. While on this subject we may say that we thank Mr. A. B. Griffin, of New York, for some of the modern en- gravings which appear inthe volume. It is not good to mutiply labor-saving agricultural machines without reflection. Mr. Frank Wilkeson, a very able writer on Agricultural matters, recently re- marked : *‘There has been a great deal written about our labor- saving harvesting machinery, and most people think they are money- saving machines also. Thisisa mistake. With the single excep- tion of the header (and this tool cannot be used in a damp climate) none of them save money. They save labor, but notmoney. They enable one man to do the work of three or four men, but he does it at the price of four or five men’s work. Instead of the money being paid to the farm laborers of the agricultural regions, it is sent out of the farming districts into the manufacturing districts to pay for machinery and binding wire. An improved self-binding harvester costs $300 ; an old-fashioned cradle costs $4 ; and with equal care the cradle will outlast the binder. Where men are plenty the grain can be cut cheaper with a cradle than with a self-binder,”’ PREFACE, In presenting to the American public a work on AcRicULTURE AND THE VARIOUS ARTS AND SCIENCES CONNECTED WITH ITS MORE PER- rect KNowLEDGE aND Practice, we feel that we should hardly be satisfied with the common prize of authorial ambition, — the mere approval of our book by the community at large. We should be far better pleased, could the volume be the means of so stimulating scientific inquiry and advancing the noble cause of Agriculture, that the very work itself should soon be superseded by the improvements it may cause. It would be an easy, and by no means disagreeable task, to occupy, us is sometimes the practice with authors, a score of pages, or more, with a Preface or Introduction, elaborately demonstrating the importance of agriculture to mankind in the light of political econ- omy, and especially its vital connection with the continued advance- ment, in prosperity and power, of this mighty republic; and, from such premises, it would not be difficult to deduce abundant facts, principles and suggestions, valuable, in a social and economical point of view, alike to the cultivator of the soil and to all other classes of citizens. The value of many of the more difficult arts and sciences may, indeed, be appropriately dwelt upon, in text-books devoted to their discussion, from the fact that their importance is, as yet, far from being generally acknowledged, or their principles adequately understood. But who can be so blind, in this day of light, as to need any studied accumulation of evidence to show the value and magnitude of agriculture and its kindred employments? Argument (ix ) »:¢ PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION, can hardly enhance them ; eloquence, in its most select phrases, can - no further embellish them. The earth itself is not more the foun- dation on which we stand, than the cultivation of the soil is the foundation of all national existence, all political stability, all social and mental progress. What government — what community — could be sustained, what form of public or domestic happiness could be enjoyed, without food, clothing and shelter? And does not the bulk of food, clothing and shelter, come out of the earth ? and, with very inconsiderable exceptions, are they not the result of manual toil and culture? A few things are of spontaneous produc- tion, but the limits of spontaneous production are soon reached. Without other resources, nine tenths of the present population of the globe would perish before another annual revolution of the sun. The agriculturist, then, feeds and clothes and shelters the world. Further improvements in this great department of human effort would enable it to feed and clothe and shelter the world with more adequacy, with greater comfort, with a higher ornament. Advanced still further, other tens and hundreds of millions of beings might rejoice in its bounties; and human imagination cannot assign a limit beyond which the creative, or, at least, the sustaining power of agriculture cannot go, in filling the ranks and improving the races of mankind. ‘The correctness of these views, however, it has been presumed, is the conviction of every intelligent agriculturist in this country; and if to this were added a due appreciation and improve- ment, on his part, of the means afforded him zealously to fulfil the duties and responsibilities of his vocation, the speedy attainment of comparative perfection in husbandry pursuits would no longer be problematical. To the realization of this end, — so earnestly to be desired, — these pages, it is humbly hoped, will contribute in no small degree. But, in addition to expatiating upon the political and physical relations of agriculture to mankind, it is not unusual for authors or editors of agricultural books, in order to excite, on the part of farmers and the community in general, an increased interest in the cause of agriculture, —as well as to commend their own labors to public favor, — to indulge in elaborate encomiums on the moral dignity of rural pursuits, and their adaptedness to ennoble the lives and char- PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xi acters of those who engage in them. Such encomiums are just, and, in their proper place, useful and gratifying. No reflective person, however, whether he be a farmer or a tradesman, will need to be informed of the tendency of constant communion with the works and phenomena of nature to purify the thoughts, and thus exert a largely restraining influence upon the dark passions of the human soul. No man works more in the immediate presence of his Creator than the husbandman. He sees Him not only “in the coo] of the day,” but in every waking moment;— in the purity and fragrance of the circumambient atmosphere, — in the untamed grandeur of Nature’s mountains, rocks, fields, forests, and gushing waters, — in the germ- ination of every seed,— in the growth of every leaf and of every blade of grass,— by these, and numberless objects besides, is he impressed, not only with the power, wisdom and goodness, of Him who “causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herbs for the service of man,” but with the gracious course of His providence, which rewards every discovery of His laws, and every act of obedi- ence to them. It is uttering no harsh judgment, then, when we say, oriefly, that the man who can live and labor, surrounded by so many and so palpable attestations of a beneficent and controling Powet above, without realizing the nearness of his relations to that Power, or without hymning in his heart devout ascriptions of praise and gratitude, is a sad example of the derangement which sometimes characterizes man’s moral machinery. And if, with the Book of Nature thus unfolded so luminously before him, his feelings fail to be voluntarily awakened to a sense of the honorable character of his employment, and of his duty to improve every means and facility that will enable him to become skilful and thrifty in his calling, no words of rhetoric, however eloquent, will be able to arouse them. Beyond, therefore, the simple assurance, to those into whose hands this work may fall, that it is the result of patient and laborious study, diligent investigation, and enlightened scientific experiment, con- firmed by careful and discriminating practice, — and that it embraces within its scope every important topic or subject treated of by the: most eminent practical writers on Agricultural Economy, in all its ramifications, — introductory comment on the design and character of this volume is unnecessary. xil PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. To those for whose use and benefit it has been prepared, — the Acricu.turist — the Market Garpener —the Damy Farmer— the Fruir Grower —the Srocx Ratser — the Pouttry BreEDER — the Bee Krerer —the Fiorisr—and the Rurat Arcuirect, — this volume is respectfully commended, with the earnest hope that it will prove to them a valuable, substantial, and profitable aid. In the Appendix will be found a collection of Tables, of great service to the practical agriculturist, who, by their aid, may measure his own land; ascertain the weight of his cattle by merely taking their girth and length; find how many plants can be raised on each perch and acre of ground, at definite distances; learn what are the best mixtures of grass-seed for sowing on different soils, whether for pasture, mowing, or other purposes; determine how many heaps of manure will be required to cover an acre of ground at different distances, as well as the number of loads to the are; and, at a glance, satisfy himself as to the amount of ground he can plough per day, with certain widths of furrow-slice, and at certain rates of speed. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. SOILS:—THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. PAGE The Composition of Soils— Their Classification — Analysis — Relation between the Soil and Subsoil — Means of increasing their Productive Powers, and rendering them fit for Cultivation, viz.— Altering the proportion of their Ingredients — Clearing — Ploughing — Harrowing — Rolling — Manuring — Draining — Irrigating — Rotation of Crops.......secsecossccecccrns seseeenss seveesens CHAPTER If. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. Wheat — Barley — Rye — The Oat — Indian Corn — Buckwheat — The Potato — Sweet Potato — Sugar-Beet — Sugar-Cane — Chinese Sugar-Cane — African Sugar-Cane — Cotton — Tobacco — Rice — Tea — Broom-Corn — Millet — Hemp — Flax — Lucern — Sainfoin — The Tare — Clover — The Grasses — Motive Powers for Farm Purposes.....sssssccsssecs sesccesce crenssses oes CHAPTER III. PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR USES IN THE ARTS, AND FOB THEIR OILS. Indigo — Madder —Weld —Woad — Turmeric — Sumach — Bastard Saffron — Teasel — Colza — Rape — Sun-Flower — Castor-Oil Plant......... eecseaces posers) LOG a ( xiii ) x1V CONTENTS. CHAPTER TY. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. VEGETABLES : —Artichoke —Asparagus — Borage — Bean — Beet — Borecole — Broccoli — Cabbage — Cardoon — Carrot — Cauliflower — Celery — Chive — Corn — Corn-salad — Cress — Cucumber — Dandelion — Egg-plant — Endive — Garlic — Hop — Horse-radish — Leek — Lettuce — Morel — Mushroom — Mustard — Onion — Okra — Parsnip — Pea — Pepper — Pumpkin — Radish — Rape (edible-rooted) — Rhubarb — Salsify — Scorzonera — Sea-kale — Shallot — Skirret — Spinach — Squash — Tomato— Turnip. HeErss, ete.: — Anise — Balm — Basil — Caraway — Camomile — Coriander — Cheryil — Dill — Fennel — Foxglove — Horehound — Hyssop — Lavender — Liquorice — Marjoram — Mint — Parsley — Pennyroyal — Peppermint — Purslane — Rosemary — Rue — Saffron — Sage — Savory — Tansy — Thyme: — With a Monthly, Calendar of Oporations:.....-.ss.rscssarcecsssteccovecceoceisscuesoesiececssneneas ml C4 CHAPTER V. THE DAIRY. Dairy Implements — Management — Milk — Butter-making — Cheese-making —Including all the most celebrated and esteemed Modes......cs0.secccsseseee 220 CHAP TER: War. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Sranparp Kinps:— Apple (including Cider Making) — Apricot — Barberry — Blackberry — Cherry — Cranberry — Currant — Gooseberry — Grape (including Vineyards and Manufacture of Wine) — Medlar — Melon — Mulberry — Nectarine — Peach — Pear — Plum — Quince — Raspberry — Strawberry. MisceLnLangous Kinps:— Almond — Blueberry — Butternut — Chestnut — Fig — Filbert — Lemon — Lime — Olive — Orange — Pome- granate — Shellbark — Walnut — Whortleberry — With a Monthly Calendar of Operations......... alavoeseniaccsucaamieeenccssstecenssteeeetens cothoos-eLoucenceeeoconeceones fil CONTENTS. xv CHAPTER. VIL; DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. The Rearing, Breeding, Diseases, and General Care of—The Bull— The Ox — The Cow — Sheep — Swine — The Horse ——The Ass—The Mule —The Goat — The Dog, — in all their Standard Varieties — With a Monthly Calendar of Operations...... erauavectacnsleecccccneluscvalesscsusenscsesteradseseavelscracsens| OL CHAPTER VIII. POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. The Raising, Breeding, Diseases, and Treatment of the common Barn Fowls: — Caponizing —also The Turkey —The Goose—The Duck — in all their TMPOLGHNE ViATICULCSs coccos'cccoccteascscasaensoccrssacsevaneccsspccscccscgncosconeoanpstcssscans, OG CHAPTER, IX. BEES AND SILK-WORMS. Different Classes of Bees— Position of the Apiary —Hives and Boxes — Obtaining Stock — Swarming — The Honey Harvest — Management during Winter and Early Spring — How to treat the Produce of the Honey Harvest — The Enemies and Diseases of Bees: — Silk-worms and Mulberry SETCORS sc cccebs mecaree auauccuselccecnnccuncecucssescdccennucccsaccctorsncdsadesteceecsccsvccsecssiccaren cel CHAPTER X. FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL AND USEFUL TREES, ETC. The Culture of Flowers — Plans for Flower-Gardens — Description of Standard Varieties of Flowers — Ornamental Shrubs — Ornamental and Useful Trees — With a Monthly Floricultural Calendar............s00sscssssesssscsesecseseesee ses 468 CHAPTER XI. RURAL ARCHITECTURE. The Construction of Farm Dwellings and Cottages — Dairies — Barns — Stables — Cart-Sheds and Implement-Houses — Granaries — Cattle-Sheds — Ice-Houses — Sheep-Folds — Piggeries — Poultry-Houses — Arrangement of the Farmery — Green-Houses — Fences and Gates — Hedges...........00. 512 xVl CONTENTS. CHAPTER, Xt, HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. Lhe Improved Modes of Grafting — Budding — Pruning — Training..r..ccccssccc 564 CHAPTHRER Xi11T. THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. Blight or Blast — Canker or Caries — Consumption — Contortion — Dropsy — Ergot — Honey-Dew — Curl — Mildew — Potato Rot — Smut — Cotton Rot — Cotton Rust — Cotton Blight — Sore-Shin........secccsccssssceseceee sosssseve cesses OOD CHAPTER XIV. NOXIOUS INSECTS AND ANIMALS. Insects which live constantly on or in Domestic Animals, and propagate on them — Insects which injure Grain — Insects injurious to Culinary Vegetables — Insects injurious to Fruits, Fruit-Trees, Shrubs, and Vines — Insects injurious to Flower-Plants — Insects injurious to Meadows — Insects injurious to the Cotton Plant — Animals injurious to Cultivated BIOL). Jeics tevcscssncaccstcclateess Geecee satus creneotaebace fe eeee ence ceec case huGN GEES TERETE EOE APPENDIX, Containing Tables, by the use of which a Farmer may be greatly assisted in his Calculations..... nuescunecuaesncvsereceessaancs seaeupiasascseseientsesnasceseeceen secccosseces (OGG DEFINITIONS OF WoRDS,—SCcIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND PECULIAR, — COM- MCNLY USED IN CONNECTION WITH AGRICULTURAL AND KINDRED SuBJeEcts.. 693 InDEX C00 OO ESS COOOL OO OOTEOEE CO OOOSESS DOLSOSEOS LOSSEOSED OF 0800008 C59O9 4580 FO588 S80 C0008 GaseeeeE® 699 CLASSH IED: LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS. Fig. PAGE | FIG. PAGE 4, Root-grubber— mode of ope- 30. Draining Peat Lands............. 59 THUND Pleceeacddeicneses Suemeeateseetecs 28 | 31. << a Se iisse as noexets 59 6. Stump Extractor — mode of ope- 32. Draining Clay Lands............. 61 MALIN Cie cucsdvslvuccccsaxvetesssessass 30 | 35. Meadow Watering.......+2ssere 64 10. European Dirt-shovel — mode of 36. Catch-work Irrigation ...... saGeee 65 operating ...... dievseess saosedeuees 33 | 40. Mowing Machine — mode of 12. Appearance of badly- fhndehid OPCYAUIND 1... .ccecsccdecdseussenens 74 MBM cocwadadciovencdusenedsescsssevss 36 | 50. Hand Corn-planter — mode of 13. Ploughing with Double Team... 37 operating ........ sev eustcaidalalreseniss 88 15. Diagram of Hie SURED Es 39] 56. Transverse Section of Potato- 16. ss 40 viIS).vcn-cscciodvasnctnice savetonatian 97 17. Transverse Section of Ridge- 57. Transverse Section of Potato- LOM IN Fy waeagessiecsseacesiecdess- 41 GATING). occ evscclencscoscciscsssteanieducs 98 18. Illustration of Casting, in plough- 86. Grass Seed Sower — mode of AIP, vanes Racccemccntdrsvssdeuvaoncosa 41 OPCTAtING .....csecsscrccces covcesees 155 19. Illustration of Casting, in plough- 89. Delano’s Horse Hay Rake— BITE ao ss aevoxvouce cue dis eeta tu eaaecd es 42 mode of operating .........ses0 158 20. Illustration of Cleaving, in 93. Horse Power — operation of.... 164 PlOUSHING Fecsckesde-covceve cove .... 42] 98. Modes of supporting Running 21. Diagram of Cross- ploughing 43 Plants cc epvecdecscccsvevcoveve cece ve. (LST 29. Earths and Springs.......e0...0.. 581105. Turnip culture ........++00. wesensse 208 GRAINS, GRASSES, VEGETABLES, HERBS, ETC. 37. Different kinds of Wheat....... 70 | 45. The Rye plant .....s.00 sss mare ft 38. Classification of Wheat by the 47, Different kinds of Oats........... 82 PEEMUN taweusevasicosteseaviscvertecvessé 70 | 49. The Indian corn plant........+.. 85 42. Classification of Barley by ihe 55. “ Buckwheat ‘ ssssssesees 93 STAINS) (o.ccqscsvccassetevsscssecs-s 7G) OS. “ Sugar-can@ ..-scceee 104 43. Different binds of Hadeyies.. 77 | 60. ‘ Chinese Sugar-cane plant, 110 2* ( xvii) xvVill CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 62. The Cotton plant...... enaseeee . 116} 83. Herd, or Fowl Meadow Grass... 152 65. “ Tobacco “ ....ccccsccccceses 122] 84. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass... 152 66. “ Rice Mo tosesecascssseae, L2O || OD. ONY GTASSicccsvcces-c eeeeedaeseene 152 68. “ Tea Kcideiescesineeascne - 130] 95. The Indigo plant ...........sccsee 166 70. “ Millet “ c..cccccocsceseee 135] 96. Bastard Saffron.......... 5603600 cron Ha) Wl. © Hemp % cossoese sessersoee LET} 97. The Castor-oil plant ........ cone lisi}t (OR Gs site GB peecone .. 110] 99. Hop plants, male and female... 196 74 © Trucern “ cccoseee sevens «» 148] 100. The Morel plant ..ccccocecscceeeees 200 75. “ Sainfoin “ c.scccccsecceeece 145 | 101. The Mushroom plant .......2+ ee 200 Osman eeare, el ieasesensdsleeeeess = 146 | 102. Varieties of the Mustard plant, 201 77. Different kinds of Clover........ 147 | 103. The Pea plant......... Sasnoseendos 203 78. Meadow or Green Grass .......+ 149|104. “ Rhubarb plant........ Beaters 205 79. Timothy, Cat’s Tail, or Herd LO fectan CATS WAY ue siccessasceserses 210 GTASS sostscscriescccennsiocosuscecienase 150)108. “ Coriander “ ......... meer ey (1 | 80. Orchard Grass, or Cock’s Foot MOOS een avenger a scaeccsssrereestss 212 GIASS ....ccccccceccccnscccoccese croc JY TM) GS aa espace ZS} 81. Meadow Fescue Grass ........ meee oda PIO See Pars) Oyen ac eteat wee 214 82. Ray or Rye (6 seceeeee ee LHL 1112, $6 Saffron © sassccccnseeeee -ZLD FRUITS. 120. Early Harvest Apple... 251 | 145. American Amber Cherry......... 268 121. Red Astrachan ‘ oc... seeee 252 | 146. Downer’s Late Cherry ............ 269 122. Williams’s Favorite Apple...... 252 | 147. Harly White-heart Cherry...... . 269 123. Juneating ae eh cee 253 | 148. The Cranberry ......... ssecceeee wee 270 124. Summer Queen 6 eee 253 | 150. White Currant......... edecsnsecebeotiariice 125. Maiden’s Blush Go aS scbe 2545 GUD TSB lacks mel ei scersccens fb detee soon 29 126. Gravenstein OS acne 255 | 152. Melling’s Crown-bob Goose- 127. Rambo OE ere . 255 DDeDny,cesscterestoccespecescencecedsere 275 128. Yellow Bellflower OH eaonce 256 | 153. Houghton’s Seedling Goose- 129. Esopus Spitzenberg “ ..... PAN DELS Ah opeccossliesssioatoeveesscscicases 275 130. Baldwin WS essay . 257 | 154. Black Hamburgh Grape......... 27% 131. Hubbardston Nonsuch “ ...... 258 | 155. Muscat of Alexandria (red and 132. Westfield Seek-no-further Ap- WHO) MGTAPC i sccescoitennccessiess il SOs ssbseeboaabbaspecocsontoooscuatoots 259 | 156. Catawba Grape..........scccccoeese 278 133. Roxbury Russet Apple ........... D500 el ove mceabe lia tee OWN etescccsencecctesnns 278 134. Golden Pippin SO) oeacnscsers 260 | 158. Section of a bearing Vine...... 279 135. Lady US posesaacss 260} 19s WHE OMICLON ccrcvecclecnccasocncescenss 284 136. Harrison 66 oh eeccsete 261 | 160. The Mulberry......... eececcaeenrease 285 137. Red Siberian Crab Apple........ 262 | 161. Jaune Lisse Nectarine............ 286 139. Harly Apricot .......escceccees seeee 262 | 162. Musk Violet “6 —sseasseseeeee 286 N20 eachi si inesacsas ARprennce Seno 265 | 163. Gros Mignonne Peach......... see ZOO 141. Brussels “ Sccetase@peoenes ..... 265 | 164. Alberge - Seo ricessecaee ee 142. The Barberry......cscccccess sesere 266 | 165. Red Magdalen COS eadecastee 289 143. The Blackberry.......sssscceseeeee 267 | 166. Late Heath OE lewwsseuise 290 144. Black-heart Cherry....cs0.-ee0. 268 | 167. Bartlett Pear ..occessceesees serene 292 168, 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174, 175. 176. rire 178. 179. 194, 195. 196. 197. 198. 200. 201. 202. 203. 204. 205. 206. 208. 209. 210. 227. 228. 229. 230. 231, 232. 233. CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. Winter Nelis Pear ............000. 293 Seckel eeD dun ctaxe aeae sures 293 BENMTe BOSC ne escasaecccnsce ace 294 Muscadine SO avovecessinscscese 290 Jefferson Plum...........0.. Stesians 297 GreeniG are eer cccrccsciressssans 297 Purple Favorite Plum............ 298 Bleecker’s Gage ....ccsccece 299 DUAN GIs EU On ecu taecenedscss 299 Frost Gage Aer ereaacubenen se 300 Apple-shaped Quince............. 302 Fastolff Raspberry ..........s000 . 303 180, 181. 182. 183. 184, 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS, Explanatory Skeleton of the Ox, 323 Prize Dairy Native Cow vesies Rilevantausticcosersccnacaset Oo Devon Bull .......... Srasuacaissaveere 326 6 OR asses meclcchdescccwareseces 327 oe Sao ousapaacciesuaseave.veneeseee 328 Ser LO Wilseresssceiedesacnneysse tes 329 Short-horned Bull ...............6 330 G3 COWisscsssacsiaatevess 331 Pere for de COW sccvesesscosccvse cesses 332 Ayrshire ‘Bull tcc. Sesmaneeaineees 333 O: Woawetes at tit couscy se Seay 333 New Leicester Cow .....sce+ esses 334 New Leicester Sheep ........ seoee O43 Cotswold Sheep .....ccssccsccosseece 346 South-Down Ewe and Lamb... 347 211. 212. 213. 214, 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. 221. 222. 223. 224. 225. 226. DOMESTIC FOWLS. SHANGHAL ...cccece.coca0ee earacocerrca Stay! Bankiva Cock ........ @ evecssssccense GOO Dorking Fowls............ Ascuabice 389 Jago or Spanish Fowls....... ee. 390 Crested or Poland “ ........ oe SOL Bantam Cock .......00...ce0000 eae esl Ostrich or Cochin-China Hen... 392 234, 235. 236. 237. 238. 239. 240. X1X Franconia Raspberry ...... soceess O04 Large Early Scarlet Strawberry, 306 Hovey’s Seedling 307 Swainstone’s “ ae 308 Ross Pheenix cH 308 Prolific Hautbois as 308 Cushing ae 309 The Hig. sce SOR Scasestes peesse OLO Sp DOM ONicsescess Sraccetrcactenoss 311 Same Clavdssscsaserecsees\ceceusvacsncil mai OlIVO\ctpcrececeenessstesersvecene (Oo, Soe OLED 2 Otarssal-ssseeesarsrecesess/OLD Black-faced or Heath Sheep... 348 Merino Sheep...... eseccccccvscccess S48 Explanatory Skeleton of Pig... 351 China Hope scccass ccstececer soscesse GOD Berkshire Hog ........00 Sach oe. 304 Suffolk Oe etecceceace cosa ole! Siamese Sow and Litter ......... 355 Explanatory Figure of Horse.. 358 Arabian HOrs6)sccsssccccsscseconess) DOD American Race Horse............ 360 cs FORE (6S sitassevasces 360 Norman (European) Horse...... 361 Thibet Goat....... eeitveneas Sucaseurs 364 Newfoundland Dog .........c0002. 366 Shepherd’s SMitadstneaceness. Having done this, and leaving his plough standing at 4, he measures off from 6 to e, 15 feet, and there he plants his pole. He then returns to his plough, and proceeds forward, making his furrow in a straight line, to the last pole, ¢, where, in like manner, he stops his horses, and, measuring off 15 feet, he plants his pole at f. In this manner he has placed his poles in a straight line, at the distance of 15 feet from their last position, and parallel, as before, to the line of the fence. He now turns his horses sharp about, and returns by the furrow which he has just drawn, cba. By this second ploughing he throws the earth out in an opposite direction, so that he has formed a completely open _ ae SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT, 3S furrow. In returning, he takes care to correct any inequality or crookedness that may have taken place through the unsteady motion of the horses in his first track. The poles being now placed in a line, de f, he brings his plough to d, enters it, and stops it there. He measures off 15 feet with his pole, from d to g, and fixes his pole at g; and then he proceeds with his plough to ¢ and f, repeating the same operation with his poles as before, and returniny by the track of his last-made furrow, from f tod. In this manner he pro- ceeds throughout the whole field, forming parallel open furrows, at the dis- tance from each other of 15 feet. These furrows are to form the centres of the future ridges. The field is now prepared for being ploughed into ridges, and the manner of doing so is this: — y The ploughman, beginning at the left-hand side of the open furrow, ploughs his first furrow-slice towards it. He then, returning by the oppo- site side, performs the same operation, causing the first two furrow-slices ta rest upon each other. Thus, in forming his first ridge, he begins at the side of a, and, ploughing in the direction from a to c, he turns his first furrow- slice into the open furrow ac. When he arrives at c, he turns his plough right about, and returning from c to a, he lays his second furrow-slice upon the first one, as at c, Fig. 16. In this manner he continues, always turning to the right-hand side, and laying his furrow-slices towards the centre of the ridge, until he has reached a 40) FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. the boundary of the ridge & Hu, on the one side, and the line o s, half-way between c a and d f, on the other. He has thus formed a ridge, of which ¢ ais the crown or centre, and H £ and os the termination. By proceed- ing in this manner throughout the field, the whole is formed into ridges, of which the first-marked furrows are the centres. It has been said that the ploughman continues turning his horses to the right, and that thus, after having proceeded from a to c, he returns from c to a, and so on, always ploughing around a c, as a central line. When, how- ever, he has proceeded from a to c, he may turn his horses left about, and return from f to d, and so on, always laying his furrow-slices towards a c and f d, respectively. In this manner he will have ploughed the half of two adjoining ridges, and terminated at the space o s, half-way between them. This method, it will appear, has the same effect as turning the horses right about, and is the most convenient in practice. In. Figure 16, in which cc, cc, cc, are the centres of the ridges, the manner in which the successive furrow-slices have been laid upon each other is shown. By this laying of the earth towards the centres, the ridges acquire a cer- tain curvature. By ploughing the earth away from the intervals 4 B, pz, FG, H 1, the ground is hollowed at these parts, which now form the epen furrows. It.is by these open furrows that the water which falls upon the surface finds a passage. ——————— 2235222 >==s2 —— = SS = S—- SSS NARA EE ET LK AAKP SOOO NLL SSS Se B c E c G SS = A certain, though not a great, degree of curvature, is given to the ridge by this ploughing. It is frequently, however, necessary to give it a yet greater degree of curvature and elevation. ‘This is done by ploughing the whole ridge a second time, and in a similar manner. SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT, 4i Gathering. — The plough is first driven along the centre of the ridge from c to c, forming an open furrow. Successive furrow-slices are then laid towards this furrow, in the same manner as in the previous ploughing. This is done with the successive furrow-slices, until the plough reaches the open furrows AB, D£, FG, HI. In this manner the whole ridge is ploughed, and an inereased elevation and curvature given to it. ‘This operation is termed gathering. In performing the operation of gathering, it is important that the ridge be formed with a uniform curvature, so that it shall not have what is techni- cally termed a shoulder, or hollow part, on each side of the crown. It is to prevent this defect that the open track is made along the crown, before the first two slices are laid together; by which means the ploughman is better enabled to lay them upon each other in such a manner that they shall not overlap and form a protuberance at the crown of the ridge. A transverse section of the ridges, when gathered, will appear thus: Fig. 17. B Cc E Cc G Cc I c Casting. — A ridge being already formed, it may be wished to plough it again, and yet to preserve it at the same curvature and elevation. In this ease, the plough is to enter at the open furrow, and to lay the successive furrow-slices towards it, until the two adjoining edges are ploughed. By this means, all the slices of the same ridge lie in the same direction, and the eurvature and elevation of the whole remain as before. This operation is termed casting, and the manner in which the furrow-slices rest upon each otner will appear in the following cut. Fig. 18. OLLI SSSI _ OLMIS, BD Cc E Cc G Cc I Cc In the operation of casting, two methods may be pursued. The first two furrow-slices, as those of & and 1, may be laid resting on each other, as in Fig. 18, in which case the two ridges will be formed, as it were, into one large ridge; or else the open furrows at & and 1 may be preserved by keeping the first two furrow-slices at a little distance from each other, and preserving the space between them, as in Fig. 19. When land is ploughed in this manner, the ground is taken from one side of each two adjoining ridges at Gc, and laid towards the other, & and 1; that is, it is gathered towards one side and gathered from the other. In 4* 42, FARMER S HAND-BOOK. this manner, the ground at the open furrow Gc, from which we gatheu, becomes more bare of earth than the open furrows & and 1, towards which Fig. 19. SSSR _2LLO--REODWLND LPL B c E Cc G c I Cc we gather. When, therefore, we wish to cast a ridge twice in succession we reverse the former mode of ploughing; we gather towards the open furrow c, and from the open furrows r and 1, and thus the ridge is restored to its former state. Cleaving. —In this operation, the plough commences at the open furrow, lays the first slice towards it, and then returning by the other side of the open furrow, lays the second slice upon the first, as in the following figure. When it has reached the centre, it stops, and begins with another pair of ridges, and ploughs the half of each pair together in the same manner. In this way the open furrows of the ridges become the centres, and the former centres become the open furrows. When we wish to level a ridge, we cleave it. Fig. 20. B Cc E c G Cc I c Cross Ploughing. —'This, as the term denotes, is ploughing ina direc- tion crossing that of the former ridges and furrows. The workmen place themselves at equal distances from one another, as thirty or forty yards, at the side of the field at which they are to begin to plough. Hach then runs a straight furrow across the field, as from a to D, from B to £, from c to F. Each then returns, as from pD to a, from E to B, from F to c, laying always the successive furrow-slices towards the right hand, until each man arrives at the termination of his allotted space, zr, rx, av, xx. ‘There has been thus formed, by each workman, one great ridge, but so extended that it may be said to be without curvature. ‘The ploughmen, we perceive, turn from left to right, around the first furrows a D, B E, c F. But they may also turn from right to left. ‘Thus, in going from B to £, the ploughman lays his first furrow-slice to the right hand. When he arrives at £, he may turn his horses left about, and proceed to D, and, returning from p to a, lay his first furrow-slice to the right hand towards p a. ‘Turning left about, then, dt a, he proceeds in the direction B £, and so on, always turning left about until he has arrived at the middle space 0, when the whole space between ap and B e£ will have been ploughed. Sometimes, for conven- SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 43 ience and the saving of distance, he may plough, in the first place, around the central line B ©, by turning from left to right, and then plough the remainder of the interval by turning from right to left. Fig. 21. Fi z A D x x B E 4 £ c F x a These are matters of detail, somewhat difficult, perhaps, to be described clearly, but so simple in themselves, that they need only be seen in the field to be thoroughly understood. Subsoil Ploughing.— Loosening the subsoil by a plough, without turning it, has been strongly recommended, of late years, as a great improvement in tillage. A heavy plough is first run along the field some six or eight inches deep, and a subsoil plough (see Fig. 22) follows in the bottom of the 44 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. furrow, deepening it to fourteen or sixteen inches in all. This differs from trench ploughing, in which the subsoil is cast up and mixed with the sur- face, by which the soil is either benefited or injured, according to the nature of the subsoil. The principal effect of subsoil ploughing is, that the earth is deepened to a considerable depth, and root culture is much im- proved ; the soil is also considerably drained, and if moor-pans exist in it, may be reclaimed from sterility. It is, therefore, a useful process in stiff soil imperfectly drained, but, in loose gravelly or sandy soils, subsoil ploughing is often very injurious. Fallowing. —In support of fallowing, it has been urged, that by no other management has land produced so much corn — so much human food, “which ought to be the great object; that the work required in the operation is at a time of year when no pressing demand for labor exists, when there is often little or nothing for men or horses to execute ; that the land can be effectu- ally prepared for an early sowing of wheat, which is very desirable ; and that if fallowing (we now refer to complete summer fallows) were to be super- seded by spring or early green crops, a greater number of teams on any given extent of farm would be required to get through the work in proper season; and that the transition from this practice, where it is regularly established, would be highly inconvenient. Fallows are of two kinds, — the entire or naked fallow, and the half fallow. In proportion to the progress of green-crop culture will be the relinquish- ment of the system of entire summer fallowing, which, after a farm has been once put into proper order, and with a regular rotation of ameliorating and cleansing crops, alternating with grain crops, is quite unnecessary. Unless on the first occupation of an exhausted and dirty farm, and without the means of manuring for fallow crops, the system of an entire summer fallowing is indefensible. Even on the strongest clay land, good, deep, and very early autumnal ploughing, with the subsequent spring culture well executed, and manure, ought to be sufficient for the production of crops. If the soil be of too tenacious a quality for turnips, it will vield potatoes, beans, or cab- bages, and the horse-hoeing process will render it friable, and fit for the ensuing crop of wheat. The full benefit of fallowing lies in loosening the adhesive particles of soil, and in the admission of air, so essential to vegetation; in suppressing, for a season, the productive powers and energies of the earth, and in destroying the vitality of weeds, and dissolving them altogether, by exposure to the in- fluence of the sun and atmosphere ; but all these effects may be produced by half-fallowing and green-crop culture. On friable soil there is no excuse for the former kind of fallowing, whatever may be urged in favor of the practice on strong chalky or clayey land. The number of ploughings and Desh aaltepet Reta gt nee Aileen SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 45 harrowings must be regulated by the nature of the soil. Four good plough: ings, (exclusive of the first in the preceding autumn,) and as many har- rowings, ought to suffice for the most stubborn soils. If a fallow crop — suppose turnips —is to be put into the ground, three summer ploughinga ought to suffice. Why is it that one good, thick-standing crop is always followed by another? Why is lea-wheat better if the clover has been mowed twice than if it had been depastured? Why is land found to be in better heart after a heavy green crop than it is after bearing a white crop? The answer to all these questions is the same, namely, the soil has been completely shaded from the summer's sun. Ifa heap of stones be suffered to lie on a fallow field throughout the summer, and be not removed till seed-time, the spot will not only be visible by a much stronger growth of corn in the first, but for several years afterwards. Add to this what was said by an agricultural philosopher, that if he could cover his fallow fields for the whole summer with boards, his next crop would be doubled. But there are many circum- stances which may affect the surface of some soils differently from others. A thick crop of tares or of clover makes,the surface moist and mellow when ploughed up, and thus may be beneficial to the seed sown immediately ; but there is a certain benefit to a heavy soil, arising from exposure to the dews and a warm sun, which cannot be denied, and which often equals a coat of manure. In all cases of fallow, the first ploughing should be given immediately after harvest, and as deep as the quality of the soil will permit, with a strong team, if the land: be very stiff and retentive of water ; and in all cases the field should be well ridged and deeply furrowed. Immediately after the stirring time of spring-work is over, if fallow crops are to be sown, the second ploughing is to take place, and in the same direction with the former one, lest, by cross-ploughing, a fall of rain should stagnate on the surface ; but in light soils cross-ploughing is preferable, even at this early time. The third ploughing should be executed in June, and at this time always across the original direction of the ridges; harrowing with a heavy break, ‘{ the land require it, should regularly succeed the:summer ploughing, (with rolling, # necessary,) and the harrowing is to be executed by repeated double turns, crossing those of the previous ones, until the Jand is sufficiently pulverized to admit of the easy collection of weeds, with the harrow, the couch-rake, or prongs. It is of great importance, at this period of the summer-fallow, to drag to the surface and collect as large a portion as possible of the roots of vivacious weeds in the ground; for this being the period of active vegetation, every ilu aaa 46 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. part of these roots which is left in the ground will grow again and extend itself. 4. Harrowine. — In conducting this operation, the harrows pass over the ridge either longitudinally or across. At the end of the ridge they are Fig. 23. turned, and generally pass again over the same ground. This is called a double turn of the harrows. When they do not return over the same ground, but pass to another space, they are said to give a single turn. When land is to be pulverized and cleaned of root-weeds, the operation consists of repeated double turns of the harrows in different directions. The root-weeds, being dragged to the surface, are collected by the hand, and carried off the ground or burned. The plough prepares the ground for the action of the harrow, and the plough and the harrow acting by turns, the land is pulverized and cleaned. Besides the cleaning of the ground, a purpose in harrowing is to cover the seeds of the cultivated plants. The number of harrowings to be given for this end depends on the state of the ground and other circumstances. When the surface is matted together by the roots of plants, as in the case of land ploughed when in grass, repeated double turns are required to cover the seeds in a proper manner. The operation of harrowing is best performed when the land is dry. Harrowing when the land is wet is to be avoided, both on account of the less efficiency of the operation, and of the injury done to the ground by the SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 47 treading of the cattle. In the case of covering seeds, however, in unfavorable seasons, it is often necessary to harrow the ground when in a wet state. In extreme cases of this kind, the practice has been sometimes resorted to of uttaching several harrows to a bear stretching across the ridge, and causing the animals to walk in the open furrows. There are several kinds of harrows in use; but the Geddes pattern, rep- resented below, is, by many, considered superior. The Scotch harrow is exhibited in the cut immediately preceding the one below. Fig. 24. +-----—-=----~------- ff -- > 2-2-0 ----------------f/ ’ ’ ' . ' . ' ' ry . 5. Rotuine. — This operation, which, however, should not be attempted when the land is so wet as to clog the roller, is highly conducive to the vegetation of crops — especially wheat — by reducing the rough parts of the surface to a mouldered state, and thus earthing up the stems of the plants while it renders the surface level and compact. Its use, in closely compress- ing the particles of earth on light, sandy soils, by excluding cold wind or a parehing sun from the roots of young corn, is extremely great, and may be 48 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. repeatedly performed to grain crops in the spring months, as long as it can be continued without breaking the stems. A heavy roller is essential to the success of corn in tenacious soils, by closing up the fissures which dry weather occasions, and is useful for breaking down clods on fallows, in aid of the harrow, which then more easily separates them, and disengages weeds, bringing them to the surface. If the roller be heavy, —as it ought to be, in order to be really useful, — and require two horses, they should not be in line, unless the roller be constructed with only single shafis; independently of the disadvantageous application of power in this case, the trampling of eight legs, instead of four, in the same track, will make, under particular circumstances, ‘mpressions which the roller will not so readily remove as if only the footsteps of a single horse in the track were imbedded. This is, of course, perfectly immaterial in preparing fallows for the succeeding plough and harrow, hough it may be of some weijat in the case of sown crops, where the éurface is not to be stirred aga.u. —————y OP eee : ({_S=_E SE ——— ————— — .—————— SF SS ey TS SES i tr l On grass lands heavy rolling is highly efficacious, particularly if the surface has been rendered uneven by the treading of cattle, or by any other causes. On dry, absorbent land, when under grass, rolling will be most use- ful after rain, if not so immoderate as to cause injury from the feet of the animals during the process; and the earlier in the morning the better, in order to destroy vermin. Meadows are served by rolling immediately after the hay 1s removed, in order to press the seeds that had been diffused over xe 8 é WW i t m™ SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 49 the surface into the earth, and thus promote their vegetation. The usual way of moving the roller, is to begin at one end of the field, and to leave at each bouting an interval precisely of the breadth of the roller, (in order to ullow a sufficient sweep for the roller in each turning, without injuring the head-rig by tearing it, or distressing the horses,) and alternately to rol] these intervening portions. When the land is in ridges, the rolling should be across them. The box which is seen attached to the roller represented on the preceding page, is to receive stones, &c., picked up in the field, and also for giving weight to the roller according to the work required. . 6. Manurinc. — This important subject will be treated of in its relation to the composition of manures and their application to the different soils. Action of Manures. — Manure acts upon the soil in two ways: First, by communicating to it those juices which are calculated for the nutrition of plants and vegetables ; and, secondly, by the chemical action which it exer- cises on those substances contained in the soil, decomposing them, and re-combining them under new forms, and thus facilitating their introduction into the suckers of plants ; and, perhaps, also by communicating that degree of energy and activity to vegetation, which enables it to take up and appro: priate the suitable nutritive juices. Natural Manures. — All animal bodies, as dead carcasses, flesh, intestines, the refuse of the shambles, &c., when in a state of putrefaction, may be converted into manure; and manures thus formed are far more active than any other. Yet, in general, the excrements and urine of animals, obtained from them while living, are set aside for manure, because a large quantity ean thus be procured, and at much less cost. It is found very advantageous to mix these excrementitious substances with the remains of vegetable matters, for by this means the latter are made to putrefy more rapidly, and do not lose so much of their actual substance, while, also, the fermentation of the animal bodies, which would otherwise be carried on with’too great rapidity, is somewhat retarded.- Manures thus formed are called ‘‘ natural manures,”’ in order to distinguish them from others which are termed ‘‘ arti- ficial.’” Besides, they are the kind best known, and, indeed, among many persons, are the only description which is known and used. Those exerements which are voided by animals through the intestinal canal are composed not only of the food which they have taken, and of that portion of its filaments which could not be decomposed, but also of minute particles of the body of the animal itself, which are deposited in the intestinal canal after having performed their office. They consequently may be said to be entirely composed of animalized substances, and, even in animals fed almost entirely on vegetables, will be found to possess more of 5 D ae ee | 50 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. the animal than the vegetable nature. ‘The properties of the dung, however depend, to a certain extent, on the manner in which the beasts are fed, and their condition and breed. Hence arises the striking difference which exists between the dung yielded by cattle put up to fatten, or which are in a good state of keeping, and that which is voided by lean, badly-fed animals. Urine. —It is generally customary to mix urine with the solid excrements. This liquid, which is, in fact, composed chiefly of water, likewise contains a substance which is peculiar to itself, and various other very active matters, particularly ammonia. ‘These matters are most beneficial when mixed up with the solid excrements, and collected by means of litter, or of substances peculiarly adapted for the purpose, which substances decompose one another, and give rise to the formation of new compounds. Common manure is com- posed of these two kinds of excrements, and of those vegetable substances which are used as litter, as straw, fern, or dry leaves,—chiefly the first of these three. ‘This mixture is commonly termed stable-manure. The Various Kinds of Excrement. — When horse-dung, in a proper state of moisture, is exposed to air of a moderate temperature, it soon enters into fermentation ; and if it is not watered, instead of assuming the form of a thick paste or black-butter, as it is called, it becomes powdery, and wastes away, leaving scarcely anything but ashes behind. Manure produced by horn-cattle also begins to ferment very soon, provided that it is close and nniform in consistence, and contains only its proper moisture ; but its fer- mentation is less rapid than that of horse-dung, and, therefore, requires no watering, and does not waste away. Its effect on land is also more lasting, though less rapid. When placed in the soil, it does not appear to produce any very sensible increase of the temperature, and on this account it is adapted peculiarly for the manuring of warm soils. Sheep-dung, when kept in a compact heap, decomposes rapidly ; but where it is loosely heaped, it decomposes much more slowly. When placed in the soil, or dropped upon it by the sheep, it produces a speedy and energetic effect, often- times giving too much vigor to the first crop, when it is used abundantly. The quality of pigs’-dung depends greatly on the kind of food they consume, also on the manner of collecting it. If the liquid portion of the excrements are mixed with the straw‘in such a manner as to prevent any running off, and the dung is placed in a situation favorable to its decomposition, a very active compound is produced. Poultry-dung can be obtained generally only in small quantities, but it is very active, and of great value. It is very differ- ent from that of quadrupeds, and contains a peculiar substance, mainly resembling the white of anegg. This kind of manure, in order to have its due effect on the soil, must be divided as minutely as possible, and be spread over the ground, without burying or covering it up. SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 51 Meght-Soil.— Human excrements, or night-soil, make a very active ma- nure. The best way of using it is to form it into a kind of compost, by mixing it with other substances, and especially by making it into heaps with turf, and adding a small quantity of burnt lime. By mixing and mingling it thoroughly with these substances, it loses its fetid odor, and should then be spread over the ground, without covering or burying. A powerful manure is manufactured from night-soil, called poudrette, on account of its form being that of a powder. Management of Manures.— Dung should be left in the stable as long as possible, for its quality is thereby improved. But it should not be done at the expense of the cleanliness and comfort of the cattle, or keeping the stable dry. If the dung is suffered to remain under the cattle, great care must be taken that it does not collect in larger quantities under their hind than under their fore feet, for that would keep them in an unnatural attitude. In ordinary circumstances, it is more convenient to mingle the different species of dung uniformly in the heap, so that the defects of one sort of manvre may correct those of another; and the result will be a regular and well-digested compound. As to the time when manure should be carted into the fields, and the state in which the manure should be, it is pretty well ascertained that manure should not be removed whilst in a high state of fermentation, because at that 52 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. period an important part of some of its most active properties would evapo: rate; but before fermentation has commenced, or after it has subsided it appears to lose little by exposure to air, beyond what it regains in another manner. There are visible advantages attending the spreading upon the land fresh strawy manure, and to leave it till the ploughings of spring commence, taking care, however, that the water does not wash away the juices, and carry them beyond the field, but that it merely allows them to penetrate the earth. This method of covering the soil during winter renders it much more friable, and remarkably fertile. The practice of leaving the manure on the land in small heaps, as it is unloaded from the carts, is not judicious. ‘The decomposition will be very irregular, the valuable gases will be carried away by the wind, the most valuable portion of the juices will all be absorbed by the soil immediately beneath the heap, and the places where these heaps have been will be marked by the rank growth of the crop, whilst the surrounding parts present an impoverished appearance. The proper time for carting manure varies much with the circumstances and economy of the farm. Winter manure is best suited for seed crops, whilst fresh litter is particularly adapted to potatoes, especially in clay soils, because it diminishes their tenacity, and allows the plant to come in contact with the atmosphere. Other crops, and especially cabbages, do better with decomposed manures; this being, on light lands, essential to their success. _Afterwards, the manure for beans and peas may be carted, and this can either be buried or spread over the soil. To heavy clay lands a larger portion of manure must be given at a time, because they can bear it without risk of the crops being laid. Upon a light, hot soil, the manure is quickly decomposed, and a very abundant supply may have a bad effect, in causing SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. —Y Ca? the crops either to fall or to scorch up. In mixing fine manures with the so11, the improved expanding cultivator (Fig. 28) is very useful. Forming Composts.—In the formation of composts, two methods are pursued. Jn the one, the several matters of which they are composed are divided into different layers, and placed one above the other ; at the bottom of the heap a bed of turf or of earth is placed, five or six feet larger on each side than the extended heap; then a layer, about a foot thick, of the freshest dung that is to bé had; above this another layer of turf or earth. If there are any other matters capable of putrefaction, they are placed upon this bed, which is covered with another layer of dung, and so on, till it has arrived at a height of five or six feet ; it is then covered with another layer of earth. Quick-lime is often mixed with these composts, but the lime must not be in immediate contact with the dung, because it causes it to decom- pose too speedily and to too great an extent. Place it between two layers of earth, or between earth and any other substance difficult of decomposi- tion. When the sides of the bed of the dung-hill have become saturated with the liquor from the heaps, they are turned over and spread upon the surface. ‘The compost then heats, and fermentation commences, and it is left till this fermentation ceases. When no more heat is felt in the interior of the heap, it is turned over, so that the part which was above becomes the bottom, and that which formed the sides is turned into the middle. Sometimes a fresh bed of earth is placed below the heap. The heap, when turned over, is long and narrow, resembling a roof, in order that it may be more exposed to the air; because it is thought that by this means it is increased in weight and quality. In the other method which is pursued in forming composts, the various substances are all brought to the place where the dunghill is to be made, and are deposited separately around it. The bed of earth for the bottom of the heap is then formed in the middle ; the laborers then surround the heap, and each, with a shovel, throws the substances as they lie around it into the bed, by which means the whole mass is equally mixed throughout. Thus loam, earth, tufts of grass, moss, the leaves of trees, particularly of pine trees, saw-dust, and the remains of animal or vegetable matter, and very often, in addition to this, lime, ashes, soot, and fresh litter, are all incor- porated, and the mixture wetted with the liquid which drains from the manure, or with urine. This dunghill should, like the former, be allowed to remain quiet till the fermentation is past, when it should be tummed over several times. Litter. — Where there is a scarcity of straw, various vegetable substances are used for the purpose of absorbing and retaining the excrementitious matters, and forming a dry bed for the cattle, as well as for increasing the 5 * 54 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. quantity of the manure. The litter in most general use, after straw, is the leaves of trees, especially the pine; and when once the decomposition has taken place, the dung is even superior in quality, because the pine-tree leaves contain a far greater proportion of nutritive juices than the straw. Oak-leaves are not so good, and when mixed with manure before they are decomposed, must not be removed from the heap for a considerable period. The leaves of beech, walnut, and chestnut trees are apparently not greatly beneficial to vegetation, since little or no grass usually grows under them, but, when mixed with dung, they svon lose their baneful properties, and rapidly decompose. Alder, willow, and poplar leaves decompose quickly, but they possess little consistence, and tend only slightly to increase the volume of the excrements which they receive. Heath, broom, reeds, rushes, aquatic plants, moss, fern, &c., may be used as litter, when nothing else can be obtained. Applying Liquid Manure.—The liquid manures, which should be carefully attended to, are specially devoted to those crops which will bear rich ameliorations. Some farmers reserve them for clovers and other artificial meadows, or for natural pastures. They are never so advan- tageous as when applied to sandy soils, which they render tolerably consistent, and more adapted for the retention of moisture; but the use of liquid manure will never replace that of dung on hard or clayey soils. Folding. — Besides the various animal manures which we have named, there is that which arises from the folding or cotting of sheep or cattle on arable land. This practice is most usually followed with sheep. It is questionable, however, whether this close confinement of sheep be favorable to their health and fleece. It is only the strongest and most vigorous breeds that can support it. And, independently of the difference in the health of animals, folding at night in common, littered, combines all the advantages of folding on arable land, with this exception, that the latter method saves the labor and expense of carrying the manure. Dead Bodies, Bones, §-c. — Animal bodies, when dead, form a peculiarly acave manure. {[f these are collected together in trenches, or enclosures walled around, covered with quick-lime, mixed with earth, and subse- quently, when they have lost their putrid and offensive smell, which is soon carried off by the lime, the whole mixture be stirred and mingled SSS Bs Les zzz erally cultivated, the two-rowed being the kind most esteemed. Kind of Soil. — The best soil for barley is a rich loam finely pulverized. It will neither grow well on a sandy or a soft soil, nor on strong clays, such as are suitable for wheat. It is rarely made to succeed summer fallow, wheat being, in an especial degree, suited to follow that process, and it being also the more valuable crop. For a like reason it seldom succeeds potatoes, as wheat may advantageously be sown at the period of the removal of the potato crop from the ground. But it succeeds turnips with greater propriety than any other crop, the turnip crop being cultivated on the lighter soils, which are the proper soils for barley. Barley ripens early-in autumn, and it may, therefore, be sown later than any of the other corn crops in the spring. The best season may be said to be in the month of April or beginning of May. An increased quantity of straw is produced by late sowing, but the grain is surer the more early that the crop is sown. 7* ie \ a c b in this country the two-rowed and the six-rowed are the varieties gen 1 78 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Preparing the Land.— The preparation of land for barley is similar te that for wheat. After turnips, or other green crop removed in the spring, the land is to be ploughed once, after which the seed is to be immediately sown. ‘Two ploughings, however, will be necessary when barley succeeds any of the grain crops removed before winter, and, in this case, the land should have been drilled up after the removal of the crop, to keep it dry. As it is found of great importance, with a view to speedy and equal vegeta tion, that the ground should be fresh and moist at the time of sowing, barley should then be sown as soon as possible after the seed-furrow is given. Sowing. — The modes of sowing barley are either broadcast or in rows. The broadcast system is almost universally employed in the cultivation of this plant, unless in lands much infested with annual weeds, where drilling and hand-hoeing, and, sometimes, horse-hoeing, may be adopted with advantage. ‘The quantity of seed varies from two and a half to three bush- els to the acre, according to the kind of seed used, the nature of the soil, and the time of sowing. Liberal sowing is most profitable; and, when sown late in the season, and in dry weather, the seed is sometimes steeped in water for a day, to promote a more early and uniform germination. Culture. — The seeds of the clovers and grasses are sown simultaneously with the barley, the succeeding crop being invariably grass. In this case, the smaller seeds are sown immediately before the last turn of the harrows, and that turn covers them in. The land is to be rolled afterwards, in order to exclude drought, pulverize the soil, and cover the clover and grass seeds. Harvesting. —I\n the harvesting of barley more care and attention are requisite than in the case of any of the other grain crops, even in the best sea- sons; and, in unfavorable seasons, it is almost impossible to save it without injury. Owing to the brittleness of the stem after it has reached a certain period, it must be cut down; for when it is suffered to stand longer, much Fig. 44. loss is sustained by the breaking off of the heads. On that account, it 18 cut ata time when the grain is soft, and the straw retains a great proportion of its THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS, 79 natural juices, and consequently requires a long time in the field before either the grain is hardened or the straw sufficiently dry. Threshing and Dressing.— The threshing and dressing of barley are attended with more labor than is the case with any other grain, owing to the tenacity with which the covers adhere to the seeds. After being threshed in the ordinary way, it is a frequent practice to put the threshed grain a secoud time through the machine, accompanied by a portion of straw. Should this not accomplish the work effectively, then the hummelling machine (Fig. 44) is used. Uses. — Barley is used in Europe as a staple article of food. It is inferior, however, to wheat and rye. In this country it is principally used for malting and brewing, and for distilling. When ground, it is good for fattening stock, though more especially swine. Enemies. —'The diseases of barley are few. It is sometimes attacked by the larvee of certain flies. It is also subject to smut, but of quite a different character from that which affects wheat, and one which, it is found, cannot be prevented by pickling and liming. RYE. Varieties. — Of rye, there is, strictly speaking, only one variety, although it is usually divided into winter and spring rye; but these are produced merely by the different periods of sowing, and resemble each other so much, that, when sown together, they cannot be distinguished. Soil. — The soil for rye may be inferior to that chosen for wheat, and it will succeed with less culture and manure. The soils best suited to its 80 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. growth are those which contain the greatest proportion of sand, and there are instances on record in which it succeeded on land containing eighty-five per cent. of this substance. ‘Those soils, however, which contain a less proportion of sand are preferable ; for, though it will grow upon ground of the poorest description, yet the produce will be more abundant upon good land, provided it be not of aclayey nature. In this country it is grown in the north-eastern and middle Atlantic states, and on the light lands of Ohio and Michigan; and, as the supporting elements of wheat become exhausted in the soil of the rich agricultural states of the West, rye will in a great measure take its place on their lighter soils. Time for Sowing.—Rye may be sown either in the autumn or in spring, and, as in the case of wheat, the period of ripening is affected by that of sowing. The quantity ot seed may be two bushels and a half to the acre, but, when grown for straw plait, this quantity is more than doubled. As it vegetates more slowly than wheat, it should be sown when the soil is dry; otherwise, the grain is in danger of rotting in the ground before it has completely germinated Culture. — Rye, being sown upon light and poor soils, obtains less atten- tion in its production than wheat ; it also suffers less from being sown upon the stubble of another corn crop, or even upon its own; and it is therefore not unusual to grow it successively two years upon the same land, but this is somewhat contrary to the principles of good husbandry, and cannot be recommended for imitation. The after-culture, harvesting, and threshing of the crop, are similar to those of wheat. The horizontal fan-mill, for cleaning grain, has been some- what popular in the Eastern States. ‘ The period of flowering is more decisive of the prospect to be entertained regarding the success of rye than in the case of any other grain ; and, until it be past. no opinion can be correctly formed on the subject. The ripening of the grain is earlier than that of wheat, and is denoted by the straw losing somewhat of its bright yellow color, becoming paler, and the knots of the straw losing their green color. The corn then sheds easily from the ear. When allowed to stand until very ripe, a shower of rain will occasion it to sprout. Product and Uses. —The produce of rye is nearly the same as that of moderate crops of wheat, but seldom amounts to those which are very large ; the quantity of straw is greater than that of any other grain. It grows to a greater height than the straw of wheat, and, though thinner in the stem, is stronger; but being hard and wiry, it is not esteemed for fodder, and the chief use of it is for thatch. It is also valuable to brick-makers, and is extensively used in the manufacture of straw hats. For the latter purpose THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 81 it is sown very thick, pulled green, and blanched by exposure te the air. It is also used both in the brewery and distillery ; and in many parts, after undergoing a species of bruising or coarse grinding, it is used alone, or mixed with barley, oats, beans, peas, or tares, which have undergone a similar operation, and formed into a kind of coarse bread, for feeding domes- lic animals, particularly horses. Its bread contains a less proportion of nutritive matter than that of wheat, but it is found to keep longer, and forms about the only bread eaten by the inhabitants of some countries where the soil and climate are unsuited for the growth of wheat. It contains a greater quantity of nutritive matter than either barley or oats, and the husk possesses an aromatic and slightly acid flavor, which renders it agreeable to the palate. The bran should not, therefore, be entirely separated from the flour, for, if the grain be ground fine, and divested of the husk, the bread will] be deprived of much of its pleasant taste. When intended for consumption in the farmer’s family, it is usual to mix a certain portion of wheat with the seed before sowing, or the mixture may be made after they are ground into flour, which is the better practice. The proportions may be one third of rye and two thirds of wheaten flour, and this combination makes a sweeter bread than that made solely of wheat. Fig. 46. RSS lS. Enemies. — Rye is subject to most of the diseases which attack the order of plants to which it belongs, such as rust, mildew, burned-ear, and smut- ball. But there is one remarkable disease, which, although it is sometimes found in wheat, is much more common in rye. It is called the ergot, the French name of a cock’s spur, which the diseased grain resembles in shape. 82 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. By some perversion of the vital functions of the plant, the embryo, or germen, instead of growing into a regular seed filled with farina, shoots out a long, black, fungus-like substance, several times the length of a common seed, which rises above the chaff, and has the appearance of a slender pyra- mid, slightly bent on one side. This substance is soft, and easily broken or cut, and is uniform in its internal texture, without any husk or skin over it. It is not only destructive to the grain, but very poisonous when eaten mixed with the flour. Figure 46 is Pilkinton’s machine for cleaning smutty grain, and to take out chess, onions, and heavy grit. THE OAT. Varieties. — Of all the cultivated grains, oats are the easiest of culture, and the most certain and prolific in their product. There are several varieties. Fig. 47 represents two of the most marked and useful. Fig. 47. That represented in the cut a is the White or Common Oat, known by its white husk and kernel, and is the kind most commonly cultivated. The Siberian or Tartarian Oat (6) is a black or brown grain, thin, rather small, and turned mostly to one side of the panicle or ear. The straw is large and reedy, but it is usually very productive, and is well calculated for poor soils and exposed situations. The Red Oat, known by its brownish-red husk, thin and flexible stem, and firmly attached grains, is an early variety, suffers but little from winds, makes good meal, and suits exposed situations THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS, 83 and late climates. The Poland Oat is known by its thick, white husk, awnless chaff, solitary grains, short, white kernel, and short, stiff straw ; it requires a dry, warm soil, and is very prolific ; the black Poland oat is regarded as one of the best varieties. The Dutch Oat has plump, thin- skinned, white grains, most!y double, and the large ones sometimes awned. It has larger straw than the Poland, but in other respects resembles it. The Potato Oat has large, plump, rather thick-skinned, white grains, double and treble, and with longer straw than either of the few preceding varieties. The Georgian Oat is a large-grained and very prolific variety. The Imperial Oat is the heaviest raised in the United States, and by many is preferred to all others; it is a clean, bright, plump, heavy grain, yielding a large proportion of flour and nutritive matter. It is hardy, and yields well in the Northern and Middle States. The Eygptian Oat is grown in large quantities south of Tennessee, and is very well adapted for the South. Soil. — The soil for the oat may be almost any kind whatever, trom the stiffest clays, to moss, or bog, provided it be laid sufficiently dry. They will produce well on reclaimed bog and mountain; but as these usually grow straw luxuriantly, especially if they have been improved by paring and burning the surface, a green crop should be taken the first year, which will allow time for the active properties of the ashes to subside; and the follow- ing year oats may be considered a certain and productive crop. Preparing the Land. — The preparation of the land for oats is less than for any other crop. It is almost always the first crop on newly broken-up lands, and, as it succeeds best on a soil not too finely pulverized, it is sown after a single ploughing. In regular rotations, oats are chiefly sown after grass. It is sometimes sown upon land not rich enough for wheat, that has been previously under green crop. One ploughing is generally given to the grass lands, which should be done as soon in spring as the state of the weather and the other labors of the farm will allow. When oats succeed a green crop, the preparation of the land is the same as that for wheat. Sowing and Culture. —The period for sowing oats is generally from the’ beginning of March to the middle of April. The month of March is consid- ered by many to be the best for seed-time. They are sometimes sown in February, also in the autumn ; but the crops sown at a later period of the season have, in most cases, been greatly more productive. The quantity of seeds is from four to six bushels to the acre. In sowing oats, the _ quantity must be regulated by the shape and size of the grain, as well as by the condition of the soil. Land sown with potato oats, for instance, requires less seed, in point of measure, than when any of the other sorts is used s first, because this variety litters better than any other, and, having no awns. 84 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. a greater number of grains is contained ina bushel. Some varieties, too, are more leafy than others, and require to stand further apart; in general, however, four bushels will be necessary on medium soils, and, in_ poor, upland soils, as many as six may be required. Grass-seeds may be sown in spring with oats, in the same manner as with wheat or barley. ‘The young clover and grass are, however, in danger of being smothered by the oat crop, unless when it is sown very thin. If, therefore, through necessity, this system should be adopted, the oats should be sown thin, on well-prepared land, and the smaller seeds harrowed in when the plants are sufficiently strong to bear the surface being stirred. When the land is in a highly pulverized state, it may be better to sow the seeds of the clovers and grasses immediately before giving the last turn of the harrows for covering. the oats. Being usually sown after grass land, oats are more apt to be overrun with taistles, and other large weeds, than any other crop. These are to be cut over with the weed-hook, or pulled up by the weeding clips, before the c1op comes into ear. Reaping. — The reaping of oats is performed with the scythe or sickle. It may, with great convenience, be performed with the scythe, and should be done when the grain becomes hard and the straw of a yellowish color. Fig. 48. The crop should be cut before it is dead ripe, to prevent the shedding of the grain, and to increase the value of the straw for fodder. Enemies. — The diseases of the oat are few. Sometimes it is attacked by smut, but more commonly by the wire-worm, or larve of insects, which generally abound in newly broken-up lands. To guard against these, delay ploughing the land, especially if long in grass, until immediately before sowing. numerous, distinguished by peculiar characteristics of the grain, cob, &c., and are frequently enumerated and described as follows :— Fig. 49. Yellow Corn .—The Yellow Gourdseed, so called from the resemblance of its long narrow grains to the seed of the gourd ; this has 24, and occa- sionally even more rows. The genuine King Philip, with 8 rows; a hardy plant. The Stour, or yellow flint corn, with 12 rows; also the Sioux variety grown in Pennsylvania; also the Sioux and Gourdseed mixed, 16 rows. White Indian Corn. — This includes the White Flint, White Flour Corn, and White Sugar or Sweet Corn, and the White Gourdseed. The Genuine White Fiint is the twelve-row corn, raised in Virginia. The White Flint nas 10 rows. The Early White Flint, and White Flour Corn, has 12 rows. The Peruvian Corn has 8 rows. The Pennsylvania —called, in Maryland, Smith's Early White—has 8 rows. The New Jerseyhas8 rows. The New York, 10 rows; and Mandan Indian Corn. The Early Sugar Corn, with shrunken grains, has 12 rows. Blood-Red Indian Corn. — Varieties are as follows : —Common-sized Hemetite, with 12 rows and red cob; red cob with white grains; red cob with yellow grains; red cob with brown grains; red cob with white THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS, 85 INDIAN CORN. Varieties. — The varieties of corn cultivated in this country are quite gourdseed ; red cob with gourdseed and yellow flint; white cob with red { } 86 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. grain ; speckled red and yellow grains on a white cob; the same on a red cob: the dwarf Hemetite, commonly called Guinea corn ; blue corn with 10 rows; the celebrated Dutton corn, &c., &c. Of these numerous varieties, some are best adapted to the Southern States —the white and yellow gourdseeds; others to the Middle States— the gourdseed and flint varieties, pure or mixed; whilst the heavy flinty- grained kinds are almost exclusively cultivated in the Northern and Fastern States, to which they are specially adapted by their disposition to grow and mature with great rapidity, and thus accommodate themselves to the short- ness of northern summers. Like all early maturing corn, they are dwarf- ish, though very productive. The effect of the longer and warmer sum- mers, in more southerly situations, is to favor greatly the growth of the stalk. The time taken by different varieties in growing and maturing dif feis exceedingly. In the Southern and Middle States the crop occupies the ground from five to seven months, whilst in the Northern and Eastern States the ears come to maturity in three or four months. Among the varieties of corn cultivated for special purposes are the White Flint, used for making hommony ; the Flour Corn, with a round, thick grain, filled with a snowy white powder, resembling starch, much used for grind- ing up with buckwheat, in the proportion of about one fourth or one fifth of the corn, giving the buckwheat-meal a lighter color, and otherwise improv- ing it; the Early Jersey truck corn, a middle-sized ear, with white and rather flinty grains, the earliest corn raised for the market, —two kinds, the white and the red cob; and the Small Flinty-grained corn, usually raised for parching or popping. Preparation of the Land for Planting. —In the Middle States corn is planted in all conditions of the land ; but in Virginia and Maryland it gener- ally follows the wheat crop, upon which all the farm-yard manure has been spread. In the upper portion of Delaware and in Pennsylvania, the crop is generally put upon a grass sward or clover lay. Where the soil is a stiff clay, much labor is bestowed in ploughing deep, then rolling, and reducing to the finest tilth by means of harrows. As a general rule, after a sward has been turned, care is taken not to harrow so deep as to reach and drag up the sods, which are suffered to lie and decompose, thus furnishing nutriment to the corn, and keeping the ground loose and favorable to the spreading of the roots. Many farmers spread lime upon the land intended for corn, in the autumn or winter, previously to ploughing. Others put the lime dress- ing on the ploughed ground. Season for Ploughing. —With regard to the best time for ploughing, this rust depend much upon the character of the soil. Late fall or winter ploughing has been thought useful in turning up and exposing to perish the THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 87 grubs and other insects which have retreated below the surface for winter quarters ; but in Pennsylvania this practice is now generally abandoned in favor of spring ploughing. The roller, when used, must be drawn in the direction of the furrows, and never crosswise. Then follows the drag-harrow, in the same direction, being the last instrument which, on flushed ground, is employed preparatory to planting. ‘The harrowing should be continued until the surface of the inverted sward is completely broken up and pulverized. In the Middle States, it is customary to prepare the ground for corn by a method called listing, or double furrowing ; that is, ploughing so as at first to turn two furrow-slices together, leaving a middle space, which is afterwards ploughed out by turning an additional furrow on each side. This places the ground in narrow lands or ridges, consisting of four furrow- slices, with deep intervening trenches. The width from the middle of one land to the other is generally about four feet. In signing out for planting, a plough is run across these narrow lands, so as to strike out rows generally four feet apart. The plough which performs this cross-ploughing is imme- diately followed by a boy who drops four, five, or seven grains of corn directly opposite the middle of each of the ridges, and the operation of plant- ing is completed by a man who covers the seed with a hoe. Corn should be planted as early in the spring as the weather will permit. The usual time of planting in the Floridas is early in March, whilst in the Eastern States it cannot be done, as a general rule, before the middle of May. Planting. — After rolling, and then harrowing well, the rows are struck out very shallow, and the corn is planted in hills, 3, 4, 44, or 5 feet apart, or dropped in rows from three to five feet asunder, so as to leave the stalks, when thinned out, about one or two feet apart. In this last case, the tillage has of course to be conducted in the direction of the rows, and never cross wise, as is practised when the grain is in hills at regular distances. When the growth is high, and the soil rich, the rows should be further apart than where the growth is low, as is the case with the Northern varieties, which may be planted three feet apart. Manuring. — Whenever manure can be spared for the corn crop, it will always make a good return. It may be spread broadcast upon the land previously to ploughing, or, what is better, spread upon ground that has been flushed up in the autumn or winter, and then lightly ploughed in In the Northern and Eastern States, where the summers are short, a libera quantity of manure is generally required to assist in forcing the crop te early maturity. When not enough is at hand to afford a good dressing broadeast, it is advisable to apply a portion of short manure to each hil just before planting. Ashes are an excellent manure for Indian vorn, ano 88 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. may be merely dropped upon the hills. It is common to make a mixture of these with lime and plaster ; but there is no doubt that the main benefit of the mixture proceeds from the live ashes. Poudrette is also applied, and with good effect —one gill to each hill; it pushes the young corn forward with such rapidity as to place it very soon beyond danger from the grub, cut-worm, and other insect depredators. The same end may also be pro- moted by soaking the seed twenty-four or thirty-six hours in solutions of saltpetre, urine, the drainings of the stables and the cattle-yards. Strong solutions of copperas, blue vitriol, are sometimes used. ‘To protect the seed against its enemies, some farmers soak the seed twelve to twenty hours in hot water, in which are dissolved a few ounces of crude saltpetre, and then add (say to eight quarts of seed) half a pint of tar, previously warmed and diluted with a quart of warm water. The mass is well stirred, the corn taken out, and as much plaster added as will adhere to the grain. This impregnates and partially coats the seed with tar. Number of Grains to the Hill, and Depth of Planting.—W here there is reason to ap- prehend much mischief to the young plants from blackbirds, crows, insects, and other vermin, it is best to plant four to seven grains in each hill, so that some of them may havea chance to escape. The deficiency is usually attempted to be made up by replanting other grain, but the product of this replant is too often feeble, and so late in maturing as to be frequently injured by the frost in autumn, A better plan is to replant with the surplus of other hills, though this requires a damp and very favorable condition of the weather. As to the proper depth of covering for the seed, much difference of opinion exists. The corn-planter here figured has the ad- vantage of pushing the grain down in the ground to the depth of four inches, where it leaves it covered up, and in close contact with the soil; 4 to 8 grains are deposited in each place; the grains passing down from each corner of the machine. A deeper covering would either cause the grain to rot, or prevent it from rising. Tillage.—The corn once planted, its tender blade pushes through the ae TIIB HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 89 ground, usually in about a week or ten days, and even sooner when the seed has been soaked. Although the field is generally left at rest until the plants have all fairly risen above ground, before tillage of the crop is com- menced, some begin with the harrows even before the corn is up. The first objects to be effected are to keep the ground stirred and free from grass and weeds. Where danger is apprehended from worms, by which it is su frequently attacked, many maintain that the tillage should not commence very soon, so that, some other vegetation being allowed to start up, the young corn will thus be in a measure spared; whereas, if the ground is perfectly clean, the worms, having nothing else to feed upon, will, of course, destroy all the young corn. Instances may occasionally occur where this practice may prove disadvantageous, but, as a general rule, the young corn cannot be kept too clean, or the ground about it too loose. The modes of tillage vary exceedingly, not only with the variations in soil and climate, but with the views of different persons in the same locality. On stiff clay soils, there is no doubt that harrowing just before the proper time for the corn to come up favors this process, by loosening the tenacious soil, especially where a timely rain does not occur to soften the earth. After the corn appears, the harrow should be kept going until the ground is rendered perfectly loose, hands following with hoes or short rakes, to clear the corn which may be covered. Then comes the plough, which, in the Southern and lower portion of the Middle States, is often used to turn a furrow from the young corn. ‘This operation is termed bar-ploughing, because the bar of the plough is run next to the plants. A few days after this, the process is renewed, and the mould-board being turned next the corn, the loose earth is thrown back again. Many think that this second ploughing, called moulding, ought not to be left longer than a few hours before the earth should be turned back again. In some places ploughs are still used for this purpose with wooden mould-boards, as these serve best to push the loose earth before them, crumbling and spreading it about the plants more advantageously than ploughs furnished with smooth and polished iron mould-boards. Some use narrow, deep-cut- ting ploughs, which do this work with comparatively little labor to the horse, and render the soil near the corn much more permeable by the roots, and at the same time quickly accessible to the rain and atmospheric influences. Whatever tends to favor the extension of the roots downwards, serves to place the crop beyond the vicissitudes of the season. There is, perhaps, no plant which withstands the effects of drought so well as Indian corn, whilst young ; but when its top blades begin to be heavy, its demands for moisture increase so as to cause it to suffer greatly from very dry weather. Heat and moisture are the great promoters of its growth g* 90 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. The farmers in some of the finest districts in Pennsylvania have, of late years, made much less use of the plough, in cultivating their corn, than formerly. They now generally content themselves with moulding, or throwing a single furrow on each side of the young plants, leaving a space of from three to three and a half feet untouched. The space left is after- wards worked by means of shovel-ploughs, and cultivators (Fig. 51), which completely destroy the grass and loosen the ground. ‘This mode of culture is more easily and economically performed than the old plan of ploughing the whole space between the rows, and leaving the surface completely level. If the land be sufficiently loose and deeply stirred, there is little use in hill ing it. It is sometimes said that corn requires hilling to support it. Nature disproves this, by the stiff, bracing roots thrown out by this plant at the time they are wanted, and for this very purpose. On wet lands, planting on ridges and hilling may be advisable, but such lands should not be chosen for corn. If wet, drain thoroughly, in the first place. Allow no weeds to grow, and do not fear to stir the surface in dry weather. Many farmers deem the use of the plough altogether unnecessary, and even injurious, and conduct the tillage of the corn crop throughout, first with the drag-har- row, and successively with the cultivator, horse-hoe, and hand-hoe. Thinning and Suckering. — As quickly as possible after it is ascertained that the plants are in a thrifty condition, and no longer in danger of being destroyed by the cut-worm and other enemies, they are thinned out, so as to leave only two or three in a hill. Orjshould they stand in rows or drills, the plants are left apart one or two feet. ‘The operation of suckering takes place some time after thinning, and consists in tearing off the side-shoots which often sprout from the bottom of the main stalk. It is thought, how- ever, by many, that this practice is more hurtful than beneficial, injuring THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROP». 9] the growth and development of the corn, ar¥ lessening the product of both fodder and grain. Harvesting the Crop. — This is done diflerently in different parts of the country. In the Northern and Eastern States and Pennsylvania, the corn is usually cut off at the surface of the ground, as soon as the grain has become glazed, or hard upon the outside, and, whilst the blades are still green, put immediately into shocks, and thus left some time standing in the field. ‘The corn, after becoming sufficiently dry, is husked and ecribbed, and the stalks, with all the attached fodder and husks, are used for provender. In the Southern and southerly portions of the Middle States, the corn is commonly husked in the field, the stalks having previously had the blades stripped below the ears, and the tops lopped off above the ears. When, therefore, the ear has been separated, the naked stalk is left standing with the husk, which is soon after eaten by the caitle. In some parts of the Western States, where the crops are extremely luxuriant, with the absence of facilities to get the grain to market, it is common to husk out and secure enough of the corn for family use, and then turn the hogs and cattle into the field, to consume the remainder. Cracked corn is obtained by means of the corn-cracker (Fig. 52), and is valuable in many cases. By the first of these me- thods, the crop may be se- cured before the autumnal rains, with all its valuable fodder, and the ground cleared in time for a winter crop of wheat or rye. The juices retained by the stalk are sufficient to nourish the corn to maturity. By the second mode, there is always a loss in the grain product, which is never so well filled = after the blades and tops = have been removed in a green state. Preserving Corn. —This is usually done by stowing away the ears, cleared from the husks, in small or narrow granaries, called cribs, the sides and ends of which are constructed of logs or laths, so as to leave spaces of about an inch, or more, for the circulation of air. Fig. 53 is a corn-sheller, and Fig. 54 a corn and cob-crushing machine now much in use. The first-named (Reading’s Patent,) will shell from four hundred to five hundred bushels of corn per day. The crusher is 92 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. used at the South and West for the purpose of cracking or crushing the corn and cob together. Fig. 53. f i | ‘ i Diseases and Enemies.—Besides the Fig. 54. birds, cut-worms, wire-worms, «&c., ° that we have already alluded to, corn oll suffers from other diseases, the chief : aL —z one being a dark or blue-black spongy growth, which sometimes takes the place of the blighted ear of corn. The mass sometimes grows until five or six inches in diameter, and is to be con- sidered a luxuriant or rank species of fungus. As the species of what are called parasitic plants, to which this belongs, are so readily destroyed by applications of common salt, there is reason to believe that soaking the seeds NM ANN well in salt water, previously to plant ing, or scattering sat over the grounds, will prevent this disease. A reddish kind of rust sometimes appears on the leaves, but seldom does THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. v3 much apparent injury to the ears, unless it becomes extensive. However, the same rust sometimes fixes upon the stalks, and causes them to decay. When this is near the ear, or the decay is extensive, the plant produces but little grain. The cause is attributed by some to bruises and wounds in- flicted by inconsiderate cultivation, especially as the tassel, wrapped in its awn leaves, may be seen formed in the plant when it is quite young. It sometimes happens, as the effect of storms, that the pollen is blown or beaten off the tassel before all the silk has protruded from the ear. The conse- quence of this is a failure in the development of grains in the extremity, or other portion where the silk was deficient. It has been urged, among the reasons for allowing the suckers to grow, that, being later in tasseling and less exposed to high winds, they assist to promote the process of fecun- dation after the tassels of the main stalks have shed their pollen. As an evidence of this, it has been stated that the earliest ears are always best covered with grain, while those which push late often exhibit a quarter or a half of naked cob, — the consequence of imperfect impregnation. BUCKWHEAT. Description. — This is the grain produced by the Polygonum fagopyrum (a), tartaricum (b), and a few other species. Sot/s. — This plant thrives well on soils which are too poor for all other kinds of grain, either of the spring or summer varieties. It grows on dry, sandy soils, provided only that the drought be not felt precisely at the time we ee FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. 94 when the plant stands most in need of moisture; it then yields as plentiful a crop as any other kind of grain; but if the ground be in a situation some- what more accessible to moisture, the crop is so much the more to be depended upon. It also thrives on heath and marsh lands, provided the latter have been previously drained. It is cultivated to great advantage on clearings of this description, and is very useful in preparing the soil for the reception of other kinds of grain. In sandy districts, buckwheat is the only crop which succeeds when sown alternately with rye; in such situations, it takes the place of other fallow crops; it is also sown on lands where rye has been grown. It, however, thrives better as a fallow crop on land which has been used as pasturage, or left in repose for a few years. On richer soils the plant grows more vigorously, but only in the stalk, rarely producing so much seed as when grown on proper soils. A small quantity of manure is advantageous to it, but a large quantity makes it grow too strong in the stem. When the land on which buckwheat is to be grown requires manuring, it is usual to give it only half the usual quantity, the remainder being reserved till after the harvest. Manure furnished by furz is particularly well adapted to this kind of grain. Culture.—-'The sowing of buckwheat, even on the lightest soils, must always be preceded by two ploughings, in order to destroy the weeds. On account of its sensibility to cold,—the slightest hoar-frost injuring it, — the sowing must be deferred till all danger of cold nights is over. The middle of May is recommended; and, if sown later, it is liable to be attacked by the white frosts of autumn, before its seed is rine. ‘The quan- tity of seed sown on a given extent of ground is about half of that used in sowing wheat; sowing more thickly is injurious. The success of buckwheat is considerably affected by the weather to which it is exposed in the several stages of its growth,—more so, perhaps, than’ any other grain. It requires dry weather immediately after sowing, and springs up during the time of the greatest drought; but, after putting forth its third leaf, it requires rain, in order that its leaves may be developed before the appearance of the flower, which soon follows. During the long time for which it continues in flower, this plant requires alternate rain and sunshine to facilitate its growth and enable its flowers to set. The flowers drop off during thunder-storms, or even on the occurrence of electrical phe- nomena unaccompanied by rain. Violent easterly winds also cause it to wither before its flowers are set. After flowering, the plant again requires dry weather to bring all its seed to maturity at the same time, and insure an early harvest. ‘The success of buckwheat is therefore somewhat preca- rious, depending not only on the general state of the weather throughout the season, but also on the time of sowing, a week earlier or later vften ET EO ~~ = Wy ee LG MUD, q - A PRAIRIE FARM SCENE IN THE STATE OF ILLINOIS, i | THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 95 making a great difference. By sowing it in three or four different portions, at different times, a crop may be made sure of. The seed should be simply covered up with the harrow, and not in furrows, and requires no further attention than guarding it against the depredations of birds, to which it is very subject. Harvesting. — The ripening of the grain is very unequal, for the plant is continually flowering and setting. It must, therefore, be cut at the time when the greatest quantity of grain is ripe. It sometimes happens that the first flowers do not set, or that they produce nothing but barren seeds, des- titute of farina, while those which come out later yield better seed. But the grain will ripen, and even the flowers set, while the crop is lying on the ground after cutting, especially if rain fall. ‘This occurrence is, there- fore, considered favorable. The produce of buckwheat is, therefore, uncertain. When it is sown after a corn crop, one good harvest may be expected in about seven years ; in the same interval, three medium and three bad harvests may be expected. But when sown on land which has been left in repose, or laid down to grass for a few years, we may reckon upon one good crop out of two. Uses. — Buckwheat furnishes an important article of food for man. As a fodder-plant, too, it is excellent, and, when cultivated for this purpose, may be depended upon as well as any other plant. It may either be given to cattle as green-meat, or else made into hay. It dries but slowly, but does not spoil when left on the ground without being turned. The culti- vator who wishes to raise it for this latter purpose should choose a year in which the plant has been particularly successful, in order to obtain a good supply of seed; this, he will find, will yield him as good a return as any other. When raised for this use, it may be sown on the stubble of a corn erop, or, still better, after vetches which have been mown early in the sea- son to be consumed as green-meat. Another purpose to which buckwheat has been applied, and for which it appears, from the usual rapidity and exuberance of its growth, peculiarly adapted, is the ploughing down, to add fertility to the land. This can be done when the soil’ is too far exhausted to produce clover for a similar purpose. It is one of the most economical and convenient manures which the farmer can employ. A small quantity of seed, costing a mere trifle, sows a large surface, and gives a great crop. When in flower, first roll, and plough it in, and it will be soon converted into manure. This crop is recommended as an effectual destroyer of that frequent pest of the field, called couch-grass, quick-grass, &c. For this purpose it must be sown as ear'y in the season as frost will permit, and, as soon as it gets into flower, 96 FARMER’S MAND-BOOK. rolled down, and turned under with the plough. Another crop is then sown on top of the first, and harrowed in; and, if the season be not unfavor- able, it will ripen and afford a harvest before frost sets in THE POTATO. Propagating. —The potato may be propagated from its seeds, and it is in this way that new sorts are obtained; or it may be propagated by plant- ing the tubers, in which case plants similar to the old are produced. ‘The approved practice is either to plant the tuber entire, or cut it into pieces, so that one eye shall be upon each, the tubers to be planted being those which were taken up before the stems had begun to decay in autumn. Varieties. — The varieties of the potato are numerous, the most obvious distinctions being the early and the late. First: the earliest kind, used by gardeners, generally termed forced potatoes, and not intended for field- culture. Second: early kinds, which may be subdivided according to their order of ripening, as— the Early Shaw, American Early, Early Champion, and others, being the earliest sorts in cultivation; the Early Red, Cape of Good Hope Kidney, and the Bread Fruit, an intermediate class. Third: the later kinds, forming the common subjects of cultivation in the field, such as the Red Apple, Bedfordshire Kidney, Lancashire Pink, and numer- ous others. Fourth: those of a large kind, but coarse, as the Late Cham- pion, Ox Noble, and the Surinam. Fifth: the different varieties of Sweet Potato. ‘ Soils. — The soils best adapted to the potato are of the drier and lighter class. In wet clays the return is inferior in quality and productiveness. Deep, dark peat, often produces large crops; and it is one source of great value in this plant, that it can be cultivated successfully even on soils of a peaty character. Culture and Tillage. —In the common course of farming, potatoes are cultivated by the plough, but they are frequently, also, and this, in many cases, with great convenience, cultivated by the spade ; thus, in woods in new countries, in plantations and steep banks inaccessible to the plough, or, in certain cases, in peat too soft to bear the treading of cattle, the spade may be beneficially substituted for the plough. Its cultivatios, however, upon the larger scale of farm-culture, must necessarily be performed by the plough and the working cattle upon the farm. The potato forms a good preparative crop for any of the cereal or eatable grains, and it may follow any crop of corn. Sometimes potatoes are planted upon land newly broken-up from grass; in this way they may be cultivated beneficially in regard to produce; it is, however, a deviation from the general rule, that the potato should follow a crop of corn and be succeeded THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 97 by one. As in the case of preparing land for the summer fallow, the land intended for potatoes is to be ploughed before winter, receiving a furrow of eight or nine inches in depth. The ploughing should be lengthwise, so as to keep the ridges dry, and prepare the ground for early tillage in the spring, at which time, as soon as the other labors of the farmer will allow, and the land is sufficiently dry, it is to be cross-ploughed, and harrowed by repeated double turns of the harrow in every direction. The roller also, if necessary, is to be employed to reduce the soil, and all the root-weeds are to be carefully collected by the hand, and carried away to be formed into a compost. The land is next to be ploughed in a direction crossing the last ploughing ; or, rather, the ploughs may cross the field diagonally, because, as it is always desirable to make each alternate ploughing cross the pre- vious one, and as the next ploughing which forms the drills will be in the direction of the former ridges, all the ploughings will thus be made to traverse each other. When this second ploughing is given, the land is to be again harrowed and rolled, if necessary,’and al. the root-weeds are to be industriously collected and removed as before. The proper manure for the potato is common ‘arm-yard dung, but any other putrescent manure that can be obtained may be applied. As soon as the dung is spread along the hollows of the drills, the potatoes are to be planted. The potato-sets should be cut ten or twelve days before planting them, by which the cut part acquires a skin or hard surface. The sets are placed directly upon the dung in the row, about ten inches from one an- other. The planters, carrying them in baskets, gently place them upon the dung, directed by the eye, as nearly as possible, at the distance required. A transverse section of the drills, with the dung and potato-sets placed upon it, will appear thus :— The sets are now to be covered by splitting eacn drill so that the top of the new drill formed is immediately above the botiom of the old one, and this simple series of operations completes the planting of the potato. The usual period of planting is during the month of April, continued till the middle of May. The early potatoes should be pianted earlier. In a fortnight or more after planting, the whoie field is to be harrowed. The effect of this tillage is to partially level the ground. When the plants have got above ground, and appear distinctly in rows, the horse-hoe is to G 98 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. pass along each interval’; and, following this, the hand-hoers, each with the common hoe, are to hoe the rows of plants carefully, cutting up all weeds &c. After an interval, as a fortnight or more, the horse-hoe, with side- coulters, is again to pass along the intervals. Immediately succeeding this, the hand-hoers are to follow as before. ‘This is generally sufficient to clean the land in an effectual manner, though sometimes, when there are many weeds, a third hoeing may be necessary. The last operation is raising the earth to the stems of the plants. This is done by a double mould-board plough passing once along the intervals, and throwing up the earth towards each row. A transverse or cross section of the ground will then appear thus : — Fig. 57. Wy WY : 2 This, in all cases, completes the culture of the potato, the crop requiring no further attention uniil the tubers are ready to be taken up, when ripe, which may be done with a three-pronged fork, shovel, or a plough with the coulter detached, in dry weather and before frost. It has often been recommended to pinch off the blossoms of the late pota- toes, so as to prevent the formation of seeds, and to obtain a greater crop. Uses. — The starch or fecula of the potato may be obtained separately by simple means. It is perfectly nutritive, but does not undergo the panary or bread fermentation. It may be mixed with the flour of wheat in a given quantity, so as to produce good bread. It may be given in its raw state to nearly all our domestic animals. It requires merely to be washed, which is done by various simple means. But although potatoes may be given to live stock in their raw state, — and it is frequently convenient to give them in that state, — yet various benefits may arise from giving them steamed or boiled, and in this state they are relished by every class of domestic animals, affording food in a high degree nour- ishing. Even the dog will fatten upon them. Steamed potatoes, mixed with cut straw or hay, may be given to horses of every kind; but it is observed that steamed food is not generally so good for ruminating as for THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 99 . . other animals. To hogs they are given with the best effect; also to poultry inixed with meal. Diseases. —The chief diseases of the potato are the curl, the worm, and the scab. The curl is indicated by the curling of the leaves, and their con- sequent diminutive size. ‘To avoid this, seed from newly reclaimed or mountain land must be used. Using unripe tubers is also said to be a pre- ventative of the disease, and especially such as have not produced seeds. The worms sometimes attack the tubers in the ground, and greatly injure them in certain situations ; but they may be destroyed by spreading some salt on the ground before planting. The scab must be remedted by giving good tillage to the land. Independently, however, of the curl, and every other known enemy, a very extraordinary failure has taken place, since 1832, in the potato crop, extending, in many cases, over entire districts, and, in others, partially con- fined to portions of particular fields. This is generally termed the potato rot, and will be found treated at length in Chapter XIII. ° Potato-planter and Seed-drill.— This is a new labor-saving machine, consisting in the employment of an endless apron, placed beneath a hopper, and containing a series of cavities, by means of which potatoes of a proper size for seed are conveyed from the hopper to a discharge spout, through which they fall into the furrow at regular intervals, Those potatoes which are too large for seed, are conveyed on the apron to a knife at the lower end of the hopper, by which they are cut to a suitable size. Thus, at one operation, the seed potato is cut, planted, and covered. SWEET POTATO. Description.—A perennial, low-creeping vine, the fine, tuberous roots of which are an esteemed esculent. Although a native of the Southern States, it flourishes also in the Middle States, but cannot be cultivated with profit north of the 41st degree of North Latitude. In the lower counties of New Jersey, in parts of Delaware, and in the Southern States, it attains its highest perfection, and is in great request as an article of food. Varieties. — These are quite numerous, and chiefly distinguished by size and color, which latter ranges from a rich yellow to white and red. The weight varies from a few ounces to several pounds. Soils.—The soils naturally adapted to the sweet potato are those of a light, mellow, sandy character; hence its large yield in New Jersey, and others of the seaboard States. It refuses to grow in heavy clay, or stiff loam soils. Culture.— This plant was formerly propagated by setting the tubers 100 . FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. out in beds early in spring, whence they were subsequently transplanted to hills arranged at a distance of five or six feet apart, and the trailing- vines were not permitted to strike root. The great labor of planting and cultivating them in this mode, has, however, led many to abandon it, and resort to the ridge system of planting, which is thus managed. The ground must first be well broken up and harrowed, after which, with a plough, throw three furrows together to form a ridge, and finish up the ridges with a weeding-hoe, or fine rake, by drawing up the earth on both sides to about the usual height of potato hills. Then open a trench on the top of each ridge, drop in the slips five or six inches apart, and cover them with the soil to the depth of two inches. By this mode of planting, not only is less ground occupied, but less labor also is expended in its preparation, and in planting the roots. When the crop has matured, clear away the vines, and turn a furrow from both sides of the ridge, when the potatoes can be readily taken out with the hands, ‘or by the use of the hoe. Preservation of the Crop.—Place the roots in a dry cellar, the same day they are taken out of the ground, and cover them up close with chaff, or dry earth. During very severe freezing weather, close the windows of the cellar entirely. GROUND PEANUT. This legumine (the Arachis Hypoyca of naturalists) is very profitably cultivated in many of the Southern States. It succeeds best on light sandy soils, where it produces from twenty to forty bushels. It also furnishes a good lot of forage. It is sown in drills about four feet apart. Soon as possible after plants appear, they should be worked with a light plough. They quickly spread over the surface. The blossom is of a light yellow; and, singular in this respect, the seed pod grows into the earth, where the seed matures. When ripe a fork is used to loosen the soil, when they are hand picked, dried and stored under cover. SUGAR-BEET. Soil.—The sugar-beet requires a deep, rich mould, somewhat retentive of moisture, but yet not tenacious. Its richness should proceed less from the use of manure at the time of sowing, than from the effects of previous applications. The sweetness for which these beets are so much esteemed, depends in a great measure on the quality of the soil; those grown in poor, light soils, having usually an earthy taste. There are some lands in which the superior varieties will not attain their ordinary size, or even acquire a tolerable flavor, while in the same locality, inferior varieties will be produced, which have an excellent taste. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 101 Culture.—Plant in rows, at a distance of two feet six inches from each other, and at intervals of twelve inches in the rows. Deep ploughing and pulverization of the soil are essential to the full development of the root. Put the seed in the ground during March or April, and carefully tend the plants during the early stages of their growth, clearing out all weeds, and thinning the plants where necessary. Moist weather is the most suitable for performing these operations, and a Cultivator may be used with advantage. Manuracture or Sucar.—From the root of this variety of the beet, sugar of a very superior quality has been made in the United States; but, to insure its profitable production, the manufacture should be con- ducted on a large scale. In the extraction of sugar from the beet root, seven different processes are used, which we shall endeavor to describe. Before proceeding to do so we may here remark that besides the fact that beets are very much liked for their culinary uses, they are pro- bably the most certain crop for feeding to stock that can be grown. The best cattle seen at Smith Field are so fattened. Cleansing the roots.—This is done hy washing them in long, wooden cylinders, having open sides, which, by the aid of steam-power, revolve rapidly in large cisterns filled with water. The roots are thrown in at one end of the cylinder, carried around a spiral screw, and ejected at the opposite end. This is, however, a very imperfect mode of cleaning them; for, if the roots have been grown in a stiff soil, large masses of earth will still be found adhering, which will not only prove injurious to the teeth of the crushing rasp, but will also lessen the value of the cake as food for cattle. The large roots being frequently hollow, and much decayed at the crown, the acid generated by this putrid matter injures the saccharine yield. Matter of this character cannot be removed by any process of washing; and nothing proves so effectual as the knife, with which all impurities may be scraped away, or cut off, those parts only being retained which will yield a superior quality of sugar. The ends of the tap-roots, as well as the lateral fibres, both of which are not only useless for the production of sugar, but positively injurious, should be excised, and fed to the cattle and hogs, which will greedily devour them, together with the scrapings of the roots. Crushing or Rasping.— Except where maceration is practised, this operation is always performed by the aid of the rasp, which is a Wooden cylinder, the outer circumference of which is armed with steel saws, placed transversely at a distance of half an inch apart. In width it is usually about thirteen and one-half inches, and in diameter about twenty- three inches. Driven by steam-power, these rasps make 900 revolutions 9* 102 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. in a minute, and crush into a smooth pulp between 5000 and 6000 pounds of the root per hour. Pressing the Pulp. — Instantaneous fermentation being a result of the ~ heat engendered during the process of rasping, no time is lost in pressing the juice out of the pulp, which, as it falls from the rasp into a square box placed beneath, is removed by a deep wooden or copper shovel, and put into a bag. This is then conveyed to a wicker frame, placed upon a hand-barrow mounted on wheels, the pulp spread evenly in the bag, and the mouth of the latter doubled down, to prevent the escape of pulp when on the press. Over this is placed another wicker frame and another bag, until the pile contains thirty or forty bags and as many frames, when the whole is placed on a wooden platform, resting on the bed of a hydraulic press, and pressure applied. After the juice has all been extracted, the pressure is removed, the bags emptied of the dry cakes, and the press made ready for another load. A pair of these is always required, so that while one is in use, the other may be in preparation. The juice flows into a cistern constructed beneath the floor, whence it is at once pumped into a defecating pan, which is so_placed that the contents may flow out through a pipe into the evaporator. Defecation is conducted in a copper pan, to which, after it has been nearly filled with juice, heat is applied by means of fire or steam, Ata temperature of 162° Fahrenheit, cream lime is added, in exact proportion to the amount of the contained acid, which is ascertained by chemical tests. The lime is intimately mixed with the juice, by stirring the solu- tion with a wooden spatula, after which it is allowed to rest, and the heat raised to the boiling-point, when the ebullition is suddenly checked by shutting off the heat. When the juice has settled, and become clear, it is drained off into the first evaporator,—the scum and sediment being carefully excluded. These are subsequently poured into bags and pressed, to extract the juice contained in them, after which the residue forms a valuable addition to the dung-heap. Evaporation.—The clear, defecated liquor flows into a copper pan, called the evaporator, until it is about one-third full, when a small quan- tity of animal charcoal is added, and heat applied. If the juice threatens to overflow the pan during the process of boiling, the addition of a small quantity of tallow causes its immediate subsidence, and facilitates evaporation. Clarifying.—This is done in copper pans, thirty inches deep, twenty inches in diameter near the top, and eleven inches in diameter near the bottum ; each one being furnished with a small brass spigot at the lower end, A copper strainer, supported on three feet, and covered with can THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 103 vass, fits into each elarifier near the bottom, and on this about one hun- dred pounds of powdered animal charcoal is placed. This is covered by another copper strainer and cloth, on which the sugar is permitted to flow until the pan is filled. After an interval of some time, the discharge spigot is opened, and the syrup allowed to flow out slowly into a cistern, from which it is pumped up into the condenser for a final evaporation. The pans are carefully refilled as rapidly as they are emptied. Twice each day the charcoal is thrown out of the clarifiers, and replaced by fresh coal from the kilns. As some of the saccharine matter remains in the carbon, the latter is then used to receive the juice from the defecator as it passes into the first evaporator, and the sugar thus extracted. The charcoal is then washed, and again calcined for future use. Concentration.—After the clarified syrup has been evaporated in the condenser until it marks 41° on the saccharometer, its fitness for crystal- lization is tested by drawing some of it out between the finger and thumb. If the thread breaks, and the end draws up towards the finger in a hard mass, it is ready for the purpose. Sometimes it is tested by blowing a portion of the syrup through the holes of a skimmer, when, if it be suffi- ciently tenacious to form air-bubbles, which, on falling to the ground, burst, and crumble into a white powder, the fire is immediately with- drawn, and the syrup drained off into large coppers, placed in the air, where it is allowed to cool for about two hours, during which time it is occasionally stirred to promote a thorough and regular cooling of the whole mass. It is then run off into flat pans, made of tinned iron, in which it is left to crystallize, in a cool situation, for twelve hours, or even longer. These pans are subsequently removed to a stove, in which they are stood on end, to allow the molasses*to drain off; and, in about twelve days from the first operation, the sugar is ready fora market. About one-tenth of the contents of each pan being saturated with molasses, this portion is separated from the rest of the cake, mixed with the molasses which has drained from the pans, reduced with water to 17° of the sac- charometer, evaporated to 21°, and again subjected to the clarifying pro- cess. Being then concentrated to 41°, it furnishes second quality sugar, which, if well made, equals that of the first quality for refining purposes, When sufficiently concentrated for crystallizing, this second quality syrup is poured into the coolers, whence it is removed to cone-shaped earthen pots, in which it is allowed to cool for a time, and subsequently placed in a stove. In twenty-four hours the stoppers are withdrawn from the pots, and the molasses allowed to drain off. Six weeks afterwards this sugar is ready for market. When the loaves of sugar are taken out of the moulds, the apex of each is found to contain a considerable quantity 104 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. of molasses. These portions are broken off, reduced by water, and treated as before described. All the scum which rises during the boiling process is carefully removed, and washed with water, to obtain from it all the contained sugar; and this water being again used to reduce the impure sugar from the pans, nothing is lost. Proportions of Lime used.—At the commencement of the sugar-making season, when the roots are fresh and good, 4 pounds of lime are sufficient for the defecation of 225 gallons of syrup; but, as the season advances, more lime is required, until, at length, when vegetation has commenced, 7, and even as much as 8 pounds are necessary for the purpose. ‘There is then danger of an excess of lime, which is usually taken up by an acid, added when the syrup is undergoing the final condensation. Sulphuric acid, reduced by water, in the proportion of 44 parts of water to | of acid, is used for this purpose —the precise quantity being ascertained by chemical tests. If a greater quantity is added than is requisite to neu- tralize the excess of lime, the sugar is objected to by the refiners, as its use subjects them to much inconvenience and some loss. SUGAR-CANE. Description.—The sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum,) is a perennial- rooted plant, very susceptible to cold, and consequently restricted in its cultivation to the zone between 35° and 40° on each side of the Equator. In the United States, its cultivation cannot be advantageously pursued Fig. 58. higher up than about the 32d degree of North Latitude, and the cane here dies down annually, unless cut before frost sets in. Like the bamboe THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 105 and Indian corn, the sugar-cane belongs to the family of the grasses, It attains the height of from six to twelve feet, and is surmounted by a ter- minal panicle, one to three feet long, of a grayish color. This hue is derived from the long, soft hairs, surrounding the flower, which, with the lengthy, broad leaves, impart to the plant a beautiful appearance. The stems, filled with a spongy pith, are very smooth and shining, and the flowers, which are small and very abundant, are covered externally with the before-mentioned silken hairs. It flowers in the West Indies after the lapse of a year, though rarely ; but never in Louisiana; consequently the seed can seldom be procured, except by importation from Otaheite or China. The development of seed interferes with the production of sac- charine matter. Varieties.—Several varieties of cane are grown in Louisiana and the West Indies —the Otaheite, the Brazilian or Creole, the Bourbon, the Red Ribbon, the Blue Ribbon, the Yellow Ribbon or Java, the Green Ribbon, and the Grey. The two first are most extensively cultivated in the West Indies, while the others are confined to the sugar districts of the Southern States. The Red Ribbon is best suited to the climate, all the others being readily affected by cold; but it degenerates very rapidly. In Louisiana the sugar-canes “‘ rattoon,” that is, produce a new growth from the roots, for two or three years in succession; but the planting must be renewed every two or three years, though in the West Indies, where a similar course of rattooning is pursued, a plantation lasts from six to ten years. Soil.—A rich alluvion seems best adapted to the sugar-cane, and it is grown on both the red and black lands of the Island of Cuba. The former appears to be composed of coral reef, in a disintegrated state, mixed with vegetable carbon and oxide of iron, which imparts to it the red hue. The latter, a rich black mould, evidently of vegetable origin, and probably the remains of old swamps, produces canes of a very supe- rior character, which yield a better sugar than those grown on the red soil, It is a very exhausting crop, and the rich lands of Louisiana have become so much exhausted by a continuous cultivation of sugar-cane, that they are only kept in tolerable condition by the application of costly fer- tilizing compounds. The adoption of a judicious system of rotation would have prevented this result, and must yet be resorted to as the only means of reclaiming the land, and restoring it to its original fertility. Pianting and Rattooning.—In Louisiana, as also in the West Indies, new canes are not planted every year, as, owing to the absence of frosts in the latter region, and the usual mildness of the winter in the former, the roots retain their vitality for years, and continue to produce canes equally as good as those cut from the first planting. This system of 106 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. culture is commonly designated “rattooning.” In making selection of plants from which to make cuttings, those with healthy, succulent tops, are preferable to the hard, woody ones, and much benefit is derived from exchanging cuttings with neighboring plantations. In renewing a field, the canes are usually planted in rows—a space of six feet in width being left between each row, A series of holes is made in the ground in a direct line, in each of which two joints of cane are deposited, and the earth loosely drawn over them. Two are planted in each position, to guard against the possibility of one failing to germinate. Beyond an occasional hoeing, the sugar-cane requires but very trifling attention. Securing the Crop.—Seizing the canes with their left hands, the operae tors draw them forward, and, with a single blow of their machétes, or Fig. 59. cane-knives, cut them off close to the root. Then stripping them of their leaves, they divide them into two or three pieces, and throw them aside to be collected by the women and children, who load them into the carts which carry them to the mill. Crushing the Cane.—W hen a sufficient number of canes have been cut to supply juice enough to fill all the kettles and clarifiers, the process of manufacture is commenced by crushing the canes between powerful rol- lers, to which they are fed by an endless series of slats. The juice flows into a pan placed beneath the mill, whence it is conveyed to the clarifiers, or pumped up into a receiver, and distributed where required. After passing through the mill, the crushed canes are conveyed away by another endless apron, from which they are taken, and spread in the sun to dry. When properly cured, they are stowed away in sheds, and furnish a supply of fuel for the succeeding year. Testing the Strength of the Juice. —A quantity of the juice, as it flows from the mill, having been collected in a copper vessel called a “‘ test- dipper,” the ‘‘saccharometer” is plunged into it, and the height at which it floats carefully noted. The saccharometer is a hollow tube, with a bulb at one end, loaded with shot, to keep it in an upright position. It has a scale of degrees marked on it, rising from 0° up to 50°, and, when placed in pure water, it stands at 0° of the scale. As each degree marks 19 parts in 1000 of the solution to be tested, if, when plunged in the juice, the saccharometer indicates 10°, the contained sugar may be known THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 107% to equal 19 per cent., and so in proportion for each additional devree, If the juice is thin, it will mark the same on the saccharometer, either in the hot or cold state; but, as a cold syrup will mark more than ona which is hot, it is necessary to add three degrees for the hot syrup, in order to ascertain its density after it has cooled. Four degrees must be added for syrup containing molasses. When recently expressed, cane juice is opaque, frothy, of a yellowish-green, and sometimes of a greyish color, and consists of two parts, easily separated by filtration—one being a perfectly transparent fluid, of a pale yellow color; the other a dark green fecula, which rises upon the boiling liquid in the form of scum. The specific gravity of the juice usually fluctuates between 10° and 15° Baumé; and this difference in density depends on the age of the cane, the climate in which it is grown, the nature of the soil, the character of the season, the temperature of the atmosphere, ete. Defecation.— This operation is conducted in pans, placed over flues so arranged that the heat can be shut off from one of the pans without interfering with the others. As soon as the receiving-tank is full, the juice is conveyed into the defecating pans by a wooden gutter, and, when slightly warm, a sufficient amount of cream of lime is added to neutral- ize the free acid, and to assist in coagulating the vegetable albumen con- tained in the solution. With the increase of heat all the impurities rise to the surface in the form of a thick, dirty crust, leaving the clear juice below. On the first appearance of ebullition the dampers are closed, and the juice allowed to stand about twenty minutes, when it is drawn off from the bottom, and conyeyed to the first clarifier; after which the defecator is cleansed, preparatory to receiving another charge. Whena sugar-boiling train is in full operation, one defecator is always full while the other is being cleansed. Clarifying. — This process is conducted in two iron pans, lined with sheet copper, which are placed much nearer the fire, but higher up than the defecators. They are both in a line with the flue; but the first, which is the largest, and most remote from the fire, is placed about two inches lower down than the second. Both pans being surrounded by a gutter, whatever overflows from the second during ebullition finds its way back into the first, and all the impurities which escaped removal in the defecators, and which are skimmed from the boiling liquid in the clarifiers, pass through an opening at one side of the gutter into a scum- kettle, placed alongside of the train. As soon as it settles, all the good syrup is again returned to the first clarifier by the aid of a pump, with which the scum-kettle is furnished. The juice, after being thoroughly purified in the clarifiers, is next conveyed to the evaporators. 168 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Evaporators. — These are also two in number, the first being the largest, and placed next to the second clarifier. The smallest, which is directly over the furnace, is called the “teach.” Both these pans are surrounded by a copper curb — that around the smallest pan being the highest. This prevents the syrup from the first evaporator boiling over into the second, while at the same time it allows the overflow from the “teach” to find its way back into the first evaporator. The ebullition being most violent in the “teach,” owing to its position directly over the fire, its contents are reduced very rapidly; but it is continually reple- nished with syrup bailed from the first evaporator, which is supplied in turn from the second clarifier, that from the first, and the first from the defecators. When the “teach” is filled with a rich golden-colored fluid, which has ceased to froth, and from which the steam escapes in short puffs, the sugar-master tests its condition by taking a little of the syrup between his finger and thumb, and drawing it out in the form of a string. If sufficiently boiled to ‘‘strike,” the fire is withdrawn, and the syrup bailed into a gutter, by which it is conveyed to the coolers, distant about ten feet from the ‘ teach.” The Coolers are oblong troughs, usually about ten feet in length, five in breadth, and twelve inches deep, made of two-inch pine-boards. They are arranged in a double row, parallel with the train, and each has suff- cient capacity for three “strikes,” all of which are not run into one cooler consecutively, but into three coolers alternately, until that number are filled, when three more are brought into use. While cooling, the sugar is agitated with a small wooden rake, which is drawn through the mass once after each “strike.” This promotes crystallization, and in a few hours the sugar sets or grains, A few days subsequently the sugar is dug out of the coolers, and carried in tubs to the purging-house, where it is emptied into hogsheads, the bottoms of which are perforated, to allow the molasses to drain away. Purging.—W hen the sugar enters the purging-house, it is a dark brown mass, containing about forty per cent. of molasses; but, if the house be even moderately warm, this soon commences to drip into a tank placed beneath the open joists upon which the hogsheads rest. As the sugar settles down, the hogsheads are replenished, either with sugar which has already been purged, or with fresh material from the coolers, At the expiration of a month, or thereabouts, the hogsheads are headed up, and stored, or sent off to the place of shipment. Clayed Sugars, requiring a different process for their purification, are produced in the following manner: he floor of the purging-house is covered with boards, pierced with holes sufficiently large to receive, and THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 10$ hold upright, conical moulds made of clay or metal, each having an aper- ture at the small end. These holes are stopped with a plug of wood or cane, and the moulds filled with sugar which has been boiled to a greater consistency than that intended for the coolers, and then agitated for some time in a wooden box, to facilitate its cooling, and promote the formation of crystals. Each mould will contain between eighty and one hundred and twenty pounds of hot sugar. When the contents of the moulds are well crystallized, the plugs are removed, and the molasses allowed to flow out. This operation is much forwarded by pouring over the sugar in each mould a thin, creamy paste, made of porous clay, diluted with water, which has the effect of washing the crystals of sugar, by the percolation through them of the water from the clay, while the latter remains on top in a solid mass, which may be removed without injury to the sugar, after it has parted with all the water. This operation may be repeated several times, but at the expense of the quantity of sugar, which is washed away in proportion as it is purified. When removed from the moulds, three kinds of sugar are comprised in each loaf: a mixture of sugar and mo- lasses at the apex of the cone, next brown, then yellow, and, at the base, white sugar. These different grades of sugar are separated, and either crushed between rollers, or pounded into fragments with a mallet, pre- paratory to being dried over a fire, or in the sun. It is then ready for market, and is the sugar commonly used by refiners. Boiling by steam is now practised on many plantations, and has several advantages over the old process, though much more costly. Vaporization is conducted more rapidly by this method, and the color of the sugar pro- duced is much lighter, whilst all danger of overheating is obviated. Steam is applied, either by coils of pipe, or by a series of tubes, through which it operates on the bottoms of the pans. Boiling in vacuo, the apparatus for which was invented many years since by Lord Howard, is a more complicated and more expensive pro- cess than boiling by steam. The apparatus is merely a closed metallic vessel, from which the air and condensed steam are discharged by pumps as fast as generated by the heat beneath. As water boils in a vacuum at 90°, it follows that the low temperature at which water can thus be discharged from solutions of sugar, materially assists in preserving the color of the product, and as granulation will take place to some extent in the vacuum pan, if the process be properly conducted, the sugar when discharged will be full of grain, and soon become solid at a slightly lower temperature. Yield.—From 3000 to 6000 pounds of sugar have been produced per acre in the West Indies; though in Louisiana about 1000 pounds is con- 10 110 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. sidered an average crop, with 20 gallons of molasses. The crop has, of. late, considerably diminished, owing, it is thought, to the exhaustion of the old seed-stock, and efforts are being made to introduce new cuttings from the West Indies and South America. The real cause is, most probably, the continual cropping to which the land has been subjected for a long period, and new canes will not restore vitality to an exhausted soil. Chemical Components of Sugar.—Modern chemistry has developed the fact, that there is very little difference between the components of sugar and those of many other substances which it is totally unlike—as starch, saw-dust, linen rags, &c. Water and carbon, the principal constituents of sugar, are found united in the like proportions in all these substances; and an eminent chemist, some time since, procured an ounce of sugar from a pound of linen rags. e CHINESE SUGAR-CANE, OR SORGHO. Description.—The Chinese sugar-cane (by some botanists classified as the Holcus saccharatus, and by others as the Sorghum saccharatum,) shoots up a long, straight stalk, interspersed’ with knots, from which spring, alternately, long, wide, tapering leaves, which curve gracefully downward at theends. The stalk tapers gradually from the base upward, and is covered with a very smooth coating, resembling somewhat that of Indian corn, which becomes harder with age. It flowers in a panicle at ——_—---— THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 11) the top, changing from green, the primary color, to successive shades of violet, and finally to purple. The seeds, which at first are merely soft, green husks, fill with farinaceous matter as they mature, and become plump and hard. The stem varies in altitude under different circum- stances, and, in a deep, black loam, reaches the height of sixteen feet ; but, on the poorer soils, it ranges from six feet upward. The root, which is very strong and hard, in an open, porous soil, sends down its fibres to a great depth. The entire plant very much resembles broom corn in the early stages of its growth, and cannot readily be distinguished from it except by experienced persons. It endures cold much better than Indian corn, and does not sustain injury from the ordinary autumnal frosts. Soil and Climate. — These very nearly correspond with those adapted to the growth of Indian corn, and the sorgho grows luxuriantly in rich bottom lands, or in moist loamy soils, well manured. Experiments made in Algeria, France, and the United States, have, however, demonstrated that the best results are obtained on loose, deep soils, of a sandy char- acter, so situated that they can be irrigated at pleasure. Irrigation should only be practised during the early stages of growth, and when the cane is most rapidly developing, as, at a later period, it proves delete- rious by impeding the elaboration of saccharine matter, and increasing the per centage of water. It will also produce a fair crop on dry, gravel soils, too poor to yield a remunerative crop of other plants. Culture.—Plough deep, and harrow the ground carefully, so as to break - upand pulverize all the clods. Subsoil ploughing is very beneficial, as the soil is thus loosened to a considerable depth, and allows the delicate radicles of the growing plant to descend through the interstices. When the ground has been properly broken up, prepare the seed for planting by soaking it for twenty-four hours in tepid water, to which saltpetre has been added in moderate quantity; seeds deprived of the hulls germina- ting in much less time than those sown with the hulls on. In northern latitudes, the saving of four or five days in spring is a matter of consider- able importance to a plant of such slow growth as the sorgho. Sow the seed in rows, about the same time as Indian corn. Let the rows be four feet apart, and leave an interval of eighteen inches or two feet between the plants in the rows. One seed is sufficient to deposit in each place, as each one sends up several shoots, or seed-bearing stems. Cover them lightly with earth; and, after the plants have attained the height of twelve or fourteen inches, turn up a furrow against them with the plough, after which, use the hoe frequently to keep them clear of weeds. If cultivated with the view of obtaining the seed, or for the purpose of extracting the 112 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. sugar, the sorgho is planted in hills, like Indian corn; but, if it is in- tended for fodder, a larger yield is obtained by resorting to the drill- system. One quart of seed will suffice for an acre, planted according to the first-named system; but a much larger quantity will be required for the last. Fifty to sixty bushels of seed have been obtained from a single acre of canes, and between nine and ten tons of dry fodder. During the first few weeks after it is planted, the sorgho makes but little progress, except in penetrating the soil with its roots; but it usually matures in ninety days, and, at farthest, in one hundred and twenty. Uses as a Fodder Plant.—When grown for fodder, two and three cut- tings may be obtained from it— the first being made just before the period of blossoming. The plant immediately sends up new shoots, its leaves are renewed, and its flowering panicles expand with great rapidity. This is a property also possessed by Indian corn, but in a much more limited degree. Though the milk of cows fed upon it is measurably decreased, yet the quality is greatly improved, and the animals gain in flesh. Fed to cattle in the green state, it does not produce those symp- toms of flatulency frequently resulting from the use of green corn or succulent clover. The plant in its natural state is a wholesome and nutritious food for animals; yet, after the sugar has been extracted from it, it proves positively injurious. Nothing being then left but the indi- gestible woody fibre, it collects in large masses in the stomach, ulti- mately causing the death of the beast which has unguardedly been fed upon it. Curing the Fodder and Saving the Seed. — Cut the stalks in the morn- ing, after the dew has evaporated; and after they have sufficiently dried on the ground, tie them up in bundles, shock them up in the field, and let them stand thus for some time before stacking them or putting them in the barn. In whatever situation they are finally placed, a free circu- lation of air must be secured through the whole mass, to prevent it from heating. If grown for the seed, and to make sugar, one set of hands should strip off the leaves, a second set follow after, and cut off the seed- top, with one or two feet of the stalk, while a third set cut up the cane close to the ground, and throw it into piles, to be conveyed to the crusher. The seed-heads, after being made up into small bundles, must be hung up in a dry place, until an opportunity offers for stripping the seed, which can be done with the machine used for broom-corn. The coloring matter contained in the hulls of the seed is so easy of separa- tion that the tissues of the poultry fed on it assume a purple color, and their excrements are dyed of the same hue. This coloring matter, which is tasteless and innoxious, may possibly hereafter prove useful in the THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 113 arts. The flour made from the grain has a violet hue, which disappears when carefully bolted, but again becomes apparent when manufactured ints bread, which, however, digests very well, and is pleasant to the taste. . Making Sugar on a small scale.—Cut the canes just after a hard frost, as they will then yield a larger per centage of sugar. Remove the upper joints, as they contain but little sugar, though they will furnish good Fig. 61. =f ie molasses. The stalks should be passed through a crusher (Fig. 61) seve- ral times, in order to completely express all the contained juice. As the juice comes from the mill, filter it through a blanket, for the pur- pose of removing the fibrous matters, cellulose, and starch; then add a sufficiency of créam lime to render it slightly alkaline, which may be 10 * H 114 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. ascertained by testing it with litmus paper. Boil the juice until a thick green scum rises to the top, which must be removed with a skimmer, and the liquid again filtered. Then boil the solution rapidly until it has lost half its bulk, when the fire must be diminished, and the syrup ccn- stantly stirred, to prevent it from burning at the bottom. After it has attained the consistence of ordinary sugar-house molasses, which may be known by taking a spoonful out and allowing it to cool, the syrup may be drawn off into tubs, and left to granulate, which will usually occur in three or four days. The syrup may be clarified by the addition of one ounce of bone-black to each gallon of the solution, and boiling the whole together. Filtration will then exhibit a syrup which is nearly colorless: the sugar made from which will be of a very light brown color, but may be whitened by the method described under the head of Sugar-Cane. When bone-black is not used, the sugar, after granulating, may be put into conical bags, made of very coarse canvass, and suspended over shallow vessels in a room where the temperature ranges between 85° and 90° Fahr. In a week or ten days the bags will be found to con- tain good brown sugar. Dissolve this in hot water, and to every 100 pounds of sugar add the white of one egg mixed with cold water. Boil for half an hour, skim carefully, and filter, to remove the coagulated albumen. For the manufacture of sugar on a large scale, the general process is the same as that pursued in the extraction of sugar from the West India cane. Alcohol is also produced from the sorgho, by fermentation and distil- lation in the usual way. By crushing the seed and stalks together, a double yield may be secured; for, on maceration with hot water, the heat acts upon the starch contained in the grain, and transforms it into sugar, while the residue of the juice from the canes will produce good alcohol. Vinegar. — The raw sap of the sorgho, like all saccharine juices, will rapidly take on the acetous fermentation, and furnishes a very superior vinegar. For this purpose, bruise the stalks in a mill, throw them into a quantity of water sufficient to cover them a few inches, and let them ferment at leisure. The vinegar must be racked off once or twice, to remove from it all foreign substances. AFRICAN SUGAR-CANE, OR IMPHEE, Description.—This plant, similar in appearance and general character to the sorgho, was discovered in the Island of Natal, in the year 1854, by Mr. Leonard Wray, through whose instrumentality it has been intro- eee soils ee SF THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 115 duced into the United States. Under favorable circumstances, one acre of the cane, will yield about 4000 pounds of dry sugar; and, if the plants are permitted to mature their seed, twenty bushels of grain may be gath- ered from one acre. This grain makes excellent flour, and may either be so used, or be fed to cattle and poultry. Varieties.—Fifteen different varieties have already been noted by Mr. Wray, who thinks there are yet many more. Planted in a rich, alluvial soil, the largest attains a height of ten or fifteen feet, and requires from four to five months to mature. The seed-head, which is of considerable size, coutains many thousand seeds, of a sandy-yellow color, and gene- rally measures from twelve to eighteen inches in length. By the aid of very imperfect machinery, sixty per cent. of juice has been obtained from the stalks, yielding fourteen per cent. of sugar, fully equal to the best West India cane sugar. Soil. —The Imphee will flourish in almost any soil, but arrives at greatest perfection in a rich alluvion, or in a loamy soil, containing @ tolerably large admixture of vegetable mould. The latter description of soil, strong heat, and considerable moisture, are deemed essential to the proper development of the plant, and the plentiful production of its saccharine matter. The occurrence of dry weather a short time pre- vious to its maturity, not only materially increases the yield of juice, but also the amount of sugar. The use of animal manures, salines, and am- monia, is considered to be injurious, because, though tending to the formation of larger plants, they render the juice so mucilaginous and saline, as totally to unfit it for the manufacture of sugar. Rattooning. — In a warm climate, a crop of rattoons will be produced in six or seven months from the period of planting the seed, thus doubling the yield in that space of time. Culture.—To expedite the germination of the seed, soak them in warm water twenty-four hours before planting ; then, having marked off the land into rows at a distance of three feet apart, plant the seed at inter- vals of twelve inches in the rows. This distance should never be lessened, but rather increased, as each seed will send up from ten to twenty stalks, forming a large stool, which occupies considerable space. Keep the plants free from weeds by the use of the cultivator, and turn a furrow against the roots as soon as the plants have attained a sufficient height. Uses. —Imphee can be made available for all the purposes for which sorgho is used, and the experiments which have been made with it in the United States, would seem to indicate a larger yield of sugar from it than can be obtained from the sorgho. sae 116 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. THE COTTON PLANT. Description —The cotton plant (the generic name of which is Gossyp- wum,) ordinarily grows to the height of five feet, though it sometimes, in Fig. 62. very fertile soils, attains double that altitude. In general appearance it somewhat resembles the okra plant, but it is more branching ; and the leaves, which are hoary and palmate, with sub-lanceolate, and rather acute-lobes, are smaller, as well as of more uniform shape. The long and jointed branches are occasionally bifurcated, and at each joint bear a boll or capsule, containing the wool and seed. The filamentous sub- stance, called cotton, consists of tubular hairs which arise from the sur- face of the seed-coat. They become flattened by drying ; and if, while in this state, they be immersed in water, and examined by the aid of a microscope, they exhibit the appearance of distinct, flat, narrow ribands, with occasional joints. Each boll is accompanied by a broad, indented leaf, which springs from the same joint, and rests upon a foot-stalk three or four inches in length. The blossom, which is two or three inches long, and cup-shaped, is white during the first day after its appearance, but gradually becomes red. It closes slowly, and is soon after detached by the growth of the young boll, when it withers and is cast off, leaving the boll enclosed in a capacious calyx, having three divisions, with ser- rated margins. The woody part of the plant, which is white, brittle, and spongy, is covered with a thick, brown, pliable, and tough bark. The root, which is tuberous, penetrates deeply into the soil, and, as a conse- quence, the plant is much less affected by drought than many others. Varieties.—The different varieties of gossypium may be classed under four distinct species : Gossypium indicum, or herbaceum, indigenous in THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 117 China, India, Arabia, Persia, Asia Minor, and some parts of Africa, 2. Gossypium arboreum, a tree-cotton, indigenous to India. 3. Gossypium harbadense, the Mexican or West India cotton, of which the Sea Island, Upland, and New Orleans are varieties. 4. Gossypium Peruvianem, or accuminatum, yielding the Peruvian, Pernambuco, Maranham, and Bra- zilian cotton, and especially distinguished by its black seeds, which adhere together very firmly. The principal varieties cultivated in the United States are the Sea Island (G. arborewm), known as the “long staple,” from its fine, white, silky appearance, and long fibres ; the green seed (G. herbaceum), or “ short staple,” known in commerce by the name of upland cotton; and two kinds of Nankin or yellow (G. barbadense)— the Mexican and Petit Gulf. Beside the varieties above enumerated, three others are classified by botanists: G. vitifolium, or vine-leaved cotton ; G. hirsutum, or hairy cotton; and G@. religiosum, or spotted-bark cotton. Soil.—The best cotton lands are those having a deep, soft mould, which may be readily penetrated by the rays of the sun, These imbibe with facility the stimulating gases abounding in the atmosphere, and allow all excesses of moisture to sink so deep beneath the surface, as to be ina position to do no injury to the delicate roots of the young plants. Land which is sandy and spongy, equally with that of a hard, close, and reten- tive character, is entirely unsuited to the proper perfection of the cotton plant. Culture. — Cotton is most successfully cultivated in the lower parts of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and in Texas. The winter is usually mild in these States, with very slight frosts; and the summer, though hot, is tempered by the sea breeze, which prevails during a great part of each day. Various systems of planting are followed in the cotton-growing States, but that most generally adopted is the ridge. The land, after being properly ploughed and harrowed, is thrown into ridges about four or five feet apart, from centre to centre; and a furrow being run in the middle of each, the seed is deposited at intervals, vary- ing, under different circumstances, from six to twenty-four inches, and pressed into the loose soil with the foot. In rich river grounds, the rows are frequently six feet apart, and the plants distant three feet from each other in the rows. Planting generally commences about the 15th of March, and the proportion of seed sown is about one bushel to the acre, which leaves a margin for accidents by worms and otherwise. When the plants come up they are carefully weeded, and the cultivator or a harrow run through them to keep down the growth of grass. The har- row illustrated in Fig. 63 is useful in keeping the ground open, and clear - 118 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. of weeds. A light furrow is then turned against the plants, to cover uf and effectually destroy the young grass which has escaped the hoe. In Fig. 63. rough ground, where there is danger of covering up the plants with the plough, hoes follow after, to remedy any mischief which may have been done. As soon as the plants have acquired sufficient strength to with- stand drought and defy the worm, they are carefully thinned out by hand, only the strongest and most likely being allowed to stand. The general rule is, to keep the earth loose and well stirred; working deep and close at first, but more shallow and remote as the crop approaches maturity. It is of importance to work the ground late, and cultivation never ceases until the branches of the plants interlock with each other. Ten hands are considered enough to cultivate 100 acres of cotton with ease ; but a good crop requires at least twenty hands to pick it. Some planters top their cotton, while others never do so. Whether the prac- tice is beneficial or otherwise, has not yet been decided—no observations having been made as to the practical result. Interchangeable husbandry is required by no plant more than cotton, and nowhere is it more essen- tial than in the Southern States, where continual cultivation during the dry weather of spring and summer, conjoined with the rapid growth of the plant, break up the soil, and leave it in a condition to be washed away by the first violent autumnal rains. Rotation with cereals is, how- ever, productive of no good, as the latter require, in a great measure, the same kind of food from the soil; and hence soils which fail to produce cotton, are alike incapable of growing grain crops. Judicious green fallowing is the easiest as well as the cheapest mode, not only of renova- ting, but also of preserving cotton lands in good condition. Fields THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 1138 intended for fallow should be ploughed as deeply as possible in mid- winter, and all descriptions of stock should be carefully excluded from them. In spring sow them with turnip seed, and, when the leaves of the young plants are fully formed, turn them under with the plough, and sow a second time. Three or four crops may thus be ploughed in during one season, greatly to the benefit of the land, as by the decom-| position of vegetable matter carbonic acid is produced, which is a powerful solvent of phosphated alkalies; and, by the turning under of those grasses and weeds not readily decomposable, a degree of fria- bility is imparted to the soil which will enable it to profit from atmo- spheric action. Manures. — As the cotton plant draws upon the soil for a very large amount of the phosphates, potash, and lime, the manure applied should be such as will return to the earth the same kind of material. Cotton seed contains all these substances in large quantity; but, as a sufficiency is not produced for the purpose, other articles must necessarily be brought into use. The refuse of manufactories will supply the potash, while bone-dust will furnish the phosphates, and Peruvian guano the nitro- genous compounds. Every planter, however, has the ability to supply from his own plantation a large portion of the manure necessary for the sustenance of his crops, and this he may do with very little trouble. Instead of hauling the stalks from the corn and cotton-fields into the barn-yard, they may be more profitably ploughed under at once, thus allowing their elements to return immediately to the soil, without being subjected to loss from evaporation. Their place in the compost-heap may be supplied by litter, leaves from the forest, grasses, weeds, and muck from neighboring marshes, as well as from the ditches and fence-rows on the plantation. Weeds abound in alkalies, and therefore furnish profit able vegetable matter, while muck and peat, being decayed vegetable matter in mass, in this concentrated form contain a large amount of phosphates and alkalies, which, when mingled with the droppings of animals, form a highly valuable compost. The compost-heap must be well protected from the weather, or the soluble salts will be washed out by the rains, and evaporated by the heat of the sun. Wood-ashes form an excellent manure, and gypsum may be used with success on cotton lands distant from the sea. Picking. —The boles of cotton mature and open about the last of August, or during the first week in September, when the operation of picking commences. This work is done both by male and female hands, each one being provided with a bag, slung over the neck and shoulders, into which the cotton is put as fast as it is gathered. Large osnaburg Snainnaniannian 120 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. * sheets are placed at convenient points, into which the bags are emptied when full. The general average for each hand ranges from forty-five to fifty pounds per day. The freshly-picked cotton is dried upon scaffolds, each of which is not over four feet in width, to allow it to be turned with facility while drying. If rain threatens, the scaffulds are conveyed to the cotton-house, near which they are always placed. After being per- fectly dried, the cotton is prepared for market by separating the wool from the seed. Whipping the Cotton.—The first machine through which cotton is passed is called a “‘ whipper,” and consists of a cylinder six or eight feet in length, made of slats, reeds, or wire. One end is closed, and the other open. The centre of the cylinder is traversed by a shaft, inter- sected with rods reaching to within an inch of the sides. The cylinder is placed in an inclined position, and the cotton fed into it from a hopper resting upon the upper side, near the top, which is closed. The shaft being turned by a crank, the cotton, as it falls from the hopper, is whirled round by the rods until it issues from the lower end of the cylinder—any contained dirt, sand, or leaves having meanwhile escaped through the open sides of the “‘whipper.” The cotton is then carried to the gins. Ginning. — Two kinds of gin are employed —one, called the “ saw gin,” being used for all the short-stapled cottons, while the other, known as the “roller gin,” is confined to the Sea Island, or long-staple The latter we shall first describe. This is a very simple machine, con- sisting of two wooden rollers, about a half inch, or one inch in diameter, revolving upon each other in opposite directions, and mounted upon a wooden frame, to which is appended a fly-wheel, from two to three feet in diameter. Motive-power is supplied by a treadle and crank, which is operated by a man who stands in front of the rollers, and feeds the cotton to them in small quantities. The perfect separation of the seed from the cotton depénds mainly upon the small diameter of the rollers, and the slowness of their revolution. From twenty-five to thirty pounds can be cleaned each day by one gin; previous to passing through which it is sorted by women, who carefully remove from it all the yellow cotton, as well as all the motes, &c., which may have passed through the “‘whippers” with it. Each female examines and cleans from sixty to:one hundred pounds per day. After passing through the gin, and parting with its seed, the cotton is again turned over to women, and subjected to a second examination, when all remaining impurities are removed from it. As this work must be well done, but thirty pounds per day are required from each woman. Short-stapled cottons are cleared from the adhering seeds by THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 121 the “ saw-gin,” which is thus constructed : A wooden box contains within it a roller, or shaft, of the same material, which, at every inch of its Fig. 64, length, carries a circular saw, about twelve inches in diameter, with hooked teeth. Above, or in front of these saws, is placed a box, the part of which next the saws is composed of metal slats, between which the saws pass to the distance of an inch. This box being filled with cotton, the revolution of the saws carries the cotton gradually around, until the whole has been drawn through the slats, leaving the seeds behind. These are then discharged, and the box refilled with uncleaned cotton. Consi- derable waste attends this mode of separating the seed from the wool, besides the injury done to its quality by the breakage of the fibres in passing through the slats. Packing.—The bags in which cotton is packed will usually hold about 400 or 450 pounds; and various methods have heretofore been used for filling and compressing these bags or bales, all of which have been more or less complicated and costly. An invention of Levi Dederick, New York, has supplied the machine long needed — one combining great power with simplicity and cheapness. It is portable, and can be moved from place to place at pleasure ; is operated by a horse and capstan ; and, with two men and a boy, will pack from twelve to sixteen bales of cotton per day. Uses.—Besides the cotton furnished by the plant, which is woven into various fabrics, the seeds are also valuable for many purposes. They are excellent food for cattle, furnish a very superior oil for table purposes, and make the best manure which can be used on a plantation. ll 122 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK TOBACCO PLANT. Description.—This plant (known to botanists as Nicotiana,) was origi- nally derived from the Island of Tobago, in the West Indies, whence its present appellation. It is a very powerful narcotic, as well as a strong stimulant to the nervous system, and, when taken into the stomach in small doses, acts both as an emetic and a purgative. The smoke of tobacco, as also the decoction and powder, are used to destroy insects which infest the growing plants in gardens and fields. The tobacco plant has a branching, fibrous root, from which springs a stem, varying in height from three to six feet, round, hairy, and branching at the top. The leaves are very large, of a pale green color, and covered with short, glandular hairs ; those nearest the ground being the largest, but furnish- ing the coarsest tobacco. The flowers grow in panicles on the ends of the stem and branches; and the seeds, which are small, but very nume- rous, have a somewhat reniform shape, and brown color. While growing, the tobacco plants require constant attention to free them from weeds, and from the lower leaves, which, being coarse and strong, interfere with the full development of the finer leaves at the top. Varieties. — Botanists class many different species under the genus Nicotiana, viz: Virginian (N. tabacum), large-leaved (NV. macrophylla), shrubby (NV. fruticosa), sweet-scented (N. undulata), common green (N. rustica), panicled (N. paniculata), clammy (NV. glutinosa), curled-leaved THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 12% (N. plumbaginifolia), primrose-leaved (N. pusilla), four-valved (NV. quad- rivalvis), dwarf (NV. nana), Langsdorff’s (NV. Langsdorfii), honey-wort (Ni cerinthoides), and Havana (N. repanda). The Virginia tobacco is the variety most generally grown in the United States, and the Havana (N. repanda,) is t at from which the finest and most fragrant cigars are made. Tobacco is cultivated to some extent in Europe, as far north as Sweden, and it is also grown in Asia, Africa, and South America. The common green variety being more hardy than the Virginia, is cultivated in Ger- many, and other northern countries, where the majority of the families who have gardens raise a sufficiency for their own use; but, not being properly cured, it is only used for smoking, and possesses but little value. Raising the Plants.—The first process in tobacco culture is to make provision for an abundant supply of plants; as, owing to the small size of the seed, and the tardy growth, of the plants, the young shoots would soon be smothered by weeds if not carefully protected. New ground, or land which has been a long time in grass, should be selected for the loca- tion of plant-beds, because less likely to produce weeds; to guard more effectually against which, and to insure a growth of thrifty plants, the land should be burned over with brush, or cord-wood, which may be moved from place to place with long iron hooks. Before burning new ground, all the old roots should be grubbed up, the rubbish cleared away, and the dead leaves raked off; and it would be advantageous to skim off sod-ground with sharp hoes, before it is burned over. When the ground has eooled off, and the ashes have been carefully removed, the soil should be broken up with hoes, finely pulverized, and well raked. The land having been laid off in beds, about four feet wide, and somewhat elevated, the seed should be sown upon it in the proportion of a table-spoonful to fifty square yards, well raked in with an iron rake, and the beds trodden down to render them firm and compact. A thin covering of brush must then be placed over the beds to keep them moist, and to protect the plants from the frost. The beds should be prepared and sown as soon as the frost is out of the ground. When the plants have attained a good size, and there is no longer any reason to dread frost, the covering of brush may be removed, and the beds weeded by hand; care being used to avoid bruising the tender plants. Soil and Climate.—Tobacco flourishes best in rich, light, alluvial, loamy soils, or such as have been recently cleared. Lands which have been long in grass, especially sheep pastures, produce excellent tobacco. As it is an exhausting crop, it should not be planted too often on the same land, but give place to grain and grass, which latter should be allowed to remain on the ground for two or three years. This plant oe le a cst: printer ae es ih Mba NUM es 124 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. arrives at full perfection only in a warm climate, and can never be grown to advantage in elevated situations, in northern exposures, or on wet and springy land. Although, being an annual plant, it may mature even in Russia and Sweden, yet the plants will be puny and devoid of flavor. In moist and not very warm climates, like that of Ireland, the plants may attain a very large size, but will be wanting in that superior flavor which can be imparted only by sunshine, and pure, dry air. The Southern States are well adapted to its culture, and produce chewing- tobacco of a peculiarly rich flavor, though the fragrant tobacco of Cuba surpasses it for smoking purposes. Mode of Culture.—In preparing the ground, care must be used to plough it deeply, and to completely pulverize the soil. Grass lands intended for tobacco should always be ploughed the previous autumn ; and all kinds of land intended for that purpose would be benefited by beirtg turned over before frosts set in. In the spring the land should be manured, cross-ploughed, and well harrowed just before planting, which is usually done during the months of May and June. The ground must be laid off into ridges, by a single-horse plough, with three and a half or four feet between the centres, according to the kind of tobacco which is to be planted, and crossed at the same distances by a shovel-plough, or one with a double mould-board. Every square thus made must be scraped with the hoe into the form of a hill, in which one plant must be set. Plants can only be set after a rain, and much care must be taken in per- forming the operation; for if plants are well set they will grow quickly, but bad setting will retard them. In case they die from drought, or are destroyed by worms, others must be planted in their places. The after- treatment is very similar to that applied to Indian corn— the plough, cultivator, and hoe being used alternately to keep down the weeds, and mellow the earth. During the last ploughing, the middle of the day should be chosen for the purpose, when the leaves, having wilted, will not easily break. Topping and Priming.— As the plant develops, a blossom bud grows out from the top, which is called ‘‘ buttoning.’” This top being pulled off, with those upper leaves that are too small to be of value, the plants are thus reduced to a height of two or three feet. The first topping will always admit of a greater number of leaves being left, and, in proportion as the season advances, the number should be reduced. The heavier kinds of tobacco are usually topped early in the season to twelve leaves, then to ten, and still later to eight. Light tobacco, for segar wrappers, may be allowed to mature sixteen or eighteen leaves. Priming consists g g in breaking off the leaves next the ground, which, to the number of four THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 125 or five, have no value. A good rule is to prime six inches, and top to eight leaves; but if the land is poorer than common, or if, from the backwardness of the plant, and the advanced state of the season, frost is apprehended, the priming should not be carried higher than four inches. If the soil is unusually rich, and there is danger that the top will come to the ground, then the priming must rise in proportion. Suckering and Worming.— Every plant requires to be twice suckered before it is ready for cutting. These shoot out from every leaf, and must be broken off in such a way as not to injure the leaf. They are of quick growth, and require early removal, else they will not only injure the growth of the plant, but will endanger the destruction of leaves in removing them. Tobacco is very subject to injury by the horn- and cut- worms, which should be frequently sought for and destroyed. Cutting and Housing. — The cutting season commonly commences in August, and continues into September. When tobacco is ripe, the leaves assume a spotted, yellowish appearance, and are so thick and rigid that they may be cracked or broken by folding and pressing them gently between the thumb and forefinger. Tobacco must be split while stand- ing; and such hands as can readily distingnish between the ripe and green plants should be employed at this labor. Armed with a broad flat cutter, somewhat like a square meat-chopper, a skilful operator splits the plants, with great rapidity, to within six inches of the ground. ‘The cutter follows after, and, with a common hemp-hook cuts the plant up, and lays it on the ground, where it is exposed to the rays of the sun for a few hours, until the leaves fall and wilt. As there is danger of the plants being burned by the too-powerful heat of the sun at mid-day, the cutting should be done in the mornings and evenings; only such quan- tity being cut at once as may be easily secured before the sun has acquired sufficient power to injure it. When the plants have wilted sufficiently, they should be piled with their butts toward the sun, as the stems, being large and rigid, require more sun to make them fall. Much care must be used in handling the plants, to avoid bruising the leaves ; and the plants first cut should always be placed at the bottom of the heap, so that, as near as possible, all may be exposed to the sun’s rays an equal length of time. If the tobacco-house is near to the field, sleds are very convenient vehicles for transporting the tobacco; but if at a distance, a wagon will be preferable, coupled so as to hold a very long body, sufficiently high to hang the tobacco on sticks across it. The sticks being filled with plants in the field, and then placed on the wagon ina row, nothing but the butts of the plants are presented to the action of the sun while being transported to the drying-house. No more tobacco LES 126 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. should be cut at one time than can be hung up in the drying-house, as great loss is attendant upon leaving it in heaps. ‘The sticks on which the tobacco is hung should be placed in tiers above each other, and a distance of from eight to twelve inches left between them, according to the size of the tobacco—thus admitting a free circulation of air, When partially cured, the spaces may be diminished, tu make room for another cutting. If the tobacco is to be cured without fire, the house cannot be too open on the sides; but if fire is used, the sides of the building must be perfectly tight, and no openings left for the escape of smoke, except in the roof. Curing.—This is a nice operation, and requires skill and attention, as upon its proper execution depends the quality and value of the tobacco. For the first forty-eight hours the fires should be moderate; the mercury ranging from 100° to 115°. When the edges of the leaves begin to turn yellow, and the tips to curl, the fires should be raised, but not allowed to get too hot, for then the aromatic oil passes off with the sap and smoke, leaving an inferior red-colored tubacco. And again, if the fires are too low, the tobacco sweats, and the oil escapes. The latter danger, how- ever, is not sO imminent as the former; more tobacco being injured by too much heat, than by a lack of it. The fires having been gradually raised until the mercury indicates 160°, they must be kept at that point until the tobacco is cured. In making kite-foot tobacco, the rule is to cure the plant, stems and all, in forty-eight hours from the time the fires are raised, which is when the leaves begin to assume a yellow color. After thus commencing to change, the entire leaf very soon takes on the same appearance, when it becomes an object to cure it before it turns to a nutmeg-brown. If not very speedily cured, the whole, or a great part of it, will change to the latter color before the operation is completed. Stripping and Prising.—When the plants are sufficiently dried, which may be judged of by the stems becoming hard, the leaves may be stripped from the stalks. A damp spell during the winter or spring is the best time for this operation, as the moisture in the air prevents the leaves from crumbling. They must then be sorted into three classes: 1st, comprising the best quality and color; 2d, that which is inferior; 3d, the ground leaves. ‘The leaves may then be neatly tied up in bundles called “hands,” each containing either four leaves of the first class, or six of the second and third classes. The ‘‘ hands” must then be *‘ put down to condition,” as it is usually termed; that is, packed in large bulks, with the tails in the middle, and the heads on the outside, and subjected tu heavy pressure by weights. In this state it undergues a sweat; but as soon as it commences tu ueat it must be taken out, and hung up to dry, THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 127 and there left until a rain shall again bring it into case. It should then be put down in very large bulk; the number of courses being six, eight, or any higher number, and the whole enclosed by soft straw, the walls of the house, and plank, so as to exclude the air entirely. In this condi- tion it may be kept for any length of time, and will always be ready for hauling to market in the “ hand” or “ prising.””? When the cover of the bulk is removed, with the view of taking out a part of the tobacco for prising or sale, the entire top course, or courses, should be smoothly separated from the rest, and the cover carefully replaced. This is neces- sary to prevent the top of the bulk from becoming too dry. Prising should be done in weather when the condition of the tobacco will not change. Each bundle should be straight, and closely packed in hogs- heads in the usual way. When prising in summer, some elder-bushes may be spread over the bulk to keep the tobacco damp. Nicotine.— When the dried leaves of the tobacco-plant are moistened with water, tied together in small bundles, and placed in heaps, fermen- tation soon commences, and is accompanied by the absorption of oxy: gen; the leaves then become quite warm, and emit the smell usually perceived in prepared tobacco and snuff. If the fermentation is carefully promoted, and too high a heat avoided, this smell increases, and becomes more delicate; and, on the completion of the fermentation, an oily, azotized, volatile matter, called nicotine, is found in the leaves, which, though possessing all the properties of a base, was not present before the fermentation. Nicotine is a very powerful and deadly poison. RICE. Varieties and Description. — There are four principal varieties of rice, viz: the common rice ( Oryza sativa), the dry or mountain rice (0. mutica), early rice (0. precox), and the clammy rice (0. glutinosa) ; though the inferior varieties are as numerous as the different soils, climates, and other physical circumstances controlling its culture. The culm of the common rice is from one to six feet in height, annual, erect, simple, round, and jointed. The flowers are disposed in a large and beautifu] panicle, similating that of the oat; the leaves slender, awl-shaped, curved, and embracing; the leaflets lance-shaped, and resembling a calyx; the valves of Goel of equal length—the inner even and,awnless; the outer twice as wide, four-grooved, rough, and awned; the style single and two- parted. Rice can be profitably cultivated only in warm climates, although it has been in a measure acclimated to districts of Germany, and small parcels have been raised in the neighborhood of Annapolis, in Maryland. ’ EON NL, oy Aino CARE) a PMD URE aT hk IC ae 128 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. A crop has been obtained even as far north as England, on the banks of the river Thames. These cases are mere exceptions, however, to the natural habits of the plant, and furnish no ground for an opinion as to the possibility of cultivating it with profit in high latitudes. It is raised in immense quantities in India, where the lands can be flooded, and also in Japan, Cambodia, Cochin China, and the southern provinces of China. In South Carolina it has long been a staple, having been introduced there during the sixteenth century. Mode of cultivation in South Carolina.— The planting is commenced about the 25th of March; the ground is trenched shallow but wide, and the seed scattered in the rows, in the proportion of two bushels to the acre. It is hoed about the close of April, or the beginning of May, when the rice is in the fourth leaf, and the field then covered with water. If the planting be late, and there is danger of grass, the field is flooded before hoeing. The usual depth of water is about three or four inches, just sufficient to allow the tops of the rice to appear above it. When the water is of proper depth, a notch is made on the frame of the feed-trunk, and if the rains raise the water above the notch, or it leaks out, it must be let off or added to accordingly. This is done by putting a small stick, about an inch in diameter, in the door of the trunk. If scum or froth appear in eight or ten days, the water is changed, by taking off the trunk door, allowing it to run off with the ebb tide, and refilling at the next flood. The water is kept on about fifteen or seventeen days, according to the state of the weather: if the sun is hot, fifteen days; if the weather is sool, and the atmosphere cloudy, seventeen days, counting from the day the field is flooded. The water is allowed to leak off for two days, when THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 125 the whole is run off, and the field allowed to dry. In four or five days it 1s hoed a second time, the ground stirred up, whether clean or not, and the fallen rice combed up with the fingers. About the beginning of July it is hoed the third time, and picked clean. The field is then flooded as it is hoed, the water being regulated to the same depth as before. If any grass escapes, it is picked out in the water after it shoots up. Though, this is called the fourth hoeing, the hoe is never used, except in some high places, or in cleaning the dams. If the rice is flaggy, and likely to lodge, it is supported by flooding it deeply, and so kept until it is fit for harvest. With well-drained land, in good order, each hand may readily cultivate five acres of rice, and one or one and a half of provisions. Chinese mode of cultivation. — The Chinese obtain two crops per year from the same land, and cultivate it in this way from generation to gene- ration, on the same soil, and without other manure than the mud depos- ited by the water of the river used in flooding it. A few days are allowed for the mud to get partially dry, after the water has been drained off, when a small spot is enclosed by a bank of clay, slightly ploughed and harrowed, and the grain, previously steeped in dung, diluted with animal water, is sown very thickly on it. A thin sheet of water is then brought over it, either by a led stream, or by the use of the chain-pump. A seed- bed, or nursery, is thus prepared, and, in the meantime, the rest of the tract is being put in order for planting. When the plants are six or seven inches high, they are set out in furrows made by the plough, and so planted as to stand a foot apart every way. Water is then brought over them, and so kept till the crop begins to ripen, when it is with- drawn, and the field dried for the harvest. The rice is reaped with a sickle, threshed with a flail, or trodden out by cattle, and the husk taken off by pounding it in a stone mortar, or by passing it between two flat stones, as in a common mill. The first crop is cut in May, and the second, immediately prepared for by burning the stubble, ripens in October or November. When this is cut, the stubble is ploughed in, which is the only vegetable manure such lands receive. Aquatic rice is cultivated in the same manner in Java, Ceylon, and Japan. Cleaning Rice. — This operation is now usually effected by the aid of the machine figured on the next page, which divests it of the husk, and polishes the grain at the same time. Uses.—Rice has been extolled, and very justly, as superior to any other article of vegetable diet ; yet in Europe, and in many parts of the United States, the preference is generally assigned to the potatoe, which contains far less nutriment. In Hindostan, the natives, fed on rice and curry, perform tasks in the burning sun which any white laborer, whose diet fy: FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. |. ee — included roast beef, potatoes, and porter, never could accomplish. Rice may be used in the whole grain, or in flour, in an indescribable number of ways. THE TEA PLANT As it is more than probable that, ere long, this important shrub will be successfully cultivated in many portions of the United States, a de- scription of the mode of cultivation and process of manufacture may, with great propriety, be introduced among the general details of Ameri- can farming. Tea was grown in Georgia as far back as 1772, but, for some unexplained reason, its culture was abandoned. In 1848 the late Dr. Junius Smith, of Greenville, South Carolina, imported a large num- ber of the plants, which, after cultivation in his garden until March of 1851, he set out on his plantation, where they grew remarkably well. In January of the latter year, they suffered no injury from a snow eight or nine inches deep, which was accompanied by intensely cold weather. Efforts are now being made to introduce the tea plant generally through- \ THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 131 out those States whose climate is suited to its cultivation; and, witk proper management, the ultimate success of these endeavors is beyond the possibility of a doubt. Varieties and Description. — There are but two known varieties of the tea plant—Thea viridis, or green tea; and Thea bohea (Fig. 68), or black Fig. 68. tea. ‘The first-named is a large, strong-growing, almost hardy plant, with spreading branches, leaves three to five inches long, very broadly lanceolate, pale green, singularly waved, and the margin reflected. The flowers, which are large, solitary, and mostly confined to the upper axil, appear in autumn, six weeks or two months earlier than those of 7. bohea. The latter plant is of smaller size, with remarkably erect, stiff branches; the leaves are not above one-half or two-thirds the size of those of the 7. viridis, perfectly flat, more coriaceous, and dark green. On the axils of numerous leaves two or three flowers are borne, which are small, have a slight fragrance, and are in perfection during winter. Soil and Climate. — The tea-plant delights to grow in valleys, at the foot of hills, and upon the banks of streams, where it has the benefit of a southern exposure. The soil best adapted to it is a rich, porous loam, containing a considerable admixture of vegetable mould; and the land must be thoroughly drained —the shrub refusing to grow in low, wet lands. Those districts in the United States which are best suited to the growth of the plant, are the alluvial tracts bordering on the tidal streams of Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, and the undulating portions of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Culture. — The seeds are gathered in October, packed in sand for pre 132 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK: servation during the winter, and in spring sown in rows, distant about four feet from each other. From three to five seeds are dropped in each place, at intervals of three feet along the rows. With the exception of stirring the earth, and eradicating the weeds, the plants remain undis- turbed during the first two or three years, until they are well established, and putting forth strong and vigorous shoots. On properly-managed tea plantations, a regular succession is always kept up, so that the failure of old plants is compensated by the constant maturing of an equal num- ber. Plucking the leaves being very prejudicial to the health of the shrub, the operation is never commenced until it is in a vigorous condi- tion. When the plants are in their third year, the first crop is usually gathered ; and they continue to yield until they are ten or twelve years old. The best time for gathering tea is while the leaves are small, young, and juicy; and the first gathering usually commences about the close of February, when the leaves are young and unexpanded; the second about the beginning of April; and the third during the month of June. The first collection, which only comprises the tender leaves, is the most esteemed, and is known by the name of imperial tea; but, as the season advances, the quality and value diminish, until the lowest grade is reached, called bohea. While under cultivation, the tea-plant rarely attains a greater height than three or four feet. Manipulation of the Leaves.—1. Green Tea (Thea Viridis). Leaves _ intended for green tea are thinly spread out on trays, where they remain for one or two hours, in order that the superflaous moisture may be eva- porated, when they are thrown into the roasting-pans, placed over brisk wood fires. In these pans they are rapidly moved about and shaken up by the workmen until they become quite flaccid and moist, and give off considerable vapor. After remaining in the pans four or five minutes, they are transferred to the rolling-table, and divided among several workmen, each of whom takes up as many as he can press together with his hands, works them up into the form of a ball, and rolls them upon the table until they are greatly compressed. Much of the moisture is removed by this process, and the leaves obtain the desired twist. They are then shaken out upon flat trays, and, after remaining thus for a short time, are again thrown into a pan, placed over a slow but steady char- coal fire, where they are kept in rapid motion by the hands of the ope- rators. In about an hour the leaves are well dried, and exhibit a dull green color, which subsequently becomes brighter. When a sufficient quantity of leayes have been thus treated, they are winnowed through sieves of different sizes, by which several varieties of tea are made, according to size, and the whole cleansed from dust and other impurities. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 133 During this operation the coarse teas are once reheated, and the finer qualities three or four times, by which the leaves acquire a dull bluish- green color.— 2. Black Tea (Thea Bohea). The leaves which are to be manufactured into black tea are first heated and manipulated as above described ; after which they are transferred to a tubular-shaped basket, somewhat resembling a dice-box, and containing a sieve. This apparatus is placed over a charcoal fire, where it remains but a few minutes, when the leaves are taken out, and again rolled; this operation being repeated a second, and sometimes a third time. When all the leaves have been thus treated, they are replaced in the baskets in bulk, and set over a slow fire, and, being covered over with a flat basket, are allowed to remain thus until quite dry; being carefully watched, however, and occasionally stirred, so as to expose them equally to the heat. S aM ¢ Hi i id 7 \ P ‘ aa) | zit nee i I ( \ S \ y i Y, ss is Al AN au We \ YS \\\ Wp te, i Lp A\\ y UI a VAN AH! m WS Wile ~' Wik Yl i} mh th Ph ; YH th NO X HI MN, Nh YD ’ ah, Nh XY } BAN 2 Uh Ns NOM [ Ih, Suk? ( SANNA)! | | \ | { : THE HEAVY OR FIELD OROPS. 159 two seasons, for, under any circumstances, it is not good management to keep land more than three years in grass. The revolving horse hay-rake Fig. 90. (Fig. 90,) was formerly in extensive use, but it has been in a great measure superseded by more labor-saving machines, of which Delano’s movable tooth-rake (Fig. 89,) is one of the best. Hay-Caps.— So much hay has been injured in the fields by rain, after it has been fully cured, that it has been found economical to make covers, and spread them over the hay-cocks, as a protection from the weather, These, styled “ hay-caps,” are made of stout, unbleached sheeting, forty- five inches square, well coated with a mixture composed of one gallon of linseed oil, four pounds of beeswax, and one quart of japan. A stone sewed into each corner, to prevent it from being blown off by the wind, is then the only thing required to complete the article for use. Larger- sized covers, made in the same manner, are used for the protection of hay while on the wagon, or in permanent stacks. Pressing Hay.—A variety of machines have been used for the purpose of packing hay in bales for market, all of which have some merit. That illustrated in Fig. 91 (Dederick’s), one of the latest inventions, is believed to be more perfect than any heretofore employed. There being no unnecessary friction to overcome, the power is proportionally in- creased, This machine is also used for packing cotton, hops, hemp, cloth, ete. Instead of being obliged to build a press, farmers may now have them made to order with as much facility as any of the other labor: saving machines. 160 FARMER’S HAND-BUOK. Lands Permanently in Grass. — The management of lands of this de scription is somewhat different from that of grass land merely interposed in the course of cropping of arable lands, to prevent the exhaustion of the nutrient parts of the soil consequent upon incessant tillage. From the short period in which the land is, in the latter case, in grass, manure is seldom applied to the surface, though often indispensable in the former. Various other operations are also performed to remedy those defects which THE HEAVY OR FIELD OROPS. 161 are natural consequences resulting from lands being long kept in grass. Such lands naturally divide themselves into two classes —those fit either for mowing or pasture, and those fit for pasture only. Perennial Grass Lands fit for Mowing, or Meadow Lands.—Under the term meadow are included all such lands as are kept in grass chiefly for the sake of the hay-crop, though occasionally, and at particular seasons of the year, it may be depastured. The value of the natural meadow depends much on the situation, as well as on the quality, of the land. There are three descriptions of these meadows; those on the banks of streams and rivers, those on the uplands or more elevated grounds, and bog meadows. The meadows situated along the banks of rivers and streams are, in general, by far the most valuable, and should never be converted into tillage. The principal defects to which such lands are liable, are the oozing out of the springs towards their junction with the higher grounds, and the overflowing of the stream or river: the former evil is to be remedied by draining, and the latter by supplying embankments, well fortified with osiers. Upland meadows require more attention than valleys and holms, being more difficult to drain, and requiring frequent manuring. ‘The roots of grasses never strike deep into the soil; and thus, deriving their nourish- ment chiefly from the surface, the utility of top-dressing is obvious. The irregular surface of uplands is frequently much injured by superfluous moisture, and the surface is generally covered by inferior herbage and by mosses, the remedy for which consists in a very thorough course of tillage. Boggy land is generally least valuable. When thoroughly drained, the culture of herbage plants is about the most profitable way of occupy- ing it. When under tillage, its cultivation is very difficult; but when so far improved as to warrant its being laid down in grass, large crops may be obtained at comparatively small expense. More than one crop is rarely obtained from the natural meadows. The time of cutting the crop is later than that of the cultivated meadow, the | proper time being just before the formation of the seed. After being | cut, the grass is allowed to remain for a short time in the swath, and is then scattered evenly over the surface of the ground. If the weather be fine, the grass is soon formed, with the rake, into what are called wind- | rows, which, after standing a few hours, may be formed into cocks of small size, by simply grasping a quantity of the grass, which had been previously shaken in a heap, and placing it on a part of the surface that 14* a Ee a eT | 162 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. has been raked. The next day these cocks are again spread abroad, then formed into wind-rows, and again put into cocks, of a larger size, in the evening. In a day or two these will be ready for putting into ricks, if the weather be fine; if it be not, a much longer time may be required, and the cocks will have to be again shaken out and re-formed into larger, before the hay is ready for the rick. In certain situations, the raising of hay on the natural meadow will be found the most simple and economical way of occupying such lands as are suited to it. Frequent manurings are, however, essential to their productiveness; the best manure being composts of lime, to be applied in the spring. Permanent Pastures. — The drainage of lands permanently in grass greatly. improves them. Cuts are made along the hollows of the field, which convey the water to the most convenient outlet, and small drains, formed either by a plough or spade, open into them. These need not be more than a foot deep, though numerous, especially in hollow places. Having drained off the surface water, the tendency to 70 will be obviated. Weeds, shrubs, and mosses should be thoroughly removed, which can be done by the hand, by the use of the plough, by draining, and by a course of tillage. Lime, applied to the surface of grass lands, either alone or combined with other matters, is beneficial, after superfluous moisture has been removed. When, from frequent rolling and the treading of animals, the surface of grass lands gets into a tenacious state, scarifying will go far to remedy the evil. This operation is quite useful before any top-dressing is applied. The time of stocking pastures in spring must depend on the season; and the state of growth which it is desirable the plants should attain before being stocked must, in some degree, be determined by the condi- tion and description of the animals to be employed in consuming the herbage, — whether they are only in a young state, or approaching to fatness, —whether milch cows or sheep, or a mixture of animals of dif- ferent species. The great objects to be aimed at are, that the stock, of whatever kind it may be, shall be carried forward faster or slower, according to the object in view, and that none of the herbage shall be wasted. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 163 MOTIVE POWERS, ETC., FOR FARM PURPOSES. The Wind-Mill is one of the most economical motive powers which can be used upon a farm, as, if the machine is well made, on a good prin- ciple, it requires no repairs for some years, and then only those of the most simple and inexpensive character. The most perfect, yet simple, Fig. 92. thd _-* ne ) wind-mill now in use in the United States, is that of Mr. C. R. Webb, Philadelphia (Fig. 92), which, with a moderate breeze, will grind eight 164 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. bushels of grain per hour, and, at the same time, raise water to the height of from fifty to one hundred feet. Being self-regulating, it can be started or stopped by even a child, without going outside of the building on which it is placed. Horse Power. — Fig. 93 represents a vertical horse-power, which may, however, be geared for a horizontal movement, if preferred. It is adapted hic re ean iii ie a aie = ir i ps UAHA ANCIENTS 2 Bit = SS aS — ue SSS : os SSS ke ee ——— SS SSS Se —S = = — to one or more horses, as may be required, and is a compact, durable, very simple, and cheap power. It may be used for driving a threshing- machine, for supplying power to a portable or stationary grist-mill, and for all the various purposes to which the wind-mill is applicable. Patent Grist-Mil.—Beside grinding all kinds of grain into flour, these mills (Fig. 94) are calculated for supplying feed-stuff of any required CHAPTERIII. PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR USES IN THE ARTS, AND FOR THEIR OILS. INDIGO— MADDER—WELD— WOAD—TURMERIC—SUMACH — BASTARD SAFFRON —TEASEL—COLZA—RAPE—SUN FLOWER—CASTOR OIL PLANT. INDIGO. Description.—This is an extensive genus of rather elegant plants, with tap roots, most of the species of which produce the well-known dye called indigo, the finest of all vegetable blues. The genus belongs to the natural order Leguminose; the flowers resembling those of the pea tribe. The upper petal is round, and notched at the point; the two lower petals fur- nished with an awl-like spur on both sides; the stamens are united in two parcels; the style is thread-like; and the fruit, shaped like a pea- pod, is divided into two parts, containing one or more seeds. Varieties. —The varieties cultivated are: the wild (Indigofera argentea), the Guatemala (JI. dispermea), the French (J. tinctoria), and the I. caerulea, which yields the finest indigo. Soil.—When cultivated, indigo thrives best in a free, rich soil, and in a warm situation, frequently refreshed with moisture. In the West Indies it may be grown on comparatively poor, dry soils, but to most advantage (166) PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 167 in those that are fertile. In the Southern States, however, the plant re- quires a good, rich, deep soil. These States are peculiarly adapted to the culture of the indigo plant, and, a half century since, the finest indigo ever produced was grown in the Carolinas. Culture. —The ground having been first properly mellowed with the plough, and then harrowed, the seeds may be sown with a drill, in rows distant from each other about twelve or fourteen inches, As the plants shoot up they must be frequently weeded, and carefully tended, until they spread sufficiently to cover the ground. When cultivated in great quantities, the seeds are merely strown rather thickly in little shallow pits, hoed up at a distance of six or seven inches apart, and immediately covered with earth. Plants thus raised thrive rather better than those sown in drills, but they require more care in weeding. They arrive at full perfection in two or three months, and answer the purpose best when cut in full blossom. With a reaping-hook they are cut off a few inches from the root, tied up in bundles, conveyed to the works, and laid in the steeper by strata. Four bushels of seed will sow twenty acres, and that quantity of land may be cultivated by sixteen hands. From rich land, the yield in twelve months will average five hundred pounds of indigo to the acre; for, if kept free from weeds, the plant will yield three or four crops each year, as it rattoons, or sends up new shoots after each cutting. It must, however, be replanted every season. Extraction of the Dye.—When the lower leaves begin to dry, and while the morning dew is still on them, the plants are cut, and immediately ;mmersed in vats, where they remain until macerated. The liquor ig then drawn off into another vat, in which it is beat until the fecula sepa- rates, when the latter is let off into a third vat, and allowed to stand for some time. Itis then strained through cloth bags, and afterwards eva- porated to dryness in shallow wooden boxes, placed in a shady situation. Before becoming quite hard it is cut into square pieces, and packed in cases for shipment. Indigo is not contained ready formed in the plant, put is produced by the oxidation of some substance there present. Fer- mentation is not essential to its extraction, as a mere infusion of the plant in hot water deposits indigo by standing in the air. The only solvent of pure indigo is sulphuric acid, with which it forms a deep blue pasty mass, soluble in water, and largely used in dyeing. For the man- ufacture of indigo on a small scale, ordinary barrels will supply the place of vats; and holes bored in them at regular intervals from top to bottom will serve to draw off the liquor as required. Uses.—The coloring matter of indigo is largely used in manufactures, principally for dyeing woollen and cotton fabrics, and for coloring mo; 168 FARMER’S. HAND-BOOK. rocco. Large quantities of an inferior article are annually imported, which would not be the case if the plant were cultivated in the South to the same extent as formerly. Manufacturers would abandon the use of the imported article if they could obtain the home product in sufficient quantity, as it is vastly superior to any which can be obtained from abroad. Beside yielding indigo, the I. tinctoria is also medicinally em- ployed, and the powdered leaf of the J. anil is used in some diseases of the liver. MADDER. Description.—Dyer’s madder (Rubia tinctorum,) has a perennial root, and an annual stalk. ‘The root is composed of long, succulent fibres, as thick as a man’s little finger, which strike deep into the ground, some- times extending to a distance of three feet. From the upper part of the root many lateral fibres diverge, which extend to a great distance, just beneath the surface of the ground, and then send up numerous shoots, which, if carefully removed in the spring soon after they appear above ground, and replanted elsewhere, will furnish new plants. The leaves are four or six in a whorl, lanceolate, with the midrib on the under disk, and the margins aculeated. The flowers, which are small, are supported on axillary tripartite flower-stalks. The dried root is long, of a cylin- drical character, about the bulk of a goose-quill, branched, and invested with a reddish cuticle, which, as well as the bark, is readily separable. In afresh state the color is yellow, but by drying it becomes reddish. It has a feeble odor, and a bitter, astringent taste. The best coloring matter is prepared from the heart of the root, and the older roots are pre- ferable to the young ones. Soil.—The soils most suitable for the growth of madder are deep, fer- tile, sandy loams, containing a considerable infusion of lime and vegetable matter, and not retentive of moisture. It will grow in light soils, if they are fertile, and of sufficient depth, provided they are well manured. Culture.—Plough the land deep in September, and again in October, and thus let it lie in ridges during the winter, to be acted on by the frost. When the spring has opened, and the ground become dry and warm, plough again deeply, and harrow well. Then strike the land off into ridges with a one-horse plough, making them three feet wide, with water- furrows four feet in width between. If the ground is moist, raise the ridges ten or twelve inches above the natural surface; but, if it be dry, six or eight inches elevation will be sufficient. A light harrow may then be used to level and shape the ridges. The time for planting is usually during the month of May, or even earlier, if there is no danger of severe PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 169 frosts. The land having been prepared as above indicated, stretch a line lengthwise of the beds, and, with a hoe, make holes six inches from the edge, along both margins of the beds, and also in the middle, leaving a space of twelve inches between each hole. Into these insert the sets, and cover them from two to four inches deep with fine earth, and press it down with the foot. As soon as the young plants appear above ground, they must be carefully hoed, with the view of destroying the weeds; and this must be repeated as often as the weeds reappear. If any of the sets have failed to grow, the vacancies may be supplied during June or July, by taking up and transplanting parts of the strongest roots. When the plants have attained the height of ten or twelve inches, the tops must be covered, with the exception of their extreme ends, with fine earth shovelled from the alleys. They should be bent outward as well as inward, so as to fill all the vacant spaces, and this operation should be repeated as often as the plants become sufficiently long, which is usually three times during the first season. The purpose of this is to assist the plants to form new roots, with which it is desirable to fill the ground as fast as possible. The second year the beds must be freed from weeds, and the tops of the plants covered with earth as before, which may be repeated two or three times during the season. Care must be used to keep the edges of the beds as high as the centres; otherwise, the rains will run off, and the crop suffer from drought. The third and fourth years but little attention will be required, as the plants cover the entire ground, and the few weeds which may appear can be readily picked out. The roots are ploughed out during September of the third year in some States, and during the same month of the fourth year in others: those grown in warm lati- tudes arriving at maturity much sooner than those cultivated in colder situations. Ploughing out the Roots.—The tops of the plants must first be removed with a sharp-edged shovel, which takes off, at the same time, about half- an-inch of the surface earth. Then attach a powerful span of horses to a large plough, and turn a furrow outward, beam deep, around the edge of each bed, and let the hands rake and pick out the roots from the fur- row. Plough another furrow beam deep, as before, inside of the last, and thus proceed until the beds have been entirely turned over. Cleansing and Drying the Roots. — As soon as possible, take the roots to some running stream in the vicinity, or to the pump, and put them, half a bushel at a time, into a large, open-mouthed sieve, and wash them perfectly clean. When washed, lay them on slanting platforms to dry. These platforms should be about two feet high at one end, and slope down to eight inches at the bottom, and be erected in rows, not far from the 15 170 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. farm buildings. After the second or third day’s drying, the roots must be protected from dews at night, and from rain, by placing several of the platforms one upon another, and covering the upper one with boards. In the morning, or when danger from rain has passed, they may be again spread out. In five or six days they will be sufficiently dry to stow away, preparatory to grinding. Some prefer drying in kilns, like those used for malt or hops. Grinding the Roots. — As soon as the roots are thoroughly dried, they may be broken in a cast-iron bark-rmill, and then cleansed by a fanning machine, after which they may be ground fine in a grist-mill, and packed in barrels like flour. If not packed immediately they gather dampness from the atmosphere, which prevents them from grinding freely. The addition of a little carbonate of lime while grinding improves the color considerably. Propagation and Preservation of Sets.—Sets may be produced by sow- ing the seed in a fine, light earth, one year before the plants are wanted, and then transplanting them. Sets of one inch in length may be planted for one year in a garden, and then removed to the field-bed. The selec- tion of sets from the growing crop should be made when it is dug in the fall. Those which grow horizontally, and have numerous eyes, are regarded as the best, and should be separated from the lower roots, and buried in the cellar during the winter. Previous to planting, they should be cut into pieces containing from two to five eyes each. Uses.—Madder is a principal ingredient in nearly all the dyes used by calico printers; and for woollen goods it furnishes blue, black, purple, red, buff, orange, olive, yellow, brown, and many other colors. The profit of the crop is immense, and the market not easily glutted. The haulm has been sometimes fed to cattle; but it is rarely used, as it tinges with a red color, not only the milk, but also the urine, the perspiration, and even the bones. It was formerly used as a medicine for the cure of jaundice, but it is now known to possess no curative properties whatever. WELD. Description.—Weld, a native of the south of Europe, is an imperfect biennial, with small, fusiform roots, and a smooth, wand-like, leafy stem, from one to three feet in height. The leaves are dark green, linear- lanceolate, single-ribbed, obtuse, and entire: the flowers, which blow in July, are small, greenish-white, without much smell, and grow in large terminal clusters, which are many-flowered. It belongs to the mignonette family (Resedacee), and is sometimes found in earth brought from a great PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 171 depth, as the rubbish of coal-mines. Weld is cultivated for the sake of its stalks, flowers, and leaves, which afford a fine yellow dye, used for the coloring of cotton, silk, wool, and other substances. In conjunction with indigo, it forms a beautiful green ; and it is preferred to all other dyes for the production of a lively green lemon-yellow; but the material to be colored must first be prepared with a mordant of alum and cream tartar, in order to render the yellow permanent. It is the most easily cultivated of all the plants used for the preparation of dyes. Soil. —It grows on a great variety of soils, but fertile loams produce the best return. It is rather an exhausting crop; for which reason it has never been very extensively cultivated. Culture.-—The soil is usually well prepared, by ploughing and harrow- ing, and the seed sown, either broad-cast or in drills, during the month of May, or later, and lightly covered. From two quarts to one gallon is sown to the acre; and, if the seed is not very fresh, it is steeped in water for two or three days previously. It is also cultivated in the same manner as the grasses, being sometimes mixed with clover and grass seeds, and plucked out from among them when it is in flower. Sown among corn, on very rich soils, it occasionally answers very well, pro- vided that the plants are weeded, hoed, and the ground well stirred, as soon as the corn crop has been removed. The drill system is, however, much the best; the drills being made twelve inches apart, and the plants, after they shoot up, thinned out until they stand at six inches distance from each other in the row. They then admit of cultivation in the usual mode. Gathering the Crop.—The plants flower in July of the second year, and the proper period for pulling them is when the bloom has been pro- duced the whole length of the stems, and the plants are just beginning to turn of a light, or yellowish color. The plants are pulled up by the roots in small handsful, which are tied round with a wisp of straw or one of the stalks, and set upright, in stacks of four or five bundles each, to dry. When sufficiently dry, which is usually in about a fortnight, they are bound up into larger bundles, containing sixty handsful each, and weighing about fifty-six pounds. Sixty of these bundles constitute a load. In this state the plants are ready for sale ; or they may be stacked and preserved for a number of years, without injury. Value of the Crop.—The produce varies according to the nature of the season, from half a ton to two tons per acre; and its cultivation sometimes yields a large profit — but the demand is uncertain, being sometimes very trifling, and at others so great as to raise the price to a very high figure. 172 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Saving the Seed. — For this purpose a sufficient number of the largest and healthiest plants are set aside, and left stand until the seed are per- fectly ripe. The latter are very easily separated. Uses. —It is used in dyeing for imparting a yellow color to cotton, woollen, mohair, silk, linen, etc. Blue cloths are changed to green by being dipped in a decoction of it, and Dutch pink owes to it the yellow color which is its peculiar characteristic. WOAD. Description. — The woad (Isatis tinctoria), one of those plants which yield the deep-blue coloring matter so greatly valued in the arts, was most extensively cultivated in Europe previous to the introduction of the indigo of commerce. It is a very hardy triennial plant, with a hairy, branching stalk, which rises to the height of from three to five feet, very leafy, and panicled at the top. The panicle is composed of many com- pound racemose branches, covered with minute lanceolate leaves, which, as also the stalks, have a yellow color. The leaves, which are numerous, and small, are also of a bright yellow. The root of the plant is tapering and fibrous. Soil. — A good crop may be obtained upon alluvial soils, but strong soils are preferable, provided they are not too much inclined to clay. Wet, moist lands will not answer; and the plant flourishes best in a rich, deep, mellow soil, such as may be found along the borders of large rivers, more especially if the latter is broken up for it immediately from a state of sward. Preparation of the Soil and Culture of the Plant.—The ground is usually ploughed deeply in the fall, reploughed in the spring, and cross- harrowed ; but as by this method it is next to impossible to reduce the old turf in one year, and the plants are endangered by the attacks of the grub and wire-worm, paring and burning are resorted to where the sward is rough, and abounding with rushes and sedge-grass. The seed is com- monly sown from March to July; though early sowing is preferable, as the plants come up stronger, and yield a larger return during the first season. The seed is generally sown broadcast; but a better method of planting is in rows, allowing a sufficient space between each to admit of the use of a cultivator. For broadcast sowing from five to six pounds of seed are required to the acre; but when drilled in, two pounds are amply sufficient. When procurable, new seed is always to be used in preference to old, which is steeped some time before being put into the ground, to facilitate its germination. The after-culture comprises the usual routine of hoeing, thinning, stirring the earth, and weeding. ———————— PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. its Gathering. —If sown early, the leaves of the plants are ready for har- vesting in July, which is done as soon as the leaves are full grown, and while they still retain their perfect green color, and succulence. If allowed to remain until they begin to pale, they lose not only in quan- tity, but also in quality. The leaves are collected in baskets, which are proportioned in number to the extent of the crop. They are picked off by hand, being grasped firmly, and separated from the stem by a sudden twist. In favorable seasons, and on well-managed lands, the plants will often yield two or three crops of leaves; but seldom more than two are gathered, which are sometimes mixed together in the manufacture. The after-croppings, when taken, are carefully kept apart from the others, as their mixture with the first would injure the value of the entire crop. The average product is a ton to a ton and a half of green leaves to the acre. The-haulm is either burned for manure, or carried to the barn- yard, and added to the compost-heap. Preparation of the Dye. —The leaves are bruised by machinery, to press out the watery part, afterwards formed into balls and fermented, reground, and fermented in vats, wherein the dye is separated in the same manner as that from the indigo plant. Saving the Seed.—For this purpose the leaves are allowed to remain on some of the plants during the second year. When it ripens in July or August, it is then treated like turnip-seed. Uses.—Woad is extensively used in dyeing, as a basis for black, and other colors. TURMERIC. Description —Turmerie (Sanguinaria Canadensis,) is a plant peculiar to North America, with a perennial root, fleshy, round, and abruptly ter- minated, which varies from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and in length from two to four inches. The external color of the root is brownish, but internally it has a red appearance, and, when cut, discharges an abundance of orange-colored juice. The scape, which is surmounted by a single flower, rises from one end of the root to the height of six or seven inches. It flowers in March or April. The leaf- stalks, which are thicker than the seape, rise from the same part of the root. The leaf-stalks and scape are surrounded at the root by a common sheath. They are of an orange color, deepest near their junction with the root, and becoming paler. near the leaves and flowers, where it is blended with green. The seeds, numerous, round, and pointed, are con- tained in a capsule, which is oblong, swelling in the middle, acute at both ends, and two-valved. ' 15* 174 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Soil.—This plant inhabits a rich, loose soil, and, though it generally delights in fertile locations, yet it will grow and flourish in sandy, almost arid land. Uses.—The juice of the root makes a fine orange-colored dye, used for dyeing flannels, woollen cloths, cottons, silk, and linens. The root is used medicinally, both in tincture and in decoction. Under cultivation, the plant is susceptible of great improvement, and may be made a profit- able branch of culture as a dye. SUMACH Description. —Sumach is a shrubby plant, several varieties of which are indigenous to the United States. It grows from one to three feet high, and the stems, which throw out numerous branches, are covered with a brown bark. The flowers are greenish-white, and the leaves pin- nate, with an odd trifoliate leaflet, angularly incised, and pubescent. The fruit is a round drupe, about as large as a pea; and the juice, which is acrid and milky, contains both tannic and gallic acids. Varveties.—These are very numerous, but the principal are the Rhus glabrum and Rhus coriaria, powerful astringents, as well as dyes; and the Rhus cotinus, or Venice sumach, which is extensively used in dyeing. Soil.—Sumach will grow on the most rocky and worthless land, and, if managed properly, such tracts will yield a larger return from a crop of sumach than they would under any other vegetable, even with the aid of careful and costly culture. Climate.—It is a well-known fact that the quality of sumach depends on the heat of the climate in which it is grown, and, consequently, that produced in Virginia excels in quality that grown in Delaware, as much as that of the latter State surpasses the sumach gathered in New York or Massachusetts. : Cultivation.—The European varieties, R. coriaria and R. cotinus, have as yet only been raised as ornamental shrubs, in the nurseries of the United States. The FR. glabrum grows spontaneously. No attempt seems to have been made to propagate it from seed, or to introduce into common use the foreign plants, which would doubtless arrive at equal perfection in the Southern States to that attained by them in Spain, Portugal, Sicily, and Syria. In the United States the ordinary practice is to cut over the growth every year, and, by keeping it’ down, procure an abundance of sprouts of the first quality. Preparation for market.—The plant must be cut in clear weather, and spread on a floor in such a manner as to allow it to dry rapidly; for, when fermentation begins in a small portion of it, the whole mass soon PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC 175 becomes seriously impaired. When dry, the plants may be cut up by a straw-cutter, and put into sacks for market, or be ground fine in a bark- mill. Uses.—R. glabrum, R. coriaria, and R. cotinus, are used in dyeing and calico-printing; the latter variety, especially, producing beautiful golden and orange yellows. he two first-named varieties are used in tanning morocco. BASTARD SAFFRON. Description.—This is an annual plant, a native of Asia, known to bota- nists as the Carthamus tinctorius. It has a stiff, ligneous stalk, which grows to the height of two feet and a half or three feet high, and divides upward into numerous branches. Soil and Climate.—It thrives equally well in a light soil, or in a rich, friable, black earth, and is cultivated in various parts of Europe, espe- cially in the Levant, Spain, and Germany. It is likewise produced in Egypt, and may be readily cultivated in the Southern States of the Union. Culture.—The seed is sown in rows, or deposited in patches, two feet distant each way; but, after the young plants make their appearance: above the ground, they are thinned out, until only two or three remain together in one place. The soil is well stirred, and kept free from weeds, until August, when the flowers begin to expand. The petals of the florets are then cut off, and dried in the shade, or ona kiln. This ope- ration is performed in the early part of each day until October, when the plants are pulled up, sheaved, shocked, and threshed, to obtain the seeds The stalks are burned, and the ashes used for manure. 176 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Uses.—The petals are used in painting, and also for dyeing silks. A beautiful rouge is made from them. The seeds furnish an oil, which is used by painters and in pharmacy. TEASER. Description.—This plant, a native of Europe, is cultivated with eminent success in Germany, in some parts of England, and in the United States. It is an herbaceous biennial, growing from four to six feet in height, the stem and leaves rough and prickly. The flowers are whitish in color, with very numerous pale purple anthers, in a close, obtuse, conical head, the intermediate scales of which are bristly at the edges, with rigid and hooked points. Varieties.—There are three varieties: the fuller’s teasel (Dipsacus ful- lorum), wild teasel (D. sylvestris), and small teasel, or shepherd’s staff (D. pilosus). The first variety is the only one cultivated, the others being of no use whatever. Soil and Culture.—The soil should be a deep, rich, moist loam, and the cultivation as careful and thorough as for any garden crop. The seed is sown in spring, but the crop does not mature until autumn of the follow- ing year; and in order to procure an annual crop, the following plan has been used by some cultivators. The seed is planted in two rows, sixteen inches apart, and a space of twelve inches left between the plants in the row. Then, at a distance of four feet, two more rows are planted, as before, and so on, alternately, over the entire field. The open spaces serve for the crop of the following year, and are manured by means of a hand-cart. Turnip seed are frequently sewn on the vacant spaces, Others sow the seed in rows eighteen inches apart, and subsequently thin them to a distance of four inches from each other in the row. The plants should be kept clear of weeds, and carefully tended. The same piece of land, if well cultivated, will bear a good crop for several years in succes- sion, and the quantity of seed sown varies from one to two pecks per acre, according to the method of cultivation. If sown broadcast, as is done in England, the latter quantity will be required; but if the American drill system is adopted, which is far preferable, the former will suffice. Gathering the Crop.—The ripeness of the teasel is ascertained by its color, which must be of a greenish-yellow. If entirely yellow, it is an indication that it has been cut too late, and the strength is gone. If quite green it is not good, as then the teeth all run one way, and do not come back, not having had sufficient sun. In harvesting the crop, the heads are cut off as they become ripe; though ordinarily the work is PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. tT done at three different times, with intervals of ten days between each. The operator, whose hands are covered with a pair of stout gloves, is furnished with a short-bladed knife, having a string attached to the handle, which is passed around his wrist. He seizes the ripe heads, cuts them off with about nine inches of the stem, and ties them up in handsful, with a perfectly-ripened stem. In the evening they are placed in a dry, shed, and subsequently, when the weather is clear, they are exposed to the heat of the sun, until they become perfectly dry. They are then stowed away in a dry room, where they remain until sorted for market, when they are divided into three classes, and done up with great care and neatness. The bur must be one and a half inches long, in order to be marketable. Saving the Seed.—A few of the finest and best plants are left uncropped, and when the seed is ripe, only the largest and terminating heads are cut off, the seed separated by the aid of a flail, and cleansed with a sieve or winnowing machine. Use.—To raise the nap on woollen cloths, for which their hooked teeth admirably adapt them. For this purpose they are fixed in parallel rows on the circumference of a broad wheel, against which the cloth is pressed while it is revolving. Many attempts have been made to substitute ma- chinery for the teasel, but without success —all machines having proved inefficient or injurious. The scales of the teasel are just strong enough to raise the wool, giving way before they can injure the cloth. The dressing of a piece of cloth, usually thirty-six yards in length, requires from 1500 to 2000 teasels, as they are repeatedly used in different parts of the process. Those held in highest estimation are raised in Germany, where great pains are taken in their culture. The English, being of an inferior character, command a smaller price; yet they are frequently imported into the United States, as the German teasel. The produce of Connecticut is as fine as any of the imported, and farther south they might be brought to still greater perfection, and yield a very handsome return to the cultivator. Value of the Crop.—From eighty-five thousand to one hundred and fifty thousand, and in some cases three hundred thousand teasels, have been gathered from one acre of ground. The price ranges from $1.50 to $3 per thousand; and at the minimum quotation the profit would be amply sufficient to repay the trouble of their culture. _ COLZA. Description and Use.—But little cultivated, as yet, in the United States, except among the German population of Texas, though of great import- M 178 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. ance to the farmers of France and Belgium. Colza is a variety of the cabbage family, entirely distinct from rape, and two species of it are cultivated in France. One, a biennial, is sown in summer or autumn of one year, and matures its seed the following summer. The other is sown in the spring, and matures the same year. The first species, the Brassica campestris of botanists, is called winter colza; the other, the Brassica arvensis of naturalists, is known as spring colza. It is cultivated for its oily seed, from which the oil is extracted by pressure, and used to burn in lamps, as well as for many other useful purposes. The cake remain- ing after the extraction of the oil, forms an excellent article of food for cattle, and is sometimes used as a manure. Soil.— To insure good crops, the seed should be sown on rich, light soils, well manured, and carefully worked; though very satisfactory returns have been received from light and gravelly soils. It flourishes in soils of a slightly clayey nature, if they are light in texture. Sowing the Seed of winter Colza.— This is done in three ways, viz.: broadcast, in rows, and in beds for subsequent transplantation; but very rarely by the latter mode, except where labor is very cheap and abun- dant. Drill-barrows are used for sowing the seed in rows, which are laid off at a distance of eighteen inches from each other —thus admitting of the use of a cultivator for clearing out the weeds. The period of sowing is generally from the 15th of July to the 15th of August, and about six pounds of seed are used to the acre when sown broadcast, but only about half the quantity when planted in drills; the seeds being dropped about one inch apart in the direction of the rows. Culture.—If planted in rows, the cultivator is run through them in the month of March, to clean out the weeds, and loosen the soil; after which they require no farther attention until harvest. Gathering the Crop. — The winter colza matures about the beginning of July, and, as the seeds are apt to shed, it is necessary to cut the plants before they are fully ripe. This is done when the seed-pods begin to turn yellow and become transparent, at which time the seeds, though still tender, are of a dark brown color, and will ripen in the stack or mow. When over-ripe, the plants are cut only in the morning and -evening, while the dew is on them. If the crop is a heavy one, the colza, imme- diately after being bound in sheaves, is stacked in the field where grown, in cone-shaped stacks, 80 constructed as to exclude rain, where it remains until the grain has fully matured, which is generally in eight or ten days. The fermentation which takes place in the stacks, gives the grain a fine color, and adds to its quality. A small crop is commonly taken at once into the barn, and threshed; but large crops are sometimes trodden out 4 1 PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 179 in the field by the feet of horses, the ground being covered with stout hempen cloth. If the seed is kept in bulk after it is threshed, it should frequently be turned and stirred to prevent it from heating, to which it is subject. As it keeps better when mixed with the chaff, it should only be cleaned when about to be sold or to be pressed. Extracting the Oil.—This is done by putting the seed in bags, and sub- mitting it to the pressure of a powerful press. The refuse, like that of flaxseed, is.called oil-cake. Spring Colza is very productive in new soils, but, like all oily grains sown in the spring, it is a very uncertain crop. It must be sown during the latter part of May, to insure its arrival at maturity in proper season for harvesting. Sown broadcast, or in drills, on the soils of recently- drained marshes, it is one of the most profitable plants that can be raised on them. Occupying the ground but a short time, it requires but little cultivation. RAPE. Description.—The rape (Brassica napus,) a native of Great Britain, is a biennial plant of the turnip family, having a caulescent or woody fusi- form root, unfit to be eaten by animals. Its leaves are smooth, and, when cultivated, it produces an abundance of them, as well as of seeds. The leaves are edible, and, from the seeds, oil of a very superior quality is expressed, which is extensively used in the arts and for machinery, be- cause it does not ptoduce spontaneous combustion like most other oils. It has never found great favor in this country, but now that sperm and other similar oils have become scarce and expensive it might be re- munerative, if the proper attention was paid to its cultivation, and some pains were taken to ascertain what the peculiar nature of its oil more particularly fitted it for. In England it is found to be an excellent article for the fattening of cattle, who are very fond of it. A bushel of the seed will generally yield a gallon of oil, and the cake left after the expression of the oil affords a rich food for cattle. From 50 to 70 bushels is the average per acre. Soil.—The soils best suited to this plant, and on which it flourishes most, are those of a deep, rich, dry, and kindly nature; but it will thrive on almost any soil, provided it is made sufficiently rich. Culture.—Being a hardy plant, it requires less culture and manure than the turnip, and may be grown in situations where the latter cannot be produced with profit. It is cultivated in the same manner as the turnip; the preparation of the land, its formation into drills, the manu- ring, and the sowing of the seed, being the same ; but the mode may be 180 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. varied in accordance with the time of sowing, the nature of the soil, and the locality. Ifthe seed is sown broadcast, as is the practice with many cultivators, four quarts will be required per acre; but if drilled in, one- half that quantity will be sufficient. The drills may be placed as close together as will admit of the use of a cultivator. If designed as food for sheep or cattle during the autumn and winter, the seeds are sown in June; but if intended to produce and ripen seed the following year, August or September will be early enough. The subsequent culture con- sists in hoeing, weeding, thinning out the plants, and keeping the soil in good condition. Gathering the Crop.—The seed ripens in July, and the plant must be harvested with great care to prevent loss from handling, shaking, or carriage, as, when the pods are quite dry, a very slight cause is suffi- cient to make them part with the seed. Fine weather should be selected for harvesting the crop, which it will be advantageous to thresh out at once, either on the field, or in the barn. If on the field, the ground should be covered with large canvass sheets, to prevent the grain from being tramped into the soil. As the seed is liable to heat, it must not be left on the threshing-floor, but be divided into small parcels, and fre- quently turned. In ordinary seasons, on rich soils, the produce will average from forty to seventy bushels to the acre; but much depends on the nature and condition of the land, and on the tillage. Uses.—The oil pressed out of the seed is devoid of smell, when purified, and burns with a brilliant, clear flame. The cake left, after the oil is expressed, furnishes a nourishing and very agreeable food for cattle, which thrive and fatten on it; it forms also a good manure for various crops, particularly root crops, when sown on the drill system. As a green food for cattle, its leaves are unsurpassed by any other vegetable; and the produce, when well manured, is enormously large. Manure makes the stalks so tender and juicy, that. when cut into small pieces, and fed in the green state to cattle, they will consume every particle of it. It is also an excellent preparation for wheat, because, being harvested early, sufficient time is allowed to get the ground in readiness for that grain. SUNFLOWER. Description.—The sunflower (Helianthus annuus), a native of America, is a tall, majestic plant, having a stout, woody stalk, and bearing a flower, four and sometimes five inches in diameter. The flowers are of a bril: liant yellow color, which, together with the popular, but erroneous idea, that they always face the sun, gave origin to the name. Each flower PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 181 will furnish about a gill of seed, which yields a most excellent oil. Its value as an oil-plant has been known at least a century; yet, strangely enough, but little care or systematic attention has been devoted to it. It has filled a vacant place in the flower-bed, or in front of a shrubbery, while its more useful qualities have been entirely overlooked. Soil and Culture.—It will flourish in almost any soil, but for profitable cultivation it requires a good soil, well worked, and thoroughly manured, as well as cleaned. One acre of land will contain 25,000 plants, at a dis- tance of twelve inches from each other. Sow early in the spring, in rows, leaving two feet between the rows. After they have attained the height of three feet, they require but little cultivation, beyond keeping the ground free from weeds. The produce will be according to the nature of the soil and mode of cultivation; but the average has been found to range between fifty and seventy bushels to the acre, which will yield the same number of gallons of oil. Uses. — The oil is excellent for table use, being equal to olive-oil, for burning in lamps, and for the manufacture of soaps. The cake, left after all the oil has been expressed from the seed, furnishes a good article of food for swine and poultry. On the continent of Europe the stalks are used for pea-sticks, fuel, ete. and the leaves for fodder. Ten per cent. of potassa may be obtained from the stalks when burned; and the green leaves, dried and powdered, make excellent fodder for milch-cows, when mixed with bran. Poultry are very fond of the seeds. THE CASTOR-OIL PLANT. Description. —The Palma-Christi (Ricinus Communis), or Castor-Oil Plant; grows in various parts of the world, but is indigenous to the West Indies. As grown in the United States, it is an annual, herbaceous plant; yet within the tropics, and in the adjacent warm climates, it 16 182 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. becomes quite a large tree, lasting for several years, having a woody trunk, of the size of a man’s body, and growing to the height of fifteen or twenty feet. In the colder climates the stem rises to the height of from three to six feet, is round, in color greenish or reddish brown and blue, and branched. The leaves, which are- mounted on long, round petioles, are peltato-palmate, and eight or ten-lobed ; the lobes lanceolate and serrated. The capsules are supported on stalks which are somewhat larger than the capsules themselves. They are covered with spines, and are three-celled, each cell containing an oblong, spotted, brownish seed, from which a powerfully-purgative oil is extracted. This property, how- ever, is dissipated under the effects of a high heat. Varieties. — There are five varieties enumerated, distinguished princi- pally by the color and pruinose condition of the stem — Ricinus Africa- nus, I. macrophyllus, R. leucocarpus, R. lividus, and R. viridis. Soil. — The plant thrives best on a light, sandy loam, although it may be cultivated with success in almost any soil tolerably fertile, or in any climate and situation where Indian corn will thrive. Culture. — In the cooler parts of the Union it may be planted in hills, distant two feet by three, as early ia spring as the warmth of the ground and season will admit. ‘Two seeds should be planted in each place. In the South, where the season is longer, and the plant assumes the cha- racter of a tree, the hills should be six or seven feet apart in one direc- tion, and four feet in the other. One seed is sufficient for each hill, covered to the depth of two inches. The only after-culture necessary is to keep the ground well hilled up to the plants, and to eradicate the weeds whenever they make their appearance. As the seeds ripen, the capsules become dry and elastic, and have a tendency to fly off from the plant on the least touch, causing thereby a great loss of seed. To pre- vent this, while harvesting the crop, the branches should be separated from the plants as soon as the capsules begin to explode, and spread on the floor of a close room. After the beans and shells have separated, the husks may be winnowed in a winnowing machine. Procuring the Oil.—This is done by two methods — expression and de- coction. 1. Hxpression.—The seeds are first slightly heated, and subse- \quently subjected to powerful pressure under a hydraulic press, when a thick, whitish oil exudes, which is boiled for some time in a large quan- tity of water, until it dissolves out the mucilage, and coagulates the albu- men. The clean oil is then removed, and boiled with a very small quan- tity of water, to drive off the acrid principle. 2. Decoction.—The seeds are bruised first, and then boiled in water until the oil rises to the sur- face, when it is skimmed off, and again boiled, to remove the acrid PLANTS YIELDING DYES, OILS, ETC. 183 principle. This oil is usually of a darker color than the first. The man- ufacture of the oil is an extensive branch of business in several parts of the Union. Uses.—The oil expressed from the seeds is used as a medicine, and is also prepared for illuminating purposes, for the lubrication of machinery, and for the manufacture of soaps. The cake left after the expression of the oil is very advantageously applied to land, as a manure for wheat and other crops. CHAPTER IV. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. r VEGETABLES : — ARTICHOKE— ASPARAGUS — BORAGE — BEAN — BEET — BORECOLE — BROCCOLI — CABBAGE — CARDOON — CARROT — CAULIFLOWER — CELERY — CHIVE — CORN — CORN-SALAD — CRESS —- CUCUMBER — DANDELION —EGG-PLANT — ENDIVE — GARLIC — HOP — HORSE-RADISH — LEEK — LETTUCE — MOREL — MUSHROOM — MUSTARD — ONION -— OKRA — PARSNIP — PEA — PEPPER — PUMP- KIN — RADISH — RAPE — RHUBARB — SALSIFY — SCORZONERA — SEA-KALE — SHALLOT — SKIRRET — SPINACH — SQUASH — TOMATO —TURNIP. HERBS, &C.° — ANISE — BALM — BASIL — CARAWAY — CAMOMILE — CORIANDER — CHERVIL — DILL — FENNEL — FOXGLOVE — HOREHOUND —— HYSSOP — LAVENDER — LIQUORICE — MARJORAM — MINT — PARSLEY — PENNY-ROYAL — PEPPERMINT — PURSLANE — ROSEMARY —RUE — SAFFRON—SAGE — SAVORY — TANSY — THYME, —WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. I. VEGETABLES. ArticHoxe. — There are only two or three varieties of this plant culti- vated, the Globe and the Green. The heads, in their immature state, and before their blue, thistle-like flowers open, are cut and boiled in salt and water, the edible part being the fleshy substance on the bottom of the scales, — which, to be relishable, has to be dipped in a nicely-prepared sauce of butter and spices, though it is frequently eaten as a salad in a raw state. Culture, gc. — The artichoke is propagated from seed or from offsets. If by the former, sow the seed in rows a foot apart, as soon as the frost is out of the ground. Thin the plants to a foot apart, in the row; and, in the fall of the year, put out the plants in clumps of four, in rows three feet * apart, and the rows six feet asunder. They will produce their fruit the next year. When winter approaches, earth the roots up well, and before the frost sets in, cover all well over with litter. Open it at the breaking up of the frost, dig all the ground well between the rows, and level the earth down from the plants. The young ones, or offsets, which grow out from the sides, must be pulled off; and, if a new plantation is wanted, they may be set out, and will bear late the same year. Articuoxe (JerusaLeM).— This is a smal] sunflower, with nutritious tubers, less in size than potatoes. (184) THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 185 Culture, §c. — It is usually propagated by sets from the roots, in April, and grows in any soil which is moist, sandy, and light. It is cultivated like the potato. When raised for its tuber, it is liable to become troublesome, from tne germinating power of even the smallest piece left in the soil. It keeps in the ground all winter, or may be preserved under sand. In the Middle States it thrives well. It yields from 150 to 200 bushels of roots, which are eagerly devoured by swine, and, when steamed or boiled, are quite palatable. Asparacus. — There are two principal varieties, the purple-topped and ‘he green-topped, the first-named being generally preferred. Culture, §c.—In the making of asparagus-beds, a proper soil is the first thing needed — one not too wet, nor too strong, nor stubborn, but mod- erately light and pliable, and well manured. The situation should be one exposed to the sun, ranging east and west. The seed may be sown from the middle of February to the middle of April, — usually about the last of March. Plant five or six inches apart, one inch in depth, putting two seeds in each hole, or sow in drills made the same distance asunder. When the weather is dry, water the beds moderately ; also destroy all weeds. Tow- ards the end of October, as soon as the stems are wholly withered, cut them down, and spread them over the ground mixed with dung. The next spring, every other plant must be transplanted into a bed, twelve inches apart, if it is intended that they should attain another, or two years’ further growth, before being finally planted out; or, they may be planted immedi ately in the beds for production. Many gardeners judiciously sow the seed in beds where they are to remain for production. The best time for the final removal is the end of March, if the soil be dry and the season forward. The beds for regular production should be three feet wide ; the usual prac- tice is to trench the ground two spades deep, and then cover deep with well- rotted manure. Growing asparagus in single rows three feet apart, giving no dung in winter, merely clearing off the stalks and weeds in the fall, and pointing over the surface about two inches deep with a fork, leaving it rough as possible, is a mode highly commended. In the spring, when the surface is quite dry, it is raked down, and about two inches of soil drawn over the crowns from each side of the rows. When the gathering is nearly over, the ground is stirred again, to loosen the tramping made in gathering the crop. The hollow between the little ridges is then filled up with a powerful compos‘, and the whole is then drenched with liquid manure. This is summer cultivation. In May, or early in June, the beds are in full production of young shoots, which, when from two to five inches high, are fit for cutting, and as long as the head continues compact and firm. Cut carefully. The seed is usually 16 * 186 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. ripe in September ; collect it; and, when the pulp and husk decay, clean the seed with water, and then dry it. Forcing. — In forcing asparagus, such plants may be inserted in hot-beds as are five or six years old, and are of sufficient strength to produce vigor- ous shoots. ‘To plant old shoots for the main forcing crop is, however, erroneous. The first plantation should be made about the first of October, and, if it works well, will begin to produce in the course of four or five weeks, and continue to do so for about three. The hot-bed may be made in the usual way, and topped with six inches of light rich earth, and kept at about 60° in the day time, and never below 50° at night. In planting, a furrow is drawn the whole length of the frame; against one side of it the first row or course is to be placed, the crown upright, and a little earth drawn on to the lower end of the roots; all round on the edge of the bed, some moist earth must be banked close to the outside roots. The foliage of this vegetable is liable to be destroyed by the larve of two beetles, and the only remedy is to pick off and destroy the affected parts. Borace.—Its fresh leaves are boiled fora dinner dish, or are used in salads. It is aromatic, and therefore sometimes used to flavor wine. Culture, §c.—A very fertile soil is not necessary; a light and dry one is best suited. It is propagated by seed, sown in March or April, in shallow drills, half a foot apart. Transplanting is but little advantageous or necessary. Brean. — The best varieties are the Karly Dwarf, Early Mazagan, and the Early Long-pod, the Broad Windsor, and the Dutch Long-pod. The first is early, the second is later, the third is very prolific, the fourth is large and well-flavored, and the fifth best suited for a late crop. The bean comes up in a week, ten days or a fortnight. Culture, Gc. —'The times of sowing, and the situation, for the earliest crops, are the same as for the pea. ‘The seeds may be deposited in drills, an inch and a half or two inches deep, covered and pressed down. It is some- times customary to plant beans in the same rows with cabbages, and also with potatoes; a bean being planted alternately with every potato-set, or cabbage-plant. All the routine culture consists in destroying the weeds, slightly earthing up the stems, stirring the soil, and watering in very dry weather. A very late crop may be obtained by cutting over a summer crop, a few inches above the ground, as soon as the plants have come into flower. New stems will spring from the shoots in abundance, and continue bearing till frost. The Kidney Bean includes the common dwarf (our bush bean), growing twelve or eighteen inches high, and the runner growing ten or twelva feet. For the dwarf sorts, the first sowing may be made in the beginning THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 187 of April, the second about the middle of the month, and after that till ‘along towards August. The rows may be two feet asunder, and the beans depos- ited in drills from two to three inches apart, and covered to the depth of one to one and a half inches. ‘The routine culture consists in watering in dry weather, where that operation is practicable, and using liine-water, tf, which is often the case, the plants are attacked by snails or slugs. The ¢wining sorts, being rather more tender than the dwarfs, are not sown until later in the season. If the soil is in good condition, and ths culture thorough, one sowing in May will produce plants which will con- - tinue bearing, from the middle of June, till the plants are destroyed by the frosts; but the green pods should be gathered before the seeds formed in them begin to swell. The rows should be in the direction of north and south, shculd be at least four feet apart, and the beans should be placed in shallow drills, three inches asunder, and covered about two inches with soil. Where the plants come above ground, they may be slightly earthed up, and, in another week, when they begin to form runners, they should be sticked with branches or rods, of six or eight feet in length. In many cases, the scarlet runner may be planted where it will not only produce excellent crops, but afford shelter or shade to a walk, a grassplat or a cucumber-bed. Where sticks or rods are scarce, wires, or even twine, may be substituted, and in this way the scarlet runner may be trained against wooden walls, pales, or other fences, or made to cover walls. The following (Fig. 98) Fig. 98. is a good mode of arranging thread or cord for the support of scarlet run- ners. ‘Take half-inch and two-inch wide laths or rods, join them at the top so as to leave the ends a few inches beyond the junction, and stick the 188 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. lower ends into the ground, just within the lines of the plants. Connect these triangles by similar rods at the bottom, about three inches above the soil. ‘Take a cord, fix it firmly to the lower bar, carry it over the upper bar, which is placed in the cross formed by the long ends left, as seen in the figure. Make a loop a yard long, carry the cord again over the plank (that is around it), and fix the other end to the lower rod on the other side. In like manner, go on through the whole length, making the loops all of the same length, and through these suspend a long stick or bar (the section of which is shown at the right hand), and to this bar hang bags of sand, as many as may be wanted. ‘T'rain the plants up the strings, and when they are well grown, the whole will be covered ; and when in flower, the appear- ance will be very fine. By this method, the cords, being fixed at the lower bars, will not pull the plants out of the earth, the tension and contraction of the cords being counteracted by the bar suspended in the loops, which is raised or lowered by every change of atmospheric moisture. Very abundant crops, however, may be obtained without any resort to staking, by merely stopping the plants after they begin to form pods. For general cultivation, the Early Mohawk, Early Sia-Weeks, Eazly Valentine, Yellow Six-Weeks, Late Valentine, and the Lima, are highly thought of, and very extensively grown in this country. Beer. — Among the more common and useful varieties of this vegetable are the French Sugar, or Amber, Mangel-Wurtzel, Green, Yellow Turnip- rooted, Early Blood Turnip-rooted, Early Dwarf Blood, Early White Scar- city, Long Blood Red. Culture, §c.— Sow beets from the early part of May until June, in drills about three inches apart, thinned to ten or twelve inches in the row. For early use, a small bed of the early turnip-rooted may be sown as soon in the spring as the ground can be fitted for the seed, and these will give good roots in June or July. For fall or winter use, or for general crops, beets should not be sown too early, for such, if suffered to stand, become stringy and fibrous, and not unfrequently shoot up to seed. A rich, deep soil, is best for the beet, and for all top-rooted plants ; and they should, after thinning, be kept free from weeds. They should be gathered before severe frosts occur, and may be pitted or put in cellars for winter use. The thinning of beets must be done while they are young, and the young plants are excellent for greens. Within a few years the culture of the sugar-beet has received much atten- tion in this country, not only for the purpose of sugar-making, but on ae- count of its being one of the most valuable roots grown for the feeding of animals during the fali, winter, or spring months. The ground should be prepared by deep ploughing or harrowing, unti) it THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 189 is fine. Open two furrows with the plough two feet apart, and put in a suf- ficient quantity of manure, according to the state of the ground ; cover the dung with the plough by throwing a furrow of earth upon it, ridging as high as can be well done; level the surface of the ridge over the dung, tak- ing care that there is a full proportion of earth over the manure for the seed to vegetate in. Sow with a drill or by the hand, and complete the process by rolling. To Keep Beets. — To preserve beets during the winter, put them in a dry cellar, with dry sand between them, taking care to expose them a day pre- vious to the air, to carry off the moisture. In quantities, they may be pre- served out-of-doors as follows: Take them up three weeks before the hard frost comes, cut off their leaves, let them lie two or three days upon straw or boards ; then lay a little straw upon the ground, and, in a fine, dry day, place ten bushels of beets — those that are good — upon it, in aconical form. Put a little straw smoothly over the heap; then cover the whole with six or eight inches of earth, and place a green turf on the top, to prevent the earth from being washed by rain from the point, before the frost sets in. The whole heap will freeze during the winter, but the frost will not injure the beets. Borecote. — The main varieties are Green Scotch Kale, German Curled, Purple, Jerusalem, and Thousand-headed Cabbage. The last two grow to four feet, and yield large numbers of sprouts. Culture, §c. — Sow the seed in May; plants are set out in July. They are better when touched slightly by the frost, and may be kept in the same manner as cabbages, during winter. ‘The stocks, in spring, send out numer- ous tender shoots; and one ounce of seed will produce nearly four thousand plants. Broccott.— This vegetable is similar to the cauliflower in growth, appearance, and flavor, but it is cultivated more easily, and is more certain to head. Culture, §c.— The Early White and the White Cape are considered buperior, but the Purple Cape is the kind most cultivated. The seeds of the last are sown towards the end of May, in the Middle States, and later for winter supplies. In July, or when the plants are large enough, transplant into very rich, dunged, and mellow earth; plant eighteen to twenty-four inches apart each way, moisten the earth frequently with liquid manure, and hoe and keep clean during their growth. If attacked by the ‘* Black Fly,”’ a solution of brown or soft soap is good to destroy them. Caspace. — This is one of the most ancient and useful of all the cultivated vegetables. Culture, §ce.— The best soil is a strong, rich, substantial one, more La 190 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. clayey than sandy, though it will grow in any soil, if it be well worked and manured. They are grown either from hot-bed plants, or from seed in tha open ground. If the seed of the earlier sorts has been sown in a hot-bed, they will be ready for removal when two or three inches high. In this case, as soon as the season will permit, prepare a bed, by digging out the ground a foot deep, four feet wide, and to as great a length as the extent of your operations will require. Fill this up with dung, cover with earth to the depth of four inches, and set your plants upon it in rows four inches apart, and two inches apart in the row. Water them lightly, and, if conve- nient, shade them for a day or two, and shelter them at night. In the open ground, put your seed rows at six inches distance, and put the seeds thin in the row; when up, thin them to three inches in the row, and when two or three‘inches high, in order to perfect them, they may be taken from the seed-bed, and put into fresh-dug, well-broken ground, at six inches apart, every way. ‘This is called pricking out. Where their distances will allow, it is better to dig between the cabbages unce or twice during their growth; and all the larger sorts should, about the time that their heads are beginning to form, be earthed up. Varieties. —'The varieties of cabbage are numerous. The earliest is the Early Dwarf, then the Early Sea Green, then the Early York. The Sugar Loaf, a sweet and rich variety, comes in in July and August. For winter use, the Dwarf Green Savoy is much esteemed. For Drum Heads or other large kinds, sow and transplant same as the Savoy. The Red Cabbage is treated in the same manner as the Green Savoy. To keep Cabbages.—'To preserve cabbages through the winter, lay out a “piece of ground four feet wide, and as long as the quantity to be preserved may require ; dig on each side of it a small trench, a foot deep, and throw up the earth on the four-feet bed, the top of which should be made level and smooth. Lay some poles or rails at a foot apart lengthwise upon the bed, then put some smaller poles, or stout sticks, across, onthe rails or poles, putting these last at five or six inches apart. Upon these lay corn-stalks, or twigs, or brush, not very thickly, but enough so to cover all over. Then, just as the frost is about to set in, take up the cabbages, knock off the dirt from their roots, take off all dead or yellow leaves, and also some of the out- side ones, put the cabbage-head downwards upon the bed, with the roots sticking up, and cover them nearly up to the root with straw. Do not pack them so that they will touch each other much; and secure the straw from the operation of the wind. Out of this stack the cabbages may be taken green and good in the spring, when the frost breaks up, and from this stack a supply may be obtained through the whole winter. Diseases. — The diseases of the -abbage consist of clubbing of the roots THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 191 which arises from worms, and is produced by growing them too long in one locality ; dice, which are destroyed by infusion of tobacco, lime-dust, and salt ; and cut-worms and slugs, which should be caught and destroyed before sunrise, — or soot, tobacco, lime, &c., should be worked in about the roots with a trowel. Carpoon. — This is a species of artichoke, comprising some half a dozen principal varieties. Culture, ¢c.— The stalks of the leaves being thick, fleshy, and crisp, are blanched, and used for salads, soups, and for stewing. Sow about the last of April, in deep, light, moderately rich soil, in trenches about six inches deep, twelve wide, and four feet apart, from centre to centre. Drop three or four seeds together, at intervals of eighteen inches, and when they come up, thin them out to single plants. Water frequently in summer, and in a dry day, about the end of October, commence the operation of blanching, by tying up the leaves with twisted hay-bands, after which earth may or may not be heaped around them, in the manner of earthing celery, according as they are to be used early or during winter. Carrot. — There are several varieties of carrot, among which may be enumerated the Early Orange, Early Horn, and Altringham, for the table ; and the Long, Lemon-colored, Blood-red, and Large White, for larger crops. Other varieties are also highly thought of. Culture, $c.—The general culture is the same as that of the beet, requiring a deep soil, well manured and worked. The main crops should not be sown earlier than the middle of May, —though some may be sown a month earlier, —as early carrots, like early beets, are apt to throw up seed stalks, which render the vegetable worthless. For extensive culture, the earth may be thrown into ridges two and a half feet apart, manure spread in the furrows, and the ridges split and thrown back upon the manure, and the seed sown on the top of the ridges, after partial leveling. A light rolling is useful, to press the earth dbout the seed. The carrot will vegetate sooner, and come forward more rapidly, if the seed, previously to sowing, is mixed with sand or sandy loam, and kept moist until it begins to germinate, when it must be sown and at once covered. The plants should be about four or five inches apart in the rows, kept clear, and will be fit to gather late in the fall. They may be preserved by being buried in sand, or in a cellar, but must be kept secure against frost. CavutirLowrr. — This is an improved variety of the cabbage, the flowers constituting a compact and delicious mass. The varieties cultivated in this country are the Karly White, Late White, and Purple. Culture, §c.— For spring eating, sow about the middle of September. Prepare the ground by opening small trenches, and dig in some earth in good FARMER S HAND-BOOK. compost, to receive the plants. When of a proper size, the plants should be pricked out in a careful manner, and for them the warmest part of the garden should be selected. Being very tender, they should always be put under glass in severe weather. They should not, however, be covered until the weather is severe, and in the mean while the hoe should be trequently used between them, in order to keep the earth dry about their stems. Too much covering weakens them. From their beds they may be planted out in rows, like cabbages, only at rather greater distance, and taking care to move a little earth along with them, about the middle of spring. Crtery.— Of this vegetable there are the White, the Red, the Hollow, and the Sold, the latter being considered the best. Culture, §-c.— Sow about the middle of April, in a rich, moist soil; if not rich, make it so by mixing in fresh vegetable mould, or short, well-rotted manure. Dig deep, and rake it fine and smooth. ‘The seed should be sown liberally all over the surface, and beat the bed evenly and firmly with a clean spade ; then sift on a covering of a quarter of an inch of earth, and it will vegetate as soon as cahbage-seed. In the operations of after-culture, when either the plants left in the seed- bed, or those removed, are from six to twelve inches high, or when the latter have acquired a stocky growth, by four or five weeks’ nurture in the intermediate bed, transplant them into trenches for blanching. For this purpose, allot an open compartment. Mark out the trenches a foot wide, and from three to three and a half distant, and dig out the trenches a foot wide, lengthwise, and six or eight inches deep. Lay the earth dug out equally on each side of the trench, put about three inches of rotten dung into the trench, then pare the sides, and dig the dung and parings with an inch or two of the loose mould at the bottom. : Trim the tops and roots of the plants, and then set them in single rows along the middle of each trench, allowing four or five inches distance from plant to plant. Give the plants water, from time to time, and let them be shaded till they strike root and begin to grow. When eight or ten inches high, draw the earth up to them, in dry weather, taking care not to bury the hearts; repeat the earthing once in ten days, till the plants are fit for use. Cuive.— This is used as an excellent substitute for young onions in spring salading. A single row, a few yards long, will supply a family. Culture, g-c.—A light, moderately rich soil, is preferable. Plant in May or June, in rows eight or nine inches apart, and four or five in a row Plant off-sets from the bulbs, keep free from weeds, and in autumn they will appear in large bunches, which may be dug and stored for winter. Corn. — This useful plant has been fully treated in the preceding chapter, THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 193 as one of the heavy or field crops. There are, however, two or three varieties used expressly for the table, which may be appropriately noticed in this place. These varieties are Adams’ Early, Sweet or Sugar, and Early White Flint. Culture, §c.— Sow in hills about three and a half feet asunder, from about the last of April. to the first of July. The land should be rich, and each hill manured, and only two or three stalks in a hill; the. side-shoots or suckers should be removed, and the land should be well dug and hoed. Corn Satap.—This is also called Lambs’ Lettuce, and is raised for winter and spring salads, for which purpose it has long been known. Culture, §c.— It will flourish in any soil not very heavy, and is propa- gated by seed sown in the spring, in drills six inches apart, or broadcast and raked in. Should always be eaten when young. Cress. — There is the Garden Cress, or Pepper Grass, the Indian Cress, and the Water Cress. The first is well known. Culture, §-c. — Garden Cress requires a moist soil, and, if possible, a cool situation. The Indian Cress must be sown in April, in a good strong soil, in rows three inches apart, with sticks upon which the plants may climb. The fruit is full-sized in August, when it is taken green and pickled in| vinegar. ‘The Water Cress is a creeping, amphibious plant, cultivated along streams, in rows, about eighteen inches apart. It is prolific, hardy, may be often cut, and is of an agreeable flavor. . Cucumser.— The most noticeable sorts are the Early Short White Prickly, Long Early Frame, Manchester Prize, Kerrison’s Long White Spine, and the Long Prickly. The growth of the first-named is four to six inches, sea-green color, forces well; the second-named grows from six to ten inches, is a good bearer and fine variety ; the third grows sometimes to a prodigious length, dark-green color, and superior as respects quality and productiveness ; the fourth is similar to the third-named ; the fifth grows about ten inches, and is a great bearer. Culture, §c.—For open air raising, cucumbers should be planted in hills about four feet apart, early in May ; those intended for pickling may be planted later. Before planting, prepare the ground by mixing well- rotted manure with the earth of each hill. Two or three plants are enough toa hill. The seed should be sown about half an inch deep ; the plants must be kept free from weeds, and in very dry weather they should be watered. Some allow the plants to take their own course; others shorten the stem by pinching off the buds; while others bury the runners at short distances, and thus obtain new roots from the buried joints. To have cucumbers earlier than by the ordinary way, make a hole under a warm fence, and put some hot dung in it. On this put six inches of 17 N 194 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. fine, rich earth, and sow some seeds in it. Cover at night with a carpet, mat, or other article. When the plants come up, and before they show the rough leaf, plant two in a flower-pot, or small tub, or pail ; or let the seeds be originally planted in such as these, or, what perhaps is better, in some large turnips, scooped out and filled with earth for the purpose. The first pots may be put into a bed prepared for them, and covered as before, where they are to stand until cucumbers sown in the natural ground come up, when they may be turned out with the ball of earth and planted. Or, if planted in turnips, put the whole into the ground, and then treat the plants as if originally sown in the open ground. In this way the fruit may be had much earlier than usual. Forcing.—To force cucumbers, begin ten weeks before the fruit is needed. ‘The Short Prickly, Long Green, and White Spines, are preferred for this purpose. The seeds should be twe or three years old, and should be sown in pots placed over a warm bed. Apply tepid water, and take care that no cold air enters the frame. When the second leaves are expanded, transplant into larger pots; place three together. When one month old, carry to the fruiting-bed. ‘The latter is made on a dry spot, with fresh dung, well turned and forked, and four feet high. As soon as the bed is settled, and in regular fermentation, add six inches of fine mould, and if it remains mellow, it will answer; but if fire-fanged, or caked, more will be necessary. ‘The mould should be hilled to within eight inches of the glass frame, and set three plants from the pots in it, transplanting with the ball] of earth; these are enough for one frame. Use warm water to them, and darken until they are well rooted. The temperature should be from seventy to eighty degrees, — the steam being allowed to escape as it rises. As the heat lessens, add fresh dung outside, cutting away the old. Form a bank, two feet wide and one foot high, against the back of the frame. Give the plants air and water in the morning. As the roots enlarge, add fresh, good mould. Enemies. — The striped bug eats the young foliage; the flea-beetle, a small, black insect, destroys the small plants, as also does the squash-bug, a large insect, with brown upper wings and orange belly ; the black worm cuts down the young plants, and can only be caught in the morning, as it retires into the earth during the heat of the day. Several species of aphis annoy the plants. The large insects must be caught in nets or with the hand; soot, tobacco-water, solution of whale-oil soap, infusion of worin- wood, Mayweed, pennyroyal, and slacked lime, are all used with advantage. Some allow hens to run among the vines. Danvetion. — This is a hardy plant, growing spontaneously in this and other countries, and much used as a wholesome table-green. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 195 Culture, §-c.—It may be propagated either by seeds or roots, in 4 moderately well-prepared soil. The flowers may be cut off as fast as they appear, to prevent the dispersion of the seed and weakening the plant. Ecce Puanr.— There are two varieties of this plant, the white-fruited arid the purple, the latter kind being preferable. Culture, §c.— It may be raised by sowing the seed on a slight het-bed, the beginning of April, or in March; and towards the latter part of May they should be planted in a rich, warm piece of ground, at the distance of two and a half feet asunder, every way, for the purple, or two feet for the white kind: and if kept clean, and a little earth be drawn up to their stems, when about a foot high, they will produce plenty of fruit. Or, the seed may be sown about the end of April, on a warm border, and planted out finally the beginning of June. Enpive. — This is a salad plant, of which there are two sorts, the Curled and the Plain, the last being the best for use. It is the same as Chicory. Culture, §-c.— The soil most favorable to the endive is a light, fresh, moist loam. It is sown in drills a foot apart; when the plants come up, they must be thinned to a foot apart in the row. Hoe the ground fre- quently, and keep it clean between the plants. Before using as a salad, it must be bleached, by carefully gathering the leaves with the hands into a conical form, and tying them with matting or soft string. This must be done in dry weather, when the plants are of good size, and they will be fit for use after they have remained in the tied state about a fortnight, and will keep till spring. The time of sowing for the spring is as soon as the weather will permit; for the winter, about the last of July or first of August. Gartic. — This vegetable has been in use for a long time. It has a very pungent odor. The varieties cultivated are the /arge and the small. Culture, §-c. —It is grown by planting the small bulbs, or root, in drills two inches deep, six inches apart, and four inches from plant to plant, early in the spring, on light, rich ground. It should be well hoed. The bulbs attain their full size about the first of August, when the leaves wilt. Hop. — Perhaps our account of this plant should have been included in the preceding chapter. Under all the circumstances, however, we con- cluded to give it its present place, believing such an arrangement the best one, on the whole. The hop is a perennial-rooted plant, with an annual twining stem. The female blossom is the part used, and the female plant is the only one cul- tivated. The male (a) plant and the female (4) are both represented in Fig. 99. Culture, d-c. — The soils most favorable are clays, and strong, deep loains, 196 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. with a dry and friable subsoil. In preparing it, the weeds should be wholly destroyed, and the ground well pulverized. The ridges should also be made level, and dung liberally applied. The most effectual preparation is trench- ing, either by the plough or by manual labor. The mode of planting is generally in rows, making the hills’ six feet distant from each other, this distance giving a free circulation of air, and admitting the sun’s rays unob- structed. The planting season is in February or March ; but if bedded plants, or such as have been nursed for one summer in a garden, are used, then, by planting in autumn, some produce may be had in the succeeding year. When root sets are used, as on the occasion of grubbing up an old plantation, October is the right time. The plants or cuttings are procured from the old stools, and each should have two joints or eyes; from the one which is placed in the ground springs the root, and from the other the stock or bind. ‘They should be made from the most healthy and strong binds, each being cut to the length of five or six inches. Those to be nursed are planted in rows a foot apart, and six inches asunder, in a garden, and the others at once where they are to remain. After-culture. — The after-culture of hops, besides the usual processes of hoeing, weeding, stirring, and manuring, includes earthing up, staking, and winter dressing. Hoeing may be performed with a horse implement ; stirring, though usually done with a three-pronged fork, may be done with a plough ; manuring is either with well-rotted stable dung, or compost, either in spring or fall. Some spread the manure between the rows, others lay it on the hills. It would seem, however, that the best time was the spring, and then it should be turned under by the plough. arthing up is performed the first May after planting, whether that operation be performed THE KITCHEN GARDEN. — 197 in spring or autumn. In dressing the hop plants, the operations of the first year are confined to twisting and removing the haulm, to which some add earthing up in autumn. The yearly operation of staking or setting the poles commences towards the end of April, or at whatever period, earlier or later, the shoots may have risen two or three inches. ‘Two or three stakes are usually put to a hill. Tying the shoots or vines to the poles is the last operation in the after or summer culture. Taking the Crop.— Taking the crop is a most important operation. ‘The time for picking varies ; light soils and dry situations are earliest ; even in a yard of a few acres, situated on a side-hill, the highest ground is often ready for picking some days before the lower ; and sometimes, from the poverty of the land, the middle, or, it may be, the lower part, is ripe first. In commencing picking, too much care cannot be taken in gathering those first that are ripe, and not picking those that are largest, as is often the case. The time of picking may be known by their change of color, from a deep- green to a light-yellow tinge. If they have seeds, the hop ought to be gathered as soon as the seed turns brown ; but the certain indication of picking-time, to those who are familiar with the plant, is when the /upuln, or small globules of the bright yellow resin, are completely formed in the head of the hop, at the bottom of the leaves, and the leaves are readily rubbed from the stem. The lupulin, or flowers of the hop, as it is commonly called, is the only valuable part, and if gathered too early, before it becomes perfect turpentine, it soon dissipates and loses its fine aromatic flavor, and all its medicinal qualities. Hence, gathering hops too soon is a total loss, and instead of imparting a palatable, pleasant flavor, and giving its fine tonic balsam to ale, they are unquestionably an injury, and ought not to be. used ; and if gathered too late, the lupulin drops out, and the hop is of no value ; but the experienced cultivator takes the medium, — commences when the hop is first ripe, has everything prepared—his hands, kilns, baskets, bagging, &c. Five or six days ought to finish the process of picking and euring, if his yards ripen about the same time. The hop should be picked clean, without leaves or stems, and, if possible, without dew on them ; nor pressed too close, nor put in too large quantities, before going on the kiln, or they will heat. Drying. — With regard to drying, no rule can be given for the thickness they ought to be spread on the kiln, or even for the length of time necessary to dry them. A skilful operator is the only safety in this process. Care ought to be taken that the kiln draws well, as much depends on its draft; the steam should not be allowed to fall back on the hops, and must pass off freely. Preparatory to putting the hops on the kiln, it must have a fire put in, made perfectly dry, and fumigated by burning brimstone, to take away Wess 198 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. all the bad smell ; and when perfectly sweet, a layer of hops put on, say eight or ten inches deep, and this may be increased or lessened as the oper- ator finds the draft. The time used in drying will also depend on the quantity of hops on the kiln, and on the draft, — say from eight to sixteen nours ; but they must not be removed from the kiln until the core or stem is crisp and well dried ; they must then be put upon a floor, and occasionally turned, until the leaf becomes tough, when they are ready for bagging. The fuel used for drying must be of the sweetest kind, and perfectly charred ; and the best is beech, birch, hickory, or maple. Pine may not be used under any circumstances, nor any brimstone, only as before directed. When the fire is once put into a kiln of hops, 1t must never be permitted to slacken or go out, until they are dried. The fire should never be so hot as to burn, or leave the least taint of fire on them. Assorting. — Hops should be carefully divided into three equal parts or parcels, — the first, second, and last pickings. If six days are consumed in picking, let the hops of the first two days, the third and fourth days, and the last two days, be kept separate, bagged and marked ; each parcel will, by this method, be more valuable to the brewers, and enhance the price of those that should thus be brought to market, if skilfully picked and cured. The scorching or burning the hops on the kiln is a serious injury, and should be carefully guarded against during the process of drying. Horse-rapisH. — This plant is cultivated for its roots principally. Culture, §-c. — It thrives on any soil tolerably good, but prefers a deep, mouldy, rich and moist soil. If marure be necessary, vegetable substances are the best for that purpose. It is propagated from seed and sets, the latter obtained by cutting the main root and offsets into lengths of two inches ; the tops or crowns of the roots form the best, those taken from the centre never becoming so soon fit for use, or of so fine a growth. Each set should have at least two eyes, for without one they refuse to vegetate. The vest time for planting is in October, for dry soils, and in February, for moist ones. ‘The sets must be inserted in rows eighteen inches apart each way. The ground should be trenched between two and three feet deep, the cut- tings being placed along the bottom of the trench, and the mould turned from the next one over them, or inserted to a similar depth. The shoots make their appearance in May or June. The only culture required is to noe and rake the ground, and destroy the weeds. In taking up the roots, it should be done regularly, instead of a root here and there, as is often practised. Leex.— This is a vegetable which, for certain purposes, is used asa ll OE | I a) TIN rs THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 199 substitute for the onion. The variety most esteemed is the London Tall or Musselburg Flag. Culture, gc. — The culture of the leek is similar to that of the onion, only it requires more water. Put the rows eight inches asunder, and thin the plants to three inches apart in the row. Hoe frequently between the plants until the middle of July, then take them up, and cut their roots off to an inch long. Make trenches for them like those of celery, only not more than half as deep, and half as wide apart. Manure the trenches with rotten dung, or other rich manure. Put in the plants as you do celery plants, and about five inches asunder. As they grow, earth them up by degrees, as you do celery ; and at last you will have leeks eighteen inches long, under ground, and as thick as your wrist. Three leeks planted out for seed will ripen in August, and be enough for the next year. Lerruce.— This is a hardy annual plant, comprising many varieties, of which the following are among the best: Brown Dutch, Large Indian, White Silesia, Green Hammersmith, Early Cabbage or White Butter, Royal Cape, Grand Admiral, Magnum Bonum Cos, Brighton Cos, Ice Cos, White Cos, and Green Cos. The cabbage lettuces are round-leaved, growing in a compact, full head, of squat form, close to the ground. All the Cos lettuces, in their general growth, are more or less upright, of an oblong shape. Both kinds have white, close, firm heads, when in perfection ; the varieties reach maturity from June till September. Culture, §c.— All sorts grow freely on any rich, mellow soil, where the subsoil is dry. Raise it on beds set apart for it, keeping the varieties sep- arate; but, to multiply the supplies throughout summer, portions may be sown, thinly intermixed with principal crops of leeks, onions, carrots, and spinach, which will come off before the lettuces are fully grown. Sow from February to July, for the main summer or autumn crops. For an early crop, sow in the beginning of February, on a gentle hot-bed; and when the plants are one or two inches high, in March or April, prick a portion either into a warm border, or else let them be shielded with mats, during nights and bad weather, transplanting to a slender hot-bed, to bring them more forward. According to their progress in April or May, trans- plant them into the open garden, from six to twelve inches asunder, to remain for heading. Moret. —This is a species of mushroom much esteemed in Europe. Culture, §c.—It is seldom that morel undergoes a regular process of garden culture, though this may be done by collecting the spawn in June, and planting in dung-beds or ridges. It grows on wet banks, in the woods, and in moist pastures, and should be gathered when dry. Used to flavor gravies, &c. FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Musxroom. — This plant grows spontaneously and very luxuriantly, and numbers several varieties, some of which, however, are very poisonous. Wg =yi Culture.—It is now largely cultivated in this country. It needs great care to raise it artificially, and to do so successfully requires a special training. It is raisedin hot beds and otherwise. None but those famil- iar with the different species should collect the article at all, on account of the great resemblance between the good and the poisonous kinds. The crown or hat is at first hemispherical, then convex, and at last flat, fleshy ; about two to five inches broad ; white, or very light brown, slightly scaly, the scales soft and fibrous ; gills pink, changing to brown- ish black ; the flesh, when divided, changes generally to a reddish hue. Musrarp. — There are two species of this plant in cultivation, the Black (a) and the White (b). They are annuals. Culture, §c.—In cultivating white mustard, for spring and summer consumption, sow once a week or fortnight, in dry, warm situations. in February and March, and, afterwards, in any other compartment. In sume THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 201 mer, sow in shady borders, if it be hot, sunny weather. Generally, sow in shallow, flat drills, from three to six inches apart; scatter the seed thick Fig. 102, Op Lip MZ KK and regular, and cover in thinly with the earth, about a quarter of an inch. To furnish gatherings in winter or early in spring, sow in frames or under hand-glasses, and when the weather is frosty, or very cold, in hot-beds. This species is cultivated chiefly as a small salad, and is used like cresses, while in the seed; when these are newly expanded, they are mild and tender, but when advanced into the rough leaves, they eat rank and disa- greeable. In many parts, the seed of the white species is preferred for mustard, giving a whiter and milder flour than the black. It is also used medicinally, cleansing the stomach and bowels, and bracing the system at the same time. The black mustard is chiefly cultivated in fields for the mill. It must be sown in April, in drills, from six to twelve inches asunder, or broadcast, and rake or harrow in the seed. When the plants are two or three inches in the growth, hoe and thin them moderately where too thick, and clear them from weeds. They will soon run up in stalks, and in August return a crop of seed ripe for gathering. Onion. — The best varieties are the New England White, Large Red, Yellow or Silver-skinned, Yellow Dutch, Strasburgh or Flanders, and Madeira, the Yellow or Silver-skinned and Large Red being the best for a general crop, and the New England White for the table and pickling. Culture, §c.—For a general crop, the ground should be well prepared by digging in some of the oldest and strongest manure that can be got. Plant in April or May, sowing the seed moderately thick, ig drills one inck 202 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. deep and twelve inches apart. When the plants are up strong, they should be hved, and three times during the early part of their growth. Those beds that are to stand for ripening should be thinned out, while young, to two or three inches apart. When the greenness is gone out of the tops of onions, it is time to take them up, for from this time the fibrous roots decay. After being pulled, they should be dried, and then removed to a place of shelter. The small onions may be planted in the following spring. Even an onion which is partly rotten will produce good bulbs, if the seed-stems be taken off as soon as they appear. Most of the varieties are propagated by seed. The potato onion, however, does not produce seeds, but increases by the root. One onion, slightly covered, will produce six or seven in a clump, partly under ground. The bulbs are generally planted in the spring, twelve to eighteen inches apart, though they are apt to yield better when planted in autumn, as they will survive the cold, if covered with dung, litter, &c. Oxra.— This plant is not much in general use in this country. There are two varieties, the large and the small podded or capsuled. Culture, gc. —It may be sown, with certainty of success, at the time of planting Indian corn. Draw drills about an inch deep, and four feet asunder, into which drop the seeds at the distance of eight inches from one another, or rather drop two or three in each place, lest one should not grow, and cover them an inch deep. As they advance in growth, earth them up like peas, and they will bear well. Parsnip. — The choice sorts of this vegetable are the Guernsey or Com- mon, and the Sugar or Hollow-Crowned, the latter being the best garden variety. Culture, g-c. — Like the carrot and beet, the parsnip requires a light, rich, dry soil, and the sooner the ground is prepared in the spring, and the seed put in, the better the roots will be, as a long season is necessary to their perfection. Sow the seed in drills, the same as carrots, and left, in thinning, eight inches apart in the rows. They must be kept clean by frequent hoe- ings, and in the autumn are fit for use; but as they improve in quality by being exposed to the frost, and will remain in the earth without injury, those intended for spring use are left in their beds, and are usually found in a fine state in the spring months. The seed of this plant vegetates with some difficulty, and in a light, dry soil, should have the earth pressed ‘upon them with a roller immediately after sowing. Pra. — The varieties of this useful and nutritious plant most commonly cultivated for market and garden use are the following: Extra Early, Early May, Early Frame, Early Charlton, Bishop’s Early Dwarf, Blue Marrow, Woodford Marrow, Sugar Pea, Knight’s Dwarf Marrow, New Mammoth, Early Washington, Early Double Blossom, and Early Warwick. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 202 Culture, §-c. — Sow as early in the year as the ground can be worked, in double rows, four feet apart, covering about three inches. Manure- moderately, and dig it in well. As the early crops appear, draw the soil over them; and as they advance from half an inch to three inches high, and when the weather is dry, draw the earth to the stems, and continue to hoe and earth up, as it will assist the peas to bear plentifully. When they are six or eight inches high, place a row of sticks or brush, about five feet long, in the middle of the double rows, and a few smaller ones on the outside of each row. Sow again from the middle to the end of April, for use in July and August. The crop is readily collected by a short scythe and horse-rake, or by hand. It should be done while the haulm is of a yellowish green, or the peas scatter. Thg haulm in this state is a very valuable rough fodder, if care- fully housed. The grain is threshed out, and forms excellent provender for stock and poultry. Enemies. —The pea is subject to but few diseases. The pea-bug punc- tures the pod when very young, and deposits an egg. Very few crops entirely escape them, except such as are sowed about the middle of June. It is therefore best to sow a part about that time, for seed, or to keep a sufficient quantity over one year. Peprer.—The varieties grown for pickling and kitchen use are the Sweet or Bell, the Cayenne, and the Tomato or Fiat. Culture, g-c. —Sow a small portion of seed, thinly, half an inch deep, on a hot-bed or in a pot, in April, and transplant in June, on good soil, twelve inches apart, and eighteen inches from row to row. As they grow, hve 204 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. frequently, earthing up the stems. When sown in the open ground, the time is the same ; let the soil be light and warm, and transplant when three to four inches high. Pumpxin. — The best varieties of pumpkin are the Cashaw, Family, Con necticut Field, White Bell and Valparaiso. Culture, Gc. —The best time for sowing is about the middle of May. It will grow in any dry and well-worked soil. It has been usual with farmers to grow their pumpkins in the corn-field ; but whether this is a good practice or not, is somewhat doubtful. A good crop of pumpkins must necessarily take from the sustenance which would otherwise go to nourish the corn. When planted with Indian corn, they may be put between the hill of corn of every fourth row and every fourth hill, upon a shovel full of rich manure, two seeds in a hill. When the plant is grown by itself, let the hills be eight or nine feet apart; two or three plants in a hill are sufficient, though it will be more advisable to put in more seed, to provide against accidents, and the surplus plants can be withdrawn. To preserve the crop pure, the seed should not be taken from plants growing neat squashes. Rapisu.— There are two species, the long and the round; and of these there are several varieties, which are named below. Culture, §-c. — For the early crops, use the Long Scarlet Short Top ; the Long Salmon, similar to the preceding, but of lighter color; the Scarlet Turnip Rooted, and White Turnip Rooted. Frequent sowings are necessary, as the foregoing soon become pithy and shoot to seed; in flavor they differ but little. At the same time the early kinds are sown, make a sowing of the Yellow Turnip and Summer White, which are fine kinds, withstand the heat, and are firm and crisp even in hot weather ; frequent sowings of these, as well as the White Spanish, or Black Spanish, as most liked, should be made during the summer months. The two latter kinds, sowg in autumn, keep well in winter, if secured from frost. Forcing. —In forcing radishes, a moderate hot-bed is necessary, the earth about eight inches deep, on the surface of which the seed is to be sown as soon as the violent heat has abated, and an additional half-inch sifted over it. Keep the temperature at about sixty-five degrees, admit the air except in the evening, and, when the earth is dry, give a light watering. The seed- lings are generally up in a week, and in six weeks may be drawn. Ruvusars. — The principal varieties are Buck’s New Scarlet, of a deep red; Tobolsk, very early ; Goliah and Admiral, large size; Elfort, Wilmot’s Early Red, Myatt’s Victoria, and Australian. Culture, g-c.— The seeds should be sown in April, in a border, and scattered thinly in drills, two inches deep, and a foot asunder, slightly THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 206 covered with soil When the plants appear, they should be thinned out to about six inches from each other, and afterwards toa foot. A light, dry soil, is excellent. As soon as the leaves are decayed, the seedling plants should be taken up with care, and planted out in rows, two feet apart, and the same distance between the plants. A shady spot is preferable, as the stems will be finer and better when not too much exposed to the sun. Give an annual top- dressing of well-rotted manure. A simple method of forwarding rhubarb is by turning over the plants, as they stand in the open ground, empty barrels or boxes, which may be sur- rounded by coarse litter or stable manure. Rape (edible-rooted,) is a white, carrot-shaped root, about the size of a man’s finger, having a more delicate flavor than the turnip, like which it is cooked. It is not peeled, but scraped—the skin being remarkably thin. Culture, &c.— It is propagated by seed, which may be sown in April andJune. It will growin any soil that is poor and light, more especially if it be sandy. It grows to a larger size in rich, manured earth, but de- teriorates in sweetness and flavor. The same mode of cultivation and treatment applied to the turnip will answer for this root; but in dry * weather the beds must be regularly watered until the plants have deve- loped their leaves. Sausiry. — This plant is also called Vegetable Oyster; its flavor, when properly cooked, being very similar to that of the oyster. Culture, &c.—Deep and humid soils are the most favorable. After dig- ging and smoothing, the plot intended for it should be formed into four- 206 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. feet beds, and the seeds be sown and covered in rows, eight or ten inches apart. ‘This should be done as soon as the frosts are over in the spring, for the earlier the sowing, the finer will be the crop. Two hoeings, and frequent watering when the weather is very dry and hot, are necessary. The plants attain their full size in autumn. Scorzonera.— A plant mostly grown in Europe, for its roots, to use in soups, Wc. Culture, §c.— It is raised very much as is salsify. If the seeds be sown in April, in a good deep soil, the roots will attain perfection in autumn, and continue good through winter. ‘They last three or four years, but it is better to raise a few from seed every year. Sea-Kate. — It grows wild in Great Britain, but is extensively raised in gardens. Culture, gc.— It will succeed well in any dry and deep soil. A bed may be composed for it of one half drift sand, one third rich loam, and one third small gravel, road-stuff, or coal-ashes. If the soil be wet, drain it; and if poor, manure it well. Propagate by seed; and if the weather in June and July be very hot, water plentifully. It flowers about June, and the seed ripens in August. The signal for cutting is when the plants are three inches above the surface. . SHattor.— A plant often used asa substitute for the onion, having a stronger taste, but not leaving so strong an odor as that plant. Culture, dc. — Each offset of the root will increase, if planted in a similar manner to its parent. The planting may be performed in October or November, or in the spring — March or April. The first is the best season, if the soil lies dry, as the bulbs become finer; but otherwise, the spring is preferable, for excessive moisture destroys the sets. Plant six inches asunder each way, in beds four feet wide, in drills. Sxirret. — The root is composed of fleshy tubers, joined together at the crown or head, and used in cookery. Culture, gc. — It grows freely in a light, moderately good soil. It is propagated both from seed and offsets of established roots. The former mode is preferred. Sow about the middle or last of April, in small drills, eight inches apart. When the plants are one or two inches high, thin them to five or six inches asunder. ‘They will continue to grow until the end of autumn, and may be used all along. Those left to reach maturity will be good for winter use, also for spring, till the stems run. When grown by offsets, take only the young outward slips. Spinacnu. — There are two varieties, the Rownd-leaved or Smooth-seeded; and the Prickly-seeded. The New Zealand is also a species highly regarded. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 207 Culture, 4c. — The Smooth-seeded is better for spring and summer use, and the latter for autumn sowing. Sow broadcast or in drills; when drilled, it is easier kept clean, and more readily gathered for use. The drills should be twelve inches apart, the plants four inches apart in the rows. If sown thicker, thin out, when young, as wanted, leaving plants at proper distances. For spring and early summer use, sow early in spring, and occasionally afterward; for the early autumn supply, sow at close of summer, and for the main winter crops, about middle of autumn. Before very cold weather give a light covering of straw, cedar-brush, or anything that will lay lightly and partially protect it; otherwise, the frost will injure. Squasu. — The kinds most suitable for cultivation are the Early Bush, Vegetable Marrow, Lima, Cocoa-nut or Acorn, and Green Striped. Culture, g-c.— Dig deeply patches of earth, at the distance of four or five feet each way, mixing in well-decomposed manure, in liberal quantities. In each patch or mound of earth plant about half a dozen seeds, and when the plants are well grown, remove all but two or three of the best. Sow about the middle of April ; or, fur early crop, start them in pots or hot-beds. Tomato. — The kinds most usually grown are the Large Smooth Red, Large Red, and Cherry-shaped. The yellow tomato is not much raised. Culture, §c.— The best soil is one that is light, rich, with a dry sub- soil. Sow the seed in April, scattering it thin, and not burying more than half an inch below the surface. The plants soon appear, and when of two or three weeks’ growth, they must be thinned to three inches apart, and those removed, if wanted, pricked at the same distances, in a similar bed to that from which they may be removed. On the approach of frost, pull up some of the plants, root and all, which are well laden with fruit, and hang them up in a dry, airy apartment. In this manner it may be continued in perfection after the natural season. It is recommended to cover the earth around each clump with straw or litter, which prevents rapid evaporation in hot weather, and protects from heavy rains. Some brush-wood stuck around the plants, to support them, is also useful. Turnip. — The Seale sorts are the Early Yellow Dutch, Early Red top Dutch, White Norfolk Globe, Yellow Aberdeen, and Early White Dutch together with t'.e valuable Ruta-baga, or Swedish Turnip. Culture, §c.— The soil should be thoroughly ploughed, harrowed, and rolled ; the weeds should be well raked up, and everything done to bring it into a state of good tilth. As drilling or sowing the seed in rows is most generally practised, the-soil should be thrown into ridges by a plough, the ridges having a sharp top, and being at the distance of from twenty to thirty inches from top to top. After the ridges are formed, the manure is hauled 208 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. on the ground, thrown out at convenient intervals, and immediately placed in the furrows. A section with the manure deposited in the furrows is shown in Fig.105 a. As fast as the manure is distributed in the furrows, it should be covered, which is effected by splitting the ridges with either a double ora single mould-board plough, forming a new ridge on which the seed is to be sown, directly over the manure. A section of the new ridges is represented (d). The rolling and seed-sowing (c) succeeds this operation ; then the young plants, with the earth hoed away from them (d), are seen; after this, the plants further advanced, covering the soil with their leaves, and enjoying the dung with their roots, (e) ; and, finally, the plants full-grown. Fig. 105. The Swedish turnip, or ruta-baga, has a decided advantage over all other varieties of turnip as cattle food, being the most nutritive, and retaining its soundness and richness much the longest. When given to cattle, it should be cut, by means of the vegetable cutter. A grass lea is best for this variety. If an old sod, plough it in autumn or early in spring, and manure and completely pulverize before planting. If a young clover lea, the manure may be spread, ploughed under, the ground harrowed, and the seed immediately put in. Sow at the rate of one to two pounds tne acre. In the after-culture, the objects aimed at are to keep the crop clean, to thin the plants to eight or ten inches, and to keep the surface of the soil mellow. The turnip should be the last crop gathered, because it grows the longest, is least liable to suffer from frost, and is liable to be injured by fermenting, when collected in heaps for winter. If buried in pits, the roots should be raised above the surface of the ground, and laid up to terminate in a ridge THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 209 so .=hat when they are covered with straw and earth, the heated or impure air of the pit will concentrate at the ridge on the top, where it should be suffered to pass off freely through holes made for the purpose. \ LB Enemies-— The turnip-flea is a great scourge. To avoid it, it is recom- mended, first, that the germination of the seed be hastened by all natural _ means, as applying some portion of stimulating manure, sowing when a proper degree of moisture’ exists, and in close connection with the manure, to secure at once the benefit of it to the roots, if possible, making most of the season, when. favorable. Second. That a liberal quantity of seed be sown, in drilis, which will hasten the vegetation after it has come up. Third. That the land be well cleared, the weeds wholly eradicated, and the soil well supplied with manure suited to its character. Fourth. Select good seed, and test it before sowing, to see how many germinate, and how svon. Uses. —The root is an excellent food for every species of farm-stock, and is very extensively used for fattening beef, mutton, and pork. When mileh cows are fed with ruta-baga, it should have a little salt sprinkled upon it. | 18* ra) FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. II. HERBS, &c. Anise. — This is a half-hardy annual, used for garnishing or seasoning and much esteemed for that purpose. Culture, gc. — Sow during April, in pots buried in a hot-bed; remove to a warm, light border, in May ; thin the plants to six inches apart. The seed is ripe in August and September. Baim. — The balm is a hardy plant, with square stems, rising two feet high or more, with large leaves growing by pairs at each joint. Culture, gc. —It is propagated by parting the roots, preserving two or three buds to each piece, or by slips, either in autumn or spring. Plant in any bed of common earth, from eight inches to a foot apart, watering, if the weather be dry. Gather when the plant is coming into flower; and when the leaves are entirely free from moisture, dry them, and, when cool, press into packages. Basi. — The Sweet-scented and the Dwarf Bush are the two varieties. Culture, gc. — A rich, light soil is the best. Sow the seed, in a gentle hot-bed, early in April; to be thinned, and those removed pricked out at the close of this latter month in a similar situation, to be finally removed in the course of May or June, when the weather is settled, in open ground. When thinned, the seedlings must be kept at three inches apart, and those removed pricked out at a similar distance. Water at every removal, and, during the growth, hoe, and keep clear from weeds. Gather seed from the earliest raised plants. Caraway. — A biennial plant, with a taper root, stems rising from a foot and a half to two feet, spreading branches, and finely-cut deep-green leaves. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 211 Culture, §-c.— A clayey loam is the best soil, which should be well ploughed; sow in March, directly after the plough, harrowing well. In ten weeks after, hoe, and repeat hoeing two or three times before cutting, which may be done in July ; after which, thresh it upon a cloth. Corranper. — A small-rooted annual, with branchy stems. Culture, gc. — Sow on a light, rich soil, in the fall, with fresh seeas twenty pounds to an acre. Thin the plants to six or eight inches apart every way, and in the spring stir the soil with a hoe. The seed ripens in August, when it must be carefully cut and gathered. A few strokes of the flail will get the seeds out clean. CamomiLe. — This is a well-known creeping plant, cultivated for its flowers. Culture, §-c.— The double-flowered variety is the most commonly grown, but the single possesses more of the virtue of the plant, according to its weight. It only requires a poor soil, planted in rows a foot apart, and hoed between. It will produce abundance of flowers annually, from June to September. Cuervit.— The Parsley-leaved and Fern-leaved are raised by the Eu- ropeans, but in this country the plant is not much attended to. Culture, g-c. — Sow the seed in early autumn, as soon as it is ripe ; Sow in drills eight inches apart, or broadcast; thin the plants to eight inches asunder, and keep free from weeds. Diu. — It is cultivated for its leaves and blossoms, which are used for pickling, and in soups and sauces. 212 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Cultu-e, gc. — Soil rather dry ; sow as soon as the seed ripens, in drills a foot apart; thin to about ten inches asunder, after three or four weeks" growth; keep clear of weeds; and, for seed, cut in September. Frenne. — Resembles the dill, but is larger; grown for its stalks and leaves. Culture, gc. — Three or four plants are sufficient for any garden. The variety called the Finochio may be grown in rows, on light, rich soil, and earthed up to the height of five or six inches, which blanches the stalks in ten days or a fortnight. Water in very dry weather. Foxeiove. — A medicinal plant, comprising two varieties, the Large and the Small. Culture, §c. — When raised in gardens, it is easily propagated by seed. It prefers a gravelly, sandy, or chalky soil. Every part of it is poisonous. Horexounp. — This herb has a white, hoary appearance, and a very bitter, though not unpleasantly aromatic, flavor. Culture, gc. — Any common soil is adapted to this plant, and it is readily increased by divisions of the roots, or by seeds. Hyssop. — There are three varieties, the White, Red, and Blue — dis- tinguished by the color of the flowers. ‘The last is the most common. Culture, g¢c.— A dry soil is the most appropriate one. It is propagated by seed and slips of the branches and young shoots, as well as by offsets May be sown from early spring until June; rooted offsets may be planted in March, April, August, and September; cuttings of the branches in April and May, and slips of young shoots in June or July. Sow broadcast, or in drills, six inches apart, and not deeper than an inch. LavenpEer. — A dwarf, odorous shrub, of three or four years’ duration. Fig. 109. Oulture, §c.— The soil should be a poor, dry, limy gravel ; the seeds being THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 213 sown in a garden in spring, may be transplanted in September ur March following, in rows two feet apart. The second season they will yield flowers, and a full crop the fourth, after which the plants will continue pro- ductive for years. The spikes are gathered in June, and dried in the shade Liquorice. — The liquorice is a deep-rooting plant, with stems four or five feet high. Fig. 110. Culture, §c.— The soil should be a deep, sandy loain, trenched two o1 three feet deep, and manured; the plants consist of the side roots, having eyes or buds. Plant in the fall or spring, in rows three feet apart, and from eighteen inches to two feet in the row; hoe, stir, and weed, and carry off the stems every autumn, after they are completely withered. Marsoram. — The Sweet Marjoram is a biennial plant, and long in use as a seasoning for soups, and for other culinary purposes. Culture, Gc. — This species, being somewhat tender, is commonly sown on a slight hot-bed towards the end of March, or on a warm border about the middle of April; in the former case, transplanting it into rows one foot apart, and the plants six inches distant in the row; and in the latter case, thinning them out, without transplanting. Mint. — The Common or Spear Mint is a creeping stemmed plant, the young leaves of which are much used in salads, soups, &c. Culture, §&c. — Propagate by dividing the roots before they begin to grow in the spring, and bury in shallow drills, or slip off the young shoots when they are three or four inches long, and plant in beds a few inches apart. To produce tender stalks and leaves, water liberally. To dry, cut the _ stalks when just coming into flower. 214 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Parstey.— A well-known biennial, with a large, sweet tap-root. There are two varieties, the Plain-leaved and the Curled-leaved, the latter the best y LIAR Culture, §c.— Sow at monthly intervals, from February until middle of June, in drills nine inches apart ; when of tolerable growth, thin to nine inches asunder, and keep clear of weeds. For seed, cut in July or August ; dry, and beat out. Prenny-Royat. — There are two kinds, the Trailing and the Upright. Culture, §-c.—It is grown by dividing the roots in the spring. The best soil is one that is strong and moist. It is of very easy cultivation. Peppermint. — A well-known creeping-stemmed plant, growing spon- taneously. Culture, §c.—It may be propagated by dividing the roots early in the spring, and planting in a soft, rich soil. The stalks are gathered when in full flower. PurstANE. — There are two sorts, the Green and the Golden, the latter being used mostly as a garnish, and the former for a salad; also for pot herbs and pickles. Culture, g-c.— Where a constant supply is required, the first sowing should be made on heat in February, and the others monthly, on a warm border, till August. The shoots are gathered when from two to five inches high, and well furnished with leaves. Rosemary. — The Green, Golden-striped, and Silver-striped, are the vari- eties cultivated, the first-named being the most used. Cullure, §-c.— The best soil is a poor, light, limy one. Propagate py THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 215 cuttings and rooted slips, during any of the spring months, or by layers in the summer. Sow in March or April, in drills one inch deep, and six inches apart. The slips and cuttings must be five or seven inches long, and planted in rows eight or ten inches apart. Water liberally at the time of planting, and occasionally afterwards. Rue. — An evergreen shrub, making a beautiful garnish for table dishes. Culture, §-c. — It thrives best in a poor, clayey soil, and is propagated by slips, cuttings, and seeds, in the spring, the seed being sown in drills one ‘nch deep, and one foot apart. The slips or cuttings may be planted on a poor, shady border, and watered occasionally. Sarrron. — This is also called the Autumn Crocus, and is a bulbous- rooted perennial, which has been long cultivated for its medical and culinary uses. Culture, gc. — Plant the bulbs on a prepared soil, not poor nor a very stiff clay. Plant in July, in rows six inches apart across the ridges, and three inches distant in the rows. The flowers are gathered in September, the stigmas picked out, together with a portion of the style; these are dried between layers of paper, under the pressure of a thick board, to form into cakes. Sace.— The varieties are the Common Green, Wormwood, Variegated Green, Variegated Red, Painted or Parti-colored, Spanish or Lavender- leaved, and Red. Culture, §-c.—Tt is propagated by seeds or cuttings, and the plantation ought to be renewed every two or three years; otherwise, the winter may destroy it. _ ae 216 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Savory. — There is the Winter or Perennial Savory, and the Summer or Annual Savory, the latter being preferred, on account of its more agree- able fragrance. Culture, §c.— The Winter savory is propagated by seed, cuttings, or divisions, — most frequently by the latter mode. The Summer is sown in drills, one foot apart, in the open garden, in March or April. Tansy.— The Curled or Double Tansy is the kind chiefly grown for culinary use. Culture, §c. — The kind of soil is not very material. It is raised by rooted slips, or divisions of its roots, planted in spring and in autumn, in rows a foot apart each way. A little manure will increase the productive- ness, but is not wholly necessary. Tuyme. — The Common and Lemon Thyme are the two varieties. Culture, §-c.— 'The Common is readily increased by seeds, cuttings, or divisions, and the plants should be renewed, by one or other of these modes, every year, in the spring. ‘The Lemon is a trailing evergreen, used for the same purposes as the preceding. KITCHEN GARDEN CALENDAR. January. — Artichoke: secure from frost, if not yet done. Asparagus: plant on a hot-bed twice in the month, to keep up a succession. Carrot. sow on a slight hot-bed. Cauliflower: sow in a box, and place in a fore- ing-house, if the autumn sowing failed. Celery: protect during severe weather. Cucumbers: prepare a seed-bed for sowing next month, renew ~ the linings of the fruiting-beds, and keep them made up above the surface of the soil in the frame. French Beans: sow in pots, for forcing. Mint and other Herbs: take up and plant in pots or boxes, and place in a forcing- house. Potatoes: plant on a slight hot-bed. Radishes: sow on a slight hot-bed, or in the same frame with potatoes. Rhubarb: take up old roots, and plant in boxes or pots, and place them in a forcing or mushroom house. Frsruary.— Beans: plant in boxes for turning out next month; also sow in the open ground, if the season be open. Cabbage: sow on a warm border. Carrots: sow on a warm border. Cauliflowers: prick out those sown in boxes last month on a slight hot-bed, — sow on a sheltered border. Celery: sow in boxes, and place in a forcing-house, for a first crop. Cu- cumbers: plant from the seed-bed, and afterwards keep the heat by night 70° to 75°, and by day, 75° to 85°. French Beans: earth up former sow- ings, and sow again. Lettuce: sow on a warm border. Mushrooms: make beds and spawn at 80°. Onions: sow in boxes, and place in a forcing house, for planting out in April. Peas: sow in boxes, and in the open Be THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 217 ground. Potatoes: plant on a slight hot-bed and on a warm border, Rad. tshes: sow on a warm border. Sea-Kale: cover up. Spinach: sow. Tur- nips: SOW. Marcu. — Artichokes: make new plantations. Asparagus: make new beds, — top-dress the latter end of the month. Basil: sow. Beans: plant twice in the month. Beets: sow. Cabbages: fill wp vacancies in the autumn plantations. Capsicums, or Peppers: sow seed. Carrots: sow the main crop. Herbs: make new beds. Horse-Radish: make new planta- tions. Jerusalem Artichokes: plant early in the month. Leek: sow. Lettuce: prick out on a slight hot-bed those sown last month in boxes. Mushrooms: make beds for summer use. Onions: sow the main crop. Parsley: sow. Parsnips: sow the-main mop. Peas: sow twice, — earth up early crops. Potatoes: plant main crop. Radishes : sow twice. Salsify : sow. Savoys: sow beginning and end. Scorzonera: sow. Shallots and Garlic: plant the beginning of the month. Spinach: sow. Turnips: sow en a sheltered border. Apri. — Beans: plant twice, and earth up the early crop. Borecole: sow. Broccoli: sow the winter varieties. Brussels Sprouts: sow begin- ning of the month. Cabbages : prick out the February sowing. Cardoons : sow for early crop. Cauliflowers: plant out those wintered in frames. Celery : prick out the early sown on a slight hot-bed. Cucumbers: sow to plant out on ridges. French Beans: sow the beginning of the month. Lettuce: fill up the autumn plantations. Onions: transplant the autumn sowing, and also those sown in boxes in February. Peas: sow twice in the month, earth up, and stick early crops. Radishes: sow twice in the month. Spinach: sow first and third week. Turnips: thin, and sow the latter end. Vegétable Marrow: sow the middle of the month. May.— Basil: plant on a rich sheltered border. Beans: top the early crops,— plant twice in the month. Beets: thin to fifteen inches apart. Borecole: prick out of the seed-bed. Broccoli: prick out those sown last month, and make another sowing of the winter kinds; also Cape and Gran- ges, the last week. Cabbages: plant out the February sowing. Cauliflowers. earth up, and water with liquid manure, — take off the hand-glasses. Cu- cumbers : prepare ridges for out-door crops. French Beans: make sowings the first and last weeks. Leeks: transplant. Lettuce: transplant early sowings,— sow twice in the month. Onions: thin them to nine inches apart. Peas: make two sowings. Potatoes: earth up the early crops. Radishes : make two sowings. Spinach: sow the middle of the month, — thin former sowings. Scarlet Runner: sow beginning and middle of the month. Turnzps: make a sowing, if not done the end of last month. Jung. — Asparagus: discontinue cutting. Beans: put in the ‘ast crop, 19 Bilge tis hn 218 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. —top and earth up former crops. Broccoli: sow Cape and Granges Cabbage: sow seed for Coleworts. Capsicums: plant out on a warm border. Carrots: thin to two inches apart. Celery: transplant inte trenches for an early crop. Cucumbers: plant under hand-glasses Endive : sow for an early crop. French Beans: make a sowing the middle of the month. Leeks: transplant. Lettuce: transplant. Peas: complete the sowing of the marrow varieties. Potatoes: earth up. Radishes: sow as in last month. Savoys: transplant for an early crop. Scarlet Runners: make the last sowing. Spinach: sow twice. Tomatoes: turn out against walls. Vegetable Marrow: plant under hand-glasses. Juty.— Borecole: transplant. Broccoli: transplant. Brussels Sprouts : transplant. Cauliflower : transplant from the April sowing. Cabbage: sow in the last week for a crop to come in in May. Celery: transplant into trenches. Endive: make a second sowing. French Beans: earth up, and make the last sowing the latter end of the month. Lettuce: make a sowing the first and last week. Peas: make two last sowings of early sorts. Rad- ashes : sow on a cool border. Avueust.— American Cress: sow to stand the winter. Borecole and Broccol : transplant the main crop. Cabbage: sow for main spring crop, —transplant for Coleworts. Carrots: sow to stand the winter. Cauli- flowers : transplant to come in during autumn, —sow for the main spring crop. Celery: transplant into trenches, and earth up for blanching. En- dive: make the last sowing, and transplant from former sowings. Lettuce: sow for standing through the winter, — transplant from former sowings. Onions : sow for standing through the winter. Radishes: sow the winter varieties. Savoys: transplant the main crop. Scarlet Runners: earth up and stick. Spinach: sow the main winter crop. Turnips: sow the winter crop. September. —Cabbages: prick out from last month’s sowing. Celery: earth up for blanching. Chervil: sow for winter use. Curled Cress: sow for winter use. Endive: transplant, and tie up for blanching. Mushrooms : make beds for winter use. Onions: pull up and house them when dry. Parsley : cut down a portion of the Spring sowing. Potatoes: take up the early sorts. Purslane: sow for winter use. Shallots and Garlic: these should now be taken up. Dig up vacant ground. Octoser. — Artichokes: tie up the leaves for producing the chard. As- paragus: cut down and winter dress Beets: dig up and lay in sand. Cab- bages : plant out for the main crop. Cardoons: tie up the leaves for blanch- ing. Carrots: take up the main crop. Cauliflower: prick out under hand-glasses, and into frames. Cucumbers: make beds, and sow seed for early crops. Lettuce: plant out for the main spring crop. Parsnips: take THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 219 up and preserve in sand. Potatoes: take up the main crops. Tomatoes : gather the unripe fruit, and lay in a forcing-house. Dig and trench ground during dry weather. Novemser. — Artichokes : cover the roots with litter. Beans: sow first crop. Cauliflowers : protect those which have formed heads from the frost. Celery : take every favorable opportunity to earth it up. Cucumbers : ridge out the plants in the fruiting-beds. Endive: preserve from frost. Horse- radish: dig up for winter use. Jerusalem Artichokes: take up for winter use. Peas: sow foran early crop. Salsify: dig up for winter use. Scor- zonera: dig up for winter use. Sea-Kale: clear away the decayed stems and leaves. Preserve culinary vegetables from frost. December. — Asparagus: take up roots for forcing. Celery: protect during severe frosts. Cucumbers : attend to the linings of the beds. French Beans : plant in pots for forcing. Mushrooms: keep a moist and steady temperature in the house. Radishes: sow on a hot-bed for early use. Rhu- barb: take up roots, and pot for forcing. Sea-Kale: take up roots carefully for forcing. Small Salad: keep a succession, by sowing once a week, Prepare materials for hot-beds, CHAPTER YV. THE DAIRY. DAIRY IMPLEMENTS — MANAGEMENT — MILK — BUTTER-MAKING — CHEESE-MAK, ING; INCLUDING ALL THE MOST CELEBRATED AND ESTEEMED MODES. IMPLEMENTS. General Remarks. —'The construction of dairy-houses is, naturally, the first subject to be presented, in a chapter like this. The reason why it is here omitted is, in order that it may be included in the chapter on Rurau ARCHITECTURE, thus enabling us to give consistency and completeness to the plan of this volume. We begin, therefore, with remarks on some of the implements or utensils employed in dairy operations. ‘These comprise milk-pails, shallow pans or cooling dishes for holding, sieves for straining the milk when taken from the cow, dishes for skimming the cream, churns for the making of butter, besides scales, prints, and boards, for weighing, measuring, and ornamenting it; also ladders, vats, tubs, curd-breakers, and presses, for the manufacture of cheese, together with vessels large enough to hold the whey or butter-milk. Almost all of these, except the churn and press, are so generally similar, and so familiar to all, as to require but little description. The material of which most of these are formed is wood, though many dishes are made of earthen-ware, lead, tin, freestone and slate, and not unfrequently of brass. It being generally conceded that the dairy husbandry of England is the most perfect in the world, we shal] incorporate as much information relative to its management in that country, in the present chapter, as will be com- patible with the limits assigned to this department. Presses. — The cheese-presses act upon the curd by pressure, and are there usually made of stone, of different weights, proportioned to the size of the cheese. They are most generally raised by a block and tackle, but are fre- quently made upon the principles of the lever, and there are various con- structions, placed in frames of wood, also of iron. A very common machine, of an extremely simple form, used im many dairies which produce such small cheeses as not to require great pressure, is that of a movable beam, fixed by a pivot in an upright post, and having hooked on at the other end a (220) THE DAIRY. 221 weight which presses in this manner on the cheese-vats underneath (Fig. 113). There is also the Patent Self-Acting Press, which is much used. It Fig. 113. is light, but strong, and is substantially a table on which to turn the cheese , no forcing screws, nor lifting heavy weights, but the cheese creates a com stant and regular pressure, of twelve times its own weight, whether large or small; and, if a greater pressure is needed, one pound laid upon the 19* a eS) 222 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. cheese or table adds twelve pounds increased pressure, andsoon. The cheese is nct removed from the press until the pressing is completed. Churns. — The churns are closed vessels, into which the cream, or the whole milk, being put, a piston, or a wheel in the form of a fan, is quickly and regularly moved, either up and down, or by turning, according to its form, so as to separate the oily particles of which the butter is composed. They are generally made of the best oak, and of various sizes. Much im- provement has been made, within a few years, in the construction of churns, figures of three of which we annex. The Thermometer churn (Fig.115) is constructed so that the cream or milk is readily brought to the desired temperature without mixing water or other substances, and the temperature certainly and definitely determined, which proves invaluable in making butter. There is a double bottom, made in the form of a semi-circle, of two sheets of zinc, or other metal, placed one above the other, the cream to rest upon the uppermost ; between the two sheets forming the bottom is a space or chamber, into which may be introduced cold or warm water, as may be required, to increase or diminish the temper- ature of the cream or milk. ‘The water is easily applied by means of a common tin tunnel, through an aperture or hole in the side of the churn Another improvement is a thermometer permanently placed in one end of the churn, secure from injury, marked at sixty-two degrees, and which is always visible, so that the operator may know when the cream or milk is brought to the proper temperature. If too warm, the mercury wil] rise THE DAIRY. 225 above the mark, and cold water should be applied in the chamber described ; if oo cold, the mercury will fall below the mark, when warm water must be used in the same manner. The cream or milk should be stirred or agi- tated, by turning the crank, while the water is being introduced, to give an Fig. 116. equal temperature throughout. When the thermometer indicates that the cream or milk is of the proper temperature, the water may be drawn out through the tube placed for the purpose, when the churning should be performed by giving the crank about forty revolutions to the minute. Kendall’s Cylindrical Churn (Fig.116) is simple in its construction, and Fig. 117. He) combines all the advantages of other cylindrical churns, with this improve ment, that the revolving dasher can be taken out in a moment, whenever 294 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. it is required to be cleansed. There are five sizes, from two to twenty gallons. The Gault Churn is an article much in use, and in some respects a supe- tlor machine. Fig.117 represents the top lifted up to receive the cream or lischarge the butter. Télinghast’s is also an almost incomparable churn. Cleanliness in Dairying. —'The form of these utensils is, however, a mat- ter of secondary importance, compared with their being kept extremely clean, which is the chief requisite in all the operations of the dairy; and, therefore, those which can be most readily cleaned are the best to be em- ployed, whatever may be their shape. Those who superintend dairy opera- tions should be clean and careful, and the floor of the dairy should be kept perfectly dry ; for water thrown down in hot weather will rise again in steam, and affect the milk with its humidity. MILK. Management of Milk. — When the milk has been drawn from the cow, it should be carried as gently as possible to the dairy, and after being there strained through the sieve, it must then be deposited in shallow pans or coolers, not exceeding three or four inches in depth, where it is left to col- lect the cream, which rises to the surface within a few hours, according to the temperature of the air. Those who are particularly nice, either in the consumption of the raw cream, or for the making of butter, skim it, perhaps, within twelve hours; but it is more generally left full twenty-four, or even thirty-six hours, according to the state of the season, when intended for butter, and is then not unfrequently skimmed again. The chief component parts of milk are those which, when separated, are known as forming butter and cheese, the residue of which is called whey. These parts are known, however, to vary in percentage, according to the quality of the milk; and, to determine this point, what is called a lactom- eter isin use. It consists of glass tubes placed upright in a wood frame ; these tubes are divided and subdivided, by marks, into equal spaces ; they are filled to equal height, each with the milk of a particular cow, when, after remaining a proper time, the quantity of cream in each is readily seen through the glass, and the exact difference determined by the marks ; this, however, does not show whether the caseous matter (of which cheese is formed) or the butyraceous matter (or oily substance producing cream) predominates. The following observations may be assumed as a summary of its management : First —Of the milk that is drawn from any cow at a time, that which cumes off at the first is always thinner .and of a poorer quality than that which comes afterwards, the richness continually increas- THE DAIRY. 225 ing, to the last drop drawn at that time. Second —TIf milk be put in a dich and allowed to stand till it throws up cream, that portion of cream which rises first to the surface is richer in quality and greater in quantity than what rises in a second equal portion of time; the cream that rises in the second interval of time is greater in quantity and richer in quality than that which rises in a third equal space of time ; and that of the third than the fourth, and so on; the cream that rises decreasing in quantity, and declining continually in quality, so long as any rises to the surface. _ Third — Thick milk always throws up a smaller proportion of the cream it actually contains to the surface than milk which is thinner; but that cream is of a richer quality. If water be added to that thick milk, it will also afford a considerably greater quantity of cream than it would have done if allowed to remain pure ; but its quality is at the same time greatly debased. Fourth— Milk which is put into a bucket, or other proper vessel, and carried to any considerable distance, so as to be much agitated, and in part cold, before it is put into the milk-pans to settle for cream, never throws up so much nor so rich cream as if the same milk had been put into the pans directly after it was milked. Fi/th—lIEf it be intended to make butter of a very superior quality, it will be, in such case, advisable to separate the milk that is first drawn from that which comes last, and the quality will be improved in proportion to the smallness of the last-drawn milk that is obtained. The first-skimmed cream should also be used, as it is always richer than that which rises last. BUTTER. General Remarks. — This is formed either by cream alone, or with the whole milk, unskimmed ; but although such different modes of manufacture might seem to warrant very different results, yet they have very little per- ceptible effect on the quantity or quality, though the profit on the produce of the dairy may be affected, in large towns, by the greater demand for skim-milk or butter-milk. There is also another kind, which is much infe- rior, and made from the cream of whey, after the cheese has been taken from the milk ; but the process of making is nearly the same. Cream Butter. — When butter is to be made from cream alone, the milk is, in winter, usually skimmed as often as four, and in summer two or three times, or until it will afford no more cream ; and this should be first sepa- rated from the edges of the pan, to which it firmly adheres, by means of an ivory or silver-bladed knife, run closely around it. The cream should then be carefully drawn to one side and lifted off with a skimming-dish, which is generally pierced with small holes ; an act which requires some dexterity, P 26 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. both to avoid the leaving of any cream behind, and to prevent any portion of the milk being mixed with it. Some persons, indeed, have leaden cool- ers, with a plug in the bottom, which allows the milk to escape to a large vessel underneath, while it leaves the cream at top ; but the former practice is most usual. The length of time which the milk should stand before it is skimmed must depend both upon the temperature of the air at the time, and the views of the dairy operator. In moderately warm weather, if very fine butter be intended, it should not be suffered to remain more than six or eight hours ; for ordinary good butter, it may be safely allowed to stand full twelve hours, and during cold weather, much longer. ‘The cream is then put into a deep vessel, in which it is frequently stirred, every day, with a wooden spoon, in order to prevent coagulation, until sufficient be collected to form a churning. No vessel can be better adapted for this purpose than one in the under part of which, close to the bottom, there is a faucet and peg for draining off, from time to time, any thin, serous part of the milk that may chance to be there generated ; for should this be allowed to remain, it acts upon the cream in a powerful manner, and greatly diminishes the richness and quality of the butter. The inside of the vessel should be covered with a bit of close, fine silver-gauze, to keep back the cream, while the whey is allowed to pass. Many persons imagine that no butter can be of good quality except that which is made from fresh cream; the fact, however, being, that the forma- tion of butter takes place only after the cream has attained a certain degree of acidity, and no butter of even tolerable quality can be obtained from cream that is not more than one day old. The length of time which the cream should be kept before it acquires that degree of acidity which is requisite for the best butter, depends so much upon the weather, that no fixed rule can be laid down. In fact, so little nicety is cbserved, in this respect, by practical farmers, even those who have a high reputation for making good butter, that few of them ever think of observing any precise rule with regard to the different portions of their cream, seeing they in gen- eral make into butter all they have collected since the former churning ; the time which should intervene between one churning and another being usually determined by local or accidental circumstances. If the cream be very carefully kept, and no serous matter be allowed to lodge about it, a very great latitude may be safely admitted in this respect. It is, indeed, certain, that cream which has been kept three or four days in summer is in excellent condition for making into butter, and that from three days to seven may be found in general to be the best time for keeping cream before churn- ing. The cream from every milking should, however, be kept apart until it is hecome sour, and not be mixed up with sweet cream, —at least, not until THE DAIRY. 227 the moment of churning, — for the mixture occasions fermentation, which, though partly prevented by the stirring, is liable to render the cream putrid. When, however, the herbage is coarse, or the cows are fed on roots, or artificial grasses, the sooner the cream is churned, the better will be the butter. Sometimes the milk is allowed to stand until the cream becomes clotted, or, as it is termed, ‘‘ carved,’’ to a proper degree of acidity, which generally takes place, in warm weather, within a day or two; and, in winter, it is placed near the fire, in order to forward that process. Clotted Cream. — The mode of procuring the genuine clotted or ‘‘ clouted cream,’’ which is said to produce one fourth more cream than by the common way, is as follows: The milk, while warm from the cow, is strained into either large, shallow brass pans, well tinned, or earthen ones, holding from two to five gallons, in which should be a small quantity of cold water, which prevents burning, and causes the cream to be more completely separated and thrown to the top. The morning meal of milk stands till about the middle of the day; the evening meal, until the next morning. The pans are now steadily carried to and placed over a clear, slow fire, which, if of charcoal, or over a stove, the cream is not so apt to get an earthy or smoky taste as when the milk is scalded over a turf or wood fire. The milk must not boil, as that would injure the cream. ‘The test of its being sufficiently scalded is a very nice point ; the earthen pan, having its bottom much smaller than the top, allows this point to be more easily ascertained, because, when the milk is sufficiently scalded, the pan throws up the form of its bottom on the surface of the cream. The brass pan, if almost as big at the bottom as at the top, gives no criterion to judge by, but the appearance and texture of the cream at the surface, the wrinkles upon which become smaller, and the texture somewhat leathery. In summer, it must be observed, the process of scalding ought to be quicker than in winter, as, in very hot weather, if the milk should be kept over too slow a fire, it would be apt to run or curdle. This process being finished, the pans are carefully returned to the dairy, and, should it be the summer season, they are placed in the coolest situation ; if on stone floors, the better ; but should it be the winter season, the heat should rather be retained, by putting a slight covering over the pans, as cooling too suddenly causes the cream to be thin, and consequently yields less butter, the mode of making which is this: The cream should, in hot weather, be made into butter the next day ; but in winter it is thought better to let the cream remain one day longer on the milk. The cream, being collected from the pans, is put into wooden bowls, which should be first rinsed with scalding, then with cold, water. It is now briskly stirred round one way, with a nicely-cleaned hand, which must also have been washed in hot and then in cold water; for these alternate warm and cold 228 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. ablutions of bow] and hand are not only for the sake of cleanliness, but te prevent the butter from sticking to either. The cream, being thus agitated, quickly assumes the consistence of butter ; the milky part now readily sepa- rates, and being poured off, the butter is washed and pressed in several cold waters ; a little salt is added to season it, and then it is well beaten ona wooden trencher until the milky and watery parts are separated, when it is finally formed into prints for the market. In the common way of making butter from cream, the dairies churn the whole quantity at once; but in many dairies, celebrated for the quality of their butter, only the first skimmings are used in making the best kind, the mode pursued being as follows: The milk, after standing twenty-four hours in large shallow coolers, lined with lead, is skimmed; the skimmed milk is then drawn off from the leads into other vessels of increased depth, but unlined, in which it is left from twelve to twenty-four hours, during which time it is skimmed two or three times; this is called ‘‘ doubling ; ”’ it is then ‘‘ trebled,’’ or put into tubs, or still deeper vessels, where it is occa- sionaJly skimmed, so long as any appearance of cream is found to form upon the surface ; after which, it is given to the pigs. The butter which is made from the after-skimmings is paler and inferior to that made from the cream cast up within the first rising; it is therefore generally churned apart. Whole-Milk Butter. —If butter be made from the whole milk, the process, in the best dairies, in which the consumption of butter-milk is considerable, is to place the milk, when drawn from the cow, in coolers on the floor of a clean, cool, well-aired milk-house, from twelve to twenty-four hours, till it has cooled to the temperature of the milk-house, and the cream has risen to the surface ; these coolers are next emptied, while the milk is yet free from acidity, into a clean, well-scalded vat, of size to contain the whole milking, or two milkings, if both are sufficiently cooled, where it remains till churned. If another milking, or meal of milk, be ready before that which has begun to become sour, that second meal may be put into the same vat; but if the first has soured, or is approaching to acidity, before the second quantity has completely cooled, any further admixture would lead to fermentation, and injure the milk. It is necessary that the whole milk become sour before it is churned, but the whole of it must become so of its own accord, and by no means forced into acidity by any mixtnre of sour milk with that which is sweet. The utmost care should, however, be taken, not to allow the coagu- lum, or curd, of the milk in the stand-vat, to be broken till the milk is about to be churned. If it be not agitated, or the ‘‘ lapper’’ (as it is termed in dairy language) broken, till it is turned into the churn, it may stand from a day to a week without injury. Churning. —'The operation of churning, whether it be cream or whole THE DAIRY. 229 milk, is done in the same manner; but the latter, from being so much the larger quantity, is of course so much more laborious, that in large dairies churns moved by machinery are frequently used, and which, besides the advantage of performing the work with great regularity, also produce a larger quantity of butter. The whole milk, besides, requires: more time than that of cream to complete the process — from two to three hours being considered necessary to effect it with due deliberation, while that of cream is generally finished within less than an hour and a half. The operation should, in warm weather, be very slow, for if it be done too hastily, the butter will be soft and white; the churn should, therefore, be cooled by being previously filled with cold water; but in winter it should, on the contrary, be performed quickly, and the churn should be warmed. The motion of the churn should be, in each case, regular, and whatever may be the degree of velocity, the stroke of the fan, or piston, ought always to be the same, until the butter is formed, or said ‘to come.’’ The air which is generated in the churn should also be occasionally allowed to escape, or it will create froth, which impedes the process. The temperature of the milk-house should be kept, as nearly as possible, at about 55°, or at least between 50° to 60°; and cream, when churned alone, should not be higher, for if kept at a high temperature in the process of churning, it will be found inferior in appearance, taste, and quality; but milk and eream, when churned together, it is generally thought, must be equalled to about 70° to 75°, before the latter can be separated from the milk, which is consequently the common practice. This is done by one person pouring gradually a small quantity of warm water into it, while another is churning; for if the work be carried on while too cold, the milk is said to rise in the churn, air-bubbles are thrown up with a rattling noise, and the milk becomes pale ; whereas, if conducted at a proper heat, it does not sweil, but is easily worked, and remains at the proper straw-color. A thermometer, it may therefore be imagined, should always be hung up in every dairy; yet, strange to say, it is an instrument seldom seen in any of them ; the only scale which the dairy-maid knows is at her fingers’ ends, and although she invariably trusts to her hand for trying the heat, it is yet sur- prising with what correctness she usually judges. Practice, it is said, makes perfect; and it is astonishing with what accuracy many operations, which are supposed by theorists to demand the aid of science, are performed, through experience, by the merest child in science. Notwithstanding, how- ever, the accuracy which experience may produce, it is not to be compared with that denoted by scientific experiment, nor can it be acquired without great loss of time, which might otherwise be avoided. The whole milk, as well as the cream when churned separately, must 20 230 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. become sour before it is churned; but this must be effected merely by the state of the atmosphere, or by being kept exposed to the fire, in order to bring on fermentation. It is therefore kept in a large vat, or tub, until the milk is turned into curd, or lapper, and if that remains undisturbed, the churning may be deferred for some days longer; the warm water must not, therefore, be added until the curd is broken. In some dairies, the milk is put into a pan, or vat, and well stirred with a wooden spoon, or ladle, two or three times a day, to prevent the cream from separating from the milk; and this sort of stirring, or partial churning, is continued till the milk becomes so thick and clotted that the ladle stands erect in it, after which, it is put into the churn for an hour or so; cold water is also poured in, to help collect the tutter and separate the milk from it. Washing Butter.—In most places, the butter, when taken from the churn, is washed in repeated waters, in order to extract the milk, until the water comes out pure. This, however, is a practice not generally com- mended, for it has been found, by long experience, that butter retains its sweetness much longer when no water ‘s used in making up. When it is taken out of the churn, it is well worked with the hand, which presses out most of the milk; it is then beaten with a cloth, or rather a cloth is repeatedly pressed down upon it, which absorbs all the remaining milk. The less it is beaten or worked, however, the better; for the more it is kneaded, the more tough and gluey will it become ; and a slight quantity of salt may be added to flavor it. Salting. —If the butter be salted for market, after the whole of the milk has been carefully pressed out, it should be well mixed, by working it in by the hand, with finely-powdered salt; for if care be not taken in mixing it equally, the butter acquires different colors— yellow where the salt has fallen, and white where it has not— which kind is, of course, inferior. The operation should be performed immediately, for, if deferred, as it commonly is by country dealers, and farmers who do not churn enough to fill a firkin at once, the butter loses a portion of its firmness and flavor. Should, however, there not be enough to fill up a package, the butter should never be put into the firkin in layers, but the surface should be left every day rough and broken, so as to unite better with that of the succeeding churning. The quality may also be in a great measure preserved by giving it a partial salting, and covering it over with a clean linen cloth, dipped in pickle, and placed in a cool situation. The quality of salt should be strong marine, free from the brine of mineral salt. The quantity may be that of about ten ounces to fourteen pounds of butter, —rather more or less according to the length of time which the butter is intended to be preserved ; but it is generally thought that the butter mada THE DAIRY. 231 during the summer months is the fittest for salting, and that the sort which is made in the latter part of the season, not taking it so well, requires rather more. Some farmers use saltpetre, in the proportion of half an ounce of salt with one eighth of saltpetre to the pound of sixteen ounces ; and, although this forms a valuable pickle, if the salt be really good, yet it unquestionab‘y would be much improved if four ounces of raw sugar were to be added to each pound weight of salt. A compound of one part sugar, one part nitre, and two parts of the best Spanish salt, beat together into a fine powder, and *mixed thoroughly with the butter, in the proportion of one ounce to the pound, has been found to keep the butter in every respect sweet and sound, during two years that it was in cask. It is also said to impart a rich marrowy flavor that no other butter ever acquires, and tastes but very little of the salt. When the butter is cured, it is then tramped firmly, with a round wooden stick, into the firkin, which is filled up to the head, and then covered over with a little of the purest salt. CHEESE. General Remarks. — As butter is made from the oily part of the milk which rises to the surface in the form of cream, so cheese is composed from the curd, or coagulated milk, and may be obtained from the caseous part alone, after the milk has been skimmed. If thus deprived of the cream, this ‘«skim-milk’’ cheese is, however, of a poor quality; and if intended to be good, the whole milk should be used, without any loss of cream ; for, if any portion of it be abstracted, the cheese will be proportionably less rich, — con- sequently, less palatable, and of inferior value. The mode of making, too, though in the main points apparently the same, yet is subject to more variety of minor details in the practice than that of anything formed of one material, and thus many different qualities are carried to market, each bearing some distinct character of its own. ‘That many of those kinds which are by connoisseurs thought indifferent might, by other management, be more nearly assimilated to the superior sorts, there can be little doubt; these peculiarities, however, have, in some cases, attached a certain degree of value to their flavor, while in others it would seem to be imparted by the natural grasses grown upon the soil. This applies more especially to some places. it is well known that where brine-springs most abound the cheese is always esteemed to be of superior quality. Rennet. — Different Modes of Preparing and Treating. — Although cheese may be made from the curd which has been formed by the coagula- tion of the milk when it turns sour, yet, when thus obtained, it is hard and ill-flavored ; means have, therefore, been found to curdle it with ‘‘ rennet,”’ which is made from the gastric juice of animals, but more especially from 232 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. that found in the maws or stomachs of sucking calves, that have been fed entirely upon milk. These maws, or ‘‘vells,”? as they are sometimes called, are occasionally preserved, along with the curd contained in them by salting ; but the more usual mode is to employ the skins of the stomach bags alone, the method being to put a few handfuls of salt into and around the stomachs, which are then rolled up and hung near the chimney to dry, after which, they are put by for a long time before they are used. If the skin be good, a bit of it no larger than a half-dime, if put into a tea-cup, filled with water, with a little salt, during about twelve hours before it is wanted, will form a stock sufficient for eighteen or twenty gallons of milk; but their manner of preservation and use is extremely various, and, as the quality of the cheese depends more upon the application of the rennet than upon any other part of the manufacture, we shall here state some of the most approved modes of its preparation. Most dairy-maids are of the opinion that if the curd, or chyle, were not’ removed from the maw of the calf, it would communicate a harsh taste to the cheese ; and some intelligent operators never use the vells until they are a year old, for, if newer, the rennet made from them causes the cheeses to heave, or swell, and to become full of eyes, or holes; and it is well known that, if too much be used, or if it be unusually strong, it will occasion the cheese to heave, probably by causing fermentation. It is, therefore, some- times prepared by adding to every six vells two gallons of brine, and two lemons, the latter doing away with any unpleasant smell, and giving it an agreeable flavor. A large quantity should be made at a time, and it should never be used until it has stood at least two months. Another mode is, to take the maw of a newly-killed calf, and clean it of its contents; salt the bag, and put it into an earthen jar for three or four days, till it form a pickle; then take it from the jar and hang it up to dry, after which it is to be replaced in the jar, the covering of which should be pierced with a few small holes to admit of air, and let it remain there for about twelve months. When wanted for use, a handful each of the leaves of sweet-briar, dog-rose, and brarnble, with three or four handfuls of salt, are to be boiled together in a gallon of water for a quarter of an hour, when the liquid is to be strained off and allowed to cool. The maw is then to be put into the liquid, together with a lemon stuck around with cloves; and the longer it remains in it, the stronger and better will be the rennet, half a pint, or less, of the liquor, is sufficient to turn fifty gallons of milk. Another mode practised is, when the rennet-bag is fit for the purpose, let two quarts of soft water be mixed with salt, wherein should be put almost every sort of spice and aromatic herb that can be procured ; and must boil gently until the liquor is reduced to three pints, when it should be THE DAIRY. 233 Btraiied clear from the spices, and poured, in a tepid state, upon the maw, and a lemon may be sliced into it. It may remain a day or two, after which it should be strained again, and put into a bottle, where, if well corked, it will keep good for twelve months or more, and give the cheese a pleasing flavor. ; : Still another practice is this: when the maw comes from the butcher, it is always found to contain a chyly or curd-like matter, which is frequently salted for present use; but when this chyly matter is taken out, and the skin cleaned from slime, and every apparent impurity, by wiping or a gentle washing, the skin is then filled nearly full of salt, and placing a layer of salt upon the bottom of a mug, the skin is placed flat upon it. The mug is large enough to hold three skins in a course, each of which should be covered with salt ; and when a sufficient number of skins are thus placed in the mug, it should be filled up with salt, and put, with a dish or plate over it, into a cool place, until the approach of cheese-making season in the fol- lowing year. ‘The skins are then all taken out, laid for the brine to drain from them, and, being spread upon a table, they are powdered on each side with fine salt, and are rolled smooth with a paste-roller, which presses in the salt. After that, a thin splint of wood is stuck across each of them, to keep them extended while they are hung up to dry. In making the rennet, a part of the dried maw-skin is, in the evening previously to its being used, put into half a pint of luke-warm water, to which is added a little salt. In the morning, this infusion — the skin being first taken out— is put into the tub of milk; but so great is the difference in the quality of these skins, that it is difficult to ascertain what quantity will be necessary for the intended purpose. A piece the size of half a crown, cut from the bottom of a good skin, will commonly be sufficient for a cheese of sixty pounds’ weight, though ten square inches of skin are often found too little. It is customary, however, to cut two pieces from each skin, one from the lower, the other from the upper part; but the bottom end is the stronger. An improved mode is, to take all the maw-skins provided far the whole season, pickled and dried as before, put them into an open vessel, and for each skin pour in three pints of spring water; let them stand twenty-four hours, then take out the skins and put them into other vessels; add for each one pint of spring water, and let them stand twenty-four hours, as before. On taking the skins out the second time, gently stroke them down with the hand into the infusion, and they are ‘then done with. Mix these two infusions together, pass the liquor through a fine linen sieve, and ada to the whole a quantity of salt rather more than is sufficient to saturate the water, that is, until a portion of salt remains undissolved at the bottom of the vessel. The next day, a d also the summer thrc ugh, the scum, as it 20 * 234 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. rises, is to be cleaned off, and fresh salt should be added. Somewhat less than half a pint of this preparation will generally be sufficient for sixty pounds of cheese ; but, when for use, the whole should be well stirred up. In some places, however, so far from washing away the chyle contained in the maw of the calf, pains are taken to increase it as much as possible, by giving to the animal as much milk as it can be made to swallow, a few . hours before it is killed; for, the chyle being formed by the mixture of the gastric juice with the food, and that gastric juice being the coagulating power, both are therefore carefully preserved, and are considered as thus forming a Stronger rennet than can be drawn from the bag alone. When the stomach or bag is taken from the calf’s body, its contents are examined, and if any straw or other food be found among the curdled milk, such impurity is removed; but no part of the chyle is suffered to be lost. At least two handfuls of salt are put into the bag, and upon its outside, after which it is rolled up in salt, and hung near a fire, where it is always allowed to hang until it is well dried; and it is understood to be improved by hanging a year, or longer, before being infused. When rennet is wanted, the ‘‘ yirning,’’ as it is sometimes called, with its contents, is cut small, and put into a jar, with a handful or two of salt, and a quantity either of soft water that has been boiled, and cooled to about 65°, or of new whey taken off the curd, is put upon the bag in the jar. The quantity of water, or whey, to infuse the bag, is more or less, aecord- ing to the quality of the yirning. If it is that of a new-dropped calf, that has not been fed, three pints will be enough; but if he has been fed fox four or five weeks, a couple of quarts may, at least, be put on the bag to wash ; it should, however, be observed that the yirning of a calf four weeks old yields more rennet than that of one twice that age. After the infusion has remained in the jar from one to three days, the liquid is drawn off, and a pint more water, or whey, put on the bag in the jar; and that, after standing in mash one or two days, is also drawn off, and, with that of the first infusion, strained, if any impurities appear in the liquor; the whole being put up in bottles for use as rennet, and the bag being thrown away, without ever being put into the milk. Some put about a drachm of whiskey into each quart bottle of the rennet; and it may be either used immediately, or kept for as many months as may be convenient. A table-spoonful of rennet thus made will, it is said, coagulate thirty gallons of milk; but its great superiority over our common practice is, that it will curdle the milk in five or ten minutes. As to the chyle occasioning a harsh taste to the cheese, the reverse is the fact. It must, however, be admitted, that, unless great care be employed in the immediate preparation of rennet thus made THE DAIRY. 23 the curd is extremely apt to become rancid, and thus impart a certain degree of rankness to the cheese. Whole-milk Cheese. —'The mode of making sweet-milk cheese — that is, cheese made of milk which has not been skimmed — is, to put the ladder across the cheese-tub, with a large canvas-cloth covering the whole, in order to prevent the falling of milk upon the floor, or any other matter into the tub, and above this is placed the sieve through which the milk is to be strained It should be of the temperature of 90° to 95°; and if below 85°, a portion of it should be placed in a deep brass pan, which is then immersed in the water, which is kept hot in the wash-house. By this means the whole is warmed equally, and it is of the utmost importance that attention be paid to it; for, if the milk be not warm enough when the rennet is put to it, the curd will be tender, and the cheese will bulge out at the sides; and, if too hot, it will cause it to swell or heave, and become spongy, both of which defects are injurious to its appearance and quality. ‘The rennet is then at once added to the milk, which is thus coagulated at its natural heat; but many farmers have not cows enough to form a cheese at every milking, and it must, there- fore, be then allowed to cool. In doing this, it of course throws up cream, which is not unfrequently taken off for butter, while the second meal, of whole milk, is used along with that which has been already skimmed ; but if the cheese be intended to be of fine quality, the cream must be also added. This, however, should be at the same time skimmed; for the milk, when cooled, must be afterwards heated to full 90° in the summer, and to a higher temperature in cold weather; and, were the cream to be warmed to that degree, it would be melted, which would cause a considerable portion of the fatty or butyraceous matter to be lost in the whey. It is, therefore, gen- erally thought the best practice to gradually bring it to a liquid state by the admixture of moderately warm milk, before it is poured into the cheese-tubs. The curd is then broken into small pieces, and the whey being thoroughly squeezed out, it is salted, wrapped in a cloth, and placed in a chessart, of such size as may be convenient, or is usually made in the neighborhood ; it is then pressed with weights proportionate to its size, and turned occasionally, until it becomes sufficiently firm to be taken out of the mould, and placed either on a cheese-rack, or on the floor of the cheese-room, where it is occa- sionally turned, and dry-rubbed with salt, and remains until fit for the market. Drying. — New cheese requires to be hardened by gradual drying before it becomes fit for market ; and the cheeses, when taken out of the mould, are, for this purpose, spread in a single layer on the floor of the cheese-loft, where they are daily turned by hand, in order to expose each surface alter- nately to the air. ‘This, on a large dairy-farm, is a slow and laborious operation, which, as it devolves upon hired help, sometimes prevents them 236 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. from paying proper attention to that essential duty. A machine has, there fore, been invented to remedy this inconvenience, called a Swing Frame, waich consists of a dozen strong shelves framed together, and having bars nailed from top to bottom of one side of the back of the shelves, in order to prevent the cheeses from falling out while in the act of turning. ‘The frame is suspended on two strong pivots, one of which is let into the wall ef the room, and the other is supported by a strong post. Two catches keep the frame upright, and prevent it from being turned more than half around. By first filling the shelf immediately below the axis of the frame, and then placing the cheeses alternately on the two nearest shelves above and below that which has been already filled, the preponderance of one side over the other can never be more than the weight of one cheese ; the whole power, therefore, required to turn the machine, cannot, in any circumstances, be greater than this and the friction of the pivots. ‘The cheeses, in the act of turning, drop upon those shelves, which, in the former position of the frame, were above them, and, having been exposed to a current of air for twenty four hours previously, have become perfectly dry. The benefits of the machine are, that, by means of it, fifty-five cheeses are turned in the same time which is required for turning two by hand ; that a room thus furnished will hold treble as many cheeses as when they are laid on the floor ; that the shade afforded by the shelves, together with the current of air which passes between them, has the effect, in hot weather, of preventing excessive sweating, and consequently loss both in weight and quality, as well as diminishing the necessity of rubbing the cheeses ; and, lastly, the ripening of the cheeses is hastened, so that, on an average, they are ready for market five weeks earlier than usual. The Store-room.— The store-room should be kept temperately warm, and the shelves on the floor upon which the cheeses are laid should be strewed with dry moss, or fine hay, as the cheeses, when new, are other- wise apt to adhere to the boards, and thus acquire an unpleasant appearance. At a more advanced stage they may be laid upon straw ; but, at first, it would sink into the surface and deface them. ‘The dried leaves of the tutsan, or of the yellow star of Bethlehem, and the twigs of the common birch-tree, are also thought to assist in preventing the depredations of mites. Green Whey. —'The whey which runs from the curd without pressure is called ‘‘ green whey,’’ and is received from the cheese-tub into pans covered with a cloth, under which they are held, until it deposits a sedi ment, which is added to the curd, after which it is poured into the cistern ; while that which is pressed by hand from the curd is termed ‘‘ white whey,’’ and contains a considerable portion of oily matter ; so much so, that THE DAIRY. 237 it is in some cases kept apart, and set for cream. Most generally, however, the green and white are both scalded together, until they throw up a sub- stance in appearance between cream and curd, which is skimmed off so long as it rises, to be churned for whey-butter, the difference between which and milk-butter is something in favor of the latter. MODE OF MAKING THE CELEBRATED CHEESES. {n all our dairies the same main points are admitted to be essential ; but, although the means of attaining them are nearly alike in similar sections ’ of country, yet in others they differ materially in the minutie ; and as upon these much of the art of cheese-making depends, we give the details of the modes employed on some of the most celebrated descriptions of cheese, believing that it will be of material value to every American farmer, to be acquainted with the modus operandi of producing the finest articles of dairy labor. Cheshire Cheese. —The Cheshire cheese is generally made with two meals of milk, even in dairies where two cheeses are made in a day; indeed, in the beginning and end of the season, three, four, and even five or six meals, are kept for the same cheese. The general custom is, to take about a pint of cream, when two-meal cheeses are made. from the night’s milk of twenty cows. In order to make cheese of the best quality, and in the greatest abundance, it is, however, admitted that the cream should remain in the milk ; for whether the cream that is once separated from it can by any means be again so intimately united with it as not to undergo a decom- position in the after process, admits of a doubt. The more common prac- tice is, to set the evening’s milk apart till the following morning, when the eream is skimmed off, and three or four gallons of the milk are poured into a brass pan, which is immediately placed in the furnace of hot water, and made scalding hot; then half of the milk thus heated is poured upon the night’s milk, and the other half is mixed with the cream, which is thus liquefied, so as, when put into the cheese-tub, to form one uniform fluid. This is done by the dairy-woman while the others are milking the cows, and the morning’s milk being then immediately added to that of the even- ing, the whole mass is at once set together again for cheese. The rennet and coloring being then put into the tub, the whole is well stirred together, a wooden cover is put over the tub, and over that is thrown a linen cloth. The usual time of ‘‘ coming,’ or curdling, is one hour and a half, during which time it is frequently to be examined. If the cream rises to the surface before the coming takes place, as it often does, the whole must be stirred together so as to mix again the milk and the cream ° and this as often as it rises, until the coagulation commences. If the dairy FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. woman supposes the milk to have been accidentally put together cooler thar, she intended, or that its coolness is the cause of its not coming, hot water, or hot milk, may be poured into it, or hot water in a brass pan may be par- tially immerged in it. This must, however, be done before it is at all coagulated, for the forming of the curd must not be tampered with. If it has been set together too hot, the opposite means, under the same precautions, may be resorted to; but the more general practice is to suffer the process to proceed, hot as it is, until the first quantity of whey is taken off, a part of which, being set to cool, is then returned into the tub to cool the curd. {f too little appears to have been used, it renders the curd exceedingly bit- ier, at.d therefore an additional quantity may be put in; but this must be done before the coagulation takes place, for, if added afterwards, it will be of little effect, as it cannot be used without disturbing the curd, which can then only acquire a proper degree of toughness by having some heated whey poured over it. For coloring, Spanish annatto is the drug usually employed, little more than the quarter of an ounce being sufficient for a cheese of sixty pounds. Other coloring matters are, however, used, such as marigolds boiled in milk, which gives a pleasant flavor, and carrots also boiled in milk and strained, which imparts a rich color, but a rather strong taste. The annatto is generally put in by rubbing a piece of it in a bowl with some warm milk, which is afterwards allowed to stand a little, in order to drain off the sediment, and is then mixed with the entire quantity. Within an hour and a half, as already mentioned, if all goes on well, the coagulation will be formed —a point which is determined by gently press- ing the surface of the milk with the back of the hand ; but in this test experience is the only guide, for the firmness of the curd, if the milk be set hot together, will be much greater than that from milk which has been set cold together. Ifthe curd be firm, the usual practice is to take a common case-knife, and make incisions across it to the full length of the blade, at the distance of about one inch, and again crosswise in the same manner, the incisions intersecting each other at right angles. ‘The cheese-maker and two assistants then proceed to break the curd, by repeatedly putting theiz hands down into the tub, and breaking every part of it as small as possible, this part of the business being continued until the whole is uniformly broken small. It generally takes up about forty minutes, and the curd is then left, covered over with a cloth, for about half an hour, to subside. The bottom of the tub is now set rather a-tilt, the curd is collected to the upper side of it, and a board is introduced, of a semi-circular form, to fit loosely one half of the tub’s bottom. ‘This board is placed on the curd, and a sixty-pounds’ weight upon it, to press out the whey, which, draining to the lower side of the tilted tub, is ladled out into brass pans. Such partsof the THE DAIRY. 239 curd as are pressed from under the board are cut off with a knife, placed under the weightea board, and again pressed ; the operation being repeated again and again, until the whey is entirely drawn from the curd. The whole mass of curd is then turned upside down, and put on the other side of the tub, to be pressed as before. The board and weight being removed, the curd is afterwards cut into pieces of about eight or nine inches square, piled upon each other, and pressed both with the weight and hand ; these several operations being repeatedly performed, as long as any whey appears to remain in it. The next thing is to cut the curd into three nearly equal portions, one of which is taken into a brass pan, and is there by two persons broken ex- tremely fine, a large handful of salt being added, and well mixed with it. That portion of curd being sufficiently broken, is put into a cheese-vat, which is placed to receive it, on a cheese-ladder over the cheese-tub, the vat being furnished with a coarse cheese-cloth. The second and third por- tions of the curd are treated in the same manner, and emptied into the vat, except that into the middle portion eight, nine, or ten times the quantity | of salt is usually put. By some, however, each portion is salted alike, and with no more than three large handfuls to each. The breaking takes up more or less time, as the cheese was set together hotter or colder; half an hour is, perhaps, the longest. The curd, when put into the cheese-vat in its broken state, is heaped above the vat in a conical form; to prevent it from crumbling down, the four corners of the cheese-cloth are turned up over it, and three persons, placing their hands against the conical part, gently, but forcibly, press it together, constantly shifting their hands when any portion of the curd is starting from the mass, and folding down the cloth upon it. So soon as the curd adheres together so as to admit of it, a small square board, with a corner of the cloth under it, is put on the top with a sixty-pounds’ weight, or a lever, such as that which has been described, is pressed upon it. Sev- eral iron skewers are at the same time stuck in the cone, as well as through holes in the side of the vat, from which they are occasionally drawn out and fixed in other spots, until not a drop of whey is discharged. The weight and skewers are then removed, and the corners of the cloth are held up by hands, or by a wooden hoop, while the curd is broken as small as possible, half way to the bottom of the vat, and the same operation of pressing and skewering is repeated. The four corners of the cloth are then taken up, while the vat is drawn away, and rinsed in warm whey; a clean cloth is then put over the upper part of the curd, and it is returned inverted into the vat; it is then broken half way through in the same manner as before which several operations occupy from three to four hours. 240 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. When no more whey can be extracted by these means from the cheese, it is again turned in the vat, and rinsed as before in warm whey. The cloth now made use of is finer and larger than the former, and is so laid that on one side it shall be level with the edge of the vat, and on the other wrap over the whole surface of the cheese ; the edges being put within the vat, thus perfectly enclosing the entire mass. In this stage of the business the cheese is still higher than the edge of the vat; and, to preserve it in due form, recourse is had to a binder, about three inches broad, either as a hoop or as a cheese-fillet, which is a strong, broad, coarse sort of tape, which is put around the cheese, on the outside of the cloth, and the lower edge of the binder pressed down within the vat, so low as that the upper edge of it may be level with the surface. ‘The cheese is then carried to the press, and a strong, smooth board being placed over it, the press is gently Jet down upor it, the usual power of which is about fourteen or fifteen hundred veicht. In most dairies there are two presses, and in many three or four, of diferent weights, the cheese being by some put first under the heaviest, and by others under the lightest. As soon as the cheese is put into the press, it is immediately well skew- ered, the skewers being of strong wire, eighteen or twenty inches long, sharp at the points and broad at the other end, the vat and binder having holes, seldom more than an inch asunder, to receive them. As the press always stands near the wall, only one side of the cheese can be skewered at the same time, and it must therefore be turned half way round, whenever that is necessary ; but this occasions no inconvenience, as the skewers must be frequently shifted, and many more holes are made than skewers to fill them. In half an hour from the time when the cheese is first put into the press, it is taken out again, and turned, in the vat, into another clean cloth ; afier which it is returned to the vat, but is by some persons previously pnt naked into warm whey, where it stands an hour or more, for the purpose of hardening its coat. At six o’clock in the evening, the cheese is again turned in the vat into another clean cloth, and some dairy-women prick its upper surface all over an inch or two deep, with a view of preventing blisters. “These, however, if they occur, can be remedied by opening them with a penknife and pouring hot water into the incision; then press down the outer rind, put on a little salt, and place a piece of slate with a half- pound weight upon it. At six o'clock in the next morning, it is again turned in the vat, with a clean cloth as before, and the skewers are laid aside ; it is also turned two or three times more, both morning and evening, at the last of which finer cloths are used than those at first, in order that as little impression as possible may be made on its coat. After the cheese has remained about forty-eight hours under the press, it THE DAIRY. 241 is taxen out, fine cloth being used merely as a lining to the vat, without covering the upper part of the cheese, which is then placed nearly mid-deep in a salting-tub, its upper surface being covered all over with salt. It etands there generally about three days, is turned daily, and at each turning well salted, the cloth being changed twice in the time. It is then taken out of the vat, in lieu of which a wooden girth, or hoop, is made use of, equal] in breadth to the thickness nearly of the cheese, and in this it is placed on the salting-bench, where it stands about eight days, being well salted al] over, and turned each day. The cheese is then washed in lukewarm water, and, after being wiped, is placed on the drying-bench, where it remains about a week; it is then again washed and dried as before, and after it has stood about two hours, it is smeared all over with about two ounces of sweet whey-butter, and then placed in the warmest part of the cheese-room. On the cheese coming into the salting-house, it is, in some dairies, taken out of the vat, and after its sides are well rubbed with salt, is returned into the vat with a clean fresh cloth under it; the top being covered with salt, it is placed on the salting-benches, turned and salted twice a day, and the cloth changed every second day. On the salting-benches it is continued seven or eight days, when it is taken out of the vat, and with a wooden hoop, or cheese-fillet, around it, is put into the salting-tub, and managed as before described. While it is remaining in the warmest part of the cheese-room, it is, during the first seven days, rubbed every day all over, and generally smeared with sweet butter; after which it should for some time be turned daily, and rubbed three times a week in summer, and twice in winter. The details of this process, however, apply only to cheeses of sixty pounds’ weight, and the quantity of salt used to them is uncertain. The greatest is about three pounds each; but much of it is wasted, and whether the cheese acquires much saltness in the salting-house, dairymen themselves are doubt- ful, though much salt is there expended. Respecting the heating of the milk, the practice must evidently vary according to the weather. The sponginess and heaving of the cheese, which are sometimes complained of, are faults which are to be attributed more to inattention on the part of the operators than to want of actual skill, — the remedy being careful breaking, good thrusting, frequent skewering, and powerful pressing; they not im- probably arise partly from the use of cold and warm milk, which, if mixed together, will generate air. Those of pungency and rankness, which are commonly imputed to impurity in the rennet, and by some to the want of salt, may be also more properly ascribed to the fezmentation occasioned by the imperfect discharge of the whey. Gloucester Cheese. — When the curd is sufficiently firm for breaking, it 21 Q 242 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. is gently and slowly cut crosswise, to the bottom of the tub, at about an inch apart, with a three-bladed knife of fourteen inches long. When it has stood five or ten minutes, to allow it to sink a little, and the whey to come out as clean as possible, some of the whey is dipped out of it with a bowl, and the curd is again cut. This must also be at first done slowly, and with strokes at a considerable distance from each other, for, if performed hurriedly, a great sediment of curd will be found in the whey-leads ; it should, however, be gradually quickened, and the strokes taken nearer and nearer every time, one hand with the skimming-dish keeping the whole in motion, and turning up the lumps suspended in the whey, while the other cuts them as small as possible. This process may occupy a quarter of an hour. The curd is now allowed to settle during a quarter of an hour, when the whey is taken from it, and poured through a very fine sieve placed over the whey-leads, the curd being then cut into lumps, from which most of the re- maining whey escapes. ‘The curd is then pressed down with the hand into vats, which are covered with large cheese-cloths of fine canvas, and placed in the press for half an hour, after which they are taken out, and the curd put into a mill, which tears it into small crumbs, and saves the laborious part of squeezing and rubbing it with the hands, while it also retains that portion of the oily matter which would be otherwise lost to the cheese, and thus occasions a great improvement in the making. In this pulverized state it is customary to scald the curd with hot whey, though some consider the cheese richer when not scalded, for this washes out a part of the fat. The whey should, nevertheless, be completely ex- tracted, and the curd fitted into the vat as compactly as possible, being rounded up in the middle, but only just so much as that it can be pressed down to a level. A cheese-cloth is then spread over the vat, and a little hot water is thrown over the cloth, as tending to harden the outside of the cheese, and prevent it from cracking. The curd is now turned out of the vat into the cloth, and the inside of the vat being washed in whey, the in- verted curd, with the cloth around it, is again returned to it; the cloth is then folded over, and the vat put into the press, where it remains about two hours, after which it is taken out and dry cloths applied, which should be repeated in the course of the day; it is then replaced in the press until the cheese is salted, which is generally done within twenty-four hours after it is made. The salting is performed by rubbing the entire cheese with finely pow- dered salt; for if the curd be salted before being put into the vat, its parti- cles do not intimately unite, and although it may become a good cheese, it is loose and crumbly, and never becomes a smooth, close, solid mass, like that which has been salted after it has been made; but this is never done THE DAIRY. 243 antil the skin is closed, for if there be any crack in it at that time, it will not afterwards close. The cheese is after this returned to the vat and put under the press, in which more cheeses than one are placed together, care being always taken to put the newest lowest in the press, and the oldest uppermost. The salting is repeated three times, — the cloths being removed after the second, in order to efface their marks, — and twenty-four hours are allowed to intervene between each; thus the cheese is within five days taken from the press to the cheese-room, though in damp weather it should remain somewhat longer. There it is turned every day for a month, when it is ready for cleaning, which is done by scraping with a common knife, the operator sitting down to perform the operation. When it has been cleared from all scurf, it is rubbed all over with a woollen cloth dipped in paint made of Indian red, or Spanish brown, and small beer; and as soon as the state of the paint will permit, the edge of the cheese. and about an inch on each side, are rubbed hard with a cloth, every week. The quantity of salt is generally about three and a half pounds to the hundred weight, and one pound of annatto is enough for half a ton of cheese. The true characteristics of the double Gloucester cheese consist in its great richness, together with the mildness of its flavor, and that waxy texture which makes it cut, even in thin slices, without crumbling ; while its oily matter is retained in toasting, by merely softening itself, without being burned. Stilton Cheese. —This article, so proverbial for its richness, is made by putting the night’s cream, without any portion of the skimmed milk, to the miik of the following morning ; but those who wish to make it very fine add a still greater quantity of cream, and of course the richness of the cheese depends upon the amount which is used. Butter is also said to be some- times mixed with it. The rennet is then added, without any coloring ; and, when the curd has come, it is taken out without being broken, and put whole into a sieve, or drainer, where it is pressed with weights until entirely cleared of whey. When dry it is put, with a clean cloth, into a hooped chessart, and placed under the press, the outer coat being first salted When sufficiently firm to be removed from this mould, the cheese is placed upon a dry board, and tightly bound in a cloth, which is changed daily, in order to avoid all danger of cracks in the skin, until this is found to be tolerably well coated, after which it is no longer used, and the cheese re- quires no further care than being frequently turned upside down, and cocca- sionally brushed. The cheeses of this kind, although not much larger than the crown of an ordinary sized hat — the form of which they much resemble — and not weigh- ing more than about a dozen pounds, yet require nearly two years to bring 244 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. them to maturity ; for they are not generally thought sufficiently mellowed for use until considerably decayed ; and, in order to forward their ripeness, it is said that, besides their being placed in damp but warm cellars, they are sometimes wrapped in strong brown paper, and sunk in a hot-bed. It is also stated that the flavor of an old cheese may be communicated to a new one, of whatever species, by some portions being intermixed with it. This is done by extracting small pieces, with the sample-scoop, from each cheese, and interchanging them; by this means, the new one, if well covered up from the air, will in a few weeks become thoroughly impregnated with the mould, and with a flavor hardly to be distinguished from the old one. The cheeses selected for this operation should, however, be dry, and the blue mould should be free from any portion of a more decayed appearance. Dunlop Cheese. —The Dunlop has acquired a high reputation for its mild richness, and is made as follows: When so many cows are kept on one farm as that a cheese of any tolerable size may be made every time they are milked, the milk is passed, immediately as it comes from them, through a sieve into the vat, and, when the whole is collected, it is formed into a curd by the mixture of the rennet. Where, however, the cows are not so numer- ous as to yield milk sufficient to form a cheese at each meal, the milk of another meal is stored about six or eight inches deep in coolers, and placed in the milk-house. The cream is then skimmed from the milk in the cool- ers, and, without being heated, is put into the curd-vat, along with the milk just drawn from the cows, and the cold milk, from which the cream has been taken, is heated so as to raise the temperature to about blood-heat. This, indeed, isa matter of great importance ; and though in summer 90° may be sufficient, yet, upon the average of winter weather, 95° will be generally found requisite. If coagulated much warmer, the curd becomes too ad- hesive, much of the butyraceous matter is lost in the whey, and the cheese will be found dry, tough, and tasteless ; but if too cold, the curd, which is then soft, does not part readily with the serum, and the cheese is so want- ing in firmness that it is difficult to be kept together ; indeed, even when the utmost pains are taken to extract the whey, and give solidity to the cheese, holes — which, in dairy language, are termed ‘‘ eyes,’’ ‘* whev-drops,”’ and ‘“ springs’? — frequently break out, rendering them either rancid or insipid. About a table-spoonful of the liquid rennet is generally thought sufficient for twenty-five gallons of milk, and the curd is usually formed by it within twelve or fifteen minutes, though in some dairies — of course, in consequence of the difference of strength in the rennet — it does not come from three quarters of an hour to an hour, though double the quantity of rennet is used. The curd is then broken with the skimming-dish, or with the hand, and the whey ought to be taken off as speedily as possible, though without pressing, THE DAIRY. 245 as the least violence has been found to make it come off white, and thus weaken the quality of the cheese. The best method of separating the whey from the curd is, in the first instance, to lift the edge of the cheese-tub, and let the whey run off slowly from it into a vessel placed underneath. The tub is then let down to stand a little, after which it is turned one fourth round, and another collection emptied off; thus, by turning the tub a fourth time round every time, it is found to part from the curd more pure and quickly. When quite freed from the whey, and the curd has acquired a little con sistence, it is then cut with the cheese-knife, gently at first, and more minutely as it hardens, after which it is put into the draine (which is a square vessel, with small holes in the bottom, and a cover to fit inside), on which the lid is placed, with a cloth thrown over it; and a slight pressure — say from forty to fifty pounds, according to the quantity of curd — being laid on, it is allowed to stand from fifteen to twenty minutes, or half an hour. It is then cut into pieces of two inches square, the whey is again discharged, and the weight, being doubled, is replaced. The process of cutting it smaller every half hour, and increasing the weight until the press- ure is upwards of a hundred pounds, is continued for three or four hours. It is then cut very small, and minutely salted, half an ounce being suffi cient. A clean cheese-cloth, rinsed in warm water and wrung out, being then placed in the chessart, the cheese is turned upside down, and laid, with in- creased weight, under the press, during the whole night. Next morning, and during the three or four days which it must remain in the press, it is daily turned repeatedly, dry cloths being each time used, and the weight is gradually increased, until the pressure amounts to at least a ton. When ultimately taken from the press, the cheeses are generally kept during a week or ten days in the farmer’s kitchen, where they are turned three or four times every day, and rubbed with a dry cloth.” They are then removed to the store-room, which should be in a cool exposure, between damp and dry, without the sun being allowed to shine upon them, or yet a great current of air admitted; this gradual mode of ripening being found essential to prevent the fermentation and heaving of the cheese, as well as the cracking of the rind; but attention must be paid to rub them with a dry cloth, and turn them daily for a month or two, and twice every week after- wards. Practical Suggestions. — Such, then, are the most usual modes of mat.u- facturing the world-renowned cheeses to which we have alluded, in which the difference employed is in some cases very striking and important. Thus, in the preparation of rennet, the bag itself is in some places used PAN 246 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. while elsewhere the liquid decoction extracted from it is so much strenger that it occasions the curd to coagulate, as we have just seen, within fifteen minutes ; and in other places, it occupies an hour and a half, and not unfre- quently more than two hours. Now, it is not only the delay which is thus disadvantageous ; for it is well known that the degree of heat at which the curd is set is one of the nicest points in cheese-making, and we can hardly imagine how that ean be properly regulated, if-it be allowed to stand so long cooling in the cheese-tub. The temperature to which the last night’s milk is heated when there is not sufficient to make a cheese that one meal, and the mode in which the cream is managed, differ also in various dairies ; nor does there appear any objec- tion to the practice of making the last night’s milk into cheese, provided it be so gradually heated as that the cream does not run the risk of being con- verted into oil, as it does if too suddenly heated ; yet we believe that, when once separated from the milk, the cream can never again be sc completely blended with it as to be entirely retained in the curd when set; it conse- quently runs off with the whey, and leaves the cheese of inferior quality. The skewering of the curd, as practised in some dairies. is unknown in most other places ; and the labor of several persons employed for three or four hours in thrusting or hand-pressing it into the vat is an operation which is generally managed in other dairies with a couple of maids, and in one quarter of the time. The heaving of the cheese is attributed to the imperfection of its ferment- ation, occasioned in a great measure by the store-rooms— though com- monly placed over the cow-house — not being sufficiently heated, so as to occasion its sweating; yet, in the account of the Dunlop cheese, objection is made to heated stores, as causing an improper degree of fermentation. The rankness of flavor, which is mostly attributed to the impurity of the rennet, is by others ascribed to the nature of the pasture. In this, both sup- positions may .be right; for it must be evident that it may be readily occasioned by the use of a large quantity of badly-prepared rennet ; and we learn from the management of one of the dairies, where every means were taken to avoid the fault, that the cheese still maintained an unpleasant taste of the same description, which could, therefure, have only arisen from the herbage. It was, however, at length uniformly overeome by throwing about half a tea-spoonful of saltpetre into the pail before the cows were milked. The cracks which frequently take place in cheese are also by many persons supposed to proceed from lime having been used as a manure upon land laid down to pasture, and afterwards fed by cows; but this is probably a mistake, for it rarely occurs in the Dunlop sort, though perhaps as much lime has been applied to the soil where that descripticn is made as THE DAIRY. 247 to any other. It is more probably owing to the cheese being exposed, before it is dry, to too much draught of air. The mode of salting is also very differently conducted in several dairies ; in some the practice being to cure the cheese after it has been removed fron the vat, while in others the salt is minutely mixed into the curd pre- viously to its being put into the vat. Both practices, nevertheless, appear to be attended with equally good effects, but the latter certainly occasions less trouble, without any waste of salt. Skim-milk Cheese. —This article, made of milk from which the entire of the cream has been taken, is, of course, more or less palatable in propor- tion to the time during which the milk is allowed to stand; for if that be so long as to deprive it entirely of the butyraceous or oily matter, it becomes indigestible, and so hard that, in some places, where large quantities of it are made, it is said that, instead of being cut with a knife, it is usually chopped with a hatchet. The milk should, if possible, not be allowed to become sour ; and the mo- ment it has been skimmed, it should be heated to no more than animal heat, or about 90°; for, if put together too hot, its toughness will be increased, and as the curd coagulates more ‘readily than that of full-milk cheese, the same degree of heat isnot necessary. This is the chief perceptible difference in management, except that the curd is more difficult to be broken, and that the cheese needs less of the press; but in all other respects the mode of making is the same. It will also be sooner ready for use than whole-milk cheese of the same weight. Cream Cheese.—This being. in general, only wanted for immediate use, is, in fact, little else than thick, sweet cream, dried by being put into a small cheese-vat of about an inch and a half in depth, perforated with ‘small holes in the bottom, to allow any portion of the milk which may be mixed with it to escape. It is also covered with rushes, or the long grass of Indian corn, so disposed as to admit of its being turned without being handled, and it is never pressed except gently by the hand between cloths. It is thus kept in warm situations to sweat and ripen; for, if once pene- trated by frost, or even chilled, much of its mellow richness is lost, and it becomes comparatively insipid. The extreme of heat should, however, be equally guarded against, or it becomes rank; and, therefore, some judgment is requisite in the time for using it in perfection. New Cheese. — New cheese is only made in the early part of summer, when the cows have been turned out to grass, and is formed entirely of new milk, with about one third of warm water added before the rennet is put te it. The whey is then gently poured off, and the curd is carefully kept entire until put into a vat of considerable diameter, but only about an inct 248 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. in depth. It is very gently pressed for a few hours only, and wnen removed from the vat, it is covered with a cloth, which is frequently changed, and so scun as the skin is formed it is considered fit for use. Parmesan Cheese. —'This is prepared as follows: The cows are kept in the house nearly the whole year round, and fed during the summer with cut grass, and in the winter upon hay. ‘The weight of these cheeses varies from sixty to one hundred and eighty pounds; it consequently requires a great number of cows to produce one of even the smallest weight, and as the farms in that territory are not large, the dairymen club together. The mode of making is this: The summer cheese, which is the best, is made of the evening milk, after having been skimmed in the morning, and at noon, mixed with the morning milk, which is also skimmed at noon. Both kinds of milk are poured together into a large copper cauldron, of the shape of an inverted bell, which is suspended on the arm of a lever, so as to be moved on and off the fire at pleasure. In this vesse] the milk is gradually heated to the temperature of about 120°, after which it is removed from the fire and kept quiet for a few minutes, until all internal motion has ceased. The rennet is then added, which is composed of the stomach of a calf, fermented together with wheaten meal and salt, the method of using it being to tie a piece, of the size of a hazelnut, in a rag, and steep it in the milk, while held in the hand, and squeezing it from time to time. A sufficient quantity of the rennet thus soon passes through the rag into the milk, which is now to be well stirred, and afterwards left at rest to coagulate. Within about an hour the coagulation is complete, and then the milk is again put over the fire, and raised to a temperature of 145°. During all the time it is heating, the mass is briskly stirred, till the curd separates in small lumps, when a part of the whey is taken out, and a few pinches of saffron are added to the remainder, in order to color it. When the curd is suffi- ciently broken, nearly the whole of the whey is taken out, and two pailfuls of cold water are poured in. The temperature is thus lowered, so as to enable the operator to collect the curd by passing a cloth beneath it, and gathering it up at the corners. It is now pressed into a frame of wood, placed on a solid platform, and covered by a round piece of wood fitting into the mould, with a heavy weight at top. In the course of the night it cools, parts with the whey, and assumes a firm consistence. The next day one side is rubbed with salt, and the succeeding day the cheese is turned, and the other side rubbed in like manner, this alternate salting being continued for about forty days. After this period, the outer crust of the cheese is pared off, the fresh surface is varnished with linseed oil, the convex side is colored red, and the cheese is fit for market. THE DAIRY. 245 Potato Cheese. —Cheese, which is said to be of very fine quality, is partly formed from potatoes, being made in the following manner: — 'The potatoes of a large, white kind, are those to be preferred, and after being boiled, they are peeled, when cool, and reduced to a pulp, of equal con- sistence, either by being grated or ground in a mortar. ‘To five pounds of this pulp there is added one pound, or about a pint, of sour milk, with the usual quantity of salt to impart a flavor ; the whole is then kneaded together, and, being covered up, is allowed to remain for three or four days, according to the season. At the expiration of this time, the pulp is again kneaded, and placed in one or more small wicker baskets, in order to get rid of the superfluous moisture; the pulp is then moulded into form by being placed in small pots, in which the cheeses are allowed to dry in the shade during about fifteen days, after which they are put instore. The older they are, the better they become; and, if kept dry, they will keep for a great number of years. Three kinds of this cheese are made: the first, or most common, according to the above proportions ; the second, with four parts of potatoes and two parts of curdled milk; and the third, with two parts of potatoes and four of milk. Ewe-milk is as frequently employed as that of cows, and imparts a pungent taste, which to many palates is found agreeable. Green or Sage Cheese.— The method pursued in the making of this article is, to steep over night, in a proper quantity of milk, two parts of sage, one part of marigold-leaves, and a little parsley, after they have been bruised. On the following morning, the greened milk is strained off, and mixed with about one third of the whole quantity intended to be run or coagulated. The green and white milks are run separately, the two curds being kept apart, until ready for vatting ; these may be mixed, either evenly and intimately, or irregularly and fancifully. ‘The management is the game as for common cheese. CHAPTER VI. FRUITS, FRUIT-IRFES, VINES, &e. STANDARD KINDS : — APPLE — APRICOT — BARBERRY — BLACKBERRY — CHEERY —— CRANBERRY — CURRANT — GOOSEBERRY — GRAPE — MEDLAR — MELON — MULBERRY — NECTARINE — PEACH — PEAR — PLUM — QUINCE — RASPBERRY — STRAWBERRY. MISCELLANEOUS KINDS : — ALMOND — BLUEBERRY — BUT- TERNUT — CHESTNUT — FIG — FILBERT — LEMON — LIME — OLIVE — ORANGE — POMEGRANATE — SHELLBARK — WALNUT — WHORTLEBERRY ; —- WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. THE APPLE. Propagation. — The apple may be propagated by seeds, cuttings of the branches or roots, by layers, suckers, in arching, grafting, or budding; but the last two modes are principally for continuing varieties, and seeds are used to obtain new varieties. Soil and Situation. — It will grow in any common soil, neither too sandy gravelly, nor clayey, on a dry subsoil, and a free exposure. Mode of Bearing, gc. —'The apple bears invariably on the old wood often on that of the preceding year; and the blossoms continue being pro duced from terminal and lateral spurs, or short, robust shoots, many years. These spurs require to be thinned out when they become crowded, to be shortened when they become too long, and to be cut in when they become so old as to produce smaller fruit than is desirable. Pruning. — The object of this is to admit the light and air among the branches, to preserve the symmetry of the head by causing it to spread equally and in the same form and manner on every side, and to eradicate diseased branches. (See chapter on Grartine, Buppine, Prunine, &c., Fig. 118. Gathering and Keeping. —'The common mode of keeping, by those who grow apples in large quantities for the market, is to lay them in heaps in (250) FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 51 cool dry cellars, and cover them with abundance of straw. They may be kept in a cellar, packed in barrels, the interstices filled with dry sand, so as to exclude the air. ‘Table apples may be spread upon shelves, or packed in sand, fern, or straw, in jars. VARIETIES. Summer Apples. Early Harvest.— This is one of the earliest varieties worthy of cultiva- tion; its form is flat, medium size, bright straw-colored skin, flesh tender and sprightly. In the Middle and Western States it grows well, and is much esteemed. Ripens in July and August. Red Astrachan. — This is a fruit of extraordinary beauty. It bears abun- dantly, the fruit being rather above the middle size, and very smooth and fair, roundish, a little narrowed towards the eye. The prevailing color is deep crimson, with sometimes a little greenish yellow in the shade, and occasionally a little russet near the stalk, and covered with a pale white bloom. Stalk rather short, and deeply inserted. Flesh white, crisp, moderately juicy, of a rich, acid, agreeable flavor. Ripe in August, and does not keep a long time after gathering. Hardy, vigorous, and produc- tive Adapted to various soils and climates. Fig. 121. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 253 Williams’s Favorite. — This is a moderate grower and a good bearer, requiring a strong soil to perfect it. It is large and handsome, and ripens from the last of July to the first of September. Skin very smooth, nearly covered with a fine dark red Flesh yellowish-white, of mild and agreeable flavor. Fig. 122. Fig. 123. 254 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Juneating. —This is an old, favorite variety, of small size, fiat form, long and thin sta_k ; color a pale green, turning to light yellow when ripe ; the skin has an oily feel; the taste is pleasant. Bears abundantly in good ground, ripening from the last of June to the middle of July. F'ig. 128. Summer Queen. — A popular apple, of the finest quality and appezrance. Large size; color fine, rich, vellow ground, mixed with red striped, long stalk; large tree; great bearer; flesh rich, yellow, and agreeable flavor. Best on sandy soil. Fig. 124. Fig. 125. Maiden’s Blush. — An apple of large size and great beauty ; has a yellow ground, bright red cheek ; form flat; smooth skin; flesh white, tender, and sprightly ; ripens in August, hardy, and great bearer. Fig. 125. Remarks. — The above comprise some of the most universally esteemed Summer apples ; to which may be added the following well-established sorts, out of hundreds contained in the nursery catalogues : — American Summer Pearmain, a staple sort in New Jersey; Benoni; Cole, large and hand- some: Early Red Margaret, a capital fruit, ripe in July; Early Strawberry, much esteemed in New York; Large Yellow Bough, a fine dessert fruit, Summer Rose, dessert; Sapson; Tucker; Manomet Sweeting ; Spice Sweet: Red Quarrenden. Fall Apples. Porter.— A large and popular variety, very productive; skin bright yellow, with a blush; flesh fine-grained and juicy; ripens last of Septem ber to October. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, E1v. 255 Fall Pippin. — A fine kind, quite popular in the Middle States. Large size; round; skin smooth, oily, bright greenish-yellow, slightly speckled ; flesh white, tender, juicy, of a superior flavor. Ripens from last of Octo- ber to December. Gravenstein. — Vigorous tree, and very productive. Fruit large; color clear straw or yellow, with stripes of red; flesh pale yellow, crisp, delicious 256 FARMEK’S HAND-BOOK. flavor. A fine fruit for dessert, cooking, or cider; ripe in September and October. Fig. 126. ~ Rambo. — Sometimes called Gilpin, Romanite, Bread and Cheese, and Seck-no-further. Popular in Middle States. Does well on a light sandy soil. Size not large; flat; skin smooth; color variegated. flesh greenish- white, tender, rich, slightly acid. Productive, ripening last of October to late in the season. Fig. 127. Yellow Bellflower. — A much-admired fruit, rather preferring a sandy soil. Fruit large, oblong; skin smooth; color pale yellow, with a blush flesh juicy, tender, sub-acid. A good bearer, ripening in November. Remarks. — The five preceding varieties are among the choicest Fall apples. There are others of nearly equal value, such as the Golden Sweet ; Richardson; Summer Bellflower, of New York; Bars, of Rhode Island ; Lyman’s Large Summer, of Connecticut; Winthrop Greening, of Maine ; Early Joe, of New York; Mexico, of Connecticut; Superb Sweet, of Mas- sachusetts ; Fairbanks; Sassafras, or Haskell Sweet; Fall Wine; Lowell; Moses Wood ; Jersey Sweeting; Leland Pippin; Pomme Royal, of Ohio; , J Fig. 129. = QI Sez EE ———_-____==£: G7; WWW SSS ZF NNSA SSA RVQE ih “ CDW AW Z ABQ ¢ A n\ \ A 258 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Lyscom; Magnolia; Thompkins, Jewett’s Red, Fameuse; Golden Ball, Hurlbut, Belmont; Herefordshire Pearmain. Winter and Spring Apples. Esopus Spitzenberg.— This apple possesses great beauty and exquisite flavor. Large size; skin fair and smooth; color bright red, with small spots ; flesh yellow, rich, juicy, and sprightly ; good bearer. Fig. 129. Baldwin. — Also called Pecker, and Steele’s Red Winter. Ranks very high in the northern markets. Fruit large, roundish; color yellow and dull red, streaked and dotted; flesh pale-white, crisp, highly flavored. Good bearer, ripening from November to April. Fig. 130. Hubbardston Nonsuch.— A superior variety. The tree grows large, vigorous, and handsome; bears abundantly. Fruit large, globular, or coni- -eal; color yellow, with stripes of pale red, flesh yellow, juicy, rich, sweet. relieved by a slight acid. Ripens in November and December. Westfield Seek-no-further.— Same as the Seek-no-further of Connecticut —an old and valued fruit. Size large; round; color pale red and green, with slightly yellow dots; flesh white, tender, and rich. Fig. 182. , FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 259 Newtown Pippin. —'The Green and the Yellow are two distinct verieties of this apple. It grows well in the Middle and Western States. Size medium ; flesh fine, firm, crisp, juicy, very superior flavor. Roxbury Russet. — Very popular, and extensively grown. Medium size, 260 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. roundish, somewhat flat; skin dull green or brownish-yellow; flesh green ish white, compact, slightly acid, but rich flavored. Ripe in Dec. Fig. 133. Rhode Island Greening. — Also called Jersey; and Burlington Greening. A very large fruit, flat ut its base and summit; color yellowish-green, with dark spots; flesh yellow, tender; rich, juicy, acid flavor; ripens from Sep- tember to March; bears abundantly. A universal favorite. Golden Pippin. — Beautiful dessert apple. Small, round, symmetrica}; gold color, with dark dots; flesh yellowish; rich, sprightly flavor; great Fig. 134, bearer, flourishing best on a strong sandy loam. Ripens November to March. Lady Apple. — Superior for the table. Fruit small, but beautiful; rather flat; skin smooth ; color yellow and red; flesh firm, white, well flavored. Remarxs. —It would be easy to extend the foregoing list of Winter and Spring apples, had we the room requisite. We have described the most desirable standard sorts for cultivation in this country, and subjoin the FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 261 names of other varieties of note: Detroit; Northern Spy; Blue Pearmain ; Peck’s Pleasant; Swaar; Waxen Apple; King; Gloria Mundi; Norton’s Melon ; Golden Reinette ; Hollow Crown Pearmain ; Ladies’ Sweeting ; Dan- vers Winter Sweeting ; Fort Miami; Wood’s Greening ; Vandevere ; Jona- than; Minister; Old Nonsuch; Prior’s Red; Leicester Sweeting ; Tolman Sweeting ; American Golden Russet; Little Pearmain; Tewksbury Winter Blush; Raule’s Janette; Rockrimmon; Never Fail. Cider Apples. The most valuable kinds for the manufacture of cider are the Harrison (Fig. 136) and Cam/field, extensively raised in the Middle States, being rich in flavor, and bearing very abundantly ; Hugh’s Virginia Crab, small size, but very productive ; and the Red Streak. Crab Apples. Red Siberian. — A beautiful tree, and a great bearer. Fruit small, about the size of a cherry, growing in clusters; color bright red, when matured ; 62 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. globular form, long and thin stem. Excellent for preserves. Ripe in Sep- tember. Yellow Siberian. — The tree, its habits and appearance — excepting the color of the fruit— is similar to the preceding. The color of the fruit is a fine, clear yellow, or arich golden hue. Ripe in September and October. Maxine Ciper.—In order to make good cider, sound fruit only must be used, and this should be gathered in dry weather, if possible, after the first of October. Let the fruit lay in heaps for some days to sweat and ripen; but be careful not to grind it while damp, and remember that the finer the apples are ground, not only will the yield be greater, but the quality of the cider will also be proportionally improved. A well-fitted mill will crush the seed also, thus imparting a peculiar aromatic-bitter taste to the must, which becomes stronger as the cider obtains age. The pomace may be allowed to stand from six to twenty-four hours after being ground, or it may be pressed at once, according as it is desired to give to the cider a pale or a high color. Figure 138 represents Hicock’s patent portable cider-mill, by the use of which more work can be done than can be effected with much larger stationary mills. Fermentation of the Jwice.—Cider is capable of three different kinds of fermentation: the vinous, which originates the alcohol that imparts to the liquor its stimulating and exhilarating qualities; the acid, which changes the cider into vinegar ; and the putrid, which destroys it entirely, by converting it into a nauseous and poisonous liquid. The principal object aimed at in making cider being to stop the fermentation when it has progressed to the vinous stage, and before it takes on the acid char- acter, the fermentation should be slow, and the temperature of the apart- ment never exceed 48° Fahrenheit. To secure this object, pour the liquor, after being strained, into large hogsheads, placed on a platform raised about six feet from the floor. A faucct should be inserted at the bottom of each hogshead, by which, when the fermentation has ceased, and the liquor has become clear, it may be drawn off at once into barrels without coming in contact with the atmospheric air, which produces the acetous FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 263 fermentation. Experienced cider-makers in England say that the acid fermentation is progressing at the same time with the vinous, and that the liquor is, from the commencement, absorbing oxygen at the surface. Fig. 138. To check this, it is reeommended to add pulverized charcoal to the liquor as it comes from the press, in the proportion of tight pounds to the hogs- head. This at first makes the liquor very black, but eventually it becomes remarkably fine. : Preparation of Casks.—As soon as emptied, the casks should be rinsed with cold water. If they become sour, and covered with acid scum, a pint of unslaked lime must be put into each cask, together with three or four gallons of water, the bung-hole closed, and the whole well shaken. =| 264 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. When cool, rinse them out with cold water, after which pour in about six gallons of scalding water, and when every part of the cask is heated, pour it off, and turn the cask bung down to dry. When dry, bung up the casks, and stow them away carefully for use the following year. Fining and Bottling.—Cider should be bottled during the cold weather of winter. It may be clarified by adding to the contents of each cask ‘one ounce of isinglass in solution, which must be well mixed with the cider, and in seven or eight days it will be ready for bottling. Cider should never stand on the finings more than ten or twelve days, and, when properly fined, it will be clear and transparent—otherwise it is not fit for bottling. Vinegar.—The best cider vinegar may be made by adding to a cask of good cider four pounds of white Havana sugar and half a pound of tartar. THE APRICOT. Propagation. — The apricot-tree may be raised from the stone, like the peach, or by budding, either on its own or plum stocks. Soi] and Situation. — The soil which suits the apricot best is a rich black mould, though some recommend a light loam. It thrives better in the Middle States than at the North, where, when propagated, it needs shelter. VARIETIES. Early Apricot.— This variety is round-shaped, little inclined to oblong, with a furrow running from the stem to the head; color bright yellow, with a red cheek ; flesh yellowish white, rich, juicy, finely flavored t ripens in the month of July, which is one of its chief merits. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 265 Large Early. — This is a fine fruit, which also ripens in July. The fruit is of medium size, somewhat oblong ; color orange, rather pale ; flesh straw- color, rich, juicy, easily leaving the stone. An excellent sort Fig. 140. Peach. — This is the largest, and by many considered the finest, of all the varieties. The form is round, with compressed sides; color a yellowisk Fig. 141, fawn on the shady side, slightly colored with red towards the sun, flesh yellow, sprightly, juicy, and highly flavored. Ripens in August. Fig 140. 23 266 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Brussels.—The most hardy tree, and, perhaps, the most certain, in our climate. It is large, long fruit; color a pale yellow, with a portion of red, and some spots; flesh a pale yellow, firm, rich, tender, and juicy ; clear at the stone ; does not grow mealy ; ripens in July. Fig. 141. ReEemMARKsS.—Of the other cultivated sorts, the Moorpark and Red Mas- culine are the most valuable and popular ; besides these, there are the Breda ; Black ; Roman—good for the North; White Masculine ; Tur- key. There are also varieties exclusively ornamental. THE BARBERRY. Culture, &c.—But little may be said respecting this well-known shrub, which grows spontaneously in this country and in Europe, bearing a small acid berry, much used as a pickle and preserve. It is readily propagated by seeds and suckers, in a light, rich soil. Fig. 142, VARIETIES. Common Red.—This is the variety most known, and its appearance and habits are too familiar to require any description here. Its color, when fully ripe, is a deep scarlet, with a slightly dark tinge. THE BLACKBERRY. Although the Blackberry grows plentifully in its wild state, yet it is now largely cultivated, either by planting the seed in rich soil, and manuring freely, or by setting out layers. VARIETIES The Kittatinny, Lawton and Wilson, are all choice kinds. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 267 iQ \ i ae Li a init M)) i Sou) ria! 1) Trailing—This variety is produced on a low shrub, with trailing branches. The fruit is large, roundish-oblong, andripens in July. The best for all purposes. HHigh.—This is an erect shrub, growing tothe height of eight or ten feet. The fruit (Fig. 148) is generally somewhat smaller than the Trailing, and, though highly esteemed, is not so rich and highly flavored as the first-named. Sometimes raised in gardens. White.—Not much known—has white fruit. Double White Flowering, and Double Pink Flowering.—These are or- namental varieties, growing very luxuriantly, and making a splendid appearance when trained on walls and fences. Not so common in the Northern States as elsewhere. THE CHERRY. Propagation.—The Cherry-tree is propagated by seeds and by suckers, when stems are wanted ; by seeds alone, when new varieties are wanted ; by scions, when working on old subjects ; and by buds, when the trees are young. If intended for dwarfs, bud the plants at two, and if for standards, at four, years of age. The spring succeeding this operation is the time for transplanting. Soil and Situation.—This tree will grow and thrive in a diversity of soils, but prefers adeep loam, ina free exposure. A wet soil is not adapted for its healthy growth and bearing ; neither should the soil be too rich, as it will then become thrifty in wood, without corresponding fruitfulness. VARIETIES. Black Heart--also known as Early Black, New May Duke, Ansell’s Fine Black, Spanish Black Heart, Black Russian, and Black Caroon— 268 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Fig. 144, is an old and esteemed variety : fruit large, heart-shaped ; color dark purple to deep black ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, well-flavored. Ripens last of June. May Duke— also known as Early Duke, Holman’s Duke, and June Duke— is one of the choicest and most thrifty sorts, and very extensively cultivated. The fruit is roundish, growing in clusters; color red; flesh soft and juicy, rich, and of fine flavor. Ripens in June. . Fig. 145. Bigarreau.— Yellow Spanish, White Bigarreau, White Tartarean, by some. Size large to very large, heart-shaped and flattened; color pale FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 269 yellow, or straw, slightly dotted; flesh yellowish tinge, firm, juivy, and sweet. Ripens towards the last of June, and is a superior sort. American Amber.— Early Amber, and New Honey, by some. Fruit medium size, growing in clusters of three or more; color dark pink, when ripe; flesh rich, sweet, amber color. Ripe in June. Fig. 145. Elion. — Size quite large, and heart-shaped; tree hardy, with dark red footstalks to the leaves; skin rather thin; color somewhat variegated, with pale straw and red in streaks; flesh firm, juicy, and sweet ; ripens in June, and bears abundantly. Much esteemed. Black Eagle.— A foreign sort, very popular in some parts; size about medium ; heart-shaped, somewhat globular; color purplish-black; flesh tender, juicy, and well-flavored. Ripens in July. Ox Heart. — A long, large, heart-shaped cherry, with a dark red skin; flesh rich, firm, with a fair flavor. Ripens early in July. Black Tartarean.— Also known as Black Russian, Ronald’s Large Black Heart, and Black Circassian. A large and superior fruit; heart-shaped ; color blackish-purple; flesh dark, firm, sweet, excellent flavor. Fine bearer, and is ripe about the first of July. Downer’s Late. —Fruit large size, oval. Skin smooth, light red; flesh firm, juicy, sweet, and delicious; ripe in early part of July, lasting a con- siderable time. Certain and productive bearer. [- III) ~ Early White Heart. — A very early sort, ripening near the end of May. Size rather small, and oblong heart-shaped ; skin waxy white, tinged with Fig. 147. a pale red ; flesh firm, sweet, and finely flavored: not so productive as the May Duke, and some others 23 * 270 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. REMARKS.—The other established and standard sorts are the Doctor, Belle de Choisy, Napoleon Bigarreau, White Tartarcan, Norello, Knight's Early Black, Florence, Downton, Manning’s Mottled, Holland Bigarreau, Elliott's Favorite, Hyde’s Seedling, and Kentish. THE WILD CHERRY comprises several varieties, and the best kind being the Black, which is ripe in September or October, and is used for various medicinal purposes. The Choke Cherry is another kind, bearing a red berry, which matures earlier than the first-named. THE CRANBERRY. General Oultrue, &c.—Comparatively speaking, the cultivation of the cranberry has now been reduced to a very certain and well-defined sys- tem. It is anative fruit, growing on a low trailing vine, found in bogs, meadows, swamps, and other wet lands. The berry is round, red, and quite acid, the finest variety being found in this country, where it com- mands a high price. Fig. 148 Some persons enumerate three kinds, only one of which, often called the Bell, is adapted to a dry soil. It grows wild, on the borders of bogs, spreading its way to upland soils, and is much larger than the other kinds, in its wild state. Persons engaging in the cultivation of this fruit may begin with the Bell ; by commencing with those which have been cultivated, or naturalized to a dry soil, they will much sooner ——— a a ee soe FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC Pats accomplish their object, and with much less trouble and expense, as the plants multiply and increase abundantly. From one or two thousand plants, enough may be obtained, in two or three years, to plant a very large surface of ground. Select ‘a moist soil, not liable to bake ; loamy soils, which are moderately dry, and contain a mixture of sand, are well adapted for the purpose. The soil should be prepared by ploughing, harrowing, and making it even, and should be marked out in drills eighteen or twenty inches apart, putting the plants in the drills about six inches apart; hoe them slightly, till the roots become clinched, when further cultivation is unnecessary. In two or three years the plants may be expected to run together and cover the whole suil. It will yield from one hundred and fifty to four hundred bushels per acre, the size being two or three times as large as the wild, and of a superior flavor, and keeps sound from the harvest of one year to that of the next. The fruit is generally gathered in September, with wire-tooth rakes made Fig. 149. for the purpose (Fig. 149). One man may gather from thirty to forty bushels per day, with the aid of a boy to pick up the scattered fruit. The roots may be planted either in spring or fall; the former from the time when the ground can be worked till the middle of May, and the latter in October and November. In some places, low and coarse meadows, of no value, have been drained and planted with the cranberry, and are thus made very profitable. After 972 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. draining the land well, and removing all brush and shrubs, the soil is ploughed, though it is usually sufficient to cover the surface with a heavy top-dressing of sandy soil, and then make holes four feet apart, into which the sods, or square bunches of the cranberry-roots, are planted. Some eranberry-growers think it expedient to flow such lands, the water being let on about the 20th of October, and remain till the 20th of May, or till the frosts have disappeared, in order that the blossoms may not be cut off in the spring, by appearing too early. To keep Cranberries.— When the fruit is to be exported, it is put, in a perfect state, into tight barrels, filled with water, and headed up, by which means they are kept sound and good. THE CURRANT. Propagation.— The best method of propagation is by euttings, — the FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 273 shoots of the last summer’s production, of straight, clean growth, shorten- ing each from about ten to twelve or fifteen inches long, according to its strength, Plant in rows about two feet asunder, and about nine inches apart in the rows ; let no limbs grow nearer than six inches to the ground; prune every year, giving free access to the sun. To cultivate on an extensive scale, set 274 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. the bushes in rows, six or eight feet between each bush, with intervals of proper width for passing across the rows. Soil and Situation. — A strong, rich, deep loam brings the fruit to its highest state of perfection, but it will thrive in a much poorer soil. VARIETIES. Red Dutch, — also known as Morgan’s Red, and Red Grape, — is a large- sized currant ; color red ; rather mild flavor ; grows in long clusters. White Dutch. — White Leghorn, White Crystal, Morgan’s White, Reeve’s White, by some. Size large; skin slightly yellowish; flavor mild; quite hardy. A variety much esteemed for the dessert. Fig. 150. Black Naples. — This is considered the best of the black varieties, being larger and more prolific. It is not so well suited to a southern clime. Champagne. — A pale-red fruit, large, and quite acid. Not of superior quality. May’s Victoria. —'This is a newly-introduced sort, bearing a large berry, of a brilliant red color. The flavor is very superior, and the bush is very productive. By many persons it is esteemed the best of all the colored kinds. Fig. 151. Remarxs.— The other notable varieties are Knight’s Early Red, Com- mon Black, and Striped Fruited. ‘The varieties described above are, how- ever. the best. THE GOOSEBERRY. Propagation. —The mode by cuttings is usually adopted for continuing varieties, and that by seeds for procuring new ones. Plant the cuttings in autumn. Soil and Situation. — Any good garden-soil, on a dry bottom and well manured, will suit the gooseberry ; that which is soft and moist producing the largest fruit. The situation should not be under the drip of trees over- much shaded or confined, otherwise the fruit will be small, ill-flavored, and the plants apt to mildew. Keep well pruned. VARIETIES. Capper’s Top Sawyer. — A. large, round, hairy fruit ; branches somewhat drooping ; ripens somewhat Jate ; considered very fine. Melling’s Crown Bob. — Berry of large size, oblong, bright red, hairy, good flavor, rather late. It is highly recommended by growers, as an excel- lent sort, and profitable to cultivate in gardens or elsewhere. Fig. 152. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Houghton’s Seedling. —'This variety is said not to mildew under’ any circumstances. It grows very thrifty, and bears abundantly, though the Fig. 153. berry is not so large size as some others; flesh soft and sweet; skin deli- cate; color dark. A very superior sort, if not the very best. Fig. 153. Woodward’s Whitesmith. — Large, white, roundish, erect branches, fine flavor ; considered an excellent kind. Coleworth’s White Lion. — White, roundish-oblong, downy ; ripens late ; excellent flavor, branches drooping, good bearer. Crompton’s Sheba Queen. — Fruit good size, rather early ; form roundish- oblong ; downy ; good flavor. Early Green Hairy. — Fruit small, round, and hairy; deep green ; flavor excellent ; ripens quite early. Red Warrington. — Fruit large and roundish; excellent flavor. Remarks. — Farrow’s Roaring Lion, Parkinson’s Laurel, Keene’s Seed- ling, Early Sulphur, Yellow Ball, Early White, White Honey, Pitmaston Green Gage, Old Rough Red, Hill’s Golden Gourd, Prophet’s Rockwood, Nizon’s Green Myrtle, and Wellington’s Glory, are also well-known sorts. 276 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. THE GRAPE. Propagation. — Vines are propagated in the open ground by layers and by cuttings. The former is the readier mode, if the shoots be laid down in pots, and planted out in summer. The latter mode is much the better. To provide cuttings to be planted at the proper season, select, at the autumnal pruning, a sufficient number of shoots of the preceding summer’s growth, such as are well ripened, of a medium size, and moderately short-jointed. Cut them into convenient lengths of six or eight buds each, leaving at the ends not less than a couple of inches of the blank wood for the protec- tion of the terminal buds. Stick these temporary cuttings about nine inches in the ground, in a warm and sheltered situation, where they will be pro- tected from the severity of winter. The best time to plant them out is about the last of March, or fore part of April. Soil and Situation. — A light, porous, rich, sandy loam, not more than eighteen inches deep, on a dry bottom of gravel, stones or rocks, is the best. The warmer the aspect, the greater perfection does the grape usually attain. Warmth alone is not, however, sufficient ; shelter from the withering in- fluence of the wind is equally necessary. Culture, gc. — Manure composed of bones, whole or crushed, the horns and hoofs of a«imals, as well as their carcasses, cuttings of leather, woollen rags, feathers, hair, urine, blood, — indeed, almost every variety of manure may be used to fertilize and enrich the soil occupied by the vine. If very rich manures are used, they should be mixed with turf and sand, otherwise so much benefit does not accrue. Pruning. —In pruning the vine, always cut upwards, and ina sloping direction; always leave an inch of blank wood between the terminal bud, and let the eye be cut on the opposite side of the bud; leave as few wounds as possible, and let the surface of every cut be perfectly smooth. In cutting out an old branch, prune it even with the parent limb, that the wound may heal quickly ; prune so as to obtain the quantity of fruit desired on the smallest number of shoots possible ; never prune in frosty weather, nor when frost is expected; never prune in the spring, as this causes bleeding, and therefore a wasteful and injurious flow of sap ; prune as soon after the first of October as the gathering of the fruit will permit. Training. —'To train a vine on the surface of a wall is to regulate the position of its branches, the principal objects of which are, to protect them from the influence of the wind ; to bring them into close contact with the wall, for the purpose of receiving the benefit of its warmth; to spread them at proper distances from each other, that the foliage and fruit may receive the ful] effects of the sun’s rays; and to retard the motion of the sap, so as to FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 277 secure the formation of fruit-buds. The flow of sap, it must be remembered, is always strongest in a vertical direction, and weakest in a downward one ; on this account, serpentine training is preferable, being calculated to check the too rapid ascent of the sap, and to make it flow more equally into the fruiting-shoots, and those intended for future bearers. | VARIETIES. Black Hamburgh.— A well-known variety, but more adapted to the vinery than for out-of-door culture. The bunches are quite large size ; berries Fig. 154. large, roundish, slightly oval; skin thick, deep purple or nearly black ; flavor rich and sweet. A productive and valuable sort. Miller’s Burgundy. — A very hardy and fruitful grape, very popular, and extensively grown. Its leaves are very thick, covered on both sides with a thick down. The bunches are small, but solid ; skin thick, of a blue-black | color ; flesh tender, juicy, and pleasant. Fig. 155. Muscat of Alexandria. —There are the White and the Red Muscat, the tormer (a) being large in the berry, of oval size, and fruiting in long, large -_ FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. bunches ; the skin is thick ; flesh firm, juicy, musky flavor, very agreeable eating ; hangs a long time on the branches. The Red resembles the White, except in color (b). Ripens finely on walls. Fig. 155. Catawba. —'This is a native sort, highly esteemed. It is hardy, vigorous, and productive; large bunches; color deep purple and palish-red ; thick Fig. 156. skin ; pulp sweet, rich, finely flavored. Ripens first part of October. Supe- rior for wine, or eating, and succeeds well in any tolerably fair situation. Isabella. — A hardy plant, very productive, and, in this country, almost universally grown. Bunches large, rather loose ; berries fair size, oval ; Fig. 157. skin thick, purplish black; flesh soft to firm, juicy, sweet, aromatic. A most valuable variety, rather late at the North, but seasonable in the Middle and Western States. Alexander. — Known also as the Schuylkill Muscadel. A certain and pro- lific bearer ; large, bluish-black berry ; oval ; skin thick ; flesh firm, sweet, musky flavor. Not so thrifty at the North as the two previous sorts. Scuppernong. — Distinguished by its diminutive leaves ; grows wild in some parts of the United States, and is in considerable use as a wine fruit, for which purpose it is esteemed one of the best. The W hite and the Black are scarcely dissimilar in any particular, except their respective colors. The bunches are rather small; berries large, pretty round; thick skin ; flesh sweet and juicy, with a musky taste and flavor. Remarxs.— There are numerous other varieties worthy of an extended FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 279 notice, on account of their peculiar adaptedness to particular sections, and their distinctive uses, such as the Royal Muscadine, Early Black July, Black Prince, Bland, Ohio, Lenoir, Diana, Winnie, Clinton, Cunningham, Warren’s Madeira, Elsinburgh, Norton’s Virginia, White Sweetwater, Black Sweetwater, Black, Grizzly, White Frontignan, and Missouri. Vineyarps.—The making of wine having now become an important branch of agricultural industry, a short sketch of the mode of laying out and cultivating a vineyard, gathering the grapes, making and fining the wines, etc. may not be here out of place. The best preparation for a vineyard is to dig the ground up to the depth of three feet during the autumn previous to planting the vines. In spring lay it off into hills distant from each other six feet in one direction, and five feet in the other, and in each hill plant two cuttings, to guard against the possibility of one failing to grow. If both cuttings sprout, one of them may either be cut off, or transplanted. Culture. — During the first year the labors of the vine-dresser are con- fined to hoeing the ground, and removing the weeds, as well as all super- fluous shoots. The following spring the young vines are cut down to a 230 _ FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. single eye or joint, and trained to stakes, which are made of locust or oak, and six or seven feet in length. One of these is driven into the earth close to each vine, which is fastened to it with a wisp of straw. All the suckers are trimmed off, and the ground kept clear and well loosened. The second spring after planting the vines are cut down to three eyes or joints, but the general cultivation is the same as during the first year. If any of the sets have not taken root, they are replaced by new ones. The third year the vines are cut down to four or five joints, all the suckers trimmed off, the vines tied up, and hoed thoroughly. Two shoots are trained to each stake. The vines commence to bear during the third year, and thereafter are pruned and trained every year, during the month of December. The standard stalk is established during the fourth year, by cutting down the best shoot of the preceding year to six or eight joints, bending it over in the form of a bow, and fastening it to the stake with willow ties. This is called the bearing-wood. The other shoot is cut down to a spur of two or three eyes, and forms a reserve of bearing-wood for the following season. Each succeeding year the old bearing-wood is pruned away, and a new arch formed with the best shoot of the new wood —a spur being left, as before, to furnish bearing-wood for the next year. The original stalk being thus always kept about two feet high, the vine is always within control; and, as the vines extend, they are trained from stake to stake, until the fruit has nearly ripened, when the green ends are — excised. During each summer the ground is hoed two or three times, and kept scrupulously clean; and every third year the land is trenched, and two or three inches of well-rotted manure turned in. Pressing the Grapes.—The grapes are never gathered until the saccha- rine principle is fully developed. This fact is ascertained by testing some of the juice with a saccharometer. An ordinary portable cider-mill answers very well for small crops; but where’ grapes are extensively grown, a press adapted to this use is usually supplied. The grapes are well pressed, to extract all the juice; for that which flows first contains but little mwcose-saccharine matter, without which the liquor does not fer- ment freely. That substance is chiefly present in the insoluble, organized parts and the skins, which also contain most of the acid, the resinous extractive, and the coloring principle. Some growers let the mashed grapes stand for twenty-four hours in open hogsheads, and do not press them until they ferment, and the grapes rise to the surface of the liquor. A slight fermentation in the skins is said to improve the color and aroma of the wine; but too protracted fermentation is regarded as injurious, by giving it a bitter, astringent taste. Making Wine. — After the grapes are pressed, and the juice or must FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 281 extracted, the latter is exposed to a temperature of 65° Fahr., when fer- mentation commences. The liquor is agitated by an intestine motion, and bubbles are evolved, which buoy up the grosser matter, increase the bulk of the mass, and form a scum upon the surface. An increase of temperature then takes place, and the must, losing its saccharine taste, acquires a deeper color than before, together with a vinous flavor, which increases with the progress of the fermentation. When the fermentation has subsided, which generally occurs in a few days, the mass returns to its original bulk, the scum sinks to the bottom of the vessel, the liquor becomes transparent, and is changed into wine. The constitution of the must is liable to be greatly influenced by the culture of the grapes, their variety and quality, and by the peculiarities of the climate in which they are grown, as well as by the nature of the season. A cold year so much diminishes the yield of saccharine matter, as to render the wine weak, harsh, and ascescent; and a wet season diminishes the quantity of alco- hol. High winds and fogs are also injurious. When the wine has set- tled, it is drawn off into casks, in which it undergoes further changes. It is then racked off into other casks, in which it is subjected to the ope- ration of sulphurizing — sulphur matches being burned in the casks, to render the glutinous matter incapable of re-exciting fermentation. ‘The wine is then fined; that is, deprived of those matters which render it turbid, and dispose it to changes of a deteriorating nature. Either isin- glass or white of egg is used for this purpose. The first unites with the tannic acid in the wine, and the second with the alcohol, forming reticu- lated coagula, which envelop and throw down those solid particles which endanger the safety of the wine. When the wine again clears, it is ready for use, or for bottling, which is the best mode of keeping it. The bot- tles are corked tight, covered with sealing-wax, and laid on their sides in tiers. If sparkling wines are desired, the old and new vintages are mixed together in equal proportions. The cold weather of the winter months are best suited for fining wines, as at that time they deposit most of the matter previously held in suspension. Wines left in the wood are liable to become sour by alternations of temperature. Champagne Wine.—The following is the process for making this highly- prized wine. After being pressed out the juice is allowed to ferment in _ casks for a few days.. When fermentation ceases the wine has a vapid and disagreeable taste. It is then fined to as great a degree of bright- ness as can be secured before the commencement of the bottling season, which is usually in March. After bottling, a second fermentation is induced by putting into each bottle a small glassful of “liqueur” (sugar- candy dissolved in wine, and fined to brightness). However bright the 24* 282, FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. wine may be when bottled, this fermentation produces a fresh deposit of sediment, or lees. This process requires the greatest attention, the bot- tles being closely watched, and the temperature of the air regulated to the point necessary to check or promote fermentation. When the wine . begins to deposit a sediment, the bottles are placed, necks downward, in long beds or shelves, pierced with oblique holes. Every day each bottle is raised, gently vibrated, and again replaced in a position slightly ver- tical. By this method the sediment is detached from the side of the bot- tle, and allowed to pass toward the neck. Finally the bottles are placed in an upright position, and the sediment, being then entirely deposited in the necks, is ready for “disgorging.” To effect this purpose the bot- tles are held mouths downward before a recess, and the wires confining the corks cut, when the contained gases drive out the corks, and with them the foul sediment. The skill of the operator is evinced by his pre- serving all the pure wine, and parting with nothing but the foul liquor. The bottles are then refilled from wine previously purified, re-corked, and again stacked. When the wine is prepared for sale, a second disgorge- ment is always necessary, and sometimes a third. When ready, the wine gets another dose of ‘ liqueur,’” composed of very pure candy dissolved in white wine for ordinary champagne, and red wine for the pink. This gives it an exquisite sweetness, and adds to its sparkling qualities when opened. The quantity put into each bottle depends on the market for which it is intended, but it is usually a good wineglassful. Constituents of Wine. — These are: 1. Odoriferous principle, which is due to the presence of a volatile oil, 2. Alcohol. This exists in all wines: those containing it in small quantity are called light wines; the others are known as strong wines. 3. Free Acids. Wines contain malic, citric, and tartaric acids. The effervescent wines, such as champagne, which are bottled before fermentation is completed, owe their peculiar proper- ties to the retention, and subsequent escape when the confining force is removed, of the developed carbonic acid gas. They are apt to become ropy, which is prevented by the addition of pure tannic acid, or nut-galls in powder. The tannic acid of some wines, especially that of the red wines, as port, is derived in great part from the husk of the grape, but partly from the seeds. 4, Sugar. This varies greatly in different wines ; those containing it most abundantly being denominated sweet wines. 5. Extractive. This exists in all wines, but diminishes with age. 6. Coloring matter. When the husks are separated from the liquor before fermenta- tion, the wine is pale, and is then called white wine; but when fermen- tation takes place before the removal of the husks, the wine acquires a dark hue, and is then known as red wine. The purple coloring matter, FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 283 which resides in the husks, is dissolved out by the newly-formed alcohol, and reddened by the free acid. 7. Zartar. This substance is deposited both in the cask and in the bottles, constituting argol and crust. The deposition increases with the formation of alcohol, and red wines contain a greater quantity than white wines. THE MEDLAR. Propagation. —It is raised by grafting, by layers, also by seed, planted while fresh, and in the fall. The seed does not germinate for some time ; the layers will root in autumn: the pear is the best stock upon which to graft. Tree low; fruit round, size of a plum; pulp thick, with five stones. Soil and Situation. — Any common soil will answer, but a well-drained, retentive loam, suits it best. Gather the fruit in November, and spread singly upon sand. VARIETIES. Blake’s Large. — A variety not very frequent, though by some thought one of the best. German or Dutch. —The tree is very irregular, dwarfed ; fruit large, and, all things considered, the best of all the sorts. Nottingham. — This is small-sized, and of a quick, pungent flavor. Stoneless. — Not so good quality, but may be preserved better than the other kinds. / THE MELON. Propagation, §-c. — Propagated by seeds, planted in shallow hills, five or six feet apart each way. From six to ten seeds in a hill will suffice, and the soil which covers them should be about half an inch deep. When up, thin the plants to two or three in a hill, and draw the earth up to them. Hoe, and keep free from weeds. Soil and Situation. — Melons require a warm, dry, rich soil, with a small quantity of manure in each hill. They are easily raised in almost every part of the country, though they flourish better in the Middle and Southern States than further north. VARIETIES. Water-melon.— The sub-varieties of this sort are the Imperial, Carolina, New Jersey and Spanish; also, the Citron. These are well-known kinds, and are extensively grown. By many they are considered as forming a dis a 284 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. tinct species of fruit, of themselves. The first-named is a productive sort, nearly round ; color palish-green, and white; flesh pink, rich, pleasant, The Carolina (Fig. 159) is a very popular variety ; large size; oblong ; color green and white ; flesh red ; sweet, agreeable flavor. Musk-melon. — A delicious fruit, a native of Persia. The varieties are numerous, easily propagated from seeds. The principal sorts are the Keising, an egg-shaped, light straw color, highly flavored variety ; Green Hoosainee, a superior and prolific sort ; Large Germek, round, sea-green colored, richly flavored, and productive ; Karly Canteleup, ripens early and bears well, rather small-sized, thin skin, orange-colored flesh, juicy, and of good flavor ; Nutmeg, green-fleshed, large, roundish oval, tender, sweet, pleasant flavor. Besides these, the Green Citron, Palermo, Orange Canteleup, Black Rock, and Sweet Ispahan, are good kinds, worthy of cultivation. THE MULBERRY. Propagation. — It may be propagated by seed, sown in a warm border, but this mode is rarely pursued ; by layers— lateral shoots obtained by heading down the tree near to the ground ; by cuttings, having two thirds of their length old wood, and one third yearling ;or by lopping off a straight branch, eight feet long, from a large tree, —the nearer the trunk the - better. Make it clear of every little stem, then dig a hole four feet deep, plant the naked branch firmly in the ground, leaving around it a cavity to hold water, when the season is dry. In two years it will bear fruit. Soil and Situation. —It prefers a moist, deep, loamy soil, and a some what free exposure to the south. ‘The soil should not be cold, or wet, and should be well drained. It may be trained against a wall, but this requires much space. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. VARIETIES. Red. —This is a common variety, growing wild in the Urited States. The fruit is of a deep-red color, and of excellent flavor. Black. —'This variety hails from Asia Minor, but thrives in a northern climate. The berry is large and Ing, black, and of a rich aromatic taste. It is used in making wine, or cider, mixed with apples. Remarks. — The Johnson is a new variety, and it bids fair to sustain the high character given it by Professor Kirtland. Fruit large, oblong, of a mild and pleasant flavor. Of the White Mulberry there are several sorts ; not, however, so valuable for their fruit as for silk. THE NECTARINE. Remarks. — The nectarine is not uncommonly classed with the peach, as a distinct variety, the peculiarities consisting in the fruit being smooth and naked, without fur or down, and the flesh being firmer. There is no doubt of their identity, as the seed of the peach sometimes produces the nec- tarine, and vice versa. It is propagated and grown the same as the peach (which see). VARIETIES. Boston. — Also known as Lewis’s and Perkins’s Seedling. Originated in Boston, where it was raised from a peach-stone. The fruit is very hand- some, of medium size, and heart-shaped ; color bright yellow and red; flesh firm, sweet, pleasant. One of the best varieties for general cultiva- tion. Red Roman.—One of the most hardy. It is a large, handsome, red 286 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. cling-stone ; color dark next the sun, the shaded side yellow ; flesh juicy, sweet, and vinous. Ripe in August and September. A good bearer. i} ] HW aT qT n \ | \ ANE i \ . NV | y \\ Hy y \ Uf \ \\ N Jaune Lisse, or Roussanne. — A small, round fruit ; skin yellow, a little spotted with red towards the sun; skin smooth ; flesh yellow, firm, sweet, highly flavored. Ripens in September and October. Fig. 161. Fig. 162. \ y Hf \\ i} tod \ Lift M, S\\ HR Y yj i} Y A \ Wit} Wy Y YM yy AMM YY NAL Elruge.— A fine fruit, very popular. Medium size ; roundish ; pale green, deep-red next the sun; flesh palish-white, tender, juicy ; ripe in September. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Xarly Violet.—-Medium size; green, and purplish red; flesh pale yel- low, and pinkish ; soft, rich, sweet, agreeable flavor. Ripe last of August. Good bearer ; very superior. Musk Violet. — This fruit is of large size; color a yellowish-white, a fine red violet towards the sun, with whitish spots ; flesh yellowish-white, firm, vinous, sweet and musky. Ripe in September. Fig. 162. Remarks. — Hunt’s Tawney, Downton, New White, Broomfield, Pitmas- ton’s Orange, and Duc du Tellier’s, are recommended to growers. THE PEACH. Propagation. —It may be propagated by planting the stone in the fall, at a depth of two or three inches, and in one or two years they will be of sufficient size to transplant. A common way of increasing them is by bud- ding on the plum stock or the bitter almond; usually inoculated on the peach stock. Plant from ten to twelve feet apart, and the land may be cul- tivated with manured crops of corn, potatoes, vines, or pulse. Soil and Situation. — A rich, sandy loam is the best, —a natural or arti- ficial soil of this description. It is best not to manure much, except when the land is also occupied by other crops, like those just mentioned. Culture, §c.— When transplanted, they should not be very large, — generally not more than two years’ growth. Good varieties are obtained by budding ; grafting is thought, on the whole, to be hardly of much benefit. VARIETIES. Early York. — One of the earliest and most generally cultivated varieties. Size medium, roundish, slightly oval; skin thin, somewhat dotted ; color red ; flesh greenish-white, tender, rich, lively flavor. Ripens middle or ‘ast of August. Red Cheek Melocoton,— A large yellow clear-stone, with a red cheek ; flesh rich and juicy ; ripens in September, — sometimes earlier. Gross Mignonne. — A large, round peach, flattened at the ends, divided by a deep furrow into unequal parts ; the stem small, a small point at the blossom end; skin covered with a thin fine down, color a clear green, approaching to yellow, deep brownish-red towards the sun ; flesh fine, melt- ing, juicy, delicate and white, tinged with red near the stone ; the juice is sweet, vinous and sprightly. Ripens in August. Fig. 163. George the Fourth. — Medium size, globular form; color pale yellow and dark red ; flesh melting, rich, superior flavor. Ripens in September. Coolidge’s Favorite. — Fruit large and roundish ; skin smooth, white, September. Much thought of. ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, finely flavored. Hardy rly in , ripening ea with red towards the sun and a good bearer It is deeply flavor. Alberge. — Size medium; yellow skin, with dark red check ; flesh yel- Mm t=} fo) = — i a a oop oO 5 n tah (>) — fa bo = -_ AS o g os o i=) g — B a} o a0 = P=) 3 2g ning from the stem to the blossom end. Ripenslast seam run indented by a of August. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 289 Bergen’s Yellow. — Large size, round, slightly depressed ; color red and orange, dotted ; flesh yellow, tender, rich and luscious ; good bearer, and ripens first of October. A valuable sort. Morris White.—Fruit large, round or oval; color white, greenish, slight purple tinge ; flesh white, tender, rich, and sweet. Ripe middle of September. Oldmixon Freestone. — A beautiful, large, flat peach, with a white skin and red cheek ; flesh rich, juicy, luscious. Ripe in August. Red Magdalen. — Medium size ; round, flat next to the stem ; color a fine red towards the sun; flesh white, reddish near the stone, sweet and ‘sprightly. Ripens in September. Hardy and productive. Crawford’s Late. — Fruit large, round, and handsome ; yellow in the shade, deep red towards the sun; flesh yellow, reddish near the stone, iuicy, tender, rich, finely flavored. Ripens about the last of September or first of October. Red Rareripe. — An excellent fruit, frequently called Morris’s Red Rare- ripe ; size quite large, round; color red and white; flesh tender, rich, melting, highly flavored. Ripens in August. Yellow Rareripe.— Size large, globular ; color yellow, and purplish red ; flesh yellow, red near the stone; tender, juicy, vinous flavor. Ripens in September. Noblesse. — A large and handsome clingstone; skin white, with a pale blush, and some dark brownish spots; flesh rich and highly flavored. Ripens in September. 29 T 290 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Lemon Freestone. — A pale yellow, whitish fruit; medium size; flesh juicy, tender, melting, and highly flavored. Ripens in September. Monstrous Cling. — A large, roundish-oval fruit; color palish-yellow. with deep red tinge; flesh solid, juicy, and sweet. Ripens in October. Late Heath. — Large, oblong, terminating in a point at the head; color rich cream-colored white, sometimes faintly blushed; flesh rich, tender, juicy, and melting. Hardy, and ripens in September, lasting into Novem: ber. ; Early Tillotson. — A medium size, round fruit; color yellowish ahite, red, with dots; flesh white, red near the stone, juicy, melting, excellent flavor. Remarks. — The varieties, besides those mentioned above, worthy to be recommended for general cultivation, are the Jaques. White Imperial, Pres- ident, Late Admirable, Ward’s Late Free, Golden Ball, Hyslop’s Cling, Old Newington, Malta, Nutmeg, Belle de Vitry, Incomparable, Catharine, Chan- cellor, and Late Purple. . FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. THE PEAR. Propagation. —'The pear may be propagated by layers or suckers, but not so readily by cuttings. These modes, however, are productive of very indifferent plants, and are usually rejected in favor of raising from seed, and grafting or budding; by seed, either for the purpose of obtaining new va- rieties, or to produce pear stocks. But, as the varieties of the pear do not reproduce themselves from the seed, and seedlings are slow in giving their fruit, the pear is principally grown by scions and buds. These are placed on pear or quince stalks, according as taste or interest may invite to early and small crops, of fine quality, or to later and more abundant ones, of infe- rior character. In the former case, the stem of the quince is advantageously employed, and in the latter, that of the common pear, and without any ma- terial difference in the operation, excepting that the feebler the stem, the _ nearer to the earth should be placed the scion or bud. The second year after budding or grafting, the plants may be removed to the places where it is intended they shall stand. Soil and Situation. — Though the pear-tree may be made to grow almost anywhere, still it succeeds poorly on the north sides of hills, or in stiff, dry soils, and still worse on those having a wet subsoil. Some of the later and finer varieties require a deep, substantial loam, occasionally refreshed with a dressing of well-rotted dung ; and some of the best aspects the garden can furnish are also desirable. Culture, gc. — Cultivated as standards and pyramids, the young trees should be left, in a great degree, to regulate their own shape. To produce a well-balanced tree, shorten the wood of the deficient side, and leave the otker to itself. Trees of other forms, and intended for walls and espaliers, require more labor and management, and a degree of both summer and winter pruning ; the former of which consists in rubbing off all forerizht, ill-placed, spongy shoots, before they become hard, while the latter consists in sparing all such well-placed and thrifty laterals as may be necessary for preserving the form given to the head of the tree, and cutting away all others close to the branch from which they grow. If the older wood be diseased or redundant, cut it away also, or shorten it down to some healthy and promising shoot. When an old tree becomes unproductive, either cut down within about two feet from the ground, and train up anew some selected shoots which may have pushed from the stump, or take off at its base every branch which does not want at least twenty degrees of being perpendicular, and all spurs from such other branches as by this rule will be left. Into these retained branches, at their subdivisions, and at different distances from their bases, 292 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. quite to their extremities, grafts must be carefully inserted, which, when about twelve inches long, must be trained downwards between the branches. VARIETIES. Bartlett. — One of the most valued sorts, and grown in almost every part of the country. Fruit large, pyramidal; color yellowish at maturity, thin, Hardy, productive, keeps well, ripens in October. It stands about number one among all the pear-tribe. Madeleine. — Medium size; pale yellow, sometimes with a blush towards the sun; form obovate, tapering to the stalk; flesh white, tender, juicy, refined flavor ; one of the best and earliest pears; hardy, and a good bearer. Dearborn’s Seedling. — A valuable early sort; small, symmetrical ; color light yellow, with a few dots; flesh white, tender, sweet, and sprightly flavor. Is quite productive, early, ripening from the middle to last of August. Winter Nelis.— A fine winter variety; size rather above medium; roundish-obovate ; color pale straw, slightly brown; flesh white, soft, sugary, rich, musky-flavored ; ripe in December; not very productive, but excellent. Fig. 168. 293 294 FARMER’S HAND-BOOR. Seckel. — Size generally small ; form regular, round at the blossom end, contracting gradually towards the stem; color sometimes yellow, with a bright red cheek, and at other times a complete russet, without any blush ; flesh melting, juicy, exquisitely flavored. Ripe in Sept.and Oct. Fig. 169. Tyson.— A medium-sized fruit; color light straw, with brownish blotches ; flesh lightish-white, rich, sweet, fragrant; ripens in September. Beurre Bosc. — Fruit large and long; color light cinnamon russet ; flesh SS ————s ——— S== SSC gH) \ MI | white, rich, tender, delicious. A moderately productive variety, ripening in October and November. Fig. 170. \ XS FRUITS FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 295 Bloodgood. — Large size; form oval; color dull yellow, with darkish spots; flesh soft, melting, agreeable flavor ; early and prolific. Ripens in August. Flemish Beauty. — Fine large fruit; color dull yellow and brownish : flesh yellowish tinge, sweet, tender, juicy, sugary, musky flavor. Ripe in October. One of the best sorts, though not so much cultivated as it deserves. Golden Beurré of Bilboa. — Medium size, oblong, roundish at the crown contracted towards the summit; color light yellow, with russet spots ; flesh tender, melting, rich, excellent flavor. Ripens in October, and very fruitful. Summer Frank Real. — Medium size, obovate, thickest in the middle ; color light yellow, with brownish-green dots; flesh melting, rich, fine- grained, sweet, and of superior flavor. Ripens in September; hardy ; fruitful. Muscadine. — Medium size, roundish, symmetrical ; color yellowish-green, with dots of brown; flesh white, buttery, rich, musky flavor. Ripens in Fig. 171. A L September, bearing abundantly, and is altogether a very valuable sort. 296 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Remarks. — There are many other varieties which might be strongly recommended, but we can only give the names, without attempting to give a full description. Among the Summer, or early sorts, worthy of being no- ticed, are the Summer Melting, Stevens’s Genesee, Honey, Jargonelle, Beurré d’Amaulis, and the Rousselet de Rheims; of the Autumn sorts, among the best are the Belle Lucrative, Marie Louise, Swan’s Egg, Cushing, Frederic of Wurtemburg, Fulton, Saint Michael, Bleeker’s Meadow, and Belle et Bonne ; of the Winter sorts, the most desirable are the Colmar, Columbia, Vergou- leuse, Pound, St. Germaine, Glout Morceau, Easter Beurre, Beurre Diel, and Passe Colmar. THE PLUM. Propagation. — The plum, like other stone-fruit, is mostly propagated by budding, the stocks being the free-growing plum, either raised from seed, or, more commonly, from layers or suckers. Soil and Situation. —The plum naturally does not grow in so light a soil as the cherry, nor in so clayey a soil as the apple; and in a state of culture, a medium soil, on a dry subsoil, is found to be the best. Only the finer kinds are planted against walls. Culture, §-c. — All the varieties produce their blossoms on small spurs, which are protruded along the sides of the shoots of one, two, or three years’ growth, — generally in the course of the second or third year. These spurs, if duly thinned, and, when necessary, cut in, will continue bearing for five or six years, or longer. Standard trees require very little pruning, veyond that of occasionally thinning out the branches, which should be done before midsummer, to prevent the gum from appearing on the wounds. Plum-trees against walls or espaliers are generally trained hurizontaiy. Old trees may be renovated by heading in or cutting down. The plum 1s forced in the same manner as the peach. VARIETIES. Jefferson. — A superior dessert sort. Fruit large, oval, contracting towards the stalk ; color bright, deep yellow, with a purplish-red cheek, and a whitish bloom; flesh orange, quite juicy, richly flavored. Ripens from the middle to the last of September; a good bearer. Fig. 172. Green Gage. — Of this plum there are several varieties. ‘The size, in good soils, is large, the form round, and the skin green ; the flesh is green, melting, juicy, and exquisitely flavored. Ripens in August and September. Fig. 173. Washington. — A well-known variety ; originated in New York State ; large, oval; color bright yellow, with red dots; flesh yellow, sugary, ex- cellent eating. Hardy; shy bearer; ripens in September FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. 298 Coe’s Golden Drop.— Thrifty growth; good bearer; fruit large and handsome, oblong; color greenish-yellow, with violet and crimson dots; flesh orange color, rich, juicy, finely flavored. Ripens in September. Purple Favorite. — Large size; roundish; color light brown, with a shading of purple, and bright yellow dots; flesh greenish, soft, sweet, and excellent flavor. Ripens last of September, and bears well. Red Gage. — Known also as Long Scarlet, and Scarlet Gage. Medium size ; oblong, tapering towards the stalk ; color brilliant red toward the sun, and yellowish in the shade, covered with a light purplish bloom; flesh yel- low, rich, and sweet. Ripens first of September. Morocco.— Medium size; round; deep purple; flesh slightly yellow, tender, sweet, richly flavored. Ripens about the last of August. Drap @ Or. —Cloth of Gold, by some. Small, round ; color rich, brilliant yellow, reddish toward the sun; flesh yellow, sweet, not so juicy as some kinds. “A clearstone; ripens in August; a pretty fai bearer. Yellow Egg.— Large size; oval, narrowing at both ends; color yellow, whitish dots, and a thin white bloom; flesh somewhat coarse, yellow slightly acid. Ripens in September. A better cooking than eating plum. Bleecker’s Gage. — Medium size, nearly round, very regular; color dark yellow, with deep red spots ; flesh yellow, sweet, finely flavored. Ripens in September. The tree is hardy, productive, and the fruit much esteemed in some parts. Fig. 175. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Fig. 175. Y , f we | \ C7) ilk Yi iif f \ \ h| \ i i | | in| i FM if it | ik Hf = 300 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. color reddish-purple toward the sun, palish-red in the shade, with a few yellow specks, and a lilac bloom; flesh light brown, juicy, lively, slightly acid. Ripens middle of August. Royal Hative. — Also called Early Royal. Medium size; round; color purple, with dark yellowish spots and streaks, blue bloom; flesh yellow, tender, richly flavored. Early, thrifty, productive; ripens early in Sep- tember. M Laughlin. — Large size, round; color brownish-yellow, with a red tinge; flesh melting, juicy, fine flavor, though not superior. Ripens in August. Frost Gage.— Fruit rather small; roundish; color dark purple, with brown dots; flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, saccharine, agreeable flavor. Fig. 177. Ripens in October; moderately productive: a good sort for cooking pur- poses. Remarks.— We have enumerated the most valuable sorts, though there are others more adapted, perhaps, to certain localities, or preferred by ama- teurs; such as the Imperial Ottoman, Elfrey, Smith’s Orleans, Flushing Gage, Red Diaper, Lombard, Black Dawson, Huling’s Superb, Blue Dwarf Gage, and Prince’s Imperial Gage. THE QUINCE. Propagation, §c.— 'The quince is, as all know, a low, much-branched, crowded, and irregular tree, blossoming in May or June, and ripening its fruit in October or November. It is generally propagated by layers, but cuttings root without difficulty. The best standards are produced by graft- ing, at the height of five or six feet, on the pear, the thorn, or the mountain ash. The quince 1s generaJly planted in the orchard, in some part where the FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES ETC. soil is good, and not very dry; it bears on two years’ old wood, and requires little pruning, except thinning out irregular, crowding, or decaying branches. The fruit is kept by packing in sand or dry straw. It is said that the quince will grow on any soil that will give good corn or potato crops. The soil should be well prepare¢ by ploughing and sub- soil ploughing, and a clean furrow obtained, in the bottom of each furrow manure being thrown. After this, planting should commence, — spring or autumn answering equally as well. The holes should be dug twice as large as the roots of the tree, and a foot and a half deep, and to each tree a liberal supply of good compost manure should be given. The branches should be shortened in, one half of the last year’s growth, before the trees are set, and the roots should be saturated with water before being covered over with the earth. Press the earth moderately about the roots, and leave the soil around the trunk concave, like a saucer, to catch the showers. This will secure life and thrift to the trees. Tn orchard planting, the trees should be put out in rows twelve feet apart, the trees ten feet asunder. This will be near enough, in good soil, pre- pared as above. In three years they will bear, and will continue to do so for thirty years. ‘The open space between the trees may be profitably cropped with potatoes, and so forth. The pruning should be done in the autumn, just after the fall of the leaf The operation consists in cutting out as little as possible, mainly old or decayed woo, or any quite superfluous branches. In November, fork in around the roots of each tree five or six shovel- fuls of fresh stable manure ; and when the spring opens, plough the ground between the rows, and lightly stir beneath the trees. Directly after this, give the.whole a broadcast spread of salt, at the rate of ten bushels to the acre, or just a light coat, sufficient to half conceal the ground under each tree. The best salt for this purpose is the refuse salt of the packing- houses. VARIETIES, Apple-shaped. — This is also called Orange, a well-known, favorite variety. Fruit large, much resembling an apple in shape; color brilliant yellow; flesh solid, and of fine flavor. A very good bearer, and tuch esteemed as an excellent cooking variety, on account of the flesh becoming soft when stewed. Fig. 178. Pear-shaped. — Medium size, oblong, contracting towards the stem, and in general form very similar to a pear; color yellow; flesh firmer and yields less when cooked than the Apple-shaped. It is not so finely flavore¢ as the Apple, and not generally so much esteemed. 26 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Fig. 178. ° Portugal. — This variety is more juicy, less harsh, better colored and flavored, than the two preceding. Fruit large, oblong; color mild yellow; not very productive. A very superior variety, though not so much raised as it deserves. Remarxs. — There are two or three ornamental varieties, but they are not of sufficient importance to be described at length. THE RASPBERRY. Propagation, §c. — The only mode of propagation is by suckers, except by seeds, which is only resorted to for new varieties. The suckers are separated in autumn, either by taking up the whole plant and dividing it, or by slipping them off from the sides and roots of the main stock. They may be planted at once where they are permanently to remain, in rows from north to south, four feet apart every way. They will grow in any good garden soil, but it is most prolific in fruit, and the fruit is better flavored, in a dry, substantial soil, and an open situation. In making a plantation, three or more suckers are allowed to each stool, and planted in a triangle at six inches apart. The plants will produce fruit the first year; FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 303 but, if this fruit, or even a third part of it, can be dispensed with, the suckers for the succeeding year will be greatly strengthened by cutting the stems of the newly-set plants down to within six inches of the ground. The future treatment consists in going over the stools every year, early in May, and selecting six or seven of the strongest suckers from each stool for next year’s bearing wood, and destroying all the rest, unless they are wanted for a new plantation. In autumn, as soon as the fruit is all gath- ered, the stems which have borne it should be cut down to the ground, to give light and air to the suckers ; but as these are liable to be injured by the frost, they should not be pruned till the following March. They may then be shortened to two thirds or three fourths of their length, by cutting off the weak wood at the extremities of the shoots. VARIETIES. Fastolff. — This is a very superior variety, considbred by many the best Fig. 179. 1 My \ fy) hy pp! Aap th Wis | ha 304 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. of all the reds. Fruit extra large size ; roundish-conical ; color brilliant red, purple tinge; flesh rich, melting, finely flavored. It is not so much grown now as it undoubtedly will be when it is better known; besides, the plants are scarce and high-priced. It is well adapted to the United States. Yellow Antwerp. — White Antwerp, and Double-Bearing Yellow, by some. A large, conical berry; color lightish-yellow; flesh sweet, very pleasant flavor. Worthy of cultivation. American Black.— A well-known popular variety ; size rather small, in its native growth; color quite dark; flesh rich, juicy, acid flavor. Red Antwerp.— Also called New Red, True Red, and Howland’s Red. Large size; conical; color pale red; flesh sweet, juicy, excellent. It is early, productive, and ranks first-rate for eating and cooking. Franconia — Fruit large ; obtuse-conical ; color rurplish-red; flesh firm, rich, tart, lively. Hardy, productive; not so early as others, but superior for preserving. Fig. 180. Fig. 180. Remarxs.— The White Antwerp is an excellent sort, as is also the Cushing, and the Ohio. ‘These, with the varieties previously described, constitute the principal cultivated kinds, the others being generally inferior. THE STRAWBERRY. Propagation and Culture. —'The usual time for transplanting strawberry plants is August. ‘That time is chosen because they have then done bearing, and have made offsets, if the season has been favorable, of strong plants, set from their runners. Plantations made at this season will bear some fruit the next summer. But, if good, vigorous plants can be obtained in May of the preceding season, it should be planted then, as it saves nearly a year, the plants being ready to bear abundantly the next year. Gardeners have different habits and opinions as to trimming the plants, | | DO Mie a Wy ' oy bil UU a Ray hi Bs wf Ip) ; My Wig WV a) Ye, a ESEags Sc. . , —_ ; 4 4 be bs 3s =, Lae ae ‘ FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 305 4 when they are put out. Some cut off all the old leaves, preserving only those in the centre of the plant. Others take off the dead or decayed leaves only, and plant with all the old healthy leaves on the plant. Many persons cut the roots in before they put them into the ground ; —all dead substances should be cut off, but not the roots. When the plants are put out, they should be kept free from weeds, and the ground should be kept loose about them. If the plants are strong, put but one to form the stools ; if weak, put two. As regards the distance at which plants should be set, cultivators differ. The common red strawberry, which is found in all our gardens, may be put eight inches apart, in rows nine inches or a foot from each other, and allowed to form a matted bed of about two feet wide, with a foot-path of a foot wide between them. But the larger and finer sorts should be planted in stools, in beds four and a half feet wide, with a path of fifteen inches or more between the beds. In these beds the plants should be set, by a line, fifteen to eighteen inches apart, both ways, taking care that they do not run together. The objection generally made to this mode of cultivation is, that the fruit is exposed to injury by lying upon the ground, where it is bruised, and covered with dirt, every time it rains. This, however, may be prevented by a little care. Moss, or straw, or the leaves of trees, may be put around the stools, so as to prevent the fruit from lying on the ground, and to prevent the moisture around the plant from evaporating. The strawberry may also be propagated by seeds; and, if sown imme- diately after gathering, will produce plants which will come into bearing the following year. Soil and Situation.— The best soil is one that is light, warm, and gravelly; and the manure to be applied should be vegetable, rather than animal. The common practice is to manure the ground with rotten dung, with a view to increase the size and quantity of the fruit ; but, in doing this, the flavor of the fruit is destroyed in proportion to the richness of the soil ; besides, high manuring produces strong, ]uxuriant vines, and little fruit. Rotten leaves, decayed wood, ashes, in small quantity, mixed with other vegetable substances in a compost heap, will make better manure for straw- berries than any animal substance whatever. As the vines which bear this fruit require great moisture to bring the fruit to its proper size, the soil and situation must not be too dry. Forcing.— Select for this purpose, in the middle of August, a sufficient number of the best runners, from approved kinds, to have choice from, and plant them six inches apart, in beds, upon a strong border, in a dry and sheltered situation. As soon as the leaves have withered, mulch them 26 * U 306 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. lightly with manure; and if very severe weather occur, protect them for a time with straw. They must be kept, the following spring, free from weeds and runners, removing also any flowers as they appear. ‘Towards the latter end of May, or beginning of June, whenever dull or rainy weather may occur, remove. them carefully into forty-eight-sized pots, putting one, two or three plants into each pot, according as the object may be, whether quality or quantity. Place them, when potted, in a situation where they can be readily shaded for a time, and receive regular supplies of water, if necessary. About the latter end of July, or early in August, these pots will be filled with roots, when the plants must be re-potted into flat thirty- two-sized pots, and at this time plunged in old tan or coal-ashes. The best mode of plunging them is to form beds wide enough to contain five rows of pots, when plunged, upon a hard or gravelly surface, to prevent them root ing through, the sides supported by slabs of the same width as the depth ot the pots, and filling them up with old tan or ashes, the plants remain here until wanted to take in, and are easily protected from severe frosts. It will be found an excellent plan to preserve the latest forced plants, which are not much exhausted, for forcing the first, the next season. These, from their long period of rest, and well-ripened buds, are predisposed to break earlier and stronger than the others; some of them, if the autumn is moist, will be excited, and produce flowers, which must be immediately pinched out. They should have their balls carefully reduced, and be re-potted in larger pots, early in August, protecting them from the late autumnal rains, and from frost. VARIETIES. Duke of Kent. — Fruit rather small size ; roundish-conical ; color bright, deep red; flavor tart, and moderately good. It is, on the whole, considera- bly inferior to other sorts, but is an early ripener, — say the last of May, or first of June. Large Early Scarlet. —'This also is an early fruit, and superior to the py Ky ——=S= = SZ. a tt FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 307 Duke of Kent. Medium size; roundish-oblong ; color brilliant red ; rich, sprightly and excellent flavor. A certain and abundant bearer. Red Wood. — An old and favorite sort ; size small; round ; color scarlet ; flesh sweet, finely flavored. Productive, ripening in midsummer. Black Prince. — Also known as Black Imperial. Fruit large, handsome ; roundish ; color darkish-red; flesh rich, finely flavored. Hardy and pro- _ lifie. Hovey’s Seedling. —One of the finest and largest, and well suited to a northern climate ; form roundish-conical, regular; color dark red; texture and flavor very fine. A good bearer, ripening about the middle of June. The fruit, with commonly good culture, weighs about a quarter of an ounce, ) mae | ’ and is an inch and a quarter in diameter. It produces better if grown nea some variety having perfect stamens, such as the Early Scarlet, or Ross Phenix. Swainstone’s Seedling. —A comparatively fine sort, well thought of by those who have grown it. Large size ; ovate-conical ; color light, shiny searlet;. flesh compact, delicious flavor. Not over productive. Fig. 183. Ross Phenix. — Large size to very large, with numerous seeds; form generally more or less coxcombed or flattened, and surface uneven ; color dark crimson ; flavor and texture very fine for a large variety. Produe- tive; ripens in June, and is considered nearly equal to Hovey’s Seedling. Fig. 184. Prolific Hautbois. — Large size; conical ; color purplish-red ; flesh rich, juicy, tender, highly flavored. It bears very well, ripens early, and has as good a reputation as any of the Hautbois variety. Fig. 185. 4 [o) (o} fA a Zz i wn af [<3] E is Cushing. — Fruit very large; round, some of the berries with.a short neck; color light scarlet; flesh juicy, tender, finely flavored; good bearer. Fig. 186. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Remarxs.— The Hudson’s Bay, British Queen, White Alpine, White Wood, Bishop’s Orange, Downton, Elton, Methven Scarlet, Boston Pine, and Myatt’s Pine, are esteemed varieties. MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS, NUTS, &c. Aumonp. — There are two kinds, — the common or sweet, and the bitter. The varieties best deserving culture are the Tender-shelled, the fruit of 310 FARMER’S HAND-BOOR. which is small ; the Sweet, which is larger ; and the Jordan, also large and sweet. hese, and all the other kinds, are propagated by budding on the plum, and sometimes on seedling almonds for dry situations. Buvezerry.— A well-known dwarf bush, bearing a small berry, tender, juicy, blue color, ripening in July and August, and much used for tarts and puddings. Not much cultivated ; grows wild in abundance. Burrzrnur. — This is a species of walnut, growing in different parts of the United States, and sometimes called Oil Nut and White Walnut. Its wood is used for various mechanical purposes, and its bark possesses vari- ous medicinal qualities. The fruit is eaten, but is more valuable as a pickle. Cuestnut.— The true, sweet chestnut-tree thrives in any but moist or marshy soils. It is long-lived, and grows to a great size. Its wood is hard and durable, and used for various purposes ; the fruit is eaten raw, or boiled or roasted ; the bark, for tanning, is superior to oak. It is raised from the seeds, planted in the fall ; the second year they are transplanted, and fine varieties are extended by grafting. The Spanish or Portuguese chestnut succeeds well in this country, producing fruit, in about seven years, from the seed. Its growth is more rapid than the native kind. It may be budded on. the common chestnut, but is apt to overgrow the stock. Fic. — The figs most suitable for a garden are the large white Genoa, the i early white, the Murray, the small brown Ischia, and the black Ischia. Figs may be propagated by seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers, roots, and by ingraft- 311 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. ing; the best mode being by layers or cuttings, which beai the first or second year. A warm climate is required for out-door cultare. Fitgert. — There are several varieties, —the Red, the White, the Barce- lona, or Large Cob, and the Frizzled. Filberts require a deep, light, but naturally fertile soil, without putrescent manures. They are propagated most easily from suckers, and should be well pruned. They bear in the fourth or fifth year. Lemon. —A small tree, with ovate-oblong leaves, pale-green, with a winged stalk. Flowers red externally ; fruit pale yellow, with a juicy and Fig. 188. very acid pulp. Generally raised from seed in the Eastern countries. | In this country it may be raised at the South in the open air. Lime. —The lime has obovate leaves on a wingless stalk, small white flowers, and roundish, pale-yellow fruit, with a nipple-like termination. The leaves and general habit of the plant resemble those of the lemon F but the acid of the pulp of the fruit, instead of being sharp and powerful, is flat and slightly bitter. The figure (190) represents the South American lime. Otive. — The olive grows on a branchy, low, evergreen tree, requiring a warm climate and dry soil. The fruit is much in use for pickles, and in Europe a rich oil is extracted from the pulp, the fruit being first broken in a mill, and reduced to a sort of paste. It is then subjected to the action of a press, and the oil swims on the top of the water in the vessel beneath. In pickling, the fruit is simply preserved in salts and water. Fig. 189. 312 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Orance. — The orange thrives only in a warm climate, though it is quite generally raised in hot-houses in cold latitudes ; more, however, for orna- ment and curiosity than for use. It rarely grows to any considerable height , has deep green leaves, and, when fruited, makes a fine appearance. May be raised by seed or by cuttings. The principal varieties are the Bergamot, the Blood-Red, the Saint Michael’s, Seville, China, Nice, Tangerine, Manda- rin. Fig. 191. Pomercr anate. — A small, low tree, in its form and habits not unlike the common hawthorn. It is propagated by layers and cuttings, and by grafting on the common sort ; or, it may be trained in the fan manner. ‘The chiet FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 313 sorts are the Sweet, the Acid, and the Subacid ; besides which, there are some ornamental varieties. - The fruit is about the size of a common apple, and is very handsome; skin hard; color yellowish-orange, with a deep-red cheek. Grows in the Middle and Southern States Besides a dessert fruit, it is also used medicinally. SuetitearK.— Also called Shagbark, and Hickory Nut. A large and towering tree, with oval leaves ; fruit roundish, sweet and relishing. The wood is much used for different mechanical purposes. Watnut. — Also called Madeira Nut. A tree of stately proportions, bearing in great quantity a large-sized and superior nut. May be propa- gated by seeds, and by grafting on the hickory nut. Excellent dessert fruit, and makes a good pickle. The kernel is four-lobed. WuorrTLeserry. — A small, dwarf shrub, comprising several varieties, and known generally by the name of Huckleberry, and Bilberry. It produces a round, sweet berry, much used in cooking, and also eaten raw. It grows wild, and is seldom cultivated in gardens. FRUIT CALENDAR. January. — Vinery: commence forcing for fruit in June; begin with a temperature of 50°, and gradually increase it, the first month, to 60°. Peach-house: commence forcing for fruit in May ; begin with a tempera- ture of 50°. Cherry-house: commence forcing with a temperature of 45°, by night. Figs: plants in pots may now be placed in a vinery. Strawberries: take plants in pots into a forcing house or pit twice in the 27 314 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. month. Prune the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Gooseberry Currant, and Raspberry, if the weather is not severe. Nail and tie wall and espalier trees. Fresruary.— Vinery: increase the heat above that for the preceding month. Peach-house: cease syringing when the trees are in flawer. Cherry- house: give air at every favorable opportunity. J’%g-house: commence forcing where the trees are: planted in the borders. Melons: sow seeds for early crop. Strawberries: take into the forcing-house for succession. Marcu. — Peach-house : remove all fore-right shoots from the trees, and, when the fruit is set, syringe them. Cherry-house: increase the heat, after the bloom is set and stoned. Fig-house: water freely, both at the root and over-head. Melons: plant out irom last month’s sowing. Strawberries: give air freely while in flower. Prune and nail Peaches and Nectarines, and afterwards protect them with nets, or other covering. Graft fruit-trees. Aprit. — Vinery: when the grapes are set, keep a very moist tempera- ture, and commence thinning them immediately. Peach~house: partially thin the fruit before stoning ; afterwards, thin to the quantity required to ripen off ;— syringe the trees daily in fine weather, and smoke them occasionally, to keep down insects. Fig-house: when the shoots have made three or four joints, stop them, to cause them to produce fruit in the autumn. Mel- ons : allow several of the main shoots to reach the sides of the frame before being stopped. Disbud Peaches and Nectarines. May. — Vinery: keep the laterals stopped to one joint; take away all useless shoots. Peach-house: when the fruit begins to ripen, withhold water both at the roots and overhead, —at the same time, admit air freely Cherry-house : raise the temperature to 70° when the fruit is swelling off. Fig-house: as the first crop approaches maturity, only sufficient water should be given to prevent the second crop of fruit falling off. Melons rezulate the vines at an early stage of their growth; after the fruit is set, put pieces of slate beneath it. Continue to disbud wall-trees; remove their coverings when danger from frost is over, and wash the trees with soap-suds when the fruit is set. Then the fruit of the Apricot. June.— Vinery: as the fruit approaches maturity, keep a dry atmosphere ; —a few leaves may be taken off, or tied on one side, where they shade the fruit. Peach-house: suspend nets or mats beneath the trees, and place in them some soft material, for catching the falling fruit. Cnherry-house: when the fruit is gathered, give the trees several good washings, to destroy insects, —the house should also be smoked. Figs: those in pots must be duly supplied with water. Melons: ridge out late crops; give air freely to ripening fruit. Summer-prune Vines against walls. Finally, thin Apricots. Set traps for wasps. Net Cherry-trees. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. S15 Juty. — Vinery: carefully avoid raising a dust when the fruit is ripe ; give air freely. Peach-heuse: when the fruit is all gathered, give the trees several good washings over-head, and give abundance of air till the leaves begin to decay, when the lights may be removed. Cherry-trees: if in pots, these should now be placed in a shady situation. F%g-howse : when the first crop is gathered, water the trees liberally, to bring forward the second crop. Melons: pay proper attention to the plants in the open air. Finally, thin wall-fruit. Prune and tie espalier trees. Bud fruit-trees. Pot Strawberry runners, for forcing. Mat Currants and Gooseberries, to preserve them. Stop the shoots of vines against walls, two joints above the fruit. Aveust.—Vinery: syringe the vines, and give them a root-watering after the fruit is cut, to prevent the leaves decaying prematurely. Peach- house: the light may be taken off the early house, and used for the purpose of forwarding Grapes against walls. Fig-house: syringe the trees fre- quently, to keep down insects. Make new plantations of Strawberries. Cut down the old canes of Raspberries, when the fruit is gathered. Keep the shoots of wall-trees nailed in, —displace all laterals. Stop the laterals of vines to one joint. Continue to bud fruit-trees, as in last month. SepremBer. — Vinery : the lights of the early forced-house should now be left open night and day ; or they may be taken off, if repairs are required. Peach-house : if any vacancies are to be filled up, take out the old soil, and replace it with fresh, ready for planting next month. Protect out-door Grapes from wasps, by bagging the bunches. Gather fruit as it ripens. Expose wall-fruit to the sun and air, to give it flavor and color. Continue to make new Strawberry plantations, as in last month. Ocroser. —Vinery: as soon as the leaves have fallen from the vines, prune them, take off the loose, rough bark, and wash them. Peach-house : fill vacancies with trees from the walls in the open garden; take up and plant carefully. Pot Cherry-trees for forcing. Withhold water from Fig- trees when the fruit is gathered. Melons: keep up the heat of the beds, to forward the ripening of the late fruit. Gather any remaining fruit. Plant fruit-trees of all sorts. Prune Currants and Gooseberries. Novemser. —Vinery: protect the border where the vines of the early forcing-house are growing outside. Peach-house : prune and dress the trees as soon as the leaves are fallen. Cherry-house: if the lights have been taken off, they should now be replaced, but left open night and day, unless the weather is severe ; the trees should now be pruned. Pot Fig-trees for forcing. Continue to plant all sorts of fruit-trees, as in last month. Protect Fig-trees. Prune the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Filbert, Gooseberry, and Currant, as in last month ; also nail and tie those against walls, and espaliers. 316 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Look over the fruit and the fruit-room. Mulch newly planted fruit-trees, to protect them from frost. Decemper.—Vinery: put on the lights, if they have been removed, sc as to protect the vines from severe frost. Peach-house: after the trees are tied to the trellis, take away a little of the loose, dry-top soil; slightly dig the border, so as not to injure the roots, and add some fresh soil. Cherry- house : fix the trees to the trellis, and make preparations for forcing next month. Fig-house: the frost should be kept out, and if the trees need any pruning, it should now be done. Continue to nail and prune in mild weather. Partially unnail the shoots of Peach and Nectarine trees. Protect Strawberries in pots, and all fruit-trees intended for forcing. Dig fruit quarters where pruning is completed. CHAPTER VII. DOMESTIO OR FARM ANIMALS. THE REARING, BREEDING, DISEASES, AND GENERAL CARE OF — THE BULL— THE OX — THE COW — SHEEP — SWINE — THE HORSE—THE ASS— THE MULE— THR GOAT—THE DOG—IN ALL THEIR STANDARD VARIETIES; — WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. I. HORNED OR NEAT CATTLE, Breeding and Rearing. — The objects to be kept in view, in breeding cat- tle, are a form either well adapted to fatten, for producing milk, or for labor. These three objects have each of them engaged the attention of Fig. 192. agriculturists ; but experience has not altogether justified the expectation that has been entertained of combining all these desirable properties, in an eminent degree, in the same race. That form which indicates the property of yielding the most milk differs materially from that which we know, from experience, to be combined with early maturity and the most valuable car- cass ; and the breeds which are understood to give the greatest weight of meat for the food they consume, and to contain the least proportion of offal, are not those which possess, in the highest degree, the strength and activity required in beasts of labor. A disposition to fatten, and a tendency to yield a large quantity of milk, cannot be united. The form of the animal most remarkable fer the first is very different from that of the other ;—in place 2 * (317) 318 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. of being flat in the sides, and big in the belly, as all great milkers are, it is high-sided and light-bellied,—in a word, the body of the animal well adapted to fatten is barrel-formed, while that of the milker is widest down- wards. Procreating Age. — The age at which bulls should be employed, and the number of seasons they should be allowed to serve, as well as the age at which the females should begin to breed, are points regarding which prac- tice is by no means uniform. Sometimes the bulls are pretty commonly allowed to leap while yearlings, and, if good stock-getters, are kept on as long as they can serve, — perhaps till they are ten or twelve years old; in some places they are employed only three seasons, for the first time at two years old. The females, in many instances, bring their first calf at the age of two years, but more commonly, perhaps, not till they are a year older. Period of Gestation. — The period of gestation with cows has been found to be about forty weeks. Cows seldom bring more than one calf at a time. When they produce twins, one of them a male and the other a female, the fatter, which is called a free martin, is commonly considered incapable of procreation, though there are a few instances to the contrary. Time of Impregnation. —'The most desirable period for putting cows to the bull is midsummer, in order that they may be dropped in the spring, and have the whole of the grass season beforé them. Where no regular system is followed, and cows are sent to the bull merely because they are in heat, calves will be dropped at all seasons; but excepting when the fat- ting of calves is an object of importance, it is probably the most advan- tageous time, as the calves, having all the grass season before them, become sufficiently strong for enduring the change to a less agreeable food in the ensuing winter. A calf newly weaned seldom thrives well during that period, unless it is pampered with better food than usually falls to the share of young animals. By midsummer the cows are readier to take the bull than at any other season, and will bring calves in proper time. If a cow goes till after May before she calves, the calf will be too weak the winter following, and the dam will not be so ready to take the bull again, but will often grow barren. Rearing. —'The mode of rearing calves differs in different places. The best method, according to some, is this: The calves suck a week or a fort- night, according to their strength ; new milk in the pail, a few meals ; next new milk and skim-milk mixed, a few meals more ; then, skim-milk alone ; or porridge, made with milk, water, ground oats, &c., and sometimes oil-cake, until cheese-making commences, after which, whey porridge, or sweet whey, in the field ; being careful to house them in the night, until warm weather sets in. This method of suckling is not, however, free from DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. objection ; and, in the ordinary practice of rearing calves, it is held to be a preferable plan to begin at once to teach them to drink from a pail. The calf that is fed from the teat must depend upon the milk of its dam, how- ever scanty or irregular it may be; whereas, when fed from a dish, the quantity can be regulated according to its age, and various substitutes may be resorted to, by which a great part of the milk is saved for other purposes, or a greater number of calves reared on the same quantity. When fed from the pail, two gallons a day, for about three months, is enough ; but after it is three weeks old, it is best to give substitutes. When reared with skim-milk, it should be given about as warm as cow’s milk when first drawn. If over-cold, the calves will purge, which, however, may be remedied by putting two or three spoonfuls of rennet into the milk. When dropped during the grass season, calves should be put into some small home-close of sweet, rich pasture, after they are eight or ten days old, not only for the sake of exercise, but also that they may the sooner take to eating grass. When they are dropped in the winter, or before the return of the grass season, a little short, soft hay or straw, or sliced turnips, should be laid in the trough or stall before them. The treatment of young cattle, from the time they are separated from their dams, or able to subsist on the common food of the other stock, must depend upon the farm on which they are reared. In summer, their pasture is often coarse, but abundant ; and in winter, all good breeders give them an allowance of succulent food along with their dry fodder. The first win- ter they have hay and turnips ; the following summer, coarse pasture ; the second winter, straw in the fold-yard, and a few turnips once a day, in an adjoining field, just sufficient to prevent the straw from binding them too much ; the next summer, tolerably good pasture, and the third winter, as many turnips as they can eat, and treated as fatting cattle. Castrating. — There used to be a strange difference of opinion among farmers as to the time wheri this operation should be performed. In some places it is delayed until] the animal is two years old: but this is done to ' the manifest injury of his form, his size, his propensity to fatten, the quality of his meat, and his docility and general usefulness as a working ox. The period which is now pretty generally selected is between the first and third months. The nearer it is to the last of the first month, the less danger attends the operation. Mode. —Some persons prepare the animals by the administration of a dose of physic ; but others proceed at once to the operation when it best suits their convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be take that the young animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly prac- Was simple enough :—a binge: of whip-cord was tied as tightly as a3 a 320 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. possible around the scrotum. The supply of blood being thus completely cut off, the bag and its contents soon became livid and dead, and were suf- fered to hang, by some careless operators, until they dropped off, or were cut off on the second or third day. It is now, however, the general prac- tice to grasp the scrotum in the hand, between the testicles and the belly, and make an incision on one side of it, near the bottom, of sufficient depth to penetrate through the inner covering of the testicle, and long enough to admit of its escape. The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and is seen hanging by its cord. The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through the cord half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He, how- ever, who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is operating, considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress the blood-vessels and prevent after hemorrhage ; and therefore saves a great deal of unneces- sary torture, by including them alone in the ligature, and afterwards divid- ing the rest of the cord. The other testicle is proceeded with in the same way, and the operation is complete. The length of the cord should be so contrived that it shall immediately retract into the scrotum, but not higher, while the ends of the string hang out through the wounds. In the course of about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds wil! speedily heal. It will be rarely that any application to the scrotum will be necessary, except fomentation of it, if much swelling should ensue. A few—but their practice cannot be justified —seize the testicle as soon as it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord, and tear it out. It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it forcibly con- tracts, and very little bleeding follows ; but if the cord breaks high up, and retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation has sometimes ensued, and the beast has been lost. This tearing of the cord may be practised on small- er animals, as pigs, lambs, and rabbits, as their vessels are small, and there is but little substance to be torn asunder ; but, even there, the knife, some- what blunt, will be a more skilful and humane substitute. This laceration should never be permitted in the castration of the calf or the colt. The application of torsion, or the twisting of the arteries by means of a pair of forceps which will firmly grasp them, promises to supersede every other mode of castration, both in the larger and the smaller domesticated animals. The spermatic artery is exposed, and seized with the forceps, which are then closed by a very simple mechanical contrivance ; the vessel is drawn a little out from its surrounding tissues, the forceps are turned round seven or eight times, and the vessel liberated. It will be found per- fectly closed ; a small knot will have formed on its extremity - it will retract DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 321 into the surrounding substance, and not a drop more blood will flow from it; the cord may be then divided, and the bleeding from any little vessel arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot iron or of the wooden claws, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary in the castration of the calf. Fattening. —The common method of fattening Calves is, to allow them to suck, as by this method the object is probably not only sooner, but more effectually, attained, than by any other means. The period necessary varies from five to nine weeks, — the time being much shorter where milk is very valuable. Another method is, to give them the milk to drink, morning and * evening, warm from the cow; the quantity being increased according to their age and strength. In whatever way they are managed, they should be kept in pens in a close house, and well littered, kept clean, and enjoy a due quantity of fresh air. Meal, linseed boiled into a jelly, and such like arti- cles, are also given to calves while fattening. ~ AE 8RMAE The food on which Cattle are fatted is grass in summer, commonly on - pastures, but sometimes on herbage cut and consumed in feeding-houses or v 322 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. fold-yards ; and in winter, on turnips, along with hay or straw, oil-cake, earrots, potatoes, &c. The hay or straw is much more beneficial when cut by one of the machines now used for that purpose. The age at which cattle are fatted depends on the circumstance of their being employed in breeding, in labor, for the dairy, or solely for the butcher. In the latter case, the most improved breeds are fit for the sham. bles when about three years old, and very few of any large breed are kept more than a year longer. As to cows and working oxen, in most instances the latter are put up to feed after working three years, or in the seventh or eighth year of their age. In general, it may be said that the small breeds of cattle are fattened on pastures, though sometimes finished off on a few weeks’ turnips; and large cattle, at least in some parts, are chiefly fatted in stalls or fold-yards, by means of turnips, and other like substances. HOW TO JUDGE OF CATTLE FOR VARIOUS OBJECTS AND PURPOSES. The Bull. —'The head should be rather long, and the muzzle fine; eyes lively and prominent; ears long and thin; horns wide; neck rising with a gentle curve from the shoulders, and small and fine where it joins the head ; shoulders moderately broad at the top, joining full to his chine or crops and chest backwards, and to the neck-vein forwards; bosom open; breast broad, and projecting well before his legs; arms, or fore-thighs, muscular, and tapering to his knee; legs clean, and very fine-boned ; chine and chest so full as to leave no hollows behind the shoulders; plates strong, to keep his belly from sinking below the level of his breast; back, or loin, broad, straight, and flat; ribs rising one above another in such a manner that the last rib shall be rather the highest, leaving only a small space to the hips or hooks, the whole forming a round or barrel-like carcass; hips should be wide-placed, round, and a little higher than the back ; the quarters, from the -hip to the rump, long, tapering gradually from the hips backward, and the turls or pott-bones not protuberant ; rumps close to the tail; tail broad, well- haired, and in a horizontal line with his back. Bulls should be constantly well fed, and kept in proper enclosures. The Ox.— The head ought to be rather long, and muzzle fine; counte- nance calm and placid ; horns fine; neck light, particularly where it joins the head; breast wide, and projecting well before the legs; shoulders moderately broad at the top, and the joints well in, and, when the animal is in good condition, the chine so full as to leave no hollow behind them; the fore flank well filled up, and the girth behind the shoulders deep ; back straight, wide, and flat; ribs broad, and the space between them and the hips small; flank full and heavy; belly well kept in, and not sinking low in the middle; hips round, wide across, and on a level with the back Tp ha Sa — f coe ‘t ess . DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS 323 itself; the hind quarters, that is, from the hips to the extremity of the rump, long and straight; the rump points fat, and coming well up to the tail; the twist wide, and the seam in the middle of it so well filled, that the whole may very nearly form a plane, perpendicular to the line of the back ; the lower part of the thigh small; tail broad and fat towards the top, but the lower part thin; legs long and strong ; feet and hoofs broad and hardy ; and, when the animal is in fine condition, the skin of a rich and silky appearance. SSN Skeleton of the Ox. a, The upper jaw bone. b, The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. c, The lachrymal bone. d, The malar, or cheek bone. e, The frontal, or forehead bone. J, The horns, being processes or contin- uations of the frontal. g, The temporal bone. h, The parietal bone, low in the tempo- ral fossa. t, The occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head. j, The lower jaw. k, The grinders. 1, The nippers, found on the lower jaw alone. m, The ligament of the neck, and its attachments. n, The atlas. o, The dentata. p, The orbit of the eye. q, The vertebre, or bones of the neck. r, The bones of the back. s, The bones of the loins. t, The sacrum. u, The bones of the tail. v § w, The haunch and pelvis x, The eight true ribs. y, The false ribs, with cartilages, z, The sternum. 1, The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 324 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. 2, The humerus, or lower bone of the | 10, The two smaller pasterns to eacn foot shoulder. 11, The two coffin bones to each foot. 3, The radius, or principal bone of the | 12, The navicular bones. arm. 13, The thigh bone. 4, The ulna, its upper part, forming the | 14, The patella, or bone of the knee. elbow. 15, The tibia, or proper leg bone. 5, The small bones of the knee. 16, The point of the hock. 6, The large metacarpal or shank bone. | 17, 17, The small bones of the hock. 7, The smaller or splint bone. 18, 18, The metatarsals, or larger bones 8, The sessamoid bones. of the hind leg. 9, The bifurcation at the pasterns, and | 19, 19, The pasterns and feet. the two larger pasterns to each foot. The Cow. — Wide horns ; head and neck thin ; dewlap large ; full breast ; broad back; large, deep belly; the udder capacious, but. not too fleshy ; the milk-veins prominent, and the bag tending far behind, teats large and long ; buttocks broad and fleshy, tail long and pliable, legs in good ‘propor- tion, and the joints short. To these may be added a gentle disposition, and free from vicious tricks. Age of Cattle. —This is determined by the teeth and horns. At the end of about ten years, they shed their first four teeth, which are replaced by others, larger, but not so white ; before five years, all the incisive teeth are renewed. These teeth are at first equal, long, and pretty white; but, as the animals advance in years, they wear down, and become unequal and black. These animals likewise shed their horns at the end of three years, and are replaced by other horns, which, like the second teeth, continue. The manner of the growth of these horns is not uniform, nor the shooting of them equal. The first year,—that is, the fourth year of the animal’s age, —two small pointed horns make their appearance, neatly formed, smooth, and towards the head terminated by a kind of button. The following year this button moves from the head, being impelled by a horny cylinder, which, lengthening in the same manner, is also terminated by another bution; and so on, for the horns continue growing as long as the animals live. These puttons become annular joints or rings, which are easily distinguished in the horns, and by which the age of the creature may be easily known, — counting three years for the point of the horn, and one for each of the jeints or rings. The cow is useful for twenty years, — much longer than the bull. Names of Cattle at Different Ages. — A young castrated male, efter the first year, is called a stot, stirk, or steer; at five years old, an ox. A female, after the first year, is called an heifer, or quey ; at five years old, a cow ;’ and afterwards a castrated female is called a spayed heifer or cow Bullock is the general term for any full-grown cattle, male or female, fat or lean DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 325 DIFFERENT BREEDS. NATIVE.—Our best cattle are more or less mixed with standard breeds ; but of which no record has been kept. We here give a specimen (Fig. 195) of an almost perfect cow. This cow gave thirty-eight and a half quarts per day. In the Eastern and Middle States the ruling qualities of the North De- von stock are quite perceptible. The cattle average well. The oxen are good under the yoke and the cows good milkers. By means of this stock and imported bulls the cattle of the Western and Middle States are Fig. 195. x “A i | it am 326 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. being vastly improved. In the West, the short-horned animals have been generally preferred, but the Durhams are now coming into vogue very exten- sively, on account of their superior adaptedness to travel to the Hastern markets without sensibly deteriorating in weight and quality. The English Herefords are now being paid particular attention to, as they are supposed to be well calculated for the Western graziers; the West Highland breed is also recominended. Drevon.— The true Devon cattle are gentle, agile, and peculiarly adapted to active lavor. Their shoulders have that obliquity which enables them to lift freely their fore extremities; and their quarters behind are relatively long, a characteristic connected with the power of active motion. Their bodies, too, ace light, and their limbs long, muscular to the hock and knee. and below these joints sinewy. They have the faculty of muscular exertion in a high degree, trot well in harness, and will keep pace with a horse in the ordinary labors of the farm. Devon Bull. — The figure below represents a fine specimen of a genuine \ - \ ANS “iff i WU, YL Mlle ie SN it WX \ (Ka : 7 Aid Hie SF Z LZ ==_ > LL at i Hy | y) HK i y oy Yi ” Hie \\ RN Vi Wk. ii! hy SSS th Needy s VIAGRA) RSS - 364. SS > Devon bull. The horn of the Devon bull ought to be neither too low nor too high, tapering at the points, not too thick at the root, and of a yellow or waxy color. The eye should be clear, bright, and prominent, showing mucb of the white, and it ought to have around it a circle of a variable color, but —™ DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 327 usually a dark orange. The forehead should be flat, indented, and small, the purity of the breed being very much determined by the latter character- istic. "The cheek should be small, the muzzle fine, the nose clear yellow, the nostril high and open, the hair curled about the head, and the neck quite thick. Excepting in the head and neck, the form of the bull does not materially differ from that of the ox, but he is considerably smaller. There are some exceptions, however, to this rule, as the two figures which follow indicate, these representing the offspring of the bull exhibited in Fig. 196. )) Hh) j \ We a) i Shit HAY, Devon Ox.— The head of the Devon ox is quite small, with a great breadth of forehead; clean and free from flesh about the jaws; prominent eye; vivacious countenance ; long and thin neck ; light in the withers; the shoulders a little oblique; breast deep; bosom open and wide; fore-legs wide apart ; the point of the shoulder rarely seen ; no projection of bone, as in the horse, but a kind of level line running on to the neck ; skin, notwith- standing the curly hair, exceedingly mellow and elastic ; color a blood red, which is usually indicative of purity of breed, though there are many animals, of great excellence, of a chestnut hue, and even bay brown. Those of a yellowish hue are said to be subject to steal (diarrhea). The preceding figure is an accurate likeness of an ox beginning to fatten, but his character- 328 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. istic points not yet concealed. The cut below is that of a working Devon ox, embodying almost all the good points which have been enumerated. Sree — SS LZ LL G = S=> MAG Ay DN G7 a Y, } } i Goer —< —_ LZz, Ba SS eS Mit ayy Mez, ty RS MWverces A selection from the most’ perfect animals of the true breed, —the bone still small and the neck fine, but the brisket deep and wide, and down to the knees, and not an atom of flatness all over the side, — or one cross, and only one, with the Hereford, and that stealthily made, — these have improved the strength and bulk of the Devon ox, without impairing, in the slightest degree, his activity, beauty, or his propensity to fatten. . Fig. 199. Devon Cow. —'There are few things more remarkable about the Devon- shire cattle than the comparative smallness of the cow. The bull is a great deal less than the ox, and the cow almost as much smaller than the bull. This is somewhat of a disadvantage, on the whole, a roomy cow being very desirable for breeding But, though small, the Devon possesses that roundness Bie UR li i DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS, 329 nd and projection of the last two or three ribs, which renders it more roomy than a careless examination would lead one to suppose. She is particularly distinguished for her full, round, clear eye, the gold-colored circle around the eye, and the same color prevailing on the inside skin of the ear; coun- tenance cheerful, the muzzle orange or yellow, but the rest of the face having nothing of black, or even white, about it; jaws free from thickness, and the throat free from dewlap. ‘The points of the back and the hind quarters dif- fer from those of other breeds, having more roundness and beauty, and being free from most of those angles by which good milkers are sometimes dis- tinguished. The following is a portrait.of a Devon cow, rising four years old. With x RS NM sees € = ) Ly HK nih oo Ae Los 9 NWR = = Z Y == OY SSS ZZ} S77 regard to size, she is a favorable specimen, and it will be seen at once how much more roomy and fit for breeding she is than even her somewhat superior bulk would at first indicate. She is, perhaps, in a little better condition than cows generally are, or should be, in order to yield their full quantity of milk. : Remarks. — The qualities of the Devon cattle may be referred to three points — their working, fattening, and milking. Where the ground is not too heavy, the Devonshire oxen are unrivaled at the plough. They are quick, active, docile, and capable. They are usually taken in to work when about two years old. If kept idle till five a 330 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. 4 pr six years of age, they will be stinted in growth. At six to sia and a half, they reach their full stature. At nine years, or older, they decline in value. With regard to their disposition to fatten, they have few rivals here They do not, indeed, attain the great weight of some breeds, but, in a given time, they acquire more flesh, and with less consumption of food; and their flesh is beautiful in its kind, pleasing to the eye, and to the taste. For milking, the Devons are inferior to several other breeds. The milk is good, yielding more than an average proportion of cream and butter, but it is deficient in quantity. Some, however, deny that the latter is true. Dvuruam, OR SHORT-HORN.— The short-horned, sometimes called the Dutch breed, is known by a variety of names, such as the Holderness, the 'Tees- water, the Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland, and others. Applying the points of judging live-stock to the short-horns, it is found, that for quantity and well-laid-on beef, the short-horned ox is quite full in every valuable Fig. 201. 25 Ss NW Nag, yy meres ee part. In regard to quality of beef, tlie fat bears a due and even predominat- ing proportion to the lean, the fibres of which are fine and well mixed, and even marbled with fat, and abundantly juicy. The fine, thin, clean bones of the legs and head, with the soft, mellow touch of the skin, and the benign aspect of the eye, indicate in a remarkable degree the disposition to fatten ; while the uniform colors of the skin, red or white, or both combined in DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 331 various degrees, mark distinctly the purity of the blood. They are at once distinguished from any of the other breeds by their additional size, and their more square and massy form. Their bones are exceedingly small, compared with the size of the animal; their skin possesses that peculiar touch so characteristic of a good feeder; they arrive early at maturity ; and, further, they combine the valuable qualities of milking and fattening in an unsur- passed degree. Fig. 201 exhibits one of the truest specimens of Short-horned bulls, and may be relied on for its faithful delineation. The Short-horned cow gives a large quantity of milk, and is, in alt respects, a superior animal. Having given some account of the excellent qualities distinguishing the breed generally, we close with presenting a life- likeness of one of the female species. Hererorpsuire. — The Herefordshire white-faced breed may be thus dis- tinguished: ‘The countenance cheerful, pleasant, open; the forehead broad ; eye full and lively; horns bright, taper, and spreading ; head small; chap lean; neck long and tapering; chest deep and full; bosom broad, and _pro- jecting forward; shoulder-bone thin, flat, full, and mellow in flesh; loin broad ; hips standing wide, and level with the chine ; quarters long, and wide at the neck; rump even with the level of the back, and not drooping, nor standing high and sharp above the quarters; tail slender and neatly haired ; barrel round and roomy ; the carcass throughout deep and well-spread ; ribs broad, standing flat and close on the outer surface, forming a smooth, even barrel, —the hindmost large and full of length ; round bone small, snug, and 332 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. not prominent; thigh clean, and regularly tapering ; legs upright and short below the knee, and hock small; feet of middle size; flank large ; flesh everywhere mellow, soft, and yielding pleasantly to the touch, especially on the chine, the shoulder, and the ribs; hide mellow, supple, of a middle thickness, and loose on the neck and huckle ; coat neatly haired, bright ana silky ; color a middle red, with a bald face, characteristic of the true breed. They fatten to a much greater weight than the Devons, and at an early age. They are far worse milkers, however, than the latter, but will thrive and grow fat where a Devon would scarcely live. A cross of the Devon and Hereford will often improve each other, the former acquiring bulk and hardihood, and the latter a finer form and activity. The Hereford cow (Fig. 203) is apparently a very inferior animal. Not only is she a poor milker, but her form is defective, —small, delicate, and ill-made. She is very light-fleshed when in common condition, and Cit it ui {f \ beyond that, while she is breeding, she is not suffered to proceed; but when | she is actually put up for fattening, she spreads out, and accumulates fat at a most extraordinary rate. The Hereford ox fattens speedily at a very early age, and it is therefore generally more advantageous that he should go to market at three years old than be kept longer to be employed as a beast of draught. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 333 Ayrsuire.—This breed hasbeen much improved. It is short in the leg, \he neck a little thicker at the shoulder, but finely shaped towards the head ; ant Fig. 204, ny W A iif the horns are smaller than those of the Highland breed, but clear and smooth, pointing forwards, and turning upwards, tapering to a point. 334 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. They are deep in the carcass, but nct round and ample, and especially not so in the loins and haunches. Fig 204 represents an improved Ayrshire bull. It is said that the Ayrshire farmers prefer their dairy bulls according to the feminine aspect of their heads and necks, and wish them not round behind, but broad at the hook-bones and hips, and full in the flanks. The Ayrshire cow is a valuable dairy cow, the quantity of milk yielded by her being very great, considering her size. Five gallons daily, for two or three months after calving, may be considered as not more than an aver- age; three gallons daily will be given for the next three months, and one gallon and a half during the succeeding four months. Three gallons and a half of this milk will yield about a pound of butter ; thus fully establishing the reputation of the Ayrshire cow, so far as the dairy is concerned. Fig. 205 represents one of these beautiful animals. New Leicester. — This breed may be substantially distinguished by the following characteristics: The fore end long, but light to a degree of ele- Fig. 206. SY . i) NO i Wy = gance ; neck thin; chap clean; the head fine, but long and tapering; eye large, bright, and prominent; the horns of the bulls comparatively short, of the oxen extremely long, as are, also, those of the cow, and most of them DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS, 335 hang downward by the side of the cheeks; shoulders fine and thin as to bone, but thick as to flesh, without any protuberance of bone; girth small, compared with the short-horns and middle-horns ; chine quite full when fat; loin broad, hip quite wide and protuberant ; quarters long and level, the nache of a middle width, and the tail set on variously ; round bones small, but thighs fleshy, tapering; legs small, clean, somewhat long; feet neat, middling size; the carcass as nearly a cylinder as the natural form of the animal will allow; ribs standing out full from the spine ; belly small; hide middling thick ; color various, — the brindle, the finch-back, and the pye, are common. The fattening quality, when the breed is in a state of maturity, is indisputably good. As grazier’s stock, they rank high. The principle of the utility of form has been strictly attended to. As dairy stock, their merit is less evident. As beasts of draught, many of them are sufficiently powerful, and are more active than some other breeds used for the plough, or on roads; but their horns form something of an objection to such use of them. Fig. 206 is that of a New Leicester cow. Remarks. — Some of the other most noted breeds, which are coming into extensive favor in this country, are the Holderness, the Galloway, the Sus- sex, the Alderney, the Suffolk, and the Kyloe; these, however, we do not design to notice in detail, but shall close our notes on neat cattle with a few remarks on some of the characteristics and general management of DAIRY COWS. Qualities. — We have already expressed, in the preceding pages. the general opinions entertained as to the adaptedness of particular breeds for dairy purposes. Where butter is the main object, such cows should always be chosen as are known to afford the best and largest quantities of milk and cream, of whatever breed they may be. But the quantity of butter to be made from a given number of cows must always depend on the size and goodness of the beasts, the kind and quantity of food, and the distance of time from calving. The form of animals that are best fitted to arrive at early maturity and secrete fat, differs in some respects from that which indicates a dispo- sition to secrete and yield milk. A dairy cow, like a feeding animal, should have a skin soft and mellow to the touch,—should have the back straight, the loins broad, the extremities small and delicate; but she need not, as in the case of the feeding animal, have the chest broad and prom- inent before. She should rather have the fore-quarters light, and the hind- quarters relatively broad, capacious, and deep; and she should have a large, well-formed udder. There should be no breeding in-and-in, as in the case of a feeding stock. The purpose in rearing cows for the dairy is not to pro- ‘ 336 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. duce animals that will arrive at premature age, but such as are hardy and of good constitution. By long attention to the characters that indicate a disposition to yield milk, the breed of Ayrshire has. become greatly more esteemed for the dairy than other animals much superior to them in size and feeding qualities. Feeding. — With respect to the manner of feeding dairy cows, the most economical, perhaps, is feeding them entirely on green forage during the summer, and on roots in winter. But, as to the effect of food, notwith- standing all that may justly be said respecting the nutritive properties of peculiar roots and artificial grasses, no food can excel that of good natural pastures, for milch cows; for not only do they yield a greater quantity of © mailk when-fed on pastures, but the flavor of: grass butter may always be distinguished, by its superior richness and delicacy, from that which has been made from milk produced from soiling in the house. This, however, should not deter the farmer from feeding his dairy stock in that manner, for the difference in the quality of the produce is not so great as to counter- balance the many advantages resulting from a due extent and proper kind of soiling. But in a country where cultivation has not been carried to its fullest extent, and a considerable proportion of the land is necessarily devoted to the production of grass, the cows may be kept, with ee. advantage, on the pastures, during summer, Keeping in Good Condition. — Dairy cows should be kept constantly in good condition. When they are suffered to fall off in flesh, particularly in the winter season, it is impossible that they can be brought to yield a large quantity of milk, by getting them into better condition in the summer months. When cows are lean at the period of calving, no managemen’ afterwards is capable of bringing them to afford, for that season, anything near the proportion of milk they would have yielded if they had been sup- ported in proper condition during the winter. Food of the most nourishing and succulent kinds should, therefore, be regularly given, in suitable pro- portions, in. the cold, inclement months, and they should be kept tolerably warm, and well supplied with pure water. It will be equally conducive to the health of cows as to that of feeding cattle, to comb them regularly, and to make such other arrangements as are conducive to cleanliness. Milking. —In summer, the cows are milked in the field, or they are driven gently home to their stalls, and milked there. The cows, when in full milk, should be milked three times a day, and, at other times, twice in the day will suffice. On the physiological principle of the secretions of animals being increased in proportion as the secreted fluid is more frequently withdrawn, the propriety of frequent milkings is apparent, in order to increase or maintain the supply of milk produced by cows. There can be +.) FINE JERSEY COW. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 337 little doubt but that, by accustoming the secretory organs to more frequent action, such a habit may be established in them as will afford a larger pro- portion of milk in a given time. But, in order to effect this in the most nerfect manner, it will be necessary to have the cows highly fed, to observe the greatest regularity and exactness in the hours of milking, and to be careful that every drop of milk is drawn away each time. If any milk is allowed to remain in the udder after the operation of milking, it is well ascertained that the cow will yield a smaller quantity at the next milking. A milch cow is usually considered in her prime at five years old, and will generally continue in as good milking state until ten years old, or upwards, depending much on the constitution of the animal, — some cows, ‘ike other animals, exhibiting symptoms of old age sooner than others. Ascertaining the Quality of Milk.— 'The value of milk, and the propor- tion of either butter or cheese that it produces, depends much upon its quality. As the milk of some cows is so greatly superior to that of others, where regularity is observed, it is important that the milk of each should be placed by itself until its quality is ascertained. This is effected by churning it separately ; but a more expeditious and convenient method is to ascertain its strength by means of the lactometer, an instrument which we have described in the chapter on the dairy, and a cut of which we annex. Grazing Cattle. — Fattening cattle for sale being an important branch of agricultural economy, the farmer should regulate his system of grazing by his knowledge of the nature and fertility of his pastures. Those beasts only should be selected, which show a disposition to fatten on the smallest ainount of food, and it will be advisable to pasture them on lands suited to their different breeds. It is a bad practice to transfer cattle from rich to inferior soils: the reverse should be the rule; and graziers vould do 29 w 838 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. well by selecting their purchased stocks from lands of a poor quality Water has also its effect upon cattle, which, if removed from pastures well supplied with sweet water to those not well furnished with that re- quisite, will not only fail to improve, but will rapidly deteriorate. In order to render the grazing of cattle profitable, they should be gradually changed from inferior pastures to others covered with more choice grass : cattle being very fond of variety, they will eat only the best portions of the grass, fill themselves speedily, and lie down to chew the cud and digest their meal at leisure. This mode of feeding tends greatly to in- crease of fat. It is important not to overstock the pastures, and strong cattle should be separated from weaker ones; as the more powerful ani- mals frequently drive the others around the field, much to the injury of the grass, and the annoyance of non-resisting animals. If there are no trees in the field, the erection of rubbing-posts will prevent the cattle from injuring the fences by using them for that purpose. Many highly intelligent graziers recommend a division of the grazing farm into four enclosures; each containing a nearly equal quantity of land. One of these enclosures being kept entirely free from stock until the grass has attained its full growth, the prime, or fattening cattle, are then turned into it, in order that they may cull the choice food ; the second best then follow these; and the young stock next in order. Thus the entire herd will feed over the four enclosures in succession —the first being kept free from stock until ready for the best cattle — the second is appropriated to the best cattle until they are sent to No. 1 —the third is pastured by the second best cattle until they are turned into No. 2—and the fourth is devoted to the young cattle until they are sent to No. 3. Sheep follow after the young cattle, and crop the grass down to a close and even sward; after which this enclosure is shut up until again ready for the prime cattle. It is likewise advisable to divide the fattening en- closure by hurdles, by which means the stock may be confined to one- half of it at a time, and thus be continually furnished with good, fresh pasture. Winter stall-feeding. —Two modes are practised by farmers: 1. Con- finement in stalls; 2. Confinement in small yards, with open sheds at- tached. Each shed, together with its yard, has a sufficient capacity for two oxen, and is surrounded by a well-built wall, against which, in the yard, the feed-troughs are placed. If the cattle are confined to the stall, they require to be fastened with care the first tinre; and they must be watched for a fime to prevent them from injuring themselves by strug- gling to get loose, as is occasionally the case. They must also be well and comfortably littered, and the feed placed before them in a low manger. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 339 Early each morning the dung must be removed from the stalls, and the mangers be filled with roots first, and subsequently with well-cured hay, At noon, feed as before; again, before night sets in; and, if practicable, previous to retiring for the night, stir up the litter, examine whether all is right, and put more food before them. By pursuing this plan, the cattle will be well fed, and, during the intervals between meals, will lie down and rest. Currying has also a beneficial effect upon cattle, and their hides should be carefully freed from vermin and other impurities. Comfortable accommodations, good ventilation, regularity in feeding, as well as in the amount of food given, good and abundant litter, attention to cleanliness, and an unstinted supply of pure water, are all desiderata in the fattening of cattle, which cannot be too carefully attended to by those who have charge of them. Nothing conduces so much to the fatten- ing of animals as perfect quiet; and every means should be used to pro- mote rest, ease, and contentment. Formerly, cattle were fattened entirely _ on hay; but this having been found not only a tedious, but also an ex- pensive mode, oil- and rape-cake have been largely substituted, and almost every variety of esculent. The ruta-baga and sugar-beet are, however, preferable to any others of the root-tribe, not only on account of the quantity of contained nutriment, but also because they are relished by the cattle, which thrive upon them in an extraordinary degree. The modern practice of cooking roots for the use of cattle, is much facilitated by the employment of various steaming apparatus. Many experiments have been made to test the relative nutritive qualities of raw and cooked food. The results prove that cooked roots and grain are not more nou- rishing than when fed to cattle in the raw state; but cooked food being more easily digested, the animals fed on it are enabled to consume a larger quantity, and in this way benefit by its use. Ruminant animals, however, profit less from being fed on it, than do those of the non- ruminant class, as the horse, the hog, &c. The use of grain will, in a vreat measure, depend upon the market-price; but the practice cannot be recommended, unless called for by peculiar circumstances, such as a scarcity, or a diseased condition, of esculent roots. Il. SHEEP. Rearing, gc. — The ewe may breed when fifteen or eighteen months old, and at the same age the ram may also be employed to the extent of forty or fifty ewes, and, when older, to seventy or eighty. The young lambs should be brought forth at a time when there will be 3 sufficient supply of food for the dam to enable her to yield a copious supply of milk; and also for the lambs, as they advance in growth. The usual 340 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. period is from the middle of October to November, in which case the ewes will begin to lamb soon after the beginning of March. No preparation is necessary, except, for a few weeks before, to place the ewes on somewhat better pasture than usual. The period of lambing having commenced, the attendant should carefully observe every ewe that appears to be in labor. The attendant should not be in haste to render assistance, until the strength of the ewe appears to be declining. If she is to be driven to the fold, it must be done gently as pos- sible. Before assistance is given, first see that the fetus is coming in a proper position, which is with the head crouched between the fore-legs ; if wrong, it must be turned to the proper position. In the case of twin lambs, the one which is least advanced must be put back, and the extraction of the other assisted. If the fcetus be dead, it should be extracted immediately. The keep of sheep after lambing, when rich pastures, or other kinds of grass lands, cannot be reserved, should consist of turnips, or other kinds of green food. The ewes should also have a dry, quiet, and sheltered pasture, protected from the severity of the weather. High feeding should be allowed them, but not while pregnant. Castrating. — Castration of the male lambs should be performed when they are ten days or a fortnight old. They should be in perfect health, and the weather fine, but not warm. An incision is made into the scrotum on each side, through which the testicles are successively protruded, and they are taken away by severing the spermatic cord. Weaning. — The period of weaning differs according to the locality of the farm, and the quality of the pasture. In a mountainous situation, and where the land is inferior, weaning often takes place when the lambs are not more than three months old, for it requires all the intermediate time io the beginning of winter to bring the ewes either ready for the ram or fatted for the market. The time is generally from the first to the middle of July, and the lambs are simply separated from the ewes. It is necessary to take away a portion of the ewe’s milk, at intervals, to prevent injurious disten- sion of the udder. Dry them by degrees. After being weaned, the lambs are named according to their sex and age. The males are called hoggets, or hogs, the rams being termed tup-hogs, the castrated males wether-hogs, and the ewes ewe-hogs. It is important that the lambs be put into a good pasture in the summer, to make up for the loss of the milk of the dam. When the grass begins to fail, they are to be supplied with turnips plentifully, which, with hay, are to be their food during winter. Shearing. — This is an annual operation, usually taking place at the end of May or first of June, — the precise period depending on the state of the DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS, 341 animals, those in a high condition being ready sooner than those that are lean, — the wool coming off readily at that time, when plucked, this being the proper criterion. About a week previously to shearing, the animals are to be washed, to free the wool from all impurities. Everything being prepared, a sheep is handed to the first operator, who seizes it and pulls it into the water, and immediately turns it over on its back, holding the arm of the fore-leg with the left hand, and grasping a portion of the wool at the side of the head with his right hand, turning the sheep over from side to side, at the same time pulling it gently backwards and forwards from and to him, at every successive turning ; the wool waves up and down in the direc- tion of the length of the body, and swirls round the body, first in one direction and then in another ; the sheep is then handed to another operator, who repeats the process and hands the animal to another person, and he who handles it last examines the fleece. After being washed, the sheep are put into a clean grass field; the fleece will soon dry, after which the sheep may be shorn ; though it is better to wait about a week, in order that the oil may be brought again into the wool, without which the latter loses its peculiar lustre with the loss of the yolk. When the sheep are to be shorn, they are put into some enclosed space ; a winnow-cloth, or large sheet, of some kind, is spread on the floor, and fastened down at the corners. The shearer then sets the sheep on its rump, in which position it is kept by resting against his legs. In this position, the wool is removed from the head and neck, and the operator afterwards clips in a circular direction from the belly to the back ; the animal is then laid on its side, and kept down by the leg of the shearer, who clips the fleece all around the back. All dirty portions of the wool about the tail and belly ought to be removed by the shears, and kept by themselves. The outside of the fleece is folded inwards, beginning with the side, and narrowing the whole fleece into a stripe of about two feet in breadth. This stripe is then rolled firmly up, from the tail-end towards the neck, the wool of which is stretched out and twisted into a rope, and wound around the fleece, to give it a cylindrical shape. The clippings are steeped in water and washed by the hand, and afterwards dried in the sun. In using the shears, they should be held close to the sheep, with their points a little elevated ; every stroke should be short and narrow, to make a clean clip. Keep the shears sharp by a whetstone. Different names are again applied to the sheep after being shorn. They are now shearlings, shearling-wethers, shearling-ewes, and shearling-tups or rams; the wethers are also called dinmonts, and the ewes gimmers. ‘The ewes, or gimmers. are kept on the pastures during the second season : 29 2) EEE es 342 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. o and such as are intended for breeders receive the ram at the proper season. The wethers, or dinmouts, are fit for the butcher soon after being shorn. But it is only in the case ofthe more improved breeds being reared, and the supply of food of the last description, that the dinmonts are thus disposed of at this early period. More frequently they are kept on the farm for another winter, when the management is the same as during the first year. The dinmonts, however, are frequently sold fat before they have completed the entire winter’s feeding ; and when not disposed of at this period, they. are sold after being a second time shorn. The details of the rearing and treatment of sheep on arable farms have now been given at length. But frequently, instead of the animals being produced and fattened on the farm, the operations of the farmer may be either confined to breeding sheep and disposing of them before they become fat, to pass into other hands before they come to the butcher, or they may be confined to fattening sheep, always purchasing the stock from the breeder. In situations, however, where the breeding and feeding of sheep can be carried on with equal advantage, they may, with economy, be com- bined on the same farm. Animals for the Market. — But instead of rearing all the animals to the age of one or two years, the lambs are sometimes disposed of fat during the first summer. In this case, they are fattened merely on the milk of their dams. In certain cases, however, the ewes are made to produce the lambs at those seasons which are found to suit the adjacent markets best, and the lambs are fed in the house. Food. — Grass in summer, and turnips and hay in winter, form the chief food of sheep, and they are seldom difficult to procure in favorable situations. In the absence of turnips, the different roots cultivated on the farm may be substituted with advantage. Salt should always be supplied to sheep. Sheep in Mountainous Sections. —The management of sheep in mountain- ous sections sometimes differs, in some respects, from that described. The food is here not so abundant, nor so good, and the sheep must be of hardy constitution. The period of putting the ram to the ewes is also somewhat later, in order that the lambs may not be brought forth until the season is advanced, and the herbage well sprung up. During the winter, when not too severe, the sheep are kept on the pasture, and in stormy weather they have an allowance of hay, and roots when they can be produced. The operations of lambing, castrating, weaning, and shearing, are the same in both cases. Smearing. — The operation of smearing may be regarded as peculiar te the mcurtain races of sheep. ‘This is performed with a view to destroy the DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 343 vermin, and protecting the animals from the inclemency of the weather. It is. however, injurious to the wool, but doubtless destroys vermin, and prevents diseases of the skin. The usual substances employed are tar and butter, —a gallon of the former to six pounds of the latter, — which is sufficient for twenty sheep. Combinations of tar with other substances are also employed, such as oil, soda, and even potatoes boiled and pounded, the effect of which is to render the tar more easy of separation from the wool. Whatever composition is used, it should be rubbed in streaks on the skin, without daubing the wool. The usual time of doing it is in the first part of November. Signs of Good Health.—The appearances which show the sheep to be in good health are, a rather wild or lively briskness; a brilliant clearness in the eye; a florid, ruddy color on the inside of the eyelids, nostrils, and gums ; a fastness in the teeth; a sweet breath; a dryness of the nose and eyes; easy and regular breathing; coolness in the feet; dang properly formed; fleece firmly attached to the skin, and unbroken; and the skin exhibiting a florid-red appearance. A discharge from the nose or eyes indicates having taken cold. Improvement of Breeds. —In selecting a breed of sheep the farmer should be governed by the nature of his pasture-lands, and the means he has at command for supplying them with prepared food. A mountain breed will not prove profitable upon a valley farm; nor will a lowland breed of sheep thrive well on hill-side pastures. After selecting a breed, the next point for careful attention is the propagation of lambs; for which purpose the best sheep in the flock should be selected. Early maturity and a disposition to acquire fat are of importance when meat only is the object sought; but these qualities are of secondary import- ance to the wool-grower, who looks rather to the fine texture of the fleece, the hardy nature of the animals, and their healthy condition. Breeding- in should be practised only to a moderate extent, as, when carried too far, it tends to make the sheep sickly and delicate. When unduly prac- tised, Nature rebels against it; the sheep cease to produce wool in suffi- cient quantity, the ewes stop giving milk, and the rams lose their viri- lity. Crossing with the best breeds of another stock is the only remedy in cases of this kind; which is a matter of easy accomplishment, since there is a plentiful supply of superior rams in all of the breeds now reared, Form.—Proneness to acquire fat at an early age may be distinguished by certain external characteristics, as may also the wooel-bearing qualities, which are of such great importance to the breeder. A disposition to fatten is indicated by general rotundity of form, small bones, well-arched 344 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. ribs, and broad, flat, and straight back and loins. The body should be proportionally larger than the limbs, the chest well set, the belly straight, the head small, and the ears thin. The legs should be fleshy to the joint; thence tapering downward, delicate, and covered with short hair; the wool soft-feeling, thick, and growing well forward on the face, but not covering it; the skin soft, and elastic to the touch; the face and fore- head thickly covered with short hair; and the eyes clear and bright. Age may be ascertained by examining the front teeth, which are eight in number, and make their appearance during the first year, when they are all of small size. The following year the two middle teeth are super- seded by two others of larger size. During the third year, two other small teeth, one on each side, are shed, and their place filled by two large ones. At this time there are four large teeth in front, flanked by two pointed ones. The fourth year the large teeth are six in number, and but two small teeth remain — one at each side. These disappear during the fifth year, when all the front teeth are large. Signs of wear are visible early in the sixth year; and during the seventh year (sometimes even earlier) they begin to fall out, or are broken off. Wool, and its Characteristics.— Fineness of pile first attracts attention, and is of greater importance than any other property, with the exception of quantity. The wool covering the ribs, back, shoulders, and side of the neck, is considered the finest; and next in order is that clothing the upper parts of the legs and thighs, and extending up to within a short distance of the haunch and tail. A coarser kind of wool covers the upper part of the neck, the throat, breast, belly, and lower parts of the legs. Temperature, pasture, food, and general management exert a great influence on the fineness and quality of wool; and the value of the sheep is in proportion to the equal quality of the wool on all parts of its body. Soundness and elasticity are likewise very important properties, more especially in long wool, in which they are indispensable requisites. Fine wool has a perfectly regular fibre, and is free from coarse hairs; and fineness of staple is always accompanied by an equal growth of wool over all parts of the animal, and marked by an absence of those shaggy spots observable on poor and half-fed sheep. Felting on the back of the sheep very much injures the quality of wool; and, though this is a fre- quent occurrence among heavy breeds, yet it is more commonly the result of neglect and a scanty supply of food. Another desirable quality is softness of pile, which, in the opinion of manufacturers, cannot be too soft and silky, provided the strength remains unimpaired. This quality measurably depends on the fineness of the fibre ; and as the yolk imparts richness and pliability, as well as nourishment, to the wool, it necessarily DOMESTIO OR FARM ANIMALS. . exerts some influence on the softness of the pile. The color of wool, though of minor is yet of no trifling importance ; for the purchaser never loses sight of the qualities of purity and perfect whiteness. VARIETIES. TARTAR,.—This is a valuable breed, for sometime introduced into the United States. They are a medium-sized animal, with agreeably- expressive faces, prominent noses, ears drooping forward, and covered with short, but very fine, glossy, silken hair. The principal value of this animal consists in its remarkable powers of procreation — the ewes pro- ducing lambs twice each year, and from three to four, and not unfre- quently five ata time. The quality of the mutton being of the highest order, devoid of woolly or other disagreeable taste, and possessing a delicacy resembling venison, with their capacity for furnishing lambs at all seasons of the year, make them of great value to those whose chief object is to breed for the butcher. Lone-wooLep. — The long-wooled sheep are of the largest size. The ese See = “tp mi ss) SSS SS p ’ . et R\ (Xt SN \\ tUM\eZ hy . \ all OES aN) ay “ah, \ . New Leicester or Dishley breed stands deservedly at the head of the list and, indeed, for symmetry of shape, early maturity, and attaining to a cow FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. . siderable size, it stands unrivaled. The preceding figure is a very fair. specimen. This breed owes its origin to the late Mr. Bakewell, a celebrated breeder, | of Dishley, in Leicestershire, England. It is inferior, in size and quality of wool, to many of the larger varieties, but for early maturity and aptitude to fatten it has not been surpassed. It should have a tapering head, long, and hornless ; eyes prominent, and a quiet expression; ears thin, long, directed backwards ; neck full and broad at its base, gradually tapering towards the head, particularly bare at the junction with the head ; the neck seeming to project straight from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one continued horizontal line from the rump to the pole; breast’ broad and full ; shoulders broad and round,—no uneven or angular formation, no rising of the withers, no hollow behind the situation of these bones ; arm’ fleshy throughout, even down to the knee; bones of the leg small, standing: wide apart, —no looseness of skin about them, and rather bare of wool ;: 209 is a portrait of one of the latter. Fig. 209. — == ee “a” \ Z \ : g : : % ; AZ SSN NLS. Yo YAN SX VY 4 QA A INK SNA A wi | \. NN \\ AX Pe ae a Se 7 oe i fi a Vi} Ny iF < chest and barrel deep and round; ribs forming a considerable arch from the’ spine ; the barrel ribbed well home ; carcass gradually diminishing in width’ . towards the rump; quarters long and full; legs medium length; pelt mod- erately thin, soft, elastic, covered with a good quantity of fine, white wool. The principal races of this breed are the New Leicester, the Lincolnshire, Teeswater, Devonshire Notts, Romney Marsh, and the Cotswold. Suort-woo.ep. — The short-wooled varieties of sheep are very numeious, SSS — BNE IN LO Sats ak oe = FOR r\ hs SEX ' : Se SF. BAKER ENGR CYSENLEL, WH ——— ——— : s ‘ THE FULL-BLOODED MERINO SHEEP, DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 347 and are also distinguished generally by smallness of size. They are hardier than the larger sheep, yet, with few exceptions, not so well calcu- lated for the exposed and mountainous sections. ‘The Cheviot and South- Down are very generally diffused varieties of this class, both kinds being hornless. Fig. 210 is a South-Down ewe and lamb, of the most improved sort. Fig. 210. The points in this valuable breed are principally as follows : — The head should be neither too long nor too short; the lip thin; the neck moderately long, thin next to the head, and tapering towards the shoulders; breast wide and deep, projecting forward before the fore-legs, which indicates a good constitution and disposition to feed; the shoulders not too wide between the plate-bones, but on a level with the chine; chine low and straight from the shoulders to the tail; the ribs should project horizontally from the chine, as the animal will then lay its meat on the prime parts; the sides high and parallel; rump long and broad; the tail set on high, and nearly on a level with the chine; hips wide; ribs circular, and barrel- shaped; legs neither very long nor very short; the bones moderately fine. Buack-racep.— The Black-faced or Heath sheep are distinguished by black faces and legs, and large and spirally-twisted horns. The female is however, frequently hornless. The fleece is long, coarse, and shaggy, extending over the forehead and lower jaw. This is an active and hardy race, capable of subsisting in the most exposed situations, producing mutton of excellent quality, though not generally fattened till four or five years old. 345 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Their wool is not so valuable as that of the C..eviots. Fig. 211 represents one of the black-faced race. Fig. 211. Merino. — This celebrated and most useful breed are distinguished by she fineness and felting quality of their wool, and the weight yielded by each sheep, — the ease with which they adapt themselves to the climate, the readiness with which they take to the coarsest food, their gentleness and tractability. Their defects are their unprofitable and unthrifty form, voracity of appetite, a tendency to barrenness, neglect of their young, and Fig. 212. ANG inferior flavor of the mutton. The wool, lying closer and thicker over the body than in most other breeds of sheep, and being abundant in yolk, is covered with a dirty crust, often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 349 small in the bone; the breast and back narrow, and the sides somewhat flat ; the fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is carried on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are comparatively large, curved, more or less spiral; head large, but forehead rather low. A few of the females are horned, but, generally speaking, are destitute. Both male and female have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and cheeks; the other part of the face has a pleasing and characteristic velvet appearance. Under the throat there is a singulaz looseness of skin, which gives them a remarkable appearance of throati- ness, or hollowness in the pile; the pile, when pressed upon, is hard and unyielding, on account of the thickness with which it grows upon the pelt, and the abundance of the yolk detaining all the dirt and gravel which fall upon it, though, when examined, the fibre exceeds in fineness, and in the number of serrations and curves, that which any other sheep in the world produces. Fig. 212 is a representation of the Merino breed, Ill. SWINE. Breeding and Rearing. —These animals arrive early at maturity. The sow is fit to receive the male when little more than eight months old, and the latter is capable of propagating at the same early period; but neither of them should be allowed to be used for the purposes of breeding until they have completed their first year, and the male should be admitted only to a limited number of females for some time after. The period of gestation in the sow is about sixteen weeks; and the number of young produced at a birth varies from five to ten or twelve, sometimes even to eighteen or twenty, and two litters are produced in the year, or even five in two years. She is ready to receive the male soon after the birth of her young, but the period of impregnation should be regulated by that at which it is desirable the young should be produced. The winter is a bad season. The periods of impregnation should be about the beginning of October and April, as the young will then be produced in February and August, so that the last litter will have gained full strength before the approach of winter. The pregnant sow should be separated from the herd, but should not be entirely confined. The period of bringing forth will be generally known by the animal carrying straw in her mouth to make her bed some time previous ; and she must then be well littered with short straw, for, when profusely littered with long straw, the young pigs are liable to be injured or killed by the mothers, while they are nestling unperceived under the straw. Treatment of Dam and Young.— The young animals, being extremely ‘ender, are liable to be destroyed immediately after their birth by the mo 30 350 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. tion of the dam; and, to guard against this, they should be watvhed, and the young ones removed from her as they are brought forth. During the first and second day after the birth of the young, or until they acquire strength, they should be removed from the dam, and only occasionally admitted to suck. While nursing, she should be well fed, and the pigs accustomed to feed from a trough on milk, whey, or any liquid food, mixed with a little meal or bran. Castrating. — The males may be castrated when about a month old; and a like operation, though not absolutely necessary, may be performed, at the same age, on such of the females as are not intended for breeding. Weaning. — The period of weaning is regulated by the manner in which the young pigs have been fed; and, when they have been liberally supplied with food, it need not be deferred longer than six or seven weeks ; for, when delayed beyond this, the sow will be in low condition as the time of bringing forth her youre again approaches. Treatment after Weaning. — When weaned, the young pigs should be fed three times a day on nutritious and chiefly farinaceous food, combined with milk or whey; and, in a few weeks, they will consume the ordinary roots cultivated upon the farm. In some instances, the young pigs are dis- posed of while they are sucking, especially when the number brought forth is greater than the dam can perfectly support ; and, when intended for being killed, they are then termed porkers, or roasters. The young pigs, after being weaned, are sometimes allowed to go at large through the pastures, and have to depend on these chiefly for their food. In this case, they frequently do great injury to the fields The best plan is to confine them in pens, allowing them occasionally to go through the feed- ing-yard, to pick up any refuse food scattered through it : and, in addition to this, supply them with a little green food, as clover during summer, and turnips or potatoes during winter. Food. — The food of swine may be of a more varied character than that of any other animal. Every kind of animal refuse, as that of the dairy and kitchen, is eagerly consumed by them ; — roots, raw or boiled ; different kinds of seeds; brewers’ grains, and the wash of the distillery. It is im- portant that they should be liberally and regularly supplied with food. They ought to be fed three times in the day ; and the troughs should be emptied before a fresh supply is given, and washed out occasionally, so as to keep them clean. The hog delights to wallow in the mire, but prefers a clean bed at night. The food should be varied —liauid and solid. Disposition of the Carcass. —'The flesh of the hog may be disposed of in two ways. The one is to yield pork, and the other to produce bacon. In DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 301 the former case, the age seldom exceeds six or eight months and in the latter, ten or twelve. When the substances employed in fattening have been juicy rather than nutritious, the flesh will be much improved by feeding with bran-meal, mixed with the other food, for some time previous to killing the animals. This is more essential in producing bacon, as it tends to harden the flesh, and render it of that mellow firmness which constitutes the essential property of fine hams and bacon. Some time previous to the period of killing the animal, therefore, the food may consist of about two thirds of steamed pota- toes, or other roots, and one third of ground pease, barley, oats, or bran, enlarging the quantity of farinaceous food as the animal fattens. An important matter in the management of swine is the preservation of ‘the flesh after the animals are killed. In the case of pickling pork, the carcass is cut in pieces, and packed. A solution of salt in water is prepared strong enough to swim an egg, which is to be boiled, and, as soon as it has cooled again, it is poured on the pork, so as to cover it. ‘The vessel is now closed up, and the pork ready for market. In the making of bacon, the hams or legs are separated from the flitches or sides, as close to the latter as possible without injuring their appearance. The body is then separated from the head, and cut longitudinally in the direction of the back-bone, and then transversely between the second and third ribs. The hams and fliteches are then laid on boards, sprinkled with saltpetre, and covered with salt, — better if rubbed in by the hands. Put them in a cool place, and in this state let them remain about a week, after whick 352 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. they should be turned, and an additional quantity of salt sprinkled over them. In about two or three weeks from the period of the first salting, they may be hung up in the chimney of the kitchen, or in a smoke-house, to dry. In Westphalia, and some other places noted for the flavor of the hams pro- duced, sugar is commonly used in curing, in the proportion of about one pound of sugar to three of salt, and two ounces of saltpetre. The sugar assists in preserving the meat, rendering its fibre mellow, and corrects the extreme pungency which is often occasioned by the too free use of salt. In every case, after the hams and flitches have remained hanging a sufficient time to dry them, they are taken down, and packed up in seeds from the mill, or sawdust, in which they remain until required for use. The proper period for curing bacon is during the cold weather. Jn order that those who are unacquainted with the anatomy of the pig may possess the means of informing themselves in regard to that subject, we give the preceding skeleton, explained as follows : — The Head. > . Maxilla inferior, vel posterior — lower jaw. . Dentes — the teeth. . Ossa nasi — the nasal bones. . Maxilla superior, vel anterior — upper jaw. . Os frontis — the frontal bone. . Orbiculus — the orbit or socket of the eye. . Os occipitis — the occipital bone. The Trunk. . Atlas — the first vertebra of the neck. Vertebre colli, vel cervicales— the vertebre of the neck. Vertebre dorsi, vel dorsales — the ver- tebre of the back. Vertebre lumborum, vel lumbales — the vertebre of the loins. Ossa coccygis — the bones of the tail. ZH vaw Q nas) = Fore Extremity. . Scapula— the shoulder-blade. a b. Humerus — the round shoulder bone. c. Sternum — the breast bone. d. Ulna— the elbow. e. Radius — the bone of the fore-arm. J. Os naviculare — the navicular bone. g. g. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis— the first and second bones of the foot. h. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis— the bones of the hoof. Hind Extremities. z. t. Pelvis (ossa innominata)—the haunch bones. j- j- Os femoris — the thigh bone. k. k. Patella — the stifle bone. l. l. Tibia — the upper bone of the leg. m. m. Tarsus (one of which is the (N) os calcis) — the hock bones. n. n. Os naviculare — the navicular bone. o. o. Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis)— the first digits of the foot. p. p. Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis) —the second digits of the foot. VARIETIES. Cuina. — The Chinese breed was originally obtained from Asia. ‘here are two distinct species, the white and the black; the former better shaped DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 353 than the latter, but less hardy and prolific. Both are small-limbed, ears and head fine, round in the carcass, thin-skinned, and the head so imbedded in the neck, that when quite fat, the end only of the snout can be seen. They seldom reach a very great weight ; they are rather difficult to rear, and the sows are bad nurses. Their flesh is somewhat tender for bacon, has rather too large a proportion of fat, and their hind-quarters are so deficient in pro- portion to the size of the other parts, that they cut up to considerable disad- vantage for hams. But their great aptitude to fatten, and the extreme delicacy of their meat, — which, when young, is unrivaled, — render them very valuable. Fig. 214. ; if j ] ie Yoh iy) LA ea (5 Hh | ti i | yy) ' The black race are thrifty, ana tatten on a comparatively small quantity of food ; which valuable properties are so desirable that, notwithstanding their small size, they are crossed with other breeds to a very considerable advantage, producing several kinds possessing properties superior to those of the parent stock. They are also very prolific. There is also a mixed breed, patched with black and white, — some with thick, pointed ears, like the true species, which they otherwise resemble in form, while in others the ears are rounded, and hang down. Berxsuire. — The Berkshire hog is of a reddish-brown color, with black spots ; the head well placed, with large ears, generally standing torward, though sometimes hanging over. He is short-legged, small-boned, and of a 2Q * x 354 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. rough, curly coat. Their bacon is very superior, and the animals attain ta & great size. Fig. 215. = SSS ==> = = SSS BE Te ee SSN SX i Hl Hanh N VV ANAS AMS DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 355 The crosses of this breed are so numerous, that any attempt to distin- guish them, and particularize as to their merits, would be futile. Fig. 215. Surrotk.— The Suffolk breed has been long in repute as a hardy and prolific species, though generally of only moderate or rather small size ; and when crossed with either the Berkshire or Dishley breed, produces animals which are in very general esteem. They fatten quickly, but their shape 1s not considered altogether valuable for making bacon. Fig. 216 is an ex- ample of an animal of this breed. Wosurn.— The Woburn breed is white, mixed with various colors, well- formed, round in the carcass, small limbed and headed, hardy, and very prolific, and so kindly disposed to fatten, that they are said to have attained to nearly twice the weight of some other hogs, within the same given period of time. Sramesr. — The widely-diffused breed known by this term, on account of its origin, is worthy of notice in this place. The animals are small, and have a cylindrical body, with the back somewhat hollow, and the belly trailing near the ground, on account of the shortness of the limbs. The hristles are soft, the color is usually black, and the skin externally of a rich copper-color. ‘The ears are short, small, and somewhat erect. The ani- mals are not over-hardy or prolific, and the females do not yie'd the same 356 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. quantity of milk; but they arrive very soon at maturity, they fatten on a small quantity of food, and their flesh is white and delicate. IV. THE HORSE. Rearing and Breeding.—In the breeding of the norse, it is important that the parent, of either sex, be free from disease ; fur the diseases, as well as the good properties, of the animal, are transmitted to their offspring. In breeding, attention should be paid to the female as well as to the male parent, else disappointment may result with respect to the form and proper- ties of the progeny. A mare is capable of receiving the male at an early age; but it is an error to commence breeding from any mare before strength has been ac- quired, and her form developed, — which will rarely be sooner than at three or four years of age. ‘The mare comes into season in spring, and goes with young about eleven months, although with an irregularity, even to the ex- tent of several weeks on either side of that period. ‘The most convenient time for her receiving the male is in May, that she may foal in April, when the herbage begins to spring. From the time she receives the male till that of foaling, the farm mare may be kept at her usual work. She will give notice of the period of foaling, by the extension of the udder, and other symptoms, and she may then be released from work. In general, little difficulty or danger attends the parturition of the mare. She rarely requires assistance ; but, should difficulty really arise, from the particular position of the foetus, it is well to obtain the assistance of a practised hand, lest the mare be injured by unskilful and violent means. As soon as the mare has foaled, she should be placed with her young, either in a house, or, what is better, in a pasture-close, with a shed to which she may go at all times. It is necessary, at this period, to supply her with nourishing food. It is bet- ter that the mother be kept in a field, and permitted to suckle the young undisturbed. But yet she may be put, without danger or injury, to mod- erate work, within a short time after foaling. For a time, the foal should be shut up in a house during the hours of work, which then should not be too long ; but, after the colt has acquired a little strength, it may be permitted to follow the mother even when at work in the field. Many, indeed, do not approve of this practice, on account of the chance of accidents to the foa.. But accidents seldom occur, and the foal has an opportunity of taking milk more frequently, is the better for exercise, and becomes use: to the objects around it. In nine days or more after foaling, the mare will be again in season, and may receive the male. Weaning .—In six months, the foal is to be weaned, which is done merely by separating it from the dam. It is then best put ina field. ‘The mother DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 351 is then put to her ordinary work, and treated as usual. At the time of weaning, and during all the period of its growth, the foal should be liber- ally fed. Bruised oats, meal, or any farinaceous food, may be given to it. It is not necessary or proper that it be pampered, but it is important to its growth and vigor tl at it be supplied with sufficient food. Castrating. —The male foal intended for agricultural purposes must be castrated, and the best time for the operation is at one year old. Some do it before weaning, but it is better that it be delayed till the masculine form of the animal has been more developed. The details of this operation must be left to the experienced practitioner. Little improvement has been effected on the old mode, except the opening of the scrotum, and the division of the cord by the knife, instead of the heated iron. Training and Management of .Colts. —If the colt be intended for the sad- dle, it is well that from this period it be accustomed to gentle handling by the person who feeds it, to rermder it docile and good-tempered. Anything like harshness is to be carefully avoided. The colts are kept in their pas- tures during the summer, and when these fail before winter, the animals may be put into a yard with sheds, and plentifully littered with straw. They may receive straw for half the winter, and hay towards spring, when the straw becomes dry and unpalatable ; and turnips, or any green food, should be supplied freely in the winter. They should have a piece of ground on which they may run in winter, on account of their health and the state of their feet. As early in spring as the pastures will allow, they are. to be turned out to graze in the fields, where they are to be kept during summer, and in the following winter treated in the same manner as before. They are also to be treated in a similar manner in the following summer and winter, after which, that is, when three years old, they will be in a condition tu be broken in ; and, if draught-horses, employed in the work of the farm, they may be taken up for training even in the third autumn of their age, though at this period the work should be very gentle. A farm-horse usually receives little training ; but the colt should have a bridle with an easy bit put upon him for a few days, and allowed to champ it for an hour or two at a time, ina stall. The harness being then put*upon him by degrees, he may be trained to the different labors required of him. In general, the farm-horse, working with his fellows, is easily made obedient. But when a farm-horse is four or five years old before he is put to work, or if he isa stallion, or if he shows any vice, he should have more training. And if a valuable horse, and fit also for the saddle and the carriage, the more training the better. In every case, gentleness and kind treatment are to be strictly observed in the management of the colt. He is first to be taught his duties, and corrected afterwards only 308 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. when necessary to secure submission, fear being the feeling which con- trols the animal. The farm-horse demands, neither in the training nor in the feeding, that nicety which is required in the case of the horse de- signed for rapid motion or irregular labor. He must be kept in good order, never to be worked beyond his power, and never be allowed to fall, in condition, below the work which he is to perform. Food.—The food of the horse consists of herbage, or green forage ; of dried forage, as hay and straw ; of various farinaceous substances, as oats, EXPLANATION OF SKELETON OF A HORSE. A, Cervical Vertebre, B B, Dorsal Vertebre, C, Lumbar Vertebre, D, Sacrum, E E, Consygeal Bones, F F, Ribs, G, Costal Cartilages, H, Scapula, I, Humerus, K K, Radius, L, Ulna, M, Carpus or Knee, 1, Scaphoid, 2, Senilunar, 3, Cuneiform, 4, Trapezium, 5, Trapezoid, 6, Os Magnum, 7, Uneiform, 8, Pisiform, N N, Large Metacarpal or Cannon. O, Small Metacarpal or “Splint Bones,” P P, Sesamoid Bones, QQ, Phalanges, _[Bone, 1, Os Suffraginis or Pastern 2, Os Corone, 8, Os Pedis, 1, 2, 3, Phalanges, R, Pelvis, 1, Ileum, 2, Puvis, 3, Ischiam, S, Femur, T, Patella, U, Tibia, V, Fibula, W, Hock, 1, Os Calcis, 2, Astragalus, 3, Cuneiform Magnum, 4, ue Medium, Ds fe Parvum, 6, Cuboid, 3, 6, Cubo Cuneiform, X, Large Metatarsal, 1, 2, 3, Phalanges, Y, Small Metatarsal, Z, Head, 1, Inferior Maxila, 2, Superior do, 8, Anterior do, 4, Nasal Bone, 5, Malar, 6, Frontal, 7, Parietal, 8, Occipital, 9, Lachrymal, 10, Squamous \ Temporal. 11, Petrous ge f 2 wy Q Was SKELETON OF THE HORSE. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 859 peas, and beans ; and of the juicy roots, as the potato, the turnip, the carrot, the parsnip, and the beet. Of the grains given to the horse, the most gen- eral, and best adapted to his strength and spirit, is the oat. It is, for the most part, given to the horse without any preparation, though it is better masticated and digested when bruised. Two gallons per day, or nine pounds, are considered to be good feeding, when the horse is on dry food, and not on hard work ; when on hard work, the quantity may be increased to three gallons, and when on light work and green food, it may be reduced to one gallon, and sometimes altogether withdrawn. But, on an average, ninety bushels in the year will be sufficient, in every case, for the working horse of a farm. Meal is a refreshing feed to a horse on a journey, and a safe one when the chill is just taken off the water. Beans, when bruised, are excellent food, tending to correct laxativeness. Fig. 218 is explanatory of the name and situation of the external parts of a horse. VARIETIES. Arapian. — The celebrated Arabian breed of horses, of which the figura presented below is a fine portrait, are more compact than the horses of Barbary, having a rounder body, shorter limbs, with more of sinew, or Wp” te FIR RY) fy ISSA INNS hy (=D. as what is termed bone. Yet they are of the smaller class of horses, very little exceeding, on a medium, fourteen hands, or fifty-six inches, in height. As compared with the horses of countries abounaing in grasses, their aspect is lean, their form slender, their chest narrow. The power of their deli- cate limbs is indicated by the well-marked muscles of the fore-arm, and the starting sinews of the leg. The shoulder is oblique ; the withers FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Fig. 220. YY’ rw Wea WY yj. Uy, 7; eer | YY Mee Wy, il! Il VR) Uw MAL TY Yy Wy, "ll H GI Uh Yy a\\ % wi Z Li Ly, YY) Wi) === d Wi DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS, 364 ure elevated; the back is moderately short; the quarters are good; the head is well formed ; the forehead broad; ears somewhat long, but alert ; eyes full and clear; veins prominent. ‘They are remarkably gentle and docile, patient, playful, obedient, and intelligent. ‘They subsist on very scanty fare. American.— The Mexican horses are derived from Spain, and seem in no other respect inferior to the European than a less careful management may account for. ‘The horses of Canada, chiefly of French lineage, are coarse and small, but hardy, muscular, and useful. Those of our own country are of every variety, derived originally from England, but crossed by the modern racer, and by the horses of Syria and Arabia. On this account, we have a very mixed race of horses, many of which are excellent. Such has been the attention paid to the race breed in our country, that the best and fastest trotting horses (see Fig. 220) in the world are now to be found in the United States. Among the American roadsters, the Morgan family stand number one. They are exceedingly compact, deep-chested, strong-backed, fore-legs set wide apart ; head small, high and graceful , eyes fine, and well set. ‘The family comprises several varieties, among which the Goss and the Gifford rank very high. We give an engraving (Fig. 221) of one of these animals, which is a fair sample of the average quality. Evropean. —Of the European breeds, the present Norman horse is the Fig, 222. FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. most enduring and hard-pulling. The Clydesdale is a valuable breed of car’ horses, bred chiefly.in the valley of the Clyde; they are strong and hardy, have a small head, are longer necked than the Suffolk, with deeper legs, and lighter carcasses. ‘The Suffolk Punch are valuable on farms composed of soils of a moderate degree of tenacity. ‘The preceding figure is that of an improved Norman draught stallion. V. THE ASS. Rearing and Breeding.—In breeding from the ass, the same general rules apply as in the case of the horse. ‘The male will procreate at the age of two and a half years, and the female still earlier. The stallion ass should be the largest and strongest, at least three, but not more than ten, years old; his legs should be long, his body plump, head long and light, eyes brisk, nostrils and chest large, neck long, loins fleshy,’ ribs broad, rump flat, tail short, hair shining, soft, deep gray. The best time of covering is the last of May, nor must the female be hard worked whilst with foal, for fear of casting; but the more the male is worked, in moderation, the better he will thrive. She brings forth her foal in about a twelve-month, but, to preserve a good breed, she should not pro- duce more than one in two years. The best age to breed at is from three years old to ten. When the foal is cast, it is proper to let it run a year with the dam, and then wean it, by tying up and giving it grass, and sometimes milk; and, when it has forgotten the teat, it should be turned out into a pasture, but if it be in winter, it must be fed at times, till it is able to shift for itself. Training. — The ass may be broken and trained at the end of the second year, but should not be worked sooner than the third year. Breaking is easily effected when two or three years old, by laying small weights upon his back, and increasing them by degrees. Age, gc. — The age of the ass is known by his teeth, in the same manne as the horse ; viz., at two years and a half old, the first middle incisive teeth fall out, and the others on each side soon follow; they are renewed at the same time, and in the same order. ‘The anatomy and physiology of the ass do not differ very materially from those of the horse. Characteristics. —'The ass is naturally humble, patient, and quiet. He is extremely hardy, both as to the quantity and quality of his food, comenting himself with the most harsh and disagreeable herbs. In the choice of water, he is very nice, drinking only of that which is perfectly clear. He requires very little looking after, and sustains labor beyond most others. He is sel- dom or never sick, and endures hunger and thirst most resolutely. The milk of the ass is the lightest of all milks, and is excellent for persons of delicate stomachs. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 362 i VI. THE MULE. Rearing, Breeding, §-c. —Ih the breeding of mules, mares of a large breed and well made should be employed. They should be young, lively, large- barrelled, small-limbed, moderate-sized head, and a good forehand. It is well to have the foals, from the time of their being dropped, often handled, to make them gentle; it prevents their hurting themselves by skittishness and sudden frights, and they are much easier broken at the proper age, and become docile and harmless. ‘They may be broken at three years old, but not hard worked till four. Give them food enough to prevent their losing flesh and to keep up their growth, without palling their appetites with deli- cacies, or making them over fat. They should also have sufficient stable room, and good litter to sleep on, besides being well rubbed down every day, particularly in cold, raw, wet weather. When three years old, mules are ‘proper for use. Mules are now brought to an astonishing degree of perfection. They are usually strong, well-limbed, large, sure-footed, and capable of carrying great burdens, and travelling great distances. Some think it surprising that these animals are not more propagated, as they are so much hardier and stronger than horses, less subject to diseases, and capable of living and working to almost twice the age of a horse. ‘Those that are bred in cold countries are more hardy and fit for labor than those bred in hot. The general complaint against them is that they kick and are stubborn, but this is owing to neglect in breeding. VII. THE GOAT. Description, §c.— The goat appears to be the connecting link between the sheep and antelope tribes. It is lively, and though the natural inhabitant of a mountainous region, is easily domesticated. But it is in wild, rocky countries, that the goat is chiefly reared. The female gives a great quantity ot milk for so small a creature, and its quality is very superior. She is readily taught to suckle the young of other animals, and feeds in situations where the cow could not subsist, which latter is a valuable quality. It arrives early at maturity, and is very prolific, bearing two and sometimes three kids at a birth. It does not produce wool, but its hair may be shorn, and is of some value; and its skin, especially that of the kid, is very valua- ble. The flesh of the kid, though not much sought after, is equal to that of the finest lamb. The male will engender when one year old, and the female at eight months ; but good stock must come by parents not so young. From two to five years the male is most vigorous, and the female bears her best kids from two to eight years. Goats bear well the motion and confinement of ship-board, and give the best of milk. 364 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. VARIETIES. * ‘There are three principal species enumerated, viz., the wild goat, the ibex, and the Caucasian ibex ; from the first-named the different varieties of the common domestic goat are believed to have originated. Perhaps the most celebrated and valuable of all the various breeds is the Thibet Fig. 223. ] i fy) (Fig. 223), on account of the soft and delicate wool they produce, and which falls off in the warmer seasons. These goats are long-bodied, large hooked horns, stout limbs, and very long glossy hair. The color is frequently milk- white, but more generally brown, with points of a golden hue. VIII. THE DOG. Rearing, Breeding, §-c.—In breeding, for first-rate animals, ascertain the pedigree for at least four generations. The male should be not less than two years old, and the female at least fifteen months. The male need not be rejected as unfit until his eighth year, if healthy and vigorous, nor the female, under similar circumstances, till her sixth year. The female goes DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 365 with young sixty-three days, and has from four to thirteen young at a birth. The dam may be allowed to breed only three times in two years, and to rear not more than five puppies ; the whelps should not be suckled longer than six weeks, and five, or even four, is long enough, if necessary to remove them. After weaning, feed them moderately with porridge, mashed potatoes, with skim milk, or new milk, to dilute the mess ; let it be fresh and cool. They should also have a bed of clean straw, fresh water, and an open, airy place for exercise and sport. At about four months old, the first set of teeth begin to drop out, and are replaced by the permanent set. About the twelfth month, the tusks have acquired their full length. At two years old, a yellow circle appears around the base of the tusks, gradually developing itself more and more, till the third year, when the edges of the front or cutting teeth begin to be worn down, and the little nick, or the crown of the lateral incisors, to disappear. As the fourth year approaches, the tusks lose their points, and the teeth begin to decay. As soon as his eighth year has passed away, a few gray hairs show themselves around his eyes, and at the corners of the mouth. At the age of twelve to fourteen years, confirmed infirmity sets in, and the animal does not survive long after. The dewclaws—the fifth toe upon the hind foot—should be removed, if removed at all, with a pair of large, sharp scissors ; let the pup be held by one person, while another feels for the proper place to cut, which must be done with decision. Cropping, which is, equally with the previous opera- tion, a very cruel one, must be done, if done at all, by drawing the ears over the head until the points meet; then, with a very sharp pair of scissors, cut both points off to the desired length; and, with a single cut to each, from below upwards, cut away the hinder portion of the flaps of the ears up to the point. In a week the ears will be well. In training dogs, gentleness does more than harshness and violence can effect. VARIETIES. NewrounpLanp. — The true breed of Newfoundland is a dog of moderate stature, seldom exceeding twenty-six or twenty-seven inches in height ; long- podied, broad-chested, shaggy coat ; pointed, wolfish muzzle ; ears small, and inclined to be semi-erect ; color usually black, with a shade of brown through it, and occasionally some white. The large dogs of the Newfoundland breed, which have been improved by crossing with the mastiff, are more showy, but less valuable. The Newfoundland are remarkably docile and obedient, faithful, good- natured, and ever friendly to man. They will defend ‘heir master and their master’s property, and suffer no person to injure the ome or the other; and 37 366 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. however imminent the danger, will not leave them for a minute. They seem only to want the faculty of speech, in order to make their good wishes and feelings understood, and they are capable of being trained for almost all the purposes for which every other variety of the canine species is used. They are a famous water-dog, and have saved many human beings from drowning. Fig. 224, Suepuerd. —The shepherd’s dog of Scotland stands about twenty-one inches in height at the shoulder, is very gracefully shaped, muzzle pointed, Y) 4 , NTS oN ec eat: NER ON DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 367 ears half erect, coat long but fine and silky, tail and hams fringed with hair, and the color usually black and tan, or sandy yellow. The animal is remarkable for his sagacity, and his disposition to tend live stock appears to be inherent and hereditary. The English shepherd’s dog is larger and stronger than the Scotch, and has much of the appearance of a cross with the great rough water-dog. It is coarser in the muzzle and in coat, and is desti- tute of tail. It is, however, equally sagacious. Drover. — The drover’s dog bears considerable resemblance to the sheep- dog, and has usually the same prevailing black or brown color. He possesses all the docility of the sheep-dog, with more courage, and sometimes a degree of ferocity, arising from improper training and uses. Serrer. — The setter, or land spaniel, comprises several varieties. He is by some sportsmen preferred to the pointer ; and where water is to be got at occasionally, during a day’s shooting, he is undoubtedly superior. In dis- position the setter is more affectionate than the pointer, but requires more training, and that of a mild and gentle character. Terrier. — The terrier is a dog of very great utility, and of very varied form and size. They all have one common characteristic, which makes them Fig. 226. extremely useful. which is, a determined hostility to those animals termed vermin, as foxes, otters, polecats, rats, mice, &c. DISEASES OF THE FOREGOING ANIMALS. Abscess. — As soon as the abscess is brought to a head, Jet the matter be evacuated, either naturally by a bran-poultice, or by opening with a broad- shouldered lancet. Keep the part clean, trim the hair, and inject into the wound a little tincture of myrrh and aloes. If the cavity does not soon fill up, inject, once or twice a day, a wash of a half-ounce of bluestone, with half a pint of water. Apoplexy. — For Horses. bleed two gallons from a vein at once, remove the dung with the hand and give the following mixture: Barbadoes aloes 368 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. 1 oz., Epsom salts 6 oz., water 2 pts. For apoplexy ur staggers in Cattle, bleed from four to six quarts, till the beast is faint, and give, every six hours, a mixture of Epsom salts 14 lbs., linseed oil 1 pt., warm water 3 pts., with only half the quantity of salts and oil, till they are well purged ; after which, give, twice a day, tartar emetic 2 scruples, powdered nitre 4 0z., gruel 3 pts.,— mixed for use. For apoplexy in Sheep, bleed a quart, and give, for a purging drench, Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 2 0z., warm water 4 oz. ; repeated every six hours, if the bowels are not well opened, and give once or twice a day tartar emetic 10 grs., nitre 2 drs., gruel 2 oz., — mix for use. For apoplexy or staggers in Pigs, bleed, and then open the bowels with Epsom salts and sulphur. (Alteratives.) —'These are medicines which operate without producing very decided evacuations. For Sheep, mix together one ounce of Ethiop’s mineral, 2 ounces of nitre, 4 ounces of sulphur ;— give about two drachms daily, till the animal is cured. For the Cow, the dose is from a half to a whole ounce daily. For the Horse, one ounce to an ounce and a half, made into a ball with soft soap. If there is any tendency to grease, add to each ball one drachm of powdered resin. In cases of weakness, two drachms of gentian powdered, and one drachm of ginger powdered. For Dogs, flour of sulphur 12 0z., powd. nitre 2 oz., Ethiop’s mineral 1 0z., treacle sufficient to make a mass; give a piece the size of a nut to a walnut, according to the size of the dog. Black Quarter. — Also known as Quarter Evil, Quarter Il], Black Leg, Blood Striking, The Blood Joint Felon, or Inflammatory Evil.— Symptoms — extension of neck, red eyes, breath hot, muzzle dry, pulse quick, heaving, moaning, loss of appetite, lameness. Bleed copiously, then give a strong purgative dose, composed of 13 lbs. Epsom salts, 1 pint linseed oil, 3 pints water. The wearing a seton, occasional doses of physic, and frequent careful examinations by the owner, are better than all else to prevent this disease. In Sheep, bleed from the jugular vein till the sheep falls, and give Epsom salts 2 0z., linseed oil 2 0z., gruel 4 oz., till the bowels are well relieved ; then give, twice a day, tartar emetic 10 grains, camphor 20 gr., nitre 2 dr., gruel a wineglass full. Black Water.— Also called Red Water, Brown Water, Black Water, ‘Moor Ill, &c. —Symptoms — bloody urine, loss of appetite, languor, apathy, seclusion, constipation. Bleed copiously; then give Epsom salts 1 Ib., in 2 qts. water, every six hours, in half-pound doses, till the bowels are relieved. Inflammation of the Kidneys, and Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane of the Bladder or Urethra, resemble this disease. The first-named is rare; the second may be treated by bleeding, with a dose of Barbadces aloes, in powder, 6 to 8 dr., powdered gum Arabic 1 oz., in a pint of water. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS, 369 Red Water in Sheep — bleed freely, and give for a drench, Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 1 0z., warm water 4 0z., — mix for a dose. Bog Spavin.— For this well-known disease in horses, a blister is the only means of cure. Bone Spavin. — Disease of the hock joint : remedied by rest, or cessation from hard work, or putting to moderate work on soft ground. The bony deposite, or inflammation, may be removed by repeated blisters. Use a hot iron only as a last resort. Botis are grubs, which, in the spring, trouble horses. To kill these, some use common salt in the animal’s food, or as an injection. But when once the worm has attached itself to the animal’s stomach, it is difficult to remove them. Bowels, Inflammation of.—In case of inflammation of the external and muscular coats of the bowels of Horses, bleed freely till fainting is produced, and give the following purge, — Barbadoes aloes 4 dr., powdered gum Ara bic 4 dr., hot water 4 pint; dissolve, and add a pint of linseed oil, and repeat the dose in eight hours. The belly should be stimulated with the following liniment,— mustard § Ib., spirit of sal-ammoniac 2 oz., water enough to make it creamy. A fever-ball may be given twice a day, made or powdered foxglove 4 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., nitre 3 dr., with linseed meal and treacle or soft soap sufficient. For inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bowels, produced from an over-dose of physic, give for a purge — prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered bark 2 dr., powdered opium 1 dr., powdered ginger 1 dr., gruel 3 pints,— mix. For inflammation of the bowels of Cattle, bleed freely, and give for a purge — Epsom salts 1 Ib., hot water 1 qt.; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 pt., to be repeated in six hours, till the bowels are well relieved, with injections of warm gruel. For the same disease in Dogs, bleed, put into a warm bath, and give castor-oil 2 02., syrup of buckthorn 1 0z., mix for a dose. Brain, Inflammation of.— Of the staggers in Horses there are two kinds, the Sleepy or Stomach, caused by over-feeding, which must be treated by removing the stomach’s contents by the stomach-pump, then bleed, and give an opening ball. Mad staggers arise from inflamed brain; bleed from 4 to 6 qts., and repeat this in six or eight hours, and give the following ball, — Barbadoes aloes 8 to 10 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., calomel 1 dr., and treacle, inject with warm water and linseed oil. For inflammation of the brain (frenzy or lough) in Cattle, bleed till the anima. faints, and give for a purge — Epsom salts 1 b., hot water 1 qt.; dissolve, and add linseed oil | pint, — mix for a dose, and repeat every 6 hours till the bowels are relieved, For Sheep, bleed freely from the jugular vein, and give for drink — Epsom salts 2 0z., hot water 4 oz. ; dissolve, and add linseed oil 2 0z.,— mix for use. Y 370 FARMER’S HAND-RBOOK. Brittleness of Hoof. — Mix 3 oz. oil of tar with 6 oz. of common fish-oil rub this well into the crust and the hoof. Broken Knees. — Bathe the wounds with warm water, and apply, for a tincture, Gigyptiacum $ oz., friar’s balsam 1 oz., tincture aloes and myrrh 1 oz, — mix for use. The knee of the horse should be bandaged. Broken Wind. — This is the rupture of some of the air-cells of the lungs, and is prevented, rather than cured, by occasionally feeding the horse with nutritious food, and avoiding great exertion just after he has been fed, so as not to distend the belly and press upon the lungs. Bronchitis is catarrh, extending to the entrance of the lungs. Symp- toms — hard and rapid breathing, and coughing up mucous matter. Bleed according to the violence of the disease, and blister the brisket and sides with blister ointment well rubbed in, and give for a ball — Barbadoes aloes 2 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., nitre 4 dr., sulphur 2 dr., with treacle; repeat till the bowels are acted on, assisted by warm and frequent injections, and give, twice a day, a ball made of — tartar emetic’1 dr., powdered foxglove 4 dr., camphor 1 dr., nitre 3 dr., with sufficient treacle. (Calves, Diseases of.) — For Diarrhea, give two or three times a day 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls of — prepared chalk 4 oz., powdered canella bark 1 oz., laud- anum 1 oz., water 1 pt. For Costiveness, dissolve 2 to 4 0z.— according to ace —of Epsom salts in 2 qts. of water, and inject into the stomach by means of the stomach-pump, and, in need, repeat in half doses every 4 hours. For Canker in the Mouth, give a dose of Epsom salts, and wash with mel- C&gyptiacum 1 oz., friar’s balsam 1 oz. Canker in Horses’ Feet. — Pare the hoof, destroy the fungus by means of the butyr of antimony, and apply tincture of friar’s balsam 1 oz., and tincture of aloes and myrrh 4 0z., mixed together. Canker of Ears, in Dogs.— Apply an ointment of burnt alum in fine powder 1 dr., white vitriol in fine powder 1 dr., spermaceti ointment 4 oz. Capped Hock. — A Horse affection, produced by a bruise. Apply early and repeatedly a blister. Catarrh (common), or Hoose (common cold). — In slight cases, for Cattle, house, and give a dose of Epsom salts. If severe, bleed, and then give — Epsom salts 4 lb., ginger 2 dr., powdered aniseed 2 oz., gruel 3 pts. Tor Influenza, bleed 3 to 6 qts., and give for a purge— Epsom salts 1 |b., powdered coriander seeds 1 0z.; dissolve in 3 pints warm gruel. Ina Horse, give immediately additional warmth, some mashes, and a ball or two, each dose, made of — camphor 2 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered nitre 4 dr., and sufficient linseed meal and soft soap to make a ball; if severe, bleed, and, when better, give daily — powdered nitre 2 dr., do. aniseed 1 oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do. gentian 4 oz., do. ginger 2 dr.;—boil ten min- DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 371 utes in a quart of ale, and give new milk warm. In Sheep, bleed, and give for a purge, Epsom salts 2 0z., powdered aniseed 2 dr.,— mix, and give in a littie warm gruel. Catarrhal Fever. — Symptoms, in Horses, shivering, hot mouth, hot skin, heaving of the flanks, cough, nose red, and discharging a watery matter. If attended to early, bleed moderately, and repeat this if the pulse increases and legs get cold. Keep the bowels open by giving a mixture of Barbadoes aloes 2 dr., gum Arabic 4 oz., water 1 pt., for a dose ; inject with warm gtuel, and repeat the physic in 12 hours, if necessary. If the throat is sore, apply a blister of powdered cantharides 1 0z., resin ointment 4 0z.,— mix for use. Hot mashes are excellent, and a constant supply of gruel ; then, for cooling medicine, give camphor 2 dr., nitre 4 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., soft soap sufficient to make a ball. This disease must not be con- founded with inflammation of the lungs. Choking. — Use a flexible tube gently; if the choking matter can be felt externally, pour a pint of sweet oil down the throat, and rub outside with the hand. Colic. — Laudanum 1 0z., spirits of sweet nitre 2 oz., do. of turpentine 2 oz., linseed oil 1 pt.,— mix. Apply hot water, by means of flannels, to the belly, and give an injection of Epsom salts 4 lb., linseed oil 4 0z., water 4 qts.,— mix. If these do not operate well, in half an hour, bleed. . Contracted Foot. — Place the animal in wet clay during the day, or turn him into a moist pasture, properly paring away the sole and the toe, and lowering the heels. Cough. — Give, in a ball, gum ammoniacum 2 dr., powdered squills 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., soap 2 dr., made into a ball with syrup. If very bad, bleed moderately. Crib-Biting. — Indicates unsoundness, and tends to colic. Put a strap tight around his neck, or let him wear a muzzle of such a sort as will not prevent him from eating, but will disenable him to seize hold of the manger. Cud, Loss of. — Give, for a drink, when no particular disorder is appar- ent, Epsom salts 4 lb., powdered gentian 4 oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do. ginger 2 dr.,— mix, and give in warm gruel. Curb. — A bony excrescence in the inner side of a horse’s hind leg. Give, for a cooling lotion, to reduce the inflammation, — afterwards apply- ing a blister.—sal ammoniac 2 0z., powdered nitre 2 oz., vinegar 1 pt.. water 1 qt.,— mix for use. Diarrhea.— An excessive discharge of fecal matter. First give an aperient, either one pint of linseed oil, or, in a quart of water, 4 lb. Epsom salts, 2 dr. powdered ginger, — mix fora dose; then give, for an astringent— emi l 372 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered catechu 3 dr., do. opium § dr., do. ginger 2 dr.,— mix, and give in a quart of warm guuei. Distemper in Dogs. — Mix tartar emetic 20 gr., calomel 20 gr., opium 5 gr., and give, in a piece of butter, from 2 to 6 gr., according to size. Distention of the Rumen, or Grain Sick. — First use the probang, then give 1 pt. of linseed oil ; also give injections of warm water. Dropsy. —In the Horse, — give a diuretic ball of powdered resin 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., sulphur 4 dr., powdered gentian 2 dr., oil of juniper 4 dr., _ treacle sufficient to make a ball, once or twice a day. When great debility exists, add a tonic made as follows— powdered gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr., do. resin 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., powdered nitre 3 dr., oil juniper 4 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball,—to be given once or twice a day. Dysentery, or Scouring Rot.— Dangerous and generally fatal disease. Take a small quantity of blood, and 1 pt. linseed oil, or Epsom salts 3 lb., pewdered caraway seeds 2 0z., to be given in 1 qt. of gruel; afterwards, night and morning, an astringent of prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered catechu 4 dr., do. canella bark 2 dr., do. opium 2 scruples, do. gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr.,— mix, and give in thick gruel. Epilepsy, or Fits. — Animals subject to fits should not be rode nor driven. If a Cow, either reduce her food or hasten her departure to the butcher. If a Sheep, the best treatment is to leave the action of the over-excited nervous energy to cease of itself. Eye, Inflammation of.—n Horses, if on account of cold, give in a ball— emetic tartar 14 dr., nitre 3 dr., linseed meal and soft soap sufficient to form a ball; and frequently foment the eye with hot water. If it does not abate, use for a Jotion—Goulard’s extract 1 dr., spirit of wine 1 dr., soft water 4 pt., — mix, and bathe frequently with a small piece of sponge. If it does not arise from cold, bleed, and give a dose of physic first, and then give the balls and use the lotion as above. In Cattle, bleed, and then give, for a purge, Epsom salts 1 Ib., caraway seeds 1 0z., water 3 pts.,—mix; the eye to be fomented with hot water frequently, and then use for a lotion — Goulard’s extract 2 dr., landanum 2 dr., water 1 pt.,— mix, and bathe with a sponge; when the inflammation has abated, use the following — purified white vitriol 10 gr., soft water 4 pt.,— mix for use. Eyes, Weak, in Dogs. — Apply, for a wash, white vitriol 8 gr., soft water 4 pt.,— mix together, and apply, with a piece of linen rag, several times a day. Farcy. — One of the stages of glanders. Symptoms, —buds or knots on the sides of the face, inner part of thigh, or on the neck; great swelling of the legs ana muzzle, cracked heels, bad discharges from the nose, &c. Use a lotion made of —blue vitriol 1 0z., white da 1 oz., water 1 pt.,— mix; DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 373 whe ulcers to be bathed with this, night and morning, at the same time using balls made of— bluestone 1 dr., powdered gentian 2 dr., liquorice powder 3 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball, to be given twice a day. After giv ing the above for two or three weeks without relief, then give corrosive sub- limate 10 gr., gentian powder 2 dr., liquorice do. 4 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball; give every morning, and if it produces purging or sickness, discontinue at once. If green food is not to be had, give carrots. Feet, Inflammation of. —Symptoms in a horse, — fidgetiness, fever, moan- ing, lying down. Bleed freely at the toes, and apply soft linseed meal poultices to the whole foot, removing the shoe and gently paring the hoof; give for a dose —camphor 2 dr., nitre 4 dr., emetic tartar 1 dr., soft soap su.ficient to make a ball; if severe, bleed afresh, and the third day, if no relief comes, apply a blister. Fever in the Horse. — Symptoms, — dulness, cold extremities, bad appe- tite, constipation. Bleed, and give for a ball — Barbadoes aloes 6 to 8 dr., powdered ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., treacle sufficient, &c. ; give bran mashes and warm water, and perhaps an injection of warm water, 4 |b. Epsom salts, 4 pt. linseed oil. Afterwards give, night and morning, for a ball, tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., powd. nitre 2 dr., linseed meal and treacle enough to form a ball. Fistulous Withers. — Require to be treated like Poll Evil. Flooding. — A discharge of blood from the uterus of the cow, after calv- ing. Apply very cold water to the loins. If it continues, raise the cow’s hind parts, give 2 dr. opium every hour, keep the patient quiet, take her ealf. Fly in Sheep. — Appear in May. If the head is sore after the maggots are killed, apply a plaster of bees’ wax 2 o2z., 1 lb. pitch, spread on warm linen. To destroy the maggots, rub together sal-ammoniac 2 04., corrosive sublimate 4 0z., dissolved in 2 gals. hot water, and apply the same. Feet, Diseases of. — Pumiced feet may be palliated by bar shoes. Tread, or overreach, — wash out the dirt carefully, and apply a little friar’s balsam, and in bad cases a poultice. Pricked or Wounded Foot may often be cured by paring down the sole to the quick, and applying a little tow and friar’s balsam to the place; if matter has formed, apply a poultice. Thrush, — make a paste, of powdered blue vitriol 2 oz., do. white vitriol 1 cz., rubbed down with lard 2 lbs., tar 1 lb. ; apply some of this, un a little tow, deeply into the cleft, over night, to be removed in the morning. Foot Rot, in Sheep, — apply a liquid, of powdered verdigris 4 0z., blue vitriol 4 0z., white do. 4 oz., soft water 4 pt., mixed together, and add nitric acid 1 oz., butyr of antimony 1 0z.; pare away the horn, and apply with a feather to the part affected. Foul Foot, —after cutting away the fungous flesh, and using 32 374 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. butyr of antimony, apply a tincture of friar’s balsam 1 oz., butyr antimony 1 oz., — mix for use ; also give a dose of salts. Garget. — Inflammation of the internal part of the udder. At first, allow the calf to suckle, and rub about her udder; if unsuccessful, bleed a little, and then give, for a drench, Epsom salts 1 lb., aniseed powdered. 1 oz., warm water 3 pts. ; bathe the udder, thrice a day, with hot water, and after each bathing rub with yellow basilicon 4 0z., camphor 1 oz., rubbed down with a little spirits of wine, strong mercurial ointment 2 0z., soft soap 16 oz., mixed well together. Glanders. —Symptom, — peculiar thin, light, glutinous discharge from left nostril. Give, for a ball, bluestone 3 0z., dissolved in water, powdered myrrh 3 oz., do. nitre 8 oz., linseed meal and soft soap sufficient to make the mass into 24 balls; give one night and morning, and inject the ulcers night and morning with a weak solution of chloride of lime, by means of a syringe, at the same time giving the horse green food. Grease. —An inflammation of the horse’s heel, stopping the greasy matter from exuding on its surface. Wash with soft soap and water; then apply, for an ointment, yellow wax 2 oz., sweet oil 8 oz.; melt together, and add sugar of lead in very fine powder 2 dr.; use a little after each bathing. Give bran mashes, a diuretic ball, every 3d or 4th day, at the same time having green food, if possible. If not attended to, the inflammation extends and the heel cracks ; poultice it with carrots boiled soft, or with linseed meal ; apply the following caustic, — bluestone 2 dr., alum 2 dr., water 1 pt. When the inflammation has subsided, leave off the poultice, and apply, for an ointment, yellow resin 4 oz., do. wax 4 oz., sweet oil 1 qt.; melt gether, and add calamine in very fine powder 4 lb., — stir till cold. Griping. — Mix senna-leaves 12 0z., guaiacum-wood 2 oz., elecampane- root 2 oz., aniseed 2 0z., caraway do. 2 oz., coriander do.’ 2 oz., stick- liquorice 2 0z., stoned raisins 8 oz., rectified spirits of wine 3 pts., soft water 3 pts. Let this mixture stand two weeks, occasionally shaking it; dose for a Calf, 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls, — for a Horse, 4 pt. Grogginess. —In Horses, a peculiar knuckling over of the fetlock-joint, and tottering of the fore-leg. No cure. Heart, Inflammation of. —Not common. The only remedy is copious bleeding. It is indicated by quick pulse, rapid action of the heart, heard even at a distance. Healing Dogs’ Ears. — Melt together yellow resin 2 0z., do. wax 1 oz., sweet oil 4 pt., and when it begins to cool, stir in 4 oz. powdered calamine ; apply it to the sores. Hide-bound. — Hardness of the skin of the Horse. If there be no other disease, give a mill physic-ball, of Barbadoes aloes 5 to 6 dr., powdered ————— DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball. After this has operated, give every day, with bran mashes, green food, regular exercise, and good grooming, a ball made of powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre 2 oz., do. yellow resin 1 oz., do. gentian 2 oz., flour of sulphur 2 oz., treacle sufficient to make eight balls. Hoove. —Symptoms in Cattle, —the animal ceases to eat, is distressed, breath oppressed, moaning, belly blown up ; brain is next affected, tongue protrudes. Introduce, as often as the belly swells, an elastic pipe down the throat into the stomach, which liberates the gas and relieves the animal ; when relieved, give a dose of Epsom salts 1 lb., caraway seeds 2 0z., ginger 4 oz., gruel 3 pts., and then, to give tone to the stomach, for three or four mornings, give a dose of Epsom salts 4 oz., powdered gentian 1 oz., do. ginger 4 oz., do. caraway 1 oz., gruel 3 pts. In Calves,— introduce the elastic pipe. In Sheep, use the elastic pipe, or probang, same as for cattle, and give a dose of Epsom salts 2 0z., powdered ginger 1 dr., caraway 2 dr., in 4 pint of warm water. Hydrocephaius, or Water in the Head, in Sheep.— Give moderate doses of Epsom salts combined with ginger and gentian; for a Sheep, the dose may be — Epsom salts 2 oz., gentian 1 dr., ginger 4 dr., in a4 pt. warm water. Jaundice, or Yellows. — Symptoms in Cattle, — yellow eyes, urine, and skin. If there be fever, bleed lightly, and then give Epsom salts 1 Ib., powdered ginger 4 dr., warm water 3 pts.; after the bowels are well opened, give every day, for a purge, madder 1 oz., flour of sulphur 2 oz., powdered caraway seeds 1 0z., Epsom salts 2 to 4 oz., warm water 3 pts. In. Sheep, — give repeatedly, for a purge, Epsom salts 2 0z., powdered ginger 4 dr., do. aniseed 2 dr., warm water 4 pt.; if this be too weakening, give powdered gentian 2 dr., do. bark 1 dr., do. ginger 4 dr., warm water pt. Joint Felon, or Rheumatism.—Give for a drench, to keep the bowels open, Epsom salts 4 lb., powdered caraway seeds 1 0z., flour of sulphur 4 oz., warm water 1 qt.; also give, once or twice a day, tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor dr., nitre 2 dr., aniseed powder i oz., well rubbed together, and given in 1 qt. thick gruel; if the joints continue much swollen, use for a Jiniment — spirits of hartshorn 2 0z., opodeldoc 2 0z., camphor liniment 4 oz., laudanum 1 oz., — mix for use. Kicks, and other Bruises. — Foment the parts freely with hot water; if the skin is broken, apply a tincture of friar’s balsam 2 oz., tinct. of aloes and myrrh 2 oz.,— mix for use. Kidneys, Inflammation of.— In Horses, — bleed freely, every 6 hours, it requisite ; and give. for a ball, Barbadoes aloes 8 to 10 dr., powdered ginger 2dr _ reacle sufficient to form a ball ; the operation of the physic to be as: 376 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. sisted by injections of warm water and 4 pt. linseed oil, frequently thrown up, the loins well fomented with hot water, and afterwards apply a mustard poultice, with bran mashes and linseed tea. Lameness of Shoulder. — Foment frequently with hot water, bleed a little from the plate vein, and give a dose of physic; and in obstinate cases apply a blister, or a liniment of opodeldoe 4 oz., laudanum 1 oz., sweet oil 4 oz., spirits of hartshorn 4 oz., — mix, and after each fomenting with hot water, ° rub well in. ; Lampas. —In Horses, —a swelling of some of the bars of the mouth. Give a few mashes, aided by a gentle alterative; in need, make a few mod- erate cuts across the bars. Lace in Cattle. — Result from poor keep. Use, for ointment, strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., lard $ lb., — mix, and rub where the lice are found. Liver, Inflammation of. — Symptoms — fever, reclining on the right side, fulness on that side of the belly ; urine yellow or brown, and sometimes bloody. If there is much fever, bleed a little, and give— calomel 1 dr., powdered opium 10 gr., do. ginger 2 dr.; rub together, and give in 1 qt. gruel, and repeat it twice a day ; give, in 6 hours after first dose, a purge of Epsom salts 8 oz., water 1 qt.; dissolve and add linseed oi] 1 pt.; repeat till the bowels are open. If purging takes place from the first, give the calomel, opium and ginger, and give the drench as in diarrhea, at the same time blistering the right side; if great weakness ensue, give, for a tonic, powdered gentian 4 0z., do. caraway seeds 1 0z., do. aniseed 1 0z., Epsom salts 4 oz., — mix, and give in 1 pt. warm brandy. For Sheep, bleed mod- erately, and keep the bowels open by a drench made of Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered ginger 1 dr., warm water 4 oz. Locked Jaw. —In Horses, — bleed till the circulation is evidently affected, so as to administer a strong purging ball or drink, assisted by injections of one pt. linseed oil to one gal. warm water, at the same time applying astrong blister from the poll to the rump, and even on the side; when the physic begins to act, give an anti-spasmodic of powdered opium 1 dr., do. aniseed 2 dr., camphor 1 dr. ; rub the camphor down with a little spirit of wine, and mix with the opium and aniseed, and beat into a ball with treacle. In Cat- tle, —bleed till the beast threatens to fall, and give, for a drink, Epsom salts 14 lb., flour of sulphur 4 lb., warm water 2 qts.,— mix, and repeat in 4 lb. doses every 6 hours, assisted by injections every 4 hours, composed of Ep- som salts 4 lb., linseed oil 4 pt., warm water 4 qts. ; when well operated, give 1 dr. opium, dissolved in warm water, twice a day, and put a seton in the dewlap. For Sheep, —bleeding, and physic,— either Epsom salts or linseed oil. Mallenders and Saillenders. — A scurfy eruption in the legs of horses DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 377 Give a diuretic ball every third night, and dress twice a day with ointment made of tar 4 oz., suet 4 0z., melt together, and add sugar of lead 1 oz — stir till cold. Mange.— Fora Horse, give a physic-ball of Barbadoes aloes 6 dr., calome 1 dr., powdered ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., oil of caraway 20 drops, treacle sufficient to form a ball. After the mange has set, give the following alterative balls: powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre 2 oz., Castile soap 2 oz., flour of sulphur 8 oz., soft soap enough to make the mass into 8 balls ; give one of these every night, and use an ointment of flour of sulphur 8 oz., strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., soft soap 4 oz., train oil 1 pt.; rub well together, and then rub it in, with the hand, over the parts affected, using it moderately ; repeat, and, if needful, add 2 oz. of spirits of tar. In Cattle, use a drench, of Epsuim salts 4 !b., flour of sutphur 4 lb., — mix, and give in 3 pts. of thin grue! every third day, and use the same ointment as for horses. In Dogs,—mix for use, and rub in carefully, with the hand, upon the affected parts, an ointment of flour of sulphur 1 |b., soft soap 4 oz., oil of tar 1 oz., train oil § pt. Megrims in Horses. — 1s the mildest form of determination of blood to the head. Gave present relief by drawing a penknife deeply across the bars of the mouth, and set them bleeding; then wash well, and give a dose of physic, with green food. When the physic has operated, give every night an alterative ball, made of flour of sulphur 5 oz., powdered nitre 5 oz., do. resin 14 oz , do. black antimony 3 oz., liquorice and soft soap sufficient to make 12 balls. Miscarriage. — In Mares, often arises from over-exertion, or accidents, or stinting in food, or high feeding and idleness. When, therefore, the beast is near her time, separate her from the rest, and put her in some convenient quiet place. When there is danger of slipping the calf, the cow should be taken from the pasture or stable the over-night, and from 2 to 3 or 4 qts. of blood drawn ; and give for a purging drink, repeated in about 8 or 10 days, Epsom salts 1 lb., nitre 2 0z., ginger and aniseed, in powder, 1 oz. each, trea- cle 4 oz. ; pour 3 pts. hot water upon these, and give when new-milk warm ; after it operates, give for one drink, — alum in powder 4 o2z., nitre 1 oz., grains of paradise, and aniseeds, fresh powdered, 1 oz. each, solid opium cut small 3 dr., treacle 4 table-spoonfuls ; put this into a pitcher, pour 1 qt. hot water upon it, cover it down till new-milk warm, and then give it to the beast. If the calf is slipped, separate the cow from the herd, and give, for a drink, sper- maceti 2 oz., spirits of turpentine 1 oz., one egg-yelk ; beat these together, then add grains of paradise, and caraway seeds, fresh powdered, 1 oz. each, treacle 4 0z.,—— mix in 1 qt. warm gruel, add a wine-glass of gin, and give it, new-milk warm, every third day, for 3 times. In Sheep, must be prevented, 32 * 378 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK as in the tw: former cases, py caref. attention to ,their Labits, teed, and condition. If she ewe is afterwards attacked with fever, she may be treated as for fever ; it very weak, give doses of ginger 2 dr., gentian 1 dr., Epsom salts 1 oz., in warm water. Nasal Gleet.—In Horses, give a ball, night and morning, made of blue vitriol 1 dr., dissolved in water; powdered gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr. ; treacle and meal enough to form a ball. Inject the nose with a solution of chloride of lime. Navel Iil.— When the navel bleeds, tie a ligature a short distance from the belly ; a pledget of lint, dipped in friar’s balsam, over it, confined with a bandage, and changed night and morning ; and keep the bowels open with linseed oil; then give a cordial drink, in a little gruel, once a day, made of powdered caraway 2 dr., do. gentian 1 dr., do. ginger 4 dr. Palsy. — In the Horse, if from violence or accident, give a dose of physic, foment the back or loins with hot water, and rub in, for an ointment, opodeldoc 4 oz., spirits of turpentine 4 oz., do. of hartshorn 4 oz., mixed together ; if necessary, after three or four days, apply a mustard liniment. In Cattle, keep the bowels well open by a drench made of Epsom salts 1 Ib., powdered caraway 1 oz., do. aniseed 1 oz., do. ginger 2 dr.,— mix, and give in 1 qt. warm beer, and use same liniment as for horses. In Sheep, keep the bowels well open with a drink of Epsom salts 2 oz., warm water 3 02. ; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 oz., — mix together. (Pigs, Diseases of.) — For the common diseases of pigs, give flour of sul- phur 1 lb., madder 4 lb., powdered nitre 4 lb., do. black antimony 2 oz., — mix, and give one or two table-spoonfuls in their food for a dose. Pneumonia, or Inflammation of the Lungs. — In Horses, bleed freely till fainting begins; then give, for a fever-ball, tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered foxglove 4 dr., do. nitre 3 dr., linseed meal and soft soap enough to form a ball, to be given two or three times daily. After the force of the fever is reduced, it may be necessary to apply extensive blisters to the brisket, and to the sides under the elbows, the hair being shaved close, and the ointment made of powdered Spanish flies 1 part, lard 4 parts, resin 1 part; melt the lard and resin together, then add the Spanish flies, and rub the ointment well in with the hands for 4 of an hour. In Cattle, the treatment is similar; bleed freely, and, if needful, repeatedly ; give a dose of salts, and then the following — tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., nitre 4 dr., in 1 qt. thick gruel. If the blister-ointment fails, hot water and a hot iron may be used. Poisons. —For Cattle, affected by the yew-tree, hemlock, dropwort, olack henbane, and wild parsnip, give 1 lb. Epsom salts in 2 qts water ; use «ae stomach-pump, injecting and copiously withdrawing water. Symptoms DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 379 — sudden swelling, thirst, refusal of solid food, grinding of the teeth, paw ing, and rolling as in pain. Poll Evil. — First bleed, administer a dose of physic, and apply cold lotions. If these fail, use poultices and warm fomentations, and then intro- duce a seton skilfully. Ring-bone. —In Horses, an enlargement of the postern joint ;— apply a blister over the ring-bone, formed of powdered cantharides 1 oz., resin ointment 4 oz.,— mix for use. Rheumatism. —In Dogs, use for an embrocation, camphorated oil 2 oz., spirits of hartshorn 1 oz., laudanum 4 oz., — mix for use. 4 Roaring. —In the early stages, a blister, bleeding, cooling medicine, may succeed in recovering; when confirmed, it is cureless. It is an unnatural contraction of the windpipe and larynx. _ Rot. — An affection of the lungs and liver, with a dropsical tendency. Symptoms, — if, in warm, sultry, and rainy weather, sheep that are grazing on low and moist lands feed rapidly, and some of them die suddenly, there is reason to fear that they have contracted the rot; this suspicion will be further increased, if, in a few weeks afterwards, the sheep begin to shrink, and become flaccid in their loins, — by pressure about the hips at this time a crackling is sometimes perceptible; now, or soon after, the countenance looks pale, the skin is pale red, and the wool easily separates from the felt, and, as the disorder advances, the skin becomes dappled with yellow or black spots; about this time, the eye loses its lustre, becoming white and pearly, and to this succeed debility and emaciation. For a cure, both tur- pentine and common salt have sometimes been used with success; the latter is good to prevent, as also are aromatic vegetable substances, — pars- ley, for instance, —also give them, when feeding on watery plants, some hay, corn, or oil-cake. Round-bone, Sprain of. —Foment well and often with hot water, then blister. Saddle-galls, Sit-fasts and Warbles.— Allow no pressure on the parts affected ; then dress with common salt dissolved in water, and the brine mixed with one fourth its bulk of friar’s balsam. Scab in Sheep. — This is owing to the presence of minute insects. Use for a lotion, corrosive sublimate 1 oz., sal-ammoniac 4 oz., spirits of turpen- tine 1 pt., hot water 2 gal. Dissolve the sublimate and sal-ammoniac in the water, and then add the turpentine ; separate the wool, remove the scab, and apply the lotion. Scour in Lambs. — Mix, and give one or two table-spoonfuls once or twice a day, — prepared chalk 2 oz., powdered canella bark 2 dr., tincture of catechu 4 oz., laudanum 4 oz., water 1 pt. 380 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Sore Teats in Cows. — Before milking, bathe the teats well with warm water; after milking, use for an ointment, wax 2 oz., lard 6 oz.,— melt together, and add sugar of lead in very fine powder 2 dr. ; stir till cold. Splint. —Caused by inflammation of the shank-bone: its growth is attended by heat, tenderness, and pain. If it produce lameness, cut the hair off close, and rub in, for three or four nights, a little strong mercurial ointment; then blister the part with blister ointment, and repeat it if neces- sary. When the inflammation from the blister has subsided, turn him out. Staling, Difficulty. —In the Horse, give bran mashes, green food, and plenty of gruel; if this fails, take a little blood, and give a mild dose of physic. Staling, Profuse; or, Diabetes. —In Horses, bleed, give a dose of physic, and then twice a day give an astringent ball, made of powdered bark 4 oz., do. opium 4 dr., do. coriander 2 dr., treacle enough to form a ball ; give green food, ur a few carrots. Stifle Lameness. — Foment frequently with hot water; give a mild dose of physic, and let the animal rest. Strangles. — Symptoms, —a cough, discharge from the nostrils, and alse one of a soapy nature from the mouth, swelling under the throat, loss o appetite, fever. Give mashes and green food, and apply to the throat, over the tumor, a blister of powdered cantharides 1 0z., yellow basilicon 4 oz. oil of thyme 2 dr., —mix for use. When the tumor has formed, open it with a lancet, and dress with a tincture of friar’s balsam 2 oz., tincture of myrrh and aloes 2 0z.,—mix. When the tumor begins to heal, give a mild dose of physic. It is not often necessary to give medicine, if much fever exists. At the commencement of the disease, give, for a ball, tartar emetic 4 dr., powdered nitre 16 dr., linseed meal and soft soap enough to make 4 balls. Surfett. — A skin complaint in horses. Bleed a iittle, give mashes and green food, and a ball, made of— powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre 2 oz., do. resin 1 oz., do. gentian root 2 oz., flour of sulphur 4 oz., soft soap enough to make 8 balls. Swelled Legs. — Give regular exercise, and assist by hand-rubbing, and by bandages wrapped rather tightly around the legs. Give no diureti balls. Thick-wind. — Feed moderately, give green food occasionally, ana gentle exercise. Thorough-pin. — In Horses, a swelling above the hock. Apply a blister. Ticks or Lice in Sheep. — Apply carefully, for a wash, powdered arsenic¢ 4 lb., soft soap 7 lbs., soft water 4 gals. ; boil this till the arsenic is dis- solved, and add as much soft water as will dip 50 to 70 sheep. Turnsick, or Goggles, or Giddy,o Dunt.— A complaint of the head, DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 381 proceeding from the presence of hydatids in the brain, lodged in a sac or bladder, which presses upon the brain. It is beyond the reach of medicine or mechanical operations. Sturdy is a name often given to this disease, as well as to Water in the Head, but they are distinct. Treat by examining the skull for a soft spot on the bone, where the water is collected. Per- forate the skull with a trocar, accompanied by a tube, through which the water may escape; after which, apply a few drops of essence of myrrh to the aperture ; shelter the animal and dress the wound. Ulcers. — Bathe 2 or 3 times a day, with a solution of chloride of lime, and use an ointment of yellow basilicon 4 0z., powdered verdigris 4 0z.; rub together for use. Warbles. — Foment with hot water, and when the tenderness has abated, apply a lotion, of strong vinegar 1 pt., rectified spirit of wine 2 oz., extract of Goulard 1 0z., spirits of turpentine 1 oz.,— mix together for use. Waris. — Cut them off close with a pair of scissors, and touch the roots with lunar caustic. Womb Inflammation. —It -occurs in Cows, after calving or bulling. Symptoms, — great irritation and pain. Bleed, and give for a drench, Epsom salts 1 lb., powdered caraway seeds 2 oz., warm gruel 3 pints. Bathe the womb with Goulard water, or vinegar and water mixed equally. In Sheep, bleed and open the bowels with Epsom salts in 2 oz. doses. Worms. — In the Horse, unless they abound, let them remain. If they descend into the rectum, inject a quart of linseed oil, or salt and water. If a strong dose of physic is intended to be given to the patient, when it has set, give a ball every morning, fasting for a week, of tartar emetic 8 dr., flour of sulphur 6 oz., powdered ginger 8 dr., treacle sufficient to make 8 balls. In Dogs, give, for a drench, spirits turpentine 1 to 4 dr., castor-o 2 to 8 dr., — mix for a dose according to size. Wounds. — Foment frequently with hot water, and apply a tincture of friar’s balsam 2 oz., compound tincture of myrrh and aloes 2 oz.; if unhealthy granulations arise, wash, previously to using the tincture, with bluestone 1 oz., soft water 1 pt. Wounds generally heal better without sewing, if it can be avoided. For Dogs, tincture of myrrh and aloes 2 oz., friar’s balsam 1 oz.,—— mix these together, for use. LIVE STOCK CALENDAR. November. — The month of November may be said to be the commence- ment of the farmer’s year. By this time the labors of his harvest have been concluded, and his produce has been secured; and he is now proceeding te prepare the ground for the crop of another season, if the weather be suffi- ciently open for him to do anything more before the next spring. 382 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. The cattle may be supposed to consist of cows; of a certain number of calves ; of a certain number of the steers and heifers of the preceding year, termed, therefore, one-year-olds, as having completed their first year, but now approaching to the end of their second year; of a certain number of steers and neifers which have completed their second year, and are therefore termed two-year-olds, though now approaching the end of their third year ; and of a bull. The two-year-old steers and heifers are now arrived at matu- ‘y; the heifers intended for breeding have received the male in the course of the season, and the older steers are ready for final breeding. As the month of October had advanced, the pasture had begun to fail ; and before the termination of the month, the various cattle had been put in their respective houses, yards, and stalls. ‘The cows which had borne calves in the early part of the year had been put in the cow-house and tied in thei respective stalls, —straw, and a limited proportion of succulent food, as turnips, having been supplied to them. ‘The calves which were born in the early part of the year had been put in one or more yards with sheds, had been well littered, and had received straw, and a full allowance of turnips. The steers and heifers of the preceding year, now turned their first year, and approaching the end of their second year, had also been put into yards with sheds. They had likewise been plentifully littered, receiving straw, with a full allowance of turnips. The older cattle —those that have completed their second year—had been treated thus : — Snch of them as were heifers, to be retained for breeding, had been separated from the males in the preceding spring ; had received the male as they came into season, in spring and the early part of summer ; and, being with calf, had been put into yards with sheds, to be tied to their respective stalls, when within a few weeks of calving. The steers again, which are now to be finally fattened, had either been tied in stalls, or put in pairs into yards with sheds, in either case receiving a full supply of tur- nips, or other nourishing food. The bull had been put into a shed or yard by himself, receiving straw for provender, and a sufficient supply of turnips. Such may be supposed to be the arrangement of the cattle at the com- mencement of the month of November. The same treatment with respect to them is to be continued during the entire month ; —the cows and heifers are to receive straw, with a modified allowance of turnips— the calves and steers straw, with a full supply of turnips. The sheep again, consisting, it may be assumed, of a regular breeding~ stock of ewes, may be supposed to have been arranged and treated thus : — The ewes, consisting partly of sheep that had borne lambs, had, by the 10th of October, the rams admitted to them. At the beginning of November the DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 383 ram. .nd ewes are still pasturing together, receiving no other food but grass, and by the middle of the month the rams are withdrawn. The lambs born in the spring, now termed ewe and wether hogs, had, on the failure of the pastures in October, been penned on turnips. At the beginning of November, they continued penned on turnips, they being attended to as well as the sheep, and the pens being shifted when necessary. The horses, in the month of October, had been put upon their full allow- ance of hay and corn. At the beginning of November they are receiving full feeding ; but before the middle of the month, when the hours of labor become short, the hay may be withdrawn, and the allowance of oats reduced one half. By the beginning of the month the colts had been put into their yards, or into a paddock with a shed, receiving straw as provender, with any succu- lent roots, as turnips and potatoes. The swine and poultry are receiving their usual food. The pigs are fat- tened at all times, and the poultry receive their regular supplies of food in their yard; and as the same method of management continues throughout the year, the feeding of this class of stock need not be again adverted to. Decemser. — The cows are in the cow-houses ; the young cattle in their yards ; the feeding cattle in their houses or yards, as before ; and they are all kept and treated in the same manner throughout the month. The ewes are, as before, on grass; but in snows, or hard frosts, they receive an allow- ance of hay. The ewe and wether hogs are penned on turnips as before, and are kept so during the month. The hours of daylight, and consequently of labor, being short, the horses are still fed on straw, and receive their modified allowance of corn. he colts are in their yard or paddock, receiv- ing straw, with an allowance of green, food, and are kept so during the month. January. — The cattle are still in their houses and yards, and are fed as during the last month ; turnips being brought, and a store kept in reserve, as formerly. Some of the cows may calve during this month, or towards the end of it. They are to be well attended to at this time, and the calves separated from them at the birth, and fed on new milk three times in the day. The ewes are on grass-land, if the weather be not too severe, receiv- ing hay when the weather renders it necessary. The ewe and wether hogs continue penned on turnips, as during the previous month. ‘The horses are on straw, and are receiving their short allowance of corn. The colts are in their yard or paddock, and are fed as before. Fesruary.—.The cattle are in their houses and yards, and are fed as during the last month. The cows will calve during this monih, and must be carefuily attended to. The ewes are on grass, if the weather is not too 384 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. rigoruus ; an_ after the middle of the month, they may have turnips carried to them, so as to prepare them for the lambing season by the middle of next month. 'The ewe and wether hogs are penned on turnips as before. By the middle of the month, if not sooner, the horses should be put upon hay, and receive their full allowance of corn, in preparation for their work in spring. In place of straw, the colts may now receive hay. Marcu. —The cattle are still in their yards, and feeding as before During the month all the cows may be supposed to have ca.ved. The addi- tional calves required are to be purchased, the best and earliest that can be obtained. 'The ewe and wether hogs are on turnips, as before. ‘The ewes will now begin to lamb. They have been hitherto receiving turnips, but as they lamb they are transferred with their young to new grass. The male lambs are castrated in lots. The horses are on full work, and are receiv- ing their full allowance of hay and corn. ‘The colts are receiving hay. Aprit. — The cattle are in their yards, and fed as before ; the calves are receiving milk, with such nourishing substances in addition as may enable the milk of each cow to bring up two calves. The ewes are now on new grass, with their lambs. At the commencement of the month, the ewe and wether hogs are still on turnips, but by the middle of the month they are removed from turnips and put on grass. The horses are at full work, and receive a full supply of hay and corn. The colts that have reached their third year may now be taken up and trained to work; or they may be allowed another summer’s grass, and be taken up for training in autumn. Mares will foal this month. May.— At the commencement of this month, the cattle may yet be in their yards, and be fed as formerly. By the middle of the month, the former year’s calves, now yearling steers, and the two-year-old steers, if the grass is sufficiently advanced, are turned out to pasture ; the cows are turned out to pasture, and if there are any of the two-year-old cattle which are heifers frum which it is wished to breed, they must be separated from the steers of the same age, and placed amongst the cows, and when they come into sea- son, if they have not already done so, they must receive the male. During this month, the older cows should all have received the male, so that they may calve in the following February. With respect to the feeding oxen now turned their third year, and consequently three-year-olds, these may be fed during the month, as long as there are turnips sufficient for them. Dur- ing this month, the mares should all have received the male, so that they may foal in the subsequent month of April. The colts are turned out for the season to grass. As the weather becomes warm, the sucking calves may be turned out to a small paddock. After being weaned in their fourth month, they are turned out to feed for the remainder of the season, along DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 385 with (he cows and feeding stock. The sheep of all kinds, at the commence- ment of the month, were on grass, and they continue to be pastured in their respective fields during the month. By the end of it, the fat sheep, if ready, may be washed and shorn, or else these operations are deferred till later in the season. Junrz.— The cows and steers are pastured in the field during the month All the calves will be weaned during this month, and turned out to graze for the remainder of the season. Such of the cows, heifers, and mares, as have not received the male, now receive him. At the beginning of the month the horses should receive green forage, and towards the middle of it they may be put at night in the pasture-field. At the beginning of the month, the ewes with their lambs, and the ewe and wether hogs, are at grass in their respective enclosures ; and at or before the beginning of the month, they are washed, and in eight days afterwards shorn. In ten days, or as soon as convenient after shearing, the wether-hogs, now dinmonts, and such of the ewe-hogs, now gimmers, as are not to be retained on the farm for breeding, may be sold. Juny.— The cows, oxen, and weaned calves, are at grass, and are kept so during the month. The horses continue to receive green forage during the day, and may be permitted to pasture in the fields at night; and this method of feeding may be continued during the month. But their work having become easy towards the middle of the month, their allowance of corn may be lessened. At the commencement of the month the ewes, with their lambs, are in their former fields of grass ; by the middle of the month the lambs are weaned ; and from this time forward, the lambs, now termed hogs, are kept separate from the breeding ewes. Aveust. — The cows, steers, and calves, are at grass, and are kept so during the month. The ewes are at grass in their own fields, and the ewe and wether hogs in theirs. The old ewes that are to be sold may now be selected from the rest of the flock, and marked for that purpose ; and, at the same time, all the other sheep may have their distinguishing mark put upon them. The horses are receiving green forage, and, when the first erop of clover is consumed, other feed may be furnished. They may stil! be allowed to be in the fields at night. SepTEMBER.— The cows, calves, and steers, are all at grass, and are kept so during the month. All the sheep are likewise at grass during the month ; but before the end of it, the old ewes which had been marked for sale may be sold. ‘Che horses are kept on green forage. As the month advances, they are taken up from grass at night, and kept in the stable ; and, at the end of the month, they are put again on hay and hard food. Ocroser. — At the beginning of the month, the cows, calves, and steers, 33 VA 386 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. are at grass; but as the month advances, the cows may be taken up at night, and receive green forage in the house. Before the i0th of the month, the rams are admitted to the ewes and gimmers. At the commencement of the month, the ewe and wether hogs are at grass, but towards the end of it, when the pastures fail, they are penned on turnips. ‘Towards the end of the month, too, as the pastures fail, the cows, calves, and steers, are put finally into their respective winter houses and yards. CHAPTER VIII. POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. THE RAISING, BREEDING, DISEASES, AND TREATMENT, OF THE COMMON BARN FOWLS: ALSO, THE TURKEY—THE GOOSE—THE DUCK, ETC., IN ALL THEIR IMPORTANT VARIETIES. {. COMMON BARN FOWLS. VARIETIES. 388 #ARMER’S HAND-BOOK. SnanGeal (Fig. 227).—The preceding very excellent representatious are actual portraits, drawn from life. They were imported by William C. Rud- man, of Philadelphia, from whom they were purchased by W. J. McGowan. The cock, 15 months old, weighed 12 pounds, and the hen, 11 months old, weighed 93 pounds. Banxiva.- - This fowl] is a native of Java, has a red indented comb. red wattles. and ash-gray legs and feet. The cock has a thin indented or scal- Joped comb, and wattles under the mouth ; the tail a little elevated above the level of the rump, and the feathers disposed somewhat in the form of titles. Neck-feathers long, hanging, rounded at the tips, and of the finest gold color ; head and neck fawn color ; wing-coverts are dusky-brownish and black ; tail and belly black. The hen is of a dusky ash-gray and yel- lowish color, comb and beard much smaller than the cock, with no feathers on the neck besides the long hackles. The annexed cut represents a cock of t}.is variety. Dunesitt — This is the commonest form of the domestic fowl. The cock wipia ss wll POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 385 has a Jarge thin comb and wattles, and the brilliant plumage of the wild species ; but the best hens are generally of dingy colors, though there is almost infinite variety in their shades ; the white ones are better for the table than for laying. The legs of the common fowls should be short, white, and shining, and their bodies round and plump. Game. — This kind of fowl is rather slender in the body, neck, bill and legs, and the colors, particularly of the cock, very bright and showy. he flesh is white, tender, and delicate, and the eggs small, but, like the flesh, much esteemed for superior delicacy ; and therefore, for more reasons than one, it would be better to raise them for domestic use than for the cock-pit. Dorxinc, — This valuable variety has acquired a great popularity, and is easily distinguished. Their flesh is exceedingly juicy, white, and deli eate, and they have the advantage of feeding rapidly, and growing to a very large size, when propeity managed. Capons and poulardes are fre- SS SSN SSS AN uy quently made of these fowls, growing to an enormous size when castrated. The feathers are almost always white, and their legs short and remarkably smooth. Mauay, or Currraconc. —These fowls have remarkably long legs and large bones ; their flesh is, however, finely flavored, when they have been properly fattened, and their eggs are so large and rich that two of then are equal to three of those of ordinary fowls. The color of the feathers i: hack, or very dark brown, streaked with yellow, and the legs are large and coarse 33 * 390 FARMER’? T1AND-BOOK. The fowis are tall, strong-beaked, and powerful ; the cock has a loud and harsh crow. It is said that a cross breed between the Malay and the com- mon fowl produces a breed very superior to either of its progenitors. Papuan, or Jaco.— There are numerous hybrids and varieties of the Jago fowl, one of the most interesting being the Spanish fowl, represented in the following figure. The body and tail feathers are of a rich black with occasionally a little white on the breast. The cock is a most majestic bird ; its deportment grave and stately; and it is encircled with a ring of brown feathers, from which rises a black tuft which covers the ears. Therw are similar feathers behind the comb, and beneath the wattles. The legs and feet are of lead-color, except the sole of the foot, which is yellowish The every-day or ever-laying fowls are the same as the Hamburgh, or Dutch. They are, however, evidently only a variety, or hybrid, of the Jago fowl, with the nourishment that was required in that species, and in some of its varieties, to form a tuft of feathers, expended in an enormous comb and wattles. These fowls are very large, their feathers blackish, with an iridescent green. ‘The wattles and combs, even of the hens, are unusu ally large, and the caps under the ears are very large, and of a bluish white. f Crestep. — This variety is known by a densely-tufted crest and a small comb ; it is also variegated with fine colors, but it agrees in other respects with the common dunghill fowl. The different varieties of this fowl are the white fowl with a black crest, the black fowl with a white crest, and the white fowl with a large beard. Of these the Poland or Polish fowl, repre POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 391 sented below, is the best known, and it appears probable that it is a hybid between the Crested and the Spanish fowls. ‘These fowls are very hand- 1] iit Z (es : SSS Hee Ge: Ne i \\ Ai some, and excellent for the table; the hens are good layers, producing large and finely-flavored eggs, but they are bad sitters. Bantam.— This is a small variety, with short legs, most frequently feathered to the toes, so as sometimes to obstruct walkiag. The full-bred Bantam cock should have a rose comb, a well-feathered tail, fill hackies a oroud, lively carriage, and ought not to weigh more than one pound 2e 392 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. nankin-colored and the black are the greatest favorites. If of the latter color, the bird should have no feathers of any sort in his plumage. The nankin bird should have his feathers edged with black, his wings barred with purple, his tail-feathers black, his hackles slightly studded with pur- ple, and his breast black, with white edges to the feathers. The hens should be small, clean-legged, and match in plumage with the cock. Dwarr, or Creeper. — This variety, which is not larger than a pigeon, differs from the bantam chiefly in size and in the shortness of its legs. The Acaho is very small, with a circle of feathers about the legs, a thick tail, which it carries straight, and the ends of the wings black. In addition to this, there are some who are obliged to leap, from their legs being so short ; they are the size of a dunghill fowl, and kept as being very fruitful ; the hens will hatch thirty eggs at a time. Rumx1n. — This is now considered a distinct species. It is distinguished by the want of a tail, by the comb not being, in the wild birds, indented, and by the wattles being blood-colored rather than scarlet ; the feathers are all of a dusky orange in the wild birds, but finely variegated in the tame ones. Frizzuep. — A native of Java and Japan. Distinguished by having all the feathers turned and frizzled, being smaller than our common species, more wild, and less suitable for domestic purposes. Flesh firm and delicate. Smxy. — This is also a distinct species, according to modern writers. It nas the whole body covered with feathers, the webs of which are so disu- nited as to appear like hairs or glossy silk ; the general color is white, and the legs covered wholly on the outside, quite to the toes. As in other vari- eties, individuals of this sort differ in respect to color. Russtan, or Stpertan.— This breed seems to differ chiefly from others in having considerable tufts of brown or dark loose feathers springing from each jaw, and others, longer or fuller, from the lower jaw. In the hen there is an upright tuft, spreading from the back of the head, of the same silky texture. Independently of these, the cock has the usual comb and wattles, and the hen a small comb also. This sort varies in color, one variety being white, with the ends of the feathers glossy blue or black, giving it a spotted appearance, and the legs being covered with fibrous or downy feathers ; another has the plumage of the game fowl}, a fine tawny orange, spotted with black. Barsary.— This African variety is generally of a pale or dun color, spotted about the neck sparingly with black, and the feathers at that part very full; on the crown is a large, full tuft of feathers, the same in color with the body. Java —Resembling the Malay in shape, but somewhat colored like the 2 POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 393 Dorking. It is probably a cross. between the two. In qualities it resembles the Malay, but is not so valuable as a cross with other breeds. Osrricu, or Cocuin Cuina. — This variety of fowls completely surpasses, Fig. 233. ¥ CLIO F in size and power, the general run of poultry. Their general color is rich, glossy brown, deep bay; on the breast is a marking o: a blackish color, 394 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. and of the shape of a horse-shoe ; the comb is of a medium size, serrated. but not deeply so, and the wattles are double. Besides their gigantic size, however, these fowls possess other distinctive characteristics, the most strik- ing of which is, that the wing is jointed so that the posterior half can, at pleasure, be doubled up, and brought forward between the anterior half and the body. The eggs are large, chocolate-colored, and of a very delicate flavor. GENERAL TREATMENT. Raising, Breeding, §c. — Hens, if left to their own impulses, would pro- duce one brood early in spring, the other in autumn. ‘They begin to lay in February, sooner or later, partly according to the time of molting, which means the shedding of the feathers, at which time they lose their high tone of health, and cease to lay. The season of molting is late in the autumn, and in consequence of the change in their constitution, while the juices of the body are promoting the growth of new feathers, no egg secretions are formed. The molting period, after the third year of the hen’s life, becomes gradually later and more tedious ; young poultry molt in spring ; no fowl are fit for the table at such time. The hens lay abundantly in February and March, which are usually quite as cold as November and December, while in the latter, unless they have molted very early in autumn, they rarely yield an egg. Reaumur warmed his fowl-houses by artificial heat, but got no eggs. Yetastock of poultry, by judicious treatment, may be rendered prolific during the entire year, by having very early and successive summer broods, as the pullets (which do not molt in the first year) will lay towards the close of the year. The first brood may be obtained in January, by care- ful management. Hot food — boiled potatoes are as good or better than any other — should always be given, in the winter months, to the hens which are on the laying list, and which should be kept as dry and warm as possible. Number of Hens for a Cock. — Every experienced fowl-keeper knows that those eggs only are prolific which are produced by hens which have had con- stant intercourse with the male, though, for the purposes of the table, they are better without this intervention, as they are more easily preserved in a state of freshness. ‘Some writers recommend twelve to twenty females for each cock, while others consider half that number more desirable. The fact is, much depends on climate, and the season of the year, a dry and genial tem- perature favoring a greater number of the hens to the male. Qualities of a Good Cock. —In selecting a cock, he is considered to have every requisite quality, when he is of a good middling size ; when he car- ries his head high, has a quick, animated look, a strong and shrill voice short bill, a fine red comb, shining as if varnished, large wattles, and of the i a POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 395 same color as the comb, the breast broad, the wings strong, the plumage black, or obscure red, the thighs very muscular, the legs thick, and fur- nished with strong spurs, the claws rather bent, and sharply pointed. He ought also to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the ground frequently for worms, not so much for himself as for his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens, quick in defending them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together, and in assembling them at night. Selecting Hens.— [t is only requisite to have them of middling size, dark colored, bright eyes, short legs, blue feet, and neither disposed to crow nor be passionate. Hens that are long-legyed,—and of course ill-formed for sitting, — with small body, and very limited compass of wings, should be kept, if kept at all, exclusively for laying. The best age is from two to four years. Sitting. — The hen testifies her desire to hatch by making a clucking noise, searching for eggs to sit upon, and by general restlessness and fever- ish agitation. When this tendency is not naturally excited, some humane breeders endeavor to promote the disposition by stimulating applications — nettles, for instance—to the belly. Hens that have molted very early will often sit before November, and this is a point gained when chickens are wanted about Christmas. The eggs for hatching should be fresh, and free from all offensive smell, and preserved in bran, with their larger end — which contains the air-bag — uppermost, and under a warm temperature, for three weeks before they are set. Examine the eggs, by holding them between the eye and a candle, and if the vacancy caused by the air-bag at the blunt of the egg appears to be a little on one side, it will produce a hen ; if this vacancy be exactly in the centre, it will produce a cock. From nine to fifteen is the number usually placed under the hen, according to her size. Her nest should be of clean, soft, and short straw, if possible on the floor, and facing the south, and corn and water should be placed within her reach; but the food should be removed as soon as she satisfies herself. Many hens feed but once a day, and some would starve themselves sooner than leave their eggs in search of food. Hatching. — The hen sits for three weeks. About the twenty-first day the chicks chip the shell with the upper bill, which is furnished with a horny scale at the end, and gradually extricate themselves from confinement ; fre- quently they do not disengage themselves from it in less than twenty-fou hours, or even more ; but it is generally much better not to assist them in breaking the shell, for if this be done before they have taken in the necessary supply of sustenance, by the yelk passing into their bodies through the navel, they will certainly die. It may, however, sometimes be necessary to afford tlem aid, for it sometimes happens that their bodies adhere, from 396 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. : bad hatching, to the shell, and that their naturally revolving moveinents do not tend to disengage them. They must, in this case, be very tenderly relieved by the hand. On the day after they have been hatched, the chicks may be removed from the nest to a basket, or some similar receptacle, lined with wool, or such soft, warm substance, though it is perhaps better not to remove them from the original nest. For a fortnight they are fed with crumbs of bread soaked in milk, and thenceforth every day, for some time, with yelks of eggs, curd, erits, &c., and after a few days they may be allowed to peck about in warm spots with their mother, but must be guarded from wet. They will soon feed greedily on meal, crumbs, &c., mixed with a small portion of potatoes, beet-leaves, parsley, or cabbage. Fattening. — Fowls in a natural state, picking up what they can get at the barn-door, are, perhaps, the best-flavored and most wholesome for the table ; but as it is common, and almost necessary, to practise fattening, we will treat of that matter. The most approved coops are those which are divided into solitary cham- bers, so narrow as to prevent the fowl from turning around, and with an opening in the rear part for the discharge of the excrement, perfect clean- liness being indispensable, with meal and milk in a trough, and a little gravel or brick-dust, to promote digestion, at front. Another practice is, to cram them with a paste made of flour, or meal, milk, and hog’s lard, or kitchen-grease, introduced by means of a tube, or by the fingers. In the course of a fortnight chickens may be rendered sufficiently fat, and of great weight. ‘Health of Fowls.—The indications of good health are, a florid color of the comb, and bright eyes free from moisture, dry nostrils, and bright, glossy plumage. Caponizinc.—This is an art but little understood in the United States, although a knowledge of the mode of performing it is of equally as much importance to the farmer as an acquaintance with the process of castra- ting cattle, horses, and swine. The emasculation of young roosters exerts a beneficial influence on their condition, rendering them large, fat, and fine-flavored. The fowls selected for the purpose should be of the largest breed, and not more than two or three months old, as, at an ad- vanced age, the mortality is very great. Food and water must be denied them for thirty-six hours before the time of performing the operation ; it having been observed that a full stomach and bowels has a tendency to promote bleeding from the wound. Mode of performing the operation. — Secure the chicken upon its left side on a table, with its wings clasped behind its back, its legs extended backward, the upper one more so than the lower, leaving its head and a POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS, 3941 neck perfectly free, and then pluck the feathers from the right side, near the hip-joint, to the extent of an inch square. Draw the skin back, and make an incision with a bevel-edged knife between the two last ribs, commen- cing about an inch from the back-bone, and extending obliquely down- ward about an inch, or an inch and a half; cutting only deep enough to separate the ribs, without wounding the intestines. Then, having pre- viously attached a pair of broad, blunt, silver hooks to the ends of a piece of rattan about six inches long, insert one hook in a lip of the wound, and, bending the rattan in the form of a bow, attach the second hook to the opposite margin of the wound; the spring of the bow will keep the wound open sufficiently wide to afford the operator working-room. This being done, carefully slit the skin enclosing the intestines, and if the latter are not sufficiently drawn up toward the breast-bone, push them forward with the handle of a small silver scoop, formed somewhat like a tea-spoon, but much smaller, and having a sharp steel hook at the handle end. With a delicate pair of forceps seize the skin covering the testicles, and connecting them with the back and sides, and tear it open with the sharp hook on the end of the scoop. Another instrument is then brought into requisition, consisting of a tube of some kind of metal, flattened at one end, through which passes a loop of horse-hair—the loop end extend- ing a short distance below the flat part of the tube, and the free ends projecting some distance beyond its opposite end. With the left hand the lower, or left, testicle is raised up by means of the scoop, while the loop of horse-hair is passed over it with the right, in such manner as to encircle the parts connecting it with the back. The free ends of the horse-hair are then drawn backward and forward, while the tube is pushed toward the chicken’s rump, and thus the testicle is sawed off. The same operation is then performed upon the right testicle; after which the separated testicles, together with the effused blood, are removed with the scoop, the hooks withdrawn, and the skin closed over the wound, which is then covered with the feathers plucked off at the commencement of the operation. If the side of the chicken afterwards puffs out with wind, puncture the skin and let it out. Great care must be used in pers forming the operation, as a careless cut may maim the chicken for life ; and a failure to remove all the substance of the testicles will render the entire operation of no avail. II, THE TURKEY. VARIETIES. The diversity of color is about all that constitutes the difference of va rieties of this bird; —the black, the white, the copper-color, the brown, 34 398 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. the bronze, the dusky-gray, &c. As to the relative value of the ordinary varieties, there is some doubt. The bronze and copper-colored varieties Fig. 235. are generally small, and difficult to rear; but their flesh is very delicate The brown and ashy-gray are not particularly remarkable, but the black are decidedly superior as regards hardiness, rearing, acquiring flesh, and the quality of the flesh; they are also very prolific. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. Keeping, §c.— With respect to the best mode of keeping turkeys, it is necessary to let them have a large, roomy shed, protected from the weather and from moisture. ‘The perches should be high, and a ladder should be supplied, as the birds, when fat, are otherwise apt to injure themselves in their descent from a lofty perch. During warm weather they may be per- mitted to select their own roosting-places on the trees about a farm, but should be well watched, lest they stray away, and, in cold weather, get their ender toes frost-bitten. The turkey provides itself with food from the roads and hedge-rows: snails, slugs, and worms, are among the number of its dainties, and the nearest pool serves to slake its thirst. It should, however, be kept away from the grain-fields. Qualities. — In selecting a turkey-cock, see that he ‘s large, stout, proud, POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS D(MESTIC FOWLS. 399 and majestic. Both cock and hen should have short legs, full shapes, and general vivacity and energy in all their movements, and be healthy. A turkey-cock is in his prime in his third year; the hen is in her prime younger, say in her second year. Laying. — One fecundation, it is said by some, will render all the eggs of that laying fertile, while others allow one cock to every dozen or fourteen hens. The approach of the laying season is known by the increased liveli- ness and proud strut of the hen, and a peculiar self-satisfied cry. This usually takes place in March. When these symptoms are noticed, a nest should be provided, and a true or false egg put into it, to induce the hen to commence laying there, for she prefers a secret place. ‘The time when she lays is usually the morning ; some lay daily, others only every second day. When the turkeys are to be let out in the morning, examine the hens, and keep in such as are about to lay, in order to secure the eggs. While the hen is laying, the cock should be kept from her, as he would ill-treat her and break the eggs. ‘The eggs must be taken away as soon as laid, and they will keep till the hens cease laying, if put in a basket and kept dry. The hen-turkey will hatch other eggs than her own. Sitting. — The same barbarous stimulus, of flogging with a sprig of nettle, prescribed for hen-fowls not readily disposed to sit, has been tried for turkey- hens ; and also a dose of brandy and water to make them drunk when they are placed on the eggs, to insure their sitting on their becoming sober. The dark-colored turkeys are preferable. Any number of hens may be placed under the same shed, at short dis- tances from each other, taking care that they are kept quiet and dark, as well as warm. ‘The nest may be formed of a circular pad or roll, stuffed with matted straw, and about fifteen inches in diameter; the inside being filled with soft bruised straw, on which the eggs are laid, which, bemmg secured by the border, will not roll about when the hen makes a motion to get in and out of her nest, or turn her eggs. Hatching. — When several hens hatch at the same time, commencing together, it is obvious that if any accident should happen to one of them, the eggs may be at once transferred to some of the other nests, the evening being the proper time for this, so that on the morrow the new-comer may appear to be of her own family. On the thirty-first or thirty-second day, the chicks, as in the case of fowls, will chip and break their shells, and get out, unless prevented by the adhesion of the body to the pellicle of the shell. When (and this direction equally applies to all poultry) a small hole is perceived in the shell, through which the bill can be seen, and the chicken appears unable to break through the shell completely, the shell should be slightly and gently broken on the 400 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. outside, and lifted up with the point of a pin, but with care not to touch the chick. Treatment of the Young.— A few drops of wine are frequently given to reinimate drooping chicks, and some recommend bread soaked in wine for them at first; but the natural warmth of the mother’s body is the best physician, and this they should as quickly as possible enjoy, as the external atmosphere is so cold compared with that in which they previously existed. The early feeding of young turkeys is very similar to that which we have recommended for fowls. Egg is a favorite food for them. They may very soon have nettles and parsley made into balls, with groats or meal boiled to the consistence of stirabout, which they learn to peck from the hand. As the mother is very stupid, and does not teach her little ones to search for food, a keeper. is necessary for young turkeys, in order to feed them fre- quently, to take them out airing after the dew is off the ground, and place them in shelter, either from the hot sun or rain, for six weeks, when they become pretty hardy, and can eat boiled potatoes mixed with their meal. The membranes of the neck and head now shoot the red, as it is termed, and at this critical period poults require very high feeding. After harvest, turkey poults— which name they receive after two months —are driven in large flocks to pasture and stubble fields, where they learn to pick up insects and grains of corn; and then they are quite independent of the maternal wing, and flock with the older turkeys, and roost with and accompany them. But care should be taken to have shade or shelter always at hand for them during the sultry hours of the day, and when rain is falling. Fattening. — After six months, turkeys may be crammed like fowls, with the same kind of food, but need not be so closely confined, though a dark place is recommended for them. It requires six weeks to render turkeys perfectly fat, and it would be barbarous to confine them in pens so long ; they may be left in’close farm-yards. ‘lo have very large turkeys, cocks should be kept over for fattening until they are nearly two years old; but a young hen-turkey in spring is much better in flavor. Feeding. —In their ordinary run about the farmer’s yards and fields, turkeys nearly feed themselves sufficiently; if not, they will do so by scattering among them, in the morning, oats or corn. Boiled potatoes or Swedish turnips greatly assist in the support of a flock of turkeys. Ill. THE GOOSE. VARIETIES. Tovtouse.— The varieties of the common domestic goose are very few. Amongst these varieties is that of the Toulouse, chiefly remarkable for its vast size. Its color is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars and POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 401 eccasionally relieved with black — the head, neck as far as the beginning of the breast, and the back of the neck as far as the shoulders, of a dark brown; the breast is slaty blue; the belly is white, as also the under Fig. 236. surface of the tail; the bill is orange-red, and the feet are flesh-color. The Toulouse is of a mild and easy disposition, which conduces to the chance of his early fattening, and that also at little cost. The flesh is said to be tender and well-flavored. Cuinese.— The Chinese goose is a well-known variety, including several sub sorts, among which is the Hong Kong, considered the same as is called by the name of Poland, having a large, horny knob on the bill and forehead, the prevailing color gray, with a longitudinal stripe of deep brown. running above the back of the neck, — the legs red. There are also the Black-legged Chinese, also knobbed, and usually with a white edge around the knob, somewhat similar to that of the wild breed called the White Fronted, — and the White Chinese, a very handsome bird, knobbed as the rest, of a snow- white color, and with legs of a bright orange-red. These geese are inferior in size to the Toulouse, but, nevertheless, very fine birds, and worthy the attention of the breeder. The white variety, especially, with red legs, is very beautiful ; the flesh is also good. They feed well, fatten easily, and are very prolific. Common. —Of our ordinary and well-known domestic geese there exist but two sorts, whose only distinction seems to rest in their relative size, they being divided into the darge and small; and by some, accordir g to their color, into the white and the gray. These divisions are, to a certain extent, 34* 2A 402 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. arbitrary ; as ou: of the one clutch may be generally found the several vari- eties, both as to size and color, that are sought for. The best sorts are WZ 0 //) Uf EBEAz—— those which vary least in color. Gray is the best; mixed colors will not prove so prolific, and the young will be more difficult to feed up to the re- quired standard. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. In France, geese are put up in thirties in the same lodge, with roofs and partitions to separate them, never allowing more than eight under one roof. All damp must be avoided, for geese at all times are fond of a clean, dry place to sleep in, however much they may like to swim in water. It is not a good plan, on the whole, to keep geese with other poultry ; for, when confined in the poultry-yard, they become very pugnacious, and will very much harass the hens and turkeys. It is recommended to pasture geese in marshy or moist ground, and to sow for them vetches or tares, meliot, clover, chicory, and lettuce, of which they are very fond. Grass they should also have, and they are satisfied with the poorest. In allowing geese to range at large, it must be remembered that they are very destructive to all garden and farm crops, as well as to young fruit-trees. To prevent their getting through the gaps in fences, hang a stick across their breasts. Food. — Did geese require to be always fed in the poultry-yard, it would cost more than they are worth to keep them, for they are voracious feeders. All sorts of vegetables, food, and grain, agree with them, but they do not POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS, 403 thrive well without grass. The refuse of the cabbage of a market-garden would maintain a great many geese at avery small cost, but it is very doubtful whether they would keep long in good health, when fed either on cabbage, mangel-wurzel leaves, chicory, endive, lettuce, or other green food. This, indeed, is apt to render their bowels too open, and even to bring on scouring, unless alternated with boiled or steamed potatoes, given warm, or with the meal of oats, peas, beans, or maize, beaten up with boiled potatoes, carrots, or turnips. The stubble-fields of any sort of grain are excellent pasture for geese, for there they not only find grass and other herbage, but the grain which may have been scattered, and which would otherwise be lost; while their dung, though at first acrid and apt to injure, will, when it has been mellowed, much enrich the ground. Pairing. — It has been ascertained by M. St. Genis that geese will pair like pigeons and partridges; and, in the course of his experiments, he re- marked that, if the number of the ganders exceed that of the geese by two, and even by three, including the common father, no disturbance nor disputes occur, the pairing taking place without any noise, and no doubt by mutual choice. It is usual, in books, as well as in practice, to assign six geese to one gander. In some places, the small farmers who kéep two or three geese keep no gander at all, but turn their geese, at the breeding season, for a short period, among the ganders of some larger establishment near them. This, however, must render the eggs of doubtful fertility, though, no doubt, it would not be practised, if it were found to be an unprofitable plan, The gander to be selected should be of a large size, of a fine white, with a lively eye, and an active gait; while the breeding goose ought to be brown, ash- gray, or parti-colored, and to have a broad foot. The gray geese are sup- posed to produce the finest goslings, while the parti-colored ones produce better feathers, and are not so apt to stray from home. Laying. — When well kept, geese will lay thrice a year, from five to twelve eggs each time ; and some more, when they are left to their own way: but if the eggs be carefully removed as soon as laid, a goose may be made, by proper feeding, to lay from twenty to fifty eggs without intermit- ting. They begin to lay early in spring, usually in March; and it may be known when an individual is about to lay, by her carrying straws about to form her nest with; but, sometimes, she will only throw them about. When this is observed, the geese should be watched, lest they lay in some by-place, and the eggs be lost. It is an essential precaution, as soon as it is perceived that geese want to lay, to coop them up under their roof, where nests made of straw have been previously prepared. If they can once be 404 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. induced to lay in this nest, they will continue todo so till their number of eggs is completed. In order to have early goslings, geese should be brought to lay early by keeping them in a warm, clean place, and feeding them on stimulating food. Hatching. — When a goose, at the laying of each egg, is observed to keep in her nest longer than usual, it is a pretty sure indication that she is desir- ous of hatching. It is a popular but incorrect opinion, that a goose always knows her own eggs, and will not hatch any others. The nest for hatching should be made of straw, lined with hay, and from fifteen to twenty eggs will be as many as a large goose can conven- iently cover. The goose sits for two months, and requires to have food and water placed near her, that she may not be so long absent as to allow the eggs to cool, which might cause her to abandon her task. Some put vinegar in their water, and others lift them off their nests to make them drink ; but this is not necessary. It is an economical way of getting a great number of goslings, to employ turkey-hens to hatch. The common fowl] has been equally praised for filling this important function; but the eggs of the goose being very large, and their shell very hard, a hen is not bulky enough to hatch more than eight or nine. The turkey-hen, therefore, deserves to be preferred, because she can hatch fourteen or fifteen. This function of the goose being thus filled by another, she is not kept from laying, and yields eggs in abundance. Goslings. — Like turkey-chickens, goslings are.a month in hatching, and must be taken from under the mother, lest if, feeling the young ones under her, she might perhaps leave the rest of the tardy brood unhatched. After having separated them from her, they must be kept in flat wicker pens, or baskets, covered with a cloth, and lined with wool ; and when the whole brood is come forth, the first hatched may be returned to the mother. In some places, when the eggs of the goose are on the point of being hatched, it is customary to break the shell a little, to give air to the gosling, and to help its coming out. Perhaps this practice, though dangerous to turkey-chickens, is less so to the goose’s egg, whose shell is commonly very hard. On the first day after the goslings are hatched, they may be let out, if the weather be warm, care being taken not to let them be exposed to the unshaded heat of the sun, which might kill them. The food given them is prepared with bran, raspings of bread, &c., which, if soaked and boiled in milk, or curdled milk, and lettuce-leaves, are still better. Afterwards, advantage must be taken of a fine warm sun to turn them out for a few hours; but cold and rain being very hurtful to them, they must in bad weather be cooped up, and prevented from mixing with the larger ones POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 405 unless they have strength enough to defend themselves against any hostile attack, to which new-comers are usually exposed. To such goslings as area little strong, bran may be given twice a day, morning and evening, continu- ing to give them this food until the wings begin to cross on the back; and after this, green food, which they are particularly fond of, may be mixed with it, such as lettuce, beet-leaves, and the like. Fattening. — Like other fowls, geese may be brought, by proper manage- ment, to a great degree of fatness ; but the period at which they are the fat- test must be chosen to kill them, otherwise they will rapidly become lean again, and many of them would die. Geese may be fattened at two different periods of their life, —in the young state, when they are termed green geese, and after they have attained their full growth. The methods at each period are very nearly the same. For fattening geese,— boiled oats, given thrice a day, with plenty of milk, will, it is said, fatten them well in a month. For stubble geese, besides oats, give split beans, with meal and water, cooping up in a quiet, dark place, as is done with fowls. The London feeders, when they receive goslings in March, begin feeding them on meal, from the best barley and oats, made into a liquid paste. They are afterwards fed on dry corn, to render their fat firmer. Full-grown geese are kept particularly clean, have regular exercise, and are fed with proportional quantities of dry, soft, and green food. Cabbage and lettuce alone will fatten young geese, bought in the end of June. Some persons recommend steamed potatoes, with a gal- lon of buckwheat or ground oats to the bushel, mashed up with the potatoes, and given warm. ‘This, it is said, will render geese, cooped in a dark, quiet, cool place, fat enough in three weeks. The French mode of fattening consists in plucking the feathers from under the belly, giving them abundance of food and drink, and cooping them up more closely than is practised with common fowls, cleanliness and quiet being above all indispensable. The best time is in the month of November, or when the cold weather begins to set in; if it is longer delayed, the pairing season approaches, and prevents their becoming fat. When there are not many geese to fatten, they are put into a cask having holes bored in it, through which they may thrust their heads to feed ; and being naturally voracious, the love of food is greater than the love of liberty, and they fatten readily. The food consists of a paste, made of barley-meal, ground maize, and buckwheat, with milk and boiled potatoes In Poland, a similar method is practised, the goose being put in an earthen pot without a bottom, and of a size not to allow the bird to move. The same food as that just mentioned is given in abundance, and the pot is so placed that the dung may not remain in it. The process is completed in a fort- 406 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. night, and the geese are sometimes so increased in size that the pot has to be broken to get them out. When the great number of geese to be fattened renders the preceding plan inconvenient and too expensive, they are taken from the stubbles or pasture, and cooped up, twelve together, in narrow pens, so low that they can neither stand upright nor move in any direction. ‘They are kept scrupulously clean, by often renewing the litter of the pens. Side Grafting. — This is nothing more than splice grafting performed on the side of a stock, the head of which is not cut off. It is sometimes prac- .ised on fruit-trees to supply a branch in a vacancy, or for the sake of having HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. Syl different kinds of fruits on the same tree ; but it is better for the latter pur- pose to graft on the side-branches, because, in consequence of the flow of the sap not being interrupted by being headed down, the success of this kind of grafting is more uncertain than almost any other mode. In grafting the lateral branches of fruit-trees, it is always desirable, in order to insure suc- cess, to have corresponding buds in the scion and the stock. Wedge Grafting. — This is simply a modification of side grafting. Root Grafting. — Root grafting is merely the union of a scion to a root, instead of toa stem. It is sometimes practised in nurseries, by grafting the apple and the pear on the roots of thorns, tree ponies on herbaceous ponies, &e. Herbaceous Grafting. —This is applicable either to the solid parts of herbaceous plants, or to the branches of ligneous or woody plants, when they are inan herbaceous state. By this method the melon has been grafted on the cucumber, the tomato on the common potato, the cauliflower on the broccoli and the borecole, &c. To do this, choose a vigorous part of a shoot having a well-developed leaf. In the axil of this leaf an oblique cut is made, of half its thickness. The point of a melon shoot, so far developed as to have its fruit quite formed, is then cut off, and pointed at its end, two inches below the fruit. It is inserted in the cleft made in the stock, always taking care to spare the leaf until the scion has taken. ‘The remaining part of the operation is performed with ligatures and grafting-wax. Grafting by Approach, or Inarching. —'This differs from grafting by detached scions, in the scion or shoot not being separated from the plant to which it belongs, and by which it is nourished, till a union takes place. For this purpose, it is necessary that the two plants which are to form the scion and stock be planted, or, if in pots, placed adjoining each other, so that a branch of the one may be easily brought into close contact with the stem, or with a branch, of the other. A disk of bark and alburnum is then removed from each at the intended point of union, and the parts being properly fitted to each other, so as the inner barks of the respective subjects may coincide, as in the case of grafting by detached scions, they are bandaged and covered with clay or grafting-wax. This being done, in a short time, in con- sequence of the development of the secretion called cambium, the alburnum of the scion and that of the stock become united, and the scion may be cut off below the point where it is united with the stock, leaving the former to be nourished only by the latter. The principal use of grafting by approach is to propagate plants of rarity and value which it is found difficult to increase by any other means, and of which it is not desirable to risk the loss of any part, by attempting an in- crease by means of detached scions or cuttings. FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Il. BUDDING. Uses of Budding. — Budding, or grafting by detached buds, consists in transferring a portion of bark containing one or more buds, and forming the scion, to the wood of another plant, forming the stock, a portion of the bark of the stock being raised up or taken off to receive the scion. The buds of trees are originated in the young shoots in the axils of the leaves, and when the bud begins to grow, its connection with the marrow sheath ceases ; or, at all events, the bud, if detached and properly placed on the alburnum of another plant, will become vitally united to it. On these facts the art of budding is founded. This mode of grafting is chiefly applicable to woody vegetation, and the scion may, in general, be secured to the stock, and sufficiently protected there, by bandages of bast mat, or thread, without the use of grafting-clay or wax. The union between the scion and the stock takes place, in the first instance, in consequence of the exudation of organizable matter from the soft wood of the stock ; and it is rendered permanent by the returning sap from the leaves of the stock, or from those of the shoot made by the bud. All © the different modes of budding may be reduced to two ;— shield budding, in which the scion is a piece of bark, commonly in the shape of a shield, containing a single bud, —and flute budding, in which the scion consists of a ring or tube of bark, containing several buds. In both modes, the bark of one year is chosen in preference ; and the operation is more certain of suc- cess when the bud of the scion is placed exactly over the situation of a bud on the stock. The shield may, however, be placed on the internodes, or a piece of bark without buds may be put on as a scion, and yet a vital union may take place between the parts, because the marrow rays exist every- where in the wood, and it is by them, during the process of organization, that the layer of wood of one year, in a growing state, is joined to that of the year before. When the bud is placed on the stock, its point is almost always made to turn upwards, as being its natural position ; but, in budding trees which are liable to gum, the bud is made to point downwards. There are two seasons at which budding is practised, namely, when the sap rises in spring; when the bud inserted is developed immediately, in the same manner as in detached ligneous scions; and in the end of summer, when the sap is descending, the operation being then performed with a bud formed during the preceding summer, which does not develop itself till the follow- ing spring. In budding, the stock is not generally cut over in the first instance, as in grafting by detached ligneous scions, but a tight ligature is frequently placed above the graft, with the intention of forcing a part of the ascending sap to nourish the graft. HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 573 The uses of budding, in addition to those of the other modes of grafting, are, also, to propagate some kinds with which the other modes of grafting are not so successful; to perform the operation of grafting with greater rapidity than with detached scions, or inarching, as in the case of most fiuit- trees, to unite early vegetating trees with late vegetating ones, — as the apricot with the plum, they being both in the same degree of vegetation during the budding season; to graft without the risk of injuring the stock in case of want of success, as in side budding, and in flute budding, without heading down; to introduce a number of species or varieties on the same stem, which could not be done by any other mode of grafting without dis- figuring the stock, in the event of the want of success ; to prove the blossoms or fruits of any tree, in which case blossom-buds are chosen instead of leaf- buds; and finally, as the easiest mode of distributing a great many kinds on the branches of a tree, as in the case of roses, camellias, and fruit-trees. Performing the Operation. —In performing the operation, mild, cloudy weather should be chosen, because, during hot, dry, windy weather, the viscous surfaces exposed to the air are speedily dried by evaporation, by which the healing operation is retarded; besides, the bark never rises so well as it does in weather which is still, warm, and cloudy, but without rain. The first step is to ascertain that the bark of the scion and that of the stock will separate freely from the wood beneath them; then procure the cutting from which the shields or tubes of bark are to be taken. If the budding is to be performed in spring, the cuttings from which the buds are to be taken should be cut — always using the proper kind of knife — from the tree the preceding autumn, and kept through the winter, by burying their lower ends in the ground, in a cool, shady situation, as in the case of grafting by detached scions. When these cuttings are to be used, their lower ends should be placed in water, to keep them fresh while the opera- tion of cutting shields or rings from them is going on. If, on the other hand, the budding is to be performed in summer, then the cutting from which the buds are to be taken is not to be cut off the parent tree till just before the operation is to be performed. The cutting should be a shoot of the current year’s wood, which has done growing, or nearly so, and its leaves should be cut off, to prevent the waste of sap by evaporation, as soon as it is taken from the tree ; the end of the cutting should then be put in water to keep it fresh, and the buds taken off as wanted. When the leaves are cut off, care should be taken to leave part of the petiole of each, to handle the shield or ring by when putting it on the stock. A slit is next made in the stock, or a ring of bark taken off; and the shield or ring from the cutting, containing a bud or buds which are ripe or nearly so, is intro- duced in the manner which will presently be described. ‘Tying the bud on bal 5y4 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. the stock generally completes the operation, though sometimes grafting- wax is employed to cover the junction of the shield or ring. ‘Transmitting Scions. — Scions for budding may be sent a- considerable distance by letter, if the leaves are cut off and the scion closely wrapped up in oiled paper, or coated over with mastic. ‘They may also be left for several weeks, by immersing them in honey. When bulk is not an objec- tion, they may be packed up in long grass, or in moist moss, or in several folds of moistened brown paper, and covered with drawn wheat-straw, to serve as a non-conductor of heat and moisture. Wax for Budding. — Prepared wax for budding may be composed of turpentine, bees-wax, resin, and a little tallow, melted together. It may be put on in the same manner as grafting-clay, but should not be more than a quarter of an inch in thickness ; or it may be very thinly spread on cotton cloth, and used in shreds, like sticking-plaster. In this last state, it serves both as a ligature for retaining the scion in its place, and as a covering for excluding the air. In very delicate budding or grafting, fine moss or cotton wool is frequently used as a substitute for grafting-clay or grafting-wax, the moss or cotton being tied firmly on with coarse thread or fine strands of bast matting. Plastic wax, or grafting-wax, which the heat of the hand, or breathing on, will render sufficiently soft for use, is thus prepared: — take common sealing-wax, — of any color, except green, — one part; mut- ton fat, one part; white wax, one part; and honey, one eighth of a part. The white wax and the fat are to be first melted, and then the sealing-wax is to be added gradually, in small pieces, — the mixture being kept con- stantly stirred ; — and lastly, the honey must be put in just before taking it off the fire. It should be poured hot into paper or tin moulds, and kept slightly agitated till it begins to congeal. Shield Budding. —'This is about the only mode in use in British nurseries, where it is generally performed in July or August. A cross cut and slit are made in the stock, in the form of the letter T, and if possible through abud. (Fig. 332,a.) From a shoot of the present year deprived of its leaves, a slice of bark and wood, containing a bud, 3, is then cut out, and the wood is removed from the slice by the point of the knife. This is done by holding the shield by the remains of the leaf, with one hand, and enter- ing the point of the knife at the under extremity of the shield, and between it and the thumb; and then raising and drawing out the wood by a double motion outwards from the bark, and downwards from the upper to the lower extremity of the shield. The bud being now prepared, as at c, the bark on each side of the slit in the stock is raised up by the spatula end of the budding-knife, and the shield inserted beneath it ; its upper part being cut straight across, as at d. so as to admit of its joining accurately with the gf ’ a hae thy 1% ie a) si bebe t oe 8F Pk by ng 5 < Pe ake ’ ‘ aera oe HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. inner bark of the stock, as ate, so as to receive its descending sap. A bandage cf soft matting is now applied, so as to exclude the air from the wounded parts, and to show only the bud and the petiole, as at /, and the Fig. 332. operation is complete. At f, the bud is shown developing its leaves, and at g it has produced a shoot of some length, which is tied for a short time to the upper part of the stock ; but that part of the latter which is shown by dotted lines is cut off in July. The portion of wood left attached to the base of the bud should generally be about a third of the length of the shield ; the latter being from an inch to an inch and a half in length, and the eye should be situated about a third from the top. Spines, prickles, and leaves should be carefully cut off, or shortened. Sometimes, in taking out the splinter of wood from the scion, which is done with a quick, jerking motion, the base of the bud, which is woody, is torn out also, leaving a small cavity, instead of an even surface ; the surface, when the bud is in a proper state, being either quite even, or only gently raised above the surrounding bark, in consequence of the woody base of the bud being left in. When this latter has been torn out, so as to leave a cavity, it is safest not to use the bud, but to prepare another ; though, when the cavity left is not very deep, and a small portion of wood is seen in it, the bud will sometimes grow. Only those buds must be taken from the scion that are nearly mature, which is readily known both by the size of the bud and by the full expansion and firm texture of the disk of the leaf, in the axil of which it grows. Shield Budding without a Bud or Eye. — This is used simply to cover a wound or blemish in one tree by a portion of the live bark of another. Circular Shield Budding.— Budding with a circular shield, with a portion of wood attached, is employed to equalize the flower-buds over a tree, by 576 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. removing some from places where there are too many to other places in which there are too few. With the point of a penknife, in spring, cuta small cone of bark and wood containing a bud, and insert it in an orifice made in the same manner, securing the edges with grafting-wax. Budding with a shield stamped out hy a punch is considered excellent for budding old trees, the thick and rugged bark of which is not suitable for being taken off with the budding-knife. With a mallet the punch is driven through the bark of the scion, and then through that of the stock, and the piece which comes out of the former is inserted in the cavity formed by the piece taken out of the latter. Shield budding with a terminal bud is supposed to produce a more vigorous shoot than when a lateral eye is used, and it is, therefore, recommended for supplying a leader to a shoot that’has lost one. Flute Budding. —'There are several modifications of this mode of budding, which is a good deal used, in some countries, for trees that are difficult to ‘ake, — such as the walnut and the chestnut, — and for séveral oaks, as well as for the white mulberry. Annular Budding. — This is performed either at the principal movement of the sap in spring, or at the end of its principal movement in August. In either case, the top of the stock is kept on; and if the ring of bark contain- ing a bud or buds taken from the scion is larger than the space prepared for it on the stock, a piece must be taken from it longitudinally, so as to make it fit exactly. After-care. — 'The after-care of grafts by budding consists, in all cases, in removing the bandages or plasters as soon as it is ascertained that the buds or scions have adhered to the stock. This may generally be known in two or three weeks, by the healthy appearance of the bark and its bud or buds, and by the dropping off of the petiole, which, in the case of the bud, withers and adheres. ‘The next operation is to head down the stock to within an inch or two of the bud, — the stump being left for a week or two as a prop, to which the shoot produced by the bud of the scion may be tied, till it acquires vigor enough to support itself. The stump is then cut off in a sloping direction, close above the bud. In general, any buds which develop themselves on this stump should be rubbed off ; but in the case of very weak scions, one or more buds may be left on the stump, to draw up the sap till the graft has taken. When budding is performed in spring, the stock should have been headed down before the ascent of the sap; but in autumn budding, as no shoot is produced till the spring following, heading down is deferred till that season, and takes place just before the sap is in motion. Where a number of grafts by buds are introduced on one stem or on one branch, heading down can, of course, only take pJace above the uppermost HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS, 517 bud; and in terminal flute budding, it is performed as a necessary part of the operation. III. PRUNING. Uses of Pruning.— Pruning consists in depriving a plant of a portion of its branches, buds, leaves, bark, or roots, in order to produce particular effects on the part of the plant which remains. The different kinds of pruning may be included under knife-pruning, which is applied to small branches ; lopping, which is applied to large branches; clipping, which is applied to small shoots in masses ; and disbudding, disleafing, and disbark- ing, which are applied to buds, leaves and bark. Girdling and felling may also. be included. The instruments necessary for these operations are chiefly the pruning-knife, the bill, the saw, the cutting-shears, and the clip- ping-shears ; but there are some other instruments, such as the pruning- chisel, the girdling-machine, &c., which are occasionally used for peculiar purposes. The approved pattern of pruning chisels is seen in the follow- ing cut. Pruning Forest-trees.— In forest-trees pruning is of the greatest use in modifying the quantity of timber produced. Thus, by commencing when the tree is quite young, and shortening the side-branches and encouraging ~ the leading shoot, the whole of the timber produced is thrown into the main stem. On the other hand, should crooked timber be desired, pruning by destroying the leading shoot, and encouraging those that have a suitable direction, tend to attain the end in view; and, by the aid of training, this end can be completely effected. Trees which are stunted in their growth, from being hide-bound (a disease which is brought on by the sudden exposure of the trees to the weather after they have been drawn up by shelter, and, in the case of young trees, by being planted of too large a size in proportion to their roots), may in general be made to shoot vigorously by being cut down or headed in. Again, trees which are in particular situations, where it is feared they will grow too large, may be arrested in their growth, or stunted, by amputating the larger roots. Pruning Ornamental Trees.— This is chiefly employed to remove dis- eased branches, because much of the effect of these trees depends on the development of their natural form and character. Pruning Ornamental Shrubs. — Those which are grown for their flowers produce them of much stronger and brighter colors when the shoots are 49 2M + 578 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. thinned out, or shortened, or both; and it is useful when the plante are prevented from exhausting themselves by the removal of decaying blossoms, so as to prevent them from maturing their seeds. A pair of pruning-scis- sors are useful in case of rose-bushes, &c. 4 Pruning Fruit-trees and Shrubs. —'These, above all other plants, are benefited by pruning, which is indeed by far the most important part of their culture. The most general object of pruning is to create an abundant supply of sap during summer, by the production of leaf-shoots, by which the general strength of the tree is augmented, and to limit the distribution of this sap when it ascends from the roots in the following spring, by dimin- ishing the number of buds. The effect of this is to increase the vigor of Fig. 335. Fig. 336. the shoots or fruits produced by these buds; and if this be done in such a manner as to obtain also the greatest advantages from light and air, the pruning will have answered its purpose. If a fruit-tree were not deprived every year of a part of the wood or the buds which it produces, its shoots and fruits would gradually diminish in size, and though the fruit would be HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 579 more numerous, it would be deficient in succulence and flavors as is found to be the case in old neglected orchard-trees. ‘The application of pruning to fruit-trees differs so much, according to the species of tree, that the sub- ject can only be properly treated by taking each class separately. Thus kernel-fruits, which are produced on wood of two or more years’ growth, require to be pruned in a different manner from such fruits as the peach, which is produced from the shoots of the current year. The production of blossoms, or the enlargement of fruits and the acceleration of their maturity by ringing, is a species of pruning peculiarly applicable to fruit-trees. In pruning high branches, an instrument called an avarrancator— pole pruning shears — is found to be very convenient. See Fig. 339. Pruning Herbaceous Plants. — To herbaceous plants pruning is appli- eable, not only when they are being transplanted, when both roots and top are frequently cut in, but also to fruit-bearing kinds, such as the melon tribe, the tomato, &c. It is even useful to the cabbage tribe, when it is wished that, after the head is cut off, the stem should throw out sprouts, which is found to be accelerated by splitting it down an inch or two. The topping of beans, and the picking off of potato-blossoms, are operations belonging to pruning, as are the cutting off of withered flowers for the sake of neatness, &c. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PRUNING. These may be included under close pruning, shortening-in, tore-shorten- ing, spurring-in, heading-in, lopping, snag-lopping, lopping-in, stopping, pinching-out, disbarking, disbudding, disleafing, slitting, bruising or tear- ing, root-pruning, girdling, and felling. Close Pruning. — This consists in cutting off shoots close to the branch or stem from whence they spring, leaving as small a section as possible, in order that it may be speedily healed over. In performing the operation, care should be taken to make the wounded section no larger than the base of the shoot, in order that it may be healed over as quickly as possible ; and at the same time to make it no smaller, because this would leave latent buds, which would be liable to be developed, and thus occasion the operation 580 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. to be performed a second time. This mode of pruning is only adopted where the object is to produce stems or trunks clear of branches, or of any kind of protuberance, as in the case of standard trees in gardens, especially fruit-trees, and in the case of forest-trees grown for their timber. If the branch cut off is under an inch in diameter, the wound will generally heal over in two seasons, and in this case the timber sustains no practical injury ; but if it is larger, it will probably begin to decay in the centre, and thus occasion a blemish in the timber. Shortening-in. — This term is applied when side-shoots are shortened at the distance of from two to four or five feet from the stem, the cut being always made to a bud. Exceeding that distance, it is called fore-shortening, and is chiefly applicable to timber-trees in hedge-rows; and under that dis- tance it is called spurring-in. In the culture of fruit-trees, it is applied in connection with spurring-in, to produce trees of conical forms, with branches which, never being allowed to attain a timber size, are prolific in fruit-bear- ing spurs. Whenever the branches exceed two inches in diameter, they are cut off within an inch of the stem, and one of the young shoots which are produced there is trained to take its place. Fore-shortening.— When the lateral branches of a standard tree extend further than is desirable, a portion of their extremities is cut off; the cut being always made close above a branch of sufficient thickness to form a leader of sufficient strength to keep the branch alive and healthy, but not so strong as to cause it to produce much timber, or in any way to come into competition with the trunk of the tree. The object is to prevent the lateral branches of the trees from injuriously shading the plants under them; and hence it is chiefly used in the case of trees in hedge-rows. Spurring-in.—'The apple, the pear, the cherry, the plum, and other fruit-trees, or fruit-shrubs, produce what are called spurs, or very short shoots or knobs, covered with blossom-buds, naturally ; and the object of spurring-in pruning is to produce these knobs artificially. This can only be done with lateral shoots, to which the sap is not impelled with the same vigor as to the growing point, because the great object in producing spurs is to obtain blossom-buds, and these are never produced on the most vigor- ous shoots, A lateral shoot of the present year being produced, may be shortened to two or three visible buds, either in the beginning of summer, after that shoot has grown a few inches in length, or in the following winter; but the former is in general the better season, because it is not desirable to encourage the production of wood, and, consequently, of sap, but rather to lessen their production, so as to produce stunted branches, which are, in fact, the spurs. The second and third years the shoots pro- duced are shortened in the same manner as they were the first, and it will HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 581 generally be found that the leaf-buds left on the lower ends of the shoots, when cut down, will the year after become blossom-buds. As by the pro- cess of continually shortening the shoots the spurs in a few years become inconveniently large, they are, from time to time, cut out, and new spurs formed by the same process as before ; and finally, after a certain time, the entire branch bearing the spurs is cut out close to the main stem of the tree and renewed, as spurs are, by a young shoot produced from its base. It must be confessed, however, that pruning has but little to do with the production of spurs that are prolific in blossoms ; that depends far more on adjusting the nourishment supplied by the root to the demands of the fruit- bearing branches, to the mode of training, the kind of tree, and other par- ticulars, which, when attended to, spurs are produced naturally. Heading-in. — This is eutting off all the branches which form the head of a tree close to the top of the stem, leaving, however, their base to pro- duce buds. This is done with what are called polled or pollard trees peri- odically, for the sake of the branches produced as fagot or fence wood, and with fruit-trees when they are to be regrafted. It is also done with stunted Fig. 340. forest-trees, for the sake of concentrating the sap into a few main shoots, instead of distributing it over a great many; and it is done in transplanting trees of considerable size, intended to form avenues, or single trees in parks. The branches, if under two inches in diameter, are cut off clean with a bill 49 * _ eee a Gnesi) 582 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. at one stroke ; or, if they are larger, they are first sawn off, and afterwards the section is made smooth with the bill-axe or the knife, but generally with what is called the bill-knife. Lopping. —'This term is very generally applied to heading-in, but it is also as generally used to signify the cutting off large branches from the sides of stems, and in this sense we shall here treat of it. Lopping is per- formed in three manners, two of which are highly injurious to the timber of the trunk of the tree, and the other not so. The close and snag lopping are the modes which are injurious; the only mode of lopping large branches from the sides of the trunks of trees, without injuring the timber in these trunks, is to shorten them to a branch of sufficient size to heal the wound at its base, or, at all events, to maintain the growth of the whole of the part of the branch left, and prevent decay from reaching the trunk. This mode is called lopping-in. Fig. 340 represents one of the lopping or branch shears, and Fig. 341 the sliding pruning-shears. Cutting Down.— Cutting down the stem or trunk of a tree to the ground is an important operation, because, in some cases, such as that of resinous or needle-leaved trees, it kills the tree, while in others, or what are called trees that stole, which is a property of most broad-leaved trees, it affords the means of renewing the tree. Fruit-trees cannot generally be so treated, because the graft is for the most part only a few inches -above the surface of the soil; but even with fruit-trees, when they are stunted, there is no better mode of restoring them to vigor than by cutting them down to the graft. Stopping and Pinching-out.— When the point of a shoot is cut off, or pinched out, while that shoot is in a growing state, it is said to be stopped ; that is, the shoot is prevented from extending its length, and the sap, which was before impelled to its growing point, is now expended in adding to the largeness or succulence of the leaves or fruits which may be on the shoot, or in swelling or developing the buds, or in some cases changing them from leaf-buds into flower-buds. The principal uses of stopping, however, are to promote the setting and the swelling of the fruit, either on the shoot of the current year, as in the case of the vine and melon, or at its base, as in the case of the peach. Much of the winter pruning of trees might be prevented by stopping the shoots early in summer, provided the state of the tree did not require that the shoots should be allowed to grow their full length, in order to send down nutriment to the increase of the roots, in consequence of which greater vigor is in turn imparted to the stem and branches. In this case of pruning, as in every other, the state of the tree, and a variety of circumstances connected with it, require to be taken into consideration. Disbarking. —This includes two distinct operations, — the removal of HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 583 coarse, loose, outside bark, to admit of the swelling of the inner bark and the alburnum by the returning sap, and the removal of a ring of both inner and outer bark, with a view to the interruption of the returning sap. The removal of old bark is an operation chiefly performed with old fruit-trees in orchards, for the sake partly of getting rid of lichens and mosses, and partly to remove crevices which might harbor insects. It is also practised on the stems of old vines for the latter purpose ; one effect of removing the loose outer bark of any stem being to increase its susceptibility of suffering from changes of temperature and moisture, it may therefore often be more injuri- ous than useful. Disbarking for the tanner consists in removing the whole of the bark, and is best performed in spring, when, in consequence of the abundance of ascending sap, the bark separates easily from the wood. Scraping trees, to keep them clean, is also considerably practised. Ringing. — This operation consists in taking off a narrow ring of bark from a stem or branch, or even froma root, the object of which is to check the returning sap, and force it to expand itself among the leaves, flowers, or fruit, which are situated above the incision. The ring of bark taken off varies in width from a sixteenth to half an inch or an inch, and its depth is always equal to that of both outer and inner bark. In general, the width of the ring taken off should not be greater than the tree has the power of re-covering with bark, during the same or the following year. The operation may be performed at any season, but its effects will only be rendered obvious when the plant is in leaf, because at other seasons there is little or no sap elaborated to be returned. Compressing the bark by a ligature of wire or cord, or by a mass of Roman cement, put on like the clay of a graft, pro- duces the same effect as ringing. In the case of fruit-trees, it is frequently executed on the branches to produce blossom-buds, and by the same means seedling plants are sooner thrown into blossom than they otherwise would be. It has little effect on stone fruits ; and while it succeeds on the goose- berry, it is said not to do so on the currant. Judiciously applied, it may often serve as a substitute for root pruning and top pruning. Disbudding. — This is the removal of buds early in spring, just when they are beginning to develop their leaves ; and is commonly performed with the finger and thumb, the object being to lessen the number of shoots or of blossom-buds to be produced. By lessening the number of blossom-bnds, ‘it will add to the strength and probability of setting of those wh ch remain, and the same increase of strength will take place in respect to the shoots, whilst, at the same time, the number of these is reduced to an approximation of that which can ultimately be retained for training. By applying this mode of pruning judiciously on such trees as the peach, apricot, and plum, especially when trained against walls, the use of the knife mav be in a great 584 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK measure dispensed with, excepting for cutting out diseased or decaying shoots. In removing the buds, care should be taken not to injure the bark of the skvot. The buds ought not to be all disbudded at the same time ; the fore-right ones should be first removed, and the others successively, at inter- vals of several days, in order not to check the circulation of sap by a toc great privation of foliage at once. Disleafing. — By taking the leaves off a growing shoot as fast as they are unfolded, no buds are matured in their axils ; and thus, while the superfluous vigor of the tree is expended, no sap is returned to the root. Disleafing in this manner the summer’s shoots of a tree, as they proceed in growth, has been found the simplest mode of reducing the strength of an over-luxuriant tree. When a tree fills the space allotted to it against a wall, and shows a disposition to still further growth, by throwing up strong vertical shoots above the wall, and luxurious breast-wood on the main boughs, instead of checking this disposition by any of the ordinary modes of pruning, some gardeners assist the tree to throw off the superabundant sap, by disleafing the breast-wood and vertical shoots, and in the winter pruning all the buds on such shoots as are displaced, even those on the points, after which they die off by degrees, and are cut out. Disleafing is frequently practised with fruit- bearing plants, both woody and herbaceous, with a view to admit the sun and air to the fruit, and sometimes also to assist in ripening wood by stop- ping growth. Slitting and Splitting. —'These may be classed under modes of pruning, the first being occasionally employed to relieve hide-bound trees, — a practice of doubtful utility, — and the second to stimulate the stems to the production of roots or shoots. Hide-bound trees are relieved by slitting the bark longi- tudinally from the collar as high up the stem and along the branches as may be considered necessary. ‘The lower extremities of cuttings are sometimes slit up, and shoots are split or fractured to excite buds. Bruising and Tearing. — Bruising and tearing off the stems of plants from their roots are in some cases found to be more effective than cutting them off with a smooth section. A very full crop of pears has been obtained from trees which before had not borne at all, by twisting and breaking down the young shoots late in the autumn, when the wood had become tough, and after the sap had retreated. ‘This practice has been found successful with branches on which ringing had been tried without success, and the pendent branches continued perfectly healthy. Clipping. — This is confined chiefly to common hedges and box edgings. Root Pruning. — As the nourishment of a plant is absorbed from the soil by the roots, it is evident’ that the supply will be diminished by partially cut- ting off its source. The effect of cutting through the stronger roots of trees HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS, 585 is analogous in its first effects to that of ringing; with this difference, that the returning sap is stagnated throughout the whole tree, instead only in the parts above the ring. ‘The immediate effect is to check the luxuriancy of wood-shoots, and induce the formation of fruit-buds. The operation, how- ever, should not be carried so far as to reduce too much the vigor of the tree, and prevent the second result, — that of pushing a number of fibrous roots from those amputated ; for, in defect of these, the health of the tree must decline under the load of, in that case, imperfectly nourished fruit. With a view to the production of a greater number of fibrous roots, old trees may be subjected to a cautious root pruning ; but it must not be performed on subjects unable to bear the shock, or on those in which the power of throw- ing out fresh roots is very weak. If, however, it is found that fresh roots have been emitted from one amputation, others may be performed, as the roots resulting from each preceding operation come into action. Root prun- ing is generally performed with a sharp spade, and generally only on the main roots, at the distance of several feet from the stem, according to the magnitude of the tree. Though this mode is chiefly employed to check the Juxuriance of young fruit-trees and throw them into blossom, yet it may be employed for these purposes with all trees and shrubs whatever. Girdkng and Felling. —This.is very common in this country, not for the sake of improving the timber, but to destroy life and facilitate the destruction of the tree. It is strongly recommended to disbark trees in the spring, before they are to be felled, and the effect of this, in h4rdening-the timber, is very great; but, in a hot summer, the exposed alburnum is apt to split more or less. A better mode has been found to be that of merely cutting out clean a rim, about four inches in width, of the bark, close to the ground. By girdling, the whole of what would otherwise be mere alburnum becomes similar to the heart-wood, and this may be one reason why the boards made from such trees are found not to warp. Larches are particularly susceptible to this process. Seasons for Pruning. — The seasons for pruning vary according to the object in view. Where wood is to be cut out or buds removed, so as to throw strength into the remaining parts of the tree, the sooner the operation is performed, after the fall of the Jeaf, the better ; because, as the sap is more or less in motion, and consequently impelled to all the buds, throughout the whole of the winter, that which would have been employed on the shoots and buds cut off is saved, and those which remain are invigorated by it. Next to autumn, —according to the opinions of some of the most experi- enced growers, — winter is to be preferred, for the same reason ; but in this season mild weather is always to be chosen, because the frost, if severe, will seize on the moisture of newly-made wounds, and rupture thes surface. 586 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. The worst season in which any description of wood pruning can be performed is the spring, just before the expansion of the leaves, when the sap is rising with the greatest vigor. The slightest wound made in many plants, both woody and herbaceous, at this season, especially young, vigorous ones, where the sap-vessels are large, occasions a great loss of sap, which must neces- sarily weaken the plant, unless speedily checked by the only effectual mode in which this can be done, the expansion of the leaves. For disbudding and ringing, spring is the most suitable season, — at least, for the latter practice, for nothing is gained by ringing before the leaves begin to expand. Buds which are to be removed should remain as short a time as possible after they are formed by the leaves ; but as the labor is much greater in taking them off in autumn and winter, when they are small, than in spring, when all their parts are more or less expanded, the operation is generally deferred till the latter season. For disleafing, it is necessary to commence as soon as the leaves begin to expand, and continue it as long as they are produced. ‘The advantages of pruning just before midsummer are, that the wounds may be partially healed over the same season, and that the sap which would have been employed in maturing the shoots cut off is thrown into those which remain. The disadvantages are, that the sap which would have been elabo- rated by the leaves cut off, and which would have added to the strength of the tree and its roots, is lost. In the case of trees already sufficiently strong, this is no disadvantage ; but in the case of those which are too weak, it is a positive loss. 'The summer season is found better than any other for prun- ing trees which gum, such as the cherry and the plum, provided too much foliage is not thereby taken away ; and it is also considered favorable for resinous trees. ‘The autumn, on the other hand, is considered the best for trees that are apt to suffer from bleeding, such as the vine, the birch, and some species of maple. IV. TRAINING. Uses of Training. —To train a plant is to support or conduct its stem and branches in some form or position, either natural or artificial, for purposes of use or ornament. It is effected partly by pruning and thinning, but chiefly by pegging down to the ground, tying and fastening to rods, stakes, or trellises, or nailing to walls. The articles more immediately required are hooked pegs, ties, nails, and lists, with props of various kinds, and ladders. Principles of Training. — The principles upon which training is founded vary according to the object in view, but they all depend more or less on these facts : — that the sap of a plant is generally impelled with the greatest force to its highest point, and that, in general, whatever promotes this ten- denev encourages the production of leaves and shoots, and whatever represses HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 587 it promotes the formation of blossom-buds. When a plant is to be trained over the surface of the ground, it must be borne in mind, that, as the tendency of the sap is always to the highest bud, the shoots pegged down should be allowed to turn up at the points, in order to promote their extension. When the object is to produce blossoms or fruitfulness, a contrary practice should be followed, and the pvints of the shoots kept down, or, in the case of upright grown plants, trained horizontally, or even in a downward direction. ‘This should also be done when the object is to restrain over-luxuriance, and a contrary practice when a weak or sickly plant or tree is to be invigorated. When the object is to economize space, the plants are trained against a trellis, as occupying length, but very little breadth; and when it is to increase temperature, they are trained or spread out against a wall, which prevents the conducting of heat and moisture from the branches, by acting as a screen against winds, and increases heat, by reflecting the rays of the sun during the day, and giving out heat during the night, and whenever the atmosphere is at a lower temperature than the wall. Manual Operations of Training. —The tie or the list, by which the shoots are fastened to the wall or trellis, should be placed in the internode, and always immediately behind a bud or joint; because, when tying or nailing takes place in the summer season, and near the points of the growing shoots, the latter sometimes elongate after being fastened, and if this elongation is prevented from taking place in a straight line, by the fastening being made immediately before a bud or leaf, instead of immediately behind it, the shoot will be forced in a curved direction, and the bud and its leaf injured. The bast ties are gently twisted before being tied into a knot, in order that it may be the firmer, and not liable to be torn during the operation of tying. Osier ties, which are frequently used for espalier-trees, are fastened by twisting together the two ends, and turning them down in a manner sooner and easier done than described. In fastening shoots with nails and shreds, when any restraint is required to retain the shoot in its position, the pressure must always be against the shred, and never against the nail, as the latter would gall the shoot, and in stone-fruits generate gum. The shred ought not to be placed in the hollow of a bend in the branch to be attached; for there it is worse than useless. On the contrary, the shreds should be put on so as to pull the external bends inwards towards the direct line in which it is desira- ple the branch should be trained. Nails an inch in length are sufficient for ordinary branches, but twice that length is necessary for very large ones; they should, in general, be driven into the joints, and not into the backs, because the joints are easily repaired. Shreds of woollen are preferred to those of any other cloth, or to leather, as being softer, and less influenced by the weather. Their length should be such as to contain a shoot double the 588 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. size of that for which they are intended, in order that they may never com- press the shoots so much as to impede the returning sap, and their breadth may be from half to three quarters of an inch to a whole inch. They should be folded up a little at each end, so that in driving the nail through the shred it will pierce four times its thickness, and be in no danger of tearing. Training Herbaceous and Shrubby Plants in Pots.—'These, being in a highly artificial state, when they require training should have straight rods, or symmetrical frames of laths or of wire-work. A common mode for the grape is seen in the annexed cut; formed of rods and rings of stout wire, the whole being painted according to the taste of the grower. Fig. 342. Training Hardy Flowering Shrubs in the Open Ground. —Trailing and creeping shrubs seldom require any assistance from art, excepting when they are made to grow upright on posts, trellises, or walls. The cut which follows represents a climbing rose, trained down from a ring which forms the top to an iron rod. This is called the balloon manner of training, and was first applied to apple-trees. When the rod is fixed in the ground, the ring at the top should stand an inch or two higher than the graft at the top of the stock, or than the head formed on the stem of the plant, if it should not have been grafted. Six or eight of the strongest shoots are then to be selected, and tied to the ring with tarred twine; and if, from their length, they are liable to blow about, their ends are attached to twine, continued from the wire to pegs stuck in the ground, as shown in the figure. Training Fruit-trees. — By far the most important application of training is to fruit-trees, whether for the purpose of rendering them more prolific, improving the quality of the fruit, growing fruit in the open air which could not otherwise be grown, except under glass, or confining the trees within a limited space. Fruit-trees are trained either as protuberant bushes or trees in the open garden, or spread out on flat surfaces against walls or espaliers, "es HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 589 In either case, the operation is founded on the principle of suppressing the direct channel of the sap, by which it is more equally distributed over the tree, the tendency to produce over-vigorous shoots from the highest part is diminished, and the production of flowers from every part increased. We find that trees in a state of nature always produce their first flowers from lateral branches, to which the sap flows less abundantly than to those which are vertical; and the object of training may be said to be, to give all the parts of a tree the character, of lateral branches. With a view to this, certain rules have been derived from the principle of the suppression of the sap, which it may be useful to notice as of general application to every mode of training: —1. Branches left loose, and capable of being put in motion by the wind, grow more vigorously than those which are attached; and hence the rule to nail or tie in the stronger shoots first, and to leave the weaker shoots to acquire more vigor. Hence, also, the advantage of training with fixed branches against walls, as compared with training with loose branches in the open garden, when greater fruitfulness is the object. 2. Upright shoots grow more freely than inclined shoots. Therefore, when two shoots of unequal vigor are to be reduced to an equality, 50 590 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. the weaker must be elevated and the stronger depressed. 3. The shoots on the upper side of an inclined branch will always be more luxuriant than those on the lower side; therefore preserve, at the period of pruning or dis- budding, only the strongest shoots below, and only the weakest above. 4. The lower branches of every tree and shrub decay naturally before the upper branches; therefore bestow the principal care on them, whether in dwarf bushes in the open garden, or with trees trained on espaliers or walls. When they are weak, cut them out, and bring down others to supply their place; or turn up their extreme points, which will attract a larger portion of sap to every part of the branch. Different Modes of Training Bushes and Trees in the Open Garden. — These are chiefly the conical form for tall trees or standards, and some modification of the globe or cylinder for dwarfs; but it may be remarked that unless these and all other artificial forms are constantly watched, to check the tendency to return to nature, they are much better dispensed with. By careful attention, some of these artificial forms will bring trees sooner into a bearing state, and a greater quantity of fruit will also be produced in a limited space; but if the continued care requisite for these objects is with- drawn for two or three years, the growth of the tree, while returning to its natural character, will produce a degree of confusion in the branches that will not be remedied till all the constrained branches have been cut away. Wherever, therefore, fruit is to be grown on a large scale, and in the most economical manner, in orchards or in the open garden, it is found best to let every tree take its natural shape, and confine the pruner and trainer to such operations as do not greatly interfere with it. These are chiefly keeping the tree erect with a straight stem, keeping the head well balanced, and thinning out the branches where they are crowded or cross each other, or become weak or diseased. ‘There are, however, many persons who have small gardens, and who have leisure or means to attend to all the minutie of cul- ture; and to these some of the modes of training protuberant dwarfs and standards may be of considerable importance, by bringing the trees into a bearing state sooner than would be the case if they were left to nature, and by producing much fruit in little space. Different Modes of Training Fruit-trees against Walls or Espaliers. — These may all be reduced to three forms or systems : — the fan or palmate form, which is the most natural mode, and that most generally applicable ; the horizontal system, which is adapted to trees with strong stems, and of long duration; and the perpendicular system, which is chiefly adapted to climbers, such as the vine. ‘Trees trained by any of the preceding modes, against a wall or espalier, are much more under the control of art than can ever be the case with trees or bushes in the open garden; because. in the — HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 591 Jatter case, the whole tree, as well as its branches, is at all times more or less liable to be put in motion by the wind, whereas against a wall they are fixed, and have not the aid of motion to increase their thickness. For these reasons, and also because flat training is applied to trees which, as protuber- ant bushes in the open garden, would scarcely produce fruit at all, flat train- ing cannot be dispensed with. In making choice of a mode of flat training, the nature of the tree, the climate, soil, and the object in view, must be jointly taken into consideration. Trees of temporary duration, which natu- rally produce numerous divergent branches, such as the peach and the apricot, are best adapted for fan training, where the climate is favorable; but in a cold climate an approach to the horizontal manner may be preferable, by lessening the quantity of wood produced, and thus facilitating its ripening. The horizontal system of training produces the greatest constraint on nature, and is therefore adapted for fruit-trees of the most vigorous growth, and of large size, such as the pear and apple, which are almost always trained in this manner, whether on walls or espaliers. For plants producing shoots having little or no tendency to ramify, and which are of comparatively short duration, the perpendicular manner is the most natural and the easiest ; nevertheless, by disbudding and training, plants of this kind can be made to assume the fan form, and thus be rendered more productive in blossoms and fruit than if trained in a manner which is more natural to them; and in the case of the vine, even the horizontal system may be adopted, because its shoots are of great duration. Training Dwarfs in the Open Garden. — These are trained in the form of hollow bushes, concave, or shaped like cups, urns, goblets, or barrels, the form being, in every case, produced by training the shoots to a frame- work of rods and hoops. Dwarfs are also trained in the form of globes, balloons, cylinders, low cones, pyramids, triangles, and sometimes with the branches in regular stages, like a girandole. All dwarfs, whether to be left to nature or trained artificially, are grafted on stocks naturally of humble growth, such as the quince or the mountain-ash for the pear, &c., &c. Spiral Cylinders. — Prune and manage the tree so that it shall form from three to six branches, of as nearly equal size as possible, within about six or eight inches of the ground; and as soon as the branches are grown from three to five feet long, fix six rods, or stakes, into the earth, for supporting them, in a circle about the root. Each branch is then to be brought down, and being fixed to the rod near its base, the branch is to be carried round in a spiral manner, on such an elevation as will form an inclination of about fifteen degrees, and each branch is to be fixed in the same manner, one after another ; thus all will move in the same direction, one above the other, like 80 many cork-screws following in the same course, as shown in the annexed 592, FARMER S HAND-BOOK. figure. As, from this position of the branches, the point bud of each leader will present the most vertical channel for the sap, the strongest shoot wil! form there, and thus afford the means of continuing the leaders to a great height, and for a great length of time, without crossing or obstructing each other, or throwing out useless collaterals; at the same time, by the depressed position of the leading branches, enough sap will be pushed out on their sides to form and maintain vigorous fruiting spurs. As trees trained in this manner need never exceed the bounds allotted them on a border or bed, a greater number of trees may be planted, and a greater quantity of fruit pro- duced, in a given space, than can be the case when they are trained in any other manner. But as pear and apple trees on free stocks may be found to grow too rude and large, after a few years, those best answer which are grafted on dwarf-growing stocks. However, to keep dwarf trees from growing too luxuriant and rude, it is a good practice to take them up and replant them every three or four years: if this be done with due care, as soon as the leaves are off the trees in the fall of the year, it will not injure them, nor prevent them bearing a full crop of fruit the following year. Spurring-in. — Choose a tree that has a leading shoot in an upright direction ; having planted it, shorten the side shoot, leaving only two or three buds, and shorten also the leading shoot, according to its strength, sc that no more buds may be left on it than will produce shoots. The first summer there will be a produce of shoots, and if before mid-summer the leading shoot be shortened, it will probably throw out side shoots the same season. At the'winter pruning, all the side shoots may be shortened to two or three buds, and the leading shoot to such a number as it is believed will be developed. These are to be shortened, and the process of shortening is to be repeated every year, till the tree has the appearance of Fig. 345; or until it has attained the height required, or which the kind of tree is calcu- lated to attain. HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. Fig. 345. Conical Standards. — Conical standards, or, as they are erroneously called, pyramidal standards, may be produced from trees partially spurred-in, but the most general mode is, to cut in the side branches ; after passing through 50 * 594 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. several successive stages, the tree is brought to its regular shape, and the same tree, with the branches of the current year, tied down in the quenou- ille manner, is represented in Fig. 346. From the experience of French gardeners, it would appear that trees trained in the conical manner and en quenouille do not last longer than ten or twelve years. Copper wire is used for tying down the branches, and the lower ends of the wires are attached to the stouter branches, to the main stem, to hooked pegs stuck in the ground, or to a wooden frame fixed a few inches above its surface. Fan Training. — The maiden plant is to be headed down to four eyes, placed in such a manner as to throw out two shoots on each side, as shown in the following figure. The following season, the two uppermost shoots Fig. 347. v are to be headed down to three eyes, placed in such a manner as to throw out one leading shoot, and one shoot on each side; the two lowermost shoots are to be headed down to two eyes, so as to throw out one leading shoot, and one shoot on the uppermost side. We have now five leading shoots on each side, well placed, to form our future tree. Each of these shoots must be placed in the exact position in which it is to remain ; and as it is these shoots which are to form the leading character of the future tree, none of them are to be shortened. ‘The tree should by no means be suffered to bear any fruit this year. Each shoot must now be suffered to produce, besides the leading shoot at the extremity, two other shoots on the uppermost side, one near to the bottom, and one about midway up the stem; there must also be one shoot on the undermost side, placed about midway between the other two. All the other shoots must be pinched off -in their infant state. From the third year it may be allowed to bear what crop of fruit the gar- dener thinks it able to carry; in determining which, he ought never to overrate the vigor of the tree. All of these shoots, except the leading ones, must be shortened at the proper season, but to what length must be left entirely to the judgment of the gardener, it, of course, depending upon the vigor of the tree. In shortening the shoot, care should be taken to cut back to a bud that will produce a shoot for the following year. Cut close to the bud, so that the wound may heal the following season. The follow, ing season, each shoot at the extremities of the leading branches should produce, besides the leading shoot, one on the upper and two on the under HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 595 part, more or less, according to the vigor of the tree ; whilst each of the secondary branches should produce, besides the leading shoot, one other, placed near to the bottom: for the grand art of pruning, in all systems to which this class of trees are subjected, consists in preserving a sufficient quantity of young wood at the bottom of the tree ; and on no account must the gardener cut clean away any shoots so placed, without well consider- ing if they will be wanted, not only for the present but for the future good appearance of the tree. The quantity of young wood annually laid in must depend upon the vigor of the tree. But if any of the leading shoots mani- fest a disposition to outstrip the others, a larger portion of young wood must be laid in, and a greater quantity of fruit than usual suffered to ripen on the over-vigorous branch ; at the same time, a smaller quantity of fruit than usual must be left to ripen on the weaker branch. This will tend to restore the equilibrium better than any other method. The following figure is that Fig. 348. of a tree in a more advanced state, well balanced, and well calculated for an equal distribution of sap all over its surface. Whenever any of the lower shoots have advanced so far as to incommode the others, they should be cut back to a yearling shoot ; this will give them room, and keep the lower part of the tree in order. In nailing, care must be taken not to bruise any part of the shoot ; the wounds made by the knife heal quickly, but a bruise often proves incurable. In nailing in the young shoots, dispose them as straight and as regular as possible. Whatever system of training is pursued, the Jeading branches should be laid in in the exact position they are to remain ; for wherever a large branch is brought down to fill the lower part of the wall, the free ascent of the sap is obstructed by the extension of the upper and contraction of the lower parts of the branch. It is thus robbed of part 596 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. of its former vigor, whilst it seldom fails to throw out immediately behind the part most bent one or more vigorous shoots. Horizontal Training. — This is practised either with one or two stems, and either with the upright stem straight or in a zigzag direction, to stimu- late the lateral buds to develop themselves. From this upright stem, the branches proceed at right angles, — generally at nine inches apart for apples. cherries, and plums, and from ten inches to a foot, or eighteen inches, for pears. A maiden plant with three shoots having been procured, the two side ones are laid in horizontally, and the centre one upright, as in Fig. 349, which shows the first stage of horizontal training. All the buds being Fig. 349. 7 = rubbed off the latter but three, viz., one next the top for a vertical leader, and one on.each side, as near the top as possible, for horizontal branches. In the course of the first summer after planting, the shoots may be allowed to grow without being stopped. In the autumn of the first year, the two laterals produced are nailed in, and also the shoots produced from the ex- tremities of the lower laterals, the centre shoot being headed down as before. But in the second summer, when the main shoot has attained the length of Fig. 350. ten inches, or twelve inches, it may be stopped; which, if the plant 1s in proper vigor, will cause it to throw out two horizontal branches, in addition NORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 597 to those which were thrown out from the wood of the preceding year. The tree will be now in its second summer, and will have four horizontal branches on each side of the upright stem ; and, by persevering in this system, four horizontal branches will be produced in each year, till the tree reaches the top of the wall, when the upright stem must terminate in two horizontal branches. In the following autumn the tree will have the appearance of Fig. 350, supposing an apple-tree be the plant to be trained, and that it consists of a single shoot from a bud. Let it be planted early in autumn, and next spring head it down to seven buds. Every bud pushing two or three shoots, the third and fourth, counting upwards, must be rubbed off when they are three inches in length ; the uppermost shoot must be trained straight up the wall, for a leading stem, and the remaining four horizontally along the wall. The leading shoot having attained about fifteen inches in length, cut it down to eleven inches. From the shoots that will thus be produced, select three, one to be trained as a leader, and two as side branches. Proceeding in this way for seven years, the tree will have reached the top of a wall twelve feet high. With weak trees, or trees in very cold, late situations, this practice will not be advisable, as the wood produced from the summer shoots would be too weak, or would not ripen; but in all ordinary situations the plan will succeed. Perpendicular Training. — This is comparatively little used, excepting for climbing shrubs, such as roses, the vine, and the gooseberry and currant, when trained against a wall or espalier rail. The principle is to have two horizontal main stems on the lowest part of the wall or trellis, and to train from these upright shoots at regular distances. Sometimes four horizontal main stems are used, — two at the bottom, and the other two half way up the wall or espalier ; but this mode is chiefly pursued with the vine. Comparative View of the Different Modes of Training. — Of the various modes of training explained in the foregoing pages, any modification may be adopted when circumstances may require, provided the general princi- ples are kept in view. Ornamental shrubs are easily managed, because they have not a tendency to rear themselves by forming a strong stem ; but with regard to fruit-trees the case is otherwise. These, it is well known, if left to nature, form one strong stem, supporting a top which reaches the height of twenty, thirty, or forty feet, or more. In order to attain this, the sap rushes, whilst the tree is young and vigorous, towards the leading shoot; and if lateral branches occasionally are produced, the flow of sap is not strongly directed towards them, compared to that which is impelled towards the more upright part. At length, however, a ramifica- tion does take place, in comparison with which the leading shoot becomes less and less predominant, till it becomes ultimately lost among its com- 598 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. peers. A tolerably equal distribution of sap then results, and a conical or spherical top is formed, bearing fruit, not generally in the concavity, where. it would be greatly excluded from light, but at the external surface, where the fruit itself, and the leaves immediately connected with the buds pro- ducing it, can be fully exposed to light, air, and dews. Lateral branches are occasionally produced on the stem, in the progress of its ascent. When the top is formed, these are placed at great disadvantage, owing to their being overshaded; and they are then apt to decay, the tree assuming the charac- ter of a large, elevated top, sipported on a strong, naked stem. Thisis the natural disposition of trees, and to this it is necessary to attend, in order that it may be counteracted where the natural form of the tree cannot be admitted. It should be borne in mind that the disposition to form ‘an elevated naked stem is still strongly evinced in dwarf trees; although sub- divided, yet each branch possesses its share of the original disposition, and its lower and horizontal shoots are left to become weak, in comparison with the upper, and those that are vertical. CHAPTER. XILY. THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. BLIGHT, OR BLAST— CANKER, OR CARIES — CONSUMPTION — CONTORTION — DROPSY— ERGOT— HONEY-DEW— CURL— MILDEW— POTATO ROT—SMUT— COTTON ROT—COTTON RUST— COTTON BLIGHT — SORE-SHIN. BLIGHT, OR BLAST. Description. — Blight is any disease which seriously damages or prevents the fructification of a crop. Some of the most familiar and devastating kinds of it have been fully investigated, and are known to be caused by insects, by fungi, or by well-defined chemical or meteorological agencies ; and have been described with an accuracy and minuteness which enable us readily to distinguish them from one another, to designate them by distinct- ive names, — such as Mildew, Smut, Rust, &c.,— and to point out their origin, their indications, and their prevention, alleviation, or cure. There are however, one or two kinds of blight still mentioned by writers under the name of blight, and which are either principally or wholly ascribable to meteorological influence ; and these may here be noticed. Different Kinds of Blight. — One kind of blight is occasioned by prema- turely mild weathet, followed by sharp frosts and easterly winds, in spring, which are liable to arrest the flow of sap from the roots, occasion the young leaves and shoots to shrivel and die, and cause the arrested juices to swell and burst the tender vessels, and to become the prey of innumerable aphides. The general result is either the death of the plant, the destruction of its growth for the season, or at least the infliction upon it of a great degree of temporary feebleness. The aphides which feed upon the extravasated juices, though but a consequence of the blight, are sometimes mistakingly regarded as the cause of it, and supposed to be wafted by the east wind. Unskilful gardeners sometimes aggravate the blight by closely matting up the trees, or keeping them protected during the day, thus rendering them so exceedingly tender that even a slight subsequent frost does them material damage. The sudden evaporation of hoar-frost from the opening leaflets of a young hedge, by a powerful sun, in a calm vernal atmosphere, sometimes so utterly destroys the incipient shoots, and kills all the young foliage, as te produce, in a few days, the appearance of a severe scorching by fire. A (599) 600 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. hedge thus blighted occasionally remains leafless throughout the summer, or only shows some feeble symptoms of exfoliation toward the beginning of autumn ; and it ought, in every case, to be left untouched till, by its own vitality, or without any artificial appliance, it has recovered strength and vigor. Another kind of blight sometimes occurs in summer, when farm crops have attained their full growth, and is usually ascribed to sultry and pesti- lential vapor, — the plants being shrunken and shriveled up to less than half their former size, with a withered and blasted appearance. Though such instances as this are ascribed wholly to atmospherical causes, a care- ful inspection of the straw might possibly detect the presence of minute parasitic fungi. . A third kind of blight, called by many the white blight, is occasioned by deficiency or failure of proper nourishment. It occasionally attacks all kinds of plants, both wild and cultivated ; is most common in thin, gravelly, irretentive soils, in very dry seasons ; and it usually consists in throwing the plants prematurely into blossom, and ripening the ear or pod before the body, or more than the mere embryo of the seed, is formed. The only known palliatives or preventives of these three kinds of blight are, proper condition and thorough treatment of the soil. CANKER, OR CARIES. Description. — This is a disease in fruit-trees, elms, larches and other trees. It chiefly corrupts the juices, corrodes the substance, and destroys the vitality of the young shoots and branches of fruit-trees, and it has long been known and deplored as a most formidable enemy of orchards. Its symptoms vary considerably in trees of the same species, and very widely in trees of dif- ferent genera. In some instances of its attack, a black speck appears on the epidermis of a tree, assumes the character of an erosion, and gradually eats away the organism, till the branch becomes utterly enfeebled, and readily ~ breaks ; in other instances, a scrofulous-looking ring surrounds the branch, and eats its way inward till it reaches the pith; and in others, a black and thread-like line of disease originates in the pith itself, and exerts, in the direction of the exterior, a killing power upon all the branch’s functions. The first of these, however, is the most common commencing symptom of the disease, and this is usually accompanied with an enlargement of the vessels of the bark, but in some instances is dry, and in others watery. The swelling or enlargement of the vessels of the bark, which constitutes 80 conspicuous a symptom of some of the ordinary kinds of canker, invaria- bly and prominently attends it in the apple-tree, invariably but less promi- nently attends it in the pear-tree, frequently but not always attends it in the THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 601 elm and the oak, and very seldom, if ever, attends it in the peach. The swelling is soon communicated to the wood, which, if laid open to view, on its first appearance, by the removal of the bark, exhibits no marks of dis- ease beyond the mere unnatural enlargement. In the course of a few years, —less in number, in proportion to the advanced age of the tree, and the unfavorable circumstances under which it is vegetating, — the swelling is greatly increased in size, and the alburnum has become extensively dead ; the superincumbent bark cracks, rises in discolored scales, and decays even more rapidly than the wood beneath. If the canker is upon a mod- erately-sized branch, the decay soon completely encircles it, extending through the whole alburnum and bark. The circulation of the sap being thus entirely prevented, all the parts above the disease of necessity perish. The first appearance of the disease in the peach is so very slight, that an unexperienced observer of it would suppose it to be of no consequence. Small brown circular spots constitute the whole of this appearance, and may easily be cut out with the knife, so as to let the subsequent vegetation be as vigorous as if they had never existed. But let the spots be forgotten for a few days, and when the observer returns to examine them, they will be found to have spread far and corroded deeply. Origin. — The causes assigned for canker have been very various and conflicting, and the subject of much controversy. Some writers think that it is occasioned by coldness and churlishness of climate; others regard it as a tropical disease in the parts immediately affected, brought on by some bruise or other injury, and exasperated by an unhealthy sap, consequent upon unfavorableness of situation, soil and culture; others view it as an effect of the lodgment of minute, parasitic fungi, growing from spores, either taken up from the soil through the spongioles, or received from diffusion through the atmosphere into cracks or wounds in the bark ; and others think that it is a disease in the constitution or whole organic system of trees, — that it springs from a vitiated and peccant state of all the juices, and that it will again and again break out, independently of any external injury or agency, so long as the juices continue to be unaltered. Opinions as to fungi being the cause of canker are exceedingly various and conflicting. Minute parasitic fungi unquestionably attend most instances of canker, and sometimes exist in such myriads as to impart a peculiar tinge to the whole stem of cankered trees; but very different fungi attack different trees, several kinds sometimes attack the same species, and possibly some are either causes or aggravations of canker, while most are merely innocuous effects. The stramatospheria multiceps so commonly and greatly abounds on cankered pear-trees, particularly on tne iargonelle, the Windsor, the swan’s egg, the summer bergamot and the autumn bergamot 51 EES SC EE 602 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. varieties, and seeming to make their young shoots, and even their older branches, die away toward the extremity, that it has been regarded by some close observers as the sole cause of their canker ; — a kind of fungus totally different from this accompanies, and has been thought by some persons to rouse, precisely similar symptoms of canker in apple-trees. The opinion that canker is occasioned by the weakness of a tree’s consti- tution, by a distemper in all its juices, or by a deficiency in its functional energies, and by a consequent inability to imbibe and elaborate sufficient nourishment for existing organs, and sufficient matter for the formation of hew parts, — this opinion makes very ample allowance for the malign influ- ence of bad climate, bad soil, bad cultivation, bad variety of tree, and all sorts of accidents and unfavorable circumstances; and, as maintained by some writers, it even seems to speak of constitutional distemper as a convenient general expression for the operation of all kinds of conceivable causes. Johnson maintains that all facts unite in confirming the opinion that canker arises from the tree’s weakness. It matters not whether its energy is broken down by an unnatural rapidity of growth, by a disproportioned excess of branches over the mass of roots, by old age, or by the disorganization of the roots in an ungenial soil; they render the tree incapable of extracting sufficient neurishment from the soil, — consequently incapable of developing a sufficient foliage, and therefore unable to digest and elaborate even the scanty sap that is supplied to them. Both soil and subsoil, in spite of the assertion of a few writers to the contrary, appear to exert a very considerable influence. A wet, retentive subsoil does not permit sufficient aeration, cannot perform sufficient diges- tion, and will not allow a sufficiency of perfectly fresh elements of healthy - sap; and therefore must act malignly, not alone as a reservoir of cankering vapors, but as an originator of impoverishing and poisonous juices. A deep and very rich soil gives trees a plethoric and dropsical habit, and, in conse- quence, occasions so powerful a predisposition to canker, that a cure for this disease in an orchard has sometimes been found in the simple process of wheeling away one stratum of the soil, and diluting the remaining stratum. If a subsoil either be ill-drained or consist of ferruginous gravel, or if a soil be clayey and not kept well drained and porous, all trees which grow upon it, but especially fruit-trees, are exceedingly liable to become cankered. A soil exhausted by long cropping, or charged with the sporidia of accumulated growths of minute emphytic fungi, is peculiarly unfavorable ; and hence an old worn-out orchard, if replanted with fruit-trees, is almost certain to communicate canker to even the most vigorous young plants which can be selected. A cold situation, frequency of raw fogs, and the~ prevalence of piercing and moist east winds, in the spring, seem to be the principal cankering elements in climate. Injudicious pruning. bruises, THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 603 damage to the bark, and all similar accidents, if they do not originate canker, seldom fail to aggravate it. ‘Trees of every age are liable to canker; but, as a general rule, all become increasingly so as they advance in age, and particularly such as have had a vigorous growth in their youth. All grafting varieties of fruit-trees, also, become more and more cankerable as they multiply in reproduction, till they eventually acquire such an accumulation of peccant humor as to be continually diseased, and no longer propagable. The scions of an old variety of fruit-trees merely multiply an aged individual ; and though they acquire temporary vigor from the young and stimulating sap of the stocks on which they are grafted, they become, in a few years, as cankerable and decrepit as the parent tree. The golden- pippin, one of the oldest varieties of the apple-tree at present cultivated, is frequently and severely attacked by the canker,—more so, according to some writers, than any other kind. Remedy. — The prevention and cure of canker are necessarily various, and must, in any one instance, be directed against the special forms which the dis- ease assumes, or the particular cause by which it is excited. If coldness of climate be the only cause which can fairly be assigned for it in any par- ticular orchard, covering with glass is the chief preventative ; and this, of course, can be applied to only a few select wall-trees. If fungi can, in any instance, be regarded as a chief exciting cause, a proper remedy might probably be the free use of the knife, and a subsequent copious washing with caustic lime-water. If plethoric or dropsical habits seem to be form- ing, or have already formed, one of the main roots of the tree may be removed, and an admixture of poor loam, sandy mould, or even of drift sand, or any other diluting matter, may be worked into the soil. If mere weak- ness of constitution, or defect of functional energy, appears to be the cause, while no one kind of exciting influence can be detected or inferred, a very efficient remedy is, to cut away all the infected parts, and make a judicious pruning among the remaining branches; and even if such exciting circum- stances as unfavorable climate, ungenial soil, or previous bad culture, can be detected, an excellent effect may be produced by the gradual sawing and cutting away of exuberant branches and shoots. If canker in a fruit-tree is a consequence of old age, it is probably a premature senility, induced by injudicious management. Unless in the last stage of decay, a tree may be recovered by giving it more air and light, by carefully heading-in, pruning, improving the soil, and cleansing the bark. If the soil, by its ungenial character, induces the disease, the obvious and only remedy is its amelior ation; and if the subsoil is the cause of the mischief, the roots must be prevented striking into it. In all cases, it is the best practice to remove the tap-root. ‘Some persons recommend, and many successfully practise, the 604 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. removal of all decayed or exuviated bark, and the application cf various liquid washes, such as a solution of common salt, or a diluted liquid com- pound of cow-dung, soap-suds, and urine. When any bruise or other injury is inflicted, of a kind likely to induce or develop canker, a piece of living bark from another tree might be exactly fitted into the incision, in the same manner as in the operation of budding. The grand preventative of canker in larch-trees, — which are frequently and severely the subjects of this disease, — is to select, for plantations, such situations and soils as shall not subject the trees to combined coldness and moisture. CONSUMPTION. This is the gradual enfeeblement and eventual wasting away and death of a plant. This must be viewed less as any one disease than as the com- mon or aggregate character of a number of diseases. It originates variously, in too frequent and profuse flowering, in bad planting, in mechanical dam- age to the roots, in poverty of soil, in excessive drought, in severe and sud- den vicissitudes of weather, in unusually tempestuous winds, and probably in some other causes equally distinct; and it may be supposed to have a variety in its modes of action, or in its distinctive characters, corresponding to the variety of these causes. The preventative of most kinds of it is man- ifestly good culture. CONTORTION. This is the effect of the injury inflicted on the leaves of plants by the puncture of insects, particularly of the aphides. ‘The leaves of the peach, the apricot, the nectarine, and the apple-tree, are very liable to contortion. The only sure preventative of the evil is to destroy the little creatures which cause it. DROPSY. Dropsy is a watery and diseased swelling in some parts of plants. It occurs chiefly in plants of a succulent nature, and principally in bulbs, tubers, and fruits. It appears to arise from the absorption of more moisture by the spongioles than can be secreted in the plant or thrown off by the leaves; and it is known to be caused by excessive manuring, excessive artificial watering, and an unusual abundance of rain. Bulbs and roots affected with it are watery and swelled; fruits are watery and insipid, and fall before being ripe ; and leaves, though continuing green and apparently sound suddenly and prematurely fall. ERGOT. This is a disease in the growing grain or seed of some of the grasses, particularly of rye. It is the most mysterious of all the diseases with which THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 605 the cereal grasses are affected; and, after multitudinous and most learned investigations, continues to be the subject of conflicting opinions as to its nature, its origin, and its mode of development. The substance called the ergot either issues from between the glumes, and occupies the place of the grain, or it is the grain itself, in both a monstrous form and a chemically altered condition. It lengthens to more than double the natural size of the grain ; protrudes beyond the chaff; is angled, grooved, and furrowed ; hasa deep, purplish-brown color, and often assumes a curved form, somewhat resembling that of a cock’s spur. Its surface, when seen through a micro- scope, is profusely marked with white, shining, transparent, angular dots ; and its interior, when laid open with a sharp instrument, and seen in water under a microscope, appears to consist of white flocculent threads, with spherical sporules. It has a spongy texture, a heavy, disagreeable odor, and a nauseous, acrid, burning taste; and when put in contact with the flame of a candle, it catches fire like an oily substance, and burns like an almond. It is supposed by some naturalists to be an excrescence similar to the oak-apple and the nut-gall, and to be occasioned by the puncture of some insect ; by others, to be a monstrous development or morbid swelling of the seed, occasioned by some disturbance in the organs of circulation or secretion ; and by others, to be a foreign or super-imposed vegetable growth, occasioned by a parasitic fungus. The last of these opinions is probably the best supported. Whatever be its origin and its physical nature, ergot exerts a dreadfully noxious power upon the system of any men or brutes who receive even very small portions of it in their food. It has been ascertained, by experiment upon many of the lower animals, to produce the most horrible gangrenes, rotting of the extremities, internal tortures, and agonizing death; it has been known to slough and kill not a few human beings who have eaten grain or flour infected with it. HONEY-DEW. Honey-dew, so called, is a clear, colorless, viscid, sweet liquid, found often on the leaves of plants, and sometimes on the ground beneath them. It tastes somewhat like honey ; it is perfectly fluid in warm weather, but is somewhat consolidated or candied in cold weather; and, when evaporated from paper, it leaves a gummy mark, not unlike that left by solution of gum-Arabic. It appears sometimes in blotches upon leaves; sometimes in suffusion over the whole surface of the lower leaves ; sometimes in globular drops, of various sizes; but, in all ordinary instances, it appears merely upon leaves, and only in such quantity as to seem like exudations on their surface. Ai ants and wasps and bees are extremely fond of it. 51* 606 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. The opinions of different writers are very conflicting as to the origin, ana so forth, of honey-dew. The most intelligent supposition respecting it is, that it is entirely the deposit of minute insects,—small flies, perhaps a species of the genus thrips, — which emit a sweet clammy liquor on the leaves of the tree it lives on. This opinion is fortified by the fact of there having frequently been noticed a great concourse of thripses, as well as aphides, on trees infested with honey-dew. The aphides, however, are by many persons considered the chief or sole producers of it, and it accompanies their flights and colonizations. ‘They differ very widely, in some principal parts of their economy, from all other animals; and cannot be regarded with greater wonder as ejectors of a viscid saccharine liquid, than as propagators of their species through a series of progenies as the effect of a single impregnation. They live wholly on liquid food, and discharge no solid excrements, and are provided not only with an anal vent, but with two long, horn-like rump tubes, for ejecting such refuse or portion of their food as is unnecessary for their nourishment. If they were regarded as forming the saccharine matter of the honey-dew in their interior organism, they would no doubt be a nota ble exception to the otherwise uniform origin of all saccharine substances ; but, when their peculiar economy of feeding and structure is considered, they may easily be supposed to act as simple living ducts of the saccharine matter from the vegetable vesicles in which they find it to the surface of the © leaves on which they deposit it; or, in other words, they receive the sac charine matter ready made in their liquid food, and simply part with unde- composed portions of it in their ejections. ‘The particular species which deposit most honey-dew are Aphis brassice, Aphis rape, Aphis ubui, Erios oma popult, and Eriosama mali. Honey-dew possesses an incidental value as an occasional and sometimes a principal food for bees. But, on the whole, honey-dew is a serious evil, partly by disfiguring the foliage of fruit-trees, and stickily attracting dust to plums and cherries, but chiefly by arising, through the medium of the aphides, from an enormous abstraction of the healthy juices out of plants. The only effectual preventive or cure of it, of course, is to ward off or destroy the aphides; and some of the chief means of dealing with the species are noticed in our chapter on Insects. But a weak solution of common salt, applied to the soil around infected trees, has been found to be effectual. CURL. This is a disease in potato plants. It is developed before the plants rise to the surface of the ground, and it affects them through all the future stages of their existence. The stem of the infected plants is puny and stinted ; the THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 607 leaves are meagre, sickly and crumpled ; and the tubers are small, and, if used for sets, are certain to propagate the disease. Of the various causes of this disease assigned by different writers, the true one appears to be the diminution of the vital energy of the tubers, either by over-ripening, by bad keeping, by sprouting, or by too deep planting. The want of strength to develop a full, healthy plant, is the disease itself in embryo; and this is occasioned by any circumstance which diminishes the store of nourishment contained in the tubers for the support of the young plants. The means of preventing curl are distinctly suggested by the nature of its cause ; and some of these means will, at the same time, prevent other dis- eases of the potato, and promote the general health and vigor of the plants. Tubers intended for sets ought to be simply matured and not over-ripened ; they ought to be kept, throughout the winter and till the time when they are wanted, in a condition of dryness, coolness, and exclusion from light and air ; and if, through mismanagement or accident, they be allowed to shoot, or even to exhibit decided symptoms of begun vegetation, they ought to be rejected from the uses of planting. The sets ought to be immediately planted after they are cut, and ought to be kept from exposure, during even the briefest time, to the play of sunshine, to a very high temperature, or to the current of a drying wind. The manure ought to be regularly spread and mixed with the soil, and not laid along a trench, or put in immediate contact with the sets. Potatoes ought not to beeplanted, for a succession of years, on the same field or plot; and the tubers used for planting ought, every year, or as frequently as possible, to be obtained from another kind of soil, particularly from a poorer one than that in which they are to be planted. When the seed-stock is carefully pitted, and not exposed to the air, in the spring, the crop has seldom any curl; but where the seed-stock is put into barns, and other similar places, for months together, such crop seldom escapes turning out in some measure curled ; and if but few curl the first year, if they are planted again, it is more than probable the half of them will curl the next season. MILDEW. The Use of the Word or Term.—This is the appropriate name of a specific, devastating, and dismally common disease in wheat and other grasses, and is now the only thing meant by the word mildew, in the writ- ings of the most intelligent and scientific agricultural writers. Its Nature. — With respect to its nature, all botanists now believe that mildew, in its normal form, as a spotting and blotching on the stalks of wheat, is the regular parasitic growth of minute fungi, — Puccinia grami- nis; and several of the most eminent writers think that the diseases called 608 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. rust, red-bag, red-robin, and red-gum, which infest the leaves and chaff scales of wheat, and produce a discoloration similar to that of iron-rust or of burning, are simply modifications of varieties of the normal mildew, or Puccinia graminis. Growth and Phenomena of Mildew.— 'Though one of the minutest objects in the vegetable world, mildew is so prodigiously prolific and immensely multitudinous as to be one of the mightiest physical scourges, as well as one of the oldest ; and yet, even at this advanced period, it hardly begins to be properly understood. The name Puccinia is formed from a Greek word, which signifies ‘‘ closely,” or ‘‘ thickly,’’ and alludes to the crowded man- ner in which the minute fungi are packed in the tufts and patches in which they grow. A stalk of wheat, when beginning to be mildewed, exhibits a number of dark-colored spots beneath the epidermis, some of an orange hue and others of a dark-brown tinge ; and, in a short time, it suffers ruptures and openings of the outer cuticle, and displays, in protrusion through these, dark, musty clusters of spores, amassed in dense, diffuse tufts, and often con- fluent into one another, so as to constitute long parallel lines, and commonly possessing at first a brownish-yellow color, and changing afterwards to black. Any intelligent person, with the aid of a proper microscope, and of a good brilliant light, may easily show to the farmer the forms and appearances of mildew. First strip off a little bit of the affected straw, and let it be viewed as an opaque object. The thick clustering of the spores might be easily pointed out, as well as the way in which they rupture the cuticle, —a _half- inch achromatic object-glass, with a low eye-piece, will suffice for this; with a higher power, and bits of cuticle and straw cut so thin that the light may easily be shown through them from the:mirror, the stomata would be seen, and the vegetation of the spores on the mycetium in the cavities beneath them. Lastly, a small piece of one of the dark patches might be taken off with the point of a pin, or of asmall penknife, and laid on a strip of glass. Moisten this with a little drop of water, and cover it with a small fragment of the very thin glass sold by opticians for such purposes. Place it on the stage of the microscope, show the light through it, and look at it with a quarter of an inch achromatic. The structure of the spores, the division of the chambers, the stalks, and every part of them, will become distinctly seen. The Puccinia graminis affects, not wheat only, but other cereal grasses, and even several species of reeds ; and it is common to almost all countries in the world. A growth of it, when seen unmagnified upon the leaves of other plants, presents nearly the same appearance as on wheat, and may instantly be detected by an observer of it upon the latter. It may often be detected in the lower part of the stalk of wheat, — generally on the shoot-blade, ; ’ iq THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 609 ac early as the second week of June; but it never makes any very serious ay pearance, nor even affords decided indication of being about to make any considerable devastation, till some time in July. If the weather in July be hot and dry, even though the fungus may have recently devastated the dis trict, it will seldom make an extensive or very hurtful development ; but if the weather in July be close, moist, and cloudy, even though the fungus may have been recently scarce in the district, it will possibly make a great, and somewhat sudden, and tery menacing appearance. ‘The farmer, in the latter case, ought diligently to examine his wheat crop, especially such as seems to be strongest and most luxuriant ; and if he detects any considerable number of tufts of the fungus upon the stalks, he ought promptly to bring into play such methods of treatment. as have been found most effectual for subduing mildew. When the sporules of puccinia have entered the stomata of wheat, and effected a lodgment beneath the epidermis, and begun to vegetate within the stalk, they both prey upon the tissues and intercept a portion of the sap which ascends from the spongioles of the roots for the forming and nourish- ing of the grain. But the exterior portion or. sheath of the grain is generally formed before any considerable mildewing occurs ; and the period of the formation and growth of the inner portion, or farinaceous substance, or flour, is precisely the period of the most general and vigorous development of the sporules into spores and full-grown fungi; so that, usually in the proportion of the number of the fungi which infest a stalk, the grain becomes shriveled while growing, and contains comparatively much bran and little flour when reaped and threshed. The sample of a seriously mildewed crop of wheat, in every instance, looks poor to the eye, is deficient in flour, and contains a superabundance of bran. The Uredo linearis and Uredo rubigo, though believed to be mere varieties of Puccinia graminis, and though sometimes assuming appearances closely akin to those which are popularly called mildew, generally have different habits, and follow somewhat different laws, and take from the popular vocabulary of farmers the names of rust, red-rust, red-robin, red-rag, and red- gum. The U. linearis takes its name from the oblong form of its spores ; and the U. rubigo takes its name from its reddish-rusty color, and has nearly spherical spores. Both vary in color from an orange tint to a brownish hue, and make the parts of plants infested with them to appear as if dusted with an orange or a brownish rustiness. They occur on the old or young leaves of the plants, on the chaff-scales, and on the stalks; and they infest the plants at all stages of their growth, and may be regarded as occurring principally on the young blades in spring, principally on the stalks when developed about the same time as the Puccinia graminis, or in mixture with 20 , 610 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. it, and principally on the old leaves and on the glumes and pale in attumn Their presence in the chaff-scales is indicated by rows and clusters of some- what ovular minute spots; and the matter composing them exudes from the inner surface like a reddish gummy substance. A very destructive fungus attacks the common cabbage, and appears upon it as a mildew. It appears upon cabbage-leaves, in clusters resembling small white patches, or specks, or frosty incrustations. All the spores are filled with sporules, and burst when they are ripe, scattering them in every direction ; and whenever these find their way to the leaves of cabbages, they take root upon them, and prop- agate. Provocatives, Preventives, and Correctives. —The extermination of Puc- cinia graminis, Uredo linearis, and Uredo rubigo, from any district or coun- try, seems to be impossible. But the mildew can manifestly be very greatly controlled, and, in an aggregate of years upon any farm. may be exceed- ingly diminished. The conditions of soil, of crop, of culture, and even of climate, which predispose to it, by either rendering it prolific, or giving high vivacity to its sporules, or producing an aptitude in the stomata of plants to imbibe them, or disposing the tissues and juices of the plant to foster and develop them, may be very powerfully modified by the skill and the arts of enlightened husbandry. A generally healthy state of the plant without any over-luxuriance of vegetation, is most likely to secure a crop against the attacks of the rust and mildew fungi; but whatever tends to render the plant sickly, — whether it be excess of heat or cold, drought or wet, sudden changes of temperature, poverty of soil, over-manuring, shade, &c., &c.,— must be considered as a predisposing cause to these diseases. Wherever the farming is of the best kind, and where drainage is good, the mildew fungus will not be found in any alarming degree. The mildew fungi multiply and flourish most in a moist atmosphere, in a subdued light, and in a gentle warmth ; and are therefore most abundant an¢ destructive in climates and situations which are subject to what farmers ex- pressively call ‘‘ muggy weather.” “This may appear, at first sight, to be a cause of mildew entirely beyond the control of farmers. Yet something may be done to escape it, by practising such methods of culture, and adopting such times of sowing, and using such varieties of seed-stuck, as are best fitted to bring the crop into a state of the utmost possible maturity and vigor at the particular season when the moistness or mugginess is, on the average of years, most prevalent. Foggy weather, in some circumstances, seems to be even @ stronger provocative to mildew than ordinary moist weather; and, when preceded by a time of great drought, occasions an unusually great mildew- ing of wheat crops. All soils are very seriously subject to mildew, yet some yield more readily ¢ THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 611 and abundantly to it than others. Tenacious clays seem to offer it the greatest resistance, and light moorish or light limy soils seem to offer it but slightly. The soils most liable to have their crops injured, particularly that of wheat, are the following, and in the order stated: — peat or moor, l..ny, limy loams, sand, sandy loams, and another kind not found in any great breadth, but in patches, chiefly, but not exclusively, in clayey soils, — the practical farmer calls it gray earth. Whatever has a tendency to check a quick and great loss of heat in the substances which surround vegetables, particularly their roots, will be best calculated to save them from the injury inflicted by sudden vicissitudes of temperature ; consequently, those earths which are the worst conductors of heat, or, in other words, are the longest in heating or cooling, will be the most favorable in resisting any sudden alteration, and the vegetable growing on them will be the least injured when so assailed. The improvement of light soils by abundant intermix- tures of clay, therefore, — in addition to the great advantages of better tex- ture and richer supply of inorganic food, — involves the benefit of appreciably and permanently diminishing liability to mildew. All varieties of wheat are seriously liable to mildew, but some are rather more liable than others. ‘The white is generally the earliest affected, and the bearded or rivet is generally the latest. Any variety of wheat which has a comparatively soft epidermis is probably more subject to mildew than one with a comparatively hard epidermis. The time of sowing, regarded correlatively to the time of its maturing and to the principal time of mildewing, is important. Early-sown wheat-plants are more likely than late-sown ones to pass the time of blooming before being extensively attacked ; and when they can begin to form their seeds before the mildew sets in, they suffer far less damage from it, or are far less embarrassed and impoverished during the process of seeding, than if they were attacked in an earlier stage of their growth. Late-sown plants, too, are green and sappy at the very season when the chills and fogs and courses of moist weather, which specially induce mildew, are most abundant; and they are, therefore liable to be both vigorously and very extensively attacked. Yet, in some cases, early-sown crops, almost or quite as much as late-sown ones, are preyed upon by mildew. Rank or excessive manuring, or any combination of circumstances which occasions excessive luxuriance in a corn crop, both invites mildew, and greatly invigorates and spreads it. The application of farm-yard manure immediately before sowing may both make such an evolution of gases as to attract the sporules floating in the atmosphere, and promote such a tempo- rary plethoric growth in the crop as is eminently suited to the lodgment of the sporules and the development of the fungi. Excessive early luxuriance, FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. whether from immediate manuring, from over-richness of the soil, or from unusual forwardness and warmth in the weather, ought to be checked by feeding down with sheep during a few hours in the day-time, or by any other method which experience and local peculiarities may suggest. A clean or a foul state of the ground, during the early stages of the growth of acrop, has, in all cases, a great influence upon eventual mildewing ; weeds serve as nests of the mildew fungi, and nurse, and feed, and multiply them, preparatory to extensive and severe attacks upon the corn; and, in all the early stages of the growth of drilled wheat, they ought to be completely kept down, and all the surface stratum of the soil, at the same time, kept in a perfectly sweet and well aerated condition, by the free use of the hoe. Mildew will seldom prevail to any extent where this precaution is taken ; but wherever there are many weeds on the land, the straw will be generally found more or less affected by it. Many methods have been recommended to prevent or destroy mildew ; but almost all of them are impracticable or worthless. A solution of com- mon salt, however, when applied, not to the soil, but to the crop itself, in the manner of either a vapor or a sprinkle bath, seems to kill the mildew fungus, and to operate, if not as a preventive against an attack of mildew, at least as a cure of actual mildew disease. The wheat on the seaside is little damaged by the mildew ; yet, within a very few miles inland, the crops are as much affected as those still further from the sea. The safest quantity of salt per gallon is eight ounces, and then the application may be rendered more effectual by frequent repetition, without any danger of injury to the plants. If the application is not made during a clouded day, it is best to defer it till the evening. As to the idea that the barberry has a considerable influence in the com- munication of the mildew to wheat, the conclusion arrived at by those who have investigated the matter, and whose judgment is entitled to respect, is, that no such influence is exerted or produced by that plant. POTATO ROT. Description. —'The murrain, or rot, or mildew, or whatever else the modern potato disease may be called, exhibits a great diversity of phenomena, and probably comprises many and wide sub-varieties of character. Its great feat- ures are commencement after the formation, or even towards the ripening, of the tubers, and total, irretrievable, putrefactive-looking decay of the whole plant. It is said by some persons to begin in the leaf, — by others, in the stem,— and by others, in the tubers; it sometimes slowly works the plant o decay through a period of five or six weeks, and sometimes scathingly and scorchingly overwhelms it in the course of twenty-four hours, or in @ THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 613 single night; and, in not a few instances in which it seemed to have kept aloof from plants till they were harvested, it has burst out among the tubers and rotted them in the pit. No descriptions of it, for the present race of cultivators, are needed ; and the very best descriptions of it which have been penned are tinged with theory, and controlled by its own diversities, and are therefore very conflicting ; yet two brief notices of it, by two of the most distinguished observers, may be here recorded. That eminent Euro- pean agriculturist, Mr. George Phillips, gives it as his opinion that the stem is the part where it commences. He also says: — The first external appearance of disease was marked by a deepening of color, accompanied by an enlargement of the affected part, and succeeded by a weeping or exuda- tion. As the disease advanced, the part of the stem affected became soft and pulpy, and the color changed to a yellowish-brown. The stem was generally, if not universally, first affected at a joint, or the part from whence a lateral branch springs, and the leaves above the diseased part blackened, drooped, and died. Seven plants (says Mr. Phillips) were forwarded to me by a gentleman of great practical knowledge, and better specimens for the purpose could not be desired. The stems were all connected with the parent sets, so that the foliage, stems, young tubers, roots, and sets, were complete. The upper part of the stems and leaves of the diseased plants had the dull and heavy appearance so characteristic of the disease ; and nearly the whole of the stems were more or less affected at one or the other joints whence the lateral branches sprang from. In some of the plants the stem was most affected at a particular joint ; in others, the smallest branches and leaves were the most injured. No trace of fungi or insects was discov- erable in some of the affected stems beyond the immediate localities of the diseased joints. The disease in these eases had not extended itself, and was confined to a space not exceeding one inch of the length of the foot-stalk Tn other eases, the disease had spread both ways for a considerable distance from the wound, confining itself chiefly to the medulla. Fungi of the boleti and steliate kind were observable in all the diseased stems ; and at the parts where putrescence existed, the eel-like animaleula abounded. According to another learned observer, the disease usually commences in a semi-trans- parent blotch on the underground’ parts, which is formed by brown, shiny. extravasated fluid between the epidermis and inner bark, sometimes only on one side of the stem or roots ; and, if the soil becomes dry and the weather fair, it penetrates through the bark rather slowly, but progresses rapidly in a damp soil, with a elose, humid atmosphere. Several of these blotches, in their transparent state, were marked, as soon as found, with bits of thread, and it was seen that, sooner or later, according to the circumstances above mentioned, they assumed a seurvy, opaque appearance outside ; but, by cut: 52 SES A | 614 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. ting through this, the shiny fluid might generally be seen within. The blotches in the tubers change in a similar manner, and the progress of the gangrene in them is accelerated or retarded by the like circumstances. Similar blotches appear about the same time, or soon after, on the roots and cords. Sometimes, however, the leaves are blotched first of all. Many very large plants have been found with nearly every leaf and the stalks likewise blotched, the leaves being covered with botrytis, while the roots and lower parts of the stems remained quite clear; but (says the same writer), I have never seen, until the 24th of October, diseased roots or cankered stems supporting healthy foliage. Hence it appears that the dis- east does not uniformly originate in the underground parts, but that the plant is stricken throughout its system by an ungenial, or, rather, by a per- nicious state of the atmosphere, — the effects of which, as amongst animals, break out sometimes in one part and sometimes in another. As to the diseased tubers, at whatever time they were first affected, whether in the field or in the pit, many ef them soon became rotten to the core; others rotted in patches, and acquired an appearance similar to that of an apple bruised by a fall; and a few, after being dried and carefully stored, ceased to be further injured. ‘The diseased parts, in an advanced stage, commonly formed irregular ulcers, and emitted an offensive odor; the parts around the eyes, in many instances, became mouldy; and the part next the stem, in general, was the soonest and most severely affected. ‘The tainted tubers were largely employed for the feeding of cattle and hogs, and are not reported to have done any injury to their health; and, when boiled, their tainted portion, in its earliest stage, was sweet-tasted, and had a disagree- able smell. A report, in the Highland Society’s Transactions, of special communica- tions from intelligent farmers in most of the affected districts of Scotland, in 1845, affords the following observations : — The disease appeared chiefly in the latter part of August, and in September and October, yet broke out in some places in July, and did not break out in others till the tubers were lifted and stored ; the weather was prevailingly cold and ungenial, but no precise state of it could be identified with the breaking out of the disease ; early varieties, which were matured soon in the season, either escaped the disease, or were much less affected by it than the later varieties ; all varie- ties whatever, except the earliest ones, were more or less attacked, but in diflerent degrees, and the varieties which escaped best were the Second Early, the Irish Cup, the American Early, and the Common Cup ; potatoes raised recently from seeds, in the great majority of cases, were as subject tc the disease as those which had long been propagated from the tubers, and, in many cases, were even more subject to it, though this fact militates noth- THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 615 ing against the desirableness or necessity of raising new varieties from seed, but only shows that they must be raised with skill and caution, and under all the conditions which are essential to real reinvigoration ; the extent and pro- gress of the disease were but little influenced by either the previous culture, the nature of the soil, or the kind of manure ; the disease did not appear, at all events, to propagate itself by contagion, or to extend from diseased to sound tubers after they were taken from the ground ; the most effective store-heaps were found to be small or moderately-sized ones, not too heavily loaded with earth ; and mixtures of lime, or of other substances, with the potatoes in the heaps, were not found to be more beneficial than the old prac- tice of storing the potatoes alone, dry, and in good condition. Causes. — Many predisposing causes of the disease, both old and new, near and remote, have been assigned by theorists. Among the old ones are all the most remarkable which were ever at any time assigned for taint and curl, particularly degeneracy, over ripeness, bad storing, bad conditions of plant- ing, high manuring, atmospheric influence, and epidemic miasmata ; and some of these have also been regarded as special causes, or as immediately producing the virus, and defining the character of the disease. The chief of the newly-alleged predisposing causes were the wetness of the summer of 1844, the severe frost of March 1845, the great heat of the fore part of the summer of 1845, the uncommon luxuriance of the crop, the use of some special manures, and a fancied novelty in the condition of the earth, or sub- terrane heat of the soil and sub-strata. But while some of the alleged pre- disposing causes were real enough, perhaps, and ought to suggest to all cultivators the necessity of care and wisdom in all time to come, others are either doubtful, vague, or wildly fantastical, and no two or more of them can at all account for the origination of the disease, or point to any specific or very promising remedy. ‘The special causes assigned by various theo rists, including many of the most distinguished agriculturists, and phytolo-- gists, and organic chemists, in the world, are as numerous, as conflicting, and, we might add, as aggregately uninstructive, as the alleged predisposing causes. We will, however, give a brief statement of those which are most remarkable for either their plausibleness, their learning, or the degree of public attention which they have excited. The abnormal chemical condition of the potato-plant, or the too early arrival of it to chemical maturity, is modestly and suggestingly stated by Mr. Fromberg as the most probable special cause. According to his views, every species of plant appears to require a certain definite proportion of substances in its organism, to make it operate regularly for its healthy growth. Too great a deviation, exceeding a certain maximum or minimum, will have an injurious influence upon the growth, by either accelerating or 42 616 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. retarding it in too great a degree. As soon as, in a plant, both the paris that live in the air and those placed in the soil have obtained their proper quantity of constituents, the growth is completed. After that, it will take up nothing, or little more ; and being continually placed in the midst of sub- stances that are always in a state of decomposition, — which was before a requisition for the growth of the plant, — this state will, after the growth is completed, communicate itself to the plant and its constituents. This will be the case, even although the plant be perfectly sound (and we do well, therefore, to remove a product from the plant when ripe and full- grown), but much more rapidly when it is in a state of ill health. Both the want of activity of the cells and their contents when the growth is too languid, and their too great activity when the growth is too quick and strong, will predispose the plant to this chemical change. The altered energy of the action of the matter of which it is composed will continue after the growth has ceased, but now it will proceed in another direction ; all the peculiar properties and combinations of matter which present them- selves during lifetime, and on whose existence the vital actions depend, being now obtained and produced, another series of properties exhibit them selves, and a number of other combinations is formed. If the growth has been too languid, these combinations, necessary for the performance of the vital functions, will not be produced in sufficient quantity, and the altered activity of matter will commence before the growth is completed. In case the growth were too rapid and strong, the same increased activity of matter will combine after the plant has reached its maximum of growth, but will now, of necessity, take another course ; the plant absorbing nothing more, and, consequently, vital action resting, decomposition sets in, and the degree of its action is entirely dependent upon the activity of matter, which again is determined by the quantity of substances fit for undergoing decomposition in a certain space, and upon the codperation of temperature, air, and humid- ity. It might be of some importance to view, in connection with this, the early appearance of the disease in 1846, although it seems uncertain whether the time of ripening or full growth had also arrived sooner. It is a fact that diseased potatoes sprout with remarkable rapidity, whilst the experi- ments of some chemists show that perfectly sound potatees remain in the soil without any signs of sprouting being perceptible. This fact does not contradict the above-mentioned idea, and will actually tend to corroborate it, if it may be proved, by experience, that diseased tubers, although producing plants that remain healthy for a time, will, however, make them inherit, as it were, their own unnatural rapidity and luxuriance of growth, and the consequences attending these. The oxidation of the debilitated tissues, the change of azotized matter in THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 617 the stems, and the liability of the incrusting matter to undergo decomposi- tion, have been suggested by Dr. Playfair, the well known Dutch chemist, Mulder, and by others, as the most probable special causes. But the notion of oxidation by the agency of the air acting more freely upon the organic matter of the weakened cell-walls, does not certainly show a very great amount of physiological knowledge, which requires that the progress of the phenomena should be followed step by step, and which does not permit that the mentioning of final results, even if they were correct, should serve as an explanation. The theory of changes of azotized matter either has refer- ence to absolute decomposition or putrefaction, —and then it is closely allied to the oxidation theory, and partakes fully of its objectionableness, — or it refers to the transmutation of one nitrogenous proximate principle into an- other, and, in that case, it is contradicted by the doctrines of the protein compounds. And as to the liability of the incrusting matter to undergo decomposition, this, if at all probable, does not afford much explanation, and could scarcely serve to suggest means for recovery ; for the nature of the incrusting matter, and its relation to inorganic bases, are at present far too little known to found a theory on their pretended action. Putrescence, resulting remotely from atmospheric action, and proximately from internal chemical derangement, is supposed by Mr. Phillips to have been the cause. This theory somewhat combines the preceding ones with the theory of a series of predisposing causes, and addresses itself very plausi- bly to the understanding ; but it is by no means definite enough, and can scarcely, if at all, apply to the cases of sudden and overwhelming outbreak of the disease, and does not perceptibly lead to any very obvious practical conclusion. Mr. P. states, in illustration of his theory, that the season was unusually cold, and was marked by a continual absence of sunshine, — that the disease was more fatal on heavy wet lands than on light dry lands, and generally more so on wet soils than on dry soils, —that exhalation and evaporation were at a low point during the months of July and August, — that the plants generally throve till after the cold and wet weather set in, and did not indicate prevailing unhealthiness till after it had continued about two months, — and that, at the time when the most unfavorable weather appeared, the late plants were in full work, and were forming their tubers: and he adds, that a plant cannot elaborate its products without the direct action of the sun’s rays; and when the vital principle ceases its action, even tempo- rarily, a chemical one commences by an oxidation of the carbon and a liber- ation of carbonic acid, and if this action continue, ammonia is formed. What is the effect of this? If ammonia be formed in a vlant like the potato, which in its normal state is acid, we have not only a subversion of the condition of the juices, but we have also an agent equal to effect all that we have seen in 52* —=—_ 618 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. the disease. But the change is a work of time in the plant, and necessarily involves many phases. A species of botrytis, which had not been before observed, and which has been variously called B. infestans, B. fallax and B. devastatrix, was supposed, by Professor Morren, of Liege, and by many others, to be the special cause, Some supposed the fungus to develop itself from the interior or cellular tissue, and to extend its ramifications through the pores or stomata in such a way as to close them completely up, and to make the plant die from want of perspiration and absorption ; others supposed it to make a lodgment by its sporules from without, to feed upon the plant in the manner of an external parasite, and to rob it to exhaustion of its nourishing sap ; and others, without troubling themselves to explain either its habits, its nature, or the chemistry of its action, supposed it to do its deadly work simply as a poisoner of the plant’s juices. When first observed, the fungus was said to thrive only on the living leaves of the potato-plant, sparing even the stems; but afterwards it was seen to attack both the stems and the tubers; and soon, and far and wide, it could not be traced at all in some diseased plants, and was not traceable in others till after the disease was obviously established. The theory of the fungus was by tar the most popular one in 1845, and made the learned part of the agricultural world ring with talk about Botrytis infestans, but it was speedily discovered to be fallacious, and is now universally aban- doned. Yet, though the botrytis was not the cause of the disease, it was generally a very close attendant on it; and, under peculiar conditions of the atmosphere, it undoubtedly acts as a very powerful agent in accelerating the decay and havoe which the disease begins. A number of insects — particularly Eupterix solani, Eupterix picta, Thrips minutissima, Ceraphron carpenteri, a molobrus, an attica, a smynthurus, and several aphides—were supposed, by various close observers, to be either originators of some forms or accompaniments of the disease, or powerful accelerators of its general progress. Swarms of some of them seem un- doubtedly to have infested the potato crop,— probably to a degree far greater than ever before occurred ; and, though not at all likely, in even one instance, to have originated the disease, they must have seriously aggravated it, and perhaps sometimes complicated it, by puncturing the plant’s organs, abstracting its juices, and laying it widely open to chemical disarrangement, fungal lodgment, and atmospheric action. A particular theory, however, selected the Aphis rape or Aphis vastator, as the grand depredator, and even cried it up as the certain and sole parent of the whole. This theory was the most popular one in England in 1846 ; insomuch that, for months together, multitudes talked incessantly of the aphis, and seemed to have gune into an ephis-mania, and would not listen to another theory. Yet, though both facts > THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 619 and philosophy now pour derision on this theory, they fully admit every abounding aphis to be very mischievous, and loudly warn all cultivators te adopt every preventive or remedial means against it in their power. Common canker, or vegetable gangrene, exactly similar to the canker of fruit-trees, and to the ‘‘ damping ”’ or ‘‘ shanking off’’ of badly-wintered cauli- flowers, and of cucumbers and melon-plants, is believed, by the eminent Mr. Graham, to have been the true cause. According to him, the potato-plant, having been rendered partially inert by the repellent action of cold, wet, and gloomy weather, uncongenial to its nature as an exotic from a warm climate, at that critical period of its growth when in the course of ordinary seasons it would have been about to acquire a strength and hardness, but during which time it was incapable of perfectly evaporating its redundant juices, for want of sunshine,—they accumulated in consequence, and became vitiated by stagnation in that crude state ; and when fine hot weather ensued afterwards, the sudden rush of sap was too great for its debilitated tissues, and the dis- eased fluid showed itself at the surface in various places, on the leaves and stalks, sometimes in spots not larger than a pin’s head, at others in blotches, which rapidly increased if the stimulus of heat was kept up; and the virus of these spots, being of an ulcerous nature, eventually descended into the potatoes. The only effectual remedy, if it may be so called, is to pull up the haulm entirely, as soon as the disease has seized on the stalks; cutting off the haulm will not be so effectual, in many instances, as the lower parts of the stalk are often as bad as the upper parts. After all, however, Mr. Graham himself admits that the disease sometimes begins in the tubers, and even states that it usnally commences in the underground parts. A peculiar atmospheric action, similar to what produces influenza in man, is supposed by Liebig and Klotzsch to be the special cause. Liebig, in his work on the Motions of the Fluids in the Animal Body, after explaining the great importance of the cutaneous and pulmonary transpiration to the life and health of animals, goes on to contend that in plants the transpiration from the leaves is the chief cause, aided by the pressure of the atmosphere, of the motion of the sap. He then refers to the old but valuable researches of Hales, who demonstrated the importance, as well as the extraordinary power, of the transpiration of plants, and explained the frequent blight in hops, and other plants, by the action of an atmosphere saturated with moist- ure, and therefore unfit to support transpiration, in suppressing the transpi- ration from the leaves, and thus arresting the motion of the sap, which then putrefies and leads to the death of the plant. The putrid sap becomes a fer- ule soil for the seeds of microscopic plants, fungi, &c., and these are further propagated by seed, so that the soil may become infested by them. Liebig then proceeds to contend that the potato-plant is one of those which, like the FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. hop, suffers greatly from suppressed or impeded transpiration; and that the potato rot has long been known, and was even very accurately described by Parmentier, who introduced the potato into France ; but that the peculiar atmospheric condition to which he ascribes the disease had never till of late years occurred over whole countries, but only locally. He considers the real cause of the disease to be an atmosphere loaded with moisture and cold, these being the conditions most unfavorable to evaporation; and he shows that in 1845, and 1846, when the disease overran Europe, damp, cold, and rainy weather followed heat and drought, just at the period of the most luxuriant growth of the potatoes. This state of the atmosphere he considers to be the same as that which causes influenza in the human subject, by suppressing the cutaneous transpiration. He further shows that the very life of a plant depends on the resistance it offers to the destructive influences of the atmosphere; and that the life and health of plants depend on the equilibrium of external causes, only one of which, — the state of the soil, —is much in the power of the agriculturist. One day, or a few degrees of cold, may be decisive as to the life or death of a plant; so that it is of the utmost importance to strengthen the plant, so as to enable it to resist the external influences tending to destroy it. Now, Dr. Klotzsch has come to similar conclusions, — and shows that, as the potato is cultivated for its tubers, there is a great loss of nutrient matter if it be allowed to form flowers and fruit ; and he concludes that if this be prevented, the nutrient matter will be sent in the direction of the tubers and roots, and thus the plant will be strengthened, and enabled to resist disease. He proposes, therefore, when the plants are from six to nine inches above ground, to pinch off the ends of the stems and branches for half an inch only downwards from the point, and to repeat this four weeks later. In some experiments made by him, in which the alternate rows were treated in this way, the result was, that the rows not so treated were straggling and sickly, and had scabby tubers, liable to rot; while the rows so treated were bushy, luxuriant, dark-green, with very numerous tubers, clean, and free from all disease whatever. But whatever may be thought of the remedy, or however fair or deserving a subject of experiment it may be as to the general strengthening of the potato-plant, the alleged cause seems a great deal more than doubtful. To say nothing of grave physiological objections to it, the very facts on which it rests are contested. A diminution of temperature to the extent of six or eight degrees is exceed- ingly trivial, and must often have occurred in former years, when this disease did not occur. Nor is the potato-plant of so delicate a texture as to be unable to stand much greater diminution and irregularities of temperature than what occurred in 1845. The fact that it grows equally well in the Shetland Isles, with an average temperature of 46 3, or even in hot-houses, with a temperature THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 621 of thirty or forty degrees higher, must satisfy any one that the temperature of 1845, though undoubtedly lower than usual, and irregular in its’ progression, eannot account for the failure. The heat of 1846, too, when the disease was more virulent and extensive than in 1845, instead of being below the average, was actually a little above it; and the fall of rain, as ascertained at a great many places, though unusually fitful, and sometimes exeeedingly heavy, was not aggregately much above the average, and did not anywhere produce an excess of cloudiness, or any material excess of moisture. An atmospheric influence of some less specific or more diffusive kind than that contended for by Liebig and Klotzsch has been regarded by many dis- tinguished British agriculturists as the cause. But the views entertained respecting it are at once various, conflicting, and vague. Some say that it was merely a decrease in the temperature about the time of ripening of the tuber, by which this disease was caused. Now, in 1846, it returned at a much earlier period than in 1845. Was the time of ripening hastened? and if so, by what cause? And is there any evidence that such a decrease in tem- perature took place in 1846? or that it existed everywhere in 1845? Other defenders of the same theory assume that it was the sudden change of wet and cold to hot weather by which this calamity was ‘occasioned; and others state, in addition, that the unripe condition of the seed from the former year, and the protracted cold of the ensuing winter, preventing the due preparation of the land, were either the aggravating or the chief causes of the disease. Did these circumstances occur in 1846, and were they general wherever the disease prevailed? If we further come to the man- ner in which this atmospheric influence is said to have acted, then we meet again several vague expressions, and find that unproved things are taken for granted. Some speak of the organism of the potato having become repleted with moisture, and, therefore, the pores being checked by some of the above circumstances, exceedingly liable to undergo putrefaction. Others are of opinion, that one constituent of the organism of the potato has been produced to the disadvantage, at the expense of, or at least in greater proportions than the others; and that this, no matter in what way, has been the cause of a weakened organism, and consequently of the disease. Others, again, explain the action of the atmosphere as merely serving as a vehicle te myriads of minute seeds of fungi, which, when the air is in a comparative rest, should be enabled to enter into the minute pores or stomata, which exist chiefly on the surface of the leaves. This is merely a modification of the fungal theory. Some miasmatic substance, or deleterious gas, or other subtle and unusual body in the atmosphere, is supposed, by Count Gasparin, Milne, and others, to have been the cause. The principal, real, or alleged facts, FARMER’S HAND-RBOOK. appealed to in support of this theory, are that the disease was averted from some localities by screens, shelter, and other means of protection from the external air, — that, in the successive years of its ravages, it moved off from some districts and countries, and made invasion upon others, — that, during the summer and autumn of 1846, it broke out, in a progress from south to north, on the continent and in Great Britain, as if it proceeded in a some- what regular march, — and that it did not attack portions of fields which were exposed to the smoke of steam-engines and of copper-works. It is inferred from the last of these facts that the noxious substance was some acrid gas or vapor capable of being neutralized or altered in its nature by chlorine, common smoke, and the fumes of arsenious and sulphurous acids ; and, in support of this view, an experiment of Professor Christison is cited showing that sulphurous-acid gas, when mixed with atmospheric air in the minute proportion of one part to nine thousand, injures the leaves of a mignonette, of a laburnum, and of a larch-tree, placed in it for forty hours. But, though the gaseous or miasmatic theory accords well with some of the phenomena and circumstances, it seems violently incompatible . with others. A peculiar state of the electricity of the atmosphere is sup- posed by some persons to have been the cause. Electricity is now known to act a powerful part in all normal vegetation; ordinary electricity acts constantly, in seeming concurrence with all the chemical processes of decomposition and recombination, both upon plants and within them; extraordinary electricity, or great and sudden disturbances of the normal electric conditions of the atmosphere, or of the normal relations between the electricity of the air and the electricity of the earth, seem to produce effects analogous to those of either invigorating or overwhelming excitement ; and the electric phenomena of a large portion of the period of both 1845 and 1846, throughout which the potato disease broke out and spread, were not a little remarkable for at once singularity, unsettledness, violence, and aggre- gate duration. ‘The results of an experiment in electro-culture, reported to the Royal Dublin Society, were also most arresting ;— the rods had been put up, according to Dr. Forster’s method, in a remote part of a potato-field, in order to test their effect upon the invigoration of the crop,—and they were afterwards neglected or forgotien, in consequence of the apparent seizure of the whole field with the potato disease ; — but when the spot which they protected came eventually to be examined, all the potatoes in it were found to be sound and excellent, while those of the rest of the field had died and rotted. Other remarkable facts, directly ascribable to electric influence, or ‘apparently resulting from it, or controlled by it, were observed ; and several theories corresponding to them, but widely differing as to both the modus operandi of the electric influence and the most suitable or effective means THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 623 of averting deleterious effects, were formed and advocated, and have been received more or less extensively as plausible. ‘The present state of scien- tific knowledge, however, is far too obscure to enable any man to follow out a speculation on the supposed connection of peculiar electric conditions with the originating of disease in plants; and the utmost which the speculation about electricity and the potato can do, is to suggest.a hope, that in some more advanced stage of the rapidly-careering progress of scientific discovery, a subject which is now so mysterious and bewildering may come to be per- fectly explained. Remedies. — We have now gone over all the chief and most plausible theories ; and, since the result is unmixed uncertainty or utter confusion, we might seem to have had all our labor for worse than nothing. But, when it is, seen how entirely the most distinguished savans have been baffled, and how completely all science and experience and observation have been stultified, by the potato disease, all persons must readily assent to the suggestion that the potato can no longer be depended on as an extensive and staple article of sustenance for the human family, and that its loss must be made up by the ’ substitution of another and more reliable vegetable production. Whatever others may say or think, it is certain that, until the cause of this disease is known, no efficacious remedy can reasonably be expected to be found. It is the department of science to proceed from fixed points, from causes into effects ; and every other way is hardly deserving of any other name than that of empiricism. We would go further still, and say, that even although the cause were duly known, however indispensable this may be, we could not, however, from the defective state of our knowledge of the physiology and pathology of plants, undertake the cure with the same confidence of success with which the physician places himself before his patient, to attack and overcome an illness. But still, without being acquainted with the cause of the disease, a variety of remedies will be tried in vain, and, what is worse, remedies which may easily injure a plant which has frequently been unnaturally cultivated. The steeping in dilute sulphuric acid, dusting with lime and gypsum, the application of sulphate of copper, arsenic, &c., may prove beneficial for the moment; but how all this will affect or alter the nature of the potato, it is only for future experience to make out. Such kinds of treatment will be resorted to, if we proceed upon the belief that a fungus acts as the cause of the disease. The purpose is to kill the enemy ; but does one always sufficiently consider that the injury intended for it may not also affect its victim? But if we adhere to the opinion that the unfavor- able state of the weather has been the direct cause of the disease, by — na matter in what way — altering the functions of the plant, then there is cer- tainly something true in Morren’s remark, that this theory, in point of 624 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. curing the disease, is dangerous in its effects upon the mass of farmers, who, being powerless against such an enemy, may easily fall into that state of indifference which in former times was too characteristic of their class. The remedy which results from the application of the epidemic theory seems certainly to be entirely in the power of the farmer, without being attended with the injurious effects that may follow from the attempt of destroying the parasite directly, we mean the enclosure of the potato- fields, to prevent the supposed introduction of the imagined seeds of the parasites by currents of air. Yet, if this remedy, as is likely, might prove ineffectual, the opportunity of preserving the crop is gone, and the evil will rage on undisturbed. But there is something more reasonable in the idea, to turn the whole attention to the diseased plant itself,—to allow those plants to be lost that are hopelessly attacked, to be cautious in attempting to employ the less diseased for seed, and to be satisfied with employing what has hitherto escaped, either of fine or of coarse varieties. If this be accompanied with judicious cultivation,— if sound seed, chiefly from varieties that have suffered least, be planted in soils similar to those where the disease has least prevailed, — and if the methods be imitated of those who have had small or moderate, but comparatively sound crops, — as well in regard to treatment, kind and quantity of manure, and period of applica- tion, as to depth of planting, distance between the plants, and time and mode of cutting, — then something is put into the power of the farmer, which, being faithfully copied from the prescriptions of nature, may justify the persevering man in expecting a slow but gradual and continual remedy, and recovery of what has been lost. A method was discovered, about the year 1840, by M. Zauder, of evading the attacks of all potato diseases, by raising full-grown tubers from seed in one season ; and this method was reported by Mr. Hogan to the meeting of the British Association at Oxford, and was ascertained, from his personal] observation of it in two widely separated localities in Germany, to have proved perfectly efficient as respected its yearly or current success, yet waa declared to need confirmation and improvement, by many experiments, in various places, and under various circumstances, before it could be relied on for rendering seedlings healthy or disease-proof, in years subsequent to their being produced. The statement of M. Zauder himself, in his own language, is as follows : —] first raised potatoes from seed seven years ago. I sowed an eighth of an ounce, and obtained nearly seven sacks of full- grown, perfectly sound potatoes, although in the same year almost all the potatoes in the same neighborhood were affected by pock-mark and dry-rot. I have regularly raised potatoes from seed ever since, and they have remained sound during the whole time ; and in the year 1845 when the disease had THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 625 spread over all Europe, and attained the greatest virulence in this neighbor- hood, those potatoes which I had previously raised from seed, us well as those of the preceding year, continued perfectly exempt from disease. I have given potatoes raised from seed to others, and those have also remained perfectly free from the universally prevailing disease. From an ounce of seed may be raised upwards of fifty ordinary-sized sacks of potatoes. The - seed is saved in the following manner: the berries should be gathered in autumn, before the frost sets in, and be preserved in a dry place, where frost cannot reach them, until the end of January, when the berries should be. broken by the hand, and placed in a tub or other vessel, for six or eight days, to ferment ; water should then be thrown on them and well stirred, in order to separate the pulp and husks from the seed, which should then be dried and cleaned, and kept in a warm, dry place, watil the middle of March. At the latter time, or in the beginning of April, the seed should be thinly sown in a hot-bed, and by the middle of May there will be fine healthy plants, which may be put out into the field; care should be taken to put them out before they form tubers, and the seed-bed should be kept moder- ately moist while they remain in it. They should be planted out after rain, and be put at about the same distance from one another as potatoes gener- ally stand in the field. SMUT. Description. — This is a disease of the ears of growing grain, filling the grain with a fine, sooty-looking powder, in the room of farina. It arises entirely from two minute coniomycetous fungi, —-the Uredo segetum and the Uredo fetida; but it attacks all sorts of corn grain, and presents a great diver- sity of appearance, and bears a number of popular names, and has been erro- neously ascribed, by all classes of cultivators, to a great diversity of causes. Some farmers, seeing only a very few ears of a crop perceptibly affected with smut, regard the evil as of small consequence, and are totally unaware that when no more than one smutted ear can be found in a sheaf, the straw of the apparently sound plants may want so much as one third of its average weight, and the grain so much as three sevenths ; and other farmers, who may have a correct opinion enough of the mischievousness of smut, are so misled by false notions of its cause, as either to reject all suitable prevent- ives and remedies of it, or to adopt them empirically, and without sufficient confidence and vigor. Causes and Phenomena.— Some of the many erroneous causes which have been assigned for smut have no connection with it whatever ; and others are mere contingencies, which either aggravate its symptoms or accelerate its progress. One alleged cause is, deficient fecundity, in consequence either of the pollen being washed away with rains, or of its undergoing some 53 2P 626 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. chemical change of a putrefactive nature ; but smut is found to affect the organs of fructification, and either to impair or to destroy them, long before the pollen can be formed. Another alleged cause, sanctioned, long ago, by the distinguished Jethro Tull, is humidity of the atmosphere, or the preva- lence of fogs, or the bursting out of intense sunshine while the crop is in a moist condition ; but this notion has been disproved by some carefully con- ducted appeals to experiment, and is disproved also by the general fact that smut is sometimes observable in an early stage of the plant’s vegetation, long before it has escaped from the leafy envelopes. A third alleged cause is, excessive moistness of the soil, —and certainly this, though not a cause, is a very powerful provocative, insomuch that well-drained and thoroughly aerated soils are incomparably freer from attacks of smut than wet ones; but the disease occurs on even the driest land, and may often be observed as rife in the dry parts of a field as in the wet parts. A fourth alleged cause, sanc- tioned by such names as Somerville, Walker, and Linneus, is the hatching and feeding of minute insects ; but this opinion has been refuted by express and searching observation, and may be exploded also by the general fact that acari and aphides, and other minute insects, feed more or less on all sorts of plants, whether affected by smut or not, and almost always abound on decaying vegetable matter, or on plants which are in a diseased or enfeebled condition. A fifth alleged cause is, the abrasion of the seed-corn in the process of threshing ; but seeds threshed in exactly the same way run to smut in some seasons, and do not run to it in others ; and numerous grains of wheat of different sizes have been experimentally bruised with a ham- mer, previous to sowing, and have not been found to produce smutted plants. A sixth cause alleged is, monstrosity of embryo ; but male flowers, or male parts of flowers, as well as female ones, are liable to smut, and they have no embryo. A seventh alleged cause is, deficiency of nourishment, occasioned by poverty of soil, or by crowdedness of crop ; but diseases closely akin to smut attack the fructification of some perennial plants, whose roots and stems, from year to year, are so vigorous as to indicate the presence of ample nutrition. An eighth alleged cause is, fermentation within the ears of corn, occasioned by natural humidity, or by excessive slowness of devel- opment and deficiency of evaporation ; but, if this were a true cause, it would account for the appearanse of smut only after the seeds begin to be formed, and might be expected always to produce the disease in far greater extent than it is generally found to exist. Most other alleged causes are akin to some of those already named, or are exceedingly fanciful, or con- found smut with some other and widely different diseases. The two species of fungi which produce smut, or whose spores constitate the fine, powdery, sooty-looking substance of the disease, possess a some- THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 627 what close resemblance to each other, and are usually described under one general name ; yet not only have they separate specific characters, but they make specifically different developments in grain plants, and produce essen- tially different economical effects on crops; and they therefore require to be separately studied, and distinctively understood. The Uredo segetum is much more minute than most other coniomycetous fungi which attack gra- mineous plants ; and, in particular, is not half the size of Uredo fetida. Its spores are so extremely small that not fewer than seven millions eight hun- dred and forty thousand would be required to cover one square inch. It first SO injures the interior portions of the flowers of the plants which it attacks as to render them abortive ; it next makes the pedicels or little stalks of the florets swell and become very fleshy ; it next consumes the whole of this fleshy mass ; and it finally comes through the epidermis, and appears be- tween the chaff-scales in the form of a black, soot-like powder, and looks as if adhering, by means of some gummy substance, to the young ear. It oper- ates alike on wheat and barley and oats, and is essentially the same in them all; but it differs widely in aggregate coherence upon wheat and barley, —and differs also in the microscopic appearance of its spores, — but probably owes the differences entirely to the different action of the matrices in which it grows. It commonly attains maturity some weeks before the crop which it infests is ready for the sickle ; and it then is a light, loose powder, resembling very fine lampblack, and is swept away and scattered by the winds, so that, even when it has made great havoc upon a crop, it is seldom seen to any considerable extent at the time of harvest. It has some- times been found to attack the leaves and the culms of corn-plants; but, in general, it attacks only the ear, and this it completely destroys. It is com- paratively rare in wheat, and does not seem to occur at all in rye; but is very common in barley, and still more so in oats. It has also been observed ' in several of the forage grasses. Some farmers absurdly think that a little of it in the barley crop is.a good sign; and most regard it as far less mis- chievous than Uredo fetida. But, in so far as it exists, it is always and entirely a desolating evil ; and it both escapes the observation of superficial observers, and eludes some of the common methods of preventing or extir- pating it, by the early maturation and profuse dispersion of its spores ; and though really a less evil, comparatively, than Uredo fetida, it is a much greater one absolutely than most farmers suppose. Grain containing some mixture of smut has not been observed to injure fowls who eat it; and yet, the straw of smutted plants is asserted to be dis- tasteful to cattle. The effect of the fungus upon the wholesomeness of crops. in fact, is little understood, and does not seem to have been tested by any good published experiments; yet it may be pretty closely estimated by 628 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. reference to the known chemical composition of smutted grain. Chemical analysis has demonstrated that the Uredo segetum effects an entire decom- position of the vegetable constituents of the grain it infects, the saline con- stituents of the grain remaining nearly unaltered. Parmentier, Cornet, Girod Chautrans, Foureroy, and Vauguelin, have successively examined it ; and the result of their researches is, that smutted grains of wheat are com- posed, first, of about one third their own weight of a green, butyraceous, fetid, and acrid oil; second, nearly one fourth of a vegeto-animal sub- stance, perfectly similar to that which comes from putrid gluten; third, a black coal, one fifth of their weight, similar to that which is found in all remnants of putrefied organic compounds; fourth, free phosphoric acid, amounting scarcely to more than .004 of the smut, —and fifth, phosphates of ammonia, magnesia, and lime, in the proportions of a few thousandths. It is stated that, in one examination of putrefied gluten, characters were found very similar to those of the smut of wheat ; and that the products of the one are so like those of the other, as to render it difficult, in certain cases, not to confound them together. It requires a man to be well practised in chem- ical experiments, to discern the slight differences that exist between these two putrefied matters, because the differences are only delicate shades, not easily discernible. The contagion attacks especially the gluten, and precedes, — indeed, prevents, — the formation of the starch ; since we know positively that this fecula, no traces of which are found in the smut of wheat, suffers no alteration from that septic process, which so powerfully attacks the glutinous substance. The Uredo fetida occurs only in the grain of wheat, and is a well-known and much dreaded disease. It may be detected in the young seed, even in the very earliest states of the flower-bud ; and when fully ripe, it most frequently occupies the whole interior of the grain. ‘The earliest period at which M. Bauer discovered it within the cavity of the ovule of a young plant of wheat was sixteen days before the ear emerged from the base, and about twenty days before the sound ears, springing from the same root, were in bloom. At that early stage, the inner cavity of the ovum is very small, and, after fecundation, is filled with the albumen or farinaceous substance of the seed, and already occupied by many young fungi, which, from their jelly- like root or spawn, adhere to the membrane which lines the cavity, and from which they can be easily detached, in small flakes, with that spawn. In that state, their very small pedicels may be distinctly seen. At first, the fungi are of a pure white color, and when the ear emerges from its base, the ovam is much enlarged, but still retains its original shape ; and, the fungi rapidly multiplying, many of them have then nearly come to maturity, assumed a dark color, and, having separated from the spawn, lie loose in THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 629 the cavity of the ovum. The infected grains continue growing, and the fungi continue to multiply, till the sound grains have attained their maturity and full size, when the infected grains are easily distinguished from the sound ones, by their being generally larger and of a darker green color ; and, if opened, they appear to be filled to excess with these dark-colored fungi. But the grains infected with the Uredo fetida very rarely burst, and these fungi are seldom found on the outside of the grain; but if a grain be bruised, they readily emit their offensive smell, which is worse than that from putrid fish. When the sound gyains are perfectly ripe and dry, and assume their light-brown color, the infected grains also change, but toa somewhat darker brown, retaining, however, the same shape which the ovum had at its formation, the rudiments of the stigma also remaining un- altered. The spores which fill the grain constitute a fine, black, disgust- ing, fetid powder, and amount to about four millions in a single grain, and may be easily distinguished and examined through a microscope, and have then the appearance of articulated globules growing in a bundled manner upon threads ; but the sporules which they contain, and which propagate the smut in the same general way in which seeds propagate phenogamous plants, are so surpassingly minute as to be scarcely distinguishable under very high powers of the microscope, appearing then only like a faint cloud or vapor in a puffy escape from the spores. The Uredo fetida not only destroys all the grains or plants which it directly attacks, but greatly deteriorates the value of the sound part of the general crop. The disgusting odor which it emits may be perceived on passing through a field where it prevails; and becomes cohesive to the fingers, and intolerable to the sense, when an infected ear or two are broken in the hand ; and diffuses itself sufficiently through the sound grains, by the contacts of growing and harvesting, to render the flour made from them perceptibly malodorous, and comparatively unfit for bread. Ready purchas- ers, however, are found among the manufacturers of gingerbread, &c., in some countries, who have discovered that the treacle, and whatever else they mix up with it, effectually disguise the odor of the fungus ; and while such a mode of employing the tainted flour would be perfectly unobjection- able if the odor were innoxious, it becomes censurable and wicked when good reason exists for suspecting the odor to be seriously unwholesome. The sporules of both Uredo segetum and Uredo fetida were long believed and have been proved to find their way into corn-plants, by entering their spongioles with the moisture, and ascending their interior with the sap. There is little doubt, according to Johnson, but that the mode in which smut is imparted to the plant is by its roots imbibing the extremely minute seeds of the fungus along with the moisture of the soil ; and this opinion is 53 * 630 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. confirmed by the observation that the disease is most prevalent when the winter has been mild, and the spring wet, — for in such seasons the abundant moisture passing through the soil is most likely to convey the seeds to the mouths of the plant’s radical fibres. The distinguished Mr. Sidney remarks, that, though the surmise of most observers has been that the sporules enter by the roots and circulate in the plant, still, no one has yet seen them grow; nor would this be the normal mode of growth. The spores themselves are undoubtedly too large to enter either by the stomata of the leaves or the spongioles of the roots. Some ingenious experiments have been made, that appear to establish the theory that these contents of the spores do enter the plant in the way suspected, and grow. The mode of proceeding was to immerse some seeds of wheat in water containing bunt. One of the first appearances was a curious mould, with peculiar spores, that sprung upon the spores of bunt. ‘The plants which came up from these seeds were evidently affected ; but no communication whatever could be traced between the cells of these plants and the shoots thrown out by the spores. No intrusion whatever of the mycelium developed by the bunt- spores into the wheat could be discovered. ‘This looks, therefore, as if the fine cuntents of the spores do certainly propagate the fungus. Professor Henslam states, that, although the bunt-fungus confines its attacks to the young seed, it seems to be a condition essential to its propagation that it should be introdnced into the plant during the early stages of its growth, and that its sporules are most readily absorbed by the root during the germina- tion of the seed from which the plant has sprung. It has been clearly proved that wheat-plants may be easily infected, and the disease thus prop- agated, by simply rubbing the seeds, before they are sown, with the black powder, or spores, of the fungus. It is also as clearly ascertained that, if seeds thus tainted be thoroughly cleansed, the plants raised from them will not be infected; and this fact is now so well established, that the practice of washing or steeping seed-wheat in certain solutions almost universally prevails. Preventives.— The chief preventive of smut in wheat is the steeping of the seed-corn in some suitable solution. The spores which, at the time of thresh- ing, are dispersed from smutted ears in the form of a fine powder, and which attach themselves to the sound grains, adhere with considerable obstinacy by means of an oily or greasy matter in their own substance, and cannot be thor- oughly cleaned away except by means either of an alkali which shall combine with the oily matter and convert it into soap, or of some powerful substance, which shall be adverse enough to vegetable life to kill the spores, and yet not so adverse as to kill or injure the grains. The substances most com- monly employed in alkaline steeps are lime, and salts of soda, potash, and THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 631 ammonia; and those of a killing kind most commonly employed are arsenic, sulphate of copper, nitric acid, muriatic acid, and sulphuric acid. The use of poisons, however, — particularly violent ones, —is altogether unnecessary, and very dangerous, and not a little culpable; and the use even of exces- sively pungent substances, which are not strictly poisonous, is never so politic, and perhaps never so efficient, as that of the alkalies, or of common salt, or of some mixture of saline substances. The experiments of Mr. Bevan indicate that lime-water is the most effective of these preparations; and if this be adopted, it may be prepared by mixing one pound of fresh lime with three gallons of boiling water, allowing these to stand for two hours, and the clear liquor then to be poured ’ off, and immediately used. In this liquid the wheat should be soaked for twelve hours, stirred twice or thrice during the time, and then mixed, upon a floor, with the powder made hy pouring three gallons of boiling water upon five pounds of lime. He remarks further, that he has had no experi- ence of the effects of lime-water as a preventive of the smut; but, with stale urine and a solution of common salt, numerous and expensive experi- ments were made, the results being, without exception, favorable, and nearly similar; and this being the case, a preference is to be given to common salt, as being decidedly the best in all material points. ‘The mode observed to be the most effective is to wash the seed with pure water, pouring this off with all the floating grains, and then allowing the seed to soak for twelve hours in a solution of common salt, having a strength, or specific gravity, sufficient to float a common hen’s egg. A solution of sulphate of soda, in codperation with an application of lime, was found by M. de Dombasle, after many experiments, to be the most efficient steep. The solution requires about 173 lbs. of the sulphate in 22 gallons of water; and as this salt does not very readily dissolve, the solution ought to be commenced a day or so before it is wanted, and frequently stirred, till all the salt is dis- solved. The grain is to be formed in heaps on the floor, which are to be _ completely moistened with the above wash, by means of a watering vessel. During the time the wash is being poured over the heaps of grain, they must be kept constantly stirred about, by means of wooden shovels, till the whole be perfectly moist, which is known by the wash running from the heaps after they are sufficiently saturated. After the grain is well moist- ened, lime, in powder, is to be immediately thrown over the heaps, in the proportion of nearly 44 lbs. to the 22 gallons of grain; this is done grad ually, while the grain is to be ‘turned over in every direction, so that the whole may be intimately combined. When this is done, the grain may be either sown immediately, or kept for some days, in which case it may be turned over every three or four days. FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. 632 The use of any kind of steep, however, is a preventive of smut only as propagated by the adhesion of spores to the grains of the seed-corn, and can have no efficiency whatever against the germination of spores which lie lodged in the soil independently of the seed-corn. Mr. Johnson remarks, in addition, that, although it is very apparent that the smut is generally imparted to a wheat crop by the agency of the seed sown, yet he is by no means of the opinion that this is the only source of infection. He had kept ears of wheat, that were covered and destroyed by the Uredo, during more than twelve months, in a situation where they experienced the vicissitudes of temperature during all the seasons, unprotected by more than the paper envelope in which they were suspended in an out-building. Yet, when the Uredo that had been thus exposed was mixed with healthy, well-washed seed-wheat, this produced diseased plants in a triplicate proportion more numerous than that not so mixed. This experiment demonstrates that frost and drought, acting in concert with a damp atmosphere, do not destroy the vegetating power of the Uredo’s seed. Such being the fact, why may not this seed remain in the soil, ready to impart the plague? We know that, owing to its lightness, this seed floats buoyantly in the air, and may be car- ried by winds to distant soils, which, in the autumn of the same year, before any extremity of cold has been endured, will have to bear the wheat crop for the following harvest. The opinion that the soil is one source of infec- tion is sustained by the fact that: fields in the vicinity of the sea are rarely injured, and never extensively, by the ravages of the smut. Such soils are impregnated more than any other with common salt, and the effect of this saline compound upon the Uredo has been noticed already. The spores of Uredo segetum, too, are so generally shed and dispersed before the har- vesting of the crop, that they may be supposed to lie lodged in immense numbers in every part of the field, or farm, or district, where they were produced; and even in so far as they adhere to the grains of barley and oats in the same manner in which those of Uredo fetida adhere to the grains of wheat, they have such a peculiarly strong hold in connection with the integuments of these grains, that they cannot very readily be reduced or killed by means of steeps. As regards some smutted wheat-lands, there- fore, and especially as regards all smutted barley-lands, and all smutted oat- lands, other preventives and remedies must be brought into requisition, and should be such as to secure the utmost possible cleanness of both the seed-corn and the land, and will, after all, be found incompetent to effect an entire cure. The obtaining of seed-corn for any farm from other and dis- tant soils is recommended by Tull, Donat, Lignerolle, and others; but, however beneficial this may be for securing other desirable effects, it can be ‘ THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. useful in regard to smut only when the seed-corn is brought from a dis- trict remarkably free from that disease. All the preventives and remedies which address themselves to the state of the land, or consist in special processes or methods of culture, are the same in the case of smut as in that of mildew. COTTON ROT. Description.—This disease makes its first appearance as a small, dark green, circular spot, on the outside of the boll, and many of them are fre- quently present on a single boll at the same time. The progress of the disease varies — being sometimes rapid, and at other times tardy — most probably influenced by the temperature of the atmosphere, or the condi- tion of the plant; but, with the advance of the disease, the spots change color, and gradually assume a blackish-brown hue, until the entire boll is affected. If suddenly checked, as sometimes occurs from an unex- plained cause, only a portion of the boll will be discolored. In the first case the disease has penetrated to the centre of the boll, which ferments, and pours out a white, frothy liquor; after which putrefaction follows, involving the destruction of the seed and immature cotton, when the rind, : or exterior coating of the boll, being exhausted of its juices, hardens and turns black. When suddenly checked in its operation, the disease will be found to have only partially injured some of the bolls, and the interior of others not at all—these will mature and expand. This, however, is seldom the case, as the boll is subject to a succession of attacks until it is finally destroyed; being liable to the ravages of the disease from the period of its first formation, until that stage of perfection is reached which immediately precedes development. Cause.—All research has hitherto failed to ascertain the originating cause, and, consequently, no remedy can be intelligently applied. It has been supposed to bé occasioned by the larvae of a small insect, hatched from eggs deposited in the boll at an early period of its development, which, by feeding on the seeds, produce the disease; and a boll, thus affected, when divided, usually contains a varied collection of small in- sects in different stages of metamorphosis. On the other hand, it is urged that the presence of insects in the rotted boll proves nothing more than that they probably crept into it for food and shelter after it had been destroyed by the disease. The insect theory does not seem to be borne out by the result of close observations, which prove that, while one cotton plant is a prey to the disease, others in the immediate vicinity are com- paratively free and healthy; as many as seventeen rotted bolls having 634 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. been counted upon one plant, while its near neighbors were luxuriantly green, and unmarked by the least sign of the disease. Insects seem to be attracted to the decaying bolls by the sap which exudes from the wounds, and thus the effect is mistaken for the cause. Equally as un- satisfactory is its reference to a defect in the soil, or in the manure; for here, again, are the advocates of this theory met by the fact, that all the plants growing on the same soil, and similarly treated, are not affected with the disease. Much may depend on the constitution of the plant, derived from imperfect or immature seed ; and a careful selection of well- ripened seed, from sound and healthy plants, might do much toward eradicating the disease. COTTON RUST. Description.—A parasitical fungus grows upon the stem and branches of the plant, which exhausts the sap, and causes the leaves to wither and fall. The leaves assume a yellow color, and are frequently spotted with red. Cause.—It is generally traceable to defective cultivation, and may be remedied by adopting such a system of agriculture as will restore to the soil its abstracted salts and phosphates. COTTON BLIGHT. Description. — This disease, although mistaken for rust, is of itself a distinct affection. The leaves suddenly wither, droop, change to a brown color, and then fall off; and the bolls shrivel and dry up. The entire plant dies in a very short time; the pith of the root, stem, and branches, presenting that blackish-brown appearance which usually accompanies an advanced stage of decay. Cause. — Experiments have proved that it is the result of planting cotton for a series of years on the same land, and that it may be pre-_ vented by a judicious rotation of crops. SORE SHIN. Description.— This is another affection of the cotton plant, which makes its appearance in the early stages of its growth, during the preva- lence of cold nights in a wet and backward spring. The bark of the stem becomes callous, and the sap vessels are dried up, or obstructed near the surface of the ground. If the plant continues to live, its THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 635 growth is slow and languid, and it never regains its former strength and vigor. Cause.—This malady has been attributed to early planting, but it is, doubtless, really caused by the ravages of the cotton-louse, which debili- tates the plant by abstracting the sap. CHAPTER XIV. NOXIOUS INSECTS AND ANIMALS, INSECTS WHICH LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OR IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND PROP- AGATE ON THEM — INSECTS WHICH INJURE GRAIN —INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CULINARY VEGETABLES—INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, SHRUBS, AND VINES—INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PLANTS — INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MEADOWS —INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE COTTON PLANT — ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO CULTIVATED FIELDS. I. INSECTS WHICH LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OR IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND PROPAGATE ON THEM. Lice. — Among insects which continually live on domestic animals, prop- agate on them, and, when their numbers are too great, cause serious injury to them, the various species of lice hold the first place. These animals are much to be dreaded when they have increased so as to produce the disease called Phthiriasis, and when this settles into a confirmed chronic evil. In horned-cattle lice have no particular favorite place. They run up and down over the body of sheep, causing a separation of the wool from the skin. They swarm in every part ot swine, and even grow into the skin, muscles, &c. They may be occasioned by dirt, insufficient food, or want of bodily exercise, or by previous disease. The remedy prescribed is, to take a common pair of bellows, and a bellows-pipe fixed to its side, which is to be filled with inferior tobacco, and set fire to; one man holds the sheep between his legs, another parts the fleece in various places, and a third blows the tobacco-smoke on the skin, fumigating by degrees the whole body. The sheep must be kept some time in the open air after this. Ox-lice are to be expelled by washing with an infusion of Staphysagria powder and crushed pepper in strong vinegar. For lice in swine, use internally the black sul- phuret of mercury, mixed with salt, and wash the parts most infested with arsenic acid. Horse Bot. — The horse bot is the larva of a fly resembling a humble-bee, with two wings. The female lays her eggs on the shoulders, manes, and knees of horses, which they lick off and swallow. They hatch in the stomach, feed in the larva state all the winter on the mucilage, and in spring are found in the horse’s stomach, sometimes in great numbers. They resemble in size and form a date-stone, having two hooks at the fore end, with which they adhere to the inner coat of the stomach, often pen- (636) METAMORPHOSES OF THE WOOD-GIRDLING BEETLE, NOXIOUS INSECTS. 637 etrating from 4 to 4 an inch deep into the white insensible tissue, and become as if distorted by it. If numerous, they cause violent pain ; and, a8 they irritate the stomach, and extract a great deal of nourishment from the animal, they necessarily injure digestion. The American arbor vite, administered inwardly, and the expressed juice of the common elder, either alone or mixed with tar, will be found effectual in protecting cattle from bots and intestinal worms. The leaves and young shoots of the arbor vite are to be beaten in a mortar with a little water, and the juice expressed The horse is to take a quart, as a preventive remedy, every quarter of a year, on an empty stomach ; and if the animal is very ill, this quantity is to be given thrice a week. An effectual mode of preventing the introduction of the bots into the stomach is also said to be, the washing off the eggs from the knees, mane, and sides of the horses, or removing them with a pair of scissors. Fundament Bot. —The female of this bot lays her eggs on the lips of the horse, whence they are licked off and swallowed, and thus get into the stomach. The bot-fly itself is half an inch long, brown, unspotted wings, dark abdomen, with white base and reddish-yellow extremity. The larva resembles the preceding, and is also found with it in spring in the stomach of horses. Their color is not so red, their body has two rings less, and their hooks are longer and sharper. Their presence is known by the horse voiding them with excrement, or by their being found on the closing muscles of the anal opening. When thus convinced of their presence, injections of animal oil are applied, which kill the larve, and they are voided. Ox Warble. — This insect is larger than the house-fly, and resembles the humble-bee. It has brown, unspotted wings, and on the abdomen, which is covered at the end with reddish-yellow hair, a black band. The eggs are laid on the skin of the back of oxen, one atatime. The eggs are hatched by the animal heat, and the larve cause swellings, generally about the size of a pigeon’s egg, and are called warbles — worm-holes. The larva is without feet is dotted on the upper surface with very small grains, which 54 638 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. appear under the magnifier like short, triangular, yellow prickles, whick create an irritation in the skin of the cattle, and also transport the larva to another place, when it has left its first station. It lives in the tumor from August till the next June, then pushes itself through and falls to the ground. Usually only from four to five ‘tumors are found in one beast. Young, healthy, and fat cattle are most liable to be selected. The tumors may in many cases contribute to the health of the cattle, but when very numerous, the cattle grow lean, and the cows give less milk. ‘To rid cattle of this torment, enlarge the opening of the tumor with a knife, and press the sides of the swelling, when the larva protrudes itself. The wound must be kept clean, and heals without further remedy. Red Bot. — About the size of the honey-bee ; thorax rose-colored ; wings inspotted ; abdomen black at the base, whitish-gray, set with yellow hairs at the further end. ‘The female lays her eggs in the animal’s nostrils, and the larve cause an itching in these tender parts, — frequently get into the cavities of the gullet, and cause much pain. ‘They feed upon the mucus which they find in these parts, and when large enough tickle by their crawling, and are then thrown out by the sneezing of the animal. Sheep die when these insects are numerons in them. Sheep Bot. — The thorax in the winged insect is brownish-black and dotted with white; the abdomen white, spotted with gray and black; the forehead ash-gray, covered with many small, deep punctures; the wings shining and dotted at the base. Lives in sheltered places, where it is numerous in warm days. The females lay their eggs in the nostrils; more than three or four are seldom found in one sheep, but they produce the staggers, and torment the animal greatly. The symptoms of their presence are nausea, weakness, sneezing, slow pace, turning the head, holding it down, and pushing itself against the nearest object; a shining, pus-like matter flows from the nostrils, often adhering so firmly to the apertures as to close them up, and cause difficulty of breathing. Besides these, dulness and indifference, swelling of gums and mouth, ulceration and convulsions, are produced by it. It also makes the sheep turn round frequently, exactly as if they were infested with the hydatids, which occasion the disease called the gid. The hydatid worm appears in ]ambs, much seldomer in yearlings, and still more rarely in full-grown sheep; it causes no defluxion from the nose, no symptoms of a disease, no sneezing, staggering, &c. ; but the sick animal is lost without remedy. But in the disease caused by the sheep bot, the sheep in many cases cure themselves; the lambs are only attacked when out at pasture; and the diseased state of the pituitous vunic of the nose is 2 clear sign that it is the sheep bot, and not the hydatid worm, that affects them. ‘To remedy sheep thus affected, they are either NOXIOUS INSECTS. 639 taken out alive, by trepanning the skull, as for the hydatids, or an attempt is made, by injections into the nostril of animal oil diluted with water, to kill them. Do not put sheep in pastures infested with the flies of sheep bot. Horse Fly, or Forest Fly.— The fore-part of the body is depressed ; head triangular; abdomen large and roundish, somewhat resembling that of a spider,—hence it has also obtained the name of spider-fly. The thorax is speckled with buff; the other parts are brown; the blunt, membraneous wings lie crosswise over each other. It prefers the abdomen of the animals, and attaches itself firmly to it. These flies are produced, or increase very rapidly, on animals that are unclean, or are in bad condition ; and as they torment the animals very much, the following remedy must be applied, by which they can be got rid of inaday. Of mineral earth, take 8 oz., and of lard 1 lb., and make into a salve; rub it on here and there upon the hair, working it in with a wisp of straw. After twenty-four hours, wash off the salve with warm water in which brown soap has been dissolved. Keep the horse from getting cold. Sheep Tick. — This animal has no wings. The fore part of the body is very small ; abdomen thick-roundish, and proportionally very large. It sits sometimes on the skin of the sheep, under the wool, and sucks itself full of blood. Its color is pale red, the abdomen lighter, with an irregular white line on each side, and ared spot on the back. It lays only one egg, fastened to the wool; it is first white, then brown, and finally the perfect insect escapes from it. As a remedy for this insect, wash the infested sheep with a decoction of the crushed or bruised leaves of the common maple. Bird Spider Fly. — Scarcely half as large as the forest fly, apple-green flat above, and has small, transparent, black-veined wings. It is found both on large and small fowls, clings firmly to the skin under the feathers, and annoys by its greediness for blood. It is difficult to rid the birds of this insect, for it runs backwards and forwards so fast that it can scarcely be caught. It finds out the bird, even when covered with the hand, and creeps unperceived again under the feathers. Many, that are thought to be killed when taken from the bird, fly back immediately. , They leave the bird as soon as it is dead, as the head-louse leaves a human corpse. Cleanliness is the only remedy for this insect, and frequently sweeping and whitening the hen-house II. INSECTS WHICH INJURE GRAIN. Gibbous Ground Beetle. — This is a beetle whicn injures wheat, rye, and barley. The eggs are laid together, and not singly, oy the mother ; and the larve are, apparently, three years before they undergo their transformation. 640 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. The length of the full-grown larva is rather more than an inch; it is flat, narrow, and nearly of equal width througnout, the head is very flatly pressed, armed with strong forceps, like jaws. ‘To diminish their number, it is recommended to catch them by the hand, which may be done by chil- dren. The common net —a linen bag, stretched on a hoop of strong wire —may also be stretched at night on the corn, and the insects feeding on the ears be caught in it. In the day-time they must be looked for under stones and clods. In the autumn, when the first slight frosts set in, the farmer should plongh those fields which have had crops of wheat, barley, and rye, as deeply as possible. Many larvae which have by this time retired to their winter quarters will thus be turned up in a benumbed state, and will either be killed by the next frost or devoured by the crows and other birds in search of food. But this ploughing should be performed for many years successively, and by all the neighboring farmers simultaneously, or it will not be efficacious. Those fields which have been sown in autumn should be strewn with peat-ashes— when peat is to be had, and is used as fuel —in spring, when the supervening rains will disengage the sulphuric acid, which will kill the insects. German or Field Cockchaffer. — An insect injurious to the ears of wheat and rye. It has a square abdomen, rather flat; its whole length is half an inch, and its breadth one fourth of an inch; the color of the wing-cases is mostly brown, but sometimes a small square spot is seen at their base, and another larger saddle-like spot of the same color in their middle; the head and thorax of a dark-green ; the under side of the body and legs are black. These insects are found singly, or three or four together, sitting on the ears, and gnawing the still soft grains of rye, or of wheat. Crows, moles, and field-mice, are its greatest enemies. The perfect insect can only be diminished and destroyed by picking it off the plant. Children may be employed for this purpose, and must collect the insects in bags. The insects must be crushed or destroyed by putting hot water on them, and then given to the poultry, which will become very fat by feeding on them. The hand-picking must be early in the morning, while the dew is on the plants, as then the beetle hangs lazy and benumbed on the ears of corn. Lined Click Beetle, — Larva, the Wire-worm.— A beetle particularly inju rious to oats The larva of this beetle — known under the name of the wire-worm — appears sometimes in great numbers, devastating corn by attacking the roots. This larva is slender and linear, flat, shining, smooth, slightly hairy, and brown. It resembles the meal-worm. The beetle is blackish, with gray hairs; the feelers and legs are brownish-yellow, and the wing-covers striped with gray. The best means of destroying them is to mow the oats, and plough up the ground frequently, when :rows and NOXIOUS INSECTS. 641 other birds will pick up the larve. In Fig. 352, a is the larva of Elater segetis ; 6, under side of the terminal segment of the body ; c, the head seen from beneath ; d, perfect insect, natural size; e, magnified; f, larva of the true wire-worm ; g, the larva of ditto, as described by some writers, being another species. Winter or Dart Moth. — A moth that injures winter grain. The cater- pillar or larva of a moth, which, from its food in the larva state, is called the winter corn-moth, is one of the most troublesome of the insect tribe. This caterpillar attacks both the leaves and the roots of the corn; also the roots of lettuce, turnips, and spinach. It appears generally in August, sitting quietly on the ground in the day-time, and flying about and pairing at night. When at rest, its wings are folded together flat over the body, and it is then nearly an inch long, and half an inch wide. Its colors are dirty-gray, and dark brown, or earth-color, except on the under wings, which are covered as it sits, and which are sometimes whitish-gray, sometimes cream-color. On the upper wings a faint, blackish, ringlike mark is seen, and a cone-shaped spot on a wavy line, a kidney-shaped stain almost in the middle, and towards the lower edge two other wavy or notched transverse lines. The most simple and certain mode of extirpating the noxious seed-eating caterpillar from the soil is, to repair to the fields, and collect the caterpillars as soon as they ap- pear. ‘The only question is, how the hand-picking is to be set about, without spending time unnecessarily. A person unacquainted with the habits of the creature would seek for it in vain in his fields. They lie in the day-time under stones, clods, or buried in the earth; these must therefore be carefully turned up, in search of the enemy. When they are changing their skins, they come out of their lurking-places, even in the day-time, and can easily be gathered. Immediately after sunset they come out in great numbers, and 54* 2Q 642 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. feed greedily on the young corn. At this time, therefore, the work must be earried on vigorously, and even till late at night, with artificial light. White-line Dart Moth. — A moth injurious to buckwheat and autumn-sown grain. The caterpillar is upwards of an inch long, and of the thickness of a slender writing-quill. On the back it is dirty olive-green, with a mixture of yellow. The head is brown; the abdomen and feet are dirty-yellow. It lives in the day-time in the earth, coming out only at night. The remedies proposed are — hand-picking, applying a strong dressing of lime to the land in the spring, strewing the ground with ashes, rolling the fields with heavy rollers, and lastly, driving flocks of sheep over the field. Botys. — A moth, the caterpillar of which is injurious to millet. It is destroyed as follows: As soon as the millet is reaped and carried away, let the stubble be pulled up, and burnt in a heap, with the caterpillars in it. Corn Moth.— A moth injurious to grain laid up in magazines. The perfect insect or moth measures, from the head to the tips of the wings, from six to seven lines. ‘The body is brown, with a little white on the back ; the head has a thick tuft of whitish hairs; eyes black; upper wings more or less white, with brownish and dusky dots, varying in form and size. The most decided and certain mark is a spot of the same color at the base, followed by an almost square spot on the outer border ; behind this, in a slanting direction, runs a band-shaped spot almost through the whole breadth of the wings. Behind this are two dots on the anterior border, and just above the tips of the wings a larger brown spot. The posterior border is furnished with long brown and white mottled fringes. The under wings are smaller and shorter, brownish, with long fringes at the posterior edge. This insect appears as a moth in May, June, and July, in buildings where grain is stored; it rests in the day-time, and only flies about at night, attack- ing rye, oats, barley, and wheat. The remedies proposed are — to fill up the eracks and holes, sprinkle the floor with a mixture of strong white-wine vinegar and salt before laying up the corn, sweeping the floor and walls thoroughly before stowage, and, if the moth has laid her eggs on the grain, common salt may be mixed with the grain. Other remedies are recom- mended, such as garlic, tobacco, wormwood, hemp, hops, elder-flowers, turpentine, and brimstone. Corn Weevil.— A small insect, linear-shape, narrow rostrum, the elytra marked by impressed lines of dots. The female deposits her eggs upon corn in granaries, and the young larva at once burrows into the grain, of which it eats the interior. Various plans have been suggested for its destruction ; perfect ventilation and a constant shifting of the grain are great preservatives. Hessian Fly.— A small midge, injurious to wheat. Its body is covered with short black hairs; the thorax is much arched, smooth, and shining ; NOXIOUS INSEUTS. 643 the scutellum projecting, rounded posteriorly ; the breast sometimes golden- yellow; the abdomen brownish; the wings blackish ; the golden-yellow of the base is sometimes continued to the veins, where it appears lighter, and disappears by degrees about the middle. The halteres are yellowish-white ; Fig. 353. the legs golden-yellow at the base of the thigh. The female has a black streak on the abdomen. ‘The larva is spindle-shaped, and whitish; the posterior end suddenly diminished ; the head bent inwards, and transparent above. A short line is remarked within, which is the intestinal canal. It is dirty white below ; in younger specimens this coloring appears like nine spots on each side, and has a row of still smaller spots in the middle. When the larve are fully grown, they unite in regular segments round the wheat ; they are then provided with very small hooks or notches towards the head Their length is three twentieths of an inch, and their breadth one twentieth. The perfect insect appears in June, and perhaps later: the female lays from one to eight eggs, in the autumn. The only practicable mode of destroying this insect is to wait till the grain is reaped, and then burn the stubble in which the pupz lie concealed. If it should be impossible to do this, sow the fields next year with any other grain than wheat ; better, perhaps, not to sow wheat anywhere near them, that the flies may not carry their eggs there. Wheat Midge. — This is another small species of midge, injurious to wheat. When the wheat is in blossom, it is sometimes attacked by a small fly, of an orange-color, which lays its eggs in the middle of the blossom. When the eggs are hatched, the larve prevent the fructification of the grains, probably by eating the pollen. The perfect insect slightly resembles the common midge, but is smaller. The body is orange-yellow ; the wings clear and transparent, and hairy at the edges ; the eyes are black; the antenne neck- lace-shaped, longer than the thorax, and the feet rather long. The smallness of this insect, both in its larva and perfect state, with the circumstance ot the 644 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. @ destruction of the wheat when it is in blossom, allows of but little that can be effected by human aid. The safest and almost only certain means of Fig. 354. diminishing such an evil, for the next year, consists in not sowing wheat again on the same field, nor in its neighborhood. ‘The larve quit the wheat in August, and pass the winter in the ground. Ill. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CULINARY VEGETABLES. | Spring Beetle or Skip-jack.— Gardeners remark, often to their great | annoyance, that many newly-transplanted lettuces begin suddenly to wither and perish; this happens chiefly ir spring and summer. If we seek for the cause, we find in the roots of the withering plants a worm, which is the larva of one of the Elateride, which much resembles the meal-worm. It eats, by degrees, the root of the lettuce as far as the collar from which the leaves are developed. It is light yellow, from six to seven lines long, of the thick- ness of a pigeon’s quill; its body is cylindrical, somewhat flatly compressed at the head, rather pointed behind, with strong, black, and shining jaws. The pupa or nymph is shorter than the larva, paler in color, and thicker. The beetle, which is developed from the pupa in fourteen days, is from four to five lines long, one and a half lines broad, and has the usual form of spring beetles; it is slightly curved; head and thorax dark-brown; wing-cases yellowish, striped, with dots; the feelers are slender, notched, and yellow- ish-brown ; the under side of the body also brownish. ‘To get rid of this pest, pull up every plant that begins to wither, and kill the enemy within, _ or in the earth near the plant. Asparagus Beetle.—'There are two kinds. One is blackish-green, the thorax red with two black dots, yellow wing-cases, the suture and three gpots united to it on both sides black; and the other, called the Twelve- spotted Leaf-beetle, is red, the wing-cases lighter, each having six black NOXIOUS INSECTS. 645 dots ; the horns, eyes, breast, edge of the abdomen, tips of the thighs and palpi, black. The first-named is called the asparagus beetle. The larva is spindle-shaped, flat beneath, arched, fleshy, wrinkled, covered with single hairs, bordered at the sides, of an olive-color ; the head and legs black. The only remedy is to pick off and kill both beetles and larve. Earth-flea Beetles. —'This name is applied to several species of very small beetles, one of which is called the turnip-fly. They make great leaps, by means of their thick hind-legs ; color generally shining-green, with a brown or yellowish hue. ‘They attack cabbage, cauliflower, colewort, radish, cresses, flax, tobacco, hops, sainfoin, and summer and winter turnips. Shade, coolness, and rainy weather, are the surest protection of young plants from its attacks. The remedies are various. Pour boiling water on a hand- ful of fresh or dry wormwood, and let it stand from twelve to twenty-four hours, to get cold; then put the plants that are to be planted out into the decoction, with their leaves downwards as far as the stem, so that their roots may not be wet, and then put into a cellar, or some cool place, and in six to ten hours afterwards, they may be planted without risk of attack. Young plants and seed-beds may also be sprinkled with this infusion. Plants may also be rescued, by applying road-dust after dew has fallen. These two modes of remedy are also applicable to field cultivation. Mole Cricket, Churr Worm, Jarr Worm, Eve Churr, or Earth Crab. — This insect is very destructive to culinary vegetables, meadows, and corn- fields. When full-grown the mole cricket measures nearly two inches in length, and four lines in breadth. Its color is dark-brown ; head oval, small and longish ; two bristle-shaped and strong feelers ; thorax covered with fine woolly hair; wings very broad and triangular, when expanded; abdomen soft ; the two fore feet proportionally short, but broad and strong, adapted to dig in the earth. ‘The surest and most efficacious remedy is to destroy the brood in June or July. First pour water into their holes, and then a few drops of any sort of oil; they leave their holes when they feel the water, and when touched by the oil, die immediately. Also, pits may be dug, two or three feet deep and a foot wide; after the frost, all the mole crickets will collect in these for shelter, when they may be destroyed in heaps. Painted Field Bug.— A dangerous enemy to the cabbage tribe, particu- ‘arly in dry summers, since in its larva, as well as in its perfect state, it pierces the leaves, till it makes them like a sieve. The perfect insect is about one fourth of an inch long, and only a little less broad, and rather flat. Its ground-color is red or white, its upper side spotted with dark-green : head dark-green, bordered at the sides with red or white before the eyes. On the wing-covers, or upper wings, the dark color prevails; they are bordered with red or white as far as the terminal third part; this border is 646 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. wavy, and has a green spot. The under side is reddish or whitish; the turned-up edge of the abdomen is marked with dark-green spots, also, on both sides. The larva has nearly the same markings, and only differs from the perfect insect by its want of wings. The only way to destroy these insects is to pick them off and kill them. Plant Lice (Aphis).— 'These are especial enemies to various sorts of culinary vegetables. They, indeed. spare no plant; but they prefer juicy vegetables, — the different sorts of the cabbage tribe, peas, and beans. Ley and vapor of tobacco are recommended as the best means of killing the aphides, but these remedies cannot well be applied to culinary vegetables. Large Cabbage White Butterfly. —'The wings are white; upper wings with broad black tips, and the female has two black spots on the middle. The under side of the under wings is light-yellow. Appears from May to October. The caterpillar is bluish-green, thinly-haired, sprinkled with black dots, having a yellow stripe on the back, and some on the sides. Found on all sorts of cabbages, horse-radish, radishes, mustard, and similar plants, as well as on water-cresses. The pupe are yellowish-green, with black dots, with a point on the head, and five on the back. The best way to destroy them is picking off and killing the caterpillars, as well as the pupe, excepting those which have a brown appearance, as these are full of the larve of ichneumons, and other allied parasites, which are the great scourge of these caterpillars. Small White Butterfly. —'This resembles the former insect, but is smaller, and the black tint at the points of the upper wings is fainter, and not visible on the outer edge. ‘The caterpillar is of a dull green, with very fine hairs, yellow stripe on the back, and yellow spots on the sides, on a pale ground. In some years, it is very injurious to the cabbage and turnip plants. The pupa is yellowish, or greenish-gray, with three yellow stripes. Destroyed in the same manner as the foregoing insect. Green-veined White Butterfly. —The wings are white, with the tips of the upper ones black. The male has one black spot, the femalé two or three. ‘The veins on the outer edge of the female’s under wings are black. The under wings are yellow on the under side, with greenish-powdered veins. It flies about in April and July, and is of the size of the preceding. The caterpillar, which lives on the leaves of cabbages and turnips, is finely- haired, of a faint or brownish green, lighter at the sides, with reddish- yellow spiracles, small white warts, and black punctures. The pupa is yellowish-green, with points on the head, and its back is rather lighter than the foregoing species. Destroyed by the same means as the two preceding species. Gamma Moth.—The caterpillar of this moth is so plentiful in some NOXIOUS INSECTS. 647 vears that it does great damage to vegetables, peas, and various sorts of fodder-herbage. The ground-color of this moth is light, and dark-gray, mixed with rust-color. The head and collar are of brownish-gray, edged with light-gray lines, as well as the crested back and shoulders. The abdomen is yellowish-gray, with elevated brown tufts of hair. The upper wings are marbled, and have a metallic lustre ; the inner edge is wavy, and toothed near the fringes. The notched cross-lines are silvery ; towards the inner border is a shining mark, resembling the Greek letter gamma; the under wings are yellowish-brown at the base above the fringes, with black bands. The blackish-hrown pupa is inclosed in a white cocoon. The cater- pillar is green, beset with single hairs, has twelve feet, and a brownish- green head. On the back are four very small yellowish or whitish lines ; the feet have a yellow stripe. The spiracles are blackish-green. These caterpillars are found from spring to autumn, in a variety of generations. The only possible means of destroying them is by shaking them off and hand-picking. Cabbage Moth. — The caterpillar of the cabbage moth isa great enemy to different sorts of culinary vegetables. The moth is of middling size, one inch and a half broad, when the wings are extended; its head, collar, and Fig. 355. back, are blackish-gray, intermixed with whitish and yellowish hairs. The back has a thick double crest; the abdomen is dark ash-gray, the upper half beset with black tufts in the middle. The upper wings are gray, with a mixture of yellow and white ; the under wings are light gray, with dark veins, and central spots,— blackish towards the outer edge. The moth appears in May and June, sits in the day-time, and flies only at night. The 648 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. caterpillar is green, more or less covered with gray or black ; it has a dark stripe on the back, on which there is a pale, indistinct line. Above, it is sometimes furnished with dark or pale spots, placed lengthwise. At the sides is a dirty-yellow stripe, which becomes reddish above ; close above this spot are two white spiracles, surrounded with black, each in a small black spot. When this caterpillar is numerous, it does considerable damage to cabbages, lettuces, &c., by eating out the heart. It appears in July, August and September. To look for them and kill them is a troublesome, but the only sure way of getting rid of them. White Line Brown-eyed Moth. —The caterpillar of this moth sometimes does a great deal of damage to different sorts of culinary plants, in the same manner as the moth last described. The moth is dark rusty brown; the feelers have white scales ; abdomen ash-gray, with brown tufts; feet gray- ish-brown, yellow-ringed below; the fore wings have no connected cross- lines; the round middle spot is surrounded with white; the under wings are ochre-yellow, or dirty-white, with darker shades towards the whitish fringes. The reddish or yellowish brown caterpillar has on the back, and on each side, a dark stripe, and a whitish one nearly over the feet; the under side and feet are light-brown ; it is dotted with black between the dark stripes. The pupa is shining reddish-brown, and remains in the earth during winter. Destroyed only by hand-picking. Cabbage-garden Pebble Moth. — Of the family Pyralide, a small group of moths, this species only deserves to be mentioned, as its caterpillar some- times greatly injures several sorts of vegetables. The head, back, and upper wings of the moth, are hazel-brown, and brownish-gold ; the feelers light- brown; the abdomen and under wings whitish. The first brood flies in May, and the second in August. The caterpillar is found in May and June, and the second generation in the fall.. It has a light-brown head, and a yellowish-green body, with blackish stripes running lengthwise, and black- ish dots, having fine white lines between. Its length is about two thirds of an inch. Destroy by shaking them off and burying immediately, or killing. Carrot Moth.—'The caterpillar of this small moth is a great enemy of carrots. The moth has a head and back reddish-brown, with single black atoms; abdomen and feet ash-gray, the former with white incisions ; the upper wings are of a reddish-brown color; there are also black streaks and white atoms, and fringes which surround an indistinct row of dots; the under wings are of ash-gray, lightest nearer the base, with yellowish fringes ; on the under side, the upper wings are dark, the under wings light- gray. ‘The caterpillar lives on carrots, and eats the flower and seeds. It is greenish-gray, inclining to yellow, strewed with black tubercles, emitting hairs ; the head and upper side of the thorax are browr. It attains the De a a aT | NOXIOUS INSECTS. 649 length of half an inch. The means of its destruction are simply hand-pick- ing. Roesel’s Tinea. ~The little caterpillars of this moth sometimes do sensi- ble injury to the choicest vegetables. The caterpillars are yellowish-green ; head shining blackish-brown. Look for them, and kill them. Onion Fly.— The larva or maggot of a small fly, damaging the various sorts of onions. The perfect insect or fly is entirely of an ash-gray color in the female, or with black stripes on the back of the male, the wings clear like glass, with yellowish-brown veins. In the figure, a is the grub or larva; b, magnified; c, pauparium, within which is the real pupa; d, Fig. 356. magnified ; e, perfect insect magnified ; the cross-lines showing the natural size. The fly lays her eggs on the leaves of the onion, close .o the earth ; the newly-hatched maggot bores through the first leaf, and then descends between the leaves into the onion to its base, when it entirely destroys the bulb, which soon becomes rotten. To destroy them, strew ashes and pounded charcoal; also remove all the infested onions early out of the beds, before the flies are developed; and these onions are easily known by their outward leaves turning yellow. Cabbage Fly. —This is another small fly, which attacks the cabbage. The perfect insect is ash-gray ; the thorax has three indistinct black streaks on the back ; the wings are clear, like glass; the abdomen is linear, with black stripes on the back of the male, or entirely ash-gray on the female ; the length is three lines. The larva much resembles that of the onion fly, but is thicker. The only way of diminishing this destructive fly is to pull up, and carry away betimes, the plants attacked by the larve, which may be known by their dull lead-color, and the withering of their leaves in the sun- shine. Lettuce Fly. —This fly is rather smaller than the former ; it is blackish ys) 650 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. brown ; the under part and sides of the segments of the abdomen varying gray ; length nearly one fourth of an inch. It flies in July. The larva resembles the former, but is smaller and smoother, and its color varies more into yellow. It destroys lettuce-seeds, and other salad plants. It is almost impossible to get rid of these insects. Negro Fly. — This insect, in its perfect state, is slightly haired, shining black, rather of a metallic-green ; head reddish-yellow ; legs light-yellow ; balancers white ; wings clear, like glass: one sixth of an inch long. The larva lives in the carrot, particularly near the extremity of the main root. The carrots die off by degrees, or at least lose their sweet taste, and become rusty, by the passages of the maggots. ‘The larva of the carrot fly is cylin drical, pointed anteriorly, like parchment, shining, smooth, bare, pale-yel- low. The only way to diminish their number is to pull up the sickly infested carrots, known by their yellow outer leaves and early withering, and to destroy the insects contained in them, before they change into pupe. Iv. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, SHRUBS, AND VINES. Black-veined White Butterfly, or Hawthorn Pontia. — 'This is a four-winged insect, which only flies by day, seeks its necessary food, and fulfils the work of propagation. It is large, wholly white, excepting that the ribs or veins Fig. 357. of the wings, and a short oblique stripe from the second to the third vein of the upper wings, are black, which distinguishes it from the cabbage butter- fly. Eggs shining, yellow, cylindrical ; the newly-hatched caterpillars are dirty-yellow, and covered with hair ; the head is black, and there is a black ting round the neck and a brownish stripe on both sides. ‘The first warm NOXIOUS INSECTS. 651 unshine in spring, which causes the sap to flow, entices the caterpillars to leave their nest; and as the blossom-buds begin to shoot, they are attacked and consumed, as are also the leaf-buds. At the second change of their skin, the caterpillars acquire two rows of yellow spots down the back, close to and between which extends a black line ; the back is covered with yel low and white hairs, and from the black stripes on the sides extend oblique ash-gray stripes, parallel to each other, to the upper side of the body. There is also a third change, when the caterpillars have a black stripe in the mid- dle of the back, which extends to the posterior part of the body ; the yellow dots, to which the yellow hairs were attached, are not so perceptible, and the white hairs become more thinly scattered. The pupa is whitish- yellow, beset with black dots and stripes. At the beginning of June, the butterfly appears and propagates its species. The best way of destroying these caterpillars on low fruit-trees is by seeking out the eggs or young caterpillars, on the branches, and killing them. The hawthorn butterfly prefers the lower apple-tree, to lay her eggs on ; and they may be seen on the leaf, conspicuous from their shining yellow color, while the caterpillars are betrayed by their web, and the adjacent gnawed leaves. When there | are no low trees, the high ones will be infested ; and in this case, the mode of destruction must be delayed till the leaves have fallen off, when the nests of the caterpillars will become visible. Lastly, a person provided with a butterfly-net can take the insect on the blossoms of plants and shrubs, on which it delights to sit in June, and suck the honey. Yellow-tailed Moth. — This is a destructive insect in the orchard, the larve of the moth often infesting fruit-trees to such a degree that not a leaf or fruit remains uninjured. It flies about at night, and in the day-time sits quietly on a leaf, or on a wall, and suffers itself to be caught in the hand. The posterior part of the body is covered with a round mass of golden yellow hair ; its fore wings are dazzling white, as is also the greater part of its body, only the principal vein of the fore wing of the male is brown on its under side, and sometimes has a few black dots on its wings. The male has a smaller abdomen, a smaller tuft of hair on the tail, and strongly- teethed feelers or horns. The moth appears in June, and propagates, the eggs being lain on the under side of the leaf, covered with hair. The cater- pillars are usually hatched in July; they are dirty-yellow, black-headed, with a black ring round the neck, thickly-haired, and four rows of blackish dots on the back. They feed on the membrane of the leaf. They change their skins in August ; cease feeding in September, and become benumbed in November, passing the winter in their nest. Before the buds on the trees have begun to burst in spring, some of the caterpillars come out of their nests, and eat the unfolded leaves; at the end of April, they change their 652 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. skins for the second time, and again in May, when they become reddish- brown, marked on both sides with white spots, as far as the extremity of the body, which is thickly set with hair along the back ; they now disperse over the different fruit-trees in the garden. To destroy them, the means are —- the destruction of the eggs, killing the caterpillars soon after their birth ; collect the pupe at a later period, pursue the moth in July.and August, take their nests from the trees in autumn and spring, and seek out and destroy the half-grown caterpillars in their new webs in May. Lackey, or Barred Tree Lackey Moth.— 'The caterpillar of this moth attacks all kinds of trees. The perfect insect is rarely seen, as it only flies at night, and conceals itself during the day. This moth is of the middle size ; the male, which is usually smaller than the female, measures, with spread wings, from tip to tip, from one to one and a fourth inches. The ground- color of the whole insect is either light-yellow, or reddish-yellow ochre ; the upper wings have always a darker band in the middle, which is bordered by two lighter cross-lines ; the fringes are whitish, and brown-spotted ; the under wings are always of a uniform color, light-yellow or brownish ; the horns are strongly teethed in the male, which has also a thinner abdomen. This moth usually appears in July. In spring, the caterpillars are devel- oped about the first of May, and they live in society till the third molting They are usually met with early in the morning, or on rainy days, at the forks of the twigs in a large nest, closely spun over with a silky substance and, when disturbed, they let themselves down by threads to the ground, and disperse. In the month of June, the caterpillar is fully grown ; it is often an inch in length, soft, thinly-haired, striped with blue, red, and yellow, — hence its fanciful name, — with a white line down the back; the head is bluish-gray, marked with two black spots. To get rid of this insect, crush the whole colony, in May, with a stick, or sweep them down into a pot and destroy them. From the middle of June, and during July, search should be made for their cocoons, which will be found either fastened between two leaves, on trees or shrubs, or lying in the roofs of houses, on the tops of walls, or in hedges ; — tread on these cocoons. On low fruit-trees, the rings of eggs may be discovered, after some practice, when the leaves have fallen off; and, when found, they must be removed from the tree and burnt. Gypsy Moth. — Early in spring, before the leaves of the fruit-trees are fully out, the little caterpillars are hatched, and spread over the bursting buds ; the head is large yellow spotted ; six pair of red dots on the hinder part of the back ; tufts of hair on each side of the body, and single hairs on the back. After changing their skin, a pair of blue tubercles appear on the fore part of the back, —that is, on each of the first four figments of the body, by which they may be identified at once. ‘Towards the end of June, the NOXIOUS INSECTS. 653 caterpillars form their cocoons on the fruit-trees ; the moth appears in August ; the males are dark-brown, and their fore wings have three or four undulating blackish stripes ; the females are whitish-gray, their fore wings traversed by brownish stripes. The moth lays her eggs in various places in the fall. To get-rid of these insects, first find out the egg masses, and crush them. As they are large, and usually in open places, we cannot avoid see- ing them, if we look carefully, which should be done in autumn, or early in spring, before the caterpillars are hatched. Goat Moth. —The caterpillar of this moth lives on the wood, instead of the foliage of the trees, thus materially injuring it. It is very large, smooth and shining, with here and there single hairs. It is dark-red on the back, also on the spiracles situated at both sides ; the sides and lower part of the body are flesh-colored ; the head is black, the first segment also marked with black above. It discharges a corrosive fluid at its persecutors, and also diffuses an extremely offensive smell. After remaining more than two years in the larva state, and casting its skin eight times, the caterpillar becomes of a light ochre-yellow hue shortly before pupation, which usually takes place in spring. The abdomen of the pupa is yellow, and the seg- ments are deeply indented, and capable of much extension. The cocoon is situated immediately within the opening of the tree, so that the pupa, when matured, can press itself half out of the hole, when the shell bursts, and the moth comes forth usually in June or July. It is difficult to apply any rem- edies. ‘When the existence of one of these creatures in a trunk is ascer- tained, by the extruded excrement, relief comes too late for the tree, even if the caterpillar may be killed ; still, the caterpillar show!d be reached, if possible, by enlarging the opening with a garden-knife, or endeavor to kill it by thrusting a piece of pointed wire up the hole of the tree. Wood Leopard Moth. — This insect injures the trunks of trees in the same manner as the foregoing, to which it perfectly assimilates in its habits, and is destroyed by the same means. It is smaller, however ; is hatched in August, molts in September, and is full-grown the next June. From its first existence till its transformation, it is yellow, with raised, shiny black dots, ‘on each of which there is a fine short hair; there are two black spots on the head. The moth appears in August ; its ground-color is white, with scattered steel-blue dots; it measures, with spread wings, two inches and a half. Figure-of-8 Moth. — This insect feeds on the foliage of fruit-trees. In June, when almost full-grown, this caterpillar measures nearly two inches ; it is very juicy, of a yellowish-green color, with black tubercles; it has a very small bluish head, with two black round spots on it. When young, it ‘s lighter, and is often nearly white on the back ; but when old, becomes of 55 * 654 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. a bluish color. The pupa is small, cylindrical, reddish-brown, dull, in some degree powdered with blue; the moth appears in October, or in the following spring. ‘The perfect insect or moth measures, with spread wings, from tip to tip, about one and three fourths inches. The whitish- yellow spot in the middle of the fore wings, which is divided by three incisions at the sides, and is situated between two blackish, undulated cross- lines, has been sometimes compared to the figure 8. A white wavy line forms a small white spot behind the second stripe at the anal angle; the toothed external edge has ash-gray, shining fringes, bounded with a line ; the under wings, which are ash-gray, have a dull middle spot, and an indis- tinct band, with a small, black, streaky spot at the anal angle ; the color of the feelers, which are toothed in the male, and filiform in the female, is rusty-brown ; the thorax above is the same colr as the fore wings, and the abdomen, with the extremity of the body, — which in the male has a tuft of hair, and in the female is cylindrical and downy, — is of the same color as the hinder wings. To destroy or diminish these insects, hand-pick them as soon as they appear. ‘This is best done in rainy weather, when they take refuge under the branches and on dry places of the stem. Their presence can be detected by their rather elevated oval form, and they may be destroyed by the garden-knife, or a piece of wood. Lunar Spotted Pinion Moth. — The caterpillars of this moth are rather thick and fleshy, light-green, with a whitish stripe along the back, and two darker lines along the sides; on the segments are whitish-yellow warts, furnished with fine, small hairs; over the feet and along the first three segments runs a ‘yellow stripe, bordered with black. As soon as the fruit- trees are in leaf, this insect is on hand. They are fully grown about the first of June, and become pupz of a blue, frosted appearance, on the trees themselves. In a few weeks the moth comes out; the fore-wings are brownish-red, with several undulating dark-brown transverse lines, and also have a whitish semi-circular spot, nearly at the tip; near to this, almost at the outer edge, is a rather large black spot ; the under wings are light-gray, rather darker towards the fringes, which are yellow. ‘To get rid of the insect, throw them down, by shaking the branches. The moths also usually fall from the tree, if the branches are struck in June and July. Winter Moth. — The green-looped caterpillar produced by this moth is a ruinous insect to fruit-trees. It appears late in the autumn, and proceeds from a light-brown pupa, which lies from June to the end of October, either a few inches under the earth, or under stones and clods. The male is winged, — the female is almost wingless; the male is of a yellowish-gray, with pale-gray wings, traversed with delicate, darkish cross-lines; the female has a much thicker body, of an ash-gray color. It is a nocturnal NOXIOUS INSECTS, insect ; the eggs are laid singly, at the top of the tree, and are small and greenish. The caterpillars are ha.ched in spring, are at first gray, and then light-green; black head, without ventral feet. They devour the Jeaves, buds, and fruit, and occasionally the trees do not recover for some time. The winter moths do not all appear in autumn, but many of them lay their eggs on the trees in the following spring. ‘To prevent their attacks, it is recommended to surround the base of the stem with a wooden frame, or box, and daub it on the outside with tar; others recommend the placing of a layer of bird-lime around the trunk of the tree, which is said to have equal effect, and does not require daily renewing. Pale Brindled Beauty Moth. — It appears very early on the fruit-trees, — generally on the pear. The male is rather large; the fore-wings are greenish-gray, covered with fine brownish dots, and traversed by interrupted gray cross-stripes, interspersed with whitish spots between; the hind- wings are more or less white, and through the middle of them runs a brownish wavy cross-stripe ; before the fringes is another gray, dark stripe ; the body of the male is also grayish-green, with long hairs; the female is without wings, small, coffee-brown, with angular tufts of fine hair, and long feet, annulated with white and brown. In March, the female deposits her eggs on a small side-twig, in rows downwards, covering them with long gray hairs. As soon as the leaves begin to unfold on the twigs, the young caterpillars are hatched. a 356 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. Lime Looper, or Mottled Umbre Moth. — Takes its name from the lime- tree, on which it likes to feed, as also on fruit-trees. This caterpillar, when full-grown, is of a reddish color, and has a yellow stripe on each ude. It goes into the earth in May or June, and is transformed into a brownish-red pupa. The moth comes out of the earth in the beginning of November, and lays her eggs on a fruit-tree. The male is as large again as that of the winter moth; its broad fore wings are of a reddish-yellow, covered with blackish dots; the under wings are dirty-white, dotted with brown, and in the middle of the wings is a black dot. The female has no wings, is much larger than that of the winter moth; the head and body are whitish, covered with black streaks and dots, and the feet annulated with yellow and black. 'To guard against its ravages, the same contrivance as for the winter moth is to be resorted to, or strike the branches of the tree with a long pole in May, to throw down the caterpillars. Small Ermine Moth. — This is a small, nocturnal, four-winged insect ; the feet, feelers, abdomen, and fore wings, are white, — the latter covered with about twenty black dots ; the under wings are blackish. The female lays her eggs, at the end of June or first of July, near a blossom-bud, or a leaf-bud. ‘The caterpillars are hatched the same autumn, and as soon the next spring as the leaves of the apple-trees begin to be formed, these cater- pillars take possession of them. The caterpillars mature about the middle of June, when they are dirty-yellow, or lead-color, with a black head; and on the side of each abdominal segment is a longish black spot, and near it small dots, each furnished with a hair. In June the moths are found on the fruit-trees. They may be taken from the tree by the hand, and destroyed. Codling Moth. — A small, reddish-white grub, met with in early apples or pears. ‘The fore wings have a light-gray ground, on which are scattered many delicate streaks of a dark hue, intermixed with others that are broad and cup-shaped. On the posterior border of the fore wings is a large red- dish-brown spot, surrounded by a golden mark in the form of a horse-shoe. The hind wings are of a sparkling brownish-red, inclining to yellow, and are surrounded on the outer border by a broad, light fringe. The thorax and abdomen are of yellow and brownish-gray. This moth is to be seen in the evening, in May, on the apple and pear trees, busily depositing its eggs, either on the calyx, or in the hollow part of the fruit at the stalk end. In favorable weather, the little grubs are hatched in a few days, so that in May apples and pears are infested by them. At first the grub is white, with a black head and collar, and black, slanting double dots, which run in four rows from the head to the abdomen; it afterwards becomes more of a flesh-color, the head and collar turning brown, the dots gray and indistinct. NOXIOUS INSECTS. 657 The little grub immediately becomes a pupa in the web, and in a few daye the moth comes out, which shortly pairs, and deposits eggs on the fruit. To diminish this insect in some degree, collect the fallen apples every day, and take them out of the garden; also remove all fruit from the tree which has grubs in it, and clear the trees of all loose bark, before the middle of April. e Red Grub of the Plum. —Injurious to the early plums. It produces a moth ; its fore wings are black, changing to a metallic hue in the sun; on the outer edge of the fore wings, and reaching up, there is the appearance of very fine silver dust; the black spot on the extreme point of the fore wings is surrounded with a white border, and has the appearance of an eye. This moth appears in June; the eggs are hatched when the weather Lecomes warm; in July, the grub penetrates deeply into the plum, and the outward wound, which it made in entering, soon heals up, and the plum becomes filled with the excrement of the caterpillar. There are few means in our power to destroy this insect. The tree must be shaken, and every plum which falls must be removed. Also remove the loose or split bark. Red Bud Caterpillar. —'The moth which proceeds from this is somewhat larger than the one above described, has a white, broad, transverse band, studded with gray spots, extending through the middle of the fore wings from one edge to the other, and occupies more than a third part of their whole surface ; the other parts of the fore legs are gray. It is found on the fruit-trees in May; lays its eggs in June, which hatch the next spring, and attack the buds. A honey-drop is not unfrequently seen on the bud, which, issuing from the wound made by the insect, is evidence that it will expand no more; should no sap, however, issue from the wound, the bud will con- tinue to grow, with the little caterpillar in it. The caterpillar attains its full size in four or five weeks; it then spins itself a white cocoon, in which it changes to a light-brown pupa, and appears again in Mayasa moth. To . diminish the number of this insect, we must search for the caterpillar on the fresh flower-buds, taking it out with a penknife ; if we search for all the closely-adhering leaf and flower buds on the dwarf trees, during the blossoming season, and separate them, no bud-eating caterpillars will escape us 2 Plum-tree Tortrix.— This larva, when fully grown, is about one fourth of an inch long, of a dirty-green color, with a red head, and is the cater- pillar of a very small moth. It has three pairs of feet, and five pairs of fleshy prolegs. The body is sprinkled with a few small hairs. The larva lurks, during nearly the whole year, under the bark of the trees; the per- fect insect appears first in June, and again in harvest: The female lays her 2R 658 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. eggs on the outer bark, from which the young caterpillars, by degrees, pen- etrate to the inner bark. To prevent the moth from laying her eggs on the tree, or to prevent the caterpillars from entering the inner bark, wash the stem of the tree with a solution of lime, in June and September ; also brush the tree, and when there is seen the smallest heap of red dust, introduce a needle, wire, or knife, into the opening,.and destroy the larva. ‘The moth, which, on account of its size and color, is difficult to be caught, is about half an inch long ; fore wings dark-brown and yellow; silvery lines and yellow spots on the front edge ; a dark-brown stain on the upper part of the wings, softened off at the edges, and surrounded by three red lines; the under hind wings are brown. The pupa is brown, and lies under the bark. Copper-colored Weevil. — Among those insects which feed on fruits is the copper-colored weevil, Curculio, or Rhynchites cupreus. It is somewhat larger than the apple weevil, and its horny wing-cases are furrowed and metallic copper-colored. Its body and feet are of a somewhat deeper shade, and its proboscis and feelers are black. It appears in spring, on different fruit-trees; also called the plum-borer. When the plum is nearly the size of a large almond, the female weevil selects one in which to lay her eggs; and as soon as this is done, she cuts through the stalk with her pro- boscis, and by various cunning means causes the plum to drop off. The egg does not remain long dormant in the plum or the ground, for, if the weather is favorable, the larva is hatched in a few days, and it then pro- ceeds to eat the pulp of the plum, which it does in about six weeks ; and, being now fully grown, it buries itself in the earth, and awaits its transform- ation in the next spring, when it appears as a beetle, and again begins the work of regeneration. It is very difficult to catch these beetles on the trees, but much easier to destroy their young. Pick up the fallen plums, and frequently shake the trees, from June to July. However strong the wind may be, it seldom throws down healthy, half-grown plums. Bacchus, or Purple Apple Weevil.— This beetle is of a purple and gold color, with dark blue proboscis, feelers, and tarsi. Its size is various. It is found early in spring on the apple-tree ; begins the work of regeneration in midsummer, by boring a hole in the apple, laying an egg at the entrance, and pushing it inside with its proboscis, covering the hole in an ingenious manner; it proceeds in this way, depositing three or four eggs in different parts of one apple, and then leaves for another. The grub, which is whit- ish, with a black head, is hatched in a few days, and at once begins to eat the apple, and makes a passage to the surface, to throw cut its excrement or admit more air. The larva is full-grown in three or four weeks, and, uke the larva of all weevils, has no feet. It leaves the apple when ready NOXIOUS INSECTS. 659 for transformation, conceals itself in the earth, and reappears the next spring as the weevil. To lessen their number, pick up and remove the injured pierced apples; also shake the trees well in June and July, to throw down the beetles and kill them. Stem-boring Weevil. — This is a small beetle, entirely of a blue-steel, or a steel-green, shining, metallic color. As soon as the blossom and leaf buds begin to unfold, the beetle appears on the trees. The female selects a suitable part of the shoot, and bores to its middle ; she then places herself over the entrance, lays an egg, pushes it into the proper place, and then, by piercing and cutting the shoot, causes it to fall; after this is done, she rests and feeds, and then bores another hole, if there be room, near the first, and lays another egg, and this operation is busily continued for some weeks. The egg in the shoot is hatched in about eight days, and a white grub, with a black head, then appears, feeding on the pith of the shoot ; it is full-grown in a month, and then buries itself in the earth till spring, when it again appears as a steel-blue colored weevil; and when the tree begins to sprout, it gets upon it, and propagates its species. To diminish the number of these insects, look out for the full-grown insect, which is easily taken at the time of pairing, and is clearly seen by the splendid steel-blue color Dexterity is necessary in capturing them. As we cannot, however, remove all of them, the ‘shoots that lie on the ground, or which stil! hang on the tree, which have been attacked, must be collected and destroyed. Many of these kinds of beetles, about half the size of the one mentioned, lay their eggs in the pith of the petiole instead of the shoot; the female puncturing it to the right and left of the part where the egg is deposited, causing the leaf to wither and fall off; the grub then taking up its abode in the earth, and changing to a beetle. These leaves, which may be known by their rum- pling up and becoming withered, ought to be taken off and destroyed as soon as possible. , Apple Weevil. — A small beetle; wing-cases dark-brown, with whitish gray stripes; its rostrum, eyes, and under part of abdomen, black. It appears as soon as the sap is in motion in the trees in spring; and when the blossom-buds are pretty full of sap, the eggs are deposited, and the grubs are hatched, early or late in April, according to the weather. It bores a hole with its proboscis into the best blossom-buds; the female then fixes herself at the entrance, lays an egg, and pushes it into the hole; this oper- ation is afterwards repeated on the same or on fresh buds; the grub or larva often comes out on the fifth or sixth day, and commences to devour the innermost parts of the blossom ; but the blossom-bud continues to swell, and the petals to open, till it is almost expanded ; but all at once its growth ceases, because not merely the blossom, — that is, the stamens and pistils of 660 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. the flower, — but the receptacle itself on which they stand, is devoured. The petals, therefore, which remain partially closed, forming a kind of cap, Fig. 359. wither by degrees, and at last appear scorched. To lessen the number of the apple weevils, remove all loose stones, and the leaves which fall in autumn ; clear away the loose or broken bark; and on dwarf trees, take the pierced blossoms from the trees when the flower-cap begins to be formed, and before it appears burnt. Pear Weevil. — While the apple weevil contents itself with only single blossoms of the apple-trees, this one attacks blossoms, blossom-buds, and Fig. 360. leaf-buds, together. If a pear-tree is examined at the time of blossoming, many buds will be seen to be brown at the points, and on nearer inspection, there will be found a dirty-white rugose maggot, with a dark-brown head, which in time is changed to a small weevil. Early in spring the female lays her eggs in the buds, causing them to become brown, and then to fall off when the insect is perfect. Should their attacks become too numerous, take off the pierced buds and burn them; also shake the trees early in spring, spreading a white cloth under the trees, so that the fallen insects may be seen; also bind strips of paper covered with tar around the stems, to prevent the beetles ascending. Oblong Weevil. — This is one of a class of small, destructive beetles. It has a short rostrum; its head, thorax, and body, are black; its feelers and feet reddish, and its elytra furrowed, and reddish-brown or blackish. It appears early in spring, and selects the best leaves of fruit-trees. ‘They pair in spring; in June, the female lays her eggs in the earth, and the grub NOXIOUS INSECTs. 661 that is produced feeds on the routs of plants, passes the winter in the earth, and, in the spring, appears transformed into a beetle. They shouid be watched in the spring, and, with caution, may then be caught by the hand. Red-footed Beetle. — Another small insect, feeding on the leaves of fruit- trees. It is shining black throughout, except its red feet; the tips of the feelers are black, and the basal part reddish. It appears generally in May, und continues a long while. It may be caught by the hand. Garden Beetle. —The Melolontha (or'’ Anisoplia) horticola is another leaf-eating beetle. It is larger than the oblong weevil; its wing-cases are, red-brown, but somewhat shining, and not reaching to the extreme point of the body. Its body, thorax, and head, are dark-green ; its feelers reddish, with a dark-green, strongly-cleft terminal club. They appear somewhat later than the one just mentioned. The female lays her eggs in the earth, and the larve, when hatched, feed on the roots of plants, are transformed to beetles, and appear again as such in the spring. It feeds on the leaves of fruit-trees, and is particularly injurious to the apples, because it feeds on them when they are very small. When numerous, they often gnaw all the leaves till they resemble a sieve, thus checking the growth of the tree, and causing the fruit to fall. As these insects are tolerably large, they are easily seen, and can be removed with comparatively little difficulty. Apple-bark Beetle. — So called, because it prefers the apple-tree in which to deposit its eggs. It is small; head and thorax black ; the extremity of the palpi and feelers reddish ; the longish wing-cases blackish, and some- what hairy; the feet dilated, and of a reddish-yellow ; the thighs black. When the female finds a suitable place, she bores a completely round hole in the tree, penetrating to the centre, the minute particles of wood thrown out serving as a sign of the insect’s presence. At the end of the entrance, snow-white, longish eggs are laid, which are also the characteristics of the larve that are hatched in May. The larve grow very rapidly. This vari- ety of insect belongs to a tribe of beetles whose economy is well known, and in which the larve of all the species whose habits have hitherto been noticed burrow beneath the bark, devour the soft inner bark, or wood beneath the bark, and form distinct channels, diverging from the piace where the eggs were deposited. The only way to destroy them is to cut off the branches infested with their eggs; and should the trunk be also attacked, the whole tree had better be cut down and conveyed away. Small-bark Beetle. —This beetle is the Scolytus hemorrhous. It is black, the ends of the wing-cases generally reddish ; the feet brownish-red, and the wing-cases furrowed lengthwise, and distinctly spotted. They make small holes in the stem, penetrating deep into the bark. It is evident, that when any tree is attacked by this insect in great numbers, it must 56 662 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. perisn, because no tree can continue to grow with an injured bark and pierced sapwood. The insects cannut easily be eradicated, or, at least, diminished in numbers, but by removing the trees attacked by them. Common Elm-destroying Scolytus— An insect allied to the apple-tree scolytus, committing ravages on fruit and other trees. The perfect insect or beetle is small, cylindrically formed, and tolerably firm to the touch. The head and thorax form the principal part of its body. hey are black and shining, finely and thickly dotted, the former covered with short yellowish- gray hairs; the feelers are light pitch-brown, ending in a knob; the wing- cases are, as it were, obliquely cut off behind, and at the base near the thorax somewhat hollowed, — are marked in lines which are dotted, as are also the'spaces between them, — their color is pitch-brown ; the abdomen, from the base to the apex, is as if slantingly lopped off, and, like the thorax, of a dark pitch-brown, thickly dotted; the legs are reddish-brown, with the second joint tolerably broad. The larva is yellowish-white, with a large shining head, a brown mouth, and a whitish-transparent swelling between the head and the first ring on the throat. They confine themselves to the inner bark, destroying that part by degrees, and causing the tree, or some of its branches, to perish. The only remedy is to fell and carry off the trees attacked, and burn them, in the autumn, in winter, or in early spring, at the time when the insect is still in the larva state. Plum Saw-fly.— The green gage and round plums are sometimes attacked, when hardly the size of a pea, causing them to fall off, by a saw- fly, which makes use of the pulp as food for her offspring. It resembles the house-fly, but has four wings; the head and body are black, and the feet reddish-yellow. As soon as the blossom-buds begin to expand, the insect appears, pairs, and then begins to lay its eggs, — selecting the largest kinds of plums, — in the upper part of the green envelope of the blossom, cutting in and piercing it through, and immediately introduces the egg into the deep- est part. The egg is small, and is hatched in a few days, appearing a delicate whitish larva, with a dark-brown head, six pairs of middle feet, three pairs of fore feet, and one pair of anal feet. It fixes itself in the centre of the plum-stone, which it eats; in six weeks it is fully grown, and the plum then drops to the ground, the insect buries itself in the earth till the next spring, when it appears again as a perfect saw-fly, ascends the plum- tree, and continues its species. To diminish the number of this insect, take the plums infested by the larva from the tree, and destroy them ; — these are known by a small black opening in the plum;—also pick up and convey away all the plums that fall. Pear Saw-fly. —This insect attacks the pear-tree to lodge her young there It measures, from the front of the head to the extreme point of the ee NOXIOUS INSECTS. 663 body, } of an inch and one sixth in breadth. Its long feelers consist of numerous joints, the basal part of which is very thick and long, the second much thinner and shorter, and the third the longest. The head is black, with a yellow triangular spot between the feelers; the breast and the upper side of the thorax are quite black; the first abdominal segment likewise black, but surrounded with yellow; the other segments are orange-yellow from the plates to the two edges, by which the upper part of the abdomen is united to the belly ; these plates are of a light-yellow color; the wings look glossy, with a dark-brown mark round the edge, and an obscure kind of stripe, which extends across the whole breadth ; the three pairs of feet are of an orange-color. It appears in May and June; the eggs are laid on the under side of the leaf; and the caterpillar, which is hatched in a few days, is first whitish-yellow, but becomes darker every day. It has a black head, and just under the throat are two black dots; the other parts of the body are ochre-colored, and transparent, without hairs. In five weeks they*are full- grown ; then leave the tree, bury themselves in the earth, and do not appear again as saw-flies, till the next spring, to propagate their species. Their webs must be removed from the trees. _ Peach or Poplar Saw-fly.—'To those insects which only attack the leaves of fruit-trees, and use them as food, belongs the peach saw-fly. It is a little longer than the common house-fly, is black, and only on the hinder part of the body, the back and the abdomen, are seen whitish square incisions, extending on both sides towards the middle; the feelers are simply jointed, the palpi and feet are yellow, the thighs black. They ap- pear in April or May, laying their eggs firmly on a leaf, a white-greenish grub being produced in a few days, which eats the leaves; they are full- grown in five or six weeks, are about the size of the green lopper of the winter moth, of a light-green color, with black heads, three pairs of fore and one pair of hind feet; they now retire into the ground, remaining there till spring, when they again appear as saw-flies to propagate their species. The larve is very destructive, the trees looking as though covered with spiders’ webs, instead of leaves. Examine the trees carefully when the leaves are expanded, and the pale-yellow eggs, which usually lie together on the point or edge of the leaf, are easily seen. If these are destroyed as soon as they are laid, the leaves will not be consumed. The green larve cannot escape notice, as they are always surrounded with a web, and rolled up in the leaves they have gnawed. Pear Chermes.— These creatures beset the young shoots and bearing wood of dwarf pear-trees. It is an insect nearly allied to the plant-lice (aphedes). It has wings, and is about the size of a large aphis. It has 2 broad head, terminating in front in two cones; but there is no opening fox 664 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. the mouth in the head, it being situated in the middle of the breast. The rostrum stands out perpendicularly, and ends in a point, from the latter Fig. 361. issuing the very long delicate tongue with which it sucks its food. The female is mostly crimson-colored ; the male in some parts more shaded with black ; the wings of both are membranous and snow-white. As soon as the | buds appear, the winged chermes appears, and the eggs, which are longish and yellow, are deposited on the young leaves and blossoms, or on the newly-formed fruits and shoots. ‘They are hatched in a few days, and resemble the apterous plant-lice, have six feet, and are dark-yellow. After a few days, they change their skins, and become darker ; and when they have molted for the last time, and have attained full size, the body swells gradu- ally and becomes cylindrical. ‘lhey then leave their associates, and, before they lay aside their nymph-like covering, they fasten themselves firmly to a leaf; after a few minutes the skin splits on the upper part of the covering, and a winged insect proceeds from it, of a pleasant green color, red eyes, and snow-white wings. After a few days, this chermes has assumed the colors of the perfect insect ; the head, collar, and thorax, are of an orange- color, and only the abdomen retains its green hue. Late in the autumn it selects a place for protection from the cold, and in spring appears in its crimson black-shaded clothing, to begin the work of regeneration. 'To clear the trees from them, brush the young off with a stiff brush, and tread upon them ; or, search out and take away the winged chermes from the dwarf pear-trees, as soon as the blossoms appear and the shoots begin to grow. Their red color and long wings discover them, and as they are not shy, they are easily caught by the hand. Apple Chermes. —'The eggs are laid in September, on different places of the twigs of an apple-tree, usually, however, in the furrows of the knots. In the formation of the body of the perfect insect, it exactly resembles the pear chermes; it is, however, different from that species in color, the eyes, instead of being red, are of a snowy-white, with a black pupil; the back ot [nr Mem NOXIOUS INSECTS 665 the thorax is of alight-green, the abdomen is marked with yellow rings, and the membranous wings with strongly-marked snow-white veins. The snout, which contains the setiform tongue, is situated, like that of all the species of chermes, in the middle of the breast. When very numerous, these in- sects cause considerable destruction; because, when all the single standing blossoms are completely covered with blisters, broken filaments, and small hairs, as is usually the case, and the flower-buds have been weakened by the previous sucking of these insects, no fruit can be produced. To secure the blossom and fruit of trees in pots, or dwarf trees, brush away the young chermes with a fine brush, when they appear, or at latest when the first changing of the skin takes place in April. It is also necessary to examine the small apple-trees in spring, when the blossoms begin to appear, to ascertain if any aphides are upon them, and if so, to destroy them. Plant-louse, or Aphis. —'There are particularly three species of aphides which are very destructive to fruit-trees, namely, the apple, plum, and peach aphides, Aphis pyri mali, Aphis pruni, and Aphis persice. The appie aphis is grass-green, the plum aphis light-green, and the peach aphis dark-green. The old females are known by dark-brown spots on their bodies. They all appear as soon as the fruit-trees leaf. The peach aphides appear the first, and are seen upon the trees when the buds are very young ; they proceed from eggs which were laid on the shoots the previous autumn, and are only females without wings. No sooner do they see the light than they disperse over the leaves and shoots near them, and begin to suck out the sap. Ir twelve days they are fully formed, and at once produce young. The off- spring of the second generation is, if the weather be warm, again ready to ’ bring forth in ten days, at the latest. It often happens that sixteen genera- tions in all are produced,— some of the progeny having wings, and others 56 * 666 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. none ; the latter never leaving the tree unless driven by force, and the former pairing and producing their young wherever it may suit them. In Sep- tember, males and females are produced from the last generation ; the apple aphis producing males which do not obtain wings, and the peach aphis those that do. When these newly-born males and females are full-grown, pairing takes place. The females then no longer produce living young ones, but lay eggs, from which the mothers of the forthcoming generations proceed. They lay their eggs on the twig or shoot itself, and either all around it, like the apple aphis, or on or near the buds, like the plum and peach aphides ; the females, having thus provided for their future spring progeny, die off in the autumn; the eggs survive the winter. With regard to the apple aphis, there is no method more effective than destroying the eggs soon after they are laid. ‘They may be seen late in the autumn, or early in spring, on the dwarf apple and pear trees, especially the young trees that have high stems, because the eggs lie exposed close together on the shoots, like grains of gunpowder, and yield a green juice, if pressed. We should not, however, press them, but the shoots should be washed over with liquid loam, garden earth, or whitewash, which will kill the eggs. With regard to the plum and peach aphides, we must wait till they are hatched and sitting on the leaves or blossom-buds, when, being of a dark- brown, they are easily seen. When the peach-trees begin to put out their leaves, examine them thoroughly on account of the aphides, because, at a later period, when they are numerous, the trees cannot easily be freed from them. Prune off the shoots infested by the aphides, and brush the tree, carefully examining every tree in June, July, and August, because the third and following generations bring many into the world, that soon obtain wings and disperse themselves. Small and Large Pear Midges. — This species of midge is very small ; the feelers are cylindrical, finely-haired, and composed of sixteen joints, with the two basal-joints thicker than the others ; the abdomen is slender, seven-ringed, and finely-haired ; there is a knobby two-jointed pair of forceps on the extreme point of the body of the male, and the same part of the female is pointed ; the wings lie in a parallel direction; the feet are.long, thin, and finely- haired. According to some, it is a species belonging to the genus*Sczara; others call it Molobrus. The small pear midge lays her eggs in the blossoms when they are still closed. The large pear midge, female, is little more than one twelfth of an inch long, and half as thick ; the male is more slender, and shorter. The feelers are blackish, and not so long as the body; the head is black and shining, as is also the thorax ; the proboscis ash-gray ; the abdomen of the male a deep black, —that of the female browner, with black rings; and the apal point is quite black ; the feet are ash-gray, the tarsi and wings black, NOXIOUS INSECTS. 667 The pears infested by these insects will, on being opened, be found with the core eaten out and empty, or half rotten, causing the fruit to fall to the ground, while some will be found but little decayed, though containing several yellowish larve, one twelfth of an inch long, and a third as thick, with ten segments without feet ; and each having a pointed head, on which two black spots stand close together. Black Gall Midge.— There are a number of species of this insect. The thorax is black, varying to ash-gray backwards, with black lines on the back ; the scutellum is grayish; the abdomen blackish, with yellow incisions; the feet are of a pale-gray, and the feelers are blackish-brown. They are found to ley their eggs in the blossom of the pear-tree, as soon as the buds are so far developed that in the single blossoms a petal is seen between the seg- ments of the calyx. It fixes itself almost perpendicularly in the middle of a single blossom, and, piercing the petal through, the eggs are laid on the anther of the still-closed blossom. ‘The eggs are hatched in a few days, and the small larve bore into the blossom, in or near the stem of the calyx. When they have consumed the pulp of the small fruit, they are full-grown, and then they leave the tree, to bury themselves in the ground, or else remain in the core till the pear falls to the ground. ‘They issue from the earth in spring, to propagate their species. Paradoxical Pear Platygaster.—'This is a small insect, said to have the male organs of generation on the under side of the thorax, and those of the female at the extremity of the horn arising from the base of the abdomen, and curved over the head. As it is generally thought to be simply parasiti- eal upon other insects, we shall not describe it further. Rhynchites (Curculio) Betulett. — Rhynchites Bacchus, Sch., has hitherto been considered as the peculiar enemy of the vine; it is, however, never found on vines, but only on other kinds of fruit-trees, and is essentially dis- tinguished from the Rh. Betulett by its shining copper-eolor. The latter insect is a small weevil, of a metallic-green or steel-blue color. It is one third of an inch long, including the rostrum, — the latter being nearly a third of the whole length; itis tolerably broad, and turned downwards. On the thorax of the male, towards the front on both sides, are observed short spines; the abdomen is almost quadrangular. The spines are wanting on the thorax of the femaie, and her rostrum isshorter. The beetle appears in spring, as soon as the trees are in full foliage, and begins its work of destruction in May. It makes use of the leaf of the vine partly for a dwelling, and partly for the food of its young. When the female has selected a suitable leaf, she cuts the petiole with her rostrum almost half through, so that it hangs down. She then begins to roll the leaf together, generally alone, but sometimes assisted bythe male. While this operation is going forward, she also lays her eggs; 668 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. that is, she pierces the roll, jays an egg in the opening, and pushes it in with her rostrum in such a manner that it remains on the inner surface of the leaf. When she has thus introduced five or six eggs, between the different folds, she rolls the remaining part of the leaf entirely together, so that it is impossible to, discovet, from the outward appearance, in what manner the eggs were deposited. This beetle also finds the leaves of the pear-tree suit- able for its purpose, rolling up the leaves of the leaf-buds. In a few days the eggs are hatched in the rolls, and a whitish small worm comes out of each egg, with black oblique. stripes over the back, and a reddish head. In four or five weeks it is fully grown. In the mean time, the petiole and the roll have become so dry that they are easily torn off by a moderately high wind, and fall to the earth. If this does not take place till the worm is fully grown, it leaves the partly-consumed roll, buries itself in the earth, and appears again in spring as a weevil. This beetle, therefore, is the real weevil of the vine, defoliating it, and preventing the grapes from ripening. As it is toler- ably large, it may easily be perceived, and may consequently be destroyed, particularly as it allows itself to be taken without flying away, When it is numerous in orchards, it should be taken off, and the leaf-rolls pulled off, and burnt or crushed. Vine Scale Insect. —'This insect forms a longish, marbled-brown scale. In old age the scale becomes blackish-brown, hemispherical and wrinkled. The eggs, which are laid under the body of the female, are covered with long white wool. They are found on vines, particularly in gardens. Their destruction is best effected by dry-brushing in autumn or spring Fig. 363. NOXIOUS INSECTS. 666 Vine Beetle. —It issues trom the earth in spring when the vine has begun to shoot, creeps upon the branches, bites off the leaf and flower buds. The largest male specimens are little more than two thirds of an inch long, and half an inch broad, black and shining ; head large; thorax broad; abdomen short; legs rather strong. ‘To protect the vine, the only way is to collect and kill the beetle, which carries on its evil practices in open day, and is ‘discernible on account of its form and size. Vine Sawfly.—The saw-fly of the vine is of a jet-black color, except the upper side of the thorax, which is red, and the fore legs and under side of the other legs, which are pale-yellow or whitish. The wings are semi- transparent, smoky-color, with dark-brown veins. The body of the female is one fourth of an inch in length; that of the male is somewhat shorter. These flies rise from the ground in the spring, and lay their eggs on the lower side of the terminal leaves of the vine. In the month of July the false caterpillars, hatched from these eggs, may be seen on the leaves, in littie swarms. Beginning at the edge, they eat the whole of the leaf to the stalk, and thus proceed from leaf to leaf, till they have grown to their full size. They then average five eighths of an inch in length; have twenty-two legs; the head and the tip of the tail are black; the body, above, is light- green, paler before and behind, — the lower side of the body is yellowish. As a remedy, it is recommended to strew air-slacked lime upon them, and aiso upon the ground under the vines. Canker Worm. —This insect is most abundant on apple and elm trees : but cherry, plum, and lime trees, as well as some others, and many shrubs, suffer from them. The leaves first attacked will be found pierced with small holes ; these become larger and more irregular when the worms increase in size, and, at last, the latter eat nearly all the pulpy parts of the leaves. There is a great difference of color even among the same species, of the same age and size. When very young, they have two minute warts on the top of the last ring; and they are then generally of a blackish or dusky-brown color, with a yellowish stripe on each side of the body; there are two whitish bands across the head, and the belly is also whitish. When fully grown, they become ash-colored on the back, and black on the sides, below which the pale-yellowish line remains. Some are found of a dull greenish-yellow, and others of a clay-color, with slender blackish lines on the sides, and small black spots on the back. When not eating, they remain stretched out at full length, and resting on their fore and hind legs, beneath the leaves. They leave off eating when about four weeks old, and begin to quit the trees. After reaching the ground, they immediately burrow in the earth, to the depth. of from two to six inches, and they are there transformed. To prevent the ravages of this worm, one method is to bar the ascent of the 670 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. wingless female up the stem of the tree. This is done by taking two pretty wide pieces of board; plane them; make semi-circular notches in each, fitting them to the stem or body of the tree, and fasten them together securely at the ends. ‘The crevices between the boards and the tree may be easily stopped with rags or tow; then smear the under side of the boards with tar. The tar, being defended from the direct rays of the sun, will hold its tenacity longer, and therefore need not be frequently renewed. The trees, in this way, will be less liable to be injured by the drippings of the tar, bv leaving a margin of two or three inches on those parts of the boards wnice are nex‘ ‘o the trees, to which no tar is applied. Another mode of intercepting the insect’s path is to enclose the trees with collars, or circular slips of tin or zinc. And still another mode — though these are only three out of nearly a hundred that are practised — is, to dig around the trees, and lay the earth smooth ; then take air-slacked lime, and strew an inch thick around the trees, to the extent of two or three feet from the roots; then tar the trees. Apple-tree Borer. — They are the larve of a beetle called Saperda bivittala, — the two-striped or the brown and white striped Saperda. This beetle varies in length from a little more than one half to three fourths of an inch. It comes forth from the trunks of the trees, in its perfected state, early in June, making its escape in the night, during which time only it uses its ample wings in going from tree to tree in search of companions and food. The trees and shrubs principally attacked by this borer are the apple-tree, the quince, mountain-ash, hawthorn and other thorn-bushes. The larve are fleshy whitish grubs, nearly cylindrical; the head is small, horny, and brown; the first ring is much larger than the others; the next two are very short, and, with the first, are covered with punctures and minute hairs; the following rings, to the tenth inclusive, are each furnished, on the upper and under side, with two fleshy warts, close together; the eleventh and twelfth rings are very short; no appearance of legs; the grub cuts a cylindrical passage through the bark, and pushes its castings backwards out of the hole, from time to time, while it bores upwards into the wood. The larva state con- tinues two or three years, during which the borer will be found to have penetrated eight or ten inches upwards in the trunk of the tree, its burrow at the end approaching to, and being covered only by, the bark. Here its transformation takes place. ‘The pupa does not differ much from other pupe of beetles ; but it has a transverse row of minute prickles on each of the rings of the back, and several at the tip of the abdomen. ‘The final change occurs about the first of June, soon after which, the beetle gnaws through the bark that covers the end of its burrow, and comes out of its place of confinement NOXIOUS INSECTS. 671 in the night. Killing it by a wire thrust into the holes jt has made, is one of the oldest, safest and most successful methods. ° V. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PLANTS. Earwig. — This well-known insect, considered, without cause, as very dangerous to mankind, must find a place among those chiefly injurious te fruit and flowers. Its size varies according to its age and sex. When fully grown it measures almost an inch, including the forcep-like appendage at the end of the abdomen; its breadth is one sixth of an inch. The body is light- brown, free from hair; it has very short wing-cases, under which the wings lie concealed, folded both longitudinally and transversely. It is usually under the bark of trees, in the hollow stems of trees, in rolled-up leaves, and under stones. In orchards, it particularly injures the fruit of trees which are trained as espaliers, such as peaches and apricots, which are often entirely pierced through in warm weather. They also attack the other’ sorts of fruits, par- ticularly apples and pears. In flower-gardens they destroy carnations, pinks, and dahlias, in particular. The only certain method of destroying earwigs is by catching them, which is best effected by hollow tubes, laid here and there, in orchards and flower-gardens. The common reed is fit for this pur- pose, but the hollow stem of the sunflower is even more SO, as the insects are eager in the pursuit of the remains of the sweet pith. They are also easily caught between the folds of paper, or in pieces of cloth and linen laid on the ground. They creep into these traps in the morning after their noc- turnal rambles, and may easily be shaken out and killed at any time of the day. Some place the flower-stands in vessels of water, which prevents the earwigs from creeping, but not from flying, upon the plants. « Orange Scale Insect. —It appears like an elliptical nut-brown shield, and is very plentiful on green-house plants, particularly on orange-trees, fasten- ing itself upon the branches and leaves, particularly when the trees are kept rather warm. It is best destroyed by washing the branches and leaves. If this be done in autumn, it is a great advantage, as the old ones cannot creep up again. Mealy Bug. — This species is reddish, and strewed with white dust. At the sides of the twelve segments of the body it is provided with small tuber- cles. The male is slender and gnat-like, with two rather broad wings, and two long, brush-shaped tail filaments. It attacks a number of species of plants, and can only be diminished in number by brushing them off careftily with soft brushes, and crushing them. Oleander Scale Insect.—The female appears as a yellowish, round, Hat shield, almost destitute of limbs, which sucks plants with its rostrum. The shield of the male larva is smaller than that of the female, and quite white- 672 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. The perfect male is brownish-yellow, dusted with white, and white wings. Length, one thirty-sixth of an inch. It lives in amazing numbers on different kinds of plants, partieularly on oleanders, acacias, aloes, palms, &c., and can only be gotten rid of by careful brushings. Rose Scale. —'The female is like that of the formér. The male’ pupa is linear, doubly furrowed on the back. The perfect male is pale-red, dusted with white, and white wings. Length, one thirty-sixth of an inch. They live on the stems and old twigs of rose-trees, which are sometimes entirely covered with them, and look mouldy. The best way of getting rid of them is brushing them off with strong brushes before the rose-trees sprout. Rose-trees are much injured by these insects. Cactus Scale. —'TThe female bears a great resemblance to the oleander scale, only that the muscle-shaped shield is more oblong and darker. The male is orange-yellow, the pupa linear, doubly furrowed, powdery-gray. [1ives principally on the different species of cactus. Sweet Bay Scale. —'The shield of the female is oval-shaped, brown, with a reddish-yellow elevation before. ‘The male is pale cherry-red ; the body flat ; the horns or feelers rather shorter than the body. The shield of the larva the same as the female, but narrower. It is difficult to remove, as it is so firmly seated that brushing is not always sufficient ; a pointed stick must therefore be had recourse to. Rose Moth. —In early spring, as soon as the rose-tree begins to bud, a very dangerous enemy to the growth of its leaves and blossoms arrives. It is the more to be dreaded, as, from its smallness and peculiarity of form, it is easily overlooked. If the new leaf-shoots are closely examined, a little ‘brownish seale is found here and there attached to them ; and upon nearer inspection, we shall be convinced that it is a little case, in which a worm, the larva of a small moth, is concealed, which gnaws the tender shoots. When it has devoured one shoot, it removes with its house, and attacks aviother ; and thus, in a short time, one of these larve can strip a whole branch of its shoots. The larva which lies in the little case is about half an inch long ; yellow, with a black head, and black-spotted collar. It under- goes pupation in its case, which enlarges from time to time, as necessity requires. The moth appears at the end of May, The whole body is silvery shining gray ; the upper wings strewed with minute black dots, deeply fringed at the posterior edge ; the under wings are narrow, pointed, with very long fringes. The only certain way of preserving rose-trees from this enemy is to look for the small cases in early spring, before the foliage is developed, when an experienced eye will easily discover them. They must be crushed immediately. Plant Mite, or Red Spider.— A small insect of the spider class. It is NOXIOUS INSECTS, 613 searcely visible to the naked eye; has eight legs; its color changes from yellowish to brown and reddish, and on each side of the back is a blackish spot. In the open air it usually attacks kidney-beans. Among trees, the young limes mostly suffer, and the mites are found in thousands on the under- side of the leaves. These leaves assume a dirty-yellow or brownish appear- ance, and in the middle of summer the trees acquire an autumnal hue. Frequently sprinkling the plants with cold water has been found efficient as a means of destroying these insects. Also repeatedly fumigating the hot- houses with strong tobacco-smoke injures them in some degree. VI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MEADOWS. GrveraL Remarks. — Most of the insects that choose the various sorts of corn for their food do not reject the other sorts of grasses, in the meadows. The herbage of the meadows suffers from the roots of the grass-plants being injured, which is chiefly occasioned by the larve of various species of cock- chaffers living in the earth. When bare spots are seen on meadows, we may be sure that the larve of the cockchaffer are there carrying on their work of destruction. But the large swarms of those smaller species of cock- chaffers sometimes seen flying about, towards evening, in the meadows, in the spring, and at the beginning of summer, and the round holes which we frequently find in meadows, through which they had crept out of the earth clearly show that they had passed the first period of their life there, and at the expense of the herbage. Unspotted Lady-bird. — An insect injurious to many of the artificial grasses. It has been observed on the common tare, sanfoin, and the differ- ent sorts of clover. This larva is only one sixth of an inch long, yellowish- white, with single green spots, and the upper side of the body covered with prickles. Its transformation takes place on the leaves. The pupa is light- yellow, covered with minute hairs of the same color. The perfect insect is almost globular, yellowish-red on the upper side, with a brownish-red spot on the thorax. The abdomen is brownish-black, and the legs reddish, or reddish- brown. A good soil and moist weather, which will cause the herbage to grow quickly and luxuriantly, and to be often mown, are the chief requi- sites for diminishing the insect. By often removing the cut fodder from the field, the insect will be disturbed in its propagation. Migratory Locust.— An insect destructive to all vegetation. Their native country is in the plains of Asia, between the Black and Caspian Seas, Syria, Palestine, the northern coast of Africa, Egypt, &c., where they sometimes increase to an incredible multitude ; and after eating up everything in their native country, favored by the wind, they perform great journeys in prodigious swarms. Their swarms often measure several hun- 57 28 674 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. dred fathoms in diameter, and are capable of darkening the sun, like thick clouds. When they have alighted in a place, they spare nothing that their Fig. 364. sharp teeth can master. Grain of all sorts, meadows, vineyards, and the foliage of trees, are to them equally welcome as food. They stay till they have eaten up everything in the country, and transformed it into a desert, and then they resign themselves to the guidance of the wind, wherever it may take them. Besides the locusts laying waste large tracts of country by their voracity, and causing famine, they become also a real scourge to man- kind, from the stench which arises from their dead bodies when they are very numerous, and which breeds dangerous diseases. This insect is one of the larger species of the genus to which it belongs. Its length, from the head to the points of the wings, is from two to two and a half inches. Its head and neck are green, its body brownish, the upper wings brown, melting into greenish, and with darker quadrangular spots ; the under wings are transparent, and greenish towards the body. The blue upper jaws, which, on the inner surface, are furnished with sharp teeth, are very characteristic organs, which they apply effectually to devouring the vegetation. Rye-grass Moth. — A moth injurious to the different species of grass, and other meadow herbage. The moth is of middling size; the male, with extended wings, is nearly an inch broad, and black, with yellow notches on the abdomen ; the wings are thin, black, and fringed with the same color. The female has a thick, long abdomen, which is whitish-gray, and woolly at its exterior; wings small, slender, brownish-gray, and not adapted for flying. The caterpillar is found in April and May, living on rye-grass and many other plants in meadows ; its ground-color is velvety-black, yellow at the incisions and sides, with a black head and small yellowish warts, having ash-gray hairs on them. The destruction of this caterpillar is very difficult, as it prefers living in long grass in the day-time, or in the ground. Break- NOXIOUS INSECTS. 675 ing up the meadows in autumn appears to be the best method of destroying the pupz concealed there. Antler or Grass Moth. — A moth injurious to meadows. It is of middling size ; its head and back are yellowish-brown, the collar lighter, almost yel low ; the abdomen and legs are brownish-gray, the latter with darker joints; the upper wings are usually brownish-gray, with a darker mixture in the middle ; the under wings are yellowish-gray. The caterpillar is brown or blackish, with five lighter stripes along the back ; the first and last sections are covered with a hard, smooth scale ; the stripes meet at the edge of the anus ; the abdomen is blackish. The larve are an inch long, and they undergo their transformation about midsummer, within a light cocoon, under moss, stones, &c., changing into a blackish-brown, shining pupa. The food of the caterpillar consists of all the soft sorts of grasses. It lives at the roots, and eats all the germs. Although it is in existence in autumn, lies benumbed in the earth in winter, and begins to eat again in the spring, yet the effects of its devastations appear chiefly in the beginning of June, when it has changed its skin for the last time. The only means of extirpating or diminishing this caterpillar consists in surrounding the attacked places, as the ground.permits, with shallow ditches, or by means of a plough with deep furrows, as broad as possible, and turning pigs into these places to devour the insects. VII. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE COTTON PLANT. Cotton Worm.— This pest, commonly known as the “army worm,” makes its appearance at intervals, sometimes even of the length of twenty years. It is produced from the eggs of a fly, deposited on the under side of the leaf of the cotton plant during the night, and hatched out in a few days. This fly belongs to the moth tribe, and has little horns projecting from the head, which terminate in a bristle-like point, are of a drab color, and measure five lines in length. Its bent wings overlap upon its body; the under surface of the breast is of a dull, silvery-white, insensibly terminating on the abdomen and wings in a russet color; the upper surfaces of the wings and back of a changeable golden color, with iron-colored, zigzag lines traversing the surface crosswise; the poste- rior margins bordered with a narrow, pale, pinkish stripe, containing small notches. A black spot marks the upper surface of each wing, about the centre of the base; and the legs are white; the four hinder ones being very long, as compared with those in front, which are short and slender. The insect is about nine inches long from head to tail, and measures about as much between the tips of the expanded wings. The 676 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. number of eggs which the female deposits is uncertain. When first hatched, the worm, although then but a minute living point, immediately sets to work to devour the leaf; and, when it matures, which it does very speedily, it wraps itself up in a leaf, like the caterpillar, casts its skin, becomes a chrysalis, and, in ten days, again bursts forth a perfect fly, which continues the work of reproduction. As soon as all the leaves in one field are consumed, this terrible army takes up its line of march for the neighboring one, there to prosecute the work of devastation. Late in the season, however, another fly, of the ichneumon species, seizes upon the cotton-worm as a depository for its eggs, and thus exterminates the destroying army. The cotton fly is supposed to be a native of tropical climates, and to come hither at long intervals in search of its peculiar food, after having entirely exhausted the home supply. This worm is furnished with six fore, eight middle, and two hind feet: the two first of the middle feet being small, imperfect, and apparently useless for the purposes of progression, which is effected by alternately stretching out the body, and again contracting it in the form of an arch. When touched the worms double themselves up, and spring to a distance several times their length; but if undisturbed when not feeding, they rest on the leaf with the fore part of the body elevated and slightly curved, sometimes varied by a sidelong, swinging motion. Remedies.—Although many remedies have been suggested and adopted for destroying the fly before it has deposited its eggs — such as building fires or placing lights in the fields—nothing has yet proved of any avail in staying its increase after it has once made its appearance in any particular district, until it is destroyed by the ichneumon fly. The Red Bug, or Cotton Stainer.—This is a very destructive insect on a cotton plantation, as it clusters in large numbers on the opening boll, and so discolors the cotton as to render it unfit for the fabrication of white goods. The male is about three-fifths of an inch in length from the head to the point of the abdomen; the wing-cases are flat, brownish- black, and edged with a distinct yellowish line ; the under wings, hidden under the wing cases, are transparent, veined, yellowish in color, and clouded with black ; the tibize and tarsi are black ; the under parts of the body, as well as the thighs of the fore legs, present a bright red appear- ance; and each segment of the former is marked with rings of yellowish white. The head and eyes are red; the feelers four-jointed and black. The female resembles the male in shape and color, but differs in length, measuring about seven-tenths of an inch from head to tail. The nearer the bolls approach maturity, the more injury do these bugs do to the NOXIOUS INSECTS. 671 sotton, by depositing their faeces on the wool, and imparting to it a red dish stain, which is indelible, and considerably lessens its market value. As winter approaches, they either retire to the shelter of old stumps, or burrow into the ground at the root of the cotton plant, where they hybernate. Remedies.—They may be collected from the plants by depositing in their vicinity small slips of sugar-cane, on which they will cluster; and they may also be greatly reduced in numbers by burning out all stumps and dead trees standing in the fields. The Boll Worm.—This very destructive worm is hatched from the eggs of a moth, which is of a pale yellow, or shining ash color. Its body and wings are one inch and an eighth in length; the thorax is slightly convex and downy; the proboscis, which is folded spirally underneath, is double, and half an inch long; the eyes are large, clear, and yellowish-green ; the feelers spindle-shaped, with very hairy joints. The abdomen and wings ure white ; the first being covered with downy hairs, and the latter marked with a distinct, wavy, dark band near the border. The legs are six in number. These moths multiply very rapidly; the female laying between 500 and 1000 eggs on the fourth day, and dying three or four days subsequently. During the day they lie concealed among the grass and weeds, making their excursions entirely after sunset. This insect is known as the Phalena Zea, or corn moth, of which three generations are produced during the course of ayear. The second brood, which is hatched late in July, or early in August, finding but little corn upon which it can prey, is forced by necessity to deposit its eggs on the buds of the cotton plant, or, as is sometimes the case, on the leaves. When first hatched, the larva spins a web, in which it wraps itself, and, if by any accident thrown from its position, it remains suspended by a single thread. After the lapse of two or three days it descends from the tops of the cotton and from the ends of the limbs, and commences its depredations by eating through the calyx of the petal contained within the flower, which causes the floral leaf to turn yellow, and the form to fall off. This operation is repeated until four or five forms are destroyed, when it enters a boll, and there lies concealed, feeding on its substance, until the time arrives for its transformation. When full-grown, the worm will measure from one to two inches in length, and, at first sight, appears to be of a pale yellow, or light green color, though it has eight longitudinal strokes of white, brown, and green, with one or two dots on each segment of the body, along the lowest streak: it is smooth and shining in appearance, being devoid of hair, with the exception of a few on each segment. It is cylin- 57 * 678 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. drical in form, and tapers a little toward each end ; but it is rather thick in proportion to its length. It has sixteen legs — six in front, eight in the centre, and two behind —and creeps along with a gradual motion, quite unlike that of the army worm, which moves with a looping gait. The head is brown, smaller than the body, and oval. After changing its skin several times, and attaining its full size, the boll worm enters the ground, where it wraps itself up in a silken cocoon, and changes into a chrysalis, from which, in a month or six weeks, a perfect moth emerges. This worm destroys an immense number of buds, which, falling off when very young, are not readily observable as they lie upon the ground, on account of their dark and withered appearance. When a bud is about to fall, the worm forsakes it, and either attacks another, or else fastens itself to a leaf, on which it remains until it sheds its skin, when it con- tinues its ravages until it has acquired strength sufficient to enable it to penetrate the nearly-matured bolls, which, if not entirely devoured, are subsequently rotted by the moisture which penetrates through the punc- tures made by the worm. Bolls which have been injured by the worm, can be readily distinguished by the small hole through which it entered, and, when dissected, will frequently be found partially filled with its feeces. Remedies.—As the moth makes its excursions only after sunset, large numbers of them may be destroyed by lighting fires on the borders of the fields, to which they are attracted by the light. Success has also attended the experiment of placing plates, containing a mixture of vinegar and molasses, on stakes scattered through the fields, and the moths were thus trapped, in their eagerness to feed upon the mixture, the odor of which drew them to it in considerable numbers. The benefit derived from the introduction of a brood of young pigs into a cotton-field is incal- culable, as they will scent out, root up, and devour every worm, grub, or chrysalis, without at all interfering with the cotton plants. The Cotton Louse.—This is a species of aphis, which pierce the outer coatings of the leaves, principally on the under side, and, by constantly draining the sap from the plant, enfeeble it, and cause the leaves to curl up, turn yellow, and drop off. As the season advances, the young shoots of the plant are also attacked, and frequently covered with these pests. . On their first appearance they are very minute, and of a greenish color, but as they grow older, they change to a dark green, and, in some cases, assume a nearly black color. When full grown they are about one-tenth of an inch in length, and their fecundity is most astonishing — Providence: having gifted them with a procreative power possessed by no other NOXIOUS ANIMALS. 679 known insects. They are alternately oviparous and viviparous, and the sexual impregnation of one female suffices for all the generations which proceed from it during the succeeding year. The impregnated ova are deposited in the axils of the leaves, either of the cotton plant, or of some neighboring tree, and are hatched the following spring, producing wing: less, six-footed larvae, which produce brood after brood, without connexion with the male. Each succeeding brood is more fully developed than the preceding, until, at last, winged males and females are produced; by which the ova are developed, impregnated, and laid — and thus provision is made for the continuance of the species for another year. As a set-off against the enormous fecundity of this louse, they are eagerly sought for and devoured by several tribes of small birds. The ichneumon fly also destroys a large number by depositing a single egg in the body of a louse, where it is hatched into a grub, which devours the interior substance, leaving but a grey and bloated skin. Another fly, called the syrphus, also makes war upon them very vigorously; the parent fly depositing her eggs amongst the lice, where they are speedily hatched into grubs by the heat of the sun, which immediately seek for, seize, and suck out the juices of the louse, throwing away the empty skin. VIII. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO CULTIVATED FIELDS. The Pocket Gopher, or Pouched Rat. — Description. — This animal, when full grown, measures eleven inches in length from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail — the latter being two inches long. The head is quite large; the nose blunt; the eyes remarkably small; the ears nearly concealed ; the whiskers scant, and not as long as the head; and the incisor teeth large and protruding. On the sides of the head large pouches are situated, which are lined with fur, and extend back to the shoulders. The incisor teeth are yellow, the feet and nails white; the color of the body generally of a reddish-brown, but lighter on the belly; the legs are short; the fore feet strong, and armed with very large, curved nails, of which the centre one is the longest; the hind feet and nails are smaller, and the tail, which has generally but a scant covering of hair, is entirely bare at the tip. ' Location and Habits. — The gopher is a prairie animal, confined to the Western States and Territories, and throws up a mound of earth on the prairie, in which it constructs a nest and rears its young. From the nest Subterranean galleries radiate in every direction, frequently intersecting, and forming a complete labyrinth, the various turnings and windings of 680 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. which extend for miles. These galleries communicate with the surface by means of shafts constructed at intervals of a few feet apart on one side of the gallery, and through these openings the animal conveys the dirt excavated ; but when they have served the purpose for which they were made, they are closed with earth from below. The main galleries measure about four inches in diameter, and the side-cuts about two or three inches. The animal conveys the earth out in its pouches, from which it is ejected by muscular force — being sometimes thrown to a dis- tance of two feet. Loving obscurity, it rarely comes to the surface while the sun is shining, always migrating from place to place at night; and when compelled to seek food above ground, it invariably selects the night-time for that purpose. It lives on roots, and is very valiant — offering battle when interfered with. Five or six young are usually pro- duced at a birth; though but one litter is brought forth during the year, generally in the months of March or April. Devastations on Cultivated lands.—This animal is the pest of the prairie farmers; scarcely one crop escaping its ravages. They are very partial to meadow lands, and not only devour the roots of the grasses, but render the surface so uneven by the mounds they throw up, as to materially interfere with the operations of mowing and raking. Grain fields are also attacked; and, even after the grain is stacked, the gophers burrow under the stacks, and destroy large numbers of sheaves. All the root crops suffer by them ; and in potato fields they work under the hills, and remove the tubers; sometimes destroying one-half of a crop before the withered and dying vines give warning of the mischief that is being done. Melons and pumpkins are occasionally bored out, and filled with earth, and the orchards and hedges of osage orange destroyed by cutting off their roots. Remedies —The only effectual mode of getting rid of this very trouble- some animal is by trapping it; though it may sometimes be shot by patiently watching for it near the newly-opened shafts, which may readily be discovered by the freshly-excavated earth. Poison has been success- fully used, in the form of strychnine or arsenic, introduced into vegeta- bles, and placed in their subterranean quarters. Silvery Mole (Scalops argentatus).— The true mole, common in Eng- .and and other parts of Europe, has never yet been found in the United States, and the nearest approach to it is the shrew mole (Scalops aquati- cus), which, in its habits, very nearly resembles the one here described, though its general habitat is the Southern and Eastern States, where it is designated the ground mole, while that of the silvery mole is the NOXIOUS ANIMALS. 681 Western and South-western States. In length, the silvery mole measures six or seven inches from the point of the nose to the root of the tail, which is about one inch long; the head, which is attached to the shoulders by a very short neck, is remarkably stout, and the flexible, cartilaginous snout projects nearly three-eighths of an inch from the upper Jaw; the eyes are concealed from view; there is no external ear, and the auditory apparatus is a small hole, situated far back on the head; the fore-feet, which are large and flat, measure nearly one inch in breadth, and but little less in length, including the nails, which latter are large, flat beneath, and slightly arched above; the hind feet are slender and weak, and the soles of all the feet are entirely divested of hair, but on the upper surface they are thinly covered with short hairs, as is also the tail; the tip of the snout is entirely naked, but farther back it is sparsely clothed with short hair; the tail, snout, feet, and nails, present a light, flesh-colored appearance, and the latter are tipped with white; and the fur, which is very thick, soft, and glossy, is of a silver-grey color, slightly tinged with lead at the external ends. Habits.—The nests of these animals are usually of considerable size, well lined with soft grass, leaves, &c., and excavated in the ground, at a depth varying from six to eighteen inches beneath the surface. They usually select an old log or stump for the location of their nest, which is approached by galleries, radiating from it in every direction, some of which are sunk below the level of the nest, and enter it from beneath. The female produces from two to four young at a birth, and appearances would seem to indicate the birth of at least two litters each year. Like all of its species, it rarely appears on the surface in daylight, except during dull and cloudy weather, confining its excursions alraost entirely to the night. Its natural food is insects and worms, for which it burrows in the ground, though it is accused of destroying the root crops, and even of eating the corn after it has been planted. It is possible that the mole may resort to vegetable food to compensate for a deficiency of its usual supply of animal diet; but, whether it does or does not, the damage which it causes to the growing crops, by cutting off the roots of plants in its search for its natural prey, is of itself sufficient to constitute it a nuisance in any locality where it exists in considerable numbers ; yet the enlight- ened agriculturist, while he takes measures for preventing an undue in- crease, will be careful not to exterminate an animal which destroys cut- worms, wire-worms, slugs, and all the other noxious pests usually found in the gardens and fields. j Remedies.—Dogs may be trained to follow the mole’s tracks to his nest, 682 FARMER’S HAND-BOOK. and dig him out; or traps of various kinds may be resorted to with con- siderable success. Poisoned meat, shredded fine, when freshly laid in their burrows, has proved serviceable; and in corn-fields they have been prevented from doing injury by crossing the furrows between the rows, which prevents them from readily driving their galleries through the soil, APPENDIX. Tables by the use of which a Farmer may be assisted in his calculations. LAND MEASUREMENT May be simplified by the use of the annexed Tables, by which tke solid content of any piece of land may be ascertained, after its length and width in yards have been ascertained by stepping it off. ' EXPLANATIONS. —If it is required to know the content of a piece of ground which measures 530 yards in length by 460 yards in breadth, tage from the respective columns the sums there ven: thu et ss 460 yards wide. A. From under 400 and opposite 500...... 41 “ “ 400 “c “ 30 ” “ “ “Zuo spavd Ogg So also for the content of a piece of land 775 yards long by 575 yards wide, take — A. R. From under 500 and op. 500... 51 2 ss “« 600 “ 200...20 2 “ «“ PE se “ “ ~ 3 “ “ 0 tee 0 “Su0j spavd guy 92 0 127 solid content. If a field have unequal sides, measure it through the centre both ways, by which an average will be at once procured; or the long and short sides may be separately measured, and half the difference deducted from the longest side for the true Iength. The content of a triangular field may be learned by measuring the longest side, and then laying off a straight line from the centre of that side to the opposite point of the triangle: one-half the length of the straight line will give the mean width, while the length will be represented by the measure of the longest side. A field having five or more sides may also be thus measured, after it has been divided off into triangles; which may be readily done by running a line diagonally through its centre from one corner to the opposite, for the length, and then other lines from this, as a base, to the remaining corners of the field: the mean width will be one-half the length of each of these lines added together. ® In adding up the different sums, it will be necessary to observe that the perches must be divided by 40 and the roods by 4, and the roods and acres carried to their respective columns. Thus, we here have 101 as the sum of the column marked perches, which, divided by 40, the number of perches in a rood, shows that it contains 9 roods and 21 perches: we place the 21 under the column and carry 2 to the next, which will make the sum ot that column, 5; but this we divide by 4, the number of roods inan acre, place the figure 1 under the rood column, and carry | tothe acres, which then sums up 50, ¢ In making the calculations for the following tables, all parts of a perch under one-half have not been regarded, while all over one-half have been counted as a whole number. This will explain the slight discrepancy here exhibited betweer this answer and that obtained by a more elaborate calculation, which would show 11 percha -ostead of IZ (683 APPENDIX. ee AAADIM SHOR HAAOTAASOR OVO OROOMOONOSODON a BARR RRA SAA oa i=) a No SameSe ee eUb SO oe aE eee ose SAssoosoeoosooSoSoSooCoSC OS SO SOO SOO OSC OSC COO OS OOS OOOHHA AL TANTO AH DOOM ORAOMAIAGOAASH A BHAKRODROROD RAH RAs RAMANA CO OD OO Aro eS = Hobdcsbo cose Seen ee oo eos e dad aoe ae Soooooooc ooo SSS OSS OSSD OSS SS OOS SCS SS SOOSONAN TABLE I.— For reducing Yards into Acres, Roods, and Perches. 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SAP RnR oS era SS Se as ee ny pelea evi oe a ee BOSSSSSSS9SSSSSOSSSOSSOSSCOSOSCOOC On H A HOR AHGCAnDOROG APE AAA Hig Orme w© 0 a SE ea ol a al OUGN GN GR Go Galea Bo GS PS ar) ANRC RS Hae SSRs es cacy Se Sts estes eae ee ics aa et a cr ech ca os 25 ree css et cee SsoscosoooosooSoSs ooo Sooo OSD OS OOOO COCO COR HEH ANHDO jNHOMON TS OORARRSRASSVOSSASSODABIGS BPALHr OIA iol ARRAN NANNN MOOD) NO aAS°RRRS FAN 6D 09 69 63 69 Bape OOe Go OSS Se SoS I Meaaaianw Geos mee AsososcosesososcSoSoscSoSoSC OSC SC OCC OCC OC COCC CORR HHAND HO Aww MD OODSNHAHLAHMNBONW QANICAOMHOeHKAIAAc srs a SEES ee TS Pie AND AAG a ahs ce Oe Scie See Ane eS aomue SocoscosososesooscoSoSoSo oOo C OCC OOO OCC OC OOOO ORR HAND HI5 D DrDOND Gr WOM BIOS REnBrMSVSAPMBARStasarwvnons ious = ASR AAANNAANAND AC Ano AAC AnD BAAN Be ae Seis es ee ee an win oben won SisoooscosooSoSooS SSS SoS OOO OS SOOO OOS OOOO OOHAM HO 4 E-) NQWOCHAAAASE LSE BASE AAGE AQA°*nawoex oy CO SSRN aaRSh mA CO nas AANR oN St ee Ss Se et et scr wa eweica laces eae SsscocososoossoosesoeoSsSeS OSC OSC OSC OOO OOOO CO COCOCOHAMH ‘ foe) WOrODonn een See Rae SoM er aie Recs ISI See 95 |100 oe SS | | a a Re ae | | |e (ae a | ee Se 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 Ree RAR NANN Bie A Sen ee a Sa ae ae manne SKosooosoososooessoSesoSeSsSoSeSeSoSOoSoSo COSCO SOSCSCONnAMH nN DOr BADABOO AQQrIR AOA SSaE Ra Ree Se Se a ARR ea ea SZASSRRSS a a cane ea SoscoseocososcsescoesooSsesSesespoSeSesoSoSoSoSooOOCSC COSC OHAND BEAVIS SH Bases sowgeswargvatananre Fs ea eS SSS SE SS SRS AAA oo 03 SOR Ca a a aR ss my icons cae aes o9 cea eres aces Hoscoososcososcsoseosossseseesespocooc coco coSoOSoOSCOSC ORHAN > oo man BOERS SRS IMPSHOAS stan 30 oD BANAIASSRHOSSHANA* SONA SARE SSBP= P48 Hee eee Cea Seta s eB Res oiic conn eridtocewode te SHocoeceoscsesscosessoososoeossesosoesoscososossoososososoonAAN Es BHNHOMOAHAOMNAIHHOMDASOMOMOHOMSMHOMHSOMSHOSSOOS Sivas" * ‘I SRR RRR RRR RRA NOCOHPHODAGS 3s 40 35 30 25 30 686 APPENDIX. TABLE ITI. Exhibiting the Number of Plants which may be raised on a Perch of Land, at different Distances : Number of Inches Square Inches to Trees or Piants. Inches over. 261 272 392 490 612 816 1069 1633 1960 2450 TABLE III. Exhibiting the Number of Plants which may be raised on an Acre of Land, at different Distances: Number of Feet Square Feet to Trees or Plants. sander each. Inches over. 20 by 20 360 18 144 72 SSS % 7 5 6 4 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2. 2 2 2 1 1 1 bt OD BOS 00 09 OTB Or Q “TG CO & 00 I CO Clover Clover | Wheat PT APPENDIX. 687 TABLE V.—For determining the Weight of Cattle by Measurement. Length. | Weight. =. oR DOODRWOOAROCOAWGOANOCOAWOCORAWOOAWOSCORBWOAWNWOCOARAWOORWOORWOOHOWOOAWOORBWSOORARWOOARS WODAWODHDODAWOCOAWAWOOAWOONWOOAWSOOMOORAWOCOAWOCOMWOORMESDMAWNOORWWOORWOOOAWOR This Method of ascertaining tha Weight of Cattle while living is of the utmost utility to all those who are not experienced judges by the eye, and, by the following directions, the weight can be ascertained within a mere trifle. The beast standing square.take astring and putit round the body just behind the shoulder- blade; measure with a foot-rule the circumference of the animal in feet and inches, which is called the girth; then with the string measure from the bone of the tail, which plumbs the line with the hinder part of the buttock, along the back to the fore-part of the shoulder. blade; take the dimensions with the foot-rule, as before, which is the length, and work the figures in the following manner: Girth of the bul- lock, 6 feet 4 inches; length, 5 feet 5 inches; which, multiplied toge- ther, make 3314 square superficial feet; that, again, multiplied by 23 (the number of pounds allowed to each superficial foot of all cattle measuring less than 7 and more than 5 feet in girth), makes 765 Ibs. Where the animal measures less than 9 and more than 7 feet in girth, 31 is the number of pounds to each superficial foot. Supposing any small beast should measure 2 feet in girth, and 2 feet along the back, which, multiplied together, make 4 square feet; and that, mul- tiplied by 11 (the number of pounds allowed for each square foot of cat- tle measuring less than 8 in girth), makes 44 lbs. Again, suppose a calf, sheep, etc. should measure 4 feet 6 inches in girth, and 3 feet 9 inches in length; these, multiplied together, make 1634 square feet; which, multiplied by 16 (the num- ber of pounds allowed to all cattle measuring less than 5 feet and more than 3 in girth), gives 268 Ibs. The girth and length of black cattle, sheep, catves, or hogs, may be as exactly taken in this way as will be necessary for any computation or valuation of stock, and will answer exactly to the weight of the four quarters, exclusive of the offal. A deduction must be made for a half- fatted beast of 1 pound in 20 from that of a fat one; and for a cow that has had calves, 1 pound addi- tional in every 20 must be allowed, 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 8 3 3 4 4 se 4 5 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 8 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 a 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 4 4 5 6 5 5 6 6 TATA DA AADAMANAIANAAAIAIAMAAAAAAMAIAMAAIAMNAMNAAPSGAAAIAIPAMIRAAAAAIAEAAAAAMT IP SDD Orr a Or APPENDIX. 688 ARITVOOT OT} 4IMs 0} STOTVOIPOUT IAs yng TTA Jepuremtes oq} pus ‘pues Mom Loy} su ‘elo OSM OJ ING [ITA WOT} Jo Ayt10feu on} ‘zeq}e0M Arp oq Jo yUNOUIY 19}v0I3 B OAL OM AYA “ToWMUUINS Jo o[pprum ony Sapinp ydaoxe ‘puvpjooag Jo 4By} WoIJ Yonu JarArvA 4OU oyeUNI[D Ino ynq f]Ios YStyJo0g UO pesn pueB ‘Ioy poredead AT[CUISIIO a10M SVIN}XIW OSOULL, & | es Lae aw oe ae See 4 % I Xe coe eee ALG anal ase tse 1¢° Se O00; 27| GL en eee 9108 8] 0} UAOS Spunog "SSRI JUO MOUOX “SSUIN) MOPVATY POO AL -- 1%010 |ooo'ce | G9 t t ey “TOAOTO OFT AL 0g" Zs 030 |000'rL | tPF 3 t or} s ~ AYJOULY, cA eon % j000'1% | 2 be ae iS Li = “'SsBIy 12O TRL ze |%010 loovog | $1 7 eee | aoe sosseeseseenrs “OHOBOA TIBT “anosagq poyidg-lepualg “TVMdaA peyUag-jaang ““SSBIN) OMOIg Jos see eee eee eee ON OSOT s,daoqs MopBay Pey[vjs-qsnoy CON wee eee eee ee eeeeee doypayy “IAAOTD pay seeemanasag Pay seeemasuin) AIVUBD paayf Oe we 00L FS SL cr xy 010 000°LL 9 eee eee eee ooo eco ese a “ aa Si oe vai 010 000‘F9 al eee erry eco eee erry eco 040 1000511] ST oo ae 000°¢zh; 21 e = 1% 030 |000‘9T eee eee 00068 ae" a 000°GF t dea ae ss 4 040 |000°9T ore : rae ““IOAOTO pay [eluUeIeg os 5 on % \000°CL 4a oy Get (aye vessein ofy [eruuadeg ae iy celamellanngen ie : ols 2 SSB preqoiQ er e524 y% 000°¢6 eee eee eee ¢ Sstin Joy Mopeeyy 1¢° 4: 040 |000‘94 ee a rd me x a ear 09° 1% 00 Io00'0% saci ||eees ge Sede aes - “anoseg AOPBaTY sw. "“SSB.IF) BUUR I ee eee 000‘¢e see G eee eee ree Pe 000°SZ |} SL z a eo sstay oune ee A 940 |000°2 cl te oe i F vresseay oAY UBI[ERT eee T 0} 0 00062 OL wee ooo coe eee 9 - *-onosaq pavy see oe Bs a we fue | og 9 F ais ““gseIQ MOpBayy [MOT . a7 coe eee ese eeee ae e9° |%°0 |000‘009} er g DP Wt ULLOLy eee eee 000'8z 9% eee re) eee eee eee eee CAR 8,30q payseip see | eet) sdk |) 8a *sqt_ | ‘sat | “sqt_| "sq1 “sq ‘sat ssqr_ | ‘sat | *sai_| ‘sat_| ‘ear | ‘sal > =) Es "| = ml] ml | =) I r mal a! sl | x BSSs|SBSsc| sa 28 S$] S |esS|geSie§} es} sss) ess | rss} sees | s8 | es} os} es) es SES s/—5n°R| As oe iv] me | eee Se ate | abel 3 o= ao Ce] Re | ence ean |e < @ 5 ical al Bzo| ofss| ° ma Bee, Se | 2) @| Seo | Sea) Ba) SF) -el-ay-g| el F { sFS! Seasl *8 2 BUSH ot Mie tis eee =e ap Co eal eS Gel lle WS Gall ole (Sun Mvlog pun sessv.i) ,, Sgurjyq woul papdwog) *uja -aja Spaag fo pury yova fo jaysng wad qybram ayy ynm «wayzabo, ‘auoy yowa-uo unos aq op Azyuong ays pun ‘sqog) fo spury yuasaffip uo ‘93a ‘spunowp-buimopy ‘suman ‘saunjsng sof papuamworas » paeg seni fo sainriyyy~—TA ATAVG APPENDIX. 689 TABLE VII. Exhibditing the Distance ordinarily travelled by a Horse in ploughing an Acre of Land, together with the Quantity of Land worked during a Day 9 hours long — supposing the Horse to travel at the rate of 16 and 18 miles per day, respectively. per day velled over in ploughing lacre of land. of 9 hours, the at the rate of 16 miles per day. ploughing } acre ploughed per day of 9 hours, the horse travelling at the rate of 18 miles per day. ploughed per day of 9 hours, the horse travelling at the rate of 16 miies per day. of land. horse travelling velled over in Slice in Inches. No. of miles tra- Number of acres ploughed at the rate of 18 miles per day. Number of acres ploughed per day of 9 hours, the horse travelling Width of Furrow- Slice in Inches. No. of miles tra- Number of acres Number of acres Widfh of Furrow- Ce CeERE Sellen She a gee Ree a Oo bane qe oo Pentoars ee oo o o rape on ee Llp Sepsigsies bo do oo PPEOO Fa 7 {D bet bo bt ' ‘ a to dub @®t SP ETM a oo Lal P He oo SOOM DOOOOWOOMO he aE Vitel Bo £ J soo ~1-a ' ' ee pets ave oO ree or ; bo coo ie ; ch OOD OOO 10H 0 MOAIAI AI AI SU bet het bet _ ° bet bet 9D et ed CES ON Lae alee a! _ ss” BEGG 0 “} et et bet bo Co or So crt noch fot et et et ete bo bo bo clea a ore mob bob oro HP 02 bet we bo oO teeth bo Miserables Ox as oo moO c—) Deen irmlim odprodot on Eeanhe Eeeer Sr rt G2 i et t & CEPCELS ees Nor erece o > on Fee ee kk tt et tt et kt et feet ped fed fe fed el pe ed ep ee DO EO EOD 1 Ne — Oo 14 12 ll 9 9 8 7 ul 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 DOAAITIANRAARAMMAMO CEN PP PIR OOO WOO CORDDO DODO DO eee AAIAMAMWRWAMNT AN TR I HP 09 09 CO CO COCO RORORO PORNO ir a rT [7] _ is TABLE VIII. Live and Dead Weight of Cattle. The dead weight generally approaches three-fifths of the live weight, or about 55 per cent. } rad it sometimes differs widely, as the following table of actual observations will demozp strate: Live Weight | Dead Weight Tallow— HS Wee in pounds. in pounds. Pounds, An Aberdeenshire ox. : 1182 229 A short-horned heifer See ; 1087 218 A short-horned ox. a0 : 1261 196 A short-horned steer 945 208 APPENDIX, TABLE IX. Showing how much Manure will be necessary to an Acre of Ground, supposing the Heaps to be of certain Sizes, and deposited at definite Distances : NUMBER OF LOADS REQUIRED TO THE ACRE, IF THE HEAPS ARE PLACED SUPPOSED NUMBER OF 6 9 12 15 | 18 | 21 | 24 | 2% | 30 | 33 | 86 HEAPS IN | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet EACH LOAD. | apart.| apart.| apart.| apart.| apart.| apart.| apart.| apart.| apart.| apart.| apart SOMATA OWE = TABLE X. The Reaults of Observations on the Reproductive Powers of Domestic Birds and Animals. Period of di- GESTATION AND INCU- Proper Age| ration of Heeearone Peay) ay BATION. KINDS OF ANIMALS. for Repro-| the Power ——_—__——_ , duction. of Repro- duction. Femalesto| Copulation z each Male, Shar Mean |Longest est Pe- . jade Period.| Period. Days. | Days. 347 Stallion... She-Goat .. He-Goat. She-Ass. He-Ass... Bitch..... Dog.... Turkey, _ sit- ting on the eggs of the Hen, sitting on the eggs of the Duck .... Goose..... ot PigGOn cavccrtsctssesccusuea | alll al cro 4 tee >: SSSSTamaaan aw “ poOoHnRH APPENDIX. 691 TABLE XI. The proportion of Inorganic Substances contained in several of the most commonly cultivated Esculents. (Prof. Johnston’s Lectures.) PERCENTAGE OF CONTAINED IN INORGANIO SUBSTANCES. Oats 7 : Field 5 Wheat. eta Barley.| Rye. Beane Peas. | Turnips. Magnesia Oxide of iron Oxide of manganese..,... Phosphoric acid Sulphuric Acid CNIOEING deccsceseosseaavat aes Chloride of sodium Alumina ......... Silica .... 101.35} 98.93 | 100.00) 99.37 TABLE XII. The proportion of Inorganic Substances contained in the Refuse of the most com- monly cultivated Esculente, (Prof. Johnston’s Lectures.) PERCENTAGE OF CONTAINED IN INORGANIO SUBSTANCES. Straw | Straw Husk Straw | Straw | Straw of of of of of of Wheat. | Oats. Oats. | Barley.| Rye. | Beans. Magnesia... Oxide of iron... Phosphoric acid.........-++ Sulphuric acid.. Chlorine............0 Renaarens! CHLOVIdS: Of HOGI scsc.s vsrenccecsncssecs |) paciace anne ALUMINA... 05. 200 cas cer cece spesnace “ PSULIGA cs enlcenno'snusapseesig srs asspen secassaedeees | GO.05 48.42) 76.16 | 70.58 64.50 7.05 99.78 | 100.00! 99.20 | 98.15 | 100.11! 100.00} 100.00 see eee eee teccce | oceecee | coecee| eceover| cnccee 692 APPENDIX. TABLE XIII. The proportion of several Elementary Substances contained in 100 partg of some of the most commonly cultivated Esculente. (Prof. Johnston’s Lectures.) PERCENTAGE OF Gluten SUBSTANCES. __ | Husks or starch, Gum,| Albumen, Fatty woody aitee and Sugar. Caseing; Matter. to 19 to 15 to 19 oo ORT > Buckwheat : Rice...... ceerep CoO me bo Cob tH bo 09 SUE WOT HD O'ONS iD NS x Turnips.... Carrots to to to t t 4 7 3 1 3 3 4. Papi da wel) Meadow hay Clover hay.. Pea straw... Oat straw Wheat straw.. _ Co et et Re ROO 2 2 5 3 5 0. 0. 2. 2. 0. 0. 0. 2 3 i 0. 2 RVC StLBWe... cee vee cee cee Indian corn stalks... DS bo to os WW WHO TABLE XIV. Tke proportion of several Elementary Substances contained in the produce of one Acre planted with the Esculents most commonly cultivated as food for Stock. (Prof. Johnston’s Lectures.) The starch, gum, and sugar form fat, while the gluten, albumen, and caseine add to the flesh and muscle. Weight of Weight of = = Weight of Gluten, mre Stare, om Weight of roduced per . men, and Ca- ugar, an Water in the ONE ACRE PLANTED IN Acre. Seat seine in the Fat, in the produce of one : produce of one| produce of Acre, Acre. one Acre. Potatoes.. Carrots... Turnips .....-.++ Wheat straw... Oat@tr aw... sce csscceee Barley straw ...- ss EE ee a DEFINITION OF WORDS, SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND PECULIAR, COMMONLY USED IN CONNECTION WITH AGRICULTURAL AND KINDRED su SJECTS. —_—O—OoOOoOOOeeeeeSS Abdomen. — Lower part or lower belly of an animal. Abrasion.— Wearing or rubbing. Acari. — Ticks; small articulated insects. Acetate. — A neutral salt. Achromatic. — Destitute of color. Acrid.— Sharp, pungent, bitter. Acuwleated. — Having prickly points. Acute-lobed. — Having pointed divisions. Aerate.—To combine with carbonic acid or fixed air. Aftermath.— A second crop of grass in the same season. Albumen.— A substance found in some seeds and vegetables, resembling in character d the white of an egg. Alburnum.— The softer part of wood, between the inner bark and the wood; sap. Alkaline. — Having the properties of alkali, Alluvion.— Alluvial land. Alterative.— A medicine which changes the habit, and restores healthy functions. Aluminous.— Pertaining to alum or alumina. Ammonta.— A volatile alkali, existing in its purest form in a state of gas, 5 Amphibious. —Capable of living in air and water. Animalcula,— An animal, the figure of which . discernible only through a magnifying glass. Annual. — A plant that lives only during one year. . Annular. — Having the form of a ring. Antenne.—The horns or feelers of insects, projecting from the head. Anterior. — Before, in time or place; prior. Anther.— The case or part of the flower con- taining pollen, or the male part of a flower. Antiseptic. — Opposing or counteracting putre- faction. Aperient.— Opening; laxative. Apex.—The tip, point, or summit, of any- : thing. Aphis.—A genus of insects ; vine-fretter ; plant- louse, Apterous. — A wingless insect. Arable, — Fit for ploughing or tillage. Aroma. — The odoriferous principle; a pleasant smell, Aromatic, — Fragrant; spicy; odoriferous. Arsentous. — Containing arsenic. Artery.— A vessel or tube conveying blood from the heart to all parts of the body. Ascescent.— Having a tendency to sourness~ acidity. Astringent.—Binding ; strengthening ; opposed to laxative. Atlas. — The first joint of the neck. Aviary.— An enclosure for Keeping birds cone fined. Awn.—The beard or bristles of grain and grasses. Awned. — Having a beard. Awnless. — Destitute of a beard. Axil. — The space or angle formed by a branch or a leaf with the stem. see: — From azote, a gas fatal to animal ife. Ease — Pertaining to or constituting the ase. Base.— The principle matter of a mixture or composition. Bast. — Rope, or cord, made of the bark of the lime-tree or linden. Batten.— To fatten. A Piece of board or scant. ling, a few inches wide. Bay.— An enclosed place, in a barn, for depos- iting hay. Bere. — The name of a species of Scotch barley. Biennial. — Once in two years; continuing two years. Bifurcation. — A forking, or division into two branches. Big.— A species of barley. Blanched. — Whitened. Bout.— A turn; a single part of an action car ried on at successive intervals. Brindle. — Spottedness. Butyraceous. — Resembling butter. Calcareous. — Partaking of the nature of lime. Calcined. — Reduced to a powder by the action of heat. Calycine. — Relating to, or like, a calyx. yx. — The outer covering of a flower. (693 ) 694 DEFINITION OF WORDS. Cambium.— A glutinous secretion. which, in spring, separates the alburnum of a plant from its inner bark. Capsule. — The seed-vessel of a plant. Carbon. — Pure charcoal. Carbonaceous. — Pertaining to charcoal. Cartilage. — Gristle. Caseous. — Resembling cheese. Caulescent.— Having a perfect stem; rooted like the cabbage. Cuustic.— Any substance which, applied to living animals, acts like fire. Cellular. — Consisting of or containing cells. Cellulose. —The substance left after the action of solvents upon vegetable tissues. Chap.— The upper and lower part of the jaw. Dhermes. — An insect. Chine. — The backbone or spine of an animal. Chronic. — Continuing a long time. Chrysalis. —The second apparent change of the maggot of an insect, before its appear- ance as a butterfly. Churr-worm.— An insect that turns about nimbly. Chyle. — A whitish fluid separated from food by means of digestion. Cleat.— A piece of wood used to fasten ropes upon. Coagulate.—To curdle; to thicken; to change from a fluid to a solid mass. Cocoon.— An oblong ball, or covering of silk, fabricated by the silk-worm; the egg-shaped case of the chrysalis. Collateral. — Being by the side; side by side; on the side; side to side. Colter.— The fore iron of a plough, with a sharp edge, that cuts the earth or sod. Concave. — Hollow; arched, like the inner sur- face of a spherical body. Conical. — Round, and decreasing to a point. Convex.— Rising or swelling on the interior surface into a spherical or round form. Coriaceous. — Leathery ; resembling leather. Corolla.— The innermost of the envelopes by which the organs of fructification of many flowers are covered; the second of two en- velopes that surround the stamen and pistil. Culinary. — Relating to the kitchen. Culm.— The stalks or stems of corn or grasses. Curd.— The thickened part of milk, which is formed into cheese. Curvilinear. — Having a curved line. Cutaneous. — Belonging to the skin. Cuticle. — The thin, exterior coat of the skin. Decoction. —The strength of leaves, seeds, or other matter, drawn out by boiling. Defecate. — To free from impurities; to purify. Dentata. — Pertaining to the teeth. Dentated. — Having points like teeth. Dew-lap.—The flesh that hangs from the throat of oxen, which laps or licks the dew, in grazing. Diadelphous. — Having the stamens united in two parcels. Diagonal. — Being in an angular direction. Diameter.— A right line passing through the centre of an object, from one side to the other. Dichotomous. — Regularly jivided by pairs. Disk.— The whole surface >f a leaf; the fleshy substance between the stamens and pistil. Diuretic.— Tending to produce discharges of urine. Drench.— A draught; a portion of medicine to purge a beast. Drupe.— A general name for a one-celled, one or two-seeded fruit, which does not open when ripe, as the peach, cherry, plum, &c. Edible. — Fit to be eaten as food. Electricity.—A very thin fluid diffused through most bodies, rapid in its motion, and powe erful. Elliptical. — Oval. Elongation. — The state of being extended. Elytra.— The sheaths of an insect; a case covering the wings. Emarginate. — Having a notch at the point. Emasculation. — Castration. Embracing. — Enclosing; clasping; holding in. embrace. Embrocation.— The liquid with which an af- fected part is washed. Embryo. — Anything in its first rudiments, or unfinished state. Epidermis.— A thin membrane, covering the skin of animals or the bark of trees. Erosion. — Eaten away; corrosion; canker. Esculent.— Any plants fit for food; though sometimes used as a general name for edi- ble roots. Esophagus.— The gullet; the canal through which food and drink pass to the stomach. Espalier.— A row of trees planted about a garden or in hedges. Expression. —The act of pressing or squeezing out. Extravasated. — Forced or let out of its pro vessels, . Ezxude.— A discharge of moisture, juice, or li- quid, by bodies and plants. Fallowing.— Ploughing and harrowing land without sowing it. Farina. — Fine dust or powder contained in the anthers of plants. Farinaceous.— Mealy; pertaining to meal. Faucet. — The spigot of a barrel. Febrile.— Pertaining to fever. Fecal. — Containing or consisting of dregs, sedi- ment or excrement. Fecula.— The green matter of plants; starch ; or farina. Fecundation.— The act of making fruitful or prolific; impregnation. Fermentation. — tnternal motion of the parti- eles of animal and vegetable substances, occasioned by heat or moisture, and caus- ing an extrication of gas and heat. Ferruginous. — Partaking of iron. Fetlock.— A tuft of hair growing behind the pastern joint of many horses. Fetus. — The young, in the womb or egg, when perfectly formed. Fibrous. — Composed or consisting of fibres. Figment. — A thing feigned or imagined. Filament.— A fibre; a fine thread, of which flesh, nerves, skin, plants, roots, &., are composed. Filiform.— Having the form of a thread or filament. Filtrate.—To purify; to strain. DEFINITION OF WORDS. 695 Fining.— The purification of substances by | Jncised.— Cut; notched. the addition of ingredients which separate and deposit the objectionable matter. Flaccid. — Soft and weak; limber. Flank.— The fleshy part of an animal’s side between the ribs and the hip. Fleshy.— Plump; pulpy. Flitch. — A hog’s side salted and cured. Flocculent.— Adhering in locks or flakes. Floret.— A little flower. Foment.—To bathe with warm liquors. Fructification. — Rendering productive of fruit. Fulcrum.— A prop or support. Fungus. — Amushroom; a spongy excrescence. Fusiform.— Shaped like a spindle. Gastric. — Belonging to the belly or stomach. Germen.— The ovary or seed-bud of a plant. Gestation. — Carrying young in the womb from conception to delivery. Girt. — A bandage or strap. Glaucous.— Dull green; having a bluish tinge. Globular.— Round; spherical. Globule. — A small particle of matter of a sphe- rical form. Glume.—The outer covering of corn and grasses; the husk or chaff. Gluten.— A tough, elastic, gray substance, found in the flour of grain. Gramineous. — Pertaining to grass. Granulation. — The act of forming into grains. Gypsum. — Plaster-stone. Hackle. — Raw silk; any flimsy substance un- spun; a machine to dress flax or hemp. Haulm. — Straw ; the stem or stalk of grain, &c. Headland,— A ridge or strip of unploughed land at the ends of furrows, or near a fence. Heathery.— A place overgrown with shrubbery of any kind. Hemispherical.—Containing half a sphere or globe. Herbaceous.—Having green and cellular stalks; being annual as to stem, but perennial as to root, Hexagonal, — Having six sides and six angles. Hispid. — Rough ; having stiff hairs or bristles. Hoar-frost.— White particles of ice formed by the congelation of dew or watery vapors. Hoary. — Having a grayish hue. Hock. —Joint of an animal between the knee and the fetlock; a part of the thigh. Hoim.— Low, flat, rich land, on the banks of a river. : Hopper.— A wooden trough through which grain passes into a mill; a vessel in which seed-corn is carried for sowing. Horizontal.— Parallel to the horizon; on a level. Hybrid.— Mongrel; an animal or plant pro- duced from the mixture of two species. Hydatid. — A bladder-like animal, filled with aqueous fluid, which infests the human internal organs. paréicularly the liver; an insect found in the skulls of sheep. Hydraulic.— Relating to the conveyance of water through pipes. Hydrogen. — A gas constituting one of the ele- ments of water. Imbricated. — Indented with concavities; over- lapping. Impervious. — Not penetrable by light, nor per- meable to fluids. Incisive. — Having the quality of cutting or separating: incisive teeth, in animals, are the fore teeth. Indigenous. — Native to the country or place. Injection. — Throwing in; liquid medicine thrown into the body by means of a sy- ringe or pipe. Innoxious. — Free from mischievous qualities. Integument. — That which naturally invests or covers another thing, Internode. —The space between two joints of a plant. Interstice. —The space between things. Tridescent. — Having colors like the rainbow. Irrigation. — A mode of watering land by the aid of drains or canals. Jugular.— Pertaining to the throat or the neck. Keel. — The two lowest petals of some flowers. Labial. — Pertaining to the lips. Lachrymal.— Generating or secreting tears. Lanceolate. — Shaped like a lance. Larva.— An insect in the caterpillar state. Larynx. — The upper part of the windpipe; a cartilaginous cavity. Latent. — Concealed. Lateral. — Proceeding from the side. Lea.— A,meadow or plain. Legume.— Fruit similar to the pod of a pea. Lever.— A bar of any substance turning on @ support called the fulcrum or prop. Ligament. — Anything that ties or unites one thing or part to another; a strong sub- stance, serving to bind one bone with an- other, Ligneous. — Consisting of wood. Line. — The twelfth part of an inch, Linear.— Consisting of lines; slender; in a straight direction. Inthe.—That may be easily bent; pliable; limber. Lobby. — A small hall or waiting-room. Lobe.— A division of a leaf. Longitudinal. — Running lengthwise. te oe — A liquid preparation for washing the dy. Lupulin. — The fine yellow powder of hops. Macerate.— To steep in water until nearly dis- solved. Mat-odorous. — Having an offensive odor. Manipulate.—To work with the hands; to handle. Marl. — A species of limy earth. Matrice.— The womb; the place where any- thing is formed or produced. Mattock. — A tool to grub up weeds. Maw.—The stomach of beasts; the crop of fowls. Membrane.— A thin, white, flexible skin. Metacarpal.— Part of the hand between the wrist and the fingers. Metamorphose.—'To change into a different form; to transform. Miasmata.—Pertaining to putrefactive effluvia, Midge.— A small insect; a gnat or fles. Midrib.— The middle rib or vein of a leaf. Milch. — Giving milk. Molting.— Shedding a natural covering, ae hair, feathers, skin, or horns, Mongrel. — Of a mixed breed. 696 DEFINITION OF WORDS. Mucilage. — One of the elements of vegetables; the liquor which moistens the joints of animal bodies. Mucous. — Slimy; glutinous. Muich. — Half-rotten straw. Mullion. — A division in a window-frame; a bar. Must. — Unfermented wine, newly pressed from the grape. Nasal. — Pertaining to the nose. Navicular. — Shaped like a boat. Nitrogen.— An element of air called azote, fatal to animal life. f Nocturnal. — Pertaining to the night. Normal.— Perpendicular; relating to rudi- ments or first principles. Noxious. — Hurtful; harmful. Oblique. — Not direct; slanting. Oblong. — Longer than broad. Obovate. — Having the narrow end downward. Obtuse.— Blunt; not pointed or acute. Occipital. — Pertaining to the back part of the head. Oh A shoot; a sprout from the roots of a plant. Organic bodies. — Bodies with organs on the action of which depend their growth and perfection. Oster. — Willow twig. Ova. — Eggs. Oval.— Of the shape or figure of an egg. Ovary.— The part where eggs are formed, or in which the fetus is supposed to be formed. Ovate. — Egg-shaped. Oviparous.— Bringing forth, or producing young by eggs. Ovule.— A body destined to become a seed. Ovum. — Egg-shaped. Oxygen.—That part of air which may be breathed; vital air, or the basis of it. Pad.— A road; an easy-paced horse; a soft saddle; to beat a way smooth and level. Paddock. — A small enclosure for animals. Palmated.— Having the shape of a hand; webbed. Palpi. — Feelers. Panary.— Pertaining to bread. Fanicle.— A species of flowering; unfolding of blossoms. Farallelogram.— A figure whose opposite sides are equally distant throughout. FParasitic.— Growing on the stem or branch of another plant. Parietal. — Bones forming the sides and upper part of the skull. Parterre.— Level ground laid out and fur- nished with evergreens and flowers. Pastern. — That part of a horse’s leg between the joint next to the foot and the coronet of the hoof. Pevcant.— Morbid; bad; not healthy. Pedicle. — The final division of a common stem or stalk, Peduncle.— The flower-stalk of a plant. Pellet.— A little ball. Fellicle. — A thin skin or film. felt.— A beast’s skin, with hair on it; a raw hide. Feliato-palmate. — Waving the shape of a hand, and of a rough hairy texture. Pelvis. —The cavity of the body forming the lower part of the abdomen. Pendulous. —Hanging from a stem or branch. Perch. — A pole; a roost for fowls. Percolation. — The act of filtering or straining. Perennial. — Lasting through the year; a plant which lives more than two years. Perforate.—To bore through; to make a hole or holes through anything. Permeable.— That may be passed through without displacement of its parts. Perspective. — View in the distance. Pervious. — That may be penetrated by another body or substance. Petal. — A flower-leaf. Petiole. — A leaf-stalk; the foot-stalk of a leaf. Phenogamous. — Waving stamens and pistils distinctly visible. Phosphate.— A salt formed by a combination of phosphoric acid with a base of earth, alkali, or metal. Pile. — The hairy surface of an animal’s skin. Pinnate. — Divided into a number of pairs of leaflets. ’ . Pistil. — An organ of female flowers adhering to the fruit for the reception of the pollen. Plait.— A fold; a tress; braid. Pledget.— A small, flat roll of lint or linen. Pollard. — A tree lopped. Pollen. —The fine fecundating dust or flour contained in flowers. Polygamous.— Having male and hermaphro- dite, or female and hermaphrodite, or male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers, on the same, or different plants. Pomace.—The substance of ground apples, either before or after the cider is ex- pressed. Porous. — Filled with pores, which are passages in the skin or substance of a body. Posterior. — Coming after; the hinder. Postern. — Back; any small door or gate. Probang.— An instrument of whalebone and sponge, for clearing the throat or gullet. Proboscis.— A snout; an organ formed by the prolongation of the nose. Prolegs.— Fore legs. Propolis.— A thick, odorous substance, resem- bling wax. Pubescent. — Covered with down or hair. | Pupa.— An insect in that state in which it re sembles an infant in swaddling clothes. Purgative. — Having the power of cleansing; evacuating the bowels. Purge.— A medicine that evacuates the body by stool. Pus.— The white or yellowish matter gene- rated in ulcers and wounds. Quadrangular.— Square; having four sides, and four prominent angles. Quicklime. — Any limy substance deprived of its fixed or carbonic air. Racemose.— Having the flowers arranged along an axis, as in the hyacinth and currant. Rachis.— A stem that proceeds from the base to the top of the flower. Rattooning. — Sending up many stalks from an old root; several crops being thus gathered from one planting. Rectangular. — Right-angled. ee DEFINITION OF WORDS. Rectum. — The third and last of the large in- testines. ; Reflected. — Bent, or directed backward. Reniform.— Having the shape of kidneys. Rick. — A long pile of grain or hay, sheltered with a kind of roof. Rootlet.— A small root, or the fibre of a root. Rugose.— A leaf with veins more contracted than the surface. Rump.— The end of the backbone of an ani- mal, with the parts adjacent. Saccharine. — Having the qualities of sugar. Saline. — Consisting of salt. Scape. — The flowering stem of a plant. Scarify.— To scratch; to make small incisions in the skin with an instrument. Scion. — A young shoot, twig, or sprout of a tree. Scrotwm.— The place containing the organs of generation. Scullery.— A place where dishes, kettles, &c., are kept. Seedling. — A young plant or root just sprung from the seed. Segment. — A part cut off or divided. Semilunar. — Resembiing in form a half moon. Septic. — Promotive of putrefaction. Serous.— Thin; watery. Serration.— Formation in the shape of a saw. Serum. — 'Thin, transparent part of blood; the thin part of milk. Sessile. — Applied to a leaf growing on a stem without-having any foot-stalk. Setiform. — Having the form of a bristle. Seton. — Small threads, or a twist of silk, drawn through the skin by a large needle, for the discharge of humors. Sheath.— A rudimentary leaf of a plant which wraps around the stem. Shock, — Sixteen sheaves of wheat, rye, &c. Slet.— A broad. flat, wooden bar. Sole. —'The bottom of a thing, and on which it stands upon the ground. Solitary. — Growing singly. Spatula,— A slice; an instrument for spread- ing plasters, &e. Spermatic. — Consisting of seed, or pertaining to the elements of production. Spike. — A species of inflorescence, as in wheat, rye, &c.; an ear of corn or grain. Spikelet.— A small spike; one of a great many small spikes collected in a mass, as in grass. Spine.— A large, woody thorn. Spiracle.— A small aperture in animal and vegetable bodies through which air passes; any small hole or vent. Spongiole. — A supposed expansion of minute parts at the termination of roots, like a sponge, for absorbing the nutriment of plants. Spore, Sporule.— The part of flowerless plants which performs the function of seeds. Stallion. — A male horse not castrated. &tamen.— An organ of flowers for the prepara- tion of the pollen ov fecundating dust. Standard. — A tree or shrub that stands singly without being supported. &tellate.— When more leaves than two sur- round the stem in a ring; resembling a star; radiated. 59 697 Slernum.— The breast-bone. Stifle.—The joint of a horse next to the but tock, Stigma.—The top of the organ of female flowers. Stipule.— A scale at the base of the leaf-stalks of some plants; or one which protects the young leaves. Stomata.— Oval spaces between the sides of cells, in plants, opening into other cavi- ties, and bordered by a rim. Stool. — A sucker; a shoot from the bottom of the stem or root of a plant. Strata. — Beds; layers. Strike.— The name given to a single running of ungranulated sugar. Style. — The middle portion of the organ of female flowers, connecting the stigma with the germ. Sub-lanceolate. — Having somewhat of a lance shape. Sub-sessile. — Having very short foot-stalks. Subsoil. — The bed or layer of earth which lies beneath the surface-soil. Subulate. — Shaped like an awl. Subulate-linear. — Having awl-shaped lines. Succulent. — Full of juice; juicy. Sucker.— The shoot of a plant from the roots or lower part of the stem. . Sulphate.— A neutral salt, formed by sulphu- ric acid in combination with any base. Sulphuric. — Containing sulphur. Suture. — The seam or joint which unites the bones of the skull; a method of closing wounds. Sward.— The grassy surface of land; turf. Swath.—The whole breadth or sweep of a scythe in mowing or cradling. Tale.— A greasy-feeling magnesian mineral, having a pearly lustre, used instead of chalk for tracing lines on wood, cloth, &e. Tarsi. — Belonging to the feet. Tassels. —The flower ribbons, or heads of plants, as of corn. Temporal, — Pertaining to the temple or tem- ples of the head. Tension. — Strained or stretched. Tenuous.— Thin; small; minute. Tepid. — Moderately warm. Terminal. — Growing at the end of a branch or stem; terminating. Terrace.— A raised bank of earth, with sloping sides; a balcony. Testicles. — Male organs of generation. Thorax.—The breast; the chest; the part of the body between the neck and abdomen; the second segment of insects. Tibie. — The bones which form the second seg- ment of the leg. Tonic. — A medicine that gives vigor and actiop to the system. Transpiration. — Passing off through the pores of the skin. Transverse. — Lying or being across, or in a cross direction; to overturn. Trench. —To cut or dig a ditch or channel; to fortify, by cutting a ditch and raising a rampart; to furrow, by ploughing. Trepanning. —Opening the skull, to relieve the brain. 698 Trichotomous. — Having three divisions, Triennial. — Lasting for three years. Trifoliate. — Having three leaves or leaflets. Trocar.— An instrument for tapping in case of dropsy. Tubercle. — A small swelling, tumor, knob, or rough point. Tuberous. — Roundish, fleshy vegetable bodies, connected into a bunch by intervening threads. Tunicated.— Covered with a tunic or mem- branes; coated, as a stem. Uterus. — The womb. Vacuum.— An empty space; one void of air or matter. Valve.— A division of the fruit of a plant. Vell.— A skin; a rennet-bag. Ventral. — Belonging to the belly. Verandah.— An open portico, formed by ex- tending a sloping roof beyond the main building. Vertebra.— A joint of the spine or backbone of an animal. Vertical.—In a perpendicular direction. DEFINITION OF WORDS. Vestibule. —The porch or entrance into a house; an ante-room. Vexillum,— The upper single petal of a flower like that of a pea. Viscid. — Glutinous; sticky. paar oe. Producing young in a living state. Wattle.— The fleshy bunch under the throat of a cock or turkey. Wear.— A dam in a river to stop and raise the water. Whey.— The watery part of milk separated from the thick part, in making cheese. Whorled. — An arrangement of three or more leaves or limbs around a common centre. Windlass. — A machine for raising great weights; a handle by which anything is turned. 4 Withers. —The junction of the shoulder-bones of a horse, at the bottom of the neck. Yolk.— The oily secretion from the skin of sheep, which renders the pile soft end pliable. Zig-zag. — Having short turns. INDEX. A. PAGE TADOlO le scesascusesesnecccassssee cansnacaianeng cox eveuse 501 Abscess in animals PACH CIB bercncsacacvstsencsseesune/raeveuws sescasedeeses 496 AFRICAN SUGAR-CANE. DESCrIPUION: oc ceccee cvsvececcieyccs descies cconw ne 114 Varieties, soil, rattooning, culture, MISO cccsusssilfesonanaca tecoceeea scasuiwesensencnantLO Age of cattle .... . 324 * of sheep.. 344 Ailanthus......... 501 Alderney cattle .. Ace. ne sees OOD PAN NOM Gh evcewacseieccersscondeesseesatecssdsseKen seve 309 Alterative medicines for animals ...........+ 368 Altering the proportion of the ingredients ANI ROUNS. eeppcan's wtvow aida aeneaeuveneceraer ext neee ene 26 Althea frutex . +. 487 Amaranthus trlcolor......sscscsenbus ss 487 American horses, Mexican, Cana ian, Winited Sta tesis:.ccs.--csssscecersesnaneousvrneton 361 American Silver Fir ......... «-- 501, 504 American White Spruce ....... . 501, 504 AMalYSIS Of BOUB <......003c00c0- dderesunecieossweee 25 Anatomy Of the OX 2.0.00... ..sceccew cassvowecieenas 823 acseee scescurceneseennes eresevens Granaries, site, etc...... GRAPE. Propagation, soil and situation, cul- ture, pruning, training.. Varieties, — Alexander...... se eearees sueecesce scenes eee Black Hamburgh.. Black iste Black i Sweetwater, Bland Catawba... wetas - 491 490 400 401 402 1. 403 a 404 | 405 412 274 Clinton, Cunningham. Diana, Early, Black July, ear biases: Isabella. - : . 27S 278 . 279 Miller’s Burgundy Missouri, Norton’s Virginia, Ohio. Red and White Muscat of Alexandria Royal Muscadine Schuylkill Muscadel, Scuppernong..... Warren’s Madeira, White Set es White Sweetwater, Winnie............ Vineyards. Culture Of-c..<. «2-c0055 repeced Pressing the grapes.. Making wine a Champagne wine.. Constituents of Wine... Monthly Calendar of Operations... Grafting, budding, pruning, training. Diseases Insects injJUTIOUS £0......scc0ncscceseeseceese GRASS. Meadow or Green, Spear or June....... Timothy, Cat’s Tail or Herd’s Grass, Or- chard or Cock’s-foot, Meadow Fescue, Blue, Flat-stalked Meadow, Ray or Rye. Red-top, Fowl MeedoW, Fine Bent . sevanateeneds Sweet-scented Vernal, ‘Pony . Annual Spear, Crab, Crested Dog’s Tail, Crow-foot, Downy Oat, Viorin, Floating Fescue Foxtail, Gama, Guinea .. : Save Italian Rye, “Meadow ‘Foxtail, Narrow- leaved Meadow, Reed Meadow, Rib- bon, Rice, Salt Marsh, Sheep’s Fes- cue, Smooth-stalked Meadow. Tall Fescue, Tall Meadow Oat Lands alternately in erase and tillage. Soiling, haying..........csse00s Lands permanently i in grass... Perennial grass-lands fit for mowing, meadow lands..., ...... Permanent pastures Diseases Insects injurious to. Grass-lands, operations on Grazing cattle...... slaetssantaeees Gravelly; Soils) see . 212 Description, soil, culture.........sces0e- 168 Liquorice. Marjoram, Mint................ 218 Ploughing out, cleansing, and drying Parsley, Penny-royal, Peppermint, THe TOO... ccc ceewacesecoee eonctneskAoe secoee 169 Purslane, Rosemary .. wee 214 Grinding the roots, propagation and Rue, Saffron, Sage........ 215 preservation of sets, US€S........+se000 170 Savory, Tansy, Thyme...... 216 | Maggots (see Insects). Monthly Calendar of Operations .......... 216 Magnolias, .ssssseessorssseesse ssssladi deans Kyloe cattle ......... s+... eaaesoeetarateaaectecdaen= 885 | Magnolia grandiflora......... . “501, 503 Malay or Chittagong fowls.. Preerpnictst!) Mallenders in horses..... Manges... ssccesccxecosennone MAMBeYBuse.cerse ene secnsscesconccsscnssesaceronsssonsce . 532 MANURING. Action of manures, natural manures,. 49 Urine, various kinds of excrement..... 50 Night-soil. management of manures... 51 Forming composts, litter.........ssseeee 52 INDEX. Applying liquid manures, folding, dead BOSS DONGS,: CLC: .0):. navlesalneneds Py eee Dearborn’s Seedling. Easter Beurre ... INDEX, TH DIG IGU MBCA UGY isc vccsecetbsescssccxesssaccunss Frederick of Wurtemburg, Fulton, GO MONCEAII:..ccx-cdserccssesseccesnen das 296 Golden Beurre of Bilboa .. cone 290 Honey. Jargonelle .........0+. we. 296 Madeleine ........ « 292 Marie Louise. aaa INLRCAOINO cease Masse ech ensiecccnacastsnane se nese 295 Passe Colmar, Pound, Rousselet de f UM OUI las cancndccesac coseeakccadshaecess's veers 296 Seckel .. =conopancenontdacd WWerueee . 294 St. Germaine, "St. “Michael, Stevens's Genesee, Summer Melting... ssseee 296 Summer Frank Real .... . 295 Swan’s Hgg ........0s00. pasecass 290 IRV SON cc ccccs . 294 Vergouleuse.. 296 Wantter: Neligi.<..-c..cccsssvescrtinssctecssascse 292 Monthly Calendar of Operations ... . 313 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, 564 MDIGGAHES oecss co scetececss roo sensnesnse . 599 Insects injurious to +. 650 Peaty soils............ Both 25 Draining .. malcenseauacancstarwastciscetare 59 Penny-royal .. sea ane 24 PG OWMNgesancnvavectnacteestbacsancessceevesasicccucsmaceres 496 Pepper ........ widavaes + 203 Peppermint ...... .....- .. 214 Perennial flowers .. Ferern «(tet Pickling pork .. SusscsseestsetensscucsnevceesacoL Pig. — (See Swine.) RINCLUNCEN Wecawcenncecsouscevess Geaasapseu scan camer cine iif Min ice see ncseeoars ont Pip in fowls Plans of flower-gardens .......... s farm-buildings PLANTS YIELDING Dyes, Oms, &c, Indigo. Description, varieties, soil ... seseeseeeeeee 166 Culture, extraction of the dye........... 167 Madder. Description, soil, culture, &c. ............ 168 Cleaning, curing, and grinding the TOOUSN Ca cntececsrescaaceatcqueteescetee 169, 170 Weld. Description, soil, culture, &c. .,.... 170-172 Woad. Description, soil, culture, &. ...... 172,173 Turmeric. Description, soil, uses............. sseee Voy Lae Sumach. Varieties, soil, climate, cultivation, &c. 175 Bastard Saffron. Description, soil, climate, culture, MESCSie cece cae eeakeenesan cease bosecoerec e 175,176 Teasel. Description, soil, culture, uses, &c. 176,177 Colza. Description, soil, culture, &c. ...... 177-179 Rape. Description, soil, culture, &. ...... 179,180 Sunflower. Description, soil, culture, uses..... 180, 181 Castor-oil plant. Description, varieties, soil, culture, OE Outeslccoene sea taray ccs ene mca nce 181, 182 Plants and Planting. — (See each plant under its head.) PLOUGHING. ROMSTES OM Gcneaesesscsascuscnesecsccchaeserersen oe. Rules for 35 ® How to hold the plough, construction OF the plavghivcsarvecsssarecsiosvasrescerees (OO Ridges .. aieaes coegn ctf General operation .. 38 Gathering, casting ... BeWanored 41 esas cross- aes - 42 Subsoil .. Soudlnsacare sacs 43 MONON: ccsssacscerenalonance atasoatateeatererenne 44 Varieties of ploughs — i loek coulter, wheel§ and draft-rod......sseeseceeeee Pep tit Propagation, soil and pe cul- ture, &c...... rococo 4b) Varieties — Bleecker’ 3 ‘Gage Sear saucdades 298 Black Dawson, Blue Dwarf Gage ........ 300 Cloth of Gold, Coe’s Golden DE Horo, 298 Dawson ...... “n see 800 Drap @’Or ........ sees 298 Duane’s Purple cotta esos 299 Ml freys Manly ROyAlisscssssceeercascaessuensse 300 (RAVOYILON S: «:veatcecseasecsstaseces sssee 299 Flushing Gage, Frost Gage. 300 Green: Gage!.cecnsetesssiacstiene -. 296 Huling’s Superb, Imperial Ottoman .. 300 ENGRSOMIweesssaeeserece caper eescaenasser sess 296 Lombard....... adadass O00. Long Scarlet.. scons 298 WPM pi mieons caseeee seateeseuecnesrccnseeetees 300 Morocco ......-- oes . 298 Prince’s Imperial Gage paces . 300 Purple Favorite, Red Gage .... 298 Royal Hative’......s..cssssessese wveuscscseesss GUO MCATIGH Gar Orescctceestecoccevesteneeceon ene ce 298 Mmith’s{Onlenns sees ecseceencrasecess coccinea: 300 Washington .............. 35 selsauees! 200) Monthly Calendar of Operations Pagaeeat 313 Grafting, budding, SEGRE: taining, 564 Diseases......... Insects i injurious ‘to Pneumonia, or inflammation of annie in MMI a Nisan seerenenccasasteesas pivercede eta eseee TOOTS Pointer:d0g’ ....<.-.sesna-0 Poisons, how to treat.. Poland goose ........... Poll-evil in animals. Polyanthus plant. Pomegranate ....... ROPDYiserasese sees Pork, pickling ... Porous subsoil........ Portable grist-mill ....... Position of the apiary........... Porato. Propagating, varieties, soils, culture, BUDIAR CO tacnttnealnesnsaitdcssunsesatverccsaes soe 96 Uses.. : base) 105 Diseases and. enemies “are 99 Planter and Seed-drill ....... ro att!) Sweet ...... Srepeedonidence ceneepocoscecconsccencen AEE The Rot. DIGRCTIPLION saccesseeacescticcnssseees Saccsbassree GLO Causes ........ erpeccoges KEL, Remedies ....... ceocen! GOZO Poultry, or the various domestic Fon 613 IPLESSOR. CHUGCHO! avcanseesccdeccdsseretesseucareaneceea Goc0. oe HB Yiexsensseueenace cent Pricked or wounded ‘feet i in animals . Primrose . ¢ Procreating age of cattle ae Propagating. — (See Animals, Vezetables, Fruits, &c.) PRUNING. Uses, forest trees, ornamental trees, or- namental shrubs...........ss000+ Beret . 577 Fruit trees and shrubs.. Herbaceous plants ....... os @lose sori eine accieecne oe erensnanmnlannaeseels Shortening-in, fore-shortening, spur- TiNg-i ........ Heading-in .. Lopping, cutting down, ‘stopping and DIN CHIN GOUL ie cesoscecceososessnoses Rissveae 582 Ringing, disbudding ... Disleafing, slitting and splitting, bruis- ing and tearing, root pruning......... 584 Girdling and felling, seasons for pru- TULA Sevewcaatons moon wee 585 Puccinia graminis «.......++. A eee 608 Pumiced feet in animals ............0.+008 wee OUD Pumpkin, varieties and culture. Purple apple weevil .. ae «Hyacinth bean .. Purslane.. Pyrenium Parthenium.. Q. Qualities of dairy cows. ...... ma Eee 335 Quarter-evil or quarter-ill in animals ....... 368 QUIGON-=DER eee cesturiessecesasennsesescsancereyacescersese EL. QUINCE. Propagation, &c. . 300 Verlecies (Pole: shaped, Orange “Pear- shaped .. Bean saocechectoaarennr-corraey, Wl Portugal .. sessinccea ele: Monthly Calendar of Operations... . 813 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, 564 IDISBaSeRis.scneneeedececesteaner Midiewecelatelsatinne NOOO) Insects injurious to.. R. TENOR) egoespecpecoceeoc ene Radish, varieties, culture, forcing. Sarececoase 204 seeeereacsereserses DOL Rape. Description, soil, culture .. Gathering the ee: uses . 0 Rape (edible-rooted) .. Thesteveselseenenase OO RASPBERRY. Propagation, &e. ........... Paneipestnancheseaiecon Ue Varieties — American Black, Cushing, Double-bearing Yellow ..... Mastolif <--s.s.cees Gace nbScec! caeenerecec cnsoc step 303 Franconia, Howland’s Red, New Red, Ohio, Red Antwerp, True Red, White Antwerp, Yellow Antwerp ............. 804 Reaping grain. — (See each kind of grain.) REARING LIvE-STOCK. Neat cattle .......... Ge conto ey Sheep ......... « 339 SWAG ee saids cacscaceceu cove neste eee 349 eveiese sense sseiseeen . 818) 718 INDEX. Mintle G On Gisccsse-sccsessisrenceressnnseeussvarseioss “grub of the ‘plum, ‘red bud ‘caterpillar, Red-footed beetle ..........ssseeee cee esnae eran snes uOO Red spider... sadeul OU Relation between ‘soil ‘and ‘subsoil -. soe 2405 Removing stones..........csecceeeenee isscnekegtaetee 34 Rennet, different modes of prevaniny and « Preating Cop... . 231 Repotting flow erslscssasscssas-sscce-ssaceapaeeeee . 483 Rheumatism in animals «........eccceeees . 315, 379 RHUBARB. Varieties and Culture.........cssssscerseseee 204 HOLOMh pieeepessansandeMortocasteresnes sevesecss LOD Rhynchospermum jasminoides ............... 495 RICE. Varieties and description . Sreecmacecnce 127 ‘Mode of cultivation in South Carolina, 128 Chinese mode of cultivation, cleaning, use. pac Recoone Horepecn sabe coceatecccca re 21742) Ridge ploughing .. 39 Rind grafting ....... 569 Ring-bone in horses ... 379 Rippling flax ..........06 141 Roaring in animals . Srey sit) Rock-maple tree ...... oxen DOL ROM geseeceesesexee os ad Root grafting .... : 571 “pruning. 584 Rose bush .. . 495 s acacia, of ‘Sharon cn seve DOL G5) ATAINING, cccceccse cnciess sus seers O88 ROSEIVATY/sascecon-secunsenisiscanaaseplavabuneeheneiacsixeeiee lee Ror. UnsaNiMalsscccscdeccopnecotensceesssvessssOMcaie lel Potato rot. Description ... Gases ...cc0+0-. Remedies ........ Rotation of crops . Rotting hemp... c Rouen or Rhone duck.. caeenieaevenis Round-bone, Eprained 3 in “animals ae Roup in fowls .. Rater deck Benesconno anes Rudbeckia plant Bs RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Farm-dwellings and Cottages. General principles to be observed, plans nay OL aeb Ue Male behparretnorneroseun ndontoncocth . 512 Model of a moderate-sized farm-house, modei of a one-story house ........... 513 Model of a medium-sized house.. Model of a large farm-house ...... : Tudor style of cottage .........-seesseeeeeee Model of double cottage st structure eenen 520 Modifications Of plans .........esecereereene OBL Dairies. General remarks, different apartments of the dairy-house, Site .......:+..+e+. 522 To secure a proper temperature, ar- rangement of the apartments ......... 523 Store-loft or upper rooms, model of a complete dairy .......2+.--sse00+ pemscacesrns Ut! Barns. Plan of apartments, light and air, to prevent depredations of vermin...... 527 Model of the Washington barn ......... 528 INDEX. SUG) SI DALIT scores ccechtentactvevass cedcscescess HO2O Stables. DCS. ANG AID cevadeitescss-cecervouscevssc) DOL Stalls, racks, and Mangers .........s000006 632 Cart-sheds and Implement-houses. DLO Ch apsesriacacesees.s Granaries. Site, &. ...... Ice-houses. Necessity for, mode of construction, filling with ice... Sheep-folds. General remarks, arrangement of folds, feed-racks, and troughs... Cattle-sheds. Uses and requisites, arrangement Calf-houses, apartment for eee food, apparatus necessary, mode...... Piggeries. Site, plan of construction... .....sceessses Separate Stie€S........0.00 Revane Poultry-houses. General principles and requisites, situation. form.. Roosting-perches and nests, to Tender the poultry-house healthy Conveniences for hatching. appurte- nances, air and space, accommoda- tions for keeping poultry on a esx scale. Plan of construction ‘and general 1 ‘ma- nagement... ies Arrangement of the Farmery. Situation Kind of buildings, disposition of the different buildings Plan of buildings for a large farm.. Plan of buildings for a small farm Stack-yard, drainage of farmery Green-houses. May be easily constructed, materials and mode of building.............6. 00-00 Arrangement of the lights. Flues for heating ..........00+- Fences and Gates. Different kinds, building stone-walls.. Materials, implements, rules to be ob- ROI Gti cccnennaccesesanaseracsupelee Pacpsecr eae 554 Advantages of stone-wall..........+. cevece 50d Form and method of ae gates... . 555 Hanging, hinges, lateh, gate-posts. seve 556 Arbors... wuinccmsnanewacentavenaacas . 48 Garden-seats . Se ooseoes* Bee-houses, hives and boxes. teecencs 421, 422 Pere ee ere rer Orr er etter rte eerrrr ity Ae eeeene noses se ses wr oees weeee ataeeeseee Russian or Siberian fowls.. Rust (also see Diseases of ‘Plants)....... Rutabaga RYE. Varieties, soil......... Savaus onbcensenelneswunee Time for sowing, culture, product, and Diseases and enemies.. - 81 Insects injurious t0.......0000sseessossene eee Saddle-galls in ai Saddle Gres Saffron . 66> Dastardssecceuacaare Serer ery oer eer eer tity SAD Grisicasantentwase¥routssrtecce cneterat iter MALO ICH CCHS carzsstevacsasete cecvarstosesmactsant ease SAINFOIN. Description and habits Culture Diseases Salix pee ag “ Forbiana.. so orubras.. Sallenders in horses... ave Salsify. speeeee Salting ‘butter... Sandy soils. Scab in sheep... SeNdaesawa'sluseno acplevacaneeostes ee Scale insect (see Insects). Scarlet cacalia plants gearlet lychnis plant Scholytus... Sse niece ov ecess Scions for grafting... a6 transmitting. Scorzonera.. ceeecon cnc Scotch Pine... Scour in lambs... senedee Scouring-rot........sss0see Scraping broom-corn... Bea-Kal@hincccstsh-tadyve Securing good hives Seed (see each kind under its head). Selecting hens SEPTEMBER. itchen-garden calendar for............0 Fruit calendar........ wisp euaeeersnecer Live-stock calendar...... Floricultural calendar Setter dog Shagbark .. eee reneeene seecee teens eeeeeneee Shearing..... Sheds, — cart. * cattle... SHEEP. Rearing......... Sap taccoe Castrating, weaning, shearing... For market, food, mountain eed, smearing, signs of good health.. Improvement of breeds, form Age, wool and its characteristics.., MUANEA a escnc. scene Long-wooled.. Short-wooled...... Cheviot, South-Down, Black- Heath... a Merino.. Diseases... Seauenee feces Monthly Calendar of. Operations. Folds. tee eee eee tee eeee General Remarks Arrangement of folds Feed-racks and troughs... Insects injurious to Shellbark Shepherd dog.. . Shield budding.. Shortening-in Short-horned cattle. Short-wooled sheep- SHRUBS AND TREES, Extirpating... i Ornamental, culture ‘and varieties... ete Monthly Calendar of Operations... 720 INDEX. Grafting, hadeing, pruning, trains Draining. AOD . 564 Causes of wetness in lands..........e+«. 56 : 599 Boggy lands, and the true line of the Taseets inj urious to.. 650 APLIN GF is csasescsucssaacevestneasoamene 57 Siamese swine ........06 855 Drains and peat lands........... 59 Siberian fowls...... 6 392 Hard soils, direction of drains, 60 Sideheratiiny cceccsseswtosssvasassccassaaneseaccersarOl Clay land. . Sr sasdeteteReneute foo (ail Sizk Worms anD MULBERRY TREES. Varieties of drains.......... peered sonecessaelOa Description of the silk-worm, and of Irrigating. the mode of propagation,.......s0++4+ . 457 @hranrel Giscee-cewsctvamaneneseneainer es ceoccecco (383 WOCGONETYccneseecsenaraejenansscnetess + 459 Kind of soils for the purpose, waters Spinning and reeling the silk... » 459 best adapted, meadow watering...... 64 WAS TAltIGs oc cscnessnesnecseseceeeneten 460 Preparing the surface............0+ seecasee| | (Os) The Bombyx Cynthia....... Reve . 460 Minto to) Operatesrc.ceesses) cee es _I 50 The: Married@Belle:)- ees eeere I 50 Ten Old) Maids? <..2'-s,. sh. cic.) «is 1 50 Courting and Farming......... I 50 Fis wMOUNG WWile se) sscense cies eee I 50 Kiss and be Friends—(New).... 1 50 Victor Hugo. ; a || Les Miserables—From the French. 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