4 rises Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/americanforests 16natiuoft AMERICAN FORESTRY THE MAGAZINE OF THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION VOLUME XVI—1910 THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION PUBLISHERS AN fe ») q ; ,~ WASHINGION, D.C. =}+ -"_ a: Vv | GENERAL CROSS REFERENCES For names of Associations, see Associations and Conventions. For Forestry Schools, see Education in Forestry. For names of Foreign Countries, see title Foreign Countries. For names of States, see State Work; Private Forestry; Education in Forestry; and lor estry Associations. Page Adams. Bristaw:s. Poem by 25.2. ax: 244 Agencies for the Restoration and Conser- WaHOn! OL TU OLeEStS sakes ji.c. cues 481 Agricultural land in National Forests.. 188, 252, 431, 560 See also National Forest Boun- daries. AMERICAN FORESTRY TION: ASSOCIA- Address. to members..........-- 384b, 686b, 734, 750b ANIA lem CEH Py sari ae cS eons 41,91 Bresidentiswaddness:...s0.1) st acces oe 67 Results athieved: = .05:..5....587,7 734 See also American Forestry Maga- zine, and Conservation Magazine. PuilensBawleenticlesby.sc...eem nus hao. 641 ilgiska: Gomera ares sth tits 60, 129, 599, 704 American Civic Association.......... 61, 193 AMERICAN FORESTRY MAGAZINE, 45, 686b, 750b American Inland Waterways (book).... 365 Ainenican Eulp Association's.4. ccs. 22. 620 Americans, Forty-five, in the Forests of ROMAN Y Mere eae ere 329 Americans and American Trees in Ger- NURCUNUVIUM /8c/eltapeeseet rare eee Ny alin h, es 457 mutbewa CC article iby... 65 ian ha 655 Antelope Valley artesian wells......... 195 Appalachian Bill—See Weeks Bill. Appalachian Exposition.............557, 603 Appalachian Forests, The.............. 67 Appalachian Forests and the Moore Re- [MINT gt SR i, ire Rae ee 209 Appalachian National Forest, Land for, Donated in Vermont............. 744 Appalachian Resolutions...:.... 126, 193, 599 Arizona, A New Cypress for............ 88 Be uetat oce lcs uy tg Se 364 Associations and Conventions—See Amer- ican Civic Amer- ican Pulp Association; Association for the Care of City Trees; Conser- vation Associations (list): Eastern States Retail Lumber Dealers’ As- sociation; Fairs; Forestry Associa- (list) ; National ; Hardwood Manufacturers’ Associa- tion; Irrigation Congress; National Association ; tions Grange, Page Associations and Conventions—Continued. Coopers’ Association; National Hardwood Lumber Association ; National Hickory Association; Na- tional Lumber Manufacturers’ As- sociation; National Slack Cooper- age Association; New York Hard Lumber ‘Trade Association; and Southern Commercial Congress. Association for the Care of City Trees.. 558 Nisha, I, IB. ATH Iii cemeemoono ee 449 Anistralasiage Grazinewly eases eiil..10 me 101 Avery, Mrs. Carrie White, portrait.... 16 Ayres, Philip W:, article by.-..-... 7118,. 738 Baker Be aN pOntraltemeres terrae: Leg Basse GovesRobettm en kiliSeem = 718, 738 Battell, Joseph, donates forest land..... 744 Ballincens invest! ation eee 50, 59, 247 Ballinger, Sec., on Waterpower sites.... 51 Barnessav Ville Ge aarticleshyeemee ne see 532 BasletaswitllOnwattacitisitinyaene gran e 549 Battle ships and forests, comparative GCOS scarchare Oe pce rey setae sta st orate che pine 250 Beech lealt tmotlisnce ees oe eae ee 624 IBenucom GRattans sree ere ee ee eeae 315 Blanchard. Gover Nese: portrait ese 14 BOddseiOr waterway Siro epee 260 Boycotting in the lumber business....... 382 Lay JL Sy. pONeuables Gack wad oe sou e 326 BGONv iy valle “IO thew eee nee ne ee eee 558 Brush) DijecHine deriche 52 on ues a ek 318 Buckai@e) ssanticlesDy.< aero ae 648 Burton, Senatog hth aes. 493 Cabinet Woods of the Future........... 723 Canada and tariff protection........... 428 Canadian forest resources...... 186, 383, 622 Canadian Timber Regulations, The New. 357 Carter Senator 1s Ha article bysus..... 735 CatyzeA stint: tq eee ce eet nce orig ASE CL Cle yrmence tetany ete ere os nich 281 Book: Dy :aeme nee ene. aie aoe 742 Coal mimpuiitieswernt= Serta 6 renee 195 Coal Lands—See Alaska. Castle, Mildred A., translation ON ics see 156 Census of Forest Production............ 747 Chambenin brome | aC a aaemerneoe o 604 Chapmianys@. 7S vantiglesby ae 644 Chestnut blight in Pennsylvania........ 553 Chestnuts in Maryland eieineuge sven 2 Chicago as a lumber market............ 444 CONTENTS iil Page Citizens, Duty of....118, 181, 182, 321, 384b City Trees, Association for the Care of.. 558 Glinews McGarvey, portraita. see eee - 325 Collierise Weekly ....2:../ eee 59, 61 Commercial Possibilities of Shallow Streams 21.0) {025 Sees res. 32 Conservation: Laws regarding, in last congress. 548 Magazine—See American Forestry = ' Magazine. Miessaceyby (President... 2..).2..2.. afte (Oui lanimnoeie hie, 5 Ree oc econ oo 600 Oppositionwton.. 4. wee. 8 118, 548 Principles; and? polictesye™.. . .'.'. 22: 61, 116, 248, 315, 319, 423, 548, 585, 618, 670, 672, 719, 734. See also Forest Conservation. IRegollbiiams Toros. ss cnseeenue 315, 597 Manshtem schoolss>....... 3.022. 495, 599, 602, 745, 746 See also Education in Forestry, Conservation associations: Colorado Conservation Commission. 127, 305 Conservation Association, National. .123, 548 Conservation Congress, Second Na- tional ....545, 569, 597, 601, 671, Conservation Congress, Third Na- (LOVEE, BRE MA Ni ao: tae a 568 Governors, Conference... ..). 2+. ....% 573 Oregon Conservation Association... 502 Southern Conservation Congress.... 622, 671, 673 Western Forest and Conservation J SRICCIENS TCI Ae Sh ame ae 317 Consumer—See Prices. Conventions—See Associations. Cooperative rire Protection, What It BPG Poon oak A Ce aR Re ee 641 Correspondence course in forestry...... 313 Correspondence and Queries (department POA PAINE) 0. Loe Rue 245, 618 Cost of living—See Prices, rising. Country Life and the Farm (at Conserva- ete COneress)s 230 tee oes 581 Country Life Commission of Washington 553 Crisis in the Southern States........... 21 Congressmen heed constituents......... 118 Cusremamibiteraturenmsmsdes fl. lea. 64, 365, 368, 435, 438, 500, 554, 614, 678, 739, 742. Currier, Hon. Frank D., portrait....... 136 Cut over lands, management of..... 129, 699 Page Cypress: demand wor... 0.3) 6). e884 Gypress for Arizona, A New..../......). 88 Dendrolosy wand silvicst 0.0) 220300000: 241, 351, 396, 489, 551, 559 fast, [hesand! irtigation, ....2........: 427 See also Sectionalism. Eastern States Retail Lumber Association 443 Hberiace, Gov. A. ©., porttait.......5... 572 Editorial (department of magazine).... 45, 113, 183, 246, 299, 359, 423, 492, 545, 601, 670, 734 Education (department of magazine).. 192, SS, aie) Education in forestry: Womlenence! Of... sehic stad Cosco ek 104 Correspondence course in......... 313 CuEmicultm, TOK ss .% iia. Bees 499 Hedenal saidetOr 3. . Siete ak.s< ames 179 National school proposed in Ne- tects iets wera... Aelsh Polu bans os 313, 426 Prize essays in schools....495, 745, 746 Education in forestry, individual schools: IRistvoteschoolsts eee os Sy Bede 730 Baltimore, ea fe. eee oe 313, 457, 683 Colorado School of Forestry....... 192 Geoxrciay University. ssc eerie ee 373 FRVARED.: is Sea Se ote sah 373, 622 Pousiana University. . i005 ¢ 9) 235 ee, 373 Mionre University Aaa: orneeene | ae 553 Massachusetts Agricultural College. . 553 Michigan Agricultural College. .373, 434 Middlebury (Collere. io). sagt feo 744 Missouri sUiniversity. .) .. .saeleiieue 503 Morton Institute of Agriculture and Mosesury far. 2), ere ae. 313, 426 Ohiorstate Wniversity.’....: os. 252. 194 Pennsylvania State Academy........ 498 South Dakota Agricultural College. . 313 Washington Agricultural College 313, 434 Wisconsin: University ,..65...0.0.0¢. 433 Viallei nae cit cbs SSM eA Me net ct ae 381 Educational Question, The............. 499 Pama Chas Wit... ces oc ae dee s+ 123 Pilsen SB. article by..:.....-...-.. 481 Emerson Geo. H., article by............ 699 Engineers, civil and military, opinions on forestation and stream flow........ 184, 209, 301, 304, 419, 425 Essays in schools—See Education. Eucalyptus, caution regarding.......... 251 Bucalyotuswiom railmoad: tless.40+.0....- 445 Encalyptisr ame California... 20.0 lek. 504 Bucalyptis, Phe Mission of..5.....7...- 337 iv Page European economy of industrial admin- ISELACIO Men Ayectie ooze tepaiete etie rary 428 Experiment Station Workers’ Congress.. 503 Exploitation and Conservation......... 319 Baichanks:?ChasseW ae seems sos o's 743 Fairs: Appalachian Exposition....... 557, 603 Remcaseotatertaiierts SORE tis See ene 434 Geeoins. "Be Regarticles byiisc.s..é.aua 415 Grace, Frederick J., article by.......... 13 Grange, National, on conservation...... 315 Graves, Henry S.; Articles by.......... 509 ,560, 583, 589, 607, 629, 659, 710 BOOMAD IANS P13 120 boca iciicieiel- 532 Massachusetts forestry bulletins........ 435 Mathews, John L,, article by..........-- 32 MeHarlandus |e nloraceere sero 61 McKeown, Robetit nen taee. =. 433 Mell CG. DPlarticles: Dynes ss sc = 22 241, 351, 489, 519, 723 Mineral resources—See Conservation; and Public land. iMbeatace IEVn{ecKe! One nein ood Soepaoaonee oe 595 Mining companies planting trees...449, 559 Monarch Oak, The (poem) .j:°.2.0.2.¢: 55 Monopoly, Control of—See Waterpower. Moore, Barrington, articles by..75, 149, 199 Moore, Willis L., report of........-. 184, 209 Morton, Sterling P., memorial to..313, 426 Mai Youn article bysiek ieee 1 le 263 WitinicipaletonestS a ceehine csr 485, 486 Guel ply Cane 4 sty cies ata he 503 Milwaukee; « Wistetes sesiadeit Saisie 750 @Orsons oweden: 41222 eejsee 683, 750 Vallejo Cali-arttt ps cleneranininishecn ian 194 National Coopers’ Association.......... 621 National forests: Agricultural lands in. ..188, 252, 431, 560 Bepinnino Ole cece ete 118, 128 Berens lobe seria -arciiceeet tates 48 Boundaries mols aan iene ee 124, 188, 309, 430, 431, 497, 546, 551, 560, 611 Business propositioned 40.030) ceo: .. 48 Cruising in southwestern........... 551 ESOL ICA een ee iy oh at ad A? 254 Gazing vlandsrsase eer 376 Permanent improvements in........ 255 PPRPGU PIA Sy AN sess ey tas oes 497, 611 Stream protection by............... 187 See also Appalachian forests; For- est Service; and Weeks bill. National forests by name: Giroctawitatchee mae. 7. ise saat, cs 254 [PIE VEE GS Ae I Ur 2S ar vega cee 431 IMIR Rt Rants cee steci cia atlas lech, Saha: 532 Oe Ee Py dra Aenea hea mM Oe oO ay a 254 Oy a OM A 129 METINONE MAREE Gos ethos. fi, Soe 744 National Forest Work (department of magazine ) 252, 307, 374, 430, 497, 551, 611 National Hardwood Lumber Association 442 National Hickory Association........... 254 CONTENTS Page National Lumber Manufacturers’ Asso- — ciation... /... See eae 359, 362, 381 National Park Glaciege serene ee 384 National Park, Yosenmteseeesanee kano: 263 National Slack Cooperage Association. . 380 Native Trees of Kentucky, (review).... 438 Natural resources—See Conservation. Navy and forests, comparative cost...... 250 Nelson, Senator Knute, address by..... 573 New Jersey, Improving Her Forests.... 274 New York, The Forest Parks of...... 695 New York Hard Lumber Trade Associa- HON. . even ls 2 Be 381, 559 Neate! Clighe ae Coen eee 300, 620, 621 See also Farm forestry; and Rail- road forestry. Prize essays—See Education in forestry. Protection of Forests from Fire (serial) 509, 589, 659, 710 See also Fire protection. Protest against the Woodsmen of the Forest of Gastine (poem).......... 244 Biive slang: , Question ena a2> ss 50s 35 53, 62, 548, 573, 598 Public Pasture, The Problem of........ 563 Public rights vs. private profits....... = DB: 55, 62, 248, 319, 423, 597 See also Conservation, principles and _ policies. Public schools—See Conservation taught in schools; and Education in for- estry. Pulp wood—See Paper, and Paper pulp. One welerbert) pookgnbyees «ee tee - 365 Rea Lech inept oesean serene meh eam Ime ie ars c 315 Railroad forestry...... 195, 260, 445, 503, 504 See also Private forestry. Railroads cooperating against fires...... 375, 431, 439 Railroads’ Responsibility for fires. ..603, 749 Random Talk on Forest Fires.......... 667 Ranger Camps, Stories Told in, No. 2.. 173 Recent publications—See Current Liter- ature. IR@O EIEN Ola Slonim 25h 6 Aen Gero 598 Reforestation and taxation—See Taxa- tion of forests. Page Reforestation. .194, 260, 384, 449, 497, 611, 745 See also Private forestry; State Work; and Tree planting. Reforestation of burnt area in North- WIE SUM mewtatel stats lakey tis) sve. cetelava SPs stevens vec 129, 699 Reforestation of Denmark:........ 525, 549 Reforestation on semi-arid land....374, 549 RESIMMEANASHinpiigeessjieissenciss2 « ae nee 351 Resolutions of Conservation Congress... 597 Rhodes, Joho, B.- article by.d.... <0... 440 Rivers and Harbors Congress, National... 63 Rousards Pieqre: de, poem bys... 4... - 244 Roosevelt, Theodore: INCOMES SIM DY oper (oat tand = ol aclggpeesielenens 575 Enelishesong birds, on... .. 220.06 547 OME DlMe pM e ses. oulisivape ors a ops Oa 576 lgraises se imchot ... ders. ss. chose 120 Speeches compiled.........0. <2. 123 Rothewealibertarticle by... 6.2... sscnce 209 Rothrocer)., I article by 7. 22-0... 4.2 349 Sacketiae sien oO empOLbiait-py eee ee) yee 327 oipebemiara, Mining Co. \ ic... 322.322: 449 Sanders, Governor J. Y., portrait....... ay Sandehialis rot Nebraska. os .cjs0ia sce none 549 san Pedro, Calif., timber trade.....-2... 259 Schools—See Conservation taught; and Education in forestry. Schrenk, Hermann von, article by...... 314 Sectionalism...... 45, 248, 305, 427, 670, 671 Seeds—See Tree nurseries. Semi-arid lands—See Reforestation. seoewase disintectioney..m 5. sacs aoe 126 Shallow Streams, Commercial Possibili- HES? JO ete yates co Ne ee tS 32 Slovan, (Ca Tel yehanl@ ied oeacacpsosceeos 173 Shopaadkerm)(Oelwarticlembys sacemi ene 652 Sifton, Hon. Clifford, address by........ 186 Sills from) wood. pulpreme . 4 =\2 sete = Sse 558 Silvical study—See Dendrology. Smith, Herbert Knox, portrait and ad- GURBSS. Ua Sy Sete e Raee ae eee eee 578 Soldiegsasmire mghterSa steers sce. OOS South, Perpetuating the Timber Re- SOMLCESHONmte pe cere a stele «2 «fake 3 SaouthestatestOnests: ime thes. aeiciake) «ce << 46 Southern Commercial Congress 3, 21, 32, 45 Southern Conservation Congress....... 622, 671, 673 Southern Forests, Crisis in the.......... 21 SOnthenmenesOmtcesaneeesiwceema: ¢: 3, 45, 46 Satiattenspnights ameerriies cine sare. cies sa 252 Start, Edwin A., articles by. .387, 535, 569, 587 State fonesty OMICense), owieias oom at 505, 565, 625 Vili CONTENTS Page Page State forestry organizations, list.....-- 506, Swain, Geo. F., article by... eee 244, 315 566, 626, 686 Swamp land should be reclaimed....... 124 See also Forestry Associations. Taft, President: fe State Regulation of Timber Cutting.... 280, Address ...----:28ss0++reneesee ee He 281, 284, 441 Message 2 /.'jei «see ere aes hae aieten ae POrtrattee ceca tosh. eee ene i 84 . . . oti og of eee ae — a Tariff from Canadian viewpoint......... 428 ae oe ae ; Texas fever tick and range fires....... 308 State Work (Department of Magazine). 56, Taxation: Gt! TOLEStS ..o + a cmevrge ie cirlsre eieter 194, 189, 256,311, 377, 498, 552, 612, 682, 743 State work: Alabama... 5 o- eee. SoMa, a9 552 @Galtfornia:- 4.2. .st-e. 310, 377, 504, 553 Galocada =. 6 tks solos 127, 256, 623 @onnectichit ss: accsse eee 2 310, 377 ride ee On eae iad Be 602 Reyegat oe ee sekisl co eiettrees 613 UE TTO®. Bocte Bos heilte c.oleeseireiniain ds stot 256, 684 Ameeliatiaa. one cet .ce terete rs » 552, 743, 746 Keancas tee seca ee hee. 257, 613 Sirah at eon eterna Ce rT 189 Louisiana. ..13, 21, 155, 189, 373, 604, 614 INGaaITee ER terete ae os oes 127, 190, 280 Wein) Wee beage doce qaeoaadT 189, 377 Massachusetts .... 190, 378, 438, 552, 613 WHCHIPAITE Meer ress els cer nee = 194 WMpinesetawin Fee ye easceea oe. 384, 683 Nabraskawce.. acters rte tens 553, 683 New Hampshire...... 310, 378, 498, 535 INE WeRNLPGESEY lek dbs cat ook att 274, 552 INE WEMVIOLIC Ache ria ons cee ene : 125 191, 195, 311, 379, 498, 682 INGLE Dakotar silk Bees 745 OMAGH Settee Peet cree 258 Oremantat:. oops eee sis 191, 311, 502 Penansylyama-- 72.2. 4 258, 311, 498, 552 IPIMMpOIReESH caro tet tee sie sec 539, 733 MErmMoOnt- 0 ens. ci ee 82, 612 OLS Se Pee a Serge 685 Mrasitingtoness 2.02.2). 433, 613, 683 Pn a pa es 379, 552 2G DOT, ess 0 I 46, 305, 384 See also State forest officers; State forestry organizations; and Private forestry. Statistics of forest production.......... 747 Stories Told in Ranger Camps, No. 2... 173 muemret, VV...) afticle by,..,-.........<. 539 Stubbs, Gov. W. R., portrait............ 574 Arbor day proclamation............ 257 EPETIMEAMU OO 32ers svc ty aiusideres 2k 489 Sudworth, Geo. B., article by.......... 88 OOM ONE Nese le oh cri assess 0 pe Ae 742 Survey, The, editorial from........... 319 291, 299, 314, 379, 613, 750 See also Municipal forests. Taxless town—See Municipal forests. Teale TOrestS 1Ol) oldie erate 624 Telephone for fighting fires.........-... 127 Telephones, How They Saved Lives..... 648 Tennessee River and Sedimentation..... 419 Ties—See Eucalyptus Timber—See Utilization of timber; also Forests; and Lumber. ‘hee site SERIES+ ..). «0+. ae 145, 255, 259; 260 Tree planting—See Reforestation. ‘Trees, in CitleS*. coerce ae amar 519, 558 Trees, Historic, of Washington........ 270 ‘Trees: Che Careror |(ceview)) meeeeeeree 366 Turpentine... ava... caer ee eee ts 559 Two Million Dollars Worth Burnt in One-Day 7.352 ics. cee eee ae 655 Wiilizationwon lune tse eee 443, 444, 618 Witihzationwot timbete see ener ers 382, 387, 405, 409, 415, 552, 623 Van ilsse,«ChasseRe ponunaltyeee camera 389 Veatch, A" @-srangiteledinyacrinaetereeeieer 101 Vermont, Forestry Beginnings in....... 82 Vermont National Forest............... 744 Wallace? Henry, ponthalheenryeeerierl 568 Washington Country Life Commission.. 553 Washington, D. C., Historic Trees of.... 270 Washington forest investigation........ 433 Washington, President, established for- ES) TESEEVES «5. Repay won erclatel cron kote ete ieee 128 Waste of Timber—See Utilization of timber; Conservation; Forest fires; Forest Conservation; and Forestry. Waste, We must eliminate. .116, 260, 359, 428 See also references under Waste of timber. Water power: Bills for regulatiows aye. Ase 61, 548 Federal contsoleeeeeee ene eee 598 Interest: of:statess mma eee eee 57, 548 Monopoly.) tee eee ee 51, 63, 578 Water supply, artesian wells........... 195 Water supply and forestry—See For- ests and stream flow. ; CONTENTS ix Page Waterways: Amencan Inland? (book) eerste: 365 ONES! CHO. 6, iis k solely cee 260 Eriemcanal... ...9.. ccc sane eee 195 inland, needed! ....5 seer ae 32, 195 Mississippi ‘Tiver:. sumed! si 318 INGE fond ob ne cob ou vo ome emo comns 125 Shallowa strealncesseneieeee tei. si 32 Wreelks billie Ase erties = = eas) 42, 43, 49, 118, 133, 134, 181, 182, 183, 193, 246, 293, 301, 316, 321, 384, 419, 425, 463, 466, 493, 504, 671. Weyerhaeuser idea of reforestation..... 194 What Protective Cooperation Did....... 641 Where Forestry Can Be Studied........ 730 See also Education in forestry. Wahitemhinreeiwesin Canalsiaime =... 4...) .)- 351 White, jo Bemportrait, jaa. 260-2 = 582 White Mountain forests—See Appala- chian; and New Hampshire, un- der Forestry associations, Private forestry, and State work. White pine, growth of...............-- 316 Page White pine, prohibited by aphis........ 245 Whi gmelel ante Dine eSi tease ac. . oars tee 745 Wilkinson, Mrs. Alice Mai, portrait.... 18 Will, Thos. Elmer, A Personal Word... 111 Williams, Mrs. Lydia Adams, article by. 342 Willows—See Basket willows. Walsomuiainess: portraits... se esl 583 Winslowam ber Remanticle Dyce... smeiee. oe 270 Women’s clubs and forestry............ 363 Women’s Clubs, General Federation of.. 342 Women! ca Glabwkemtttckaygeeisc.. cess: 438 Women’s Work for Conservation....... 342 Work of the Government in Forest Pro- GCS). ROR Siaooce mete ae 405 Wood lot—See Farm forestry. Wood pulp—See Paper pulp. Woods, Classification of, by Structural Charactenstwein. .. suse cla see 241 Woodsrotithe Philippines. 3. ....-+ 4... 733 Woodsmen, Manual for Northern (re- NTE 1g) Ss ke ae ame ee ae 742 Wellowepinemlancestecut of. cer. 1-1 623 A re | 4p ee ie Ae aah é oe Se hie Mie American Forestry Association OFFICERS FOR 1909 PRESIDENT HON. CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts VICE-PRESIDENTS-AT-LARGE N. J. BACHELDER, New Hampshire S. WEIR MITCHELL, Pennsylvania ANDREW CARNEGIE, New York GEORGE FOSTER PEABODY, New York CHARLES W. ELIOT, Massachusetts J. E. RANSDELL, Louisiana B. E. FERNOW, Ontario, Canada J. T. ROTHROCK, Pennsylvania W. W. FINLEY, Washington, D. C. ALBERT SHAW, New York DAVID R. FRANCIS, Missouri CHARLES R. VAN HISE, Wisconsin RUTHERFORD P. HAYES, North Carolina EXECUIIVE SECRETARY EDWIN A. START, Washington, D. GC. OFFICHS 1417 G St. N. W., Washington, D. C. 1 Joy St., Boston, Mass. TREASURER OTTO LUEBKERT, Washington, D. C. DIRECTORS PHILIP W. AYRES, New Iampshire GEORGE H. MAXWELL, Illinois JOSHUA IL. BAILEY, Pennsylvania CHARLES F. NESBIT, District of Columbia JAMES H. CUTLER, Massachusetts HENRY A. PRESSEY, District of Columbia HENRY S. GRAVES, Connecticut NENRY RIESENBERG, Indiana CURTIS GUILD, JR., Massachusetts CUNO H. RUDOLPH, District of Columbia WILLIAM S. HARVEY, Pennsylvania EDWIN A. START, Massachusetts GEO. D. MARKHAM, Missouri JAMES S. WHIPPLE, New York GEORGE P. WHITTLESEY, District of Columbia Advisory Board, Representing Affiliated Organizations YELLOW PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION PHILIP S. GARDINER, Laurel, Miss. N. W. McLEOD, St. Louis, Mo. H. H- WHELESS, Shreveport, La. NATIONAL WHOLESALE LUMBER DEALERS’ ASSOCIATION GEORGE F. CRAIG, Philadelphia, Pa. ROBT. C. LIPPINCOTT, Philadelphia, Pa. LEWIS DILL, Baltimore, Md. NORTHERN PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION C. A. SMITH, Minneapolis, Minn. WILLIAM IRVINE, Chippewa Falls, Wis. F. E. WEYERHAEUSER, St. Paul, Minn. MASSACHUSETTS FORESTRY ASSOCIATION ALLEN CHAMBERLAIN, Boston, Mass. GEORGE E. STONE, Amberst, Mass EDWIN A. START, Boston, Mass. LUMBERMEN’S EXCHANGE WILLIAM L. RICE, Philadelphia, Pa. FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Philadelphia, Pa. SAMUEL B. VROOMAN, Philadelphia, Pa. TIGHT BARREL STAVE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION GEORGE M. HAMPTON, Fordyce, Ark. W. K. KNOX, New York City A. L. HAYES, Nashville, Tenn. NATIONAL SLACK COOPERAGE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION J. T. WYLIE, Saginaw, Mich. JAMES INNES, Chatham,Ontario C. H. KEYS, New York City NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BOX MANUFACTURERS B. W. PORTER, Greenfield, Mass. S. B. ANDERSON, Memphis, Tenn. ROBT. A. JOHNSON, Minneapolis, Minn. CARRIAGE BUILDERS’ NATIONAL ASSOCIATION H. C. McLEAR, Wilmington, Del. D. T. WILSON, New York C. D. FIRESTONE, Columbus, Ohio BOSTON PAPER TRADE ASSOCIATION N. M. JONES, Lincoln, Maine JOHN F. A. HUSSEY, Boston, Mass. ARTHUR L. HOBSON, Boston, Mass. Application for Membership To EDWIN A. START — Secretary American Forestry Association 1417 G Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become a member of the American Forestry Asso- ciation. Two Dollars ($2.00) for annual dues are enclosed herewith. Very truly yours, Name 2 ea P. O. Address ad ae cl ta le oe a Group of Chestnut Trees on Priestford Farm, Deer Creek, Harford Co., Md, These Chestnut Trees Were Grown from iameter The Large Tree on the Left is Thirty-six Inches in Nuts Planted in 1822, ; AEBNCAN PORES I Viol XeV I JANUARY, 1910 No. 1 PERPETUATING THE TIMBER RESOURCES OF FHE SOUTH: By R. S. KELLOGG, Assistant Forester, United States Forest Service bama, Arkansas, Florida, Geor- gia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Missis- sippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia, have a forest area of more than 200,000,000 acres, nearly one-half their entire land surface. There is now standing in these forests’ not less than 600,000,- 000,000 board feet of merchantable tim- ber, with a stumpage value of at least $2,000,000,000. The influence of the forest resources of the South extends far beyond its borders. North to Canada and from the Atlantic to the Great Plains, their products are in daily use. The Southern States supply nearly forty-five per cent of the lumber consumed in the entire United States. The South has a mo- nopoly of yellow pine, that great structural timber, the cut of which alone is one-third of that of all kinds of lumber in the country. It has a monopoly of cypress and tupelo. It leads in the production of oak, of hick- ory, of red gum, and of cottonwood. Its hickory is the best vehicle wood ever ’ ‘HE twelve Southern States of Ala- discovered. Its oak is in demand _ for the wine vats of California and of Eu- rope. Its longleaf pine yields nine- tenths of the naval stores of the world. Twelve thousand sawmills are con- verting the southern forests into lum- ber and hundreds of other plants are turning them into veneer and staves and heading. Our railroad trains run over rails laid on scores of millions of ties cut in southern forests, and much of the freight which they haul is car- ried in cars made of yellow pine lum- ber. The total annual value of the prod- ucts of the southern forests is not less than $450,000,000. Of this total, lum- ber, lath and shingles amount to $275,- 000,000; posts, poles, rails, fire-wood, and cross-ties, $125,000,000; naval stores, $30,000,000, and cooperage stock, $20,000,000. The average cot- ton crop of the South for the past ten years has been eleven and one-fourth million bales, with an average farm value of $523,000,000, only sixteen per cent more than the value of its forest products. The average corn ‘Abstract of speech delivered before Southern Commercial Congress, Washington, ID, Ge December 7. Forest in the Southern Appalachians, Dogwood in Flower crop during the same period has been 450,000,c00 bushels, with a farm value Of $325,000,000, or less than three- fourths of the value of its forest products. Great labor, much time and money have been spent to produce these crops of cotton and of corn, which have averaged less than two-fifths of a bale 4 of cotton per acre, and less than seven- teen bushels of corn per acre. Nothing has been done by man to produce the immense crop of forest products which he has harvested. Nature has sown and grown, he has only reaped, and generally without regard to the future of the forest. 2uadg ureyUNoP ueTyoReddy usayjnos y ia) The forest has another great func- tion scarcely less important than the furnishing of timber for a multitude of needs... Phig is its value as a soil cover. The water-power available for economic development of the streams rising in the Southern Applachians has at an extremely conservative est- mate a capitalized value of $1,000,000,- ooo. The protection of the forests on the water-sheds of these streams 1s a fundamental step in the utilization of this great resource. The conserving of the power of these streams will be a long step toward the realization of the day eagerly looked for by the South when the most of its cotton shall be manufactured at home. So far there has been only an unre- stricted exploitation of the great forests of the South. They have been cut for lumber and cooperage stock in the most wasteful fashion. They have been tur- pentined by methods which have left millions of acres of dead timber in their wake. From the Atlantic to the Mississippi forest fires have burned unchecked. [I do not mean to imply that the South has been more wasteful of its forest heritage than have other sections of our country. All sections have been equally guilty in this. But there is this element of hope for the South which some other regions do not have. It has large areas of forest yet standing which it can conserve. The forester is not a tree idolizer. He believes that the forests should be used. He does not believe that it is a good economic policy to maintain for- ests on land which would produce higher returns from other ChOPSs «te does believe that all land which is better adapted to growing trees than to any other purpose should be perman- ently held to the growing of timber. This is sound economy. Perhaps the 200,000,000 acres of forest which the South now has may be some day re- duced to 100,000,000 acres as the de- mand lor farm land increases, but it is undoubtedly true that this 100 000,000 acres, if brought to its highest productive capacity, will yield a greater AMERICAN FORESTRY revenue through the growing of timber than if planted to any other crop. Trees make little demand upon the soil. They flourish where farm crops fail. The problem, then, is to see that each kind of land grows the crop to which it is adapted, and that it pro- duces the greatest possible yield. From its 200,000,000 acres of forests, the South is now manufacturing a produet worth a little more than $2 per acre. From 100,000,000 acres of forest it should eventually secure as great a to- tal yield, or twice as much per acre as now. It is not good economy to devote 30,000,000 acres to the production of cotton, with an average yield of only two-fifths of a bale per acre, Or 3,000,- 000 acres to the growing of corn, with an average yield of less than seventeen bushels per acre. Just as better methods will double the yield of these great staples, so will they double the yield of forest products. We must have timber, consequently our forests must be maintained. The lumber industry must be made a_ per- manent industry, harvesting the annual growth of a well-cared-for forest, and leaving a crop for next year instead of cleaning off the crop of 100 to 200 years, with no provision for the future. It is of more importance that Louisiana should cut 1,000,000,000 feet of long- leaf pine lumber twenty-five years hence than that it should cut 2,000,000,- ooo feet next year. It is of more im- portance that Florida should gather 10,000,000 gallons of turpentine in 1925 than that it should gather 20,000,000 gallons in 1910. The conservationist is no idle theorist. He believes in use, but not in abuse. Granted that the forest must be made of the greatest possible use, but that this use must not be destructive, that we may cut the trees from year to year, but that the forest must exist forever, we come to the practical measures necessary to accomplish these ends. These are many, and by no means easy of solution. The forests of the South are prac- tically all in private hands. With slight A Very Valuable Timber for Inside Furnishing and tor Making Fine Furniture Grove of Wild Cherry (Prunus Serotina) in North Carolina, Falls on Upper Catawba River, in Great Smoky Mountains, North Carolina (page 6) View in Pine and White Oak ’’Flatwoods"’ after Lumbering (page 6) Stack of Four-foot Pulp-wood Logs at the Mill (page 6) exceptions they are owned neither by the states nor the Nation. They are held by thousands of individual owners in tracts of from 100 acres to 100,000 acres each. The problem then is to see that such measures are enacted, and that such an enlightened condition of public sentiment is created, as will bring all these forests to their highest producing capacity and make their products the most fully utilized. The whole public is concerned. The con sumer must unite with the man owns the timber in working out meas- ures for the common good. Forest fires must be stopped, for so long as they 9 who Effects of a Forest Fire (page 6) are allowed to run without hindrance there will be no young trees coming on to take the place of the older ones when they are cut. State legislation must pro- vide right fire laws and adequate means for their enforcement. Tl orest taxation should be so laid that its burdens do not fall unjustly upon timber. This, again, is a matter for state legislation. The states also have a duty which they cannot escape in the management of cut-over lands, which, where not suit- able for farming, often are utterly un- protected and revert to the state for de- linquent taxes. Such tracts should be made into state forest reserves, and other tracts of a similar character which can be purchased at nominal prices should be added to them. Prop- erly cared for, they will become an im- portant source of future timber supply. \long these three lines of fire protec- tion, of right taxation, and of state forests, the states have duties which must be performed if the forest re- sources of the South are to be perpetu- ated. Needless to say, state action on these subjects should be as nearly uni- 1U form as differences in local conditions wil permit. Individual forest owners, and es- pecially the owners of the larger tracts, also have duties which they cannot es- cape. The forests which they hold are not merely pieces of private property. They are a public trust, upon whose right administration the welfare of many depends. Unless the owners realize this, unless they do their ut- most to conserve their forests while using them, public sentiment is likely to force the state governments to exer- cise powers of control which the states undoubtedly have, though these powers have so far lain dormant. And, lastly, the Federal Government, too, has a duty in the maintenance of the southern forests. More than 150.- 000,000 acres of public forest land in the Western States, essential for the protection of watersheds and of non- agricultural value, have been proclaim- ed National Forests, have been made a source of permanent timber supply, and a permanent conserver of water necessary for irrigation and power. Not Doe River Gorge, Tennessee, The Forests on the Steep Slopes of This Beautiful Gorge Are Being Rapidly Destroyed by Fire and Ax (page 6) Pulp-wood Logs Dashing along a Waterslide (page 6) less essential for the public welfare is the protection of the forests upon the Southern Applachian Mountains in which head the great streams from the Ohio: to the Savannah, which are of vital importance to the South for power and navigation. The interstate rela- tions are so many that the individual states cannot be expected to protect The national govern- ment alone is equal to it. They should, therefore, be purchased and made into National administered these forests. Forests, to be 12 as are the National Forests of the West. The timber resources of the South must be perpetuated—will be perpetu- ated. We cannot get along without them—the South cannot get along without them. Great damage has been wrought, but it is not too late to mend. Action, however, should be adequate, prompt, and vigorous. The Southern Commercial Congress, the exponent of the new South, can devote its energies to no better cause than this. THE FORESTS OF LOUISIANA By FREDERICK J. GRACE Register of the Louisiana State Land Office and Commissioner of Forestry has reached the second notch in the production of lumber. The great state of Washington, along the Pacific coast, precedes us. Traveling through this wooded state of ours, the train rushes by innumerable mills; or, in more leisurely journeying on some of our inland streams, such as the beauti- ful Teche and Bayou Plaquemine, made famous by Evangeline hunting for her lover Gabriel, one finds them lined with numerous band sawmills, heading and shingle factories, and cypress cooperage plants, cutting many million feet of lum- ber per day, which are fast eating up our large bodies of timber. We have still standing in this state, according to the last reports of the assessors and of the United States orest Service; the following acreage in timber, which may be of vast importance to the lumber fra- ternity of this and other states: We have in pine of various kinds, as nearly as we can figure, 4,269,928 acres; and we have in hardwood, such as oak, gum, cotton, ash, maple, tupelo gum, willow, persimmon, hickory, magnolia, beech, elm, sycamore, and poplar, 3,388,486 acres; and, about as nearly as | can estimate (some parishes not reporting ), [ find goo,ooo acres of cypress. Our denuded or cut-over pine lands amount to about 2,472,0c0 acres; our denuded or cut-over cypress and hardwood lands amount to about 2,000,000 acres. Lumber statistics and a statement 1s- sued by the Census Bureau of last June, show that in 1908 516 sawmill: in Louisiana cut 2,722,421,000 feet of lumber—a decrease approximately of 250,000,000 from the cut of 1907, due principally, of course, to unfavorable | ies vente in the last few years conditions. This lumber has been cut into almost every imaginable shape, em- ploying about 35,000 men per day, and at the average price of $2 per day would mean about $70,000 paid out every day for labor alone. Total this for one year and it will be seen that Louisiana pays out annually a good many millions of dolars in labor alone to her vast army of employees for the lumber industry. There is no other business in the state paying out as much money for labor as the lumber mills and this is spent prin- cipally within the borders of our own state. The principal part of the output of the lumber of Louisiana is sold in other states and foreign countries. Our pines and cypress and oak staves find their way into Europe in large quantities. Our cottonwood and other soft mate- rial is shipped all over the globe for barrel and packing purposes. The future of the South is bound up in forest preservation with its accompany- ing protection to water-sheds, power streams and wood-working industries ; not only in the protection of the water- sheds, which will some day furnish the power to the great majority of the manufacturing establishments but in the prosperous continuance of indus- tries depending upon forest products. (1Z 28ed) asry Aq jsas04 & Jo UoTNajsaq aInjosqy Surmoys MIA i i 4 ‘ 4 A majority of our people have had no ccasion to study these matters, and, onsequently, are not informed, and do ot realize the dangers which threaten s. It is estimated that the timber sup- ly of our country at the present rate f cutting cannot last longer than wenty years, and yet little has been one to avert the calamities which must ollow, and which we already have to ontend with. Experience is usually the est teacher, and we may in a measure void the disasters and perils through yhich other countries have passed by dopting similar measures for our pro- ection. There is no reason why we hould suffer as other nations have; rom their experience we should derive ‘isdom and act accordingly. While our forests have already been adly damaged, we still possess suff- lent forest land to grow timber enough » meet all our needs. Our forests are ne of our renewable resources, and, hen rightly handled, go on producing rop after crop indefinitely, yielding ife returns on the investment. The yuuntries of Europe and Japan know us, and their forests are daily growing ore and more productive. The countries which to-day manage leir forests on sound principles have assed through four stages of forest ) SEc. 8. That the Secretary of Agri- culture is hereby authorized to pur- chase, in the name of the United States, such lands as have been approved for purchase by the National Forest Reser- vation Commission at the price or prices fixed by saidcommission : Provided, That no deed or other instrument of convey- ance shall be accepted or approved bythe Secretary of Agriculture under this act until the legislature of the state in which the land lies shall have consented to the acquisition of such land by the United States for the purpose of preserving the navigability of navigable streams. Sec. 9. That the Secretary of Agri- culture may do all things necessary to secure the safe title in the United States to the lands to be acquired under this act, but no payment shall be made for any such lands until the title shall be satisfactory to the Attorney-General and shall be vested in the United States. Sec. 10. That such acquisition may in any case be conditioned upon the ex- ception and reservation to the owner from whom title passes to the United States of the minerals and of the mer- chantable timber, or either or any part of them, within or upon such lands at the date of the conveyance, but in every case such exception and reservation and the time within which such timber shall be removed and the rules and regula- lations under which the cutting and re- moval.of such timber and the mining and removal of such minerals shall be done shall be expressed in the written instrument of conveyance, and there- after the mining, cutting, and removal of the minerals and timber so excepted and reserved shall be done only under and in obedience to the rules and regu- lations so expressed. Sme. jit.) hat ‘inasmuch as) small areas of land chiefly valuable for agri culture may of necessity or by inadvert- ence be included in tracts acquired under this act, the Secretary of Agri- culture may, in his discretion, and he is hereby authorized, upon application or otherwise, to examine and ascertain the location and extent of such areas as in his opinion may be occupied for 4 AMERICAN ericultural purposes without injury ) the forests or to stream flow and hich are not needed for public pur- oses, and may list and describe the ame by metes and bounds, or other- rise, and offer them for sale as home- reads at their true value, to be fixed by im, to actual settlers, in tracts not xceeding eighty acres in area, under ach joint rules and regulations as the ecretary of Agriculture and the Secre- iry of the Interior may prescribe; and 1 case of such sale the jurisdiction over ie lands sold shall, ipso facto, revert » the state in which the lands sold lie. nd no right, title, interest, or claim in r to any lands acquired under this act, r the waters thereon, or the products, sources, or use thereof after such nds shall have been acquired, shall e initiated or perfected, except as in lis section provided. SE. 12.. Vhaty subject to the: provi- ons of the last preceding section, the nds acquired under this act shall be ermanently reserved, held, and admin- tered as national forest lands under the rovisions of section twenty-four of the ct approved March 3, 1801 (Vol. I otaty, ab Wareesep. L109), andr acts ipplemental to and amendatory there- f. And the Secretary of Agriculture lay from time to time divide the lands squired under this act into such specific ational Forests and so designate the ime as he may deem best for adminis- ‘ative purposes. Sec. 13. That the jurisdiction, both vil and criminal, over persons upon ie lands acquired under this act shall ot be affected or changed by their per- lanent reservation and administration s National Forest lands, except so far s the punishment of offenses against 1e United States is concerned, the in- PORE SICY: tent and meaning of this section being that the state wherein such land is situ- ated shall not, by reason of such reser- vation and administration, lose its juris- diction nor the inhabitants thereof their rights and privileges as citizens or be absolved from their duties as citizens of the state. Sec. 14. That five per centum of all moneys received during any fiscal year from each National Forest into which the lands acquired under this act may from time to time be divided shall be paid, at the end of such year, by the Sec- retary of the Treasury to the state in which such National Forest is situated, to be expended as the state legislature may prescribe for the benefit of the pub- lic schools ,and public roads of the county or counties in which such Na- tional Forest is situated: Provided, That when any National Forest is in more than one state or county the distributive share to each from the proceeds of such forest shall be proportional to its area therein: Provided further, That there shall not be paid to any state for any county an amount equal to more than forty per centum of the total income of such county from all other sources. Sec. 15. That a sum sufficient to pay the necessary expenses of the commis- sion and its members, not to exceed an annual expenditure of $25,000, is here- by appropriated out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropri- ated. Said appropriation shall be im- mediately available, and shall be paid out on the audit and order of the presi- dent of the said commission, which audit and order shall be conclusive and binding upon all departments as to the correctness of the accounts of said com- ™m1SS10n. MAJESTIC WOODS Majestic woods of ev’ry vigorous green, Stage above stage, high waving o’er the hills, Or to the far horizon wide diffused, A boundless, deep immensity of shade. —Thomson EDITORIAL American Forestry UR magazine opens its new volume under a name clear cut and defi- nite, and we believe more descriptive of its primary mission than that of Conservation, which has appeared upon its cover for a little over a year. The change has not been made without care- ful deliberation on the part of the direc- tors of the Association, and consultation with the advisory board, and with those whose knowledge of the history of the Association entitles them to judge of its wisdom. Changes of name of a publi- cation are not to be lightly made, and ours has suffered somewhat in this re- spect. Since the development of the great movement for the conservation of all our natural resources.was set on foot there has been a little confusion as to the function of different agencies for the promotion of this work, but we be- lieve that a very large majority of the members of the American Forestry As- sociation, whose magazine this is, will agree that their directors have well and conscientiously fulfilled their trust in defining the especial task of the Asso- ciation and of its magazine as the in- tensive cultivation of the field of for- estry. This will not be interpreted narrowly, but in its broadest sense, as it affects the life and welfare of the Amer- ican people, through the maintenance of a supply of forest products, the pro- tection of the land and stream-flow, and the maintenance of healthful climatic conditions. This is a far-reaching sub- ject, and AMERICAN Forestry is the only magazine in this country that undertakes its interpretation to our people. . How. we propose to accomplish this task is set forth in other pages of this issue. We ask for the cooperation of our members and of all of the forestry workers of the country in making our efforts a success. The new name does not, therefore, mean a new magazine, nor a break in our growth. it means a clarifying of our ideas as to our function in the pro- gressive movement now going on and continuance of the improvement in our product which we have always tried to make from year to year. It does not mean narrowing our policy, but intensifying it and direct- ing it more effectively. It does not mean an abandonment of the broad platform of conservation. It means that the movement has already grown to the point where special work is needed along special lines, and of these, forestry, for its primary value and its secondary effects, is the most important and still calls for thorough educational work and effort along leg- islative) and, practicaly limes.” ‘This | is what the American Forestry Associa- tion was organized for over twenty years ago, and what we believe its large membership wish it to do. This .we hope to do with the help of the national and state forest services, and of kin- dred associations in all parts of the United States. AMERICAN FORESTRY aims to work with and for them all. wee oe A Greater Union Through a Greater South as SETTING up for its guiding prin- ciple “a greater Union through a ereater South,’ the Southern Com- mercial Congress has struck a note of combined local pride and national pa- triotism which should find response from every Southerner and fraternal sympathy from every Northerner and 45 ‘esterner. The young men of the South e indeed seeing visions and incorpo- ting them into realities in a new 1d wonderful development of a won- ful country. And _ still only the face of its possibilities has been ratched. The southern states have itold wealth of natural resources, coal id iron and other minerals and metals, vers for power and navigation, forests hich are to-day the chief source of ir supply of timber, soil and climate ited for a rich and varied agriculture he development of these resources will deed mean a greater Union as well as greater South. Hence every good merican should watch with approval id encouragement the splendid work f the Congress and hope for its fulfil- ent on the broadest lines that its pro- oters can conceive. This means conservation in the full- t sense of that but half-understood ord—not exploitation, not waste, not mere selling of the people’s heritage » boom business for the moment at the xpense of the next generation. We ave perhaps learned our lesson in that spect, partially at least, and the able entlemen who are making their new rganization so successful have their 1inds clear on this point. Therefore, re look to them for such a support f the forestry movement in the South s it has not yet had in that section. )f all branches of conservation work one is so fundamentally important to ll of the southern states. When oil nd gas and metals and minerals are xhausted, if the forests in the moun- ains are cared for they will still be ielding wealth in steady crops from ear to year. More than that, how- ver, the countless rivers that they ‘tuard and nourish will flow steadily on renerating power and providing cheap ighways for commerce—the people’s ighways—and watering and draining he agricultural lands. Here is the real vealth of nations, continuous and in- stimable, and the South-is richly en- lowed with it. es Every southern state should take up he forestry problem within its own orders. When the ultimate effect of he forests is considered. nothing is AMERICAN FORESTRY more vital in all their state problems. What is necessary can be done in large measure by the states, but there is one element in the problm which involves so many states and is so large in its scope that it calls for national action. To those who have read this magazine in the past we hardly need to say that we refer to the reservation and protection of the great central water-shed of the Southern Appalachians, with the condi- tion of which every southern state east of the Mississippi is concerned. This and the White Mountain region of New England are the two great national forest problems of the East. In the last number of this magazine Mr. John H. Finney, secretary of the Appalachian National Forest Association, pressed home the importance of this question to the South, and showed how many of the southern congressmen have failed to recognize the needs of their section and of the Nation in their action upon it. The extent of river navigation which is dependent upon these mountain forests has been recognized as giving the Na- tion a clear right to act, even if the general welfare were not broad enough and insistent enough to give such a right, and every one knows that the general-welfare clause has always been successfully invoked in the face of urgent public need like this. The Southern Commercial Congress can be a power in securing action in this regard, and in no way can it better demonstrate the close connection be- tween a greater South and a greater Union. . we YE Me Inaugurating State Forests in the South T THE recent Southern Commer- cial Congress in Washington Mr. John H. Finney, secretary of the Ap- palachian National Forest Association, made a pregnant suggestion. He called attention to the state’s two-fold duty toward the forests, namely: first, that of conserving them itself; second, that of aiding the indi- vidual in so doing. That it may adequately perform its function toward forests, the state must maintain forests. EDITORIAL 47 Some states acquire forests by pur- chase. In the South, however, this is impracticable, partly because of inade- quate state revenues and partly because of the slight return which the state would secure from such forests as it could purchase. How, then, may a system of state forests be inaugurated in the South? Mr. Finney pointed out that, scattered over the South, are considerable forest areas in private ownership, largely or wholly held out of use. Some of these belong to private es- tates, some to water-power companies, some to municipalities holding them as watershed protectors, some to public utility corporations, and still others to Tailways. Such forests, he declared, if under state control and conservatively handled would yield an income more than suf- ficient to offset the cost of their man- agement. But if the state cannot buy them, how can they come under state con- trol? Mr. Finney’s proposal is that the owner of such a forest tract either give it outright or loan it to the state for a term of years. Lands loaned the state for a con- siderable time, as fifty years, could be offered under definite conditions, in- cluding the following: First, the tract should be known as a. state forest :”’ Second, it should be placed in charge of a state forester, and handled in ac- cordance with forestry principles ; Third, taxes should be _ remitted throughout the period of the loan; Fourth, the tract should be carefully protected by the state against fire; Fifth, the returns from the forest during the loan period should go to the state. - This plan should, in many instances, commend itself to the forest owner; under it, he escapes taxation on his forest land during the loan period, and, apptdemend 01 that., period,’ receives back his tract in better condition than before. The forests will cost the state noth- ing, save the expense of maintenance, which should be met from the proceeds of the forest itself. Meanwhile, the public will have gained through the demonstration of the practicability and profitableness of state forests administration. To secure the best results, a con- siderable area should be offered at the outset. The income from 20,000 acres of fair forest land would, in Mr. Finney’s judgment, suffice to maintain a state bureau of forestry with an in- come of probably $10,000 per annum. With the growth of the area would come a growth in income and in the efficiency of the forest bureau. These 20,000 acres need not lie in a single body. ‘Smaller areas scat- tered throughout the state while more expensive for maintenance would be correspondingly more valuable for demonstration purposes, as the effects of state administration would be wit- nessed by a far larger body of citi- zens. Whether the proffer of such an area would be accepted by the state is not, in Mr. Finney’s judgment, a question for debate. Public sentiment would demand its acceptance and the enact- ment of necessary legislation to provide for its administration. That the plan may succeed it is neces- sary, apparently, that only a single donor of sufficient breadth of view and public spirit shall be found to make the initial offer. The offer will be accepted, other offers will follow, the area will grow, the bureau will grow, the wis- dom of the plan will promptly become manifest and similar state forests will quickly spread throughout the entire limits of the Southland, to the infinite advantage of that great and growing section. Can the man be found large enough to grasp the opportunity, and, as a benefactor to the South, outrival Mr. Carnegie with his libraries, or Mr. Rockefeller with his anti-hookworm fund? 48 AMERICAN FORESTRY National Forests as a Business Proposition S IS generally known, twenty-five per cent of the receipts from the National Forests in each state are re- turned annually to that state for roads and schools. For the year ending June 30, 1908, the amount of these receipts was $1,788,255.19. As a part of the annual budget of a National Forest state, its share of this sum is a helpful item. ; Speaking of this, the Denver Times declares sarcastically, “Several of the western states are jubilant over their returns from the Pinchot preserves within their borders. “They seem to think that every dol- lar returned to them was a dollar gained, when, in point of fact; they paid four dollars to get one; and, on top of their four dollars the National Gov- ernment was compelled to pay five dol- lars. So it cost the Federal Treasury and the state industry nine dollars to get one dollar for local roads and schools.” . This astounding statement is ex- plained as follows: “The appropriations by Congress for the Pinchot bureau for the year ending June 30, 1908, were $3,759,086.46. During the same period the net receipts from timber sales, penalties, grazing fees and uses WEfes wie 7oo.255-10,, POL this latter amount, paid by the people of the state, there was returned to the several states one-quarter. Thus it cost individual citizens $1,341,192.45 more than was paid back to their state; and it cost the National Treasury—of the people’s money—an additional amount of $r1,- 970,831.27. * * * It cost the people nearly $4,000,000 to collect $1,788,000 from themselves.” In closing, the writer refers to “persons who think the people can en- rich themselves by paying a Federal bureau to collect nine dollars from the public in order to have one dollar re- turned to schools and roads.” This editorial is typical of the matter which, from day to day, is served up to its readers by the school which lays it down as an article of faith that “it IS a crime to perpetuate the public do- main,” and “urges the fullest possible liberality on the part of the Government in passing the lands and their resources. into the hands of bona fide citizens.” To this school, the idea that the public domain is “a national heritage to be handed down” to the people, is odious, the national administration of a na- tional estate is constantly proclaimed as “feudalism,” “bureaucracy,” the con- version of a free people into a “ten- antry,’ and the like; and to its mill, whatever will discredit the National Forest Service is grist. This fact should be grasped and never forgotten ; otherwise, the incessant war- fare upon Mr. Pinchot and his work cannot be understood. Let the position of the above edi, torial be analyzed. The receipts from the National Forests last year equaled almost forty-eight per cent of the na- tional appropriation for the Forest Service, and of these receipts, the Na- tional Forest states received twenty-five per cent. Thus, “it cost the Federal Treasury and the state industries nine dollars to get one dollar for local roads and schools.” The assumption evidently is that be- cause the National Forests in 1908 re- turned in cash about half what Congress appropriated for the United States Forest Service, the American people get out of that Service but one dollar where they put in nine. Suppose the Forest Service collected more money from the National Forests, as, for example, by selling more timber, it might easily do, what,then? One of the constant grounds of attack by these critics is that the Forest Service charges for the use of the natural resources in its charge. Hence the greatér the re- ceipts of/ the Service; the ereater the offense committed by “Baron Pinchot.” These criticisms suggest the familiar alternative of a decadent theology under the terms of which you are “d—d if you do, and d—d if you don’t.” If the Forest Service charges for the use of the natural resources it is reduc- ing the people to vassalage; if it fails to charge enough to cover its entire congressional appropriation it is wast- EDITORIAL 49 ing the people’s money at the rate of nine dollars for one. Examine the subject from another angle. One of the constant demands of the critics in question is that the pub- lic domain shall be “developed.” A large percentage of the annual expendi- tures of the Forest Service goes to the building of roads, the putting in of telephone lines, the establishment of nurseries for reforestation purposes, and the like. All this, of course, is “development,” pure and simple. Yet the Forest Service gets no credit for it. Instead, public money spent for this purpose, we are expected to infer, is thrown away. As to the expensiveness of the Forest Service, let some other facts be noted: our National Forest fire loss amounts annually to about $50,000,000, a sum greater than the Harriman estate, and more than thirteen times the appropria- tion made to the Forest Service for 1908. Yet the Forest Service is showing the country how to prevent forest fires, and has reduced fire damage on the National Forests to a figure which, compared with the damage to our non-government forests, is petty. Is this service worth anything? Flood damage costs the Nation an- nually about $100,000,000, and erosion, about $1,000,000,000. The Forest Serv- ice is demonstrating a principle which, generally applied, will greatly reduce both these losses. Is this worth while? Again, the questions of irrigation, waterways,and water-powers are of far- reaching financial importance. The problems raised by them can be solved only with the- aid of forestry as preached and practised by the National Forest Service. When these larger aspects of the work of the Forest Service are con- sidered it is obvious that, if the pecuni- ary returns from the National Forests were nil, and the present appropriations for National Forest work were doubled, the Service would still constitute an enormous national asset, a paying public investment of the first rank. 5 Yet, in the face of these facts some have the hardihood to allege that the people are paying a Federal bureau to collect “nine dollars from the public in order to have one dollar returned for schools and roads!” Me We The Weeks Forestry Bill See Weeks Forestry Bill (H. R. 11798), “to enable any state to co- operate with any other state or states, or with the United States, for the pro- tection of the watersheds of navigable streams,” etc., is again before Congress. This bill, in fact, was introduced July 23, 1909, though action was impracti- cable during the special session. The text of the bill will be found elsewhere in this issue. It is encouraging to note that the press has begun the campaign for the enact- ment of this measure. The Boston Journal points out the pressing charac- ter of the need for such legislation, say- ing: ‘Everybody who knows the condi- tions in the eastern and southern forests knows that there is absolute necessity for measures to check their destruction without delay.” Mr. J. C. Welliver, in the Baltimore News, says: “In behalf of the Appalachian project it is urged that time is pressing. Un- less steps are soon taken, there will be no forests left to preserve in the Ap- palachians, because the trees are being cut away about as fast as men and money and skill can make it possible.” The Boston Globe says: “At the present rate of cutting, the forests on the high slopes of the White Mountains will be gone in a few years.” Again, it is pointed out that the chief opposition to this measure comes from men of the type of Speaker Cannon, Representative Tawney, and Chairman Scott, of the Agricultural Committee, together with a number of western con- gressmen, some of whom are unfamiliar with forest conditions in mountain states, while others are hostile to the National Forest policy where it already operates. 50 AMERICAN FORESTRY The attitude of the President is still in doubt. The general conservation question was passed over in his message to Congress with the statement that it would be considered in a later special message. Whether, however, this com- ing message will extend hope to the friends of the Weeks bill is uncertain. Such of them as have visited him in -behalf of the measure have thus far re- ceived little encouragement. “Mr. Gane non,” we are told, “‘has let the President know that he is opposed to the project at this time, and, although the President has a strong liking for Mr. Weeks and greatly respects his judgment, yet in this case he is more inclined to side with Mr. Cannon than he is with Mr. Weeks.” The principal objection thus far raised is the old one of “expense.” We are told that the present administration must make a record for “economy,” and that such Jegislation, before its conclu- sion, is liable to involve the country in an enormous outlay. As has been repeatedly pointed out, however, in these columns, the cost of such legislation is trifling in comparison with the returns. The question is sim- ply that of “saving at the spigot and wasting at the bung-hole.” Foreign countries have deferred action until forced by necessity to take it and have then found that the cost was vastly greater and the gain far less than would have been the case had the “stitch in time” been taken. But should the expense be consider- able, the wisdom of a bond issue to meet it is now being discussed. Says the Boston Journal: “The issue of bonds to carry on a great forestry program seems to be one of the most logical and easily justified employments of the national credit. The argument that ‘posterity will get the benefit, so let posterity pay,’ is gen- erally illogical. Applied to a grear public work the rule is that the work has to be paid for after its greatest utility is exhausted. But in the case of forests, which must grow before they can be used, there is certainly logic in the argument of letting posterity pay.” To what extent the Speaker will im- terfere with the consideration of this measure is an interesting question. That he is able to keep legislation from the House everybody, of course, knows though not everybody cares to admit. One of his followers, Congressman C. A. Sulloway, in defending the Speaker against criticism makes an in- teresting admission. As quoted in the Manchester (N. H.) Mirror, he says: ‘Speaker Cannon did not vote for the (Weeks) bill, but he permitted tt to re- ceive consideration in the House when he could have prevented it.” When fighting the United States Bank, Benton made good use of the ad- mission of the friends of the bank that that great institution had not injured other banks, although it might have done so. The Senators emphasized the point that the power to injure rival con- cerns was too dangerous to leave with. such an institution. It is for the country to judge whether the Speaker’s power to prevent the con- sideration of legislation reported favor- ably from a committee and ready to be passed by the House, is not too great a power for any man to wield. Meanwhile the friends of the meas- ure will rally. They will concentrate their efforts, first upon the Agricultural Committee, in which the bill now re- poses, and then upon the members of the House to ensure its enactment, ~ realizing that, if they would obtain some fraction of the kernel instead of being required ultimately to buy the mere shell of the Appalachian forests, they must act at once and with all their wis- dom, persistence, and energy. ye Me A Congressional Investigation ae THE adjournment of Congress for the holiday recess arrange- ments were being made for an in- vestigation of the Department of the Interior, as a result of the controversy of the last few months, the features of which have become so familiar to the American people. Secretary Ballinger has demanded also the investigation of EDITORIAL ei the Forest Service, on the ground of “pernicious activity.” In this it seems to us the Secretary goes too fast. Log- ically the latter can and should wait. If the serious charges involving certain officials of the Interior Department are sustained the Forest Service men who may have been instrumental in assisting to unearth the facts cannot be accusedof pernicious activity. Under what princi- ple of ethics or even of official etiquette are officers of one branch of the Gov- ernment estopped from exposing wrongs committed against the people, even by officers of another branch of the Government? If Secretary Ballinger shows that he has been wronged there will be time enough to determine what means were used to discredit him and the country will support such an inquiry in the interest of fair play. On the general question there can be no doubt that the limit of the public patience is about reached and that a thorough, searching and judicial inves- tigation of the facts is demanded in justice to the individuals concerned, to the administration as a whole, of which they are a part, and to that larger body which is most vitally concerned but re- ceives scant consideration—the Amer- ican people. This investigation must not be po- litical if it is to have public confidence. It is a regrettable fact that the exonera- tion by President Taft of Secretary Bal- linger from the criticism of his course implied in the statement of Mr. Glavis, failed to convince the people, notwith- standing their high regard for the Presidency and for the judgment and integrity of its present incumbent. It was quite generally feltthat the Presi- dent felt compelled at that juncture to sustain the Cabinet officer he had so recently appointed. Similarly any con- gressional investigation that bears any suspicion of being “framed up” to meet party exigency, to “whitewash” any one, or to do anything except to find and re- port the real facts that affect the peo- ple’s property and the honest adminis- tration of the laws, will fail to win the acceptance of the Nation and will make far worse what is already a bad matter. There is a rising tide of suspicion, confined to no one section of the country and to no one party, of the way these things are managed. We do not under- take. to say whether this suspicion is well grounded or not. This we do say, however, if we are now to have an in- vestigation of what is growing into a national scandal, let it be, as Mr. Bal- linger and Mr. Pinchot are said to have requested, public. Let it be also free from suspicion of partisanship; free from suspicion of being tampered with in the interest of any man or group of men. Otherwise the last state of this unpleasant affair will be worse than the first. We want a clean bill of health that we can have no reason to doubt, or a competent diagnosis of the disease and means for its cure. wee Secretary Ballinger on the Power-site Question ECRETARY BALLINGER’S rec- ommendations on the power-site question were published in Conserva- tion for December (page 780). Their liberal character has occasioned much comment. His recommendations may be sum- marized as follows: The titles to the water-power sites should be reserved by the the United States Government; grants of sites should be limited to a maximum of thirty years; grantees of water priv- ileges must develop at least twenty-five per cent of the power capable of de- velopment within four years; a moder- ate charge must be made upon the capital invested or upon the gross earn- ings of the project in its first ten years of operation, adjusted at each subse- quent ten-year period, and equitably determined by appraisement; rights to be forfeitable upon failure to develop power or upon combination by grantees to fix exorbitant rates. Commenting on these proposals, the Rocky Mountain News, a leading op- ponent of “Pinchotism,” editorially pro- tests (November 30), declaring: “The News is eau, hostile to at least one portion of the Secretary’s water-power device. This is, in brief, the 52 AMERICAN FORESTRY proposal that the person who wishes to develop a water-power on the public land must not only pay a Federal tax for the privilege, but must file on the water rights, under the laws of the state or territory, and then transfer the water rights to the Federal Government. This would be simply a legal or quasi-legal method of doing what Mr. Pinchot seeks to do in defiance of law. It would make water-power development costly in the public land states and territories ; it would be a tremendous barrier to development; and, more than all, it would constitute the Federal Govern- ment not merely a landlord, but a water- lord; and a waterlord exempt from local taxation. We do not believe any part of this can be reconciled with the claims of either justice or expediency.” Why the Secretary’s apparent “con- version?’ That his report would be liberal was well understood in advance of its appearance. The explanation given by some is “the hammering be- stowed upon the Secretary which has awakened him to the necessity of get- ting into line.’ “White House influ- ence” is also referred to. The Presi- dent, it is claimed, “appreciates the ne- cessity of putting his administration squarely behind the conservation move- ment. From a political standpoint,” it is said, “he cannot afford to do other- wise. * * * Besides, Mr. Taft is said to have returned from the West with a much more definite idea of the necessity of safeguarding the natural resources than he had earlier in his ad- ministration.” And this feeling, it is believed, has communicated itself to the Secretary of the Interior. One fact should be clearly understood by those who seek to protect the power sites from monopolization. The with- drawal of sites by the Secretary 1s, as he has repeatedly indicated, and again in the above report, only “temporary.” “Without such withdrawals,” he has declared, “these sites would be enter- able under existing laws, and their patenting would leave the General Gov- ernment powerless to impose any limita- tions as to their use. If the Federal Government desires to exercise control or supervision over water-power de- velopment on the public domain, it can only do so by limitations imposed upon the disposal of power and _ reservoir sites upon the public lands.” The Sec- retary, therefore, advises Congress to enact appropriate legislation. Now, suppose that, as has happened in countless other instances, Congress does not act: They Secretanonarcas Interior will have washed his hands in innocency. He will be able to point to his report and say that he indicated the danger and called upon Congress to meet it, but that Congress failed to do so, and that, therefore, great as is his desire to protect the public interests, Congress itself, by its inaction, has for- bidden him. All, therefore, that will remain for him to do will be to throw down the bars and let the cattle into the standing corn. Clearly the matter is now “up to” Congress, and upon that body rests the responsibility for meeting the situation. Further, the Secretary, by his recom- mendations, has placed himself in a happy position. If Congress acts, he can claim the credit; if it fails to act, he can plead “not guilty.” But not so fast. To make recom- mendations is easy, especially if there is ground to suspect that they will be pigeon-holed. The test of the Secre- tary’s earnestness in the public behalf is yet to come. Will he stop with mak- ing recommendations and peacefully sit in his swivel chair while Congress de- bates all manner of other questions and prepares to “‘pass the appropriation bills and go home?” ; If the Secretary will acquit himself of the suspicion of lukewarmness in this matter, he must go much farther. It is a matter of record that he knows the way to Capitol Hill, and that he has appeared before congressional commit- tees and urged the enactment of legisla- tion, notably in the matter of the Alas- kan coal claims. Will he again go be- fore appropriate committees, and again, with the prestige of his great office, and EDITORIAL 53 with the ability which he has mani- fested on other occasions, press upon those committees the far-reaching and paramount importance of enacting into living legislation the recommendations which, otherwise, must lie dead in a dust-covered report? In this connection the case of a west- ern governor, now deceased, is recalled. Certain legislation, odious from the standpoint of the public well-being, was before the legislature. The monopolists had so completely accomplished their perfect work as to have an overwhelm- ing majority in each house. Next, by one of the shrewdest moves on record, they endeavored to buy the governor’s acquiescence by a plan which would have left him forever proof against dis- covery. He would be at liberty to protest against the legislation, but the legisla- ture would pass it despite his protest. He might then veto the bill, but the majority was so large in each house that the bill would be passed over his veto. He would have squared himself with the voters, maintained his record as an anti-monopoly governor, and at the same time, be a million dollars to the good; and the corporations would have won. But did he? Instead, with an oath, he spurned the bribe, doffed his coat and rolled up his sleeves for the battle of his life. To cut the story short, he blocked the game, beat the bill and saved the public interests. When he died, a few years later, a subscription paper was circulated for the benefit of his widow. Now, the question for Secretary Bal- linger to answer is, has he the nerve of this heroic governor? Will he ac- tually enter the lists for the people’s rights? Will he not ~simply talk, but work? Will he organize a campaign for the enactment of such legislation as he has recommended, and will he lead the battle and so press it to the gates of the entrenched hosts of monopoly and special privilege that, when the Sixty- first Congress adjourns, his admirable recommendations regarding water- power sites will stand as the law of the land ? The Milk in the Cocoanut ye BOTTOM, the conservation strug- gle is but another chapter in the warfare over the public domain. This fight began with the establish- ment of our National Government. Seven of the thirteen original states claimed public lands; six held no claims. Whether the public lands should belong to the seven states or to the thirteen was an early bone of contention. Since that day, the question of the public domain has again and again threatened the peace of the Nation. America has been singularly blessed in the size and richness of her public domain. Upon it, as was pointed out by Thomas Carlyle, has rested, in large measure, the success of her free insti- tutions. This domain has been estimated to equal, at its maximum, 1,000,000,000 acres. Various devices have been adopted for its disposition. Sales, leases, the offering of lands at auction at an upset price, the preemption law, coal-land laws, and the like. The most famous law for the dispo- sition of the public domain was the homestead law, signed by President Lincoln, May 20, 1862. Of this law, the Public Lands Com- mission of 1880 said: “It protects the Government; it fills the states with homes, it builds up communities and lessens the chance of social and civil disorder by giving ownership of the soil, in small tracts, to the occupants theneoien For a period, this law bore admirable fruit; it has now, however, apparently about reached the limit of its usefulness. Is the reason for this to be found in the fact that the public domain has all been disposed of? Not at all, for it is estimated that about half of the original billion acres still remains the property of the Nation. The trouble lies not in the shrinking of the public domain, but in the in- applicability of the homestead law to the character of that domain as it now exists. 54 To this fact the Secretary of the In- terior has borne testimony. In his last report but one he said: “The home- stead law is not applicable to much of the balance of the public domain.” There is a fundamental difference between the character of the lands taken up under the homestead law and those still remaining in national ownership. The former were, for the most part, arable and rich. Those now remain- ing are largely arid, semi-arid, moun- tain and forest. For the settler to take up a quarter section of arid land avails him little. Provision must first be made for re- claiming this land by the application of water ; but with irrigation this land be- comes so productive that, in many in- stances, a quarter section is far too much to allow to a single settler. On the great public range, suitable as yet only for grazing, the* quarter- section proposition is again found in- applicable, and cattle and sheep kings would be the first to oppose its intro- duction. The application of the homestead principle to mineral lands leads to gro- tesque results. A single area of 160 acres may prove more valuable than whole counties of agricultural land; while, through the use of dummy en- trymen, the property of one owner may be vastly extended. Again, unless we are willing to dis- pense for the most part with forests, the homestead principle breaks down when applied to forest land. Here, in many instances, private property in land is strikingly inappropriate, and here, again, dummies have been used with telling effect. To the intelligent observer, interested primarily in the public well-being, it has become evident that much of our ex- isting public domain must be handled on different principles than those under- lying the homestead law. But suppose our remaining public do- main were as arable and rich as the Mississippi Valley, and, under the homestead law, were all disposed of to private individuals. Have we stopped to think what would happen next? AMERICAN FORESTRY Let the reader glance at the popula- tion table of the United States, show- ing our total millions from 1790 to 1900. By decades, these will be found to run as follows: Three, five, seven, nine, twelve, seventeen, twenty-three, thirty-one, thirty-eight, fifty, sixty-two, seventy-six. Does any one imagine our popula- tion has reached the limit of its growth ° If not, where will the additional mil- lions look for land when all the exist- ing lands have been taken up by those now living and turned over to an equal number, let us say, of their descendants ? It may be well that, before all our public lands were thus reduced to pri- vate ownership, we were compelled to face arid, mountain, and forest lands. We thus found opportunity to stop and think. In consequence, we are learning that, whatever merit may attach to the prin- ciple of private property in land, that principle is not of universal application. We have learned that, as regards some lands, at least, public ownership, and adniinistration in the public in- terest, are essential and indispensable. How much farther we may need to carry this principle we do not yet, as a people, know. We shall probably learn, as we have learned many other things, by experience. But now comes a movement, petty, it may be, in numbers, but aggressive, and well represented in Congress, de- claring that it is a “crime to perpetuate the public domain,” proposing to “throw off the incubus of Federal control,” and, while hedging a little as regards “the actual timbered lands of the public do- main,’ demanding that “every natural resource pertaining to the public do- main * **) shallipasss ses eante the ownership of the individual.” Here we have a direct issue, intelli- gible to the simplest mind, sharp, clean- cut, unequivocal: On the one hand stands national ownership and admin- istration; on the other, the demand that such ownership and administration end, and that individual ownership and ad- ministration and laissez faire take its place. THE MONARCH OAK 55 Between these two positions there is a great gulf fixed. They can no more be harmonized than light and dark- ness, plus and minus, or zenith and nadir. The opposing principles involved will no more blend than will oil and water. Veil it as we may, juggle it as we will, this is the issue that lies at the base of the Ballinger-Pinchot fight. Personalities may interest; and slan- ders and graft charges may whet the morbid appetitite; but more funda- mental by far than personalities, slan- ders, or graft are broad questions of public policy. Such a question, par excellence, is the question whether the public domain shall, in substantial measure, remain in public hands to be administered by the public for the public good, or be turned over to individuals to be exploited for private gain. In this lies an issue which may well challenge the attention of stu- dent, citizen, and statesman, and upon whose wise settlement depends, in large measure, the permanent well-being of the Nation. ye We ye The Interest of The Interests" in Irrigation A on December 12 makes interest- ing reading. In part, it runs: “The Camfield Development Com- pany yesterday secured control of the Henrylyn and the Golden-Littleton ir- rigation systems in a deal which in- volves $4,000,000. David H. Moffat, William G. Evans, Gerald Hughes and other ‘capitalists are interested in the Camfield concern.” This taking over involves a purchase of the entire bond issue of two dis- tricts—$432,000—by the company, and their cooperation with a firm of Chi- cago bond brokers. A hundred thou- NEWS item published in Denver | sand acres of the land are in southern Weld County, while the remainder are close to Denver. The territory along the new line of the Union Pacific is also included, as is land along the Burling- ton’s new line to Greeley. “Within this great empire,’ we are told, “the rail- roads of Colorado and the promoters of land and irrigation projects have planned to spend $10,000,000. In a few years more, it is estimated this territory will add at least 20,000 population to the state.” All of which throws additional light on Secretary Ballinger’s Spokane speech, in which he expressed great friendliness for private irrigation en- terprises, and a keen desire that Gov- ernment irrigation should be kept well out of the way of all such. Further- more, it harmonizes with the talk heard about the Capitol. Where the irrigation job is too big, or difficult, or unprom- ising to attract private capital, Govern- ment, as Adam Smith taught, may be permitted to take the risk. But where there are profits to be garnered, how- ever heavily the taking of these profits may bear upon the producer, Govern- ment must stand aside and private capi- tal must have the right of way. Is this one of the “Roosevelt policies” which were to have been so relig- iously carried out? We confess that we had not so understood. If, on the other hand, the Roosevelt irrigation policy is that of using the Government in so far as practicable to aid the com- mon man in establishing, with as little expense as may be, a home for him- self in the arid regions, are we not find- ing here another illustration of the way in which those policies, as has been sug- gested, are being “carried out on a shutter ?”’ THE MONARCH OAK The monarch oak, the patriarch of the trees, Shoots rising up, and spreads by slow degrees. Three centuries he grows, and three he stays Supreme in state; and in three more decays. —Dryden STATE WORK Massachusetts Forestry Association The Massachusetts Forestry Association held its twelfth annual meeting in Boston Thursday, December 16. Dr. Henry P. Wal- cott retired from the presidency, which he has held continuously since the association was organized in 1898. Edwin A. Start re- tired from the secretaryship after nine years of service. The annual report of the secre- tary showed a membership of 901, a net in- crease of twenty-four. The report reviewed the work of the year, most of which is em- braced in matters still pending. In view of the change in its executive officers, the sec- retary summarized the results accomplished by the association in its brief career and the progress made by forestry in Massa- chusetts since 1898, when it was almost un- known to the people of the state. Now Mas- sachusetts has perhaps the best shade-tree laws of any state in the Union, and one of the most complete and liberally supported forest services. The association takes pride in the fact that its interest in the forestry movement has been national as well as local, a fact that it has proved several times in practical ways, and especially in its support of the Appalachian National Forests project. The association has about $11,000 invested in its permanent fund. It maintains a pleas- ant office at No. 4 Joy Street, Boston, cpen during business hours, and publishes a small monthly bulletin, Woodland and Roadside. These officers were elected: President, Na- thaniel T. Kidder, of Milton. Vice- presidents: Berkshire — Alexander Sedgwick, of Stockbridge; Bristol—Walter C. Baylies, of Taunton; Essex, Harlan P. Kelsey, of Salem; Franklin—John A. Aiken, of Greenfield; Hampden—William F. Gale, of Springfield; Hampshire—William P. Brooks, of Amherst; Middlesex—J. Nelson Parker, of Billerica; Norfolk—D. Blakely Hoar, of Brookline; Plymouth—Harry E. Converse, of Marion; Suffolk—Charles S. Hamlin, of Boston; Worcester—John E. Thayer, of Lancaster. Secretary, Irving T. Guild, of Arlington; treasurer, Edwin A. Start, of Billerica; mem- bers of the executve committee for three years, Mary Lee Ware, of Boston; Frederick J. Caulkins, of Medford; trustee of the per- manent fund for three years, George M. Weed, of Newton; auditor for two years, James Nowell, of Winchester. The following minute was unanimously adopted. It records the service of one of the 56 earliest and most consistent friends of for- estry in Massachusetts, and one of the first citizens of the state: “Eleven years ago Henry P. Walcott be- came the first president of the Massachu- setts Forestry Association, and he has con- tinued since that time at it head. During these years we have found him always a loyal friend of forestry, a wise counsellor, a courteous and impartial president. To his influence the association owes much of its growth and efficiency. As he retires from office we tender him our grateful acknowl- edgment, our cordial regard, and our hope that the presidency of this association may rank as not the least among his many dis- tinguished public services.” The business session was followed by a series of reports from experts of the state service and of Harvard University on some of the principal insect enemies of Massa- chusetts trees and the progress made in cul- tivating parasites and other insect enemies to control them. WM Annual Meeting Vermont Forestry Association The annual meeting of the Vermont For- estry Association was held at Brattleboro, December 17. This was the first regular meeting of the association after the organization of the State Forest Service, which was so largely due to the work of the association. There were afternoon and evening sessions well attended by people from Brattleboro and a few from distant points in the state. The aim of the association has been to hold these annual meetings in the various centers of the state so as to interest a great many people. Governor Prouty, who was present and is much interested in the forestry movement in the state, spoke in the afternoon regarding the work of the Forest Service and express- ing himself in favor of an adequate exten- sion of the work, especially in regard to the purchase of state lands. Among the other speakers were Mr. Charles Greene, formerly of the International Paper Company, who outlined a plan for the acqui- sition of lands later to be turned over to the state. A. F. Hawes, state forester, spoke on the forest-fire problems of the state. Hon. Ernest Hitchcock, former commissioner, spoke on the subject of taxation. Professor — SATE WORK 57 ‘Taylor and Mr. Joseph DeBoer, president of the National Life Insurance Company, and Mr. Allen M. Fletcher, of Cavendish, also spoke. Resolutions were passed by the association ‘expressing its hearty appreciation of the work which Prof. L. R. Jones has done for agriculture, and especially for forestry in Vermont, and wishing him all possible success in his new work in the University of Wisconsin. Other resolutions were passed in favor of the policy of the State Forest Service look- ing toward the purchase of more extenstve state forests, and a change in the taxation and forest-fire laws. It was brought out at the meeting that one state forest of 450 acres has already been acquired in Plainfield, Vt.; and that the state nursery now has about 2,000,000 trees started. The Hon. Fletcher Proctor was elected president for the ensuing year; Hon. George Aitken, of Woodstock, and Allen M. Fletcher, Cavendish, vice-presidents; Hon. Ernest Hitchcock, of Pittsford, secretary and treas- urer. ‘ ye Ye ye Louisiana Forestry Association The Louisiana Forestry Association was ‘organized April, 1909. The articles of asso- ciation were drawn up in June and active work then begun. The association now num- bers ninety annual members and one life member. The association took part in the successful meeting of the Southern Con- servation Congress held in New Orleans November 1, being represented by its presi- dent, Henry E. Hardtner, and others. The collecting of tree seeds and their dis- tribution to those persons desiring to plant them, is one of the features of the associa- tion’s work. New tree seeds, which the Government is anxious to introduce in the South, will be sent from the Botanical Gar- den to this association. When they are well started they will be given out to indi- viduals to be placed in parks or homes. Fifty packages are promised for planting this season, and can be secured by any one upon application to the association’s secretary, Mrs. A. B. Avery, at Shreveport, La. Governor J. Y. Sanders is lending valuable aid to the organization, and has promised to set aside five acres of land to be used for a nursery at the experiment station at Cal- houn, La. Through the educational department of the state, lectures on forestry will be given at the teachers’ institutes, and at the annual meeting of the Teachers’ Association. These lectures will be provided by this association from the United States Forest Service, and those desiring their services should make appli- cation to the secretary, as they can only be secured through the association. By the courtesy of the United States Forest Service, this association has secured through its secretary a complete file of all books and leaflets published by the Government per- taining to forestry, and any one desiring to consult any book can do so upon application at our office. The annual meeting of the association will be held January 4, 1910, at Minden, La. YE Ye ye State Interest in Water-powerss Governor Hadley, of Missouri, has re- cently been exploring the Ozark region, one of his objects being the development of water-power as a state resource. Says John L. Mathews, in the Boston Transcript: “On the water side Governor Hadley has before him the example of Illinois spending $20,000,000 for state development of water- power; and he is eager that Missouri shall not be outdone. The pellmell streams of the Ozarks have power enough to run all the industries of Missouri. He has recently es- tablished a waterway commission headed by W. K. Kavanaugh, of St. Louis, to investi- gate both power and navigation questions; and the work of this commission was also a factor in leading him to the rapid water of Current River, with their engineer, Mr. M. L. Holman.” Iowa also is Moines Capital: “The state conservation commission has begun the work of collecting data pertain- ing to water-power in Iowa. Secretary Dob- son yesterday mailed letters to the officials of every town and city on all the principal rivers in Iowa, asking for information con- cerning present and defunct water-power plants. There are many old gristmills and other mills, located on rivers throughout the state, that long ago suspended operations. It is the desire of the commission to know what fall of the river was utilized for water-power. The idea of the commission is to make a comparison of the water-power now in use with that which has been aban- doned. The main purpose of the entire campaign looks to the increasing of the water-power in summer time” In Wisconsin a legislative committee on water-power, forestry, and drainage has been holding hearings. Mr. E. M. Griffith, state forester, stated to this commission that while the state does not own dams, or banks of overflowed lands, it does own the energy of the running water, and that the state alone has a right to give a permit to use this energy under its police power. Mr. Griffith insisted that “the state should stand to the last ditch on every water-power right it had.” His opponents argued that this would block water-power development, but the necessity of this he absolutely denied. interested. Says the Des NEWS AND NOTES Mr. Pinchot's Latest Shot Following are extracts from Mr. Gifford Pinchot’s speech of Monday, December 27, before the University Club of New York City : Ae ty “The conservation issue is a moral one. When a few men get possession of one of the necessaries of life, either through owner- ship of a natural resource or through un- fair business methods, and use that control to extort undue profits * * * they injure the average man without good reason, and they are guilty of a moral wrong. * * as “The income of the average family in the United States is less than $600 a year. To increase the cost of living to such a family, beyond the reasonable profits of legitimate business is wrong. * * * “T believe in our form of government, and I believe in the Golden Rule. But we must face the truth that monopoly of the sources of production makes it impossible for vast numbers of men and women to earn a fair living: «7. * “Thousands of daughters of the poor fail into the hands of the white-slave traders be- cause their poverty leaves them without pro- tection. Thousands of families, as the Pttts- burg Survey has shown us, lead lives of brutalizing overwork in return for the barest living. “Is it fair that these thousands of families should have less than they need in order that a few families should have swollen for- tunes at their expense? * * * “The people of this country have lost vastly more than they-can ever regain by its gifts of public property, forever and without charge, to men who gave nothing in return. * * * “The people of the United States have been complacent victims of a system of roa Wy aun ake “President. Hadley well said that ‘the fun- damental division of powers in the Consti- tution of the United States is between voters, on the one hand, and property owners on the other.’ “When property gets possession of the voting power also, little is left for the peo- ple. That is why the unholy alliance between business and politics is the most dangerous factor in our political life. 58 “T believe the American people are tired of that alliance. They are weary of politics for revenue only. It is time to take busi- ness out of politics, and keep it out—time for the political activity of this Nation to be aimed squarely at the welfare of all of us, and squarely away from the excessive profits of Bb Ste GME, se ; “We have allowed the great corporations to occupy with their own men the strategic points in business, in social and in political lites at 7 “There are many men who believe, and who will always believe, in the divine right of money to rule. With such men argument, compromise, our conciliation is useless, or worse. “The only thing to do with them is to fight them and beat them. It has been done, and it can be done again. “It is the honorable distinction of the Forest Service that it has been more con- stantly, more violently, and more bitterly attacked by the representatives of the special interests than any other Government bureau. “These attacks have increased in violence and bitterness just in proportion as_ the Service has offered effective opposition to predatory wealth. * * * “We hold it to be the first duty of a public officer to obey the law. But we hold it to be his second duty, and a close second, to do every‘hing the law will let him do for the public good, and not merely what the law directs or compels him to do. * * * “Still another attack, nearly successful two years ago, was an attempt to prevent the Forest Service from telling the people, through the press, what it is accomplishinz for them, and how much this Nation needs the forest. “If we cannot tell what we are doing, the time will come when there will be nothing tomtelljeeueeies “Since the Forest Service called public at- tention to the rapid absorption of the water- power sites and the threatening growth of a great water-power monopoly, the attacks upon it have increased with marked rapidity. “I anticipate that they will continue to do so. Still greater opposition is promised in the near future. There is but one protection —an awakened and determined public opin- ion. That is why I give you the facts.” ‘ NEWS AND NOTES 59 Mr. Garfield Speaks at Last Mr. James R. Garfield, Secretary of the Interior under President Roosevelt, from whom an expression on the conservation question has long been expected, has at last spoken in an address at the University of Wisconsin and before the Merchants’ and Manufacturers’ Association of Milwaukee. This address is published in full in La Fol- lette’s for December 18. Though worded with studied care and self-restraint, it has al- ready created a flutter in the flock of opponents of conservation. Following are some extracts from Mr. Garfield’s address: “Conservation is preeminently a move- ment for the public welfare. The public welfare demands equality of opportunity for all citizens in’ the use of natural re- Sources... 5 + “In opposition to public welfare is that kind of private interest which selfishly seeks to control natural resources solely for its own) benefit) * > *)* “Exactly as the railroads are regulated be- cause they are public utilities, so must the interests that develop natural resources be regulated because they deal with public ne- cessities. Unfair use or monopolization of either is intolerable. * * * “The enormous increase in the use of water for power and irrigation, and domestic con- sumption, has induced great activity on the part of big interests to acquire as many available reservoir and power sites as pos- sible—there was imminent danger that such sites left on the public domain would be filed upon and obtained under conditions that would in no wise protect the public, but wou'd make monopoly possible in the near hater ye “No more intolerable monopoly can be imagined than that which would control the water supply of any great section of our countnyae 7) 5 “The people properly consider the execu- tive as their particular advocate, their spe- cial representative. His stewardship carries with it grave responsibilities and affords splendid opportunities to serve the people well. * oe. * “President Roosevelt * * * was willing to take action for the public welfare unless there was sonte prohibition under the constitution or in law to prevent such action. * * “The danger to the conservation movement now is inaction. The public welfare de- mands action. No condition is so satisfac- tory to aggressive private interest as inac- tion on the part of the public authorities. * * * “The fight for conservation is now in the halls of Congress. * * * It is not an easy task to obtain legislation which is opposed by great vested interests. We may be sure that all the men and corporations who have in years gone by acquired ownership or ¢con- trol of land, timber, coal, oil, phosphates, and water, free from regulation or condition and without just compensation to the public, will not voluntarily acquiesce in the proposed changes. There is no danger that the rights and demands of such interests will be neg lected; the danger is that the public interest may be forgotten. “The people must see to it that their side of these great questions is as keenly watched, as capably presented as is the side of pri vate interest. * * * “It is easier to prevent legislation than to obtain it, hence the people will have the more difficult task in the pending struggle, but they can win if their leaders are true to their tS tener esl ao “We pride ourselves upon our freedom, our individual liberty of action—yet this is an idle boast, a sham, unless we ensure equality of opportunity to every citizen, and use every effort to increase his vital, intellectual, and moral efficiency.” wow Another Bombshell for Ballinger Collier's for December 18 fires another bombshell into the Ballinger camp. Senator Heyburn, furthermore, for years one of the most relentless and irreconcilable foes of the Forest Service, finds himself in a position strikingly suggestive of that of the onetime Senator Mitchell, from Oregon. Of the article referred to, Collier's says editorially : “In the opinion of the most intelligent and disinterested class of men now in public life, no achievement in President Roosevelt’s administration compared in importance with the successful turning of the tide against the robber barons, and in favor of the peo- ple, in that immensely valuable area known as our natural resources. Can the people pre- vent the present administration from chloro- forming the movement and bringing us back to the grand old days of McKinley’s first administration, when everything was smooth and orderly, and Robin Hood was in the saddle? If the administration had shown any desire to do more than fix up plausible wh'te- washes and virtuous annual reports, Collier’s would not be worrying itself with the task of ferreting out and arranging the vast amount of evidence. If we were sure that Congress would furnish a full investigation, by a fair- minded committee, our own role would end. We are not convinced, however, and there- fore are forced by incalculably large public interests to remain ourselves upon the firing line now, and perhaps for many months to come. “The article * * * will interest the pub- lic. Whether it will influence Congress, we do not know. That it will appeal to the At- torney General or the President, we in no wise think. “Tt demonstrates : “1. That Glavis’s article in Collier's merely tapped one vein. What is given here is more farreaching. From the point of view both of politic and of criminal law, it is more serious, ae bis AMERICAN “2 That Ballinger’s railroad and mining connections are intricate and extremely in need of explanation. Instead of represent- ing one client, and that slightly, as the Presi- dent was induced to say, his relations to such business were well-nigh numberless. He had almost a monopoly of Seattle law where political favors were essential. igs. “3. That Senator Heyburn, Commissioner Dennett, and other officials are deep in trouble along with Ballinger. This trouble is not merely moral. It looks very much as if some of them had crossed the line of legal danger. E “4. That there is good reason for Cabinet and Senators to urge President Taft to do all he can to smother evidence, one of the reasons being that Ballinger tried to stop Glavis’ investigations at one point in order to help Mr. Taft’s election. The claimants would not help contribute to Mr. Taft’s campaign fund unless the investigations were stopped. “This contribution is not all. Much is still kept back for reasons that are sufficient. This instalment will be enough to show how much the administration is undertaking when it makes itself responsible for Ballinger, and tries to hide behind either a thick coat of whitewash or a sweet-sounding annual re- port. Probably Mr. Taft will say, with Dryden: “‘Now let the bold conspirator beware.’ “Tt is only a few days since he issued an executive order, the result of which is that no member of the Interior Department can testify before Congress without the express approval of Mr. Ballinger. This joke be- comes the more diverting when it is known that the Secretary is performing quiet bits of legerdemain in his department, now, at the yery moment when he is filling the earth with virtuous noises.” vw Td ue SE KE YS Billions of Treasure In McClure’s for January appears an ar- ticle under the above title by Messrs. John E. Lathrop and George Kibbe Turner. This treasure is the enormous coal de- posit of Alaska, conservatively estimated to be worth at least one and one-half billion dollars. The story shows how the syndi- cates, politicians, and grabbers generally have for years been endeavoring, without authority of law, to obtain possession. In the spring of 1904, these coal hunters “went after Alaskan legislation” and got it. “From this time on the Cunningham group took the lead, naturally. They were millionaires, captains of industry, and men of large political influ- ence. They broke the way for the other groups, financially and politically. “The general business management of this syndicate was in the hands of its pro- moter, Clarence Cunningham. He kept a ledger, cashbook, and a careful and detailed journal of its accounts. In the journal, un- FORESTRY der date of September 19, 1903, this mem- orandum appears: ““Have agreed with Mr. W. B. Heyburn in consideration for his services as attorney to carry him for one claim of 160 acres in the coal, free of cost to him, and he agrees to do all our legal work in procuring titles, etc., free of expense to us.’” : Senator Heyburn’s fee, the writer esti- mates, “would have a value of one and one- half million dollars in commercial coal. * * * “In September, 1903, Mr. Heyburn was a United States Senator, having been elected by the Idaho legislature eight months be- fore.” In the spring of 1904 Mr. Heyburn se- cured the passage of the Alaska Coal Land Bill of April 28. “This broke the circle in which the law of 1900 had placed the Goy- ernment’s coal in that district, and allowed it to be taken over by persons who had sur- veyed it at their own expense.” Suddenly, the Government turned its at- tention to land frauds in the Northwest and “toward the end of 1904 John H. Mitchell, of Oregon, was indicted for being a party to these frauds while a Senator of the United States.” Senator Mitchell was sentenced to prison. On October 20, 1905, Senator Hey- burn wrote a letter to Cunningham declaring four different times in four different ways, “T do not desire to participate in, or be interested in any manner, directly or indi- rectly, in acquiring public lands.” “This letter was written two years and one month after the record in Clarence Cun- ningham’s journal of Mr. Heyburn’s employ- ment.” Later the Guggenheims appear as_ the leaders in Alaskan exploitation. Seattle, the headquarters for all things Alaskan, fur- nished the Land Office, Richard A. Ballinger becoming Land Commissioner, Fred Dennett, of the same city, being his assistant, and his nephew, “Jack” Ballinger, his confidential secretary. Then follows the story of Ballinger’s con- nection with Alaskan coal lands, and Glavis’s attempt to save these lands from the syndi- cate, the whole being full, detailed, and spe- cific. The Glavis letter, the Collier's story of De- cember 18, and the McClure’s story of Jan- uary, are matters which the coming investi- gating committee will be expected to prohe to the bottom. ww Mw Coming Out into the Open “The West will not consent to a policy of administration that would sell or rent water- powers for the benefit of the ‘whole people.’ Water-powers in New England are not so “conserved.” Then why in Oregon? * * * Just to satisfy a hazy demand in the East tor ‘conservation.’”—Portland Oregonia» on conservation. “The water runs down our mountains, and most of it flows idly to the sea without turn- NEWS AND NOTES 61 ing a wheel, but to prevent grabbers from acquiring vested rights the theorists insist that it must keep on flowing idly until it can be made to yield tribute. * * * These new policies have their roots in paternalism, their tendency is toward despotism, and if not checked they will choke to death our -boasted government of the people, by the people, and for the people.”—-Judge Hanford, at the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition, Seattle. “Your policies cripple industries and devel- opment, and thereby instead of conserving resources cause their waste and destruc- tion.”—Frank Short, of Fresno, Cal. “The fact that one authority is financially allied with the claimants to the Alaska coal lands, that another represents the largest pri- vate power and irrigation project in his state, and that the other is attorney for consolidated power companies, does not in the least re- flect on the sentiments expressed in the para- graphs printed (above). “Each authority practises exactly what it preaches—corporation acquisition of the big public resources.” Thus begins an article by Agnes C. Laut in Collier's for December 18, entitled “Water- Power in the East.” The article is a clear setting forth of the work being done in New York State to conserve the water- powers for the benefit of all the people rather than for the private profit of a few corporations. wou Waning Opposition In view of the perennial eruption of the mud volcano in Denver and the resolute, un- scrupulous, and now apparently confident ef- forts of those responsible for it to submerge Mr. Gifford Pinchot and the Forest Service, the following editorial from the Denver Re- publican is of interest: “The attitude of the live-stock growers of this state toward the policy of the Forestry Service has undergone so radical a change that it must be accepted as evidence of a similar change in public sentiment. “At one time the stock growers were largely arrayed against the Pinchot policy. They looked upon it as a violation of their rights and as detrimental to their interests. Their opposition gave occasion~for the expression of like opposition by men not connected with the live-stock industry. For a brief period the Forestry Service was extremely unpopu- lar in some quarters and with a certain ele- ment of the population, and politicians sought to take advantage of this antagonistic senti- ment to promote their political success. “That day has passed. The cattlemen have learned that instead of being detrimental, the forestry policy- is highly beneficial to their interests. None of their rights have been violated; and from being hostile to the Service, they have become friendly and are now extending both sympathy and aid. “The opportunity of the politicians who hoped to gain favor by denouncing Mr. Pinchot is gone. They have to face a public sentiment which every day is growing stronger in his favor. It is a vindication of his policy which will be to him a source of satisfaction, and there is no question that it will promote the peace, good order, and prosperity of the state.” YE YE Lining Up for Conservation Mr. J. Horace McFarland, president of the American Civic Association, addressed that body at Cincinnati with all his accustomed vigor and energy. Speaking of the Tawney amendment to the Sundry Civil Bill, he in- dignantly inquired: “Is that infamous section of the Sundry Civil Bill, whipped through in the last hours of the Fifty-ninth Congress, which dissolved all Mr. Roosevelt’s working commissions and swept away departmental support of the conservation movement, to be permitted to remain law? Its effect was to make intelli- gent interest in the future prosperity of America a crime on the part of any Goy- ernment official. This legislation in the in- terests of the looters of the public domain cannot remain effective if good citizens speak directly to their congressmen.” Mr. McFarland wisely urges the con- servationists to appeal vigorously to their congressmen to check the looters of the public domain. Nothing short of this can hope to save the situation. ww w Regulating Construction of Dams Mr. Mann, of Illinois, has introduced into the House of Representatives a bill (H. R. 13834) “to regulate the construction of dams across navigable and non-navigable waters, and for other purposes.” Following are some of its leading provisions: When authority has been granted to con- struct and maintain a dam for water-power or other purposes across navigable water. plans and specifications, drawings, and maps must first be submitted to the Secretary of War and Chief of Engineers for approval. In approving such plans the above officials may impose such conditions and stipulations as they may deem necessary to protect the pres- ent and future interests of the Untted States. The United States shall be entitled to free water-power and power generated from water-power for building and opera- ting locks or other structures for naviga- tion purposes. Compensation may be re- quired for permission to maintain dams and for the use of navigable water and for ob- struction to navigation, and Government may regulate and control charges. Failure to comply with the terms of the act works forfeiture. The bill contains other interesting pro- visions. On the whole, it appears to be a step in the right direction. 62 AMERICAN FORESTRY The Fight for the Public Domain In speaking of the vast value of our ex- isting public domain and the struggle now waged by private interests to seize it, the Boston Journal says: & “Nobody is to-day willing to venture a guess at the marketable value of the vast domain still owned by Uncle Sam. But the figures will be available in a comparatively short time, and they will be startling, run- ning, without question, far into the billions. Instead of the public domain being well- nigh exhausted; instead of there being little left save the frozen tundras of Alaska, the deserts of the Southwest, and the moun- tain rocks of the continental spine, it will be shown that there is still an arable area which will in time sustain millions, with mineral, forest, and metal reserves to main- tain a tremendous industrial system.” The Journal next points out the efforts made by President Roosevelt to save this domain for the people, and then continues: “During the last two years there have been withdrawals from entry of about 3,000,000 acres of oil and gas lands; these coming down to as recently as a fortnight ago. “All the withdrawals are made pending legislation. Whether they will be continued indefinitely, or indeed can be, in the event that legislation fails, is a question of de- cided interest and vast importance. The ad- vocates of conservation, fearing the answer to this question, are especially anxious that necessary amendments to the laws be se- cured this winter. The President and Secre- tary Ballinger will both state the necessities. in this regard, very forcibly in their annual communications to Congress. In Congress, just as the stake is shown to be immense, so will the opposition of private interests be intensified. These are highly organized. It is freely charged that they will have in Wash- ington this winter one of the most expensive and influential lobbies that has ever de- scended on the Capital, determined to pre- vent legislation which will interfere with great projects for the further transference of the public domain to private and corporate control. “In short, it is considered certain that the great struggle for the last of the public domain will see its real beginning at the coming session, and that the time will come, in the future, when it will be recalled as the most determined fight, for the greatest prize, ‘hat was ever controlled by action of the National Legislature.” ye ye yy “Let the Future Take Care of Itself" _The conservation policy to which the na- tional administration is committed is opposed by a class of men who are under the illu- sion that the protection of public interests in coal and forest lands and water-power involves a sentimental sacrifice of the present to the future. Senator Heyburn, of Idaho, represents this class. He wants powerful monopolies in his state, and does not hesitate to say that it is only through the rapid rise of monopolies that a new country can be developed so that the present generation can enjoy life. ; While admitting that this policy may entail a disadvantage to future generations, he thinks that they should be left to take care of themselves. ; This theory of Senator Heyburn,- which was acted upon by thousands of people be- fore anybody had the hardihood to frame it, . is not merely morally offensive—it is eco- nomically unsound. The actual effect of the establishment of monopolies is not the sacrifice of the future to the present; it is the sacrifice of the mass of the people to a class. A feverish activity is set up by the offer of huge privileges to those who can first lay hands on them. But a privilege is at bottom simply a taxing power lodged in private hands. The advantage to general civilization is wholly illusory. The gain of the privileged few is the loss of the multitude—Los Angeles (Cal.) Exam- mer. we owe Attacking the Forestry Policy A good example of the kind of attack that is being made upon Forester Pinchot and the forestry policy of the National Government is afforded by the following editorial that appears in a Denver newspaper that has been a leader in the campaign against this depart- ment of the Federal Government: PIKE’S PEAK FORESTRY “Upon the summit of Pike’s Peak the peer- less Pinchot has established a forest nursery: It is to be as nifty a nursery as Government money can furnish, and that is probably a good deal. Up there in the sky, where the chill wind blows, he will plant the little trees, all in neat little rows, and guard ’em as they stand on their cunning little toes, in the Pike’s Peak Pinchot Garden. Tell you what, it takes a head to think up a scheme like that. And we don’t want to hear any carping criticism about timber lines and things. The laws of the United States have never held the Glorious Gifford as yet, and shall the laws of nature say him nay? Perish the thought. Let no skeptic scoff at this most marvelous of attempts to reforest the Rockies. It is true that sev- eral thousand feet lower than the site of the Pinchot nursery a lodge pole pine takes 135 years to grow a six-inch stick. But that doesn’t matter at all. Mr. Pinchot is a dynamic geographer, or something of that sort, and he takes a broader view. The Pike’s Peak nursery may not be much as a forest—but think what an adorable success it is as an advertisement !” So much for sarcasm and innuendo. Now for the facts, which appear in a news item NEWS AND NOTES in the Colorado Springs Gazette of the same date: In order to determine just what trees are best suited to the reforestation of the Rocky Mountains, a Government forestry station has been established on the south slope of Pike’s Peak, on Government land near Min- nehaha Falls. Raphael Zon, chief of the division of silvics in the Government For- estry Service, passed through Colorado Springs yesterday on his way to Denver, after having arranged the station. He said that a species of lodge-pole pine has been brought from Wyoming, which, if it can be successfully raised here, will greatly increase the wealth of Colorado. From which it appears that instead of the new forestry station being located upon the summit and above timber line, it is in fact near Manitou and in the region of natural forest. Instead of being a wild and insane freak it is in fact a most valuable experi- mental station and one that will be of very great benefit to all the people of all parts of the state. The truth is that in spite of the misrepre- sentations of a few newspapers that have made a campaign against the national forest policy and against Forester Pinchot, based upon partisan prejudice and to some extent upon the selfish interests of those desirous of continuing the spoliation of the public lands, the people of Colorado generally ap- prove the forestry policy. To protect the water sources so that floods may be pre- vented and a constant supply may be assured, to secure reforestation of areas denuded by fire and reckless cutting, to prevent the waste and destruction of present timber resources and to ensure a supply for future years, are tecognized as worthy objects, and credit is given to the wise and far-seeing officials who have conceived the forestry policy and are carrying it into effect—Pueblo (Colo.) Chief- tain. we We Water-power Sites in the Grip of the Trust Investigating the connection between the Electrical Trust, particularly the General Electric and the Westinghouse companies, and the trust that controls water-power sites of the country, the Bureau of Corporations has discovered an interesting and important state of affairs in Colorado. The situation is made more interesting by the fact that Ormsby McHarg, who recently resigned as assistant secretary of Commerce and Labor, denied while in office that there was any water-power trust. The Bureau of Cor- porations is a subordinate of the Department of Commerce and Labor. The bureau has ‘found that within an area of 50.000 square miles in Colorado, the General Electric and Westinghouse people absolutely control all the power which turns the wheels in the smelters and other indus- tries, as well as that which lights cities 63 and town and runs street car sytems. use the words of the investigators: “The Central Colorado Power Company now claims as its market an area from Grand Junction on the west to fifty miles east of Denver and 100 miles north and south of this line, an area of 50,000 square miles, a commonwealth in itself. “In this area, this company, holding the best powers, with sufficient power already in process of development to supply the demand for years, and with its command of the market referred to, controls the territory for the present, but also for the future development as well, since there will be no possibility of equality of competition for fu- ture competitors either in meeting the cost of producing power or in obtaining equal marketing facilities.”"—Boston (Mass.) Trav- eler. we Me The National Rivers and Harbors Congress The National Rivers and Harbors Con- gress held its sixth convention in Washing- ton, D. C., on Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, December 8, 9, and to, in the New Willard Hotel. The occasion was in every way a notable one. The order of the ad- dresses was high, the meeting was enthusi- astic and determined. Following are extracts from a few of the more noteworthy utter- ances: Count J. H. von Bernstorff, German Am- bassador and Minister Plenipotentiary, said: “When one considers that the railways, in spite of the active inland navigation, have attained a favorable development, and that they are the most profitable in Prussia, where inland navigation is best developed, it is evident that a harmonious cooperation of waterways and railways is also profitable to the latter.” Hon. Joseph E. Ransdell, president of the National Rivers and Harbors Congress, said: “We must make the people who elect the congressmen and the state legislators under- stand that water transportation is much cheaper than rail for heavy, low-class, bulky articles. We must make them understand that a well improved system of canals and rivers with standard depths along our sea- board and interior would furnish admirable facilities for moving freight and prevent the congestion which caused such heavy losses three years ago and threatens to recur. We must teach them that most of the terminals on the water-courses are owned by one or more railroads and used for selfish interest with scant regard for the public welfare. “This situation will be changed as soon as the people demand it.” ; President William H. Taft said, in part: “You are going to encounter in Congress great opposition to the policy of issuing bonds right out of hand. You are much more likely to eet from Congress a declara- tion of policy in the shape of a declaration that a certain improvement ought to be car- To 64 AMERICAN FORESTRY ried out and spread upon the minutes of Con- gress in the form of a resolution or a dec- laration in a statute. What I advise you to do is to get that declaration. Then when the time comes that political exigency shall prevent the appropriation of sufficient money from the current revenues to put the proper part of the project through the coming year or the coming two years, as economy re- quires, the question of issuing bonds will arise. I would get the declaration first, and not have the bonds first, for the reason that you will encounter the objection by Congress that the issuing of bonds and the receipt of the money will develop a desire to be ex- travagant.” Mr. Herbert Knox Smith, Commissioner of Corporations, declared that “water term1- nals are an important factor in connection with river transportation. “If any one will travel considerably on our inland waterways,” he said, “he will perhaps understand why we do not hear of terminals. He will find that they are largely non- existent there in any modern commercial sense, and where they do exist they are usually controlled by some exclusive interest.” Senator Theodore Burton, chairman of the National Waterways Commission, said: “The _ time has come when the individual protect must be abandoned and a wise, compre- hensive policy of waterway improvement substituted. Selfishness must be eliminated from the demands on Congress for appro- priations, so that the entire country can benefit from a comprehensive development of waterways which would benefit individuals as well as the Nation.” Senator Burton said that he favored the issuance of bonds if there were not sufficient funds to complete a comprehensive policy adopted by Congress. President Taft, in receiving the Ohio dele- gation, expressed his regret that his remarks before the Rivers and Harbors Congress had cast a wet blanket over the convention, and said that he only intended to help the gather- ing along by pointing out the practical method of accomplishing the object desired. RECENT PUBLICATIONS “Fourteenth Annual Report of the Forestry Commissioner of Minnesota, for the Year 1908” This report, by General Andrews, is an especially interesting one. It contains a reprint of his special report, issued in De- cember, 1908, on the forest fires of that year, which were exceptionally severe and caused a total loss of over $2,000,000. It also con- tains a summary of new forest legislation enacted by the last legislature, which is a decided step in advance and will undoubtedly be of great value to the state. The new law provides for additional fire warden and ranger service with increased pay, and makes an emergency appropriation, not to exceed $14,000 a year, for fire fighting. Additional precautions are taken to prevent the starting of fires from camp fires, and the minimum penalty for the violation of the forest fire law is made $50. Every one cutting wood or trees for commercial purposes is com- pelled to burn the slashings as soon as prac- ticable. The legislature also passed a tax of one-fifteenth of one mill on each dollar of taxable property to form a permanent fund to enable the state to purchase forest lands at a cost of not over $3 per acre, and to maintain forests on these. This amend- ment will be voted upon by the people at the next general election in 1910. In addition to the regular report of the forestry commissioner, the publication con- tains a very suggestive article dealing mainly with nursery and planting work, by Mr. Knechtel, inspector of forest reserves for the Dominion of Canada. The usual sketches of forestry in European countries are also included, and many of these have ~been wholly revised or contain additional infor- mation. SiaieeDs we oye ou ee to Shippers, Oelrichs & Co., New York ity.” This seventy-two page booklet is not of special interest to foresters, but contains much information of value to all engaged in the export and import trade. The table of foreign moneys with United States equiva-~ lents, together with weights, measures, tar- iffs, customs requirements, and similar in- formation, will undoubtedly be of value to all who have occasion to refer to such mat- ters. The book will be sent postpaid on re- quest to the publishers. Sosa) AMERICAN FORESTRY’S ADVERTISERS | SCs @ LOL si 7O P< OR Ek Sci RY. | In the heart of the Reserve Region Colorado School of Forestry | Four years’ course in Theoretical and Applied Forestry leading to Degree of Forest Engineer Winter Term at Colorado College, Colorado Springs. Summer Term at Manitou Park, the School Re- serve, 13,000 acres of pine and spruce timberland on the borders of the Pike National Forest Tuition Sixty Dollars a Year For further particulars apply to Professor WALTER J, MORRILL Colorado Springs, Colo, ERIC FOREST SCHOOL POWDER POINT, DUXBURY, MASS. Preparatory Course in Leading te Biltmore aa College pees in the Subject. . B. Knapp, 8. B. (M. I. T.), Director Mbhited with POWDER POINT SCHOOL. H. P. Moulton, Jr., Principal ! | | | Biltmore Forest School Biltmore, N. C. Theoretical and practical instruc- tion in all branches of applied for- estry. The course comprises eighteen months; viz: twelve consecutive months of lectures and field work and six months of practical prenticeship. Working fields in the Southern Appalachians, in the Lake States and in central Germany. Catalogue upon application. Dr. C. A. SCHENCK, Director Harvard University THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY Offers a two-years’ graduate course leading to the degree of Master of Forestry. The course includes upward of six months’ field instruction and practical experience in the annual operations on the Harvard Forest, Petersham, Mass. For further particulars address RICHARD T. FISHER, Chairman Cambridge, Mass. In writing to advertisers kindly mention AMERICAN FORESTRY of HENRY SOLON GRAVES Forester ee | ARIE BAN FORES ill Vol. XVI No. 2 PEBRUARY, 19010 THE APPALACHIAN FORESTS By HON. CURTIS GUILD, JR. The President's Address at the Twenty-ninth Annual Meeting of the American Forestry Association N VIEW of the pending Congres- | sional investigation in regard to the conservation of national resources, comment, eulogy or censure of the past would be not only in bad taste, but useless. It is extremely gratifying to note that all the officials connected with forestry in the National administration, in spite of all differences, agree on the urgent need of the immediate passage by Congress of remedial legislation in the cause of forestry and of conserva- tion. We are extremely fortunate in hav- ing at the head of forestry work in the United States a gentleman who is not merely earnest, energetic, and unselfish, but an acknowledged expert of interna- tional reputation on the subject of for- estry. We cannot go far wrong in our course, while the chief forester is Prof. H. S. Graves, once of Yale, but now of the United States. The advisability of protection for our forests is so universally accepted as to need no defense. I shall, therefore, de- vote myself to one specific act that 1s needed now, an act advocated on the broadest grounds of general good and openly opposed only on grounds of a most peculiar character as far as super- ficial developments have made them manifest. We have every reason for gratitude to President Taft for his support of our appeal for Appalachian forest re- serves. This association urges the acquisition of Appalachian forest re- serves not merely as a measure of cruelly needed help for water supply and the public health, but as a matter of com- mon justice. Whether the money spent to pre- serve the forests on the water-sheds of the Appalachians comes as an appro- priation from the National Treasury or from the revenues of the existing for- est reserves in the western states, the East and South have a right to ask the same attention to their development at the hands of the National Government as has been already given to the West and with universal approval. The opponents of the creation of Appalachian forest reserves at the hands of the General Government have given three specific reasons for their attitude. They claim: 1. Forest reserves do not promote regular stream-flow. Their creation, therefore, would be a useless expense. The only authority for this mis- taken statement is the opinion of an officer of the United States Army whose profession identifies him with military rather than with civil engineering. He 67 HON. CURTIS GUILD, JR. President American Forestry Association Ene PADACHIAN FORESTS 69 has been completely confuted by Prof. George F. Swain, the expert formerly of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, now of Harvard University. The hostile opinion of the military en- gineering officer is in direct opposition to that of the entire force engaged un- der the Forester of the United States. It is in direct opposition to the experi- ence of China, of France, and of Spain, where the denudation of forest-clad hills has led to a succession of freshets and droughts on what were once fertile slopes and, except where reforestation has taken place, has reduced the agri- cultural population that once tilled those soils by sweeping away the very soil itself. Mr. James S. Whipple, forest com- missioner of New York, very truly said in his address at Bretton Woods, N. H., last ssummier, of “the forest ‘as? a -na- tional reservoir: “Without forests we can have but little water. A study of this natural reservoir proves the im- portance and imperative necessity of Preserving Our. forests...“ Let us: ex- anime its. Uhe* trees are part of 1b; the leaves on the trees are part of it; the twigs, old logs, limbs, and fallen leavesicare a paru Of it. All “of ‘these catch, delay, and hold back the rain- drops as they fall. If you will observe the conditions of the forest floor you will notice that between the trees there are little basins in the ground, caused by the roots of the trees holding up the soil. These basins catch and hold the rain. Then underneath it all, formed from decaying leaves, twigs, limbs, and logs for a thousand years, is a black mold called humus. This humus has greater power to take up and hold moisture than any other know vegetable or animal matter. Then the leaves, limbs, trees, the dead and decaying debris upon the ground, the little hol- lows or basins between the trees, and this humus are all parts of this perfect reservoir, built on nature’s plan, detain- ing, holding, and keeping back the water, allowing it to soak into the ground to feed the little springs, thence the creeks, and keep the water flowing slowly from the hills all the year round. “On the other hand, when the forest is cut away, the basins are broken down, all obstructions to the flow of water are removed, the humus is destroyed, and nature’s reservoir is Swept away, allow- ing the water to run quickly into the larger streams, causing destructive floods. Many times great damage and sometimes unhealthful conditions fol- low. When the storm is over, the flood subsides, the water is soon gone, and dry creek-beds appear. “Last August the upper Hudson had no more than two inches of water where once it flowed deep and strong the year round. The water last August in Lakes George and Champlain was a foot and a half lower than ever before. “More than 300 years ago France, in an evil day, permitted that which we are now permitting, to wit: the cutting off of all its trees, which left its hillsides and mountain tops uncovered. The agricultural lands were much injured ; the water supply much reduced. It had no forest, the hillsides were eroded, the soil was washed away. Then a splen- did man, realizing the enormity of the evil that had come to his country, started out on a campaign of education over France, urging the people to plant trees. Since then the French people have expended more than two hundred million dollars in trying to reforest their waste land, and they have more work yet to do.” The opponents of Appalachian forest reserves present as their second objec- tion: 2. The acquisition of forest reserves by the National Government is uncon- stitutional, Why? The Constitution in terms was or- dained and established to “‘promote the general welfare.” If the establishment of a permanent source of timber sup- ply, the preservation of water and of water-power, the drainage of cities, and the preservation of the public health, all of which are provided by the acqui- sition of forest reserves, do not make for the promotion of the general wel- fare, what in heaven’s name does make for it? “vere UT HY 2 featbaees Be Brea a Larch Timber on the Edge of a Clearing Plenty of constitutional authority was found for the Louisiana purchase and for the Gadsden purchase. | Nobody questions the constitutional right of the United States to buy land for fortifica- tions, for custom houses, post- offices, or for navy yards. Nobody questions the constitutional- ity of national enterprises, even of a national loan of millions of dollars for the promction of inland waterways for the middle national irri- the fa: West. for West, or for antarnrica ae 1IOTL ECnlterpEses 101 Nobody questions the constitutional- ity of spending the national revenues for the maintenance of forest reserves in the West, in the benefit of which the East does not participate. If it is con- stitutional to maintain forest reserves for the Pacific slope, it is hard to see by what process of reasoning it becomes unconstitutional to acquire forest re- serves for the Atlantic slope. Finally, driven from these two un- tenable positions, the opponents of Ap- palachian forest reserves have at last taken up a third argument: NN ee ae fein I Sr eta First Connecticut Lake. New Hampshire, Effect of Constant Flooding for Storage The Pine Forest New Hampshire Mad River, Heavy Spruce Timber, “wre.<« “&F ns = eee” ad rE AP PAI ANCEMIAN FORESTS 7g 3. The separate states in which for- est reserves are proposed should pay for them out of their respective state treas- uries. The answer to this statement is that, with the exception of New York, and one of two others, the states separately cannot afford it. One of the most needed of these re- serves is in the state of New Hamp- shire, about the headwaters of many of the great rivers of New England, al- ready shrunken in volume, already dam- aged as a result of the neglect by a Na- tional Government that has been lavish in its expenditures to save woods and water-power and water supply for the states beyond the Mississippi. The lt- tle state of New Hampshire cannot af- ford, with her small population and rocky soil, to buy and manage such a reserve. The Nation, however, out of taxes, to which New Hampshire contributes, has maintained National Forest Re- serves of 25,605,700 acres for the rich state of California alone, and last year added 2,364,483 acres to the National Forest Reserves located in that state. If it be said that these forests are part of the National domain, it may be an- swered: Was it not the whole Nation that paid for the National domain? California and her citizens receive the direct benefit of these forests. New England does not. It was not Cali- fornia alone that paid the bills of the war with Mexico. The support in Cali- fornia, led by one of her governors, of Appalachian reserves shows that Californians themselves appreciate that such a course is not merely generous, but just. : There are altogether 194,505,325 acres of National Forest Reserve. They are cared for by fifteen hundred National Forest officers. The total National ap- propriation for last year was $3,908,- 249.32. These forests yield a revenue, and though these reserves were pro- vided at the cost of all the states, the distribution to the states, one-quarter of all the gross revenues of the National Forest Reserve, goes only to the states in which these existing forest reserves are located. The amount handed over by the National Government to such state treasuries last year was $444,379. The states and territories in which there are now National Forest Reserves are Arizona, Arkansas, California, Col- orado, Florida, Idaho, Kansas, Michi- gan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. Not one state of the old thirteen that fought the Revolution is benefited di- rectly by these reserves—not one state that helped to pay for the Louisiana Purchase is directly benefited by these reserves—not one state that fought the war of 1812 is benefited directly by these reserves—not one state taxed to pay the bill for the cession of Florida by Spain is benefited directly by these reserves. Yet none of these states, now neg- lected sins this “respect by Congress. grudges the present expenditure or re- grets the treasure of blood as well as money so freely given in the past. Nor would this comparison now be made were it not for the claim that the separate states, not the Nation, should now pay for new reserves. No existing National Forest Reserve has been acquired and paid for, none is even now exclusively maintained, by the people of any state or states directly benefited by it. The forest reserves in Wyoming and Oregon are in the very strip of land granted by the King of England to the colonists of Massachusetts Bay. The claim of England to them was drowned in the blood of Lexington and Bunker Hill and the states themselves exist to- day as Wyoming and Oregon in part because Massachusetts relinquished her claim to these lands and give them to the Nation. Washington is American and_ not Canadian because a Massachusetts sea captain beat Vancouver on a voyage of discovery and named the Columbia River after his ship. Idaho and Ore- gon, Montana, Wyoming, the Dakotas and Oklahoma and the National domain and forest reserves therein were not 74 AMERICAN paid for out of local treasuries at the time of the Louisiana Purchase, but out of the National Treasury, which the states of the Atlantic seaboard exclu- sively had helped to fill. New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and California came into the Nation as the price of the blood shed during the war with Mexico almost entirely by sol- diers drawn from the South and East. The money taken from the National Treasury to pay the bills of that war had been put there by the very states which certain sectionalists now sav should be deprived of any attention on the part of the National Government. It is true that the extensive forest reserves in the West were taken out of the National domain, but who paid for the national domain, and reserved these lands for the local benefit of the new states? Was it not the very states who then composed the Union, the very states whom the new sectionalism would now cut off from receiving a small part of benefits such as they have been given. The West is asking wisely and rightly for National expenditure for irrigation which directly benefits not a single eastern state. Not one eastern news- paper has been so mean or so narrow as to suggest that the individual states that directly benefit by it should pay the bill. The states of this Union are sup- posed to be united, and the Atlantic slope gladly sees its burden increased by the diversion of one source of Na- tional revenue to the removal of the deserts in any part of our common country. Is this a time for the West to refuse the East when the East, in her turn, asks National help that stream-flow and water supplies shall be preserved for the East through National Forest Re- serves, as they are being created for the West by National expenditure for irri- gation? This is one country. The South to- day strikes hands with the North on this question of forest reserves and agrees to the square deal. The West has already received from National ex- penditure forest reserves. It is seek- ing more expenditure out of the Na- FORESTRY tional Treasury for permanent water supply for its arid plains. It is unbe- lievable that any great body of men or newspapers in the West will perma- nently deny to the South and North equality of consideration and treatment. All parts of the United States equally deserve National attention. As the pro- tection of our coasts demands a Pa- cific, a Gulf, and an Atlantic fleet, so the conservation of our National re- sources, if it is to be promoted in Col- orado, California, and Alaska, should be promoted also in the Carolinas, in Virginia, in New Hampshire, and in Massachusetts. Whatever develops any part of our country is for the benefit of every American. The states that are asking for Appalachian Forest Reserves are merely asking for themselves what they have already gladly helped to give others. For the first trme in our his- tory the governors of South Carolina and of Massachusetts have stood side by side before the committees of Con- gress in this appeal for simple justice and common equity. If the maintenance of National Forest Reserves is a wise National policy, that policy should be indeed National and no longer sectional in its scope. The first American army assembled under the pine-tree flag at Cambridge. The first American navy flew the pine-tree flag of New England. To-day the men from under the pine and palmetto stand together as they stood in those earlier days when the southern riflemen tol- lowed Morgan to the seige of Boston, as they stood when northern infantry followed the Rhode Island blacksmith to fight in Georgia and the Carolinas. beside Marion and his men, against a common foreign enemy. We turn to our brothers beneath the shade of the button-wood, the willow, and the redwood and in memory of the flag under whose folds Americans first joined in uprising for a common coun- try, we ask protection for the tree that was the first emblem of our liberty— we ask justice ; not favoritism, but even- handed justice alike to the land of the palmetto and the pine. FOREST PROBLEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES By BARRINGTON MOORE, M.F,, United States Forest Service I—INTRODUCTION serving our natural resources, too little attention has been paid to those of our most important possession, the Philippine Islands. inethe shone space of this, article, an attempt will be made to give some idea of the forest conditions, the problems which confront the forestry bureau of the islands, and what has been done and is being done to solve these prob- lems. ie THE present movement for con- ANSE, TOMI TS\Ie Up till very recently the conception of the Philippine forests held not only popularly, but by the better-informed people of the islands, was an altogether erroneous one. The belief was that they were made up almost entirely of a large number of different species of trees, most of which would yield a beautiful, hard, heavy wood, of great value in furniture making or cabinet work. This idea probably came from the fact that under Spanish occupation such woods were naturally enough the first, and practically only, ones to be used, and that wood dealers attempted to make the public believe that such woods were the regular product of the Philippine forests. This misconception has done considerable harm to the rep- utation of these forests, in that when people begin to find out that such valu- able woods are really rather scarce, they think that the wealth of the forests has been greatly overrated and that they are not really worth anything at all. The fact is that the forests are mostly made up of soft woods of the Diptero- carp family, the proportion being seventy-five per cent Dipterocarp to only twenty-five per cent hardwoods. Although not as valuable as hardwoods, these Dipterocarp are far easier to utilize and a good deal more useful on the whole. Though generally known as softwoods, they vary a great deal in hardness, from Giujo (Shorea Guiso), which is somewhat harder than our Elms, to the Lavans, which are about as soft as our Tulip or Yellow Poplar (Liriodendron Tulipfera). On account of their abundance and the ease with which they can be worked, both in logging and sawing, they are destined to form the bulk of the lumber supply of the Philippines for ordinary con- struction purposes. They will be to the Philippines what the Conifers are to the United States. Not only should they form the bulk of the lumber of the Philippines, but under proper man- agement and utilization, they should be able to supply the lumber markets of most of the far East. For an idea of these forests, a brief description of the one on Northern Negros, in which the Insular Lumber Company have a concession, will be given. This forest is fairly typical of the Dipterocarp forests of the islands. though perhaps the moisture conditions are a little more favorable, on account of the absence of a distinct dry season such as is found in other parts of the islands, and the stand per acre some- what heavier than the general run. Of the trees of over twelve inches in diam- eter at breast height, ninety per cent are Dipterocarps of six species. The two commonest and most important, form- ing the bulk of the forest on the flats and lower slopes, are Red Lavan (Shorea species, will probably be called Everetti) and Almon Lavan (Shorea 75 76 AMERICAN FORESTRY species, possibly Furace). Also of ereat importance are Apitong (Diptero- carpus Grandiflorus) and Tanguile (Shorea Polysperma), the former be- ing found in groups on almost all situ- ations up to about 2,500 feet, the latter as scattered individuals above 700 feet elevation. In addition to these, there is Bagtican Lavan (Parashorea Plicata) and White Lavan (Pentacma Contorta, also called Shorea Contorta), neither of which oc- curs in large enough quantities to be of much importance. These trees all grow to large sizes, with great, spreading buttresses, but clean and cylindrical stems for great heights above the but- tresses. Thus they have an excellent form for sawing, and yield lumber which is especially characterized by the practical absence of knots. They would average approximately thirty- three inches in diameter above the but- tresses by 100 feet or more in clear length, trees of five feet in diameter above the buttresses and 120 feet clear being not uncommon. The average volume per acre, from an estimate made by the Bureau of Forestry, is 50,000 board-feet, of which, unfortunately, about thirty-five to forty per cent is unsound on account of the large num- ber of over-mature trees. The most striking feature of the for- est, from a silvicultural point of view, is its uneven-aged character, with the trees of different ages so evenly dis- tributed that all ages would be repre- sented on a sixteenth of an acre, in- stead of tending to form groups, as in most uneven-aged forests, except those in text-books. The canopy formed is complete. The undergrowth is chiefly creeping bamboo, Bejuco (the rattan of com- merce, and extremely useful in a hun- dred different ways); an Oncasperma species (a cane with spines), Pinanda (a small palm), Palma Brava (Liv- ingstonia Whipcordii, reaching a height of sixty to seventy feet), and a num- ber of other palms and canes. Al though fairly thick in places, it is no- where as dense as the tropical. under- growth of the popular imagination. It can easily be penetrated anywhere with little or no cutting. The forest floor is almost free from weeds and is covered with a very thin leaf litter. There is no mat of partly decomposed leaves as in a temperate forest, and no layer of humus. The soil (a clay, with about twenty to twenty-five per cent sand), is fresh to moist, and is thoroughly mixed with a large proportion of humus, which keeps it in excellent physical condition. All this is due to the extremely rapid forces of decay, on account of the abundant heat and moisture. Thus we have a combination of factors which make as perfect conditions of growth as can be found anywhere in the world. It is believed by the chief of the Branch of Investigation that trees reach three feet in diameter within less than 100 years in this forest. The principal types are briefly as fol- lows: On the flats and lower slopes we find chiefly Red Lavan and Almon, mixed with Apitong, this last occurring somewhat in groups on account of its more light-demanding nature. From about 800 to 2,500 feet elevation, Tan- guile comes in and, though scattering, is so common that it forms the key-tree of the type. Red Lavan, Almon, and Apitong are also abundant. On this type, at about 1,800 feet, we begin to get a layer of humus about an inch and a half thick, just as in temperate for- ests... The -trees. here become sshorter boled. Above 2,500 feet to about 3,000 feet. we find a number of smaller, short- boled, crooked trees, chiefly of the fam- ily of Ericacee, of no commercial im- portance. Among them occurs the tree fern, a picturesque survivor of a family videly distributed in a former geolog- ical period. Here we find a thick layer of moss covering the forest floor. Above 3,400 feet to the top of the mountains at about 5,200 feet, prac- tically the only tree is the Cypress (Dacrydium species, belonging to the Taxacee).. This is so crooked and gnarled and so thickly covered, even to the ends of the branches, with moss in which bushes and even its own seed- A Typical Large Almon on the Flat Type, Showing Large Buttresses Insular Lumber Co, Concession, Northern Negros (see page 75) A Good Stand of Dipterocarps (Mostly Almon and Red Lavan) from Which the Undergrowth Has Mostly Been Cleared Out. Note Man in Lower Middle of Picture Insular Lumber Co, Concession, Northern Negros (see page 76) 78 AMERICAN lings are growing, that it is hardly FEC ognizable as a tree. There is no soil except in an occasional hollow, but the thick layer of moss which covers every- thing acts as an ideal retainer of water. These last two types, on account ot their mossy character, form the most perfect protective forest imaginable. _ Thus the main characteristics ot these forests are the abundance of large timber trees, the remarkably favorable conditions of growth, and their great value for protection on the hrvher slopes. III—THE PROBLEMS The first problem to strike the outside observer is the lack of knowledge as to what there actually is in the forests. Under Spanish rule there had been ao proper study made of the flora of the islands or of the different woods. When the islands were acquired all this vast work, which means far more in a trop- ical country, on account of the greater luxuriance of vegetation, than people living in a temperate country can realize, remained to be done. Not only is little known about the species and woods, but even the actual location and extent of the commercial timber of the islands is still to a certain degree a matter of conjecture, The most difficult problem, however, is the Land Question, involving, as it does, the relation of the forests to the population and the settlement of the land. Some idea of the importance of the role played by the Bureau of For- estry in the solution of the Land Ques- tion may be obtained when it is con- sidered that the Homestead Law re- quires that any piece of land, before being entered, must be certified to by the Bureau of Forestry as being more valuable for agricultural than for for- estry purposes, and that there was a movement on foot last year to place the Bureau of Lands under the Bureau of Forestry. The first phase of the problem, sup- plying the needs of the people for fire- wood and building material, is compar- atively simple. FORESERY The second phase, the settlement of the land, is difficult in the extreme, in- volving the treatment of Caingins, Cogans, and Homesteads. Caingins are a system of shifting cultivation prac- tised in forest lands, which is destructive and wasteful in the extreme. To make a Caingin, the Filipino moves into a hody of fine virgin timber and begins by cutting all the undergrowth. As soon as the undergrowth has lain on the ground long enough to dry out he fells all the trees. Then he sets fire to the area. This burns the wunder- growth, but merely chars the stems of the larger trees. “ The resuliis thatetme ground is covered with a network of huge fallen trunks. In such spaces as he finds between these trunks, the Fili- pino plants a haphazard crop of gabi (a kind of edible root), corn, or to- bacco. He makes no pretense of plow ing, or even scratching the ground, but merely pokes a hole with a stick and puts in the seeds. Neither does he attempt to keep out the weeds. ‘The result is that within a couple of years the area is so overgrown that it has to be abandoned. He then moves on and destroys another valuable piece of forest. At Port Banga, on the Island of Mindanao, it is estimated that from $75,000 to $100,000 worth of timber was destroyed by Caingins in a single year. The abandoned Caingin, if fire is kept out, will be covered with a growth of small, inferior tree species. under which, in the course of time, more valuable species will seed in if there are any seed trees in the neigh- borhood. If fire gets in, it gives the grass a chance against the trees, and. as successive fires occur, the grass be- comes more and more firmly estab- lished until we get the regular Cogan. or waste grass land. It has been esti- mated that this Cogan, which is at present absolutely useless, forms thirty per cent of the total area of the islands. One would naturally ask: Why does not the Filipino cultivate this Cogan instead of making a Caingin? The rea- son is two-fold: In the first place, be: cause the grass is rather hard to eradi- cate without cattle, and cattle are rather The Tall Palm Reach- ing to the Top of Forest at 7OO Feet Elevation, Showing Character of Forest Floor and Under, growth the Picture in the Background is the Palma Brava (Liv- ingstonia Whip - cordii), Northern Negros (see page 76) A New Caingin With a Crop of Gabi in Between the Felled Tree Trunks. Northern Negros (see page 78) 80 AMERICAN FORESTRY scarce since the rinderpest swept the islands a few years ago. On account of his aversion to the harder kinds of manual labor, he prefers making a Caingin in the forest to cultivating the Cogan by hand, because making the Caingin is somewhat easier. In the second place, all the Cogan land, though uncultivated, is claimed by some Cacique (prominent Filipino villager ) or other. So that, even if a man should have the energy to till it, the Cacique would come along and seize the crop, though he has no valid rights to the land and cannot cultivate it himself. The injured man is, 9f course, too poor to take the matter into court. There is a law against making Cain- gins, but so far the Bureau of For- estry has not only not been supported by the government in its attempts to enforce the law, but has actually been prevented from doing so. In a certain case on the Island of Negros, the for- ester in charge had discovered a large number of Caingins and had secured all the evidence necessary to convict the Caciques who were back of the Caingin makers. He was about to press the case and secure conviction, when orders came from headquarters to drop the matter entirely. As regards the clearing up of all the invalid claims of the Caciques to the Cogan land, the government has done absolutely nothing. Another phase of this difficult land problem is the making of a proper sur- vey of the islands. This would greatly facilitate the solution of the whole matter. It will be necessary, then, to regulate the taking up of homesteads. So far, homesteads have been for the most part nothing but mere Caingins. We next come to the problem of utilizing the forests. The difficulties of cutting in such a way as to get a second crop can be realized when it is remembered that absolutely nothing is known of the silvicultural requirements of the species to be dealt with. Un- der the circumstances, it would be ad- visable for the future welfare of the forests, to go slowly until more is known about how they should be treated. Unfortunately, this is impos- sible, because the bureau is under the necessity of producing revenue so as to justify 1ts existence: = -blence mitmrinse try to give as many concessions for working the forests as it possibly can. And, to make matters worse, these con- cessions must be given on ruinously fa- vorable terms: at extremely low stump- age rates (unfortunately fixed in the forest act), and for long periods of years (twenty at least). Otherwise, nobody will embark on such a new and untried venture. At present, all the forests of the isl- ands belong to the government, much as the public domain in the west of the United States. Without boundaries, this makes entirely too indefinite and unwieldly an area to properly manage and protect. The problem, then, is how to create reserves so as to concentrate the work. The preliminary steps in the solution of this problem involve the enormous task of mapping the whole islands, so as to show the amount and location of bodies of commercial tim- ber, the second-growth forest, the Cogan (grass land), and agricultural lands. Then a popular campaign will have to be carried on to obtain the sup- port of the commission and of the peo- ple. When all this has been accom- plished, the actual fixing of the bound- aries of the reserves will give rise to the much disputed question of agricul- tural versus forest lands. Because there are some fine forests on land which is really fit for agriculture, but which, with the present development of the islands, will not be needed for settle- ment for a number of years to come. The next problem will be to recruit and train an efficient force of rangers and guards to care for the forests. This will be a rather difficult matter, because of the dislike which the ordinary native has for that kind of work. Forest work is too hard for him. When he has ac- quired the amount of training required of a ranger, he thinks he is fitted for some easier position. Lastly, the forest act itself will have to be amended. At present it places the A Caingin Atter Being Used Three or Four Years; So Grown Up With Weeds as to Be Abandoned Northern Negros (see page 78), woods into four groups, according to the antiquated Spanish classification, and fives the price for each group without regard to market or lumbering condi- Mensa hhistS bad. not only in itseld, but sows the seeds of future trouble, because these groups and prices are things which must be continually changed, and in doing so the whole act must be changed. This makes the whole forest policy of the islands un- Btaplesa Mnesact should fix: the prin- ciples and leave the details to the Bu- reau of Forestry. To summarize, the problems are as follows: t. The description and classification of all the species found in the islands is estimated to be about 3,000 in all. This is work requiring a systematic botanist of the highest ability. 2. The investigation of the properties and uses of a large number of woods, until now practically unknown. 3. Silvicultural studies of the more important trees. 4. Solution of the relation of the for- ests to the population and the settlement 6f lands. This involves: (a) Supply- ing the needs of the local population for firewood and building material; (b) the prevention of Caingins (an extremely wasteful and destructive system of shifting cultivation practised in the forest); (c) the treatment of Cogan (unproductive grass land resulting from the Caingins) and the settling of the invalid claims of the Caciques (promi- nent Filipino villagers) to this Cogan land; (d) getting a proper survey of the whole islands; (e) the proper regu- lation of homesteads. 5. The question ef opening up the forests in such a way as to injure them as little as possible. This must be done immediately in spite of the present lack of silvicultural knowledge. 6. The establishment of forest re- serves, so as to concentrate the work of management and protection. Fixing the boundaries of these will bring up the disputed point of agricultural versus forest land. 7. The development of an efficient force for managing the forests. 8. The amendment of the forest act, so as to lay down the principles and leave the details to the Bureau of For- estry. 3 (To be continucd ) 81 FORESTRY BEGINNINGS IN VERMONT By AUSTIN F. HAWES, State Forester of any state, the first thing to con- sider is, of course, the prevention of fires, My first consideration in starting here was therefore to determine just how serious the fire question is in the state and what measures seem wise to adopt. This study has convinced me that Vermont is one of the most fortu- nate states of the northeast in regard to L OUTLINING the forestry policy forest fires. The topography and character of the forests are chiefly accountable for this situation, for there a are ai. the - states Toy am- mense, uninterrupted forest areas cor- responding to those of Northern Maine or the Adirondacks. Agricultural lands and rivers divide the forests into blocks. While spruce is the chief timber of the state, it usually occurs mixed with hard- woods and these forests are less suscept- ible to fire than pure soft woods. Only in the Champlain and Connecticut val- leys are there any dry sand plains, and these are neither extensive or within reach of a dense population as are those of Eastern Massachusetts and Southern New Jersey, where fires are so regu- lar. Railroads are responsible for a small proportion of our fires, for, with the exception of the few cuts through the Green Mountains, they extend through agricultural river bottoms. In years of ordinary rainfall the state is almost exempt from fires, but during the exceptionally dry seasons, spring of 1903 and the fall of 1908, when all of New England and New York were shrouded in smoke, Vermont suffered its share of damage from fire. These fires were almost wholly in the larger forest blocks of the Green Mountains and were due rather to carelessness of choppers, hunters, and brush burners | than to railroads, which seem to have been the chief cause in New York and Maine. The legislature of 1904 provided that the first selectman of each town act as fire warden, and in the eight unorgan- ized towns that wardens be appointed by the Forest Commissioner. This off- cial has now been superseded by the State Forester. Although it is one of the -maxims sof} (the. torestry movement that combining the work of fire warden and selectman is poor pol- icy, I believe that the exemption of three-quarters of the towns from these fires makes it inadvisable to try to change the law, especially when the deli- cacy of detracting from the prerogative of the selectman is taken into consider- ation. The apparent special danger of certain sections, however, suggests additional legislation which shall give the State Forester authority to appoint district wardens in certain towns who shall nominally be under the selectmen, but practically be responsible to the State Forester. Opinions as to the value of the watch towers built in Maine have thus far been so varied that none have yet been consructed in Vermont. As there 1s comparatively little danger except in times of serious droughts, their value for Vermont seems problematical, as the air is then so full of smoke as to render them useless. Instead of sharing the expense of fighting all fires with the towns, the state pays the balance when the cost exceeds five per cent of the grand list of the town. In this way the poor, un- inhabited towns receive the greatest help. During the bad fire season of 1908 the state came to the assistance in this way of twenty towns, paying in all about $6,000. The greatest amount 82 ‘YA ‘Y90}SpOOM 93e}SA SSUN]IG 24) UO PIO s4er_ OMI-AZsIYT 2oNIdDS AeMION] JO UOHezUeT Spruce Roots Laid Bare by a Ground Fire Which Destroyed the Duff paid by the state to any one town was $1,459, against a total cost for fighting fire in the town of $1,608. While the state paid about ninety per cent of the cost to this mountain town, the total paid to these twenty towns was sixty-six per cent of the whole cost; other while, of towns which had but ing necessary in regard e, to en- have 1 of the state attorneys r each county +, +the eC Bae ee rene pas tae 1 ite’s SEY 5 a ee ey eee = ae 444 + = = rec ie in the oedilty a ae fae ae gh D SF a HMe OF SIO ot $25 in a That state forestry work must for some time be largely educational is un- doubtedly the reason that it appeals to such a limited group of foresters. In- terest in the subject in Vermont had been so thoroughly aroused under the leadership of Professor Jones and the State Forestry Association that the field is much more encouraging than in a state like Connecticut, where interest is primarily in city affairs. As evidence of this greater interest, which is un- doubtedly due partially to the general progress which forestry has made dur- ing five years, may be mentioned the fact that during my first six months in Connecticut not a single invitation for an address on forestry was received: while during a similar period in Ver- mont I have given eighteen addresses before farmers’ granges, women’s clubs, teachers’ associations, librarians’ con- ventions, church societies, etc. . ,24 +493 ve RL ER ate a | te Ok tae o0if Mein iy A he 4 rays ew noin Vermont ) Haskets in Which Forest Seedlinga Were Imported from Germany for Diaterbuti UO A jo sureyunopy Pe]o-}sa407 2] 9eF aun UuUy 24) jo 2U0 ‘urejyuNo| xournby FORESTRY BEGINNINGS IN VERMONT 87 Five years’ experience in propaganda work has convinced me that the only way to get any real results from this educational work is to advocate some specific line of work. Planting is the one phase of forestry which interests the average lay mind. While it is the least important branch in the East and the least interesting to the forester, it does furnish a handle by which to get a ereat many people actively interested in forestry work. When a man has once planted a thousand trees he will protect them from fire and begin to study their erowth. He soon notices natural re- production, and it is only a step to more conservative cutting. The leaders of the forestry movement in Vermont real- ized the educational value of planting and secured in 1906 an annual appro- priation of $500 for five years for a forest nursery, following the precedent started by Connecticut of selling forest seedlings to land owners at cost price. With the increased appropriations avail- able this year, the nursery has now been extensively enlarged, so that we now have a total growing stock of about 1,500,000 seedlings. The past spring we sent out to land owners 200,000 trees, mostly white pine. The encour- aging feature of this is not the number, but the fact that they went to every county in the state, and to over seventy different people, of whom at least ten are lumbermen, and as many bona fide farmers. In Vermont the general movement is now gaining headway—how effect- ively, we cannot say—to reorganize the rural schools with the purpose of fitting the pupils for life in the country rather than in the city, which has formerly un- doubtedly been the tendency of all edu- cation. Vermont must always remain primarily an agricultural and forest state. The sooner we can instil into the young new ways of looking at the forest, the sooner will forestry ideals be realized. By this we do not mean a sentimental regard for the forest, but a knowledge of the laws underlying for- estry, so that the forests will be man- aged in the future as a crop and not as a mine. As a first step toward coop- erating with the more progressive teach- ers in their desire to incorporate these new ideals, we supplied the past spring a limited number of “Arbor Day pack- ages” with detailed instructions for use in a bed eight by two feet in the school yard. These packages contained seed- lings of various ages of white, red, and Scotch pine, and Norway spruce; and small papers of white pine and locust seed. A charge of 50 cents was made for the package. No event is so much anticipated in rural communities as the agricultural fair, a series of which is held every fall in all our eastern states. Our legisla- ture has finally recognized their value by appropriating money for a state fair. 3esides this state fair, there were ten corporation fairs in Vermont this fall. These have an average daily attendance of from four to fifteen thousand people coming from the most remote parts of Eiewstaten: te M1Ost Oi these fairs the state forest service this year had an ex- hibit consisting of several boxes six feet by one foot by six inches, containing various kinds of forest seedlings; bot- tles of tree seeds, and sections of Nor- way spruce trees grown in Vermont showing very rapid growth. The in- terest in these exhibits was entirely be- yond our expectation. One and some- times two attendants were kept con- stantly busy from morning until night explaining the exhibits and answering questions on all phases of forestry. | That the people of the state are fully awake to the importance of the forestry movement their interest at these fairs demonstrated. The press of the state has also shown an unusual appreciation of the importance of the work, and the state forest service has been particu- larly fortunate in this progressive atti- tude of the press. The annual appropriation available for forestry purposes is now $8,500, and we hope soon to acquire some lands for state forests which will be pur- chased primarily for educational pur- posesmeleater on. I hope that: the state will enter upon the policy of acquiring large tracts in the Green Mountains. In no state, I believe, is there a more sane and thorough interest in for- estry to-day than in Vermont. A NEW CYPRESS FOR ARIZONA By GEO, B, SUDWORTH Dendrologist, Forest Service, U. S, Department of Agriculture cies of cypress are now known in the world. Eight species occur in the United States. Five of these grow in the Pacific region, two in our South- west, and one species in the South At- lantic and Gulf Coast region. The others inhabit Mexico, Lower California, east- ern Asia, portions of the Himalayas, eastern Mediterranean countries, and southeastern Europe. They are trees of very ancient origin. Remains of them have been found in the tertiary period of the earth’s history in Greenland, while subsequently the cypresses appeared in western Europe, in which, however, they are not now represented. All of the cypresses (exclusive of Taxodium) are grouped either under the genus Cupressus, or divided between this genus and Chamaecyparis. The true cypresses belong properly to the genus Cupressus and comprise the species found in Lower California, Mexico, Arizona, California, southwes- tern Asia, China, the Himalayas, and southeastern Europe. This group of cypresses is characterized by large, thick-scaled fruit, which matures in two years, and produces numerous wingless seeds. The remainder of the cypresses, which may be included under the genus Chamaecyparis, differ from the true cy- presses in having very much smaller fruit, which is matured in one* season, and produce only a few seeds with thin papery wings. The cypresses important for their timber are our Pacific Slope species, the Lawson Cypress and ‘Yellow Cedar the White Cedar of the Atlantic region, \ PPROXIMATELY nineteen spe- *Our so-called “Yellow Cedar” to this. Trees planted in Enel vincing proof of this is stil] lacking. other members of thi ir 88 Further 1S group in order to sett] two Japanese species, the Himalayan Cypress, and the Pyramidal Cypress of southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia. . The latter Old World species (Cupressus sempervirens) has doubt- less been known longer to civilized people than any other cypress. It does not exist now in the wild state, being preserved only in cultivation. The ancient Romans carried this cypress from Greece to Italy where they planted it extensively. The exceedingly durable wood is said to have been used by the Egyptians for mummy cases, while the doors of the Roman temple of Diana and the statue of Jupiter are believed to have been made from the wood of this cypress. Up to the present time but one cy- press, Cupressus arizonica, has been known to inhabit Arizona. It occurs mainly on the Santa Rita, Santa Cata- lina, and Chiricahua mountains. It is also said to occur on the extreme eastern part of San Francisco Mountain. Care- ful explorations are yet required to definitely outline the range of this species, which was discovered as re- cently as 1882. This cypress is charac- terized by a rather thin, somewhat stringy, anastomosely furrowed bark of dark red-brown color. In strong contrast with this rough- barked character, is the perfectly smooth bark of the cypress recently found by the writer on the north slope of Verde River canyon in Yavapai County, Arizona, and for which I pro- pose the name Cupressus glabra. The trunks have throughout a very thin, smooth, dark purple-red_ bark. Each year’s growth of bark (from about one- (Chamecyparis nootkatensis) may prove an exception and are said to show a biennial habit of fruiting, but con- careful studies are being made of this and e the doubt, recently raised. Cupressus Glabra sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch thick ) breaks up into small, curling plates, which on all vigorous trees fall away dur- ing the succeeding late autumn and win- ter. Phe tree attains a height of from thirty-five to fifty feet and a diameter of eighteen to twenty inches. It is prob- able that considerably larger trees oc- cur. 9 ties branches, particularly of younger trees, are strongly upright and form a compact, narrowly oval or some- what pyramidal crown. Old trees, grown in the open, develop long lower branches which, from their great weight, are often much less upright tham “1m. old trees* in” a dense. stand: The «spherical mature fruit is from about seven-eighths to one and one- eighth inches in diameter, and composed commonly of six (exceptionally eight) scales. The scales are armed with con- spicuous, incurved, somewhat _ flat- pointed, bosses. The matured cones are smooth, but conspicuously wrinkled and covered with a deep, blue-gray bloom which, when rubbed off, reveals a rich, dark brown color; very old cones are ashy-gray. Cones of one growth, also smooth, are often light reddish-brown, but with areas of pale 89 season’s 90 bluish bloom. The cones are borne on stout stems from one-fourth to one- half an inch long. Ripened cones re- main unopened on the branches from fourteen to eighteen years, possibly even longer, the seeds being retained during this period. To what extent the seeds preserve their vitality during this time is at present unknown to_ the writer, who has not yet had an oppor- tunity of testing these old seeds. The red-brown seeds vary in form from a triangular to a rounded and somewhat rectangular shape. They are from three-sixteenths to five-sixteenths of an inch long, the larger dimensions being more common. The foliage has a bright blue-green (glaucous) aspect due to a pale bloom on the leaves. The leaves on old sprays are (about one- sixteenth of an inch long) closely pressed to the twigs, acutely pointed, thickened and keel-shaped on the back, and nearly all bear a resinous pit (gland) on the back. Young shoots bear closely pressed leaves from one- fourth to one-half an inch long, but with very keen spreading points. The leaves die during the second year, turn a bright red-brown and remain on the twigs for about four years; later the twigs and small branches become ashy- gray. Male flowers are abundant, but as yet the female flowers have not been discovered. The wood of this cypress is exceed- ingly durable in an unprotected state; even the sapwood has great durability exposed to weather and soil. Cabins built of the logs forty years ago are still in a good state of preservation, while fence-posts and corral poles show but little decay after twenty years’ exposure. Marked durability of this wood is in contrast with the wood of Cupressus arizonica, which is not particularly of lasting quality. The sapwood of C. glabra is a pale straw-color and the heartwood is a very light brownish AMERICAN FORESTRY yellow. The wood is hard, heavy, . usually very fine-grained, and when freshly cut it has a slight cedar-like odor. : As known at present Cupressus glabra ranges from an elevation of about 3,700 feet to 5,500 above sea level. The Verde Canyon forest is about six miles long and about one and one-half miles wide. The trees-are as- sociated more or less at lower eleva- tions with Pinus monophylla, and Quer- cus chrysolepsis. Higher up, except in the drier areas, the cypress forms the principal tree-growth. It chooses a north slope entirely, growing best in protected watered gulches and on the sides of shallow canyons, but it occurs also on the intervening benches and ridges where the shaley soil is moist. Unquestionably this cypress will later be found to have a much wider range. It is probable that the large grove of “Arizona cypress’ described by Prof. J. W. Toumey (Garden and Forest, VIII, 32) in 1895 on Pine Creek at the “Natural Bridge” in central Arizona is Cupressus glabra. Prof. Toumey ap- peared at that time to doubt that this Pine Creek cypress was the same as the one (Cupressus arizonica) found in the Chiricahua Mountains. He notes, in the case of the Pine Creek trees, that the bark “peels off in long shreds,” a character not observed in the Chirica- hua trees. Arthur H. Zachau, Forest Supervisor, who had seen both the Chir- icahua and the Verde River cypresses noted the marked difference in the barks of these trees and called the writer’s attention to the northern cypress in 1907. It was not, however, until De- cember, 1909, that the writer found an opportunity of investigating this tree. The few settlers seen who know this cypress call it “yew-wood,” because its smooth purple-red bark resembles that Of sptiie brevifolia. northwestern yew, Taxus The Twenty-ninth Annual Meeting of the American Forestry Association HE twenty-ninth annual meeting of the American Forestry Asso- ciation was held on Tuesday and Wednesday, the 18th and 10th of Jan- uary, at the New Willard Hotel, Wash- ington. oC: The Board of Directors met in the morning of the 18th and a joint meeting of the members of the Advisory Board and the directors was held in the after- noon. At these meetings, in addition to the routine business, projects for the work of the association during the com- ing year were discussed at considerable length and some plans were developed of which announcement was made at the sessions of the association later. These plans are also set forth in the pages of AMERICAN Forestry. THE ANNUAL DINNER The crowning event of the meeting was the dinner at the New Willard, Tuesday evening. 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In the opinion of those who attended this conference, results of the first importance are likely to flow from it. President Drinker, of Lehigh University, declared at the last session that, with an experience of forty years in attending similar conferences of en- gineers and others engaged in technical work, he regarded this as one of the most remarkable meetings in which he had ever taken part. He ascribed to Mr. Gifford Pinchot, at whose initiative the conference was first called together, its peculiar character. This lay in the fact that the men in whose hands is the molding of educational work in forestry in this country met together with a common viewpoint and purpose, looking to the serving of the public interest as the fundamental aim of their profession. The first idea of the conference was explained by Mr. Pinchot to have been suggested to him by Prof. Filibert Roth, of the University of Michigan. The call for it was sent out in the early summer, by a letter of invitation to each of some twenty-five institutions. The list included all forest schools and uni- versities and colleges in this country in whose curriculum forestry has any im- portant place. The call set forth that such a conference might be made of very great value to the general progress of forestry in the United States, as well as to the institutions which teach for- estry and to the Forest Service, which as the most important employer of for- esters is vitally interested in their best professional training. The things to be 104 considered by the conference were de- fined in the call as “the objects and the methods of forest instruction, the or- ganization and standards of educational work in the field of forestry, the co- ordination of the work of different in- stitutions, and the needs of the Forest Service and other employers of forest school graduates.” Fifteen of the institutions invited to attend the conference sent representa- tives. The list of delegates was as follows: Prof. Frederick A. Goetze, Columbia Uni- versity; Prof. Carlton C. Curtis, Columbia University; Prof. R. T. Fisher, Harvard Uni- versity; Prof. C. A. Scott, Iowa State Col- lege; President Henry S. Drinker, Lehigh University; Prof. Robert W. Hall, Lehigh University; Prof. F. W. Besley, Maryland Agricultural College; Prof. J. Fred Baker, Michigan Agricultural College; Prof. J. A. Ferguson, Pennsylvania State College; Prof. Gordon T. Tower, University of Maine; Prof. Filibert Roth, University of Michigan; Prof. Walter Mulford, University of Michi- gan; Prof. C. L. Hill, University of Michi- gan; Prof. Samuel B. Green, University of Minnesota; Prof. Frank J. Phillips, Univer- sity of Nebraska; Prof. R. B. Miller, Uni- versity of New Brunswick; Prof. Bernard E. Fernow, University of Toronto; Prof. Frank G. Miller, University of Washington; Prof. Henry S. Graves, Yale University, and Messrs. Carter, Cox, Ellis, Hall, Kellogg, Riley, Smith, and Zon, U. S. Forest Service. The meetings were held at Mr. Pin- chot’s house, and were opened by an ad- dress of welcome from Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. The first two papers presented, by Prof. Henry S. Graves, of Yale University, and Prof. Roth, of the University of Michigan, called forth a discussion which extended throughout the entire first day and evening of the conference. Professor Graves’s paper had for its subject, “The Field of Work and Necessary Equipment of the Profes- CONFERENCE ON EDUCATION IN FORESTRY 105 sional School of Forestry,” and Pro- fessor Roth’s, ‘The Curriculum of the Professional School of Forestry.” The discussion centered about such ques- tions as the amount of training neces- sary to equip a forester properly for the practice of his profession, the character of the training necessary, what field work should be done, the relation of the professional school to preparatory schools and colleges, and many similar topics. Other papers were read as follows: “Methods of Instruction in the Forest Scio vot eRe ley Hisher mor Harvard University. “The Position of the Forest School in the Community,” by Dr. B. E. Fer- now, of the University of Toronto. “Forestry in the Agricultural Col- Iepese by rob. Satiel Bb. Green; of the University of Minnesota. “The Place of Forestry in General Education,” by Dr. Herbert A. Smith, Editor, Forest Service.’ “What the Ranger Course Should Include,” by Prof. Frank G. Miller, of the University of Washington. “The Field, Aims, and Methods of the Ranger School,” by Mr. .E. E. Car- ter, Assistant Forester, Forest Service. Resolutions adopted at the close of the conference set forth: 1. That the conference goes on record in favor of an association of forest schools. 2. That a committee be appointed with power to call a meeting of the conference at its discretion. 3. That this committee be charged with the formulation of a constitution for the proposed association. 4. That the committee, in consulta- tion with the Forest Service and other employers of foresters, formulate a standard of forest education. 5. That the proposals of the com- mitte be submitted to the members of this conference in advance of the meet- ing at which they are to be considered. a ry Young White Pine Growing Under White Oak and Pitch Pine HENRY SOLON GRAVES, FORESTER UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE ident appointed to the office of Forester of the United States, Henry Solon Graves, the Director of the Yale Forest School. How completely Mr. Graves fills the re- quirements of this exacting position by reason of professional training and practical experience is shown by his record. He is the son of Prof. W. B. Graves, for many years professor of natural sciences at Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts, and recently retired. He was born in Marietta, Ohio, May 3, 1871, prepared for college at Phillips Andover Academy, and entered Yale with the class of 1892. That he was an all-around man in college is shown by the fact that he played quarter-back on the University football team and gained high rank in scholarship. He was an intimate friend of Gifford Pinchot and was led by him to enter the study of forestry. After a course of graduate study at Harvard, he joined Mr. Pinchot at Biltmore, where the first application of scientific forestry to American conditions was then being made on the estate of George W. Van- derbilt. At that time there were no forestry schools in this country, and, after a period of practical work at Bilt- more, Mr. Graves went abroad to study in European schools. This was only a few years , 3, and yet he was the second Ame. can to enter the profession of forestry, Mr. Pinchot having been the first. His European studies were carried on under direction of the most eminent of the old world foresters, Sir Dietrich Brandis, principally at Miinich. On his return to the United States he was associated with Mr. Pinchot, who was then practising as a consulting forester in New York City, and they a 106 (5 THE 12th of January the Pres- collaborated in the preparation of a volume on “The White Pine.” Mr. Pinchot became forester of the Depart- ment of Agriculture in July, 1896, and Mr. Graves was his first assistant. While in this office he continued forest explorations and investigations in the West. Two of his publications at this time. were “The Black Hills Forest Reserve” and “Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks.” The Yale Forest School was founded in 1900 and Mr. Graves left the Division of Forestry to become director of the school. In that work he has been conspicuously success- ful. The Yale Forest School was the first advanced school of forestry in the country and it has maintained a leading position. In the intervals of his work at Yale, Mr. Graves has made a number of trips to the National Forests of the West as advisor of the Government or for the private study of forestry problems. His publications have been of a high order of professional merit. In addition to those that have been mentioned they include, “The Woodlot,” ‘Forest Men- suration,’ “The Woodsman’s Hand- book,” and various others. He is editor of the Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters and is a promi- nent member of the organization. He has been for several years a director of The American Forestry Association and has served on its Executive Com- mittee and very recently on its Maga- zine Committee. In this connection, he has had much to do with the plans for the improvement and development of AMERICAN Forestry. He was a mem- ber of the National Conservation Com- mission, :. chairman of the Connecticut Conservation Association, president of the Connecticut Forestry Association, vice president of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests, MEBER LF -POTTER a member of the Connecticut Academy of Sciences, an associate editor of The Forestry Quarterly, a member of the Royal Arboricultural Society of Eng- land, member Société Forestiere de Franche Compté et Belfort (France), and a member of the Oesterreichische Reichsforstverein (Germany). He is also a member of the Century Club of 107 New York and the Graduate Club of New Haven. In 1903 he married Miss Marion Welch of New Haven. His summers are largely spent at Milford, Pennsylvania, where the Yale Forest School students receive field and camp instruction. Mr. Graves assumes his office as Forester on the first of February. ALBERT F, POTTER MBER hoePOrlER, who has iN been designated by the Secretary of Agriculture as Associate For- ester, is a western man with a wide knowledge of the conditions existing west of the Mississippi River. Mr. Potter was born in Amador County, Cal., November 14, 1850, and ‘ spent his early childhood on a farm. He came to Oakland, Cal., in 1867 and thence to San Francisco in 1871. - He was a pupil in the public schools of Oakland and graduated from the Hayes Valley Grammar School of San Fran- cisco in 1874. Subsequently he studied bookkeeping at a night school, serving as an office boy during the day in a sewing-machine establishment. His em- ployer advanced him successively to the position of shipping clerk, sales- man, buyer, correspondent, bookkeeper. and cashier. In 1883 he resigned his position on account of illness, and went to Apache County, Ariz., where, after regaining his health, he successfully conducted a live stock business. Mr. Potter was exposed to all the vicissitudes of life to be found on the western frontier, and has watched the West grow from a thinly-settled wilder- ness to its present state of settlement and wealth. In 1893 he was appointed inspector for the Live Stock Sanitary Commission of Arizona, in which ca- pacity he served for two years. He also served as county treasurer during 1895 and 1896. Owing to continued drought, he disposed of his cattle in- terests in 1895, and in 1896 engaged in sheep raising, continuing in this busi- ness until 1900. While in the sheep business he took an active part in the organization of the Arizona Wool Growers’ Association, of which he was secretary for two years, and aided in effecting an agreement allowing a proper use of the forest reserves for grazing purposes. It was while sec- retary of this association that he met Mr. Pinchot, then Chief of the Bureau of Forestry, and accompanied him on a trip of investigation which the Sec- retary of the Interior had requested Mr. Pinchot to make in cooperation with Professor Coville, to determine the effects of sheep grazing upon the west- ern forest reserves. Mr. Pinchot, being struck by Mr. Potter’s wide knowledge of western conditions, persuaded him to become a member of the Bureau of Forestry, and Mr. Potter accepted an appointment in that bureau in I9QO0I as an expert to investigate grazing problems in the Federal Forest Reserves, a work which his special training and knowledge en- abled him to do very efficiently. Dur- ing the early part of 1902 he examined proposed forest reserves in Arizona, and recommended the boundary lines for the Santa Rita, Chiricahua, and Mount Graham forest reserves, which 108 were subsequently created. In the lat- ter part of 1902 he examined proposed forest reserves in Utah, and recom- mended boundary lines for the Logan, Manti, and Aquarius forest reserves, all of which have since been established. In 1903 Mr. Potter was in charge of the field party which made examination of forest boundaries in California, which resulted in the creation of the forests which now compose the Trinity, Plumas, Klamath, Shasta, and Modoc National Forests. In 1904 he was as- signed, at the request of the President, to service on the Public Lands Com- mission as an expert. He made a spe- cial report on this work, which was pub- AMERICAN FORESTRY lished as Bulletin 62, ‘Grazing on the Public Lands.” In 1905, when the National Forests were transferred to the Department of Agriculture, Mr. Potter was made Chief of the Branch of Grazing. In July, 1908, he was made Assistant For- ester, in charge of the Branch of Graz- ing. In this position he started the Gov- ernment’s work in the improvement of National Forest ranges, incluindg the forage investigation, the inauguration of a campaign to rid the ranges of preda- tory animals, investigations to eradicate poisonous plants on ranges, and ex- periments in pasturing sheep, as a pos- sible substitute for the herding system in some parts of the country. A Western Hemlock, Cascade Mountains, Washington, Showing Thick, Rough Bark of the Mountain Form THE CONNECTION BETWEEN FORESTS AND STREAMS _ By JOHN H. FINNEY Secretary of the Appalachian National Forest Association N COMMON with almost the entire | Nation, I hold these views regard- ing the Appalachian-White Moun- tain forest project: First, that the es- tablishment of this forest area in the southern Appalachians and in_ the White Mountains is a duty which the Nation owes to itself; that it is a mat- ter of national self-preservation; that only the Nation can do it; second, if the way to conserve is to “conserve.” that here lies the tangible and sub- stantial foundation for a constructive policy along conservation lines, at rela- tively small cost, to the immense pres- ent and future advantage of the whole Nation. The bringing of this project to this point is the result of twenty years of work by earnest men; it has been urged by three Presidents; it has been ex- haustively investigated and_ strongly urged by the Department of Agricul- ture and the House Committees on Agriculture. For more than a decade it has been before the Congress at prac- tically every session; it has passed the House once and the Senate three times and, being as yet unestablished, it may be proper to fankly outline its present status in the National Legislature. It is meeting there now, as in the past, some very active opposition. rang- ing from the Speaker down to those who, in committee, are in position to block progress. One important chair- man raises the question of “enormous expense ;” another, that conditions are “grossly exaggerated;” a southern member opposes it on the question of “constitutionality.” It met last year a powerful antagonist in the person of an army engineer (retired), who held that forests had no effect on water sup- ply or regulation; this year it meets an equally valiant opponent in Mr. Willis L. Moore, of the Weather Bu- reau, whose carefully timed _ report made to the chairman of the House Committee on Agriculture again fur- nishes welcomed ammunition to those who fight it. That the constitutional objections have been eliminated by the report of the Judiciary Committee; that condi- tions are shown to be not in the least “exaggerated ;” that the “enormous ex- pense” is but a fraction of what the Nation will finally be compelled to ex- pend if the area is not now estab- lished; that the arguments of Colonel Chittenden have been fully refuted by such men as Prof. Géo. F. Swain, Dr. C. E. Van Hise, and other notable sci- entists, matter little to those who, be- ing in position to block legislation, con- tinue to do so on one plea or another. I do not measure in scientific attain- ment to the present distinguished op- ponent of forestry, but some practical engineering and a little common sense based on an actual knowledge of con- ditions in the South may shed some light on Mr. Moore’s conclusions as reported in the daily press, and show, if a demonstration be necessary, to those who happened to be in Washing- ton on March 4 last, that meteorological science is hardly so exact as to re- quire the acceptance, without question, of the opinions and conclusions of even so distinguished a man as the Chief of the Weather Bureau. Like the gentleman who recently came out of the North with tremendous claims, but without his notebook and 109 Ilo AMERICAN FORESTRY instruments, Mr. Moore states his con- clusions with a great flourish of lan- guage—but withholds his records. Mr. Moore presents ten lofty con- clusions. The first four are to the ef- fect that forests do not cause or in- crease rainfall. Probably not—nobody has said that they do; this conclusion was reached by other investigators a good while ago. In his fifth conclusion it is asserted that floods are caused by excessive pre- cipitation—a fact which we have. in- deed, believed from our youth up. But he also adds that spring floods, occur- ring from the melting of large quan- tities of snow, are worse in the forest than in the open. Not so. Colonel Chittenden made the same claim last year and presented records to prove it, but his records were found incorrect and his claims utterly refuted. Mr. Moore’s sixth conclusion is that the effects of soil-erosion have been exaggerated and that “erosion is not al- ways an unmixed evil.’ People of the South have but to weigh this state- ment in the scales of their own expe- rience to know how wanting it is. Who will speak up for the benefits of soil- erosion? Certainly not the owners of once fertile low lands, or of present gullied fields and hillsides, or the power companies whose ponds are rapidly fill- ing up! Conclusion seven is that the moun- tainous parts of the water-sheds are so small that their run-off would not be sufficient to cause floods even if defor- estation allowed a greater and quicker run-off. What a statement! Is there a man who knows one single mountain tributary of an Appalachian stream who cannot, from his own experience, disprove absolutely that statement? Conclusions eight, nine, and ten are to the effect that the removal of forests from water-sheds does not tend to in- tensify floods and low waters. This is the important point, and it is here that Mr. Moore is farthest afield. The rec- ords of his own bureau disprove his assertions. His own words are: “Floods are not of greater frequency and longer duration than formerly.” Disproved by the Monongahela, disproved by the Cumberland, disproved by the Tennes- see, the Alabama, the Savannah, the Potomac, the Wateree, and the Con- garee. Disproved absolutely by every southern Appalachian stream whose water-shed has in considerable part been deforested by cutting and fire. The records for these streams, taken from_the Weather Bureau, are pub- lished by the Geological Survey and the Forest Service, and are available to all who desire to see for them- selves. Mr. M.;O: Leighton, Chief Hydrographer of the Geological Sur- vey, made a most thorough and critical examination of the records of the Weather Bureau for several southern Appalachian streams, among them the Ohio, the Allegheny, the Savannah, the Wateree, and the Alabama, and reached the conclusion that, to use his own words, “A broad and compre- hensive review of river-discharge rec- ords in the United States indicates un- mistakably that floods are increasing. It is true that the opposite tendency may be shown on some rivers, while the records for others indicate little or no change; but, taken as a whole, the rivers that reveal more intense flood tendencies so thoroughly dominate the situation that the conclusions above ex- pressed must be inevitable.” The Forest Service studied the rec- ords from a larger number of streams than the Geological Survey and found “that in many of the streams in the Ap- palachain Mountains there had been a steady increase in the number and dura- tion of floods during the past twenty or thirty years,’ and that the increase is greatest in the streams where the most forest has been destroyed and least on the streams where forest con- ditions have been least changed. If this is “false reasoning” or “mis- taken enthusiasm,” let competent au- thorities judge on the records as they stand, not as they may be presented for the perfectly apparent purpose of sup- plying ammunition against forest con- servation in general and against the Appalachian project in particular. A PERSONAL WORD By THOMAS ELMER WILL writer entered the service of the American Forestry Associa- tion as its Secretary. With the purchase. in the following December, of Forestry and Irrigation, he became, also, the editor of that pub- lication During the period of his connection with this office he has sought, as much as in him lay, to strengthen the organ- ization, enlarge its influence, and ad- vance its propaganda. In his first two years, as Secretary, it was his privilege to conduct mem- bership work which brought to the As- sociation 3,532 new members, or more than half of the total membership which the organization, in the twenty-eight years of its life, has acquired. These members not only paid, dur- ing the first year of their connection, the entire cost of their acquisition, but a surplus of $6,447.46; in addition to which they pledged, for an indefinite period, annual payments of $8,063 to the work of the Association. From January, 1907, when the ed- itorial department of this magazine was established by himself, until April, 1908, and again, from March until No- vember of 1909, all the editorials ap- pearing in its columns were his work, as have been most of those published since the latter date In every practicable way he has sought to embody in living realities the ideals to which the organization has been committed. The Appalachian Na- tional Forest work has received spe- cial attention. Resolutions by the score, written by his hand, have been adopted at his instance, and a fusillade of let- ters and petitions has swept the halls of Congress. A heavy correspondence has been built up from nothing, friends of the movement have been kept in- formed of its progress by frequent spe- o: SEPTEMBER 1, 1906, the cial reports and synopses of bills; press bulletins have been issued to fifteen hundred newspapers; articles have been written for numerous publications, in- cluding the World’s Work, Review of Reviews, Independent, Popular Science. Monthly, McClure’s, Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vick’s Magazine, Journal of the Merchants and Manu- facturers’ Association, American In- dustries, and others, and the gospel of forestry and conservation has been car- ried by lectures to North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Kentucky, West Virginia, District of Columbia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, Maine, Ohio, Illinois, Wis- consin, Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri. Ina single season, sixty-four Chautauquas were addressed, whereby, by a conservative estimate, 65,000 peo- ple were reached with the oral mes- sage and twice that many more by the accompanying press reports. With the appearance of this issue of AMERICAN Forestry, the writer’s con- nection with the work of the Amer- ican Forestry Association ends. His interest, however, in the cause to: which it is committed abates not a jot. In that movement, in fact, he recog- nizes but a phase of that broader and deeper movement in which he enlisted while the conservation movement was as yet unborn, and forestry in America was in its swaddling clothes—the move- ment whose end is the conservation of the equal rights, liberties, and oppor- tunities of all the people, and the es- tablishment and maintenance of con- ditions under which the least and lowest may live an unfearing and complete lite: As never before, the country to-day is ready to hear and heed the appeal for the conservation of our common heritage and government, and as never before the people are ready to organize to effect this end. Spontaneously, though uncalled, they Iil II2 are rallying to the standard of con- servation’s chief champion, Mr. Gifford Pinchot, who, by his works, has proved his faith that duty is dearer than of- fice, and that higher laws and loyalties exist than those which would perpet- uate and intensify conditions already well-nigh unbearable. AMERICAN FORESTRY In the face of such an example, it behooves every soldier of the common good to stand by his guns and do his duty; and with these the writer hopes, in the future, as he has sought in the past, to be found—ready and patient, at his post, waiting, while wait he must; fighting, when fight he may. EDITORIAL Gifford Pinchot ae sudden act of dismissal by which Gifford Pinchot, the builder of the United States Forest Service, was removed from the office he has raised to so high a level of dignity and usefuness, left the people stunned. It is the reward and the peril of such creators as Mr. Pinchot has been that they become so closely identified with their office that the people can hardly understand their severance from it. We do not propose to discuss the merits of the dismissal. Every con- ceivable view of that has been expressed and people may take their choice. We may concede that the gage was thrown down by the forester so defiantly that it must have been taken up by the Presi- dent. We may even suppose that Mr. Pinchot, who knows official Washing- ton thoroughly, may have expected and courted the action that came so swiftly. He has entered a great fight ; the official harness may have galled; he could not resign under existing circumstances; but he could secure relief and freedom to carry on the campaign by this bold stroke. Opinions may differ as to the wisdom of his course, but no one can doubt that his act was a brave one and his purpose honest. On the other hand, we must concede that his provocation was great. Whatever its merits, this controversy has been swept into the great fog-bound region of politics and personalities, and since this is the case, in order that we may see more clearly, there are certain things that no American citizen should allow himself to forget. It is easy enough to criticize individual acts and errors of judgment in any man who has done great things. Unfortunately, we are not always so ready to take full measure of the good things in his record. 5 Let it not be forgotten, then, that Gifford Pinchot, who might have en- joyed life easily, who might have had all the fruits of the society tree passed down to him, has elected to be one of the hardest working citizens of this re- public, giving himself heart and soul to a cause in which he believed, to a work he loved, because it was a great work, and that he has labored year in and year out with ceaseless devotion in this cause, and with an ever-widening knowledge of its need and its possi- bilities. Fle was the first American to adopt the profession of forestry, which we now know to be one of the first in use- fulness, and for which we are now educating young men as fast as our in- creasing facilities will allow but hardly fast enough to meet the growing de- mand. His contagious enthusiasm and quality of leadership has been a potent factor in this rise of his chosen pro- fession into favor. He entered the Forest Service, then a humble division of a somewhat humble Government department, a di- vision that had one room and five or six employees, and built it up to its present proportions, with over two thousand men employed in the adminis- tration of the National Forests alone. The Service has the administration of a vast public domain of 190,000,000 acres, presenting problems of stupendous magnitude, which have been grappled with successfully for the most part. If some mistakes have been made in single cases, who should cavil at it? Is there any private of Governmental business of similar magnitude the whole frame- work of which has had to be created in a few years from the ground up in which mistakes could not be found? Is it often that such a business shows as few mistakes as the Forest Service? 113 114 In general, its methods and principles commend themselves to the American people, except to the few who are de- prived of their unlimited enjoyment of the use and profits of the public domain. All this has been done in a wonder- - fully short time, and popular interest and belief in the value of intelligent forestry has grown correspondingly all over the United States. The advantage of this to the country is incalculable, because its benefits are largely in the future. No propaganda has ever been more unselfish than this. Few of those who have aided it had anything to gain by it personally. We do not mean to credit Mr. Pinchot with having done all this, but he has for over ten years been the active, central figure in this great movement—its “evarigelist,”’ as a western man well expressed it. When criticisms of details of his acts and of his management as a Government official are made, these larger facts should be kept well in mind. - The United States is immeasurably richer and better for his work. Can that be said of the work of his critics? Ye We ye The New Forester HE general sentiment of the country will applaud the appointment of Mr. Graves as Forester of the United States. The tribute to his personality and his ability from his distinguished predeces- sor, as expressed at the annual dinner of The American Forestry Association, is printed on another page of this maga- zine. Nothing could be added to that and nothing need be subtracted from it. It was the plain statement of a friend who knows him as well probably as any man. There is a peculiar appro- priateness in this succession to the office, because of the close relation that Mr. Pinchot and Mr. Graves have sustained in the development of American for- estry. They two have founded the pro- fession of forestry in the United States, and have contributed more largely than any others to its tremendous develop- ment during the last ten years. The appointment of Mr. Graves is a guar- antee that the policy of the Forest AMERICAN FORESTRY Service will remain practically un- changed, that this department of the Government service will lose nothing of its strength and that the flurry that has taken place in the official order of the capital will not be allowed to endanger this great public service. The National Forest Service has be- fore it two distinct problems, eastern and western. The successful adminis- tration of the vast forest domains of the West requires special methods of treatment and understanding of the country and its needs and temper; but the really vital forest problems of the country are coming in the more popu- lous states of the East, where the needs of the people for the products of the forest are continually increasing. The new lorester is amply qualified by wide acquaintance with American conditions and by the highest professional skill to deal with the extensive forestry of the West and the intensive forestry of the East. The appointment of Mr. Potter as Associate Forester likewise strengthens the Service, for his experi- ence with Western conditions, and with the local questions that confront the ad- ministrators of the Western forests, will make him a most valuable assistant to his chief. Altogether, the country is to be congratulated that the disturbance which seemed to most people almost revolutionary has turned out so well in this respect. Me Ww The Men Behind the Movement HE recent changes in the Forest Service lend an especial interest to the reminiscent remarks of Gifford Pinchot at the annual dinner of the American Forestry Asscciation. Intro- duced by President Guild as a man “who needs no official title, a private citizen whom we know as the father of forestry in the United States, and what title could be higher?” Mr. Pinchot, after a few words of acknowl- edgment, said: “I have followed along the footsteps of men, many of whom are here to- night: and as I was sitting a few mo- ments ago listening to the end of the admirable speech that Senator Smoot was making, and to the very wonderful BOMORIAL and apt illustration of your President, I was thinking, in the back of my head, of the time that has gone by in this forest movement, about some of the men who made it what it was in the early days, and whose friends have carried on the work until now. “Dr. Franklin B. Hough, the first Commissioner of Forestry, under whom began the little division which has now spread into the National Forest Service, I think ought to be remembered on a night like this, when, if I judge rightly, you are taking stock of the great ad- vance that has been made in forestry in the last few years, and putting in a new peg, setting a new high water mark of interest and effectiveness and readi- ness to go ahéad. And there are very many other men. There is Dr. Fernow, who followed him, who is now teaching in Canada, my immediate predecessor in the Department of Agriculture. The man whom I want to mention next 1s one whose march has been steady, con- tinuous, effective, and directly in the leadership of all of us, whose fight was begun single-handed under tremendous difficulties ; who, before he was "through, had so conquered and held the loyalty of a whole state that when a hostile Governor tried to remove him from his office, he was compelled by the unanimous voice of all the citizens to take him back—Dr. Rothrock. “No one can look about this room without finding man after man whose services have been very great indeed. There is the senator here (Senator Smoot), the best friend of the Forest Service on the floor of the Senate. He has shown that friendship in two of the hardest fights any Government bureau has had to sustain, and, thanks to him, we pulled through all right; I judge from his talk that when the fight comes the Senator will be there. “I may have gone out of the Forest Service, ladies and gentlemen. I am not prepared to deny that. But I ob- serve that there is no danger whatever but that the work will go on just ex- actly the same. “Now, I could talk for an hour, and a good many hours, just in pointing out the men around this table whose serv- 115 ices have been great; Mr. Farquhar, Mr. Pack, Mr. MacFarland, your Presi- dent (whose service has been very great indeed), Mr. Maxwell, Mr. Cox. I am not going to try to go all around the table, because I think practically every man here has served the cause of for- estry in a great degree; and the thing | want to say is simply this, that out of the united efforts of the men who are in this room tonight, and a few others not here, has sprung a movement which has consolidated in its grasp the whole of the American people, until there is not any question whatever, that no matter what men come and what men go, the forest work is going straight on. “Now, there is one man of whom I want to speak a word. No one has ever been more fortunate in the loyal sup- port, assistance and co-operation of the men who were working under him and with him than I have been. I cannot speak too highly of the fidelity, enthu- siasm and devotion of the men in the Forest Service. They are as clean and fine a body of young men, and some few old ones, as clean and fine a body of men, I believe, as ever were gotten to- gether for any public purpose in this world, and they have got the spirit that will carry them straight on to do just exactly the same kind of work in the future, only better than they have been doing in the past. And as for men like Colonel Harvey, and others who have given their time freely and gener- ously, who have given their money and their enthusiasm, which is better than all, to carry on this movement, no one has ever been more fortunate than I in the men who worked with me, and with whom I have worked in this whole movement. “There is one man for whom I want to bespeak your most vigorous and earnest support. When I began forest work a good many years ago in this country, the first assistant I had, the man to whom I turned as the one best able, as I thought, of all the youngsters I knew to take hold of this work and carry it on, was the man, curiously enough, who now steps into my shoes, and will carry on the work that I have had a share in forwarding. Now, there 116 is no better breed of man grown than Henry Solon Graves. I do not know a more loyal gentleman, a more devoted friend, or a better forester in this country or any -other than Harry Graves. I want the Forest Service to stand behind him with the same loyalty, and with more loyalty, if that is pos- sible, (and I doubt it), than they have given to me; and I bespeak for him the very kind of support in his office as chief forester that you gave to me while I was there. I sincerely hope he will have it. He is as worthy of it as anybody can be, and there is nothing that will advance this enterprise any better than your standing behind with the full force of your enthusiasm, and this organization. “Now, that is what I wanted to say to you. This movement has come up through the years through self sacrifice, and the vigor and determination of a body of men scattered all over this country, from Maine to California, and from Florida to Washington. It has taken a hold on our people, the capacity of which for good it is practically im- possible for any of us to estimate. It was out of the work that this associa- tion represents that the great conserva- tion movement sprang; and it seems to me, as I look ahead now, that if there is any body of men anywhere in the world that has reason to be sanguine and hopeful and confident of the future, not only ready for the work, but keen to get at it, it is this body, which I am proud to honor, the body of men who are standing behind the cause of for- estry in the United States.” Living on the Principal ECRETARY WILSON rightly says ! that the great reason for the high price of food-stuffs is that too many people are going to the cities to be fed and too few are on the farms to pro- duce food. This is really the crux of the whole question, and neither boycotts nor temporary legislation will settle it. The comment of the Secretary of Agriculture, above mentioned, fits well with the words of Senator Smoot of Utah, in his address at the annual AMERICAN FORESTRY dinner of the American Forestry Asso- ciation, to the effect that unless the present situation were wisely handled the people of the next generation would suffer so heavily from high prices of the necessaries of life that they would be amazed at the incompetence of the statesmen of today in handling our natural resources. : It all falls in the same category. The good management of the great moun- tain forests of the west to get the best results in a large way, both in produc- tion and in protection; the more in- tensive forestry of the populous east, to secure the maximum forest crops and the indispensable protection that the forest gives to land and water, on the older and harder worked hills of the Eastern country; the maintenance of healthy and productive soil conditions and the skillful utilization of the land to produce the best and largest crops and to maintain as many useful animals as possible,—all of these are part of one ereat scheme that must be developed in its entirety if the American people are to live and prosper on their wonderful heritage. We have been squandering our principal; we must get down to living on our interest, and learn to make that larger year by year. WME ME The Conservation Message HE President, to give greater force to some of his recommendations that he considered of particular impor- tance to the country. reserved their full presentation for special messages, and in one of these messages, sent in on the 14th of January, embodied his thoughts and wishes upon the various phases of the conservation program: The improvement of our waterways; the reclamation and irrigation of arid and semi-arid lands; the reclamation by drainage of swamp lands; the pres- ervation of forests and reforestation of suitable areas; “the reclassification of the public domain with a view of sep- arating from agricultural settlement mineral, coal, and phosphate lands, and sites belonging to the Government bor- dering on streams suitable for the util- ization of water-power.” The last PP ITORLAE clause, which is given in the President’s own words, expresses what he is un- derstood to regard as the subject of first importance for legislation. There are those who believe that the execu- tive power is sufficient under existing laws to accomplish the desired results in this direction, but the President and his legal advisers, as the public has good reason to know, have doubts upon this point and believe that an unques- tioned warrant for necessary action to protect the public rights should be given by legislative enactment. We do not propose to discuss the message in detail at this time. It de- serves that careful and thorough study which was doubtless given to its prep- aration. If in some respects it is dis- appointing, it is encouraging in the fact that the President has believed that this great and many-sided issue called for such extended treatment in his rec- ommendations to Congress. Recogni- tion of the fundamental importance of these questions to the American people shows the President to be in sympathy with the profound convictions of those who hold the most intelligent and un- selfish views upon the needs of the country. Now, let Congress translate this con- viction into action and make the Presi- dent’s recognition of great principles effective as far as may be through legislation. To one item in the message we wish to direct especial attention. Specific recommendations are sometimes lost sight of in these ponderous official docu- ments. In treating the subject of tor- estspthne spresident says. he part played by the forests in the equaliza- tion of the supply of water on water- sheds is a matter of discussion and dis- pute, but the general benefit to be de- rived by the public from the extension of forest lands on water-sheds and the promotion of the growth of trees in places that are now denuded and that once had great, flourishing forests goes without saying.” The President thus accepts the sounder view of the best. forest and engineering science, as against the hasty and wunsurpported LEZ statements recently attributed to a sub- ordinate government official. Mr. Taft declares that control ‘over private owners in the treatment of their forests is a matter for state rathe- than national regulation, “because there is nothing in the Constitution that author - izes the Federal Government to exer- cise any control over forests within a state, unless the forests are owned in a proprietary way by the Federal Gov- ernment. The italics are our own. Without caviling over the slight inac- curacy of phrasing, since the Federal Government can own nothing, but can only acquire and manage as the agent of the Nation, we observe that this clause affords an excellent introduc- tion and foundation for the ensuing paragraph, which we quote: It has been proposed, and a bill for the purpose passed the lower house in the last Congress, that the National Government ap- propriate a certain amount each year out of the receipts from the forestry business of the Government to institute reforesta- tion at the sources of certain navigable streams to be selected by the Geological Survey with a view to determining the practicability of thus improving and pro- tecting the streams for Federal purposes. I think a moderate expenditure for each year for this purpose, for a period of five or ten years, would be of the utmost benefit in the development of our forestry system. Advocates of the Weeks bill for the creation of National Forests, with es- pecial reference to the two great Ap- palachian water-sheds —the northern and southern — rejoice at this distinct endorsement of the measure which they believe, in view of the facts which have been persistently and thoroughly put in evidence during several years of agitation, to be one of the most imme- diately pressing conservation measures before the country. It is to be noted that in its present form the bill obviates the objection brought against it orig- inally, that it took the income of the western National Forests to buy forests in the East, and makes the appropria- tion a direct one. The President evi- dently had the original form of the bill in mind. It may be in order to suggest to reg- ulars and insurgents alike that opposi- 118 tion or obstruction to the passage of the Weeks bill will be directed against a policy of the President—a part of the conservation program adopted and put forth by him. we YE The Appalachian Bill Once More yee. again this publication appeals to its readers for aid in promoting the enactment of the Appalachian Bill. In various forms and under different names, this legislation has long been before Congress. Three times it has passed the Senate and once the House; but again its friends must begin prac- tically de novo and perform their first works over. Clearly, the need for this legislation increases as time passes. The woods are falling, the fires are raging, sand- bars are filling the streams, dams are silting up and damages almost irrep- arable are, by this long-protracted de- lay, being effected. But still inertia characterizes the management of our National Legislature. Not only so, but open opposition is showing its head with a boldness hith- erto rarely observed. The paper of Lieutenant Colonel Chittenden together with other hostile literature, adorns the desks of numerous congressmen, plainly testifying that the foes of Appalachian legislation are busy. This, of course, is in line with events now all too familiar. Readers of this publication know of the series of at- tacks on the conservation movement and its chief proponents: the failure to provide a modest appropriation for the maintenance of the National Conserva- tion Commission, the attempt, largely successful, to suppress the report of that commission, the astounding Tawney amendment to the Sundry Civil Bill, and the declaration of war, semi-privately then, it is true, on the leaders of the conservation movement, all came months ago. But the tree then planted is bearing its fruit. The work of the Reclamation Service has been discouraged, if not demoralized: xT at, =) a : ; the National Forest Service has been deprived of ‘its famous and most ef- AMERICAN FORESTRY fective head, more conservation litera- ture has been suppressed, water-power bills in the interest of private concerns abound in congressional committee- rooms, the inland waterways move- ment has been “beared” by the com- mission which went abroad presumably in its behalf, and it is now but nat- ural to expect that foes of Appalachian legislation will take courage and arm themselves openly for the fray. That the activity of enemies of this legislation should be met by equal and greater activity on the part of its friends, goes without saying. Good legislation does not enact itself. What the people want they must fight for. If they regard their legislators as their masters, they must be satisfied with such legislation as they can get. If, on the contrary, they regard them as their servants, they must act accord- ingly and show their faith by their works. Ordinarily speaking, legislators are interested in good legislation only when their constituents are also inter- ested, and tremendously so, in the same. To rely upon Congress to care well for the people’s requirements with- out having those requirements pressed upon Congress by the people, is to rest upon a broken reed. If friends of the protection of the forests in the White and Southern Appalachian mountains desire results at this session, they must promptly bestir themselves. They must: state their wants to their senators and representatives in unmistakable terms and in tones that will not accept no for an answer. Thus proceeding, what- ever be the form of House organiza- tion, or the attitude of the Speaker, they can secure the passage of this bill. Otherwise, it is already doomed, dead, and buried. ye we The First National Forests Pie inclusion in a report in Conser- vation for October of a statement “that Mr. Cleveland established the first National Forests,’ brought from Robert Underwood Johnson, of the Cen- tury Magazine, thanwhomnooneis more conversant with the facts, a letter call- EDITORIAL ing attention to the prior acts of Presi- dent Harrison’s administration. In the reference to Mr. Johnson’s letter made in the November number, we hardly did full justice to President Harrison and Secretary Noble for what they did. Now that this work has attained such large proportions under their successors, we must not forget the achievements of the farsighted men who saw the needs and made the beginnings when there was no great popular demand for for- estry and conservation. By recalling this we do not in the least minimize the splendid work of to-day. The case is fully covered in an article from Forest and Stream of March 9, 1893, which seems like an original source of ancient history, so rapidly are we mov- ing in this twentieth century, and yet it is so recent that the facts should not be forgotten. The article was pub- lished under the title “Secretary Noble’s Monument,” and reads as follows: We have more than once called attention to the broad and farseeing policy inaug- urated by Secretary Noble in the matter of forest preservation in the less-inhabited por- tions of the country, and it is satisfactory to see that the daily press is now giving him credit for the great work he has done. It will be remembered that, beginning with the Yellowstone National Park, which was brought to the notice of Mr. Noble early in his administration, he has given much atten- tion to the question of our parks and timber reservations. To say nothing of the Grant, Sequoia, and Tule River parks, the preserva- tion of which we owe almost entirely to Mr. Noble, there were set aside soon after the act of Congress of March 3, 1891, six timber reservations, embracing an estimated area of three and a quarter million of acres. Of these, three lie in Colorado, one in New Mexico, one in Oregon, and one in Wyoming, adjoining the Yellowstone National Park. Besides these forest preserves, Mr. Noble has considered as well the question of preserving our marine mammalian fauna of the North. west coast, which is so rapidly disappearing under the constant persecution of white men and Indians, and has set aside an Alaskan island as a reservation. In December last there was _ established in southern California a timbér reservation near Los Angeles, including nearly 1,000,- 900 acres. This will be known as the San Gabriel Timber Land Reservation. and in- cludes all the mountains from Salidad Can- yon, where the Southern Pacific’ Railroad passes through the mountains, eastward to *These were completed under President 119 the Cajon Pass. A little later another res- ervation of about 800,000 acres was an- nounced, to be called the San Bernardino Mountain Forest Reservation. This adjoins the San Gabriel reserve and runs eastward from the Cajon Pass to San Gorgonio. Finally, the the 14th of February, the Sierra Reservation was set aside. This comprises Over 4,000,000 acres and takes in the high Sierra, extending southward from the line of the Yosemite National Park to the seventh standard parallel south. It includes the ex- isting Grant, Sequoia, Tule River, and Mount Whitney reservations, and also the wonderful Kings River Canyon, which has been de- scribed by Mr. John Muir in the Century Magazine. This country is one of surpassingly beauti- ful scenery and contains some of the highest peaks to be found within the limits of the United States. It is of especial interest for its giant forests, many of which are yet un- touched, and which contain the great sequoias, together with many other species of Pacific forest trees of remarkable interest and beauty. Besides this, the region is interesting as con- taining a considerable amount of game, and, on the high mountains, species of birds and mammals which are not found elsewhere in California. Far more important, however, to the coun- try, from an economic point if view, is the preservation of the water supply, which will be insured by the setting aside of these res- ervations. Throughout most of the western country the question of water for irrigating purposes is the most vital one met by the settler, but it is only within a very few years that the slightest regard has been had to the farmer’s needs. It is proposed before long, we understand, to set aside a tract of about 1,000,000 acres in the state of Washington, which will be known as the Pacific Reservation, and will include Mount Rainier; and in southern Utah, about the Grand Canyon of the Col- orado, President Harrison has made another forest reserve 9f 1,900,000." Much credit is due to Mr. R. U. Johnson, of the Century, who has been untiring in the efforts to secure proper legislation for the protection of the Yosemite National Park, and to Messrs. Hague, Phillips, and Roose- velt, who have taken special interest in the Yellowstone Park. All this, however, would have availed little had it not been for the wisdom and _ farsightedness of Secretary Noble. His broad mind was able to appre- ciate the needs of this country, and he had the courage to lead public opinion where others would have been content to wait for the popular cry and then obey it. He has set on foot a work that will live long after he has passed away, and if in his admin- istration he had accomplished nothing besides this work of forest preservation, he would have deserved well of his country. Harrison. NEWS AND NOTES President Roosevelt's Acknowledgments to Mr, Gifford Pinchot Recent developments make the following, published in Conservation for September last, worth rereading: 4 “We have been doing everything in our power to prevent fraud upon the public land. * * * So much for what we are trying to do in utilizing our public lands for the public; in securing the use of the water, the forage, the coal, and the timber for the public. In all four movements my chief adviser, and the man first to suggest to me the courses which have actually proved so beneficial, was Mr. Gifford Pinchot, the Chief of the National Forest Service. Mr. Pinchot also suggested to me a movement supplementary to all of these movements; one which will itself lead the way in the general movement which he represents and with which he is actively identified, for the conservation of all our natural resources. This was the appointment of the Inland Waterways Commission.”—Address of Pres- ident Roosevelt before the National Editorial Association, at Jamestown, Va., June. Io, 1907. “All these various uses of our natural re- sources are so closely connected that they should be coordinated, and should be treated as part of one coherent plan and not in haphazard and piecemeal fashion. It is largely because of this that I appointed the Waterways Commission last year. * * * The reason this meeting takes place is because we had that Waterways Commission last year. * * * Especial credit is due to the initia- tive, the energy, the devotion to duty, and the farsightedness of Gifford Pinchot [Great applause], to whom we owe so much of the progress we have already made in handling this matter of the coordination and conserva- tion of natural resources. If it had not been for him, this Convention neither would nor could have been called.”—President Roose- velt in his opening address to the Confer- ence of the Governors of the United States, White House, May 13, 1908. ye Ye pe Mr, Pinchot's Public Statement _ Following his removal from office, Mr. Gifford Pinchot said: “At this time I have no comment to make on recent events. Whether in or out of the Government service I propose to stay in the 120 fight for conservation and equal opportunity. Every movement and measure from what- ever source that tends to advance conserva- tion and promote government by men for human welfare I shall try to help. Every movement and. measure from whatever source that hinders conservation and pro- motes government by money for profit I shall endeavor to oppose. The supreme test of movements and measures is.the welfare of the plain people. I am as ready to sup- port the administration when it moves to- ward this paramount end as I am to op- pose it when it moves away. “T leave the Forest Service with profound regret. Its growth, its stability, and its suc- cess are due to the character, capacity, and hard work of a remarkably devoted, able, and high-minded body of men. I bear eager testimony to the service they have rendered this Nation. They are well prepared to carry on the work. Out of this work of the Forest Service grew the conservation move- ment, which has taken so remarkable a hold on the Nation. Less than three years ago the word itself, in its present meaning, was substantially unknown and the movement for which it stands had not been born. To-day it expresses one of our deepest National convictions and the principles for which it stands are received as axiomatic. It is only the execution of them which remains in doubt. “The great Conference of Governors in the White House in May, 1908, led to the appointment of the National Conservation Commission, whose report gave us a new conception of the value of our natural re- sources. It told us what is needed for their prompt and orderly development and for their safety and perpetuation. Together with President Roosevelt’s message transmitting its report, the recommendations of the com- mission furnished a complete statement of the conservation policy, met our needs squarely and prescribed the remedy. They included definite practical recommendations for the protection of forests against fire and for equitable forest taxation. The classifi- cation of the public domain was_ strongly urged and principles for its use and dis- position were laid down. The necessity for preserving the fertility of our soils and de- veloping their agricultural value by drainage and otherwise was-covered, and particular attention drawn to the need of retaining our phosphate lands, then in danger of absorption by a foreign syndicate. The separation of mineral rights from rights to the surface NEWS AND NOTES of the land was urged and the leasing of lands valuable for coal and other mineral fuels, under equitable conditions, was rec- ommended. The principles which should govern the development of our waterways for navigation, power, and other uses were laid down, and the broad plan of the Inland Waterways Commission, which first called public opinion to the necessity of limita- tion in time and proper compensation to the public in grants for water-power, was in- dorsed. In a word, the report of the com- mission and the message together set forth 2 comprehensive, definite scheme for the con- servation of our natural resources and in- cluded the essential details of all the best that has been proposed since they appeared. We were ready to move forward. “At this critical period, when the goal was in sight, enemies of conservation in Con- gress not only succeeded in preventing an appropriation with which to pursue the work, but attempted to forbid its progress by the Tawney amendment to the last sundry civil bill, Thereupon the work of the National Conservation Commission was stopped. The recommendations of the commission - still wait for action. All wise men will agree that the situation is serious. The Tawney amendment was more than a mistake—it was a deliberate betrayal of the future. The dangers which confront the conservation movement to-day must be met by positive action by Congress. No action will be equiv- alent to bad action and will have the same results. Unless Congress acts the water- powers will pass into the hands of special interests without charge and without limit of time. So with the phosphate deposits on public lands when the withdrawals which now protect them are removed. So with the enormously valuable coal deposits in Alaska, which the present law would sell for $10 per acre. “The danger of bad legislation is no less serious. The special interests must no longer be allowed to take what they choose out of the great property of all the people. Those who steal public lands steal homes from men and women who need them. Congress can stop the pillage or Congress can let it go on. In the absence of proper action, two great conservation plans for the public wel- fare may fail. The first is the control of water-powers on navigable streams in the public interest. The second is the construc- tion of the deep waterway from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. The unanimous opinion of the Mississippi Valley recognizes — this waterway as a commercial necessity. It be- lieves with reason that the cost which is al- ready officially known will be trivial when compared with the _ benefits conferred. Transportation facilities create traffic. The failure to develop our waterways, together with adequate terminals and connections by rail, leaves to the railroads a. complete monopoly of transportation in the Missis- sippi Valley. . chot was of the sort that can not be 12] “The conservation of natural resources and the conservation of popular government are both at stake. The one needs conservation no less than the other. It is the duty of every man of good will to make known with- out delay to his representatives in the House and Senate his firm intention to hold them responsible for safeguarding the rights and property of the people. The remedy lies there. The first great, immediate danger is that the water-powers will be lost; ‘the second, that the coal lands will be lost. But these specific dangers of public loss are merely parts of the great issue between the special interests and the rest of us. That issue is whether this country shall be man- aged by men for human welfare or by money for profit. It is a tremendous moral issue, far greater than any man’s personal feelings or personal fortunes. It les between the people and their representatives on one side and the interests and their representatives on the other; between progress and reac- tion; between special privilege and a square deal. I repeat that the supreme test is the welfare of the plain people. It is time to apply it.” ye ww Where Does He Stand? The labored explanations by which the President attempts to justify himself in his letter to Mr. Gifford Pinchot dismissing him from the Forestry Service are not likely to affect materially the public judgment. Mr. Pinchot may have been indiscreet in allowing it to be seen so clearly where he stands in the controversy over the attitude of Sec- retary Ballinger toward the policy of con- servation; he may even have been tech- nically “insubordinate” in writing a letter to Senator Dolliver. But the general realiza- tion of the immense value of his service to the country will suffice to brush away all these finespun cobwebs. The verdict will be that the President has cast his lot with the enemies of conservation, and no amount of argument will bring conviction to the con- trary.—Providence Journal. wow we The Beginning of a Fight If there is in the United States a public land or timber grabber or a plunderer of water power sites who is not wearing a broad smile of satisfaction today it is be- cause he has not learned the news from Washington. President Taft’s summary dismissal of Gifford Pinchot is the greatest thing that happened to these gentry: since they began operations on the public domain, and it is safe to say that every one of them threw his hat in the air and hip-hurrahed when he heard of it. There are all sorts of officials in the Government service, but Pin bribed, bullied or cajoled from a course of honor and honesty. So long as he stayed on the {22 AMERICAN job everybody that had dealings with the Forest Service had to play the game square or get in trouble, and it is a matter of his- tory that a good. many of them were In trouble all the time. So much for the Forest Service as it was created and conducted by Gifford Pinchot; what it will be in the future is likely to be another story, especi- ally if one Richard Achilles Ballinger has anything to say about it. The Forest Service is deprived of the man who is really responsible for its existence, who planned and built it up little by little and made it the most effective force in the Nation to-day for the preservation of an im- portant share of our National wealth, the man who also originated and worked out the chief monument of the Roosevelt ad- ministration, the conservation idea. Rightly or wrongly, his removal from office is con- strued as the severance by Mr. Taft of the ‘last cord that binds the present administra- tion to its predecessor—Colorado Springs (Col.). Gazette. Informing the Senate There is a point in the affair of Pinchot against Taft which I have not seen touched on by the press. His letter was not ad- dressed to a newspaper, but to an Towa senator seeking information. The Senate is a branch of the’ National Government co-ordinate with the President, and, in fact, prior to him, for there was a Senate, pre- sided over by John Langdon, before there was a President Washington or a Vice- President Adams. Now, Pinchot does not seem to be charged with falsehood in his letter to Dolliver. The point, therefore, is that an officer appointed by the President and Senate has been swiftly removed for com- municating true facts to a member of the Senate, from which he received confirmation of his right to hold office. Is that an offense under our constitution of checks and_bal- ances? The question is coming up in the Navy Department, when the Senate, through its committee, asks questions of an admiral who has been ordered not to give answers. The power of the Senate to compel answers in a matter bearing on its regular duties, is unquestioned, I think. My refusal to answer in a matter where the Senate was acting outside of its jurisdiction had a different basis. Cannot, then, an in- dividual senator ask a question and receive an answer in matters of fact without sub- jecting the official to removal for that answer? I apprehend that the Senate, if it made that point against the President,—as it virtually did against Johnson when Presi- dent, would be supported by the constitu- tional lawyers and by public opinion. The country is always in more danger from the FORESTRY usurpations of a President than from those of the Senate, which has so little power to enforce its orders.—Correspondence in Springfield (Mass.) Republican. ye YE Turn on the Light But from now on the thing for all right- minded men to insist upon steadily is the duty of sticking to the real point. That does not concern itself with personal consequences or political effects, but with the great Gov- ernmental policy which lies behind the whole controversy. Chief Foresters and Secre- taries and even Presidents may come and go; parties may be split and beaten; but what the people will demand is that the public resources be kept for public uses, and not permitted to be filched away by designing and tricky men. To this end, the congres- sional inquiry must be searching and fear- less. There is redoubled reason now for lay- ing the whole, truth bare. Anything like a halting or whitewashing investigation would be certain to rouse popular suspicion and wrath, Hence we can but hail the action of the House yesterday in taking from Speaker Cannon the right to appoint the representatives who are to serve on the joint committee of inquiry. It is no time for a packed committee. Its members should be the most untrammeled and uncompromising men to be found, who will tear out the very heart of the business. Nothing should be allowed to hinder or prejudice that result. Although Mr. Pinchot has grievously erred, he will still be in a position to set forth the great cause and to champion the people’s rights; and the ‘investigating committee will be bound to afford him and every other hohest man the fullest opportunity both to meet his enemies and to vindicate the vital and imperiled policy—New York Post. ae af tJ The lrrepressible Conflict There is something more vital in this so- called Ballinger-Pinchot controversy than a mere matter of difference of opinion as to the proper way to run the office of the Secre- tary of the Interior and that of the Forestry Bureau, or of official etiquette, the basis of Pinchot’s dismissal. It is a phase of the irre- pressible conflict between the people and monopoly, and for the nonce the champion of the people is Mr. Pinchot. It is not at all likely that any violation of law on Mr. Bal- linger’s part will be discovered in the in- vestigation, and it would be quite possible for the committee to “vindicate” him, as did the President, of any illegal wrongdoing. The real charge against Mr. Ballinger is that he is administering his office—under the forms of law, to be sure—in the interest of those who desire to secure monopoly con- trol of the country’s natural resources, and NEWS AND NOTES is not seeking to preserve to the people their interest in them now and for the future. This is nothing new. Mr. Ballinger has discovered no new way of separating the people from their property. His predecessors have accomplished much in the same direc- tion, though it is possibly true that none of them entered office to pass administratively upon the claims of those for whom he acted as an attorney prior to taking the office. This alone is sufficient indictment of Mr. Ballinger as an unfit person to control the handling of the public domain, It is the wide administrative discretion the law gives to the Secretary of the Interior which enables him, strictly in compliance with it, to make the administration of the law hostile to the pub- lic interest and favorable to private interests. It is this which Pinchot is fighting, and he will not cease to fight so long as the people give him support. Mr. Ballinger is a western man, and he is imbued with the grab-it-all-now spirit which pervades the West with relation to the public domain and the natural resources of the country. The West—particularly the western city—wants to grow. It wants to grow rap- idly. It wants every dollar that can be taken out of the country’s natural resources taken as soon as possible, in order to pro- mote this rapid growth. Perhaps no better exposition of this purely selfish attitude, this desire for temporary advantage from the consumption of the country’s resources regardless of the future or of their monop- olization in private hands, has been given than the editorial treatment of the subject in the Portland Oregonian, under the head of “The People’s Heritage,” put in quotation marks in the heading to show its use sar- castically. The theme of the article is that the re- sources of the West belong to the western people and they should be given free access to them. “The West desires development,” it says. “It insists that the natural re- sources shall be used.” Its whole argument is the sophistical one that because in the past the public domain and resources have been permitted to pass easily into private hands and come under monopoly control and are in the East thus largely owned, the policy should be con- tinued and the remainder be squandered in the same way as a matter of equity and justice to the West and to aid in its de- velopment. This argument is no better than the one that because in the past municipalities gave away their franchises without compensation and with monopoly provisions which have left citizens in the grip of public-service cor- porations, they should now continue to do so; yet the Oregonian has long been an earnest advocate of municipal reform in the matter of franchise granting. That it does not also advocate reform in the matter of giving away the public patrimony, what it sarcastically calls “the people’s heritage,” is 123 x solely due to this mania for growth that obsesses the entire West and blinds it to the public welfare in future years. Because he ably represents this grab-it- all-now spirit, Mr. Ballinger finds his chief support in the extreme West, and Mr. Pin chot, who contests it, finds there his chief criticism. The people of the United States should make no mistake in this matter. In so far as the Taft administration makes i:- self responsible for Ballinger and his western ideas of passing the public property as speedily as possible into private hands, it is on the side of monopoly and what is broadly called “the interests,” and against the masses and the real welfare of the people in future years. This is but one phase of the everlast- ing fight of the people for their own protec- tion, and the people ought to know and to show where they stand in it—St. Louis (Mo.) Star. “ “ TY] ve ve ve Pinchot Speeches to be Compiled All the literature available on the con- servation of natural resources, including the speeches of Gifford Pinchot and former President Roosevelt, will be printed and bound together for the use of members of Congress when the fight for conservation legislation comes up on the floor of the House. This was ordered by the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Com- merce today, and it was decided to push conservation legislation this winter. Representative Mann, chairman of the committee, who is the author of a con- servation bill, has stated that his com- mittee has about decided upon the main features of the water-power law, and that it will be reported as soon as _ President Taft’s message on conservation comes from the White House. We oe oe Pinchot Chosen President The election of Gifford Pinchot to suc- ceed Dr. Charles W. Eliot as President of the National Conservation Association .was announced to-night. Doctor Eliot, at whose suggestion Mr. Pinchot was elected, retains the honorary presidency. Mr. Pinchot will take active charge of the association to- morrow. Headquarters will be in Washing- CON teas Two weeks ago Doctor Eliot wrote to the executive committee of the association ex- pressing his opinion that Mr. Pinchot, as the recognized head of the conservation movement, should take the active leader- ship of the Conservation Association. He also wrote Mr. Pinchot a personal letter sug- gesting that he accept the presidency. At Doctor Eliot’s direction, a meeting of the executive committee of the association was held and Mr. Pinchot was formally elected. The National Conservation Association was formed last July at a meeting with Doc- 124 tor Eilot in Cambridge, Mass., with the pur- pose of helping through a large individual membership to put into practical effect the conservation principles declared by the Con- ference of Governors at the White House in May, 1908. The association was launched formally last October, since which time, un- der Doctor Eliot’s personal direction, it has secured a membership extending pretty gen- erally over the country. It is announced that an active campaign to extend that mem- bership into every state and territory will be carried on vigorously. The conservation association has been making a study of conservation needs and is prepared to recommend needed measures, both Nationally and in the several states. Mr. Pinchot said to-night: “The pleasantest thing about my election as president of the National Conservation Association is that I follow Doctor Eliot by his own desire. It is most fortunate that he will remain in the work as honorary president. I appreciate keenly both the honor and the chance to help the move- ment. “The National Conservation Association is not in politics. It believes that conserva- tion is a great moral issue, broader than any party or section and more vital than any political question or measure now before us. The rights and the property of the Amer- ican people are at stake. This association will be on the firing line in the conserva- tion fight. Its immediate task will be to do what it can toward getting good conserva- tion laws in Congress. “Hereafter I expect to devote what en- ergy I have to the association as I did to the Forest Service in the past. I believe the National Conservation Association of- fers.the best way to help the cause of con- servation. In behalf of the association, I ask for the active help, membership and in- fluence of every man and woman who be- lieives in conservation and equal opportunity. They are needed, and needed at once.”— Telegram to New York Sun, January 23, IQIO, YE we ow Should Reclaim the Swamp Land The great possibilities that may be ob- tained from the reclamation of the im- mensely rich and neglected swamp lands of the south are told in a letters tomGuea Cole, president of the Farmers’ Union, by 18) Et Yoakum, the widely known railroad man, who is urging the southern people to interest the Government in doing things for the agricultural advancement of their secvion. Mr. Yoakum’s letter deals with the im- portance of the drainage. of these swamp lands, _which he demonstrates are more deserving, if anything, than the reclamation of the arid lands of the West. Although drainage is much less costly and produces AMERICAN ORES iiov, greater results, the Government has been induced to appropriate $114,000,000 to re- claim arid lands by irrigation, while not one cent has been expended for the reclamation of the great swamp lands of North Carolina, Virginia and other southern states. These and other interesting facts are set forth by Mr. Yoakum, whose letter on the subject is regarded as the strongest word yet expressed for the redemption of these neglected swamp lands of the south. The matter is one that is interesting southern congressmen. Mr. Yoakum’s letter, in part, follows: “When we enter fashionable hotels and restaurants in New York, Chicago and other cities, and order half a cantaloupe at 35 or 40 cents, and oranges, grapes and luxuries from expensive, irrigated farms, transported 2500 miles by rail, we do not have to count the cost, but the wives of millions of the working classes must con- sider every penny that is expended for food. “There’ are in the Mississippi Valley 25,000,000 acres of land, an area equal to the state of Kentucky, with as rich and as productive alluvial soil as can be found anywhere in the world. The Government’s bureau of drainage has made several sur- veys of districts in Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and its estimates of the cost of drainage of these lands ready for cultivation is an average of $486 per acre, “On the assumption that the Mississippi Valley would be divided into farms of an average size of eighty acres, which would provide 312,500 farmers with comfortable homes, and that there would be seven persons, including children, to the farm, it would increase the population of that section 2,200,000, which would be added to by the population of numerous thrifty towns. These lands would immediately appreciate in value over their present figure not less than $30 an acre, a total increase of $750,000,000 on land values alone, to say nothing of the farm machinery, live stock and other property that constitutes a thrifty farming com- munity. The annual products of the Mis- sissippi valley awaiting drainage, at the low average of $20 an acre, would be worth $500,000,c00 annually to the farmers culti- vating these lands.’—Oakland (Cal.) Tribune. Ye ye ug No Forest Encroachments _ In the annual report for his department just issued to the President, Secretary of Agriculture James Wilson makes some state- ments that are of especial value just now and which, to use his own words, refer to an impression that has gained wide currency, to the effect “that the National Forests contain large areas of agricultural land to the exclusion of settlement and large areas of untimbered grazing land unjustifiably brought within the National Forest bound. NEWS AND NOTES aries for the sake of grazing.” With refer- ence to this report and the impression it has produced, the secretary says: “To satisfy myself on the ground as to the facts, I made personal investigation of these matters during the past summer in the states of Idaho and Wyoming. Presumably the time will come when some portions of the present forests can with benefit to the community be converted into farms. Through dry farming, plant breeding, and the introduc- tion of new forms of useful and drought- enduring vegetation, agriculture is steadily gaining upon the desert, and may be ex- pected to gain on the forest in semi-arid regions. Growth in population also will bring an increasing demand for farm land. But it will also bring an increasing demand for timber and water conservation. The present is not the time to decide where the line should finally be drawn. “I. found no evidence that the National Forests. are withholding from _ settlement land now demanded for agriculture. As to grazing land, it is sufficient. to say that proper administrative control of National Forest grazing has necessitated the fixing of the boundaries where they now are, that public sentiment in the states visited is strongly in favor of the maintenance of the existing boundaries, and that representations that great areas of land are held for other than forest purposes are in my judgment wide of the facts.” When tracts of land suitable for agricul- ture are found scattered in the National Forests, they are always, contrary to the belief of many, opened to settlement under the act of June 11, 1906, and the secretary says in his report that nearly 1,500 home- steads, with a total area of 140,000 acres, were listed during the last fiscal year. That ought to dispose of the yarn of National Forest encroachments but probably it will not, as those interested in circulating the report are aware that “a lie well stuck to is sometimes as serviceable as the truth.” —Bridgeport (Ct.) Standard. we Ye Ye Water Right Guarantees The settler in any of the arid or semi- arid sections of the west, where irrigation is required in the growing of crops of what ever kind, should in the purchase of land be’ most particular in regard to the water rights which go with it. He should see to it first of all that the parties back of the irrigation system are absolutely reliable and above even the suspicion of crookedness and dishonesty. A government irrigation project is reliable in the matter of its water guarantees, for no more land is sold than the engineers are positive can be adequately supplied with water when moisture is needed. There are some private irrigation com- panies whose guarantee is just as good, but there are many other projects where 125 land is being sold at long prices in which water could not be furnished in sufficient quantities at the critical time if one were to wait till he became gray headed. Water in the ditch between November and May, when it is not needed or used, is a different thing than little or no water from May to October, when it is needed; hence when irrigated land is bought the guarantee of the water privileges must be in the most direct and plain terms, so that no loophole will be left through which the guarantors may evade furnishing a service for which they are duly paid. It may be a nuisance to have to look after this matter, but at- tending to it at the proper time will mean a lot less grief later on.—Salem (Mass.) Observer. ye We On a Great Scale The great state of New York manages its forestry department on a scale commen- surate with its size and resources, a scale at which New Hampshire can only gaze with envious eye. A comparative statement between the years 1904 and 1909 indicates the present increased efficiency of the department. Total receipts have increased $204,000, while the increase in expenditures has been $111,000, of which $60,000 is due to the cost of a new fire system and the game bird farm. The increase in the number of fish reared and distributed is 418,000,000. Three nurseries have been enlarged from one and one-half acres in 1904, when Com- missioner Whipple entered the department, to twenty-eight and one-half acres. The number of trees grown has_ increased over two millions; the number of trees sold to private land-owners last year was one million; in 1904 there were none. During this time the state has purchased 201,000 acres of land and contracted for 47,000 acres more. However, Commissioner Whipple says that five times as much wood is being taken from the forests of the state each year as is growing up, and that if present conditions are permitted to continue there will be both a wood and water famine. He believes that the people should plant for many years, beginning now, at least 50,000,000 trees a year, and that the state should immediately acquire 1,000,000 acres of land in the Adiron- dacks and 400,000 acres in the Catskills in order to stop the destructive work of lumber- men.—Concord (N. H.) Monitor. ye yee Conservation in New York A rill of the conservation movement has flowed into the public affairs of New York. The state engineer reporis that there are eighteen hundred miles of rivers and streams within its jurisdiction usable as 126 public highways which appear to be under the supervision of no public department. These have an aggregate length of eighteen hundred miles, and could be utilized much more than at present for transportation purposes. What moves the state enginecr to recommend some systematic conserva- tion of these streams is not their avail- ability for internal communication so much as the imminent danger of their being “usurped for private purposes.” He sug- gests some bureau be established whose license shall be required to enable the es- tablishment of power sites on terms equable to the community and guarding the public’s rights.—Boston Transcript. ye oe Ye Commissioner White on Forest-reserve Battle Railroad Commissioner Clinton White, who is back in Boston to-day after attending the meeting of the National Board of Trade in Washington, says that he went to the board meeting especially in the interest of the White Mountain forestry-reserve pro)- ect, although he was interested and active in other matters relating to New England. The committee on forestry and irriga- tion, of which Mr. White is chairman, pre- sented a set of resolutions in favor of Gov- ernment Forest Reserves which were ac- cepted by the board and which place the board on record as in favor of Congressman Weeks’ Forest-reserve Bill. The resolutions were drawn up by W. S. Harvey, of Phila- delphia, a member of the committee, how- ever, Mr. White was careful to point out. With the resolutions was a careful re- port on the forestry situation in the United States which the committee had prepared and which was also adopted -by the board. This report shows the necessity of preserving the forests that are on the headwaters of the streams which have their origin in the southern Appalachian and White Mountain region. The report recognizes the great value, and approves the work of the Forest Service, and expresses the belief that within a few years the income from the National domain will be largely in excess of the cost of ad- ministering this valuable asset of the people. It approves also the proposed issue of $13,000,000 bonds to complete the reclama- tion and irrigation projects in the West. Christian Science Monttor. (A a 24 < ve Sewage Disinfection _ The problem of purifying sewage so that it no longer transforms the rivers into which it is discharged into open sewers has been so far solved that these streams need no longer be disgusting to the senses and dan- gerous to the health of people living along them. The task of destroying the disease- breedine bacteria in the sewage and once AMERICAN FORESTRY more making the rivers available for drinking water has not yet been worked out on a prac- tical basis, but investigations recently made by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the Sanitary Research Lab- oratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and local authorities at Boston, at Baltimore, and at Red Bank, N. J., show that this end, too, may be attained at a reasonable cost. The essential agents of sewage purification are provided and employed by nature, and sewage purification as practised to-day is but the intensive application of these natural processes. The improvements that have been made have not involved the discovery or application of new principles, but have merely increased the working efficiency of the nat- ural agencies. From the old-time sewage irrigation field, with its maximum capacity of possibly 10,000 gallons an acre in twenty- four hours, to the present-day trickling filter capable of dealing with two or three million gallons an acre a day, improvement has been steady. The old-time methods, however, really destroyed the polluting substances, while the modern sewage filter does not. The liquid flowing from these filters looks to the un- trained eye like the original sewage. There is almost as much organic matter in it as in the raw sewage, and sometimes more. Its nature, however, has been changed; the organic matter, though not burned up, has been charred or partly oxidized, and this charring has been sufficient to rob it of its foulness. In other words, its chemical com- position has been so altered that it can no longer undergo rapid putrefaction and cause a nuisance. The water, however, still needs filtration to make it fit to drink. Moreover, it may and in many cases does contaminate oyster beds, thus spreading disease and tending to ruin a great industry. It has not yet been decided upon whom the responsibility rests for keeping the rivers clean, but the consensus of competent opinion requires that if sewage is discharged within the region of important shellfish beds, or into a stream which is used as a source of domes- tic water supply without filtration, such sew- age shall at least be free from disease-bear- ing germs. wow Vanishing Food Fish _ The prodigal waste practised by the Amer- ican people is well illustrated in the exter- mination of some of the food fishes of our streams, and long ago the Federal Gover- ment undertook to restock waters that half a century ago abounded with many families of the finny tribe. It is doubtless true that the shad would be as nearly extinct as the sturgeon if Government hatcheries had not partially restored that fish to the tables of a comparatively few American citizens. The destruction of fish by dynamite goes bravely on in contempt of the law,-as does NEWS AND NOTES illicit seining and trapping. The farmer who would cut down an apple tree to harvest its crop is no more improvident than the man who would dynamite a stream for a string of fishies | But the main cause of fish extinction is the wanton destruction of forests. Thus clear and placid rivers and brooks are turned into muddy and raging torrents in time of spring floods, and billions of eggs and young fry are buried in the sand-bars that appear when the waters subside. Every state has laws for the protection of fish, but little effort is made to enforce them, and daily and hourly they are violated with impunity. Where fish are abundant and cheap the price of meats is regulated and kept in bounds by the laws of competition and sup- ply and demand. It is stated that our streams are to be restocked with sturgeon from the Danube, and another very excellent fish of that his- toric stream, the sterlet, esteemed even supe- rior to the Potomac shad, and, unlike that king of fish, it does not migrate, but remains in the waters where it is hatched. But if the work of deforestation continue and the waters become thick with mud at spawning time, what chance will these desir- able immigrants have in our rivers? They will not thrive, however hardy they may be. The late Seth Green held that an acre cov- ered with water ought to be more profitable than an acre devoted to agriculture, and it would be if adequately stocked with fish and edible reptiles, and the waters providently conserved. But the first thing in order is to enforce the laws of the states enacted for the pro- tection of fish—Washington Post. Ye We pe Conservation in Colorado The Colorado Conservation Commission publishes the state forestry laws relating to fires in a four-page folder, introducing it with the following paragraph: “Every one in pursuit of business or pleasure, in the mountains of Colorado, is interested in the following laws, and so are all sheriffs and county commissioners.” An accompanying folder by the commis- sion says: “The Colorado Conservation Commission was appointed by Governor Shafroth by the request of the President of the United States and chairman of the National Conservation Commission, on the 17th day of February, 1909, consisting of thirty-six members, twenty- one of whom had been appointed by Gov- ernor Buchtel on November 28, 1008. In both commissions Hon. Frank C. Goudy was des- ignated as chairman. “The commission met March 11, 1909, for oreanization.” The following is taken from another cir- cular issued by the commission: “It is not the purpose to interfere with any legitimate use of our natural resources, but 127 it is proper and necessary for the commission to know if any person, company or corpora- tion is using them unlawfully, or with undue prodigality and waste; hence, in order that the secretary may discharge the duty im- posed, he earnestly requests that you will supply him with any information of the sort indicated below which may at any time be in your possession, to-wit: “Tt. Is any one unlawfully taking timber from any of our state lands, or from the public domain? “2. Do you know of any lands the title to which has been acquired by unlawful means, and do you know of any attempts to acquire title to public lands by such means? “3. Are our forestry laws relating to camp- fires, forest fires and their extinguishment, being properly enforced ? “4. Do you know of any instances of wasteful methods of lumbering where the young growth is unnecessarily destroyed, or where remnants of trees are left to waste that should be more economically utilized, and where slash and debris are left to invite fire? “s. Do any of our birds need better pro- tection? If so, what species in particular? “6. Do our laws relating to forestry, game or birds need amending? If so, make par- ticular mention wherein. “7. Are any species of wild flowers in dan- ger of extinction? If so, what ones, and from what cause? “8. Are any of the old ‘cliff dwellings’ within the state being defaced or plundered by tourists and relic hunters? “9. Is any of our natural scenery being defaced ? : “to. Do you know of any cases of soil ero- sion as a consequence of deforestation ? “tr. Do you think of any other matters of vital importance to the public which should be brought to the attention of the commis- sion ? “Please carefully consider the above ques- tions and give the commission the benefit of any facts or suggestions you may deem use- ful. All public-spirited citizens are desired fOmassiste Mr. W. G. M. Stone is the secretary of the commission. Address, 1325 Corona Street, Denver. we We The Telephone a Protector against Forest Fires Maine has introduced the modern tele- phone into her forests, together with a sys- tem of forest patrols and look-outs. fo ands yisON 24} UO SUOIe19dQ SuIs307 Abandoned Pasture on Tributaries of Cane Creek. Several Small and Several Very Deep Gullics Are on This Land Mitchell County, North Carolina were such as would exist on the steep slope. Representative Weeks of Massa- chusetts, who had taken charge of the hearing during the morning when Mr. Currier had to attend a hearing of his own committee, suggested that so far as the nature of the land was _ con- cerned, its selection depended upon the judgment of the Geological Survey. A general discussion arose at this point, participated in by Messrs. Scott, Lamb, Currier, Plumley, and Roth, in regard to erosion, slopes, and farming. When Professor Roth was again allowed to proceed he urged that it is worth some- thing to know that the people of Eu- rope, who have fought this question all over, believe in the influence of the forests upon stream-flow, and without exception have laws regarding the maintenance of protective forests. He also called attention to the fact that Congress, in 1897, was largely influ- enced by the fact that the western for- ests were generally believed to have a beneficial influence upon the flow of water of the western states, making them important in the irrigation work. He then pointed out the fact that upon the main issues there was general agreement among scientists, engineers, and others, as well as among the people of our country; that it was generally believed that forests were especially im- portant in holding the soil on the slopes of the mountains, keeping it in a re- tentive condition and retarding the ratn- fall by preventing gullying, the gullies being in the nature of under-drains or ditches in which the water rapidly col- lects and rushes away. He called at- tention to the fact that the forests ai the present time appeared to be the only feasible and economic means of regulating the flow of our navigable rivers; for artificial reservoirs, the only TAI Eroded Slopes, Western North Carolina alternative thus far suggested, would destroy railways, highways, and other existing improvements; would prevent the use of valleys, converting them into lakes and reservoirs, and in many cases such artificial regulation of the streams would endanger life and property, be- sides requiring enormous sums both to construct and maintain; and that in all probability such artificial means would come to nothing if the forests were al- lowed to be devastated and the moun- tains converted into waste land such as are already seen in parts of the Ap- palachians, both North and South. The most important opinion advanced by Professor Roth was that the forests are the only means of holding soil and regulating stream-flow which can at once be established and are already es- tablished through probably more than eighty per cent of all these lands, only requiring attention by proper protec- tion and use. In contradiction of the 142 claim that all these forest improvements and protection would require unusual expenditures running into the hun- dreds of millions of dollars, Professor Roth clearly showed that these lands, when purchased, could be generally protected and forests maintained upon them for all time, and at the same time the forests would become in a few years not only self-supporting, but paying for themselves, so that the expenditure upon the part of the people would be- come actually an investment. Professor Roth emphasized the fact that he was willing to stake his reputation and stand by the committee if they voted favorably upon this bill, and he _ be- lieved that the people at large would do the same thing. Mr. G. Grosvenor Dawe spoke for the Southern Commercial Congress, of which he is the managing director. He said that the business element of the South expects action; that seven of Deep Gullies Washed in An Old Field, Long Cultivated in Corn, and Abandoned When Soil Became Thin, Reproduction of Hardwoods and Pitch Pine, but Not Sufficient for Protection, the states in which government action is expected have passed the necessary enabling acts, the matter being of such importance as to overcome their state’s- rights scruples. This action on the part of a number of southern states is suf- ficient notification to their representa- tives in Congress to support this meas- ure, and that they expect constructive action following their own. There is a new progressive business spirit in the South, he said, which is not bound by party lines and which looks not alone to the present revenues, but rather to the welfare of the South for the later generations as well as the present one. No statesmanship which does not in- clude this view is constructive, and the South stands for constructive states- manship. He particularly deplored de- struction of the forests by non-resident owners who acquired the lands in the Scattered Jackson County, North Carolina mountains for cheap prices and are now robbing the South of its natural re- sources. He urged the committee to consider the question broadly and to make a favorable report. In closing the presentation of the case, Mr. Weeks made a plain and forcible statement. He explained cer- tain details of the bill in which it dif- fers from that of last year. These are chiefly in the removal of all references to the existing national forests and the income from them, making the appro- priation direct from the Treasury, and in the reduction of the life of the bill from nine years to five years. Mr. Weeks urged that Congress should cer- tainly have confidence in the Geological Surv ey upon the scientific judgment of which decision as to the purchase of these lands would ultimately rest, and that, if the Survey could not be trusted, 143 144 it should be reorganized. He believed that this was a sufficient check upon the expenditure for the purpose of the bill. He offered a homely illustration from his experience as a boy on the farm in northern New Hampshire as a further contribution to the discussion of Mr. Moore’s report. He said that on the hillside pasture the snow would be gone in the spring so that one could walk in thin shoes, when the snow was lying a foot and a half deep in the woods just above the pasture. It is a matter of common observation which needs no_ scientific knowledge, he pointed out, that if the trees were cut off from this land it would be in the same condition as the pasture adjoin- ing. Finally, Mr. Weeks urged upon the committee that it is not new legislation, and that it would be gross injustice not to report back to the House a bill which has in susbtance passed the Senate twice and the House once. To prevent action on this bill would be resented by Massachusetts and by all New Eng- land. The bill is moderate in character and, in my mind, he said, will start a policy that will be of great benefit to the whole country. He urged prompt action, and said that panded: of thou- sands of people all over the country were behind this measure, that it had been advocated by President Roosevelt, by President Taft, and is the one prac- tical measure that has been offered in the direction of carrying out the con- servation policy. Mr. Currier made no formal speech, but supported his colleague effectively with pertinent suggestions and facts. This report necessarily gives a very inadequate impression of the able pres- entation of the case to the committee. SS oS sf iy. a —-— GBPS Ge iN AMERICAN FORESTRY The interchange of question and an- swer, the keen and unassailable scien- tific arguments advanced by Professors Swain, Glenn, and Roth made the hear- ing a notable one in the history of the campaign in behalf of the Appalachian forests. Chairman Scott, at the out- set of the hearing, requested the mem- bers of the committee to refrain from interrupting the speakers with ques- tions until they had concluded their statements. Within a few minutes after this he himself interrupted the first speaker and he continued this practise of interruption with questions and in- terpolation of his own views, especially in the afternoon, when Professor Roth was speaking. This interfered with the orderly presentation of the argu- ment which Professor Roth had prepared, but perhaps’ it, did™ not interfere with the effectiveness of the discussion, as Mr. Scott’s questions were adequately answered. Mr. Scott’s well-known opposition to this measure has not in the least abated and is plainly shown in his conduct of the hearings. Indeed, he appears at times more anx- ious to bring out his own theories, some of which are well defined, than to hear the uninterrupted statement of the ex- pert witness. The general interest of the commit- tee was shown by the good attendance and keen attention to all points brought out in the discussion. Mr. Moore’s position previously taken before the same committee was so badly riddled by the discussion that the committee considered it necessary to give him an opportunity to take the stand in his own defense, and a special hearing was assigned for that purpose for the 1st day of March. GROWING OAK TREES By EDWARD W. HOCKER T IS no easy task to enlist the sup- port of farmers and other land- owners in an undertaking the profits of which cannot be realized until after the? lapse, on a) century) or more.) But some such undertaking is necessary if the oak and other American hardwood wider variety of purposes than any of the others, usually is not available as timber for a period varying from 120 to 200 years after the acorn has germi- nated. Poets sing about the stanch old oak; and there is something venerable, some- Charles S. Mann and His Beds of Ozk Seedlings trees are not to become so rare as to forbid their use for the practical pur- poses they now serve. Everywhere throughout the land the increasing scarcity of the various kinds of hardwood is lamented. Prices are rising at an alarming rate, and it is evident that the quantity consumed yearly is three or four times as great as that which becomes available from growing trees. Now, the hardwoods nearly all come from slowly growing trees; and the oak, which serves a thing well-nigh sublime, about an an- cient tree of this variety. Poetry and veneration, however, will not prevent the oak from becoming extinct. A cam- paign of education must be commenced in behalf of the systematic growing of oak trees. Under the auspices of the national government and of some of the states, attempts have been made to foster the growing of slowly maturing trees in the forest reserves; but thus far few individuals have been willing to de- 145 How Some of the Rarer Kinds of Oak Seedlings Are Grown on the Mann Farm vote much serious attention to the planting of trees solely for posterity. Therefore, an instance of that kind in Pennsylvania, where a farmer of mod- erate means is exerting himself by ex- ample and by advice to further the planting of oak trees, merits attention because it is an altogether altruistic endeavor. Somewhat more than fifty species of the oak grow in the United States, and about twenty-five are found through- out the portion of the country. On his Arbormeade Farm, in Horsham township, Pennsylvania, fif- teen miles north of Philadelphia, Charles S. Mann is growing not less than thirty species of the tree, some being repre- sented by hundreds of small trees, while of others there are only a few experi- mental specimens. be borne in mind northeastern Moreover, it must that Mr. Mann is not a nurseryman, and is not growing trees for profit. He is what is usually termed a “small farmer,” just like the I At average tiller of the soil throughout the coutry. His undertaking in oak- growing is the outcome of his intense love of the study of forestry, his real- ization of the great havoc wrought in the forests of America, and his zeal to encourage his fellow-farmers to grow oak trees. Ten years ago he began planting oak trees. Thus to-day none of his trees is of great size, save a few that stood on the farm long before he took up his special work. A space of several acres about his house is his field of opera- tion. The common varieties that are to be found in Pennsylvania are grow- ing in large beds, and the trees vary in size from a few unches tom sh< 05 seven feet. These include the pin oak, which grows faster than any other oak and sometimes matures in seventy-five years; the white oak, the black oak, the red oak, the scarlet oak, which is particularly beautiful in autumn; the mossycup or burr oak, which has the largest leaves and acorns; the live oak, the willow oak, the post oak, anJ some others. . Rarer varieties whose adaptability to the climate is still a matter of doubt, are planted in boxes or in discarded tinware. They are screened with wire to protect them from marauding ani- mals, and during inclement weather can be removed to shelter. Among the va- rieties thus grown are the blackjack oak, the rock chestnut oak, the southern water oak, the Bartram oak, the south- eouplaurel oak, the exas red oak, the holly oak, the Sterling or cleft-leaf rock oak, the cinnamon oak, the bluejack oak from Texas, the California black oak, the mountain oak, the Hooker oak, a weeping white oak from California where the tree has a spread of 150 feet }and is more than too feet high; the |Texas live oak, the chinquapin oak, a jwestern dwarf that grows like a bush; the shingle or northern laurel oak; the overcup oak, the Spanish oak, and the turkey oak. Besides these American The Tree-embowered Mann, Homestead oaks, the English and the golden oak are also represented. Nearly all these trees were grown from seeds which Mr. Mann either gathered in the woods or procured by writing to persons at a distance who are interested in forestry. Through correspondence he has obtained seeds from twenty-seven states. A striking evidence of Mr. Mann’s enthusiasm is the fact that he is re- placing his apple orchard with an oak grove. San Jose scale has wrought havoc among the apple trees during the past few years, and they are of little value. So Mr. Mann is transplanting oak trees from his beds to the orchard. Mr. Mann is striving to arouse the cooperation of school children in his tree-growing project. He is a member of the township school board, and he has planted oak trees on the grounds of several schoolhouses and has also placed attractively arranged collections of the leaves of the various species of oak trees in schoolhouses. Explain- 147 148 ing his endeavor, Mr. Mann says: “An inborn love for plant life, especially in its highest forms, shrubbery and trees, induced me to attempt to make a collec- tion of native timber and ornamental trees. Like many another ‘small farmer,’ I could not afford to buy them at fancy prices, so | thought out a plan of procuring the seeds and _ planting them. Such seeds as I had I could change with other tree fanciers for some sort that I wanted from other parts of the country, and so not merely supply my own wants but grow enough to spare to any one who should care to adorn school grounds, roadsides, and home grounds. “T hoped and believed that the surest way to draw the attention of the peo- ple to this most useful brauch of nature study would be by planting trees that would show by comparison and contrast the marvelously rich and varied assort- ment of our beautiful indigenous trees which have never yet been fully ap- preciated, but have always been wasted and destroyed. I wanted to make some attempt, however small, to save some of the great quantities of forest-tree seeds that annually go to waste un- noticed throughout ane land, which, for climatic as well as for economic rea- sons should be saved and planted to provide the millions of seedling trees needed to reforest the lean, ene, rocky and untillable hillsides and mountains of Pennsylvania and other states. For the great work of the national and the state forest service must be sup- AMERICAN FORESTRY plemented by the individual efforts of every public-spirited landholder. “I would especially like to get the teachers and pupils of the public schools interested in this cause—to help them all to admire, study, protect, love and to some extent propagate our most useful and beautiful trees in connec- tion with the school-garden -movement, beginning by collecting and planting such seeds as they could find at home and on the way to school. “The underlying motive of my work has not been for pecuniary gain, but nev- ertheless I believe it will always pay well to produce trees whose age and ante- cedents are known. “In many parts of the central West the noble hardwoods are in danger of extermination. Of some of the more rare and valuable sorts, like the shingle, the overcup, the Spanish and the chin- quapin oak, the elms, hickories, and pecans, there are not enough left to per- petuate the species. And it is high time to take heed lest the more common varieties suffer a like fate.” Though Mr. Mann centers his efforts upon the raising of oaks, he is likewise growing specimens of almost all native trees of North America. Indeed, his love for trees is so predominant that the ancient farmhouse wherein he lives is almost concealed from view on all sides by trees. This house was built in 1754 by John Mann, one of the Scotch-Irish settlers of Pennsylvania. and the property has been in the posses- sion of the Mann family edly for 160 years. uninterrupt- FOREST PROBLEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES By BARRINGTON MOORE, M.F., United States Forest Service [Continued from the February number | IV—HOW PROBLEMS ARE BEING SOLVED T IS with great pleasure that we turn from the consideration of the problems to a brief sketch of the fine work which is being done to solve them. All the strictly botanical work has been very wisely turned over to the 3ureau of Science, which describes and classifies the specimens sent 1n to them by the Bureau of Forestry. The Bu- reau. of Forestry collects enormous quantities of specimens, generally a large section of the tree and leaves, to- gether with the fruit wherever possible. On each specimen is placed a serial number. This number is always men- tioned in any future reference to the specimen and serves as a sure means Of pidentiicationy J ihe - Bureau ~ of Selciices keeps a carehulvrecord of all the information on a card catalogue system and sends back to the Bureau of Forestry such data as is necessary. In the Bureau of Forestry hand speci- mens of all the species identified are kept on shelves, arranged alphabetically by families, genera, and species, so that it is possible to pick out any desired species instantly. This botanical work of the Bureau of Science, requiring, as it does, a systematic botanist of the highest skill, has been done so well that it is acknowledged to be better than any botanical work heretofore done on tropical trees in the world. In addition to this strictly botanical work of the Bureau of Science, an eco- logical study of the whole forests of the Philippines is being made by the chief of the Bureau af Investigation, who probably knows as much about the ecology of tropical trees as any man living. This invaluable work, when complete, will be unique of its kind. The properties and uses of the woods identified is so carefully and thor- oughly done, that even those species of rare occurrence are worked up, because they may be found to be of value for some special purpose, such as_ tool handles, ete., so that it will pay to go long distances in the forests for a single cree: As regards silviculture, practically nothing has been done so far, on ac- count of the smallness of the force and the pressure of other work, demanding more immediate attention. However, a beginning is being made by the draw- ing up of a plan for a system of sam- ple plots. This work is to be done by a man of wide experience with sample plots in the United States, and will doubtless lay the foundation of a thor- ough silvicultural study of all the trees of the islands. As regards the problem of popula- tion, the need for fuel and_ building material has been met by the setting aside of any small bodies of forest which a community may apply for, to be devoted solely to supplying the needs of that community. This is an alapta- tion of the system used with more or less success in parts of India. As far as Caingins are concerned, it is unfortunate that very little can be done at present. Although the bureau is making strenuous efforts to stop them, the smallness of the force at its disposal, the large areas of uwunde- markated forests which it has to look after, and, above all, the lack of sup- port from headquarters, make the task an impossible one. As soon, however, 149 150 as the forest reserves are established and a force organized, the forests will be protected against Caingins as against other destructive agencies. Cogan or grass lands cannot be util- ized until the government clears up the invalid Cacique claims to it. This could be done by a properly-collected land tax, which would immediately cause them to drop their claims, because the land is of no use to them and they are all land-poor; or, preferably, by lay- ing off the whole of the islands into townships, sections, quarter-sections, and forties, as with the public domain in the United States, and making every- body prove up his claim. . The attempts at making a survey of the islands have so far been worse than futile. They have consisted in maps of occasional isolated small fields made by the Bureau of Lands, for the pur- pose of marking the boundaries, each map being made separate, so that it will be impossible to tie them together. This is costing considerable sums of money, which is all wasted, because the work will eventually have to be done all over again. The only solution of this problem—a solution suggested by men who have been in the islands for some time and have given the matter considerable thought—is for the gov- ernment to “grasp the bull by the horns” and have the United States Geo- logical Survey send a party over to do it properly, once for all. This was ad- vocated by President Roosevelt in a special message to Congress, but the commission refused to have it done, perhaps because they thought they could do it without outside help. For the regulation of the taking up of homesteads, a sound scheme, ‘sug- gested by a member of the Bureau of Forestry, is that certain bodies of lana suitable for cultivation should be se- lected by the Bureau of Forestry and notifications sent around to the people of the neighborhood, so as to give any- body desiring a homestead a chance to send in an application. Then all these applicants could be moved bodily onto the land. The advantages of this scheme to the people themselves would be two- AMERICAN FORESTRY fold: First they would be kept to- gether in a community, which is the way they like to live; secondly, the haphazard, hit-or-miss element of the ignorant individual picking out a piece of land would be obviated. Of course, this would also enable the Cogan lands to be settled up where cultivating them did not involve too much hardship. In utilizing the forests the most astounding progress has been made from a lumbering point of view. From the silvicultural point of view, it is un- fortunate that conditions have forced the bureau to open up the forests so rapidly before more was known about how to cut them. But, considered broadly, the opening up of the forests, though perhaps not such a rapid open- ing, is the essential preliminary to their future management, without which nothing can be done, so that the amount of loss suffered in the beginning will be more than repaid in the end. For the control of logging opera- tions, certain logging rules have been laid down by the bureau in each case, so as to do as little injury to the forest as possible. For example, the rules for the Cadwallader concession in Bataan Province, on Manila Bay, are in sub- stance as follows: General, for agricultural and non- agricultural land. I. Forest on land below 500 feet ele- vation can be cut clean, because this land is considered agricultural. 2. Timber cut, used, or wasted in violation of the cutting rules,, or forest regulations, is to be paid for. 3. Tops, etc., are to be used for fire- wood wherever practical. 4. Felling is to be done with saws as far as possible. 5. No trees are to be left lodged. 6. No stumps are to be higher than the principal buttress, or, without but- tresses, than the diameter of the tree on the stump. 7. Defective logs with fifty per cent or more of clear, sound timber shall be utilized. 8. Minor products shall be gathered if possible. HORE Si. PROBES IN tite PHLCIPPINES 151 Cutting rules for non-agricultural land: 1. Diameter limit of forty centimeters (fourteen inches) breast height for Lavan, Apitong, Panao, Giujo, Tan- guile, or trees of the first group. 2. All sound trees of other species may be cut, and those of more than seventy- five centimeters must be cut and utilized. 3. None of the above-mentioned species or first group woods shall be used for logging construction, except with the special permission of the forest officer in each case. 4. Workmen must not destroy seed- lings of the above-mentioned species or first group. The chief objections to these rules are that, firstly, it is unwise to clear- cut a part of the forest for agricultural land when it is not needed for settle- ment and may not be needed for a good many years. Secondly, the diameter limit of fourteen inches is far too low. A limit of twenty-four inches would not cause much loss to the lumberman and would save some fine young poles. The concessions taken up are being worked with characteristic American enterprise. On two concessions logging railroads have been run up into the forests and regular stream logging, hauling the logs to the railroad by donkey engines, is being carried on. On one concession, that of the Insular Lumber Company, the operations are an exact copy of the lumbering opera- tions of a large company in Seattle, Wash., and the sawmill, of 100,000 board-feet daily capacity, is as thor- oughly fitted up with up-to-date appli- ances and as well run as almost any mill in America. It must be remem- bered that all this is a new venture, be- lieved to be utterly impossible a few years ago. It has rendered not only possible, but profitable, the utilization of the large quantities of Diptocarps, until recently considered practically useless. We now come to the keynote of the whole policy of the bureau—the estab- lishment of forest reserves. Until re- cently the necessity for doing this was not fully realized. Hence, with the ex- ception of one small reserve at Limao, across the bay from Manila, none has so far been established. Since the policy was started prelim- inary work has occupied the entire at- tention of the bureau. It was first necessary, Of course, to locate the for- ests before asking to have them re- served. This work consists of making a thorough reconnaisance survey of the whole islands, a very difficult undertak- ing. The only maps they have to begin with are what are called compilation maps. These are the regular coast- guard maps (giving merely the coast line’and an occasional prominent peak), on which they have put all the streams and villages which are known. They must have as many names of villages as possible, so as to be able to tell the cargidores (Filipino carriers) where they are going. Because the native will not start off so many miles in such and such a direction, but must know that he is going toward some village he has heard of. Often he will not go at all, thus creating a serious difficulty in this kind of work. The coast-guard maps are accurate enough with regard to the coast line itself, but are sometimes away off in giving the width of the islands. For instance, the northern part of the Island of Luzon was found to be six to ten miles wider than the coast-guard map gave it. Hence, they can be used only for putting in the forests along the coast. For the interior of an island they go through lengthwise and cross- wise as many times as is necessary to cover it all, keep trail notes by hand compass and pacing every foot of the way. These notes are plotted on cross- section paper in the field on a scale of 1 to 10,000. The sheets are sent in to the bureau and put onto the final map On, the scale of 1 to T00,000.. The for- ester who has done most of this work has wisely made the rangers keep the trail notes themselves, believing that it is better to have them learn to do it, even though it may not be done quite so well at first, because, when once they have learned to do it, it is easier to do A fair-sized Panao (Dipterocarpus vernict- the Cadwallader Concession in Bataan Province, at about 700 feet elevation. This picture also shows the all-aged character flus) on of the forest Felling a small Almon (Thorea species); showing the type of platform used to get above the but- tresses; also showing the uneven, aged character of the forest. Insular Lumber Company, North- ern Negros Donkey Engine and Yard at the Head of Logging Railroad. Insular Lumber Company Concession, it right than to do it wrong. He him- self examines the forests and collects specimens, sometimes as many as twenty a day. By this policy he is breaking in a force of useful rangers which he turns over to the administra- tive branch, with the exception of a few whom he retains to help break in the new ones next season. Consider- ing the rough method used, this work is done with astonishing accuracy, more than ample for the purpose. They have already covered most of the important islands in this way. With this data in hand, at any conference or public meet- ing they can show facts and results. They can make the people see that they are doing some work and know what they are talking about. Thus half the battle for the reserves is won already. To summarize the work being done: i hewwork of describing and classifying the flora of the forests ex- cels any work in the systematic botany so far done in the tropics. An ecolog- ical study of al the forests of the isl- ands is being made by the chief of the Branch of Investigation. 2. The investigation of the properties and uses of the different woods is be- ing carried on with greater thorough- Northern Negros ness than has ever before been done with tropical woods. 3. The foundation has been laid for a careful silvicultural study of the fees: 4. Concerning the relations of the forests to the population and the set- tlement of the land: (a) The question of supplying the needs of the local pop- ulation for firewood and building ma- terial has been solved by the formation of communal forests devoted solely to this purpose; (b) strenuous efforts have been made by the men in the Bureau of Forestry to prevent Caingins, but have been in vain on account of the smallness of the force, the indefinite- ness of the areas, and the lack of sup- port from headquarters; (c) nothing can be done with regard to settling up the Cogan lands until the invalid claims of the Caciques have been cleared up by the government; (d) toward ob- taining a survey of the islands, noth- ing has been done, but the worse than useless dabbling of the Bureau of Lands; (ec) a suggested plan for the regulation of homesteads is to have the land picked out by the Bureau of For- estry and a number of people moved on to it bodily as a community. 153 154 5. The forests have been opened up by the most up-to-date American method of logging controlled by log- ging rules. 6. The establishment of forest re- serves has been taken as the keynote of the whole policy of the bureau, and the preliminary work is being pushed with the utmost vigor. 7. The money for starting a rangers school has already been appropriated by the assembly. V—AN OPENING FOR AMERICANS All these most interesting problems present a splendid opportunity for Americans of the right sort to do some work which is sure to be of benefit to the islands and so, indirectly, to their own country. Of course, it would be useless to deny that the climate is less favorable for active work than that in the states. This only means, however, that a man must take better care of himself in the Philippines to keep in ordinary good health than he would have to do in the states. If he does take care of himself, there is no reason why he should suffer in the slightest from the difference in climate. Of course, the government will, sooner or later, have to open its eyes to the fact that if it wants a continued supply of good men, it will have to offer higher inducements. At present the salaries are but a small fraction of what they are in India, though the distance to the Philippines is far greater, and the cost of living much higher. The period of service should be greatly increased and a pension provided for a certain numbers of years’ active service in the islands. This would largely increase the force—a thing at present much to be desired—and would give it a more AMERICAN FORESTRY permanent character. Americans would then be eager to take up a work which for keenness of interest is unsurpassed anywhere in the world. VI—CONCLUSION The forest problems in the Philip- pines are of far more importance than in most countries. On account of the hilly nature of the islands (which are mostly volcanic), the preservation of the forests on the upper slopes is an absolute necessity for the protection of the water supply. And there is also strong evidence to show that forests not only regulate the run-off and retain water in the soil, but actually influence the total quantity of rainfall as well. In the Philippine Islands, as in no other country in the world, does the solution of the forest problem involve the solution of the land question. Upon the proper handling of this question depends the agricultural development of the country and hence the welfare of a people almost wholly dependent upon agriculture. The work being done by the Bureau of Forestry is such that no less a per- son than Doctor Treub, the most emi- nent botanist in the tropics, in speak- ing about forestry in tropical countries, said that the Americans had made more real progress in forestry in the ten years in which they have been in the islands than any other nation in all the time in which they have been in the tropics. It should, therefore, be the proud duty of every American to give his hearty support to work so well done and upon which in such a vital degree de- pends the whole future development and prosperity of a people whose best interests his country has pledged its honor to care for. | FORESTRY WORKERS OF LOUISIANA Hon. Henry E, Hardtner, Chairman of the Louisiana Conservation Commission, who was recently elected President of the Louisiana Forestry Association, Mr. Hardtner is a practical lumberman, who believes thoroughly in forest conservation and puts his belief into action THE EFFECT OF THE FOREST Uren WATERS Translation by MILDRED A, CASTLE, Wisconsin Department of State Forestry, of an Article, La Capacite Retentionelle de la Foret, from the Revue des Eaux et Forets, Paris, January 1 and 15, 1909, This translation of a temperate summing up of the results of European researches upon the subject of the effect of the forest upon waters is of especial value and interest at this time, when a determined effort is being made by men in high government positions in this country to discredit the experience of all nations and the conclusions of the most eminent forestry authorities and engineers associations that are endeavoring ( | YHE aim sought by the numerous to popularize the work of refor- estation is not only to ward off a certain deficit in the wood production of our country—a deficit that increases ever with the demands of industry ; it 1s also. and above all, to restore our national commerce and prosperity by rendering stream-flow uniform and by improving navigation in our network of rivers, notably that of our two great rivers in which navigation is becoming more dangerous and difficult every day, the Loire and Garonne. The remarkable zeal of the promoters of this campaign undertaken to pre- serve the existing forests and to in- crease reforestation in the mountainous regions, had its birth in the conviction that the presence of forests causes a more uniform stream flow, lessens the ravages of floods, and sustains springs and streams. It would seem, indeed, that the action of the forest in regulating stream flow and its favorable influence on floods, as well as on the feeding of springs and rivers, should no longer be in question to-day. The discussion of this question at the Congress of Navigation at Milan ina 1905 showed that there was a diver- gence of opinion among foresters, hy- draulic engineers and geographers. A recent article by the distinguished sec- retary of the staff of La Géographie [Charles Rabot], the review of the 150 upon the subject—THeE Eprror. geographical society, presented some points that tended to diminish to a con- siderable degree the value hitherto at- tributed to the perennial vegetation of forests in checking floods and regulat- ing stream flow. We beg permission to acquaint the readers of the Revue des Eaux et Forets with the ideas ad- vanced on one side and the other of this subject of vital importance, leaving it to them to draw such conclusions as they think right. THE CONGRESS AT MILAN Papers by Messrs. Wolfschutz, Lauda, Ponti, and Lokhtine In discussing, in the article referred to above, the papers given at the con- eress of Milan by Messrs. Keller, privy counsellor of the administration of buildings at Vienna (Austria), Lauda, counsellor superior to the minister of the interior, and director of the cen- tral bureau of hydrography of Vienna; Wolfschutz, agricultural counsellor at Brunn (Moravia), and Ponti, engineer in chief of the Italian corps of civil engineers, Charles Rabot expresses himself thus: “In France, under the influence of the forestry school, every virtue is at- tributed to forests and every evil is laid to deforestation. For more than Pipe Peel Or ih ehORE ST UPON WATERS fifty years it has been admitted as a scientific dogma that forests, by reason of their capacity to retain rainfall, have the power to diminish great floods in the rivers, and that deforestation is the main cause of inundations; it is like- wise to deforestation that progressive diminution in water-levels and in low water-flow is attributed, both so notice- able in recent years. In a word, we look upon the forests as regulators of stream-flow, as immense sponges gath- ering up the precipitation, however abundant it be, and restoring it after- ward gradually. “According to reports presented by the hydraulic engineers at the tenth meeting of the permanent association of the congress of navigation, held at Milan in 1905, we must discount to a large degree the influence of the forest upon stream-flow and upon springs.” So far as the eminent secretary of the Geographical Society is concerned, the statements made by those who pre- sented the reports establish clearly that the influence of the forest on the run- off from rainfall is nothing in times of flood; that it has nothing to do with the existence of springs, but that it 1s able to hold the soil on slopes, to dimin- ish the volume of matter carried away by streams, to lessen erosion, and to prevent land slips, except in cases of glacial formations. Mr. Charles Rabot adds that at the congress at Milan the partisans of the forest presented no facts and no observations in support of their theory, limiting themselves to affirmations without furnishing proofs. The conclusions drawn from the pa- pers referred to above by Mr. Rabot seem to us to be much too arbitrary; the reading of the same documents has not left with us the same impression. We would like to present to our read- ers at the very beginning the most strik- ing parts of the papers presented at the congress; we will discuss them afterwards. Mr. Wolfschutz has undertaken to show that the retentional power of the forest fails after an extraordinarily abundant rainfall of long duration. He 157 says in his report: “We must recognize that man is powerless against the prin- cipal causes of floods and of abundant Tranmmalllee According to Mr. Wolfschutz, there fell in the basin of the Rhine 209 milli- meters of water in three days, in No- vember, 1882; 215 millimeters in eight- een hours, August 2, 1888, in the Ries- enwald ; 187 millimeters in twenty-four hours, in July, 1897; 184 millimeters in forty-eight hours in 1897, in the basin of the Traun; 208 millimeters in two days in 1899 ; 242 millimeters in twenty- four hours at Riechenhall and at Alt- Aqisse, September 12 1so@, | in 1882. at the time of the Rhine floods, accord- ing to Honsell, it was the most heavily wooded watersheds (the Black Forest, the Hardt, the Spessart, the Fichtelge- birge, and the Odenwald) that contrib- uted most to swelling the waters of the Rhine. According to statements of the central bureau of hydrography, Vi- enna, the most heavily wooded water- sheds have often experienced the most disastrous floods, and it was thus in 1897 on the watersheds of the tribu- taries of the Elbe, in 1897, and in 1899, on the watersheds of the Enns, of the Traun, and of the Ybbs. Even the very dense covering of the Riesenwald had no influence on the floods in the streams of Silesia that occurred, following tor- rential rains, in August, 1888; July. 1897, and July, 1903. The powerlessness of man in the case of such an unusually heavy rain- fall is apparent to all, but if he is en- tirely unable to prevent its occurrence. he can, at least, lessen its disastrous effects. Mr. Wolfschtitz recognizes, moreover, that the reforestation of some square kilometers “exerts a pro- tective influence on the stream-flow of certain areas adjoining the forests in question or on cleared lands,” but that this local and restricted influence can- not extend far. The report of Mr. Lauda, director of the central bureau of hydrography, Vienna, is one of the most remarkable of those that were presented at the con- gress of Milan. He takes pains to tell 158 us in the beginning that “the study of water supply is one of the most difficult problems of hydrography.” To solve the problem, Mr. Lauda made minute and very accurate observations in 1903 and 1904, on the amount of rainfall and run-off in the basins of two rivers of Moravia, the Bistritzka and the Seniza. The distance between these two basins is about twenty kilometers. They are similar in the character of the soil, in topography, and in the relative propor- tion of different kinds of vegetation. Their areas are, respectively, 6,380 and 7,400 square kilometers, but forests cover forty-eight per cent of the terri- tory in the basin of the Bistritzka, while they cover only twenty-seven per cent in that of the Seniza. The conclusions drawn from these observations are not at all unfavorable to the forest. They are as follows: The retention of rainfall is im a certain measure greater in the more heavily wooded basin than in the less heavily wooded one. For abnormally heavy precipitation—as for example, at the time of flood—the retention is less in the more heavily wooded basin than in the one less rich in forested area that is to say that in the latter case, after reach- ing a certain degree of saturation, the surplus of water that was formerly retained by the forest flows off more perceptibly. _ After a dry period the effect of rainfall is manifested more rapidly and more pro- gressively in the less forested areas, while the inverse is true in the basin with the greater forest area. Mr. Lauda does not deny, then, the retentional capacity of the forest; on the contrary, he distinctly recognizes it, except in the case of extremely abund- ant rainfall, when the roles seem re- versed and the forest soil, saturated with water, no longer retains the rain that falls, but even allows the escape in part of water that it had retained be- fore. Mr. Lauda stated that on the roth of September, 1904, after a dry period of more than three months, a very heavy rainfall occurred of about the same depth in the two basins, but the rise of the waters did not become ap- parent in the basin of the Bistritzka, which is more heavily wooded, until two days after the flood occurred in the AMERICAN FORESTRY basin of the Seniza, which is less heav- ily forested. Similar observations were made in 1904. The retentional capacity of the forest after a dry period is then well estab- lished, and if it is not effective under all circumstances, it proves that the in- fluence of the forest has a limit, which is not to be wondered at. ; We might examine the figures given by Mr. Lauda; but even with the prob- ability that the volume of water con- stituting the run-off from each river could have been calculated exactly, al- though errors might easily be made in the case of high floods, it is difficult to admit that the amount of rainfall could have been gauged with sufficient accuracy. A number of rain gauges scattered over an area of 6,000 to 7,400 square kilometers is not sufficient to es- tablish mathematically the exact depth of rainfall. Moreover, is Mr. Lauda right in saying: “Final judgment can- not be passed yet, however, upon the in- fluence of forests on stream-flow, as the data that has been gathered up to the present covers only a relatively short period of time?” We must wait, then, before declaring the theories accepted up to now in regard to the influence of forests on floods, barred by limitation and before treating the action of the forest as merely claimed, not estab- lished. If Messrs. Wolfschutz and Lauda have appeared to some to oppose in their papers the ideas accepted up to now in regard to the action of forests in lessening floods and feeding springs, it is by no means the same with Messrs. Ponti and Lokhtine, whose papers are veritable pleas in favor of the forest. In reading them, one is convinced that at the congress at Milan the “partisans of the forest” have indeed furnished some facts and interesting observations to support their claims. Mr. Ponti gave in his paper a strik- ing picture of the condition to which Sardinia was reduced after the clear- ings made on the island in 1870, which lowered the percentage of forested area from forty-three per cent to twenty-six Pub een nek Oh itt rORESIE UPON WATERS per cent; floods in the rivers became more rapid, channels were filled with debris, and bridges were carried away. In Sicily, deforestation has likewise had the effect of raising the level of the river beds; in the province of Campo- basso (Molise) cuttings made over one- third of the land surface deepened the beds of the streams greatly, and caused the breaking down of the river banks to such an extent that one-tenth of the ground was carried away. Reforesta- tion has produced opposite effects in the province of Grosseto (Tuscany), Avellino (Campania), and Sondrio (Lombardy). In Sondrio reforestation diminished the floods. Mr. Ponti also cites the floods of the Adda in 1806 and 1817, and of the Malero, 1834, which followed very closely upon deforesta- tion. We will discuss at greater length Mr. Lokhtine’s paper, which treats above all of the action of forest veg- etation on the flow of springs and streams. This savant cites numerous examples of streams that have dried up and disappeared following deforesta- tion. It is in this way, he says, that the springs around Rome, Vienna, and Constantinople disappeared after cut- tings had been made on the hills that surround these cities. A Roman aqueduct brought to Or- leans water from hot springs. There is not a trace left of these springs to-day. Becquerel reported the case of a stream of Caunau, in the commune of Labru- guiere (Tarn), which in former times furnished power for several fulling mills; after the deforestation of the slopes of the Black Mountain, this stream was subject to sudden floods and its flow diminished to such a de- gree that work could no longer be car- ried on. After the denuded areas had been reforested, the flow increased and became more regular ; the mills were re- opened and could be operated uninter- ruptedly. The hills that surround Heilbronn (Wurtemberg) are covered with a for- est growth, which is subject to regular cuttings made every twenty years. It 159 has been declared that the flow from the springs diminished when the soil was denuded following a cutting, and that it increased when the forest growth had gained possession of the ground again. Marchal cites similar cases in Switz- erland. The Swiss engineer, R. Lau- terburg, states that, for an equal area, springs issuing from forested water- sheds have a flow five to ten times greater than those from denuded water- sheds. According to the same author, the destruction of the forests that took place in the canton of Tessin during the first half of the nineteenth century reduced by more than one-quarter the flow of the Adige during low-water pe- riods. Messrs. Shriner and Copeland, who mapped four townships around Monroe (state of Wisconsin, United States) in 1904, observed that the percentage of forested area in this region had been reduced in a period of seventy years from eighty-three to six per cent. The water level of the rivers had lowered steadily ; the consequences of deforesta- tion had become more apparent than ever since 1887. More than forty kilo- meters of streams are dry during the entire year ; numerous mills have ceased to operate. In Kazan, on the tributaries of the Sviyaga River, there were formerly seventy mills which operated steadily. Scarcely thirty are left, which are idle during the summer for lack of water. and are operated with one-third as many millstones as formerly. The influence of forest vegetation on the flow of springs and uniformity of stream-flow is manifested very clearly, says Mr. Toursky, in the upper basin of the Dnieper, where all the streams and small rivers issue from forested territory and have a regular and constant flow. In central Russia, on the contrary, de- forestation has dried up the streams; in the grounds surrounding ancient ma- norial houses, fish-ponds have dried up and there is no water in the parks, where streams formerly flowed under ornamental bridges of bizarre forms. 160 According to Mr. Zbrojek, an expe- dition organized in 1894 by the minister of qericuleure of Russia, and led by Lieutenant-general Tillo, found that the upper course of the Dnieper, in a heav- ily wooded region, holds thirty-four per cent of water per square verst; the Molenka and Nemochtchnaia,the basins of which are less heavily wooded, retain twenty-eight to thirty-one per cent, while the Liodivitch River, the basin of which is entirely denuded, holds only thirteen per cent. In the basin of the Oka, the same commission found that the percentage of water held rises to thirty-nine per cent in the drainage basin of the Libotije River, which 1s pretty well covered with forests, while it is only twenty-nine per cent in that of the Traun, which is deforested. In Russia, as in France, there are numerous historic evidences of the diminution of stream-flow. Streams have dried up in places where the re- mains of boats and other instruments of navigation are found and where the existence of navigation in former times is confirmed by old documents. The lowering of the average stream level of the Scura at Pranzine from 1888 to 1900 followed upon extensive clearings on its watershed. A lowering has likewise been observed in the av- erage stream level of the Bielaja at Oufa from 1887 to 1900, following upon clearings made on its upper water- shed; on the contrary, the level re- mained the same at Grouzdevka on the lower watershed of the Bielaja, where the forests were preserved. The ay- erage stream level in summer of the Volga was lowered at Rybinsk, at Kos- troma, and at Nijni-Novgorod, follow- ing the deforestation of that part of the watershed. The diagrams that accom- pany Mr. Lokhtine’s report show this phenomena in a striking way. These are the most salient facts and the most interesting observations pointed out by Mr. Lokhtine. It is very much to be regretted that Mr. Rabot has passed them over in silence and has not reviewed them with his well-known ability ; it would have been very profit- able to us. ; AMERICAN FORESTRY The following conclusions are reached in Mr. Lokhtine’s report: “Forests are a beneficial factor, acting favorably upon an abundance of water in a coun- try, in general, and in particular upon maintaining an even stream-flow. It is for this reason that the destruction of forests should be considered danger- OUuSsos These conclusions should be com- pared, moreover, with those at the close of Mr. Lauda’s report, reproduced else- where by Mr. Rabot in the article cited above. “The utility (of the forest an) -cen- eral, as well as its great value in pro- tecting the soil against landslides, ap- pear the more vindicated, because, at the same time, it retains loosened soil, and its advantages from the point of view of the diminution of waste matter carried by the streams, especially on the watersheds of the sources, are so im- portant that this reason alone should be a sufficient motive for undertaking reforestation as actively as possible.” Il We have tried to give in the first part of this study as complete and faith- ful an analysis as possible of the prin- cipal reports presented at the congress at Milan. We now wish to try to show that beside the facts and observations brought to the congress by Messrs. Ponti and Lokhtine, to cite only those two, there are others on which we are able to support a scientific conviction that the forest has a favorable action upon floods, and the maintenance of springs and stream-flow. THE FOREST AND FLOODS The principal factors that work to- gether to produce floods are exception- ally heavy rainfall, the geological form- ation of the soil, and the topography of the land through which the streams flow. A very theavy rain falling for several days on very steep slopes com- posed of impermeable soil, such as those of the southern slopes of the Cevennes, ends to a certainty in dangerous floods, Vitel Ore Tih FOREST UPON WATERS like those that devastated Languedoc in the auttmnot 1907 and very re- cently. Man is necessarily helpless in the face of meteorological phenomena, but he can lessen their consequences by protecting the soil against erosion, and by diminishing the proportion of detri- tus carried by the run-off. It is not necessary for us to offer proof upon this point, the truth of which is defi- nitely admitted by Messrs. Lauda and Charles Rabot. Since everyone is willing to recog- nize the efficacy of the “geological” role of the forest (to make use of the term employed by Mr. Rabot), it is a point calculated to make one concede also its action upon floods. The fact that the volume of detritic matter carried by the streams in periods of flood is notably diminished by the presence of the forest must have as a corollary a decrease in the violence of the floods, since it is recognized that the presence of the for- eign matter borne along in the current greatly roughens the action of the water. In fact, this detritic matter— sand, gravel, pebbles, and rocks—torn from the soil by the stream, raises the level of the stream beds, increases to a large degree the density of the waters, and, as a consequence, their power of undermining, and aids in the erosion of the steep banks. There is no lack of facts to estab- lish this moderating action of the forest. Mr. Marchand gives an example of a torrent at Weissenbach, in the canton of Appenzell, Switzerland, which for- merly became swollen at Weissenbach about three hours after the storms had burst upon the mountain; following a partial deforestation of the mountain, the floods became manifest at Weissen- bach only one hour after the appear- ance of storms. The presence of the forest, then, had the effect of delaying by two hours the manifestation of flood, and of increasing by four hours the duration of the run-off. Mr. Marchand has noticed a fact of a nature to prove that there is a diminu- tion in detritus carried by the water because of the forest growth. In the 161 great forest of Ofen, canton of Grisons, he saw numerous mud-burdened chan- nels deposit the sediment with which they were charged among the fir trees, and yield only pure, clear water where they issued from the forest. The diminution of run-off resulting from the presence of forests must be attributed on the one hand to the re- tention by the forest foliage of a part of the rainfall, a fact verified by the experiments of Marshal Vaillant in 1866 in the forest of Fontainebleau, by those of Mr. Fautrat in the forests of Halatte, and of Ermenonville (1874- 1877), and by those of Mr. Mathieu in the forest of Haye; on the other hand, to the innumerable obstacles, the boles of the trees and shrubs, the twigs, the dead leaves, and the inextricable net- work of roots, all of which break up the rainfall and delay the off-flow. But it is above all to the great absorptive power of the layer of dead leaves, of plant debris and humus, which covers the surface of the forest soil; of moss, herbs, and bushy plants, which grow under the leafy arches of the trees, which, altogether, form what we call the forest floor, that we must attribute the retention of the greater part of the rainfall and of the water formed by the melting of snow. This water, held atthe surface, penetrates the soil slowly and unites with the subterranean waters which give birth to springs. A great part is absorbed, besides, by the roots of the plants in the ascensional move- ment of the sap, and forms a part of their nourishment. THE RETENTION OF WATER BY THE FOREST FLOOR The retentional capacity of the forest floor has been established by experi- ments made in Germany and in France, with great scientific accuracy, the re- sults of which we will state briefly. Gerwig admits that, upon a surface of one square meter, moss retains on an average 4,466 kilograms of water. Consequently, it is able to retain ten to thirty millimeters of water. 162 Investigations undertaken by Bavar- ian foresters upon the volume of water that dead leaves and other organic debris of the forest floor can absorb have been recorded by Ebermayer. These investigations have shown that one cubic meter of dry beech leaves absorbs two to two and a half times its weight of water, one cubic meter of dry needles of spruce and sylvester pine one and a half to two times its weight of water, and one cubic meter of moss two and a half to three times its weight of water. The Bavarian foresters might be crit- icized for having experimented on leaves that were more or less stirred up, not lying as they do on the ground, the experiments having been made upon a certain volume of leaves dried in the air, heaped in a vessel, then placed in a sack, which was plunged into water and weighed after two days’ saturation. The lamented Julien Calas, chief guard of the forests at Prades, made experiments on the forest floor ex- actly as it lies on the ground. It was weighed the first time after complete saturation and the second time after be- coming entirely dry through evapora- tion in the open air. According to Mr. Calas, oak leaves absorb nine times their weight of water, those of the beech and pine eight and five times their weight of water. Finally Mr. Henry, professor in the national school of waters and forests, likewise experimented with the forest floor just as it lies on the soil. After a section of it had been plunged into water for several days, until it was com pletely saturated, he let it drain, weighed it saturated with water, then dried it at 100 degrees and weighed it again. He found that a carpet of spruce needles, taken as they lie and composed of leaves in all degrees of decomposition, absorbs on an average more than four times its weight of water. *E. Henry, Faculté June 15, 1904, pp. dimbibition de 253) LOMsOn- la couverture morte, According to M. AMERICAN FORESTRY Beech leaves, after twelve days of saturation, absorb 4.41 times their weight of water. Mr. Henry con- cludes from his experiments that the spruce needles which cover the forest soil over one hectare can retain 105,825 kilograms of water; that is, a rainfall of ten and one-half millimeters for an average depth of “02 ‘of a meter, sexs clumps of spruce retain in their tops and allow to evaporate there about half the rainfall, it would require a fall of 21 millimeters for the soil under the needles to begin to become moist. It is evident that the retentional ca- pacity of the soil cover is not infinite and that it fails following rains that are exceptionally heavy, such as those cited by Mr. Wolfschiitz ; but such rain- falls are fortunately rare, and neither the facts noted by Mr. Wolfschtitz nor the hydrological observations of Mr. Lauda lessen the value of the experi- ments that we have just reviewed; finally, as the latter said, the data that we have gathered up to the present time is not sufficient basis for a final judgment. We may wonder, it is true, that densely wooded river basins have been visited by disastrous floods. But is not the cause of this phenomena the more abundant rainfall there? We know ab- solutely that the presence of forests increases to a marked degree atmos- pheric precipitation. In mountainous countries, especially, forests cause fre- quent atmospheric depression because they block the passage of air currents and force them upward toward the higher strata of air, which are colder. The air within and above the forest is, moreover, colder and more humid than the surrounding air. The result is fre- quent condensation of the clouds into rains in the neighborhood of mountain forests. Consequently, it is not to be wondered at that the streams of the forested regions cited by Mr. Wolf- Revue des Eaux et Forets, Henry, the differences that appear between the results of his experiments and those obtained by the German foresters come from the differences in the degree of decomposition of the leaves. constitutes sition of the debris that of imbibition. organic the forest The further advanced the decompo- floor, the greater is the capacity fap PPPBCT OF THE FOREST UPON WATERS schtitz have carried more water than the streams of the plain. But what it is nec- essary to know is whether, all other con- ditions being equal, and the quantity of the rainfall being the same, the rivers issuing from the wooded regions have a greater or less flow than those whose watersheds have been deforested. Without going to Germany for exam- ples, do we not know that the streams that descend from the departments of the Vosges mountains, upon which a good proportion of forest area has been preserved, do not have as frequent nor as disastrous floods as the torrents that plow the slopes of the denuded Alps, or the streams of irregular flow that issue from the deforested Cevennes (Ardeche, Lot, Tarn, Dourbie, Loire, Allier) or from the waste lands of the Central Plateau (Cher, Sioule, Creuse). The proportion of forest area of the Vosges is thirty-five per cent, while that of the Alps of Savoy is twenty-one per cent, that of the Alps of Dauphiny (Isere, Drome, and Hautes-Alpes) thirteen per cent, that of the Alps of Provence (the Lower Alps and Mari- time Alps) is twelve per cent, that of the Central Plateau and of the Ceven- nes, twelve and one-fifth per cent. The meteorological bulletin of the department of Aude has given us some facts of value upon the effects of a storm that occurred September 12, 1893, which was the most violent of the year and caused considerable dam- age throughout the whole region. All the tributaries of the Aude experienced sudden floods, and that river rose five meters at Saint Marcel. But what oc- curred in the basin of the Salz is more worthy of attention. The storm lasted an hour and a half and there was a rainfall of sixty millimeters. The Blanque River, which unites with the Salz nine kilometers above Couiza, and which, like it, flows down slopes almost entirely denuded, immediately rose one meter and devastated a large amount of property along the river, especially at Rennes-les-Bains; at Couiza the flood was greater and the frightened inhab- itants feared a repetition of the dis- 4 163 asters of 1891. In the basin of the Rialsesse, which flows into the Salz six kilometers above Couiza, the amount of the rainfall was sixty millimeters, also. However, ‘this river did not overflow, nor cause any damage. It must be noted that if the Salz and the Blanque are fed by streams that flow down de- nuded slopes, the basin of the Rial- sesse, on the contrary, is heavily wooded and 1,680 hectares have been refor- ested. It would be difficult to find a more striking example of the influence of forest cover on floods. THE INFLUENCE OF FOREST GROWTH ON SPRINGS Mr. Charles Rabot makes use of the assertions of Messrs. Lauda and Wolf- schiitz to deny absolutely the favorable influence of forests upon the feeding of springs and the regulation of stream- flow. However, the relation that exists be- tween deforestation and the disappear- ance of springs is established beyond a doubt. The springs of Bresle dried up about 1840, after clearing off a forest of some importance, situated in the parish of Formerie (Oise). The source of the Arrivaux River descended toward Breuil (Somme) one kilometer soon after the forest of Cressy was cut in 1837. The clearings made in the forest of Arronaise were injurious to ' all the streams that flowed from it to Escaut and Somme. Mr. E. Charlemagne has given an instance to the point in the Revue des Eaux et Forets of the disastrous effects that the heedless cutting of forests may have upon stream-flow. After the death of Don Bouthillier de Rancé, the abbé of la Trappe leased the iron works connected with the monastery to pri- vate parties for twelve years. It was necessary, according to the biography of Don Pierre the Dwarf, sub-prior of the monastery, “to destroy the forests of la Trappe in order to maintain the furnace fires, and it is impossible to tell how far-reaching the effects were. The springs soon dried up and the ponds 104 AMERICAN yielded water only six weeks in the whole year.” This was written in 1715. Near the little village of Orgelet (Jura) at the foot of the east slope of the Orgier Mountam, in the parish of Plaisia, there is a spring called the fountain of Plaisia, which disappeared during the entire time that the moun- tain remained cleared of its forests (from the end of the eighteenth cen- tury to the middle of the nineteenth) and reappeared thirty years ago when the work of reforesting the slope had been finished. Numerous inhabitants of the country testify to this fact. Mr. Alphonse Mathey has noted an interesting fact in an article entitled “The influence of the forest on the flow and the regularity of springs.” Ac- cording to the testimony of the mayor of Flacey (Cote d’Or), the spring sup- plying his village had always had a constant and regular flow as long as the limestone uplands from the foot of which it issued, remained covered with a coppice of vigorous oak over an area of 100 hectares. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, this area hav- ing been deforested, the spring no longer had a regular flow and entirely ceased to flow the greater part of the time. The same author recounts observa- tions made by Mr. de Rothenbach, di- rector of the water service of the city of Berne, on the flow of the springs of that city. The flow per minute of two of them, the Schliern and the Gasel. va- ried from one to two and seven-tenths and from one to four and one-tenth, while the variation of a third spring, that of Scherli, is represented by the numbers one and six and seven-tenths. Now, the basin of the springs of Gasel and Schliern is sheltered by a consid- erable mass of forests, while that of Scherli comes from a mountain partly deforested. These investigations clearly prove that the presence of the forest tends to give the springs a regular and constant flow. Other observations also prove that the forest, during dry times, gives out slowly the water that it has stored up during a rainy period. Thus FORESTRY during the summer of 1893, which was marked by a long and destructive dry period, the spring of Scherli reached its smallest flow September 3, 1893; that of Gasel did not reach its low-water mark until three months and a half later; that of Schliern six months and a half later. : In Algeria, “the trees disappeared and the springs dried up,” said Doctor Courchon ; “in the canton of Bouffarik. formerly noted for its rich water sup- ply, fifteen springs decreased in two years from 1,316 to 710 liters; rivers such as the Oued Chemla, which had a flow in 1864 of 150 to 18o liters, no longer yield more than from seventy to eighty liters; the Qued Kremis, which had a flow in 1864 of from 100 to 200 liters, in 1881 had a flow of only fifteen liters. The water supply of cities like Saint-Denis-du-Sig disappeared and water was shipped in over the rail- ways. The water in the canals of the city of Algiers diminished from year to year. At the gates of the city a striking example of the dearth of water can be observed: Thirty years ago the Oued M’Kacel in its cool valley had the power to turn four mills; to-day water and mills have disappeared with the forest that covered Mount Bouza- réa.” The eminent geographer Onésime Reclus cited the example of the city of Tunis, which was formerly supplied with pure water from the springs is- suing from Mount Zaghouan, springs that have disappeared since the moun- tain was deforested. The flow of the streams diminished notably at Martinique after the island was deforested, a result of extensive cuttings to make charcoal. In the same way the canal, made in 1867 by Admiral de Gueydon to convey good water to Fort-de-France, diminished considerably, and the government of the colony has very recently adopted measures to check the deforestation. Mr. Crahay, inspector of waters and forests at Brussels, noticed at Planchi- mont that the flow from the springs of La Sure became more regular after the THE EFFECT OF THE FOREST UPON WATERS region had been reforested with spruce for forty years. “One of them,” he wrote, “that gave no water during the summer, never dries up now, and issues seventy meters higher on the slope than did the former spring. At Bois-le- Francois, parish of Villers-devant- Orval, after clearing away an old cop- pice forest, two springs disappeared. The place where the water issued can be seen yet, and the little channel that it followed down the slope.” At the International Congress of Silviculture, which was held at Paris on the occasion of the exposition of 1900, Mr. Grebe, forester councilor at Eisenach (Alsace), cited numerous ex- amples of springs that had dried away or of diminutions in stream-flow noticed after deforestation in central Ger- many; he told, also, of cases where springs reappeared after reforestation had taken place. Another German for- ester, M. B. A. Bargmann, told of the disappearance of two springs in the valley on Saint Amarin (Alsace), after clearings had been made above them. At the same congress, Mr. Servier, a landholder at Lamure-sur-Azergues (Rhone) gave several interesting facts. The region in which he lives having been until late years almost completely deforested, he noticed that wherever a cluster of trees remained, their presence was coincident with the existence of a spring. On the western outskirts of a coppice wood a spring exists; the flow of this spring diminished continually when the coppice had been cut; it be- came normal when the coppice had shot up again. Observations made at the German forestry stations show that of 100 milli- meters of rain water falling upon for- ested territory, ten and one-half milli- meters evaporate; twenty are arrested by the crowns of the trees, twenty-five are retained by the forest floor. Forty- four and one-half, then, reach the up- per layers of the soil. On open ground, evaporation consumes sixty-eight and three-tenths millimeters. Only thirty- one and seven-tenths millimeters, then, penetrate the soil. If the quantity of 165 fain was the same in the forest and out- side, the presence df the forest would augment, then, by twelve and one-half per cent, or about one-eighth, the pro- portion of water absorbed by the ground. Without doubt, it is very difficult to prove incontestably the influence of for- estation or deforestation upon a par- ticular spring, as it is impossible to ex- actly determine the area that feeds the spring. Nevertheless, the observations that have just been cited, and to which many others could be added, justify us in arriving at conclusions favorable to forest influence. The facts verified by Mr. Fautrat in the forest of Halatte (Oise), by Messrs. Mathieu, Bartet, and de Drouin de Bou- ville in the forest of Haye (Meurthe- et-Moselle), from 1867 to 1898, estab- lish beyond a doubt that more rain falls over forest areas than over open coun- try (twenty-three per cent, on an av- erage) ; this increase of rainfall is not. moreover, counterbalanced by the re- tention of a part by the foliage of the trees. The diminution of evaporation and of surface off-flow resulting from the presence of the forest contribute equally to favor the nourishment of subterranean sheets of water, which give birth to springs. We cam say. then, with Mr. Hiffel that “the forest is the mother of rivers, as our fathers declared,” and that “the work of mod- ern science has only confirmed the re- lationship, recognized at all times and universally, which binds the spring to - the tree that shades it.” Mr. Hiffel has, moreover, described in his Economie Forestiére the experi- ments carried on since 1900 in the val- ley of the Emmenthal, by the Swiss central station of forestry research, in order to compare the flow of two water courses, one issuing from a basin con- taining only eighteen per cent of forest area, the other from a basin covered with forest over ninety-one per cent of its aréa. The learned professor has just announced that the verifications made up to the present have estab- lished : 166 First, that at the.time of the maxt- mum of high water, the channel of the deforested region carries thirty to fifty per cent more water per unit of sur- face than the wooded region. Second, that after prolonged dry pe- _riods, the springs of the deforested re- gion dry up completely and the bed of the stream is dry, while the stream from the wooded valley is still yielding at least five liters of water per second. Is it necessary to call attention to the fact that the observations of the Swiss foresters are in complete contradiction to the measurements of Mr. Lauda in Moravia, measurements given, more- over, with express reservations which we have cited above and that weaken very much the conclusions that some have wished to draw from them, hos- tile to the influence of the forest upon streams and springs? FORESTS AND THE REGULATION OF STREA M-FLOW “Forests,” says an eminent geogra- pher, “play an important role in the regulation of rivers. They retain for some time the rainfall and lessen the volume of flood flow. Wherever for- ests have been destroyed, stream-flow has always become more irregular and floods have increased in number and violence.” The clearings made throughout the basin of the Mediterranean caused a diminution in the flow of the streams. Crete no longer has the superb forests of Mount Ida, in which the infant Jupi- ter was concealed, guarded by the naiad Amalthaea. It has only floods now. One would search Greece in vain for the cool shadows of Algidus, the black forests of Erymanthus, of Taygetus, and of verdant Cragus or the famous forests of Dodona from whence Oro- pus was born, sad Acheron and Thya- mis. All these rivers with the poetical and pleasing names, of which the an- AMERICAN FORESTRY cients have left us faithful descriptions, became unimportant streams after the mountains from which they issued had been stripped of the forests that cov- ered them. The rivers of Asia Minor, issuing from deforested uplands, have like- wise changed in stream-flow; they are burdened with an enormous amount of detritus, and their beds are incumbered with deposits of sand and gravel which are an obstacle to navigation; several rivers have disappeared completely. Numerous streams in Asia Minor which were still navigable in ancient times and in the middle ages became inac- cessible to boats after the region had been deforested. This was the case with the Cestros (Ak-su), with the Calycadnus (Ermenek), with the San- garius (Sakaria), and with several streams flowing into the Black Sea de- scribed as navigable by Arrian. In the northern part of Korea, where the forests are still intact, the varia- tions in the level of the water courses are insignificant, while in the southern part, where the forests have been al- most entirely destroyed, floods develop rapidly and unexpectedly.’ Vicomte de Vaulserre, who explored in 1898 the course of the Yang-tse-Kiang River from Su-chow te Ta-li-fu. attributes the enormous variations in its flow and the flow of its tributaries to the absence of forests on the mountain slopes of Thibet, which constitute the upper basin of this river.’ The Russian rivers are valuable means of communication in a country almost destitute of railways. For a long time they were the only means of communication, by boat in the sum- mer and by sleds in the winter. These “are the allies of the Russians against that which they call their great enemy, distance,” and they have contributed not a little to the conquest and unifica- tion of the empire. ‘‘Unfortunately,”’ says again Mr. Cameéna d’Almeida, 2 Rene ral Nera ; i i P. Caména d’Almeida, la Ture, ’Amérique, l’Australasie, Paris, 1904, Colin, p. 103. “J. Deniker, la Géographie, V, 1 er, 1902. 4 Ld S ‘La Géographie, I, 1 er, 1900, Pp. 451. 3A A.-P. Rambaud, Histoire de la Russia, Paris, Hachette, p. 8. iat en hPe th Ore lik FOREST UPON WATERS “people have not been wise enough to preserve these rivers throughout the country in their primitive condition. The extensive cuttings made in the for- est regions of the central part have brought on disastrous results, a diminu- tion in the rainfall, too rapid melting of the snow, the carrying away of the agricultural soil, a greater diffusion of the sands of the southeast, which form bars in the rivers, in the Volga espe- cially, detrimental to navigation.” In summer the bed of the Volga is incum- bered with sandy shoals; sandbanks are heaped up at the confluences and navi- gation is impossible from Tver to Ry- binsk except through a beacon-lighted channel. ‘These inconveniences have been increased by the heavy cutting of the great forest region that the. Volga traverses.” The width of the Don is thirty kilometers; but during the low- water period, the bed of the river is obstructed with sandbanks, which make navigation impossible. According to a Russian’ engineer, Mr. Maksimovitch, the Dnieper River is fed by the marshy forest regions of the central plateau of Russia, in which its upper tributaries have their source. In the forest zone which extends south- west as far as the outskirts of Kief, thirty to forty per cent of the land is forested and the rainfall reaches 400 millimeters; in the region where for- ‘ests occupy only from twenty to thirty per cent of the territory, condensation is less frequent and the rainfall does not go beyond 300 millimeters; in the neighboring regions of the steppes where the percentage cf forest area is only one or two, although the sky is frequently overcast with clouds, they but rarely condense, as a natural con- sequence of the warmth of the denuded soil and the absorption of the water vapor by the equally warm atmosphere, and the rainfall reaches no greater a depth than 200 millimeters. In Australia forests cover only five and six-tenths per cent of the terri- tory; they are found only on the west- ern coast, in the southeast part of south- ern Australia and to the east upon the 167 high plateaus and the slopes of the di- viding range. Rains are rare and the precipitation small, except upon the eastern coast and to the southwest of Westralia; the basin of the Murray is almost entirely barren and dry. Some- times a whole year passes without a single drop of water falling in the cen- tral region west of Spencer Gulf. The stream-flow shows extreme variations everywhere in the Australian continent and the rivers are generally unfit for navigation. in spite of the immense extent of its basin. which is more than a million square kilometers and equals that of the Ganges, the Murray River, longer than the Rhine, discharges hardly 350 cubic meters per second at its mouth, which is less than the Seine discharges at Paris. The discharge of the Mur- rumbidgee, the length of which is 2,160 kilometers, is also one of the most irregular; it often inundates the lower parts of the district of Riverina, but at certain seasons its bed is nearly dry as far as Hay. At the time of rains the Darling has formidable floods; it rises thirteen meters and its bed is ex- tended for a length of ninety-six kilo- meters; its volume during some days is from 40,000 to 45,000 cubic meters per second, four times more water than the Loire carries in flood. The rest of the year this river, which is 3,124 kilo- meters in length (nearly the length of the Indus or the Volga), shows, be- tween its deep embankments, only pu- trid, motionless pools; it ceased to flow during eleven months, from February, 1902, to January, 1903; from 1877 to 1886, ten years, there were only fifty- seven months that it could be used for navigation. In 1902 the Lachlan, an- other tributary of the Murray, 1.120 kilometers in length, was dry for nine months. The Australian rivers have great erosive power and flow between steep banks, which often have a height of fifteen or twenty meters. Along the lower course of the Murray, the river flows between two escarpments from forty to forty-seven meters in height : 108 the naked roots of the gum-trees hang sadly from the top of the compact clay banks. The Ohio River, which descends from the now denuded slopes of the Alleghany Mountains, “is the cause of the largest and most disastrous floods in the Mississippi.’”” The streams swell very rapidly in the southern and west- ern part of the Alleghanies, and it is not unusual for a river to rise twentv meters in a few hours. On the banks of the Kansas River, a tributary of the Missouri, one can observe the remarkable effect that for- est vegetation has in protecting the soil against erosion by floods. A _ stretch of about two hectares, which had been deforested in 1900 was carried away in May, 1903, by a flood. The steep bank of the river, being no longer protected by the trees that had grown along the edge, was swept away and the flood covered twenty-four hectares of arable land with sterile sand. Above this point, where the owners on the river had taken care to preserve the trees along the edge of the bank, the flood caused no erosion." It has been verified in the United States that the flow of the rivers and streams has decreased in all deforested regions. Certain streams near Boston, the power of which was formerly util- ized in manufacturing enterprises, no longer have sufficient flow and the man- ufacturers have been obliged to use steam. The tributaries of the Connecti- cut have diminished considerably in volume and the beds of some are dry during summer.* Mire I Ps sukens: reports time athe magazine Forestry and Irrigation a striking example of the influence of forests in regulating stream-flow in southern California. The basin of the San Gabriel River, which includes an area of 222 square miles, having been burned over by fires that destroyed all the forest vegetation, the flow of the *P. Caména d’Almeida, la Terre, Amérique, l’Australie, p. 192 AMERICAN FORESTRY stream at low water was reduced to ninety inches. During the same pe- riod the minimum flow of the San An- tonio River, the basin of which, 267 square miles in extent, was forested over more ‘than one-half the area, did not fall below ninety inches [190 inches according to Mr. Lukens’ account]. In’ the same ,journal -Mr. Wee B. Greeley gives an. account of some in- vestigations made by the United States Forest Service from 1901 to 1903 of the flow of the Esopus and of the Wallkill, tributaries of the Hudson River. The drainage basin of the latter stream, of clay and marl formation and with mod- erate slopes, contains five and four- tenths per cent of natural reservoirs (lakes, swamps, or ponds) ; eighty-five per ‘cent fof thesaiea 15) cleared... aise basin of the Esopus is of permeable soil; the topography is very irregular and the slope in general twice as steep as in the basin of the Wallkill. Clear- ings have been made over only fifteen per cent of the area. The precipitation and temperature being the same in the two basins, it has been found that the average deviation from the mean weekly flow in the two streams, during the three years, was seventy-eight and one-fifth per cent for the Wallkill and eighty-three and seven-tenths per cent for the Esopus. The presence of for- est growth in the basin of the latter stream counterbalances the unfavorable conditions of topography, and geologic formation of the soil and the absence of lakes and other natural reservoirs. A publicist whose economic studies of Germany and the United States have classed him as without an equal, writes in regard to the forests of Canada: “Recent federal laws have just regu- lated the cutting of timber, which was. carried on formerly in too destructive a manner. The people have come to the conclusion rightly that forests were not to be considered only as ‘a collec- tion of trees to cut down and make into ‘Forestry and Irrigation, Washington, February, 1904. : ‘al [e Lefaivre, attaché au Consulat général de France 4 New York. Rapport au Ministre, Bull. Min. Agriculture, fasc. B., 1885, imprimerie Nationale. Pai EPEC tT OR iin; PORBST UPON WATERS timber,’ but that they should be in part preserved, because they store up the rainfall, feed springs, regulate stream- flow, and thus prevent disastrous floods, such as were witnessed only last Feb- ruary and March in Pennsylvania and Virginia, where cuttings have been made without thought of the future.” In France we have numerous proofs of a notable diminution in stream-flow. The Durance, which rises in a partially deforested drainage basin, has become absolutely unfit for navigation or for floating timber. Yet, at the time of the Roman occupation, there was an impor- tant organization of boatmen on that river. The Loire was formerly a navigable channel of the highest order, which af- forded sure communication between Nantes and the central provinces. In 1551 the Marquis of Northampton, am- bassador from England, went from Or- leans to Nantes, with his suite, in “five large, many-cabined boats.’’ Numerous pictures dating from the eighteenth century represent Orleans and Blois animated with veritable flotillas of boats of every kind. At the time when Gaston d’Orléans was exiled to Blois by Richelieu (1634-37), he went down the Loire by boat as far as Brittany, having “‘dinner and soup served in beautiful, shady places” when he found “some beautiful and pleasant isle.” At that time these covered boats were called galliots; they carried in them “a large amount of provisions and a retinue of servants, as well for the kitchen as the wardrobe.” Madame de Sevigné went from Or- leans to Rochers by “the delightful route of the River Loire” and found at Orleans twenty boatmen around her, “each one displaying to the best of his ability the rank of the people he was conveying and the beauty of his boat.’”” Steamboats furnished service as far as Nevers during the first half of the nineteenth century. 169 Upon the Allier, transportation by boats was flourishing. Madame de Montespan, returning in 1676 from the watering place Bourbon-l’Archambault, embarks at Moulins, upon a painted and gilded boat, the interior hung with red damask, and adorned with pen- nants displaying the arms of France and Navarre. In 18109, the passage of 2,178 boats was recorded at Moulins ; this number rose to 3,524 in 1820, and to 4,718 in 1823. In 1837, 100,000 hec- toliters of coal were unloaded annually at Pont-du-Chateau. A line of steam- boats carried from Pont-du-Chateau to Vichy and Moulins in 1845 20,000 pas- sengers and 30,000 to 40,000 tons of merchandise. In 1890 only ninety-four tons of fuel and timber were carried down the Allier; there is no navigation ascending the river. At the present time navigation, al- most null on the Allier, is impossible on the Loire above Saumur. The bed of the river has risen with frightful rapidity because of the enormous vol- ume of matter torn from the soil of the mountains of the central plateau that it carries with every flood. It has been shown in fact that the remains of Roman villas recently discovered on its shores are several meters lower than the present level of the river. It is the same with the old Roman churches, into which it is necessary to descend as into caves, and yet it is impossible to sup- pose that their architects built them below the level of the river. The build- ing of dikes, instituted in the seven- teenth century along the Loire to pro- tect the cultivated fields of the valley against the overflowing of the river, coincides exactly with the time of the clearings made on the mountains of the central plateau, that Colbert tried in vain to check. Forests cover hardly thirteen per cent of the area of the drainage basin of the Loire, which is, moreover, com- posed of impermeable ground. The *Jules Huret, En Amérique, de San Francisco au Canad, Paris, 1905, E. Fasquelle, p. 46r. *Nicolas Goulas, Mémoires. VAT 1689, etc. ime de Sévigné. Lettres a Mme de Grignan, 9 Mai, 1680; 16 Sept., 1684; 21 Mars, 170 mountains of Velay, those of Vivarais, of Forez, and of Margeride, the group of the Domes and of the Dore Moun- tains, show denuded slopes in every direction, favorable to a surface off- flow, furrowed by water channels and gullied by erosion; the plateaus of Millevaches and of Gentioux contain only sterile wastes, impotent to arrest the action of flood waters. On account of deforestation the Loire, like the Allier, is no longer in summer anything but a great stretch of sand. Let a storm come, a sudden thaw in spring, or prolonged rains in the autumn, “every depression of the ground gathers a torrent, every ravine confines a river, and all these waters, accumulated in the valley of the Loire, form a roaring sea, which reminds one of the great rivers of America.”” At Roanne, the flow at low water and the flow at times of flood is in the ratio of one to 1,458. The flow at Orleans oscillates between twenty-four cubic meters per second and 7,500, which is more than 300 times the flow at low water. Five days are sufficient to re- store the almost dried-up river and to raise the water level to six or seven meters. The Pyrenees offer numerous ex- ‘amples of the sad effects of deforesta- tion upon stream-flow. Dralet, in his “Description of the Pyrenees,” pub- lished in 1813, tells us that the Tet, a small stream of the eastern Pyrenees, could not be used to float rafts and timber after the removal of the forests that covered a part of its upper drain- age basin. The Salat and its tribu- taries, likewise but lately floatable, are only torrents now that the mountains that overlook their valleys have been cleared of forests. In the parish of Saint-Girons one can see yet in a wall built in 1130 chains which were used to hold rafts; in 1813 they were found to be at an elevation of one meter and had become useless, the navy no longer finding wood to cut in the territory around Seix and Castillon. The Salat Bordeaux. AMERICAN FORESTRY was formerly navigable from the port of Saint-Girons to its confluence, and the village of Lacave, sixteen kilo- meters below Saint-Girons, was at that time the center for the building of boats for river navigation. Numerous documents preserved in the municipal archives of Pamiers prove conclusively that in the thirteenth century the Ariege was navigable from Pamiers, while at present it is navi- gable oniy for thirty-one kilometers, be- low Cintegabelle. At that time the city of Pamiers had a great trade in wines, which they shipped by water as far as In the eighteenth century people still went by boat from Pamiers to Toulouse and vice versa. The Ariége was used also, as was the Hers and the Arize, for floating logs. The flow of all these streams has constantly diminished because of deforestation. In the eighteenth century logs were floated on the mountain river Aspe, whose union with the torrent of Ossau forms the River of Oloron. From 1705 to 1780, the royal navy cut in the for- ests of the Valley of Aspe timber for masts, which was floated at Athas in rafts thirty-three meters long and four and six-tenths meters wide and driven to Bayonne. It would be impossible to accomplish this to-day. The mountain river Aspe, as also the Ossau and the Oloron, has become an unruly torrent, and its flow, which varied a hundred years ago from thirty-three one-hun- dredths of a meter in summer to one meter when the snows melted, varies to-day from ten meters to two and seven-tenths meters. During more than eight months the depth of the water does not go beyond one-half meter. This diminution in the stream-flow and increase in the difference between the high and low water mark, are the re- sult of deforestation. In 1813 there no longer remained of the forest of Is- saux, which for fourteen years sup- plied the navy with trees of the largest size (one and six-tenths meters in di- ameter at the base), anything but the “F. Schrader et L. Gallauédec, Géographie de la France et de ses Colonies, p. 143. DAE EPP ECIVOR VEE FOREST. UPON: WATERS soil, bare and dried up. The forests were laid waste during the revolution- ary period; the devastation of the woods, over pasturing, clearings, and fires have so reduced the forested hold- ings that stony and denuded slopes ap- peared in the valley instead of verdant TOFeStS 2 Oi hike wanda. thate \ ifimiense stretches of greensward, dilapidated, have given place to gray rock, like a mantle worn even to the thread.’”’ The forest of Issaux, which extended in 1765 over 3,580 hectares, covers only 1,380 hectares.” The Adour, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, still floated the mountain timber; it is no longer navi- gable in. the province of Hautes- Pyrenées since the destruction of the immense forests of Baudéan and of Bagneres, which covered a part of its drainage basin. “Every autumn now all the mills in the lower valley, being without power, are idle for months.”” Finally, the Garonne, frequented be- fore the Roman conquest by the boats of the Gallic tribes which conveyed to the markets on the two shores of the river the pottery made by the inhabit- ants of Tolosa, later a vast emporium for merchandise, coming from Rome, from Arles and Narbonne to Aquitaine, traveled unceasingly by associations of boatmen (scapharti utricularii), whose privileges were afterwards recognized in the twelfth century by the counts of Toulouse and became in the fifteenth century the source of considerable for- tunes for the trading corporations—the Garonne is subject to floods during which its volume increases to 262 times the low-water flow, and threatens the city of Toulouse with its terrible inun- dations, so severely experienced in 1875. Modern geographers do not hesitate to attribute this sad state of affairs to the deforestation of the Pyrenees. But the relation that exists between the denudation of the soil and _ the change in the rate of stream-flow had been noticed for a long time by the 171 wise observers of this region. In the eighteenth century Froidour pointed out the fact that the forests near the banks of the Garonne had been laid waste and wrote that it was urgent “‘to take an interest in replanting them.” A century later, Dralet uttered a new cry of alarm. “Several rivers formerly navigable or floatable,” he wrote, in 1813, “lack water in the summer only to the degree that the mountains in which they rise have been stripped of their pastures and forests.”’ Elsewhere he says: “If tradition and ancient doc- uments are consulted, it will be found that several streams, formerly floatable in the valleys, can no longer be used at all, or at least until after their conflu- ence with other streams in the plains; this misfortune has come in those parts of the chain where the inhabitants have made extensive clearings, while the rivers and streams in the valleys where the forests have been respected have kept their volume of water.” The belief that the presence of for- ests Mexents, a) favorable, influence’) in preventing floods and in sustaining springs and streams, is not a new one, as we have stated. Eleven hundred years before our era Tiglath-pileser, King of Nineveh, undertook the good work of reforestation on the plains of Mesopotamia and upon the~ barren slopes of Mount Masias. The inscrip- tion carved on the rocks of Bavian near the springs of Haser, tells us that Sen- nacherib also had forests planted. Pliny the’ Elder, the celebrated naturalist, pointed out in his time floods caused by clearings: “Plerumque vere damnosi torrentes corrivantur detracta collibus silva, continere nimbos ac digerere con- sueta,”’ From 1684 the engineer, Viviana, taught, in relation to the floods in the Arno, that the presence of forests sup- plemented the action of dams in holding back water and preventing erosion. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, as we have seen, Dralet at- tributed to deforestation in the Pyr- “Pierre Buffault, Foréts et Gaves du Pays, d’Aspe, Bordeaux, 1904, imp. J. Durand. ™“L. A. Fabre, L’Erosion pyrénéenne et les alluvions de la Garonne, Paris, 1902, A. Colin. 172 enees, the diminution that had become apparent in the flow of the streams that had their sources in these mountains. In Italy, Perelli, and Paleocapa also, in 1841, admitted that rainfall is partly retained by the forests. Paleocapa af- firms also that the increase of floods is the result of denuding the mountains. Lombardini also in 1858 maintains that the forest retains the rainfall and de- lays the arrival of the afflux in the channel. “The destruction of forests, the fail- ure of perennial springs, and the ex- istence of torrents,’ Humboldt wrote, “are three phenomena closely inter- connected.” ‘After deforestation,” he says, at another time, “water flows un- checked, without having time to infil- trate; it carries away the soil from the slopes, gathers in every depression of the ground, and forms torrents that hol- low out channels and force along masses of sand and pebbles, which are left upon the surface of the lower lands or are carried into the rivers that receive the flood waters.” Can the rav- ages made by the torrents from de- nuded mountains be more clearly de- scribed ? In 1797, Fabre, the engineer, in his “Essay on the Theory of Torrents and Streams,” had drawn attention to the ravages of torrents and pointed out as the original cause of their formation the destruction of the forests that cov- ered the mountains. The protective ac- tion of forest foliage upon the soil, the retention of a part of the rainfall by the humus, the diminution of the vol- ume and swiftness of the waters by the presence of bits of trees and clumps of underbrush were well understood and described by him. Later Mr. Dugied, a former chief magistrate of the Lower Alps, in a memorial addressed to the minister of the interior, attributed the desolation into which the department was plunged to the destruction of the forests and the mania for clearing land. Moreau de Jonnés, in a memorial crowned by the Royal Academy of Brussels in 1825, maintains that moun- tain forests feed springs and increase AMERICAN FORESTRY stream-flow, and he affirms that ‘their conservation and extension are meas- ures of public economy no less indis- pensable to modern society than the dredging of streams or the making of canals.” This is the opinion of Michel Chevalier, also, in his work on “The Material Interests of France.” Ac- cording to the eminent economist, the navigability of streams would be greatly improved by “‘the replanting of the mountains that have been stripped of their woods with such great lack of foresight and have been abandoned in their nakedness with guilty indiffer- ences Finally, shall we add that Mr. Alex- andre Surell, in his authoritative work on “The Torrents of the Higher Alps,” extolled reforestation as the efficacious remedy for the disasters engendered by the incessant development of torrents? He was the great promoter of the work of reforestation. There is in France at the present moment a marked reawakening of the forestry idea, which is the result of the influence, already old, of writers like Michelet, economists like Michel Chev- alier, and of engineers like Surell and Cézanne. The professional foresters, born but yesterday, count for little in this movement. At its head we find among the geographers: Onésime Rec- ’ lus, Schrader, Caména_ d’Almeida; physicians, Léon Petit, Trolard; the poet, Francois Fabié; the artists, Saint- Saéns ; among publicists and statesmen: Pierre Baudin; finally, among power- ful organizations, full of ardor for the prosperity and upbuilding of the coun- try, composed of engineers, bankers, manufacturers, merchants, and _ so forth: The Touring Club of France, the Loire Navigable, Southwest Navi- gable, Association for the Forest Man- agement of the Mountains, Society of Friends of the Trees, Reforestation League, and others. It would be much to be regretted if upon the evidence of experiments, more or less conclusive, made beyond the Rhine, the import of which, moreover, has been singularly STORIES TOLD IN RANGER CAMPS exaggerated—especially when other ex- periments, quite as important, lead to opposing conclusions; when facts that have been observed and historic proofs abound to attest the influence of forests in regulating stream-flow and _ sustain- ing springs; when, moreover, final judgment could not be pronounced on so complex a question at the present stage of our knowledge—if this move- ment should be checked, if the zeal displayed by disinterested men should change to sterile skepticism, and if the 173 efforts put forth to develop national wealth and industry should remain henceforth impotent. Let us remember that if Germany is endowed with an admirable network of streams of more than 27,000 kilo- meters, the possession of which con- tributes not a little to the constant growth of its trade, both domestic and foreign, she owes it largely to the very considerable proportion of forests (twenty-five and eight-tenths per cent) that are included in her territory. STORIES TOLD IN RANGER CAMPS By CHARLES HOWARD SHINN, Supervisor of Sierra National Forest Number 2 | AM never surprised at anything that I hear in this vale of tribulation, es- pecially at a ranger camp-fire. One is apt to get new and strange views of many sorts. But I think the history that grows instinctively about a moun- tain camp-fire is especially worth the attention of the psychologists. One of the rangers had picked up a week-old country newspaper; it con- tained a kidnapping story. “Ought to hang a man that would steal a baby,” he said, shoving the paper under the back-log. “Huh!” said the much-read ranger who loved to tell about things. “That’s nothin’ to them scalawags that used to live in Egypt. Stole boy babies for a regular game.” I rolled up my memorandums and curled down to listen, wondering whether this was to be a tale of cruel gypsies or of dreadful man-made Quasi- modos. “Go ahead, Tom. Trot her out. Tell us about it right now.” “Well, once I had a hist’ry teacher who used to ‘liven up the Friday after- noons by givin’ us all sorts of interestin’ facts—real gospel facts, you know. This particular one was about a tribe of Turks that lived next door to the pyramids. They was big men, all dressed up, and they did professional fightin’ for the emperor of Egypt.” (“It was ye Soldan of ye Faithful, in the days of ye lovely Princess Sabra,” I murmured softly to myself.) “In this here tribe of fighters, each man wore a horse-tail, an’ some of them three horse-tails, an’ each man had a camp kettle, an’ when it was empty he 174 went an’ threw it down at the emperor’s door an’ made a row till he got some grub. “Each man carried two half-moons of swords in a great belt three inches wide, an’ he wore carpet slippers with his name worked on in pearls, an’ he had four white horses, splendid, well- kept up, an’ several slaves of both kinds, an’ the only work he did was fighting for fun an’ carrying off loot, an’ ridin’ proud in processions.” “That sounds bully,” said one ranger, “who were those ducks?” ¥ “They called themselves Mammy Lukes, the teacher told us. Queer name, but, then, it was because of their main trick of stealin’ babies. They used to ride all over for hundreds of miles an’ they picked out the strongest an’ spunkiest boy babies an’ took them into camp an’ brought them up to be Lukes, too. That’s how the tribe was called Mammy Lukes. Fed ’em, trained ’em, made ’em regular fighters; several thousand baby Lukes all runnin’ around an’ gettin’ prizes for killin’ the Emper- or’s enemies.” “Hm-m. Don’t think much of that game, first kidnappers an’ then nusses, every one going’ around with half a dozen stolen kids yellin’ at his heels! I always thought Turks had some dig- nity, and when they weren’t fightin’, set cross-legged in the shade and smoked an’ drank coffee. But your mammy tribe couldn’t have done no real fightin’ with all those kids part and parcel of the muss.” “Lot you know! They wasn’t fools. Naw, they took nusses an’ slaves an’ had the young ones brung up from the word go. No trouble. All discipline done on the side. Big Mammy Luke rides down a thousand miles from north end of Asia—has a woman nuss in charge of one of his slaves, packin’ a small boy. Takes him to the boss, ‘Here’s the finest boy in them north tribes; put on the mark an’ the num- ber, an’ set him _ practisin’ shootin’.” Then he goes off; all through with his trouble. Twenty years later, when he is gettin’ old, there ranges up a fine AMERICAN FORESTRY young fightin’ Mammy Luke, an’ the old coot sees, by the tattoo mark on his arm, that it’s the same, growed up, an’ they wade in together, swingin’ their swords against the enemy.” “Bad lot!’ said another “Who killed off them fellers ?” “Huh! You evidently don’t apprect- ate them fighters! But if you want to know, after they had been up agin’ all kinds of famous generals from Alex- der to Napoleon, they come a time when the whole tribe got sassy—don’t know why? Then the emperor of that time invited them to a peaceful con- fab, an’ the dam’ Mammy Lukes rode careless into a big court-yard, an’ the emperor fired his six-shooter an’ off comes the cloths from hundreds of loaded cannons on the walls and the emperor had ’em killed, but even then they nearly cut their way out and made a new emperor. That ended the whole tribe for keeps.” Alas! The name Mehemet Ali had been forgotten! But how clearly the wild Mamelukes shone out across the tale! “Four white horses, an’ plenty of horse feed!” said a ranger. “That part of it struck me. I don’t admire white plugs myself, but that’s incidental. Four!” “Yas,” said another, “I remember that fellow that peddled soap an’ sold minin’ stock told a yarn about a place in South America where hosses was even plentier an’ better than with them black Egyptians, an’ all colors, too. Them Egyptians was all coal black, I suppose, an’ they set themselves off with white hosses.” “Let’s have that yarn.” “Well, the fellow said as how there was once a tribe of people named Ara- carians—queer name that. They lived somewhere south of Peru, down to- wards Patagonia. They hated all the Spaniards. When a young brave wanted to marry, he had to kill three Spaniards first, They, had! a -niven remember its name cuz it was so queer —Bio-Bio— an’ on an island in the middle of that river grew millions of crab-apple trees. The women went ranger. STORInS: ROLD VIN, RANGER: CAMPS there an’ made slathers of hard cider; then the men went and held an election every year—gave their weapons to the women, an’ got awful drunk. Some- times the whole tribe went away with thousands of the splendid horses an’ lots more they took from the Spaniards, away back to valleys of the Andes. When a brave rode out, his servants kept bringin’ on a string of fresh horses, an’ they changed saddles every -hour, goin’ like the wind, always travel- in’ to war, or comin’ home. “There never were such men any- where else, such giants of fellows, fear- less, and a terror to their foes. The soap peddler said they had first-class chiefs, an’ they built up a kind of republic of their own an’ drew a line between their land and that of the Spaniards. But at last, he says, the Spaniards come down very still an’ quiet an’ with an’ army, took the country, built a city they named Valdivia, an’ began to mine for gold. Then down from the high mountain valleys rode these horsemen, thousands of ’em, and they tore the settlement all to pieces. Then they took the chief Spaniard an’ set him down on a chair, an’ promised him plenty of gold, since that was what he seemed to want. Then they melted a heap of gold and poured it, all hot, down his throat—and went back to their Andes: wlhatis. -oreatt’ said \ione “How much of that is true?” “A whole lot of it,” I said, coming to the rescue of the story-teller. “The Araucarians of Chili were a wonderful and a heroic race of men before the vices of the whites conquered them. They were the Cossacks of earlier South America as far as horsemanship went, and nobody knows how much trouble they gave the successors of Pizarro. They really ‘came into camp’ to the Chilians about 1870.” “Guess I'll try to get an exchange into some forest down there in Chili,” said one ranger. “You will have to have a new lan- guage and a new religion, and otherwise hit a new gait altogether. Besides, these things happened a long time ago. ranger. Wass Caupolion, the chief, who once traveled with his ten wives and his 500 picked horses, and who sat at the head of the tribe when they caroused on the Island of Crab-Apples, was dust, with all his belongings, ages ago; his land is changed into farms and fields, and I guess some of his descendants are plow- ing there now.” “Seems to me very often when I[ hear about things,” said another ranger, ‘as if I had come into the world some too late. It would bust me up if I let it strike in deep.” “Onc’t I took out a party of nice fel- lows from Philadelphia,’ volunteered a third retailer of old stories, “and they had a book they read out loud in camp. It was all about a great, fine, expensive French cardinal named Rishloo. He was mighty good to his friends and mighty stiff with his enemies. Then there was a green young feller from the country that had a rusty old sword and rode a buttercup-colored horse. He fought everybody that poked fun at him. Pretty soon he was chums with the best bunch of fighters in France and up against old Rishloo who _ bossed France about then.” “What was the king doing?” “None of them kings counted for any- thing. But I wish I could run across that book again. I wish some fellow who knew how to read out loud in good shape could read that thing to our camp next winter.” “Tt’s in the ranger library,’ said another. “It’s The Three Musketeers. One of the big guns from Washington wrote his name and gave it to the boys.” “Ts the fightin’ kid that rode the buttercup-colored horse in it?” houre: “Well, you show it to me next time we hit headquarters. That’s the sort of history I like. None of your old Turk kidnappers, nor your Dago cider drink- ers. I don’t call that no novel. That book just writes down things exactly as they happened to real live people.” “They happened pretty durn quick and frequent for history.” 176 “Mebbe, but then the world was younger an’ folks was livelier in those days. Seems to me that nobody of any consequence had any work to do; no- body wanted to get-rich; soon as you corralled anything, you blew it in.” “I suppose that went on for ages, everybody having a good time, till the land wore out and the timber was cut and the game all gone, and the whole thing badly wrecked and tangled up with thieves and loafers on top. Prob- ably that’s why people have to work so hard now, and so many things are all wrong. I must say I don’t admire those happy-go-lucky fighters. Somebody al- ways pays for their keep.” This last ranger, who was grizzled and worn with the cares of life, rose AMERICAN FORESTRY and rolled the camp-fire logs together, and sat down in silence. A little of his idea filtered through the minds of the youngest rangers and shone in their eyes. Through some strange process of thought, broken fragments of stories they had gathered up here and there, so full of blunders, so curiously tangled and transformed, had, nevertheless, left in their minds some sense of the reali- ties of life. They could not put it into words, but they saw that always, since the world of men began, some things lasted and others perished. “I guess,” said one, as he began to roll up in his blankets, “that decent fellows have always had to work hard at something. Mostly, too, it’s better fun than the other way.” NIGHT IN THE WINTER WOODS Rank after rank the patient trees Rise up against the sky, Strange voices whisper in the breeze That sways their heads on high. Beneath lies silence, robed in white, Broad billows like the sea, Her garments all with gems alight, That gleam mysteriously— The world of men, and all it holds Of care, is far away: Here's naught but peace, the night enfolds To hide the scars of day, -—J. B, Carrington in Outing Economic Selection and Processing of Raw Materials in the Paper Industry By MARTIN L. GRIFFIN, of the Emerson Laboratory, Springfield, Mass. HE selection of raw materials and the most economic treatment of them, or the determination of the normal product from a given raw ma- terial, is a most important question to decide by those already in the business or by others contemplating it. Failure to grasp the significance of this results in economic waste and loss of profits. The artistic and commercial value also of the product will often suffer se- riously. The manufacture of paper naturally lends itself to the tempering of such raw materials as result from other in- dustries. To a considerable degree it is the treatment of by-products. It is, or should) beyirom- the very “start, a building-up process from the raw ma- terial. In a considerable sense, it is a plastic art wherein the composition of the finished product bears little re- semblance to the original raw stock. The textile industry creates value in cotton by the mechanical processes of labor without changing its nature; the paper industry, taking the residue of this and other industries, creates a new value by mechanical and chemical treat- ment; and, without spinning and weav- ing, molds a product comparable with the finest fabrics. How great then will be the gain to civilization when the principle involved in this illustration becomes the ruling spirit in paper mak- ing! The manufacture of paper has made enormous strides and has been highly developed during the last few years, but has, unfortunately, lost ground at many points in economic treatment. The extravagant consumption of paper has brought with it extravagant methods of manufacture. Sawmills producing lumber for structural and ornamental purposes have given place to pulp mills, a large proportion of which treat the wood chemically, occasioning a shrinkage of over one-half the original solid con- tents ail vexceptyreround “wood, "of course. This condition has come about through a most natural process. The value of our forests as a source of lum- ber has been less than as a source of paper stock, while stream conservation and effect on climate, and all that goes with it, have been given little consid- eration. Undoubtedly there is already, or can easily be produced, a sufficient quantity of unappropriated material suitable for the bulk of the needs of this industry. As the value of the forest increases, there will be some lessening of the con- sumption of wood, and a gradual ap- propriation of other sources of raw ma- terial until it has reached its normal equilibrium. To this end, greater dili- gence will be exercised by those mills relying upon wood, in adapting their conditions and processes to the most economic results. Manufacturers who are making a class of papers to which wood is nor- mally adapted, as news and under cer- tain conditions wrapping, will not pass through the ordeal which those will who have misapplied wood to the manu- facture of higher grades, but still very inferior for the uses designed. These, in the nature of things, will have to contend with the increasing cost of wood, the growing revulsion of the pub- 177 178 lic against paper of such quality, and the competition of new sources of raw material which will satisfy these condi- tions better. The art of paper making lies along two lines, including both mechanical and chemical details: raw materials for coarse products and fine products. A coarse raw material may be given a thorough, exhaustive treatment to make the highest grade product possible. In so doing there will be a consequent large shrinkage in yield and economic waste, and at a high cost; or the same material may be given a slight and in- expensive treatment to adapt it to a coarse product, which by nature it is best suited for. The product in: this case will not be so high priced, but the cost and shrinkage will be low and the yield correspondingly large. The value of any raw material should not be dis- sipated through failure to make the most appropriate use of it. Closely allied to the lack of such dis- criminating judgment in determining raw materials and products therefrom, is the failure to get the most out of the process. The sulphite process is often misapplied in the making of wrapping paper, and often badly managed in the yield of pulp. For such papers, only a sufficient softening treatment is neces- sary to make the stock pliable and workable, thus preserving strength and yield. This is practically illustrated in the process of boiling with water and weak chemicals for leather board and kraft paper. If the cornstalk should ever come to be used for making a medium grade of white paper, its use for such purpose would be misapplied. Its normal place, if it has any in the paper business, will be found in connection with other suit- able material to make boxboard, where- in the bulk of its solid contents could be made available at a slight cost for reduction. Failure to recognize its true place will result as in the past. From a practical as well as an economic stand- point the attempt to make out of paper stock a sanitary milk bottle to be used only once is such a perversion that AMERICAN FORESTRY nothing serious need be _ expected from it. It is often the practise to reduce stock to one level base and build up special- ties from this. The skilful paper maker will select his raw materials with a view to close adaptation, avoiding the double cost of reducing to a base and building up from it. It often happens that ef- fects can be gotten in this way that would be impossible in any other. This is shown in the manufacture of many very attractive cover papers. Raw materials should be selected and processed with discriminating care and judgment so that there shall be as little degradation from one product to an- other as possible. In this way economy of production and conservation of re- sources will be promoted. It is to the credit of the industry that we have in abundance the attractive gray news board, though its coming was purely accidental. If old news could be so treated as to be used over again for the same grade of paper how great would be the economic gain! This is done to some extent in the case of printed book papers. In the manufacture of heavy papers and particularly boards for a great va- riety of uses, I do not believe the use of the cylinder machine has been ap- plied to anything like the limit of its possibilities. With properly prepared stock for lining, this machine is capable of using very inferior grades of stock for the middle, and producing a product of great attractiveness and growing use- fulness. Such a product has a great market before it in furnishing material for small packages for which wood has been used, but is becoming too costly. Up to the present time there has been, in the main, only one object in view in treating raw materials, namely, the ob taining of paper stock; and I regret to say this work has been done largely by the use of drastic agents in a single operation. Henceforth more selective processes will be discovered, resulting in economy of chemicals, recovery of useful products and larger yield of paper stock. PEDERI ALD POR, LEACHING FORESTRY In the field of raw materials there is line, on the one side of which paper stock has been largely developed at the expense of all else; on the other side there is now a small area where raw materials are treated for useful prod- ucts only, but with an ultimate view to the making of paper stock; I refer to the extraction of waste pine wood for 179 turpentine and rosin and of chestnut wood for tannin. These latter will soon enter the field of paper making. It is, therefore, of great importance that the whole industry should look into its raw materials and processes to see if there are not still many undiscovered sources of economy and _ productive wealth. FEDERAL AID FOR TEACHING FORESTRY By PROF, SAMUEL B. GREEN, University of Minnesota to concentrate the enthusiasm of the present moment into the actuality of the thing done for the future. The en- thusiasm of the moment cannot last. The present enthusiasm for forestry cannot be expected to continue for many years in its present vigorous form. This enthusiasm has been creat- ed largely by, and is largely responsible, also, for the creation of the present grand and effective work that is being done by the United States Forest Serv- ice. I would not for a moment belittle the value of the United States Forest Service, for, like the accomplished and devoted man at its head, it has for a number of years been a great source of inspiration to all engaged in forestry work. On the other hand, this federal work must be supplemented by a strong, well-grounded public interest, or it can- not accomplish the greatest good. This must be done in each state. In its last analysis forestry is largely a business, and must stand on a business basis. In comparatively few, if any, of the states has it reached this stage of develop- ment. Great reforms are most quickly made permanent and helpful by edu- cating the young. There is no question but that we shall continue to educate lumbermen and others of mature years in forestry matters; but the foundation 5 |: IS the work of the real statesman of the forest wealth of the future should be found in the establishment of first- class forest schools, and we need at least one school of this kind in every state and territory in the Union. It is probably best that these schools should be connected with the agricultural col- leges, since these institutions are well fitted for taking up a work of this kind. It seems to me that an especially fitting use Of public funds is for the promotion of some line of endeavor making for the permanency of the state as a whole. That forestry and the conservation of natural resources represent such a work should be evident. The request for a congressional ap- propriation for the teaching of forestry is not a raid upon the public treasury, but is an endeavor to insure the wel- fare of the future of this country, and is something that should commend it- self to every statesman. My idea is that appropriations for an object of this kind should be so made as to encourage the states to do something for them- selves. On this account, H. R. 9219, a bill now before Congress and known as the Davis Forestry Bill, provides that the appropriation of $5,000 by the Na- tional Government for the support of forestry instruction and experimenta- tion in the schools and colleges bene- fited thereby is conditioned upon the 180 appropriation of a like amount by each state that shall take advantage of its provisions, and the whole amount shall be expended subject to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture. This would requiré a total appropriation from the National Government of per- haps $250,000, a very small amount. This may be met by the statement that these agricultural colleges and experi- ment stations already receive something over $700,000 per year from the Na- tional Government. To this I would reply that this expenditure has been well justified by the great benefit that has come to agriculture as a result of it. Some single discoveries have already been worth more to the country as a whole than the total of all the appro- priations ever made for the agricultural colleges and experiment stations. This money could be used for forestry, but in almost every case it is largely used by, and needed for other lines of agri- culture. When we think of the enormous value of the forest output of this coun- try, the amount requested to educate young men to be competent to take care of this forest wealth seems trivial indeed. I do not wish to see all the agricultural colleges attempting to turn out professional foresters, and such would not be the effect of these pro- posed expenditures; but the result would be that in a short time we would have a surplus of young men well trained in the basic principles of for- estry, through whose efforts the forest sentiment of to-day would crystallize into a permanent and helpful thing. I have been in my present position in the University of Minnesota nearly AMERICAN FORESTRY twenty-one years. When I came here in the spring of 1888 there was not a student in the agricultural depart- ment; that department was maintained by the state simply for the purpose of getting the national appropriations for this subject, and the whole work was regarded with contempt by practically all the citizens of the state. We have to-day overcome this lack of interest. Last year we had enrolled in our school, college and short course in agriculture, without counting students in any of the other departments, and only those who are required to take the agricultural subjects, over 1,130 students. In that time this institution has grown from a position of inferiority to one of first importance in helpfulness to the people of the state; it is probably our most popular institution of any kind, and the easiest for which to secure appropria- tions. The state has permanently in- vested in lands and buildings for the carrying on of this educational work and this only, besides the general uni- versity work, a total of over $700,000, a result which has come from the fact that we have not followed precedents established elsewhere but have tried to make our work as helpful as possible to the people of this state. That it has been found helpful is shown by the large number of young men and women who are doing much to bring about im- proved rural conditions. JI am_ thor- oughly convinced that, by the proper education of our young people in for- estry, we could do as much for this sub- ject as has been done for agriculture, and that in no other way can forestry be put upon the most helpful basis. The Appalachian Forests The fate of the Southern Appalachian and White Moun- tain forests, the watersheds of many of the most important rivers of the eastern United States, the sources of a great part of the remaining timber supply of this part of the country, hangs in the balance. Only the intervention of the United States government can save these great moun- tain watersheds from rapid denudation and keep them for future generations what they have been to the present and past generations Reservoirs, Timber Farms, Sanitaria and Recreation Places This is the concern of many states—not of one or two. The task of protection and maintenance is too great for one or two; it is a national job, like reclamation, the Panama Canal, or the improvement of the waterways for the permanence and usefulness of which these mountain forests are necessary. THE WEEKS BILL for the acquisition of national forests is a measure of national scope, but in it lies the hope of the Southern Appalachians and White Mountains, the most immediately necessary and definite opportunity for conservation of nat- ural resources now before the American people. This bill passed the House of Representatives of the Sixtieth Congress by a vote of 157 to 147. It failed for lack of time in the Senate. It is now before the Committee on Agriculture of the House. There is good reason to believe that it will soon be reported and come before the House for action, How does your Representative stand on this question? The small majority of 1909 should be increased, Now is the time to use your influence as a citizen for this measure, a measure of McKinley, of Roosevelt, of Taft, of the people— millions of them. If you do not know how the Representatives of your state voted send to the American Forestry Association at once for Bulletin No, 2. | If you want a stirring argument and a brief for the bill, send for Bulletin No, 1 If. you want a copy of the Weeks Bill send for Bulletin No, 3. If you can use more than one copy of these bulletins, ask for them. They were printed to do good, and there is an abundant supply. In any case do something Do not delay PUBLIC OPINION 1S THE LEVER THAT MOVES CONGRESS a EDITORIAL What the Weeks Bill Is E HAVE been asked to give a brief outline of the provisions of the so-called Weeks Bill, embodying the present form of the Southern Ap- palachian-White Mountain National Forest project. The full text of the bill was published recently in this mag- azine, and has been issued as bulletin No. 3 in the general series of the Amer- ican Forestry Association. In the lat- ter form, single copies can be obtained by application to the office of the Asso- ciation, and they can also be obtained in large numbers for distribution. Many people, however, desire an explanation of the bill stripped of the verbiage of its legislative form. In the first place, it gives the con- sent of Congress to the states of the Union to enter into compacts to con- serve their forests and water supply, and it appropriates $200,000 to be used by the Secretary of Agriculture to as- sist any state or group of states when requested to do so in protecting from fire the forested watersheds of navi- gable streams. Such assistance cannot be given unless the state has itself pro- vided for a system of forest-fire pro- tection and the amount expended in any state in any year may not exceed that appropriated by the state. The Secre- tary of Agriculture may also agree to administer and protect for a term of years private forest lands situated on watersheds whereon there are national forest lands, and in such cases the owner of these private lands can cut and remove timber only under such reg- ulations as will protect the forest in the aid of navigation. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1910, the sum of $1,000,000, and_ for each year thereafter until June 30, 1915, the sum of $2,000,000 is appropriated for the examination, survey, and ac- quirement of land on the headwaters of navigable streams, or those which are being or may be developed for ‘navi- gable purposes. This expenditure is to be made by a commission consisting of the Secretaries of War, of the Interior, and of Agriculture, two senators, and two representatives, which commission is to report annually to Congress. The Secretary of Agriculture is to examine, locate, and recommend for purchase lands which may be necessary to regu- late the flow of navigable streams and report to the commission, but before any purchase is made the Geological Survey must have made a report to the Secretary of Agriculture showing that the control of such lands will promote or protect the navigation of streams on whose watersheds they lie. Prices of lands purchased are to be fixed by the commission, and the consent of the state in which the land lies must have been given to the acquisition of such lands by the United States. Min- eral and merchantable timber rights are to be reserved to the owners, but the timber can only be removed under rules and regulations expressed in the instrument of conveyance. Agricul- tural land included in the takings may be set apart and sold as homesteads in tracts not exceeding eighty acres under rules prescribed by the Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior. The lands so secured are to be held and administered as national forest lands; civil and criminal jurisdiction is not affected by such administration ex- cept so far as offenses against the United States are concerned; and five per cent of all income from such na- tional forest shall be paid to the state in which it is located to be expended for public schools and public roads in the counties in which the forest is sit- 183 184 vated. An annual appropriation, not exceeding $25,000, is made for the ex- penses of the commission and its mem- bers. These are the provisions of the act in outline. It will be noticed that it nowhere mentions any specific localities in which such forests are to be ac- quired. It is, therefore, an act of gen- eral, national application and its spe- cial application to the two Appalachian areas is simply due to the fact that they are known to be the most important forest regions in the East for the pur- poses of this act. It is believed by many of the best friends of the South- ern Appalachian and White Mountains that a broad, national measure of this kind is better than one that is specific, and this is certainly true as far as gen- eral principles of legislation are con- cerned. As originally introduced in the Sixtieth Congress, and as it passed the House in that Congress, the Weeks Bill had a duration of nine years in- stead of five. We believe that it was better in that form and that a period of time as long as nine years is needed to demonstrate in the most complete manner the need and value_ of these forests for national purposes. The change was probably made in order to facilitate the passage of the bill -hrough Congress, and in the belief, which we hope is well founded, that within five years its usefulness would have been sufficiently demonstrated to establish the policy: Whatever differences of opinion there may be upon special features of the bill, it must be remembered that it is the product of the careful study of some of the ablest men in the House of Rep- resentatives, and that they have also consulted with some of the senators who have been particularly interested in this measure, and that the bill is the form of legislation which they believe to be most practicable. It is, therefore, nec- essary that all friends of the great ob- ject towards which this bill is directed should put their shoulders to the wheel in the united effort to push it through to the long-sought goal. AMERICAN FORESTRY The Report’ of) Nx, Nctien sees, 48,87 HE translation from the Revue des Eaux et Forets of Paris, which is published elsewhere in these pages, is of peculiar interest at this time be- cause it reviews the work and conclu- sions of some of the French and Ger- man investigators who were cited mis- takenly, we believe, to support some of the contentions of Mr. Willis L. Moore, the Chief of the Weather Bu- reau, in his recent report on the influ- ence of forests on climate and on floods. It appears from this French review of the discussions of the Milan confer- ence, as well as from the testimony of Professor Swain at the hearing before the Committee on Agriculture on the 25th of February, that the judgment of the foreign investigators is practically unanimous in opposition to the posi- tion taken by Mr. Moore and some of the army engineers. Next month we shall publish in AMERICAN ForRESTRY a symposium by some of our best Amer- ican authorities dealing with Mr. Moore’s report. The attention that has been given to this somewhat remarkable document is out of all proportion to its scientific value, but when a man who is known as the Chief of the United States Weather Bureau issues such a report upon a subject that is of vital interest to the whole country, and that bears upon many of its most important ques- tions, the public as a whole is likely to estimate the statement by the posi- tion held by its author, without a close examination of his authority, his quali- fications to judge of the subject in hand, or the scientific accuracy of his reasoning. On these points it may be said that whatever position may be ac- - corded the Chief of the Weather Bu- reau as a meteorologist, he has not qualified in any respect as a physiog- rapher or as a forest engineer, and the men who have so qualified have a right to contradict his conclusions, as they almost unanimously do. Mr. Moore consciously and intentionally considers. EDITORIAL the subject solely from the standpoint of his special field. Note this state- ment: “The run-off of our rivers is not materially affected by any other factor than the precipitation.” To say this is to shut one’s eyes to many factors which affect the run-off of rivers and which are known to every observer, even to those who are not trained in scientific methods of investi- gation. But it is not our intention to discuss the details of Mr. Moore’s report. We have made provision for doing that in the pages of this magazine by the most competent hands. We wish to say a word of the circumstances under which this report was made and the apparent animus behind it, both of which are of interest to the country as a whole, since the report has been very widely dis- tributed, and have some bearing upon the estimate we may make of its value. We are told that “when Prof. Willis L. Moore was before the Committee on Agriculture of the House of Repre- sentatives in 1909, to explain the esti- mates for the Weather Bureau, a dis- cussion arose as to the influence of forests on climate and on the run-off of water. Professor Moore stated that he was then making some studies on the subject which might lead to some definite conclusions, and he was re- quested by the chairman of the com- mittee to continue these studies and make a report when they were con- cluded. This has been done, and the report submitted by Professor Moore, which follows, is printed by the direc- tion of the committee.” It is not ex- plained what the relation of this dis- cussion was to the question of esti- mates for the Weather Bureau, nor why Mr. Moore, a bureau chief in the Department of Agriculture, should be privileged to issue a special report of this kind bearing upon the work of other bureaus of his own department and of a coordinate government de- partment, under authority of a congres- sional committee, and without the au- thorization of his chief, when other 185 chiefs of the bureaus of these depart- ments were barred by executive order from discussing his conclusions or mak- ing any reply thereto. In a speech by Hon. Charles F. Scott, chairman of the Committee on Agriculture, delivered at the Boston City Club about a year ago, Mr. Scott spoke of Mr. Moore as “one who could sing the birds out of the trees,” and intimated that when Mr. Moore appeared before his (Mr. Scott’s) committee to ask for anything, he generally got pretty nearly what he asked for. Does this remarkable state- ment have any bearing upon the fact that at a time when other bureau chiefs are kept in leash by executive author- ity, Mr. Moore is permitted to issue a report upon a general question and to introduce into that report the remark- able series of italicized clauses which apparently are directed at certain legis- lation to which the chairman of the Committee on Agriculture has shown most determined hostility? It is well known that Mr. Moore’s conclusions are not those of the best authorities on the subject in the Forest Service or in the Geological Survey, yet they must keep silence while Mr. Moore’s report is sent broadcast under frank and every available mailing list is utilized to give it the widest possible circulation. There is neither honesty nor fair play in this method of procedure, and in view of the fact that the recognized authorities in the Government service cannot talk, we propose through this magazine and through the bulletins of the American Forestry Association to spread as widely as Mr. Moore’s report has been spread the opinions of the best authorities on this question whom we have in this country. In doing this we believe that we shall simply be per- forming the public duty which the American Forestry Association and this magazine owe to the people. All that we ask for is a fair discussion and an open forum. Mr. Moore has attempted to speak his piece in a closed forum. We propose to throw the doors wide open. 186 The Lesson of Canada ie ONE of the sessions of the Canadian Forestry Association held last week at Fredericton, New Bruns- wick, the chairman of the Canadian Conservation Commission, Hon. Clif- ford Sifton, made an address of much interest to us on this side of the line. We are accustomed to think of Canada as a country of big woods and inex- haustible timber supply, looking at it in much the same careless fashion that we have been wont to regard our own con- ditions until we were aroused, most of us, to the actual situation. Not long ago a German forest expert was sent to Canada to report on conditions there, and his report was to the effect that other countries could not look to Can- ada for their timber supply, that our northern neighbor needed all of her own product for her own uses, and was coming to realize it. This German re- port was cited at length by the British Royal Commission on Afforestation, in its able and instructive report recom- mending the reforestation of 9,000,000 acres of land in England, and providing a detailed plan for financing and carrying out this work through a series of years, in order that England might produce its own timber and be- come independent of foreign countries. In the address referred to, Mr. Sifton called attention to the fact that the United States cannot supply itself with wood for more than thirty years, and declared that “should it become neces- sary for the United States to look to Canada for a further supply of wood, all the merchantable lumber in Canada’s forests would be exhausted at the end of seven years.” We quote from the press report. Mr. Sifton expressed the opinion that within the present genera- tion it would be necessary to place legal limitations upon the quantity of lumber to be cut, and he believed in making a beginning of that policy at once. On- tario already compels all timber cut on government lands to be manufactured AMERICAN FORESTRY in the province. This policy has brought into Canada from Michigan many mills that formerly manufactured Ontario timber in that state. Quebec proposes to adopt a similar policy, and Mr. Sifton urged it upon the consideration of New Brunswick. He did not be- lieve it to be wise for the government to dispose of the fee in its timber lands. When so disposed of they became sub- ject to taxation by the state, which to obtain as large a revenue as possible fixed a high rate which encouraged lumbermen to cut the timber as rapidly as possible. The Dominion policy is to lease land on renewal terms and to continue the leases as long as the lessees live up to the terms of the leases. Mr. Sifton urged the association to favor the establishment of forest re- serves on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, because unless some- thing were done to preserve the forests there the country would be flooded at one season of the year and become a barren waste at another. Evidently, the distinguished Canadian had not heard from the United States Weather Bureau. The moral of all this is that, like all the rest of the civilized world, Canada is measuring her timber resources and preparing to protect them by pro- gressive and drastic measures against exploitation for the benefit of waste- ful foreign countries, including her next-door neighbor. We cannot look to the north for our salvation. We must husband all our remaining resources and plant trees wherever they can be grown more profitably than other crops, in order that our own future may be assured. That is the only way. Canada has not the resources for her own needs and ours too, and she is suff- ciently wide awake and intelligent to guard her own. The only way that our timber resources and Canada’s can be made inexhaustible is by the applica- tion of the highest scientific knowledge and the broadest common sense. THE NATIONAL FORESTS National Forests and Stream Protection* By F, A. FENN Supervisor, United States Forest Service “Forest conservation” is a broad _ term, comprehending far more than mere “timber preservation,” which is often mistakenly re- garded as an equivalent expression. It is true that we cannot preserve our timber so as to have a continuous supply of timber products without conserving our forests ; but it is also true that without conserving the forests we cannot maintain an equable flow in our streams for the steady generation of a maximum of power; for the realization of the greatest benefit in irrigation, and for the highest utilization of our rivers for pur- poses of trade and commerce, matters of supreme public importance that may be vi- tally affected by forests which contain little or no timber of merchantable character. Our national forests, the so-called forest re- serves, are established for the conservation of all the potential forest resources, not for the preservation of timber only. No fact is better established than that the forests pro- vided by Nature as a protective cover for the water-sheds of rivers are the best pos- sible regulator of stream-flow. Maintain that cover and the rivers will be most efficient in the discharge of those functions so bene- ficial to mankind; destroy it and they be- come relatively inefficient or positively inju- rious and destructive because of erratic flow. As an example, I need only refer to the Ohio River, where, in consequence of the denuda- tion of its drainage basin, the navigability of the stream has been greatly impaired and the destruction of property by freshets and floods now annually reaches millions of dollars. The Inland Empire has for nearly a half- century hoped for an all-water route to the sea. Thanks largely to the efforts of your people here, that hope is at last practically realized, and the Snake River from Lewiston to the Columbia is an important part of that route. Have you considered the fact that the total amount of water appropriated for irri- gation purposes from the Snake River and its tributaries above Huntington, Oreg., ex- ceeds the mean low-water flow of the river at Huntington Bridge? Within a very few years, when the great reclamation schemes of South Idaho now in course of development shall have been put in full operation, unless some system different from what is now outlined be adopted regarding the waters of that great stream, the Snake River at Huntington will cease to deserve the name; its bed will be practically dry for a good part of every season, its waters diverted to subject the desert to the beneficial use of man. We wish our neighbors of the South the fullest measure of success, prosperity, and happiness, but we must remember that what they are doing directly and injuriously af- fects the navigability of the Snake River below Lewiston. We cannot complain at that, but it compels us to be the more careful in conserving the supply of water for naviga- tion that is available from other sources. Below Huntington every considerable affluent of the Snake has its headwaters protected from denudation and injurious use by the national government through the establish- ment of national forests. The -most impor- tant of these tributary streams are the Salmon and Clearwater rivers, whose vast drainage basins nature has clothed with magnificent sylvical growth. Properly managed, conserv- atively handled, the forests there will pro- duce enormous quantities of timber indef- nitely and at the same time perform the many other functions to which they are so ad- mirably adapted, and chief among which is the maintenance of a stable, uniform stream- flow. On the contrary, if they be abused or neglected, if they be exposed to uncontrolled, unregulated use by those who look for quick profits and personal aggrandizement rather than ultimate good and public benefit, the forests will be devastated, the timber supply will quickly be exhausted, the flow of the rivers will become irregular and uncertain. their capacity to generate a steady amount of power for the multitudinous uses of the peo- ple will be impaired, your labors in the cause of Snake River navigation will be rendered vain, and the all-water route from Lewiston to the sea will be but the memory of a dream. Much as it is to be desired that every branch of industry should be estab- lished and made to prosper in this city, it would be a shortsighted policy that would encourage the exploitation of the forests upon which reliance must be had for a nav- igable stage of water in the Snake River from here to the Columbia for the longest possible time every year. Do not allow the prospect of a great temporary lumber in- dustry at this point or elsewhere in this section to blind you to the incalculable per- manent good to the whole community that *This article is the substance of an address delivered by Major Fenn May 109, 1000, in Lewiston, Idaho. 187 188 will result from a careful, systematic con- servation of the forest resources of the em- pire drained by the great rivers at whose con- fluence you are situated; better, far better, that many small lumbering plants should be operated all over the interior country under regulations that will assure the conservative use of timber products, avoid monopoly, guard against waste, and prevent the destruc- tion of forest conditions upon which more than upon any possible exclusive timber busi- ness the continued growth and prosperity of Lewiston and her tributary territory depend. Conserve the forest resources, guard them jealously, keep your rivers open and in the highest state of utility for purposes of trade and commerce, hold them as great public highways. Above all, insist upon it that the forest conditions favorable to the mainte- nance in these streams of a stage of water suitable to unimpeded navigation shall be preserved and continued, and Lewiston will attain to the proud position among the cities of the West for which her natural location and surroundings so eminently fit her; and, at the same time, the entire interior will benefit by what you do and reciprocally en- hance your prestige and material prosperity. ye ye ye The National Forest Boundaries As a result of the examination last summer of national-forest boundaries much land not suited to forest purposes along the edge of and within national forests will be restored to the unreserved public domain, in accord- ance with a plan submitted to the President by the Secretaries of Agriculture and of the Interior. Maps and reports now in the pos- session of the Department of Agriculture show the nature of the lands and cover along the national-forest boundaries and within the forests. This information was secured in order to rectify the boundaries, since it was never intended that the national forests should include agricultural lands, or grazing lands not suitable for forest purposes. To obtain it involved going over about 60,000 miles of boundaries. The report to the Pres- ident follows: February 7, 1910. Tue Presiwent, The White House. Sir: After having very carefully consid- ered the matter of eliminations from the ad- ditions to the national forests, we respect: fully recommend that the following general policy be adopted: ; AMERICAN FORESTRY 1. Lands wholly or in part covered with brush or other undergrowth which protects stream-flow or checks erosion on the water- shed of any stream important to irrigation or to the water supply of any city, town, or community, or open lands on which trees may be grown, should be retained within the national forests, unless their permanent value under cultivation is greater than their value as a protective forest. ; 2. Lands wholly or in part covered with timber or undergrowth, or cut-over lands which are more valuable for the production of trees than for agricultural crops, and lands densely stocked with young trees having a prospective value greater than the value of the land for agricultural purposes, should be retained within the national forests. 3. Lands not either wholly or in part cov- ered with timber or undergrowth, which are located above timber line within the forest boundary or in small bodies scattered through the forest, making elimination impracticable, or limited areas which are necessarily in- cluded for a proper administrative boundary line, should be retained within the national forests. 4. Lands not either wholly or in part cov- ered with timber or undergrowth, except as provided for in the preceding paragraphs, upon which it is not expected to grow trees, should be eliminated from the national for- ests. We have the honor to be, very respectfully, Your obedient servants, (Signed) James WILson, Secretary of .Agriculture. (Signed) R. A. Batincer, Secretary of the Interior. On the whole, the changes which are found to be called for are of relatively minor im- portance, but in their aggregate they open to settlement a large amount of land. The application of the rules which the President has approved will mean the early restoration to the public domain of 4,000,000 acres or more of national-forest land. This is some- thing over two per cent of the total national- forest area. Three-tenths of the forests have yet to be mapped. Some of the land is suitable for dry-land agriculture, though the greater part is graz- ing land. In Idaho, which has a large national-forest area, about 470,000 acres will be eliminated, of which thirty-four per cent is tillable. Eliminations in similar proportion will be made in a number of the other western states which have large amounts of land in national forests. STATE WORK Kentucky A bill has been introduced in the legisla- ture the provisions of which are thus sum- marized by the Louisville Courier-Journal: “A board of forestry shall consist of the governor, the director of the Kentucky Ex- periment Station at Lexington as e.v-officio members; the state forester, a trained man appointed by the governor, with the advice of the senate, and four members similarly appointed. “The forestry board shall have the care and control of state reserves hereafter to be acquired, shall ascertain the best methods of reforesting cut-over lands,’ foresting waste lands, preventing destruction of forests by fire, administering forests upon scientific principles, instructing private owners in prac- tical forestry, and conserving timber on the watersheds of streams. “The board shall be allowed to purchase reserves at a price not above $5 an acre, to receive gifts of land and money for forestry purposes and as a breeding place for game. “The board shall secure and publish in popular form information as to the best methods as to conserving the forest and water supply. “The state forester shall, when directed, cooperate with counties, corporations, munict. palities, and individuals in conservation work. “The salary of the state forester is fixed at a maximum of $2,000 a year and reason- able traveling expenses.” a Louisiana John H. Foster, forest assistant of the United States Forest Service, is making an examination, with Register Grace, of the state land office, of the Louisiana forests, for the purpose of preparing a report to the gen- eral assembly looking to their maintenance. Mr. Grace has collected much data through the assessors, and a thorough personal sur- sey of the state will also be made. Con- siderable attention is to be given to the denuded pine lands. At its annual meeting in January the Louisiana Forestry Association elected the following officers: President, Henry E. Hardtner of Urania; vice-presidents, W. O. Hart of New Orleans, E. A. Frost of Shreve- port, T. C. Wingate of Leesville; secretary, Mrs. A. B. Avery of Shreveport; treasurer, Robert Roberts, Jr., of Minden; councillors at large, Mrs. J. D. Wilkinson, Shreveport; Harry P. Gamble, Winnfield; M. O. Lambly, Jennings; executive council, Charles b. John- ston, New Orleans, first congressional dis- trict; Grace King, New Orleans, second con- gressional district; Professor Alleman. Baton Rouge, third congressional district; Thomas J. Davis, Leesville, fourth congressional dis- trict; J. W. Elder, Farmerville, fifth con- gressional district; Fred J. Grace, Baton Rouge, sixth congressional district; H. H. White, Alexandria, seventh congressional district. The following resolution was adopted: “Be tw resolved by the Louisiana Forestry Association, in regular meeting assembled, that the general assembly of the state of Louisiana is hereby urged and requested to appropriate sufficient funds to maintain the chair of forestry at the Louisiana State Uni- versity created by an act of the general assembly.” Maryland The report of F. W. Besley, state forester of Maryland, to the governor, states that in the last three years the work of making a forest survey of the state has been completed in eighteen of the twenty-three counties. Forest conditions in eight counties—Som- erset, Dorchester, Talbot, Caroline, Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Howard, and Mont- gomery—have been carefully studied, re- sulting in detailed forest maps showing loca- tion of all woodlands, character and condi- tions of growth, stand and value of timber, reliable data as to uses of timber and ob- servations in bettering the methods of forest management. The forest-warden system inaugurated three years ago has been improved and made more eftective for the suppression of forest fires. During the last year thirty of the eighty-three fires reported were extinguished by the forest wardens at a total cost of $367. The present forest protection system, as im- perfect as it is with unpaid wardens, has ac- complished an immense amount of good in making people more careful about fires and in suppressing before much damage is done those that occur. “The rapid exhaustion of local timber re- sources,’ says Mr. Besley, “is a serious question. Other states are much in the same predicament. We must eventually depend on our own forests for most of our timber sup- ply. Under present conditions, through wasteful and injudicious methods of cutting 189 Waesacctces = 7 Se: Gees Sa ee ee aS SSS SSS ee a es Se SS cee Se eee | TE ae Ge Ses ese a TE ae EE ee cae OWE: See! aeter: cei fe ’ wes Ba ee ee -_= F / 73S SE LS Se x = fe— ES Sr eS Se ‘ ae or = eet SS RSS ee cess. TRS meee ee: 3 2 9 Sa FS See Sa Ss SS es BE Dew ’ > ere Sec 2 ae 4 4 => RE A RE a ARE A [AIL EG ELE CET aes 2 ee a ae ee ae ee ow ES, WD sees ap — ae = ws fae a Se Te 2 ae ee a eee ee ee a a a ee 2 aa ae ET OEE RES A TE oa ome gis eee We oe ee Se 20 ope eee IS TE LETTERS ERE anni = Gwetst ae oie ee eee Se ee oe ee ee eee, aa eee ee ee ae eee see ee > 2 a Se o_o er ==: CE Se ES ee Witnesses Wee cps SS 192 705 of the expense of fighting fires in that state, the state of Oregon spent no money in that direction. ; : “This study of comparisons 1s very in- teresting. The splendid showing in Wash- ington, considering the large number of fires and the comparatively small amount of tim- ber destroyed, is due to the organized effort of private timber owners through the me- dium of the Washington Forest-fire Asso- ciation, as well as to the state and govern- ment, which participated so generously in this work. “A few big fires in remote sections of AMERICAN FORESTRY Oregon continued burning for weeks, cov- ering a large area, while in Washington the fires were subdued promptly through having fire-fighting forces available. Oregon’s lack of preparation would have resulted in a tremendous loss if a corresponding number of fires had started in this state.” The members of the state board of for- estry are: Governor Benson, R. O. Steven- son, game and forestry warden; H. C. Mc- Allister, master fish warden; S. C. Bartrum, of Roseburg; L. S. Hill, of Cottage Grove; Prof. E. R. Lake, of Corvallis; and A: B, Wastell, of Portland. EDUCATION Colorado School of Forestry The Colorado School of Forestry was founded in 1905 by gifts from Dr. William A. Bell and from the late Gen. William J. Palmer. It is particularly fortunate in pos- sessing a tract of 13,000 acres of forest land at Manitou Park, about twenty-five miles west of Colorado Springs near the line of the Colorado Midland Railroad. The forest on the school land consists mainly of western yellow pine and also of a small amount of Douglas fir. On account of the good market for forest products in the vicinity of Mani- tou Park, it is possible to practise very in- tensive methods of forestry. A sawmill is located on the school land at the present time to cut the over-mature and defective trees. The faculty of the Colorado School of Forestry was increased this fall by the addi- tion of two professors in forestry and lum- bering who not only are graduates of the Yale Forest School, but have each had sev- eral years of administrative work in the Forest Service on the national forests in Colorado. The faculty has therefore for the instruction in forestry, and lumbering both the advantages of complete technical train- ing and of long experience in the actual prac- tise of forestry. In addition to the two professors who teach forestry and lumber- ing, the faculty includes members of the faculty of Colorado College, of which insti- tution the forestry school is a department. The regular course of the Colorado School of Forestry covers four years and leads to the degree of Forest Engineer. The aim of the school is to give a thorough training to students who intend to adopt forestry as a profession and to fit them for positions in the government Forest Service, for positions as state foresters, or for private employ as expert foresters. Al- though an undergraduate course does not give the student opportunity to make as complete study of the academic courses, the curriculum at the Colorado School of For- estry includes all the subjects in forestry and allied sciences necessary for thorough train- ing of technical foresters. The Colorado school has the unique advantage of being located within easy reach of several national forests, and its students have therefore am- ple opportunity to inspect the most ex- tensive work in practical forestry which can be found in the country. In addition to this great advantage, the location of the school in the West not only gives prospective for- esters from the East who contemplate posi- tions on the national forests opportunity during their college years to become fa- miliar with western conditions of life, but also gives western young men opportunity to study forestry without undergoing the expense of a long journey to the East. The total enrolment of the Colorado School of Forestry this fall was thirty. Of the sev- enteen members of the entering class, sev- eral are from Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and other eastern states. The class of 1910, which will be the first to graduate, has four members. The first lumbering trip has just been com- pleted. The Seniors, with Prof. P. T. Cool- idge, spent ten days early in December among the sawmills and logging camps near Fraser on the Arapaho National Forest. Fraser, a small town about eighty-five miles from Den- ver on the Moffat road. is the center of a considerable lumber industry, and is the headquarters of the Arapaho National Forest. This lumbering trip, which is to be an an- nual institution in the school, is part of the policy of teaching forestry and lumber- ing as much as possible in the lumber woods. THE APPALACHIAN The hearing on the Weeks bill, which is quite fully reported in other pages of this magazine, was continued on Tuesday and Wednesday, the Ist and 2d of March, in order to hear the testimony from Mr. Willis L. Moore, Chief of the Weather Bureau, and from some of the army engineers. The first witness at the Tuesday session was Major J. D., Cavanaugh, Assistant Chief of Engineers. Major Cavanaugh has had several years ex- perience with rivers in Georgia and Alabama and testified with great fairness and modera- tion as to the opinions which he had formed from this experience. Major Cavanaugh was extremely frank in his statements and showed an entire lack of prejudice and a desire to be perfectly fair and to speak as a scientific and practical man rather than as a proponent of any theory. One of his most notable statements was to the effect that there is no question as to the protection of slopes by forests. “That,’ he said, “is one of the primary uses of forestry,” and he cited France as a notable example. Mr. Moore followed Major Cavanaugh. He recited his education and scientific train- ing and experience and presented letters in- dorsing the position which he had taken in his recent report. Mr. Moore did not stand up well under the searching cross-examina- tion of Representatives Lever and Plumley of the committee. Professor Swain was also present at the hearing and asked Mr. Moore some troublesome questions from the knowl- edge of a scientific expert. Mr. Moore ac- knowledged during the questioning that he was not a geologist, nor a forester, nor a hydrologist, admissions which weaken his authority on the subject dealt with in his report. On the following day, Major W. H. Bixby, of the Corps of Engineers, and Capt. E. N. Johnson, of the same corps, testified. Major Bixby, an able officer and engineer, spoke mainly of his experience with the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, and his position was that which has become well known through the discussions by Colonel Chittenden and others as the position of the majority of members of the Engineer Corps. Colonel Bixby did not, however, apply his reasoning or his facts directly to the conditions in the Appalachian Mountains, his argument con- tinually going back to the conditions which are peculiar to the Missouri and Mississippi. FOREST CAMPAIGN Captain Johnson disclaimed any intention of advancing opinions or statements of his own, but appeared to lay before the com- mittee certain reports and documents which were in the hands of the Corps of Engineers, his purpose being apparently quite as much to defend the engineer corps from charges of unwise expenditure of the public funds as to present any points in regard to the Weeks Bill or any other legislation. His statements were clear and well put, and he presented a strong case for the achievements of his corps. He was the last witness to appear before the committee. It was made clear that as regards navigation the army engineers generally pin their faith to work on the channels of streams and to bank protec- tion, and have little faith in forestry; but on their own admissions the case as regards forest protection is still an open one, on which the authorities are divided. It is improbable that any votes in the committee were influenced by the hearings, but it is understood that some members otf the committee agree with the position taken by Mr. Weeks, that this bill really belongs to the House, and will vote to report it re- gardless of their personal views and the ac- tion they may take individually on the floor of the House. we pe ye A Clear Cut Resolution The following strong resolution was adopted by the American Civic Association at its Cincinnati meeting, November 16: “We reiterate our demand upon Congress for the establishment of National Forest Reserves in the northern and southern Ap- palachian regions, believing that this is a national issue, beyond the effective juris- diction of any state or group of states, and vital to the welfare of almost the entire eastern half of the United States, and that every year’s delay in their establishment adds mightily to the penalty of indifference that the Nation must pay.” This association, with its national scope and interests, representing the best public spirit of the country, has steadfastly sup- ported the Appalachian National Forests project. The case has never been presented in the same number of words better than in this resolution. 193 NEWS AND NOTES The Weyerhaeuser Idea as to Reforestation “We believe that the only way in which the forests are likely to be replaced is for the state either to buy the lands from the lumber companies at a small price and re- plant the cut-over areas or remit the taxes. It is a simple mathematical demonstration that it will not pay the lumber corporations to keep up tax payments and wait for a new crop of trees on cut-over lands. When the taxes are added and the value of the timber is computed, it is only a two per cent invest- ment and business men are not looking for that kind.” ' George S. Long, western representative of the Weyerhaeuser Lumber Company, which owns more than 3,000,000 acres of timber land in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, made the foregoing reply in an interview when asked if the syndicate is making any effort to reforest cut-over land, and if it objected to paying taxes on the latter. we Me ye A Municipa Forest The city of Vallejo may soon become the pioneer in municipal forestry in California. It will be if the city council acts favorably upon a recommendation made by the Mer- chants’ Association of that city. Vallejo owns its own water system, and several thousand acres of land in Wild Horse Valley, the source of the water supply. This land is now practically worthless, and produces no revenue for the city. The Mer- chants’ Association has proposed to the city council that the city plant 500 acres of this land to eucalyptus trees. The association figures that in ten years the city will have 250,000 matured trees, which, at a value of $5 each, will be worth $1,250,000. Thus in a few years this tract of land would be a permanent source of revenue and would re- duce taxes to a minimum, perhaps doing away with city taxes completely.—Times. Visalia, Cal. ww w Fighting Forest Fires Sometimes they do things very well in Michigan. As every one is aware, Michigan, like New Hampshire, is very solicitous for her forests. Again, like New Hampshire, Michigan is disturbed from time to time by forest fires, and every loyal Michigander is expected to prove his willingness, when- ever occasion may demand, to join his neigh- 194 bors in fighting those fires. In fact, a Mich- igan statute specifically provides punishment for refusal to assist in suppressing a forest fire. Never, however, until last week has it been found necessary to invoke this stat- ute, and then a man was sentenced to ninety days in the Detroit house of correction. * * * It is always to be expected that care- ful judgment will be exercised in the en- forcement of this law, as of any other; and reasonableness in the application of this law, as well as public spirit on the part of the men of Michigan, is implied in the statement that no person had ever before been pun- ished for refusal to fight forest fire in that state—Manchester (N. H.) Union. we oye Drop in Lumber Output According to the report of the Census Bureau on lumber, lath, and shingles, there was a heavy decrease in the cut and value of those articles for 1908 over the previous year. The value for 1907 is placed at $807,- 941,736, while for 1908 the value is placed at $698,262,175, a decrease of about $200,- 000,000. The smaller production was due to the business depression and to the decrease in the acreage of marketable logs. The aver- age price of lumber from the mills is re- ported by this bulletin to have been $15.37, as compared with $16.56 for 1907. There was an increase of 2,381 mills and a decrease of over 7,000,000,000 feet in the output for the year. The state of Washington is still in the lead in the production of lumber, the bulk of its cut being from the Douglas fir. Louisiana is a close second, its output coming from yel- low pine and cypress. Mississippi ranked third and Arkansas came fourth. The bul- letin gives Michigan first place for the total cut of lumber since saw mills were set up first. The Wolverine state has about 100,- 000,000,000 feet of lumber to its credit. Wis- consin comes second with about 75,000,000,000 feet—Washington Times. wow ye A Forestry Course A new four-year course in forestry has been added to the courses given in the Col- lege of Agriculture of the Ohio State Uni- versity. There is an enrolment of twenty- eight students. Of this number eleven are freshmen and seventeen transfers from other courses. NEWS AND NOTES Trees and Railroads The suggestion that railroads plant rows of trees on either side of their tracks does not appeal to the Cincinnati Times-Star, which sees in such a plan a serious obstruction to the view of passengers, and added oppor- tunity for collisions. It says: “The conservation of the natural resources of this country in general, and reforestation in particular, are matters of the greatest importance and interest to every American who has his eye open to the needs of his country. But this idea of planting trees alongside of railroad tracks is more impress- ive on first “ suggestion than after it has been thought over a little.” WME Effect of Oxygen in Coal Recent investigations by the United States Geological Survey have shown that oxygen, so essential to all life, forms in coal an impurity that is almost as injurious as the ash content. The subject is, of course, of great importance to the consumer, whether he be a manufacturer using hundreds of tons or a householder who has to supply only a furnace. David White, an account of whose investi- gations on the subject has just been published by the Geological Survey as Bulletin 382, was led to these conclusions in the course of work undertaken in an attempt to devise an acceptable classification of the many different sorts of coals. He states that oxygen and ash are of very nearly equal negative value, ash being probably a little more injurious in most coals; and that the calorific value of coals in general is indicated by the balance between the total carbon on the one hand and the sum of the two great impurities, oxygen and ash, on the other. The practical application of these statements appears in considering the effect of the exposure of coal to the weather. The weathering of the lower grades, especially lignites, bituminous coals, and peats, is marked by the accession of oxy- gen, which is taken into combination. This increase of the oxygen content permits a calorific deficiency, which, on account of the high anticalorific value of oxygen, is often serious. It is possible that in many cases considerable increase of oxygen and conse- quent loss of efficiency are suffered by the lower-class fuels between removal from the bed and consumption; and it is probable that in the subbituminous coals, and more espe- cially in the lignites, oxygenation begins immediately after the coal is blasted from the face in the mine. Bulletin 382 can be had free of charge from the Director, United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 6 195 New York Constructing a Waterway The Troy, N. Y., Times says: “The attention of the United States Government is called to the fact that the state of New York is constructing, at its own expense, a waterway from the Great Lakes to tidewater. This canal will accom- modate vessels of larger size than any simi- lar waterway this side of the Canadian border, and Uncle Sam can do a graceful act by providing proper facilities for traffic by properly dredging out the river from Water- ford down to Hudson.” ww Ww The Canali Requires Inland Waterways In an address at Topeka, Kans., Mr. John Barrett, of the Bureau of American Repub- lics, said: “It will be folly to spend $4,000,000 on the Isthmian Canal and not a similar amount during the corresponding years in legitimate dredging and improving of the channels of the Mississippi, Missouri, and their navigable tributaries. “Let Missouri, Kansas, and their neigh- boring states, as great indnstrial and agri- cultural productive districts, destined to sup- ply the markets of the Pacific as well as those of the United States, support enthusi- astically an agitation, a campaign of educa- tion of the people and Congress, which will make our country a leader and not a laggard in the competition for the vast prizes of in- ternational commerce upon the Pacific seas. “The Panama project will be merely a dream if our Government does not improve our inland waterways and make them chan- nels of cheap transportation to the seaboard.” The Capita] adds: “For generations Con- gress may have frittered away millions in desultory and unsystematic river and har- bor work, but the new idea of systematic waterway development appeals to the im- agination of the country, especially of the West, as no national project that has been proposed in fifty years. It is a project worthy of the immense wealth and energies of the country, a big project, and a big coun- try to carry it out. Mr. Barrett’s appeal for it will not fall on deaf ears in this part of the country.” woe ye Artesian Possibilities in Antelope Valley A brief advance statement of the artesian possibilities of a portion of the Antelope val- ley region, California, has been prepared by the United States Geological Survey in response to special requests. The conclu- sions resulting from the survey’s investiga- tion of the region are not favorable to the finding of extensive supplies of underground water. The area embraced in the report is COCR Re SN yal INNA Gh Wis BY 6 Nes Re oma cut asn © pIN Uh ERae QMO VVis a For Sale by AMERICAN FORESTRY, 1417 G Street N. W., Washington, D. C. IMPORTANT BOOKS ON FORESTRY PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF FORESTRY FOREST MENSURATION. By HENRY SOLON GRaAvEs, M.A. A complete text book of this important subject and the first written for American Foresters. It deals with the determination of the volume of log, tree, or stand, and with the study of increments and yields. Price, $4.00 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY, THE. By B. E. FERNOW. This volume treats of forests and forestry from the standpoint of political economy, and is designed to fur- nish a trustworthy basis for formulating public policy. Price, $1.50 HISTORY OF FORESTRY. By B. BE. Frernow. A brief his- tory of forestry in Europe, the United States, and other countries. Price, $2.50 FIRST BOOK OF FORESTRY, A. By Fiuipert RoTH. An outline of the general principles of forestry, written in simple, non-technical language, designed particularly for the beginner. Price, 90¢ PRACTICAL FORESTRY, FOR BEGINNERS IN _ FOR- ESTRY, AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS, AND WOOD- LAND OWNERS. By JoHN GirFrorD. A good general description of the principles of forestry with enough technical information to prepare the beginner. Price, $1.20 HISTORY OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. By J. B. DerespaueH. The first authoritative work of its kind yet issued, and one which will commend itself alike to the timber owner, lumberman, lumber manufacturer, or merchant, or student of economics. In four yolumes bound in half leather. £5.00 per volume FOREST PLANiI™NG. By H. NicHoLas JarcHow. An il- lustrated treatise on methods and means of restoring de- nuded woodland. : Price, $1.50 FORESTRY. (Schwappach.) An English translation of “‘Forstwissenschaft.’’ Price, 50c HEDGES, WINDBREAKS, SHELTERS, AND LIVE FENCES. By E. P. Powniu. A treatise on the plant- ing, growth and management of hedges with informa- tion concerning windbreaks and shelters. Price, 50c NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY. By ERNEST BRUNCKEN. This volume, expository in its char- acter, is written in a style intended for the general reader, to whom it should convey a good idea of our forests forestry. Price, $2.00 PRACTICAL FORESTRY. By ANDREW S. FULLER. A treatise on the propagation, planting and cultivation, with descriptions and the botanical and popular names of all the indigenous trees of the United States, and motes on a large number of the most valuable exotic species. Price, $1.50 PRINCIPLES OF AMERICAN FORESTRY. By SamueEu B. GREEN. Prepared especially for students in elementary forestry and for the general reader who wishes to se- cure a general idea of forestry in North America. Price, $1.50 SEASIDE PLANTING OF TREES AND SHRUBS. By ALFRED GAvUT. Illustrated from photographs by FRANK 6urcuirFe. This is a new volume in the English Country Life Library. Advice regarding selection and manage- ment to get satisfactory effects under adverse influence of closeness to seashore. Price, $1.75 FOREST MANAGEMENT. By C. A. ScHHNOK. Describes methods here and abroad to bring the most profit from all investments made in woodlands. Price, $1.25 FOREST MENSURATION. By C. A. ScHENCK. Treats conditions in U. S. from mathematical and practical standpoint. Price, $1.25 FOREST UTILIZATION. By C. A. ScHmENOK. First treatise on this in U. S. Covers logging, lumbering, sawmilling, cooperage, paper-making, and description of all industries obtaining raw material from American forests. Price, $1.25 BILTMORE LECTURES ON SYLVICULTURE. By C. A. ScumpNcK. Written from author’s long experience as for- ester of the Biltmore estate, where sylviculture has been practiced on a larger scale for a longer time than any- where else in U. S., and where results become more ap- parent from year to year. Price, $2.50 FOREST FINANCE. By C. A. SOHENOK. Treats of the financial side of forestry, dealing with the scientific and practical development of forest finance, viewing forestry as an investment. Price, $1.26 FOREST PROTECTION. By C. A. ScHENCK. Treats on protection of forests from the various causes which lead to injury and destruction. Price, $1.25 PROFESSION OF FORESTRY, THE. By Guirrorp PInN- cHoT. A pamphlet containing an address on that sub- ject by Mr. Gifford Pinchot; also an address by Mr. Over- ton W. Price, on ‘‘Study in Burope for American For- est Students,’’ and a list of reference publications for students. ‘ Price, 2&0 FOREIGN IMPORTATIONS ENGLISH ESTATE FORESTRY. By A. C. Forses. An authoritative volume on English forest methods from the pen of a well known forester, that should prove of in- terest to Americans. Price, $8.50 FORSTWISSENSCHAFT. (Schwappach.) Price, 50c MANUAL OF FORESTRY. (Schlich.) Five volumes, com- plete, or separately, as follows (price, complete, $18.80); Vol. I. ‘‘FORESTRY POLICY IN THE BRITISH EM- PIRE.”’ Price, $2.40 Vol. Il. “SYLVICULTURE.’’ Price, $3.20 Vol. III. ‘‘FOREST MANAGEMENT,” Price, $3.60 Vol. IV. ‘‘FOREST PROTECTION.”’ Price, $4.80 Vol. V. “FOREST UTILIZATION,”’ Price, $4.80 This is perhaps the most authoritative work tbat has been issued on the technical side of forestry, translated from the German. WOOD. By G. S. Boutecgr. An important new book for arboriculturists and forestry students. A manual of the natural history and industrial applications of the timbers of commerce. Cloth. 82 Illustrations. Price; $120 FAMILIAR TREES. By Prof. G. S. Boutesr. Written by an eminent botanical authority, yet couched in lan- guage easily understood. The coloured plates are the work of celebrated artists, and are truthful and trust- worthy in every respect. A special feature is the series of photo-micrographic illustrations of sections of woods. Three volumes. Price, per volume, $1.50 DENDROLOGY, BOTANY, AND IDENTI- FICATION OF SPECIES MANUA. OF THE TREES OF NORTH AMERICA (exclasive of Mexico). By CHARLHS SPRAGUE SakGENT. A yolume that presents in convenient form and with ex- eellent illustrations, authoritative information concerning the trees of North America. It is written in a manner that enables the reader to readily find to what family or species any particular tree belongs. Price, $6.00 AMERICAN WOODS. By RomMryn B. HouGH. A new de- parture in the publication of an authoritative work illus- trated with actual wood sections of the various species described. Three are given of each, viz.: radial, trans- verse, and tangential. Issued in ten parts, per part Price, $5.06 HANDBOOK OF THE TREES OF THE NORTHERN U. &. AND CANADA, EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS By RoMeryn B. HouaeuH. Pictorial description ‘sae1] jo Two pages to each species; photo-engravings of trunk, leaves, flowers or fruit, section of wood, and map of dis- tribution, with botanical description, and brief other in- formation. Price, in buckram, $8.00; in half morocco, $10.00 FLORA OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. CuHapman. This is an excellent key to the flora of the South, complete and accurate in its scope. Price, $4.00 GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH THE TREES. By J. Horach McFaruanpd. A handsome volume, copiously tl- lustrated, and with facts accurately presented in an en- tertaining way. Price, $1.75 HOW PLANTS GROW. By Asa Gray. An understanding of the way in which a tree grows is of prime importance to the forester. and the matter here presented is accurate and authoritative. Price, 80¢ PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD; THEIR CHARACTER- ICTIC PROPERTIES. By CHartus Hunry SNow. No attempt is made to give exhaustive descriptions of species, but the author presents a mass of information designed for the use and instruction of woodworkers, eitc.., in a popular style. A host of concise information 1s brought under each head, and the work is a valuable one. Price, $3.56 These books sent prepaid upon receipt of price indicated, b) AMERICAN FORESTRY 1b 1417 G Street N. W., Washington, D. C. The American Forestry Association OFFICERS FOR i910 PRESIDENT CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts VICE-PRESIDENTS JOSHUA L. BAILY, Pennsylvania RUTHERFORD P. HAYES, North Carolina CHARLES W. ELIOT, Massachusetts GEORGE FOSTER PEABODY, New York B. E. FERNOW, Ontario, Canada J. E. RANSDELL, Louisiana W. W. FINLEY, District of Columbia J. T. ROTHROCK, Pennsylvania DAVID R. FRANCIS, Missouri ALBERT SHAW, New York EXECUTIVE SECRETARY EDWIN A. START, 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. TREASURER OTTO LUEBKERT, Washington, D. C. DIRECTORS PHILIP W. AYRES, New FEampshire GEORGE H, MAXWELL, Illinois ROBERT P. BASS, New Hampshire CHARLES F. NESBIT, District of Columbia CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts CHARLES L. PACK, New Jersey WILLIAM S. HARVEY, Pennsylvania M. V. RICHARDS, District of Columbia JOHN E. A. HUSSEY, Massachusetts CUNO H. RUDOLPH, District of Columbia OTTO LUEBKERT, District of Columbia FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Pennsylvania GEORGE D. MARKHAM, Missouri JAMES S. WHIPPLE, New York GEORGE P. WHITTLESEY, District of Columbia Advisory Board, Representing Affiliated Organizations YELLOW PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION PHILIP S. GARDINER, Laurel, Miss. N. W. McLEOD, St. Louis, Mo. H. H. WHELESS, Shreveport, La. NATIONAL WHOLESALE LUMBER DEALERS’ ASSOCIATION GEORGE F. CRAIG, Philadelphia, Pa. ROBT. C. LIPPINCOTT, Philadelphia, Pa. LEWIS DILL, Baltimore, Md. NORTHERN PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION Cc. A. SMITH, Minneapolis, Minn. WILLIAM IRVINE, Chippewa Falls, Wis. F. E. WEYERHAEUSER, St. Paul, Minn. MASSACHUSETTS FORESTRY ASSOCIATION Ee aired Seat NATHANIEL T. KIDDER, Milton, Mass. FREDERIC J. CAULKINS, Boston IRVING T. GUILD, Arlington, Mass. LUMBERMEN’S EXCHANGE ’ es : } WILLIAM L. RICE, Philadelphia, Pa. PREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Philadelphia, Pa. SAMUEL B. VROOMAN, Philadelphia, Pa. NATIONAL SLACK COOPERAGE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION : J. T. WYLIE, Saginaw, Mich. JAMES INNES, Chatham, Ontario C. H. KEYS, New York City NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BOX MANUFACTURERS f B. W. PORTER, Greenfield, Mass. S. B. ANDERSON, Memphis, Tenn. ROBT. A. JOHNSON, Minneapolis, Minn. CARRIAGE BUILDERS’ NATIONAL ASSOCIATION ‘4 H. C. MeLEAR, Wilmington, Del. D. T. WILSON, New ‘York Cc. D, FIRESTONE, Columbus, Ohio BOSTON PAPER TRADE ASSOCIATION my Q N. M. JONES, Lincoln, Maine JOHN FE. A. HUSSEY, Boston, Mass. ARTHUR L. HOBSON, Boston, Mass. Application for Membership jlo EDWIN A. START Secretary American Forestry Association i 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become a member of the American Forestry Asso- hiation. One dollar ($1.00) for annual dues is enclosed herewith. Very truly yours, Name P.O. Address_ (ZOZ 23ed 228) syepuorrpy oq} UF Adie A 2U225 AMERICAN FA | Vol. XVI APRIL, 1910 No. 4 CHECKING FLOODS IN THE FRENCH ALPS By BARRINGTON MOORE, M.F,, United States Forest Service I FE) OUBTLESS we all have seen ac- counts of terrible losses and suffering caused by floods in France, not only in Paris but through- out the whole country. We must also have seen in all the papers and periodi- cals, particularly in Collier's, that the conservation policy so splendidly started by Gifford Pinchot and so ably backed by Theodore Roosevelt, which from its very beginning has from time to time been attacked by all the large interests, is now undergoing the fiercest test to which it has ever been subjected. The connection between the two oc- currences may not at once be apparent to the man who reads as he runs. But to those who have given the matter more than a passing thought there is a vitally important lesson to be learned. The lesson is that if France had had a conservation policy a good many years ago, the damage caused by the recent floods would have been greatly lessened. It cannot be asserted that the flood which inundated Paris was due entirely or even chiefly to deforestation, since-in te case of Paris’ so many different factors, such as the situation of the city immediately in the river bed and the particularly porous nature of the rock and soil comprising that part of France drained by the Seine, must be taken into consideration. But at the same time it cannot be denied that equally destructive floods did occur and often have occurred before in less conspicuous parts of the country, and that these floods were largely if not en- tirely, due to the effects of deforesta- tion. It is therefore no exaggeration to say that if the people of the United States allow their present attempts to establish a conservation policy to be blocked by the big interests, large areas of our country will be subjected to the same dangers. Hence a short account of the damage caused by these floods in the French Alps and of the costly work which is being done to prevent the future occur- rence of this damage may be of some assistance in forming an opinion as to the importance of the conservation movement in the United States. Lie SPORT EATE Before the French Revolution the mountains of France (chiefly the Alps in southeastern France) were well covered with forests which belonged to the crown and to the nobility. When the king and his courtiers were swept away by the rising tide of revolution, their possessions were swept with them into the all devouring maw of the com- munes and private individuals. The result was the wholesale destruction of the forests, as might have been ex- 199 CHECKING FLOODS IN THE FRENCH ALPS Holding the slopes by strips of willow and grass after completion of engi- neering work, The barragesin the stream channel have become so covered with loose rock as to be inconspicuous pected when an extremely paternalistic form of government is succeeded by an extremely laissez-faire or individualis- tic form. It may be noticed in passing that this extreme laissez-faire policy has persisted to the present day not only in France but more particularly in the United States. And it has been only within the last few years that the people of this country have begun to realize that, although the policy of giving the individual a free hand and encouraging AMERICAN FORESTRY him in every possible way is essential to the devel- opment of a new country, yet when that country is once pretty well built up, there are certain limits be- yond which the individual should not be ‘allowed to go without a certain small measure of restraint. In France a considerable period elapsed before the effects of this deforesta- tion was felt. But gradu- ally a realization of the ex- tent of the damage from which the people were suf- fering was brought home tos them). Certainesrimers which formed . important arteries of commerce were being silted up and were thus choking the commerce dependent upon them, and many prosperous little vil- lages in the mountains were threatened with de- struction by over-hanging masses of earth and rock. In. many’ “cases s-.smalll streams from these moun- tains had become intermit- tent raging torrents carry- ing down enormous bould- ers and masses of debris to overwhelm the prosper- ous communities in the val- ley, causing not infrequent losses of human life. 3y 1882 public senti- ment had become so strong that a bill was passed authorizing work to be carried on to prevent these floods, and appropriating $600,000 annually for this purpose. Thus in addition to the incalculable damage already suffered a heavy ex- pense was to be incurred, for it must be remembered that this annual expense would inevitably extend over.a consid- erable period of years. Already at least $17,000,000 have been spent and an enormous amount of work of far reaching benefit to the country as a Planting Pine Trees on Steep Slope whole has been done. The French people are now suffering from a mis- take for which they were not to blame. They could not foresee, when they 1n- augurated the idea of giving the ‘indi- vidual an absolutely free hand, that the individual would destroy the forests, nor did they know at that time that even if the forests were destroyed such disastrous consequences would follow. Ill The work being done in those lofty, rugged mounains to prevent the ordinary small and harmless streams from becoming raging torrents, which cut away the mountain sides and carry the debris down on to the fields be'ow each time a heavy rain occurs or the snow melts, is intensely interesting. The work is really of two distinct kinds, the first consisting of engineering feats in checking the force of the tor- rents and preventing them from wash- ing away the slopes and carrying down large quantities of debris, and the second consisting of gradual reforesta- tion of the slopes in order to eventually make the engineering work unnecessary. The first work is absolutely essential because, until the streams have been held in check and the slopes prevented from continually slipping, reforestation is impossible. | When the slopes have been given a certain degree of perma- nence, reforestation is begun by first planting strips of grass and willow in horizontal lines around the slope. When the success of these strips gives rea- sonable assurance that there will proba- bly be no more slipping, the final step of planting the slope with trees, chiefly pine and larch, is taken. But until the forest has finally become firmly estab- lished, there is the continual danger that the engineering work will be torn out by an unusual freshet and the whole work have to be done over again. Sev- eral cases where this occurred were seen. The basis of the engineering work is the “barrage,” a dam of dry stone or mortar masonry built in the bed of the stream. The first work on any stream consists of placing a series of these “barrages” at certain regular intervals in the stream bed in such a way that the profile formed by a line along their spillways will give the angle on slope which it is desired the stream bed shall have. These “barrages” fill in above with debris so that if successful they actually form part of the stream bed. The type of “barrage” varies greatly but in general those on the upper ace are small and built of dry stone, whereas those in the lower part of the stream are built of dressed stones and mortar and are larger and much more costly. IV more clearly how done, the difficulties 201 In order to show this work is to (eo) 1) TORRENT OF LES GORGETTES The upper basin, showing a series of barrages and some of the boulders which the stream carries down with it; also showing steep, almost bare slopes. The patches of vegetation seen are rapidly slipping down into the stream bed encountered will be roughly divided into three broad classes and an example given under each class. The classes Ter re Prevention of straight cutting down. This is generally on very steep slopes of a more or less loose and gravelly nature. 2. Bodily slipping of large masses, often many acres in extent, to be pre- vented. AMERICAN FORESTRY 3. Combination of straight cutting down and bodily slipping. 1. Prevention of straight cutting down. A typical ex- ample of this is the torrent of Les Gorgettes near Gre- noble. This torrent, though small, is extremely steep and was very destructive before being taken in hand. It repeatedly cut an impor- tant highway and ruined considerable areas of valu- able agricultural land by its deposits of large boulders and sand. The work, which was begun years ago, consists chiefly in the building of a series of stone “barrages” in the tributaries on the steep slope forming the catchment area of the stream and in the main channel of the stream itself. These are designed chiefly to prevent further cutting down because the deepen- ing of its bed by the stream naturally involves further crumbling of the already too steep slopes on either side. These barrages are placed at such frequent in- tervals in the upper and steeper parts of the stream bed that, as one looks up stream, they give the im- pression of a channel of solid stone. Along the base of some slopes, walls have been constructed to prevent the slipping down of large masses of .Soil;) im other spatts= of the torrent stone wings may be seen extending. out) amtoe ithe stream 40 turn the force of the current away from precariously loose banks. As one walks along the rugged path up toward the catchment area at the head of the stream, he will notice clearly marked lines on the rocky almost perpendicular slopes above him. These are made TORRENT OF LES AIGUILLES So steep that nothing can be done with it, Notice the enormous quantity of material which it carries down (see page 204) TORRENT OF ST, MARTIN Large barrage, crushed for the fourth time by lateral pressure by aspen and alder cuttings which have been planted to hold the loose soil on the slope as much as possible. (How any human being ever kept himself on those hillsides to do the planting with- out wings is a mystery.) These early attempts at planting, however, do not appear to be very successful and proba- bly. will not be until the slope has ac- quired the “angle of repose.” In the case of Les Gorgettes, floods still occur and carry away parts of some of the “barrages,” and the steep slopes are still crumbling down into the torrent: +» But’ it) is considered, > that jurther cutting down of its bed by the torrent has been checked and that there- fore the first and most dangerous part of the work is over. The final step will be to reforest the slopes as soon as they become sufficiently permanent. Thus, after a long period of years, through terribly hard and often dan- gerous work, and the expenditure of large sums of money, the forest about this stream bed may be brought to what it was before private individuals were given a free hand. Unfortunately the case of Les Gor- gettes is simple compared with some of the others. In a different part of the mountains not far from Grenoble, near the quaint little village of Vaujany, is a 204 NIE torrent called Les Aiguilles, meaning “The Needles” on account of its numer- ous sharp points. All attempts to con- trol this torrent have failed, and the cutting will have to be allowed to con- tinue till the slopes have worn them- selves down to a more gentle angle. 2. Bodily slipping of large masses. The best example seen of this difficult proposition was the torrent of St. Mar- tin. This is in Savoy near the famous Mount Cenis pass through the Alps into Italy... The torrent rises “ine asteep basin at about 8,o00 feet elevation, flowing through rather gently sloping pastures and then down a steep pitch into the main river at about 3,000 feet, a total drop of about 5,000 feet. The great difficulty occurs where it would least be expected. The large innocent looking pastures are composed of a kind of loose slatey gypsum soil which becomes saturated with water, causing large areas to slip in a body gradually but irresistibly downward toward the banks of the stream. Of the “barrages”’ built in the bed of the torrent one of the largest, eighteen feet high by ten feet thick, had been crushed and _ re- built three times and when seen had been crushed again for the fourth time by the terrific lateral pressure. The numerous smaller “barrages’’ had been TORRENT OF ST, MOREL Large crevasses formed on the edge of the plateau at the head of the ruined slope (not visible in the picture), and part of the plateau slipping bodily in such a way as to threaten the village near its edge hopelessly broken up and carried bodily downstream for lack of a foundation. On the lower steep pitch of the torrent the whole hill is slipping bodily at the rate of twenty or thirty feet per year. Blere sa usctiiot -ebarrages.” = costing: $11,000, had been so completely de- stroyed that scarcely a trace of them could be seen. With such conditions “barrages” are of no avail. The only remedy lies in an elaborate system of underground drains covering the entire slopes affected. Naturally this involves an enormous expense and the drains when once built will require constant atten- tion, because if once they. become stopped up the hill will start on its downward course again. Though the work of checking this torrent was first undertaken in 1888, work on the drains; has only just begun, and it will be a number of years before the people living in the vicinity of the torrent of St. Martin will be able to enjoy a sense of security. 3. Combination of straight cutting down and bodily slipping. In most of the torrents examples of this combina- tion of conditions can be found to a greater or lesser extent. But the magni- tude of destructive power of the combi- nation is best seen in the torrent of St. Morel. This stream has been rising at frequent intervals, and at each rise has swept away large portions of the base of a slope almost a mile long above its left bankay ltehas done. this sovotten that this large once fertile slope has become a mass of bare and loosened gravel. Even worse than the destruc- tion of this hillside is the danger to two prosperous villages on a plateau above it. A large crevasse has opened at the top of the slope on the edge of the plateau and another one further backonk the plateam itself.) Phis 34s causing a large section of the near'y level land only a short distance from one of the villages to slip bodily to- wards the bed of the torrent. In addi- tion to this destruction and danger cer- tain prosperous communities near the mouth of the torrent were constantly threatened with being overwhelmed by masses of debris; and the Isere and Rhone Rivers were being silted up to such an extent that commerce was im- peded. When work on this torrent was first begun, attempts were made to check its ravages by the usual system of “barrages.’”’ All these attempts proved failures. Finally as a last re- sort and in order to remedy the trouble 205 TORRENT OF ST, MOREL The lower part of the torrent spreading out and ruining fertile agricultural land; showing ineffectual fences built by the communs below for protection once for all the stream was turned en- tirely away from the threatened slope by piercing a tunnel through the rock on the opposite side. It was necessary not only to cut the tunnel almost a kilo- meter (six-tenths of a mile) long but to line it throughout with masonry at a total cost of $260,co0. In addition to the actual money spent several lives were lost in building this tunnel. As the result of this work the slope which had been undermined will in all proba- bility continue to slip until it has filled up the former stream bed and reached the angle of repose with its base sup- ported against the cliff on the opposite side. All danger of further slipping will then have disappeared. The lower course of the stream will be prevented from committing any further ravages on the fertile plain with its wantonly distributed and all destroying deposits of boulders and gravel, by means of a stone channel through which it will henceforth be forced to flow. Thus after the expenditure of large sums of money and the loss of human lives, the torrent of St. Morel is at last controlled. 206 Considering the work as a whole, the public spiritedness as well as_ the skill, energy and pluck which the French people have shown in dealing with this difficult and far-reaching con- dition of affairs deserves the highest praise and should serve as an inspira- tion to other nations if they ever become afflicted with the same misfortunes. Fortunately, we in the United States have not yet reached this stage. But there are parts of this country, notably in the Southern Appalachians and White Mountains where such condi- tions are not only possible but very probable unless action is taken on cer- tain bills which are now before Con- gress aiming at the preservation of these all important watersheds. At the end of the eighteenth century, the French people made a mistake from which they are suffering to-day and are likely to suffer for many years to come. This mistake was made at a time when the scant knowledge of political econ- omy made it natural and excusable. In the United States to-day there is not the same excuse for committing the same blunder. TORRENT OF ST, MOREL Looking up the lower part of the stream, showing how it will henceforth be kept in a stone channel KEENE VALEEY IN Our frontispiece of Keene Valley in the Adirondacks, from an admirable photograph by George Parker, shows the group of highest mountains, Mt. Marcy, The Gothics, Wolf-jaws ; to the northwest, Mt. Porter and Table- top. Starting on Mt. Marcy, a large stream, known as John’s Brook, flows down through the valley, emptying into the Au Sable River at the fore- ground. It is one of the most impor- tant watersheds in that region. The THE ADIRONDACKS Rogers Company of Au Sable Falls is conducting a four-years’ pulp job, tak- ing every tree down to three inches in size. Already the stream shows the eiiect: of itor lineaddition tor tent work, the fires have run through this region, so that there is a strip for about two miles on either side of the brook nearly bare. The company has built a seven-mile road to bring down the pulp through presumably impassable country. 207 TORE ALHQHpB He BR Lane patjabad VAHH) SAMBA H) BaBR ee mad diated jaa) A‘ ie ed a japan WH TARI[HGE) B [ ph UM eddy AAT ape ay Ajiabihany UU ed ee ee | pein Te EL bad | | SHY HONG ADEE ME Sebo dad OMDM abd THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE AND FLOODS N DECEMBER, wile the beamme: on the appropriations for the Depart- men of Asncultere were beme beld by the House Gommuitiecon Agricaliare. Prot, Wiis L. Moore. Giri of the Weather Bureau, made some statement As Mr. Moore ts 2 Soyeoument ofr and Giher Gaactals a: ooondmaic bere. boc GQualmmad to deel wath iis suipgert are esiopped inom @secsames a bw ime on the above subject to the committee. and these, at the regucsi of the com mittee were laterexpanded mina prmicd report and sent out The press was also Was 70 No other motive could expkm sorch 2 stodhed effort ai tims ime tase, winch & Gn oi wast ed Chie SsBetis Gi Tenmemza ae ee SEDISE Sones amg ne Tae. THE APPALACHIAN FORESTS AND THE MOORE REPORT By FIUBERT ROTTS, Prosser of Peesstey om ihe Uewessity of Wits HE imends of forestry, the advo cates of comservalion, and with them the people of the Untted Star: east and west, north and sosth ahk-. are before Gomeres with a om and modest request askime for a kw which shall preserve the forests of the Appalachzans, both north (White Mou- tams) and south. The reasons for this request are pr tmarily - 1. All the lands of the moumtams are m ptivate hands and the forests are cat by man and devastated by fires as fast as the owners find practixebie and profitable to do sa. 2. This devastation of oar forests m the eastern United States has converted ty mufikoms of acres Of forest imo uw i @ waste lends; mt ims whole coumivses mm the Jewel Gsizacts of the Lake reswm> of ies momeed ooine Mountz mdess m Pemmcviwem- has tuumed thousands of acres of the very moumiams under cumsaderaivan am iS @ihy extendas cear wD ® ob ime mn james of all om mouniaim tracts, the Presajenizal Renee. Seid: its Indeocs lend of milece and destraciien mp the slopes a Nadsen, Jefferson and Wasiemcion. the grand old Gomes, dear 40 milhans of ear poopie. ~. Ves thai mast ts devastation wil conte wth crease tapdiy and gj wil be bot few years when practxelly all of thes mmoomtaim lemds wall he Gemaded of ther protective jorest cower = demnGaeinom Ot the ae IMM bes Tesolied m 2 oom bony mee 4. 4405 Tm men places 2D FOREST SCENE IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION Compare the French forest on page 208, recreated at great cost, because necessary plete removal of all soil, laying bare the solid rock and thus preventing all fu- ture forest growth. In other places thousands of acres have been washed into unsightly and useless gully lands, and throughout the mountains and over thousands of acres, all intermediate 210 stages of erosion, deterioration and de- struction can be seen. 5. This erosion and gullying has pro- duced natural paths for the water and during every rain or thaw the waters rush down through these channels and thus leave the ground and the moun- THE INELUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE AND FLOODS tains far more rapidly than they would if these innumerable gullies, runs, or natural ditches did not exist. Man, in other words, is causing the natural dig- ging of drains on land where no sane man would wish to have a drain, but where common sense would indicate the necessity of creating every possible ob- stacle and every means which would keep the waters from gathering into runs and from rushing into the streams and out of the mountains. The faster the waters collect and rush down the slopes, the more they erode the land and the more powerful they are to carry away the soil, so that this evil is one which not only continues but is getting worse the longer it lasts. 7. The earth which is thus washed out in the creation of these gullies and in the removal of soils from the slopes is rushed into the streams and sooner or later finds its way into the navigable parts of the rivers below, where every inch of depth of water is precious. 8. With the forests and other obsta- cles removed and with innumerable ruts, gullies and runs facilitating its speedy run-off, the waters rush from the mountains much faster and there- fore have less time to soak into the earth. But in times of little or no rain, the streams depend for their supply largely, often entirely, on water which has been stored in the soil and which slowly, but steadily, seeps out to feed the streams. The rushing off of the waters on the surface and in the drains and runs reduces the storage of water and this means less water during low water times: it means less water in the rivers, at the very time when most needed. g. The forests of these mountains have been and should be a great and permanent condition covering eighty- five to ninety per cent of all the moun- tain area. This is the natural condi- tion; its establishment and maintenance therefore are not matters of costly con- struction and doubtful utility like artifi- cial reservoirs. It grows of its own accord, atid ..all.1t asks 1S “that “man shall not wilfully destroy it. 10. The establishment and mainte- 2 nance of a forest cover on these moun- tains will not be a great expense to the people. The forests on these mountains, in due time, will be self supporting and will amply pay back such capital as is put into the purchase of the lands. Mhistorestscover «154 the “only regulator which man can maintain in these mountains, which is assuredly feasible, practicable, and permanent. Some artificial reservoirs, no doubt, will be built ine time: “An extensive set of such reservoirs would mean displace- ment of railways, highways, farm homes; ete sit would mean the making of lakes out of the very bottom lands which to-day are the only lands on which farming is successful and perma- nent. Such reservoirs would mean the building of many dams and bring with them the dangers of flood catastro- phies. And in the end all reservoirs would certainly fill up with mud unless the entire system is safeguarded by a forest cover on the mountains. The forest cover is not taking lands which should be used for other purposes, and does not prevent such Wiser sate any .Auture. time; Phough among the oldest settled regions of the country, not five per cent “of the real mountain lands are used agriculturally. Wherever farming is successful, it is in the valleys on good bottom and bench lands which would never be disturbed by the enterprise requested. These mountain forests are valuable in many other ways—they produce tim- ber, they serve as place of recreation to thousands of people, and they are worth millions for their beauty alone, but since Congress believes itself bound by the Constitution to consider the matter from the standpoint of stream regula- tion, the above reasons are the ones em- phasized in support of the “Weeks Bill.” These reasons have evidently appeal- ed to Congress before, for the Senate has at three different times passed a bill for this purpose, and the house has done so once. But again the opposi- tion appears and as its champion the Chief of the Weather Bureau, Willis L. Moore, who in a “Report on the infli- ence of forest on climate and on floods” A Deforested and Eroded Hillside in the Southern Appalachians seeks to refute the above reasons an‘ the common belief in the influences of the forest. This report was printed at the direction of the House Committee on Agriculture, as is noted on the front page, and was evidently written for the use of this committee. To appear as argument in this connection it may be said that the’ very title of the paper is misleading. For it makes it appear that there is controversy as to climate and floods when in reality no such dis- cussion exists. There is no one claim- ing, in connection with this preservation of the Appalachian Mountain forests that they affect the climate of the United States and even the increase of the local rainfall does not appear as an important or general claim. And yet even as to this seemingly simple matter of local rain, Mr. Moore admits (see p. 22) :“Jd would be difficult to either confirm. or disprove this statement of Mr. Willis.” He might: have left out his “difficult,” and simply admitted that Mr. Willis’ statement rests on pure and simple physics, capable of experimental proof and that it is a fact which no one can refute. Mr. Moore, however, prefers to add: *'Gertain’ it: is: thatthe, rams precipitated largely from air masses that exist at a considerable distance from the surface of the earth, etc.” just as if he or anyone else could tell wheth- er the water in a rain drop came from Syracuse or Utica or any particular place. As regards the second part of the title, the “floods,” it is evident that this word has been used with widely differ- ent meaning, and throughout the paper tends to mislead. There is no one claiming that a forest cover would pre- vent a cloud burst or one of those re- markable rainstorms where — several inches of water fall within an hour and thereby lead to destructive floods (usually merely local) and no one would claim that the forests prevent a disastrous thaw such as we now witness in the Cascades of Washington and elsewhere. These are catastrophies, like a cyclone, and just as we do not expect a house to withstand or prevent such a cyclone, so we do not expect the impossible of the forest. But both the house and the forest do, even during these catastrophies, what they are able THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE AND FLOODS to do, and they usually do a great deal and we believe in them. As stated above, the claim for the forest is that it prevents washing and gullying and in addition it helps to keep the soil in a condition such that water can be stored in the ground; and by its tree tops, its brush and debris it furnishes innumer- able obstacles on every acre of ground which prevent the water from gathering rapidly and rushing from the slope. On the Appalachian Mountains this regu- lator means just these things, and means not merely an_ occasional affair of a few acres, but means a cover for eighty or ninety per cent Olea hiewwatang and, an cover “which is effective, winter and summer, one which never fails, and one which maintains and renews itself. If then, in exceptional years an unusual rainstorm produces extraordinary conditions, the forest will still do its share and it will do all that it ever does, and in many cases this will mean the difference be- tween a “freshet”’ or high water and a disastrous flood. Similarly it is not claimed that forests can protect reckless people who are determined to build their houses on flood lands and to crowd the river into an impossible channel as has been done in many places. The forest is no panacea, but this fact in no wise lessens its great influence for good. In his introduction Mr. Moore men- tions the fact that this forest protection “may involve the expenditure of hun- dreds of millions of dollars and the em- ployment for years to come of thou- sands of public officials.” The first part isa misstatement of facts, and deals with a subject upon which Mr. Moore is evidently incompe- tent to speak, and the second part is a play on the dislike of our people for officialdom. What this sort of political clap trap has to do with a scientific ex- posé of forest influences is difficult to see. Certainly there can be no objection to an enterprise which will keep millions of acres of mountain lands in a produc- tive condition rather than allow them to become useless waste lands, simply be- cause it may give employment to many people. 3 213 Mr. Moore then proclaims himself a friend of the forest, and says that there are abundant reasons why they should be protected. He then enlarges upon the necessity of having plow land and of feeding our people and says (p. 4): “T believe that forests should be pre- served fo themselves alone or not at all.” Just what this means the reader must judge for himself; that it is irrele- vant to forest influences, is clear enough. Again he says (and it is also printed i vitalics))y p.ua: “And there can be no valid objections to decreasing the area (of forest) where homes and a well-fed people take the place of wild animals and _ the wilderness.” When we remember that these mountains were settled about as much as they now are when Iowa was Indian country, and when we further remember that the real farm lands in the United States are hardly half used and tilled, and that millions of acres of the best of lands are not yet even settled, this statement gets the smack of the campaign document and has certainly no place in a discussion of this kind. Mr. Moore then proceeds to discuss at length the “effect of forest on cli- mate ;” the “dessication of Asia;” “local climatic influences,’ “influences on temperature’ and other utterly irrele- vant matter. Incidentally he makes a “plea for tolerance of opinion,” and discredits the “recollections of oldest inhabitants.” He then takes up the “effect of forests on flood” and admits, p. 15: “This is a tangled problem, since the results must depend upon the slope of the ground, the nature and condition of the soil, the nature of the forests, etc.’ And further on (p. 16) without any real discussion and without adducing a single import- ant fact we see the remarkable state- ment: “On the whole, it 1s probable that forests have little to do with the heights of floods in main tributaries and princi- pal streams, etc.’’ This sentence print- ed again in italics for emphasis, with its “‘probable” and “little to do’ is here put forth as conclusive proof and evi- dently serves as sufficient scientific evi- 214 dence to support his main conclusions at the end of the paper. These conclu- sions Nos. 7-9, are the only ones which are really germane to the subject. The first and most important reads as fol- lows: “No. 7. ‘The run-off of our rivers 1s not materially affected by any other fac- tor than the precipitation.” A brand new discovery in science! We are told, practically, that it makes no difference whether the land is level or hilly, whether the slope is steep or gentle, whether it is rough or smooth, whether it is cleared or covered with brush, whether it is gullied or not, all these factors have no ‘material’ influence, the water runs off in just the same way. The fact that it is the mountain streams which have bothered the people in every part of the world by their turbulence, their floods and droughts is unknown to Mr. Moore. The fact that a prairie river like the Brazos gets on a “ram- page,’ and becomes a mud torrent dur- ing a three days heavy rain while a river from the forest, like the Wiscon- sin will hardly show a rise or sign of turpitude, all this appears to Mr. Moore mistaken observation, evidently of the “oldest inhabitant” and the United States Geological Survey. (Which by the way has an hydrographic office which is the only reliable scientific bureau dealing with these subjects.) That this conclusion No. 7 flatly contradicts the statement on page 15 and quoted above, where he admits that slope and_ soil cover do have something to do with this run-off, does not bother his logic. This conclusion is so extraordinary, so illogi- cal, and devoid of sense, and yet so eminently well fitted to serve the pur- pose of the whole paper that one is forced to believe that the conclusions were specially framed on the assump- tion that our “busy” people and legisla- tors read only conclusions. The other two conclusions, Nos. 8 and 9, assert, on no particular proof, that floods and droughts are no more frequent now than formerly, though he admits on page 16: “All of these problems could be defimtely settled beyond the possibility of argument if we had accurate river AMERICAN FORESTRY gaugings from day to day and year to year, etc.” He evidently knows that we have not accurate river gaugings, but in spite of this is not afraid to assert that he (Mr. Moore) knows whether floods and droughts are more or less frequent. The use of such assertion in a scientific discussion well illustrates the character of the whole paper. In dealing with “Run-off and absorp- tion”? Mr. Moore admits it “to be gen- erally held” that forests affect run-off. He prefers not to discuss this matter, however, claims that plowed fields are the best absorbers, and then contents himself with the above quotations con- cerning river gaugings and adds, p. 16: “We must, therefore, reason empirically from the best information at hand and this insufficiency of data renders less positive the conclusions of all investiga- tors, no matter which side of the ques- tion they may be on.” This insufficiency of data evidently does not prevent Mr. Moore from mak- ing the most extraordinary assertions ever ventured in any discussion of this kind. In this very matter of run-off Mr. Moore fails entirely to connect run-off with erosion, the gullying or develop- ment of the innumerable drain lines due to clearing of land, and aggravated by plowing. That every furrow, every rod of gully, acts as a drain and hastens run- off and prevents water storage, does not seem’ to” ben of . umiportance «to Vin: Moore’s position. The average. citizen who sees with his own eyes and not merely through the reports of rain gauge readers, and who has come to the same conclusions as his neighbors and thousands of observing people all over the country will wonder if his “reason- ing empirically” is not perhaps as con- vincing as that of Mr. Moore. In dealing with “Effects of Forests on Floods in France’? Mr. Moore delib- erately quotes certain authors by extract and is guilty of misleading statements concerning the views of prominent en- gineers, as is indicated by Professor Swain. He also neglects the main fea- ture of this topic. He does not know or STEEP.DEFORESTED SLOPE OF MT. MOOSILAUKE, NEW HAMPSHIRE This formerly bore a noble and valuable protective forest; it is now ready for swift erosion that will permanently destroy its usefulness 216 is unwilling to tell that European coun- tries generally have accepted the princi- Me of the “protective forest,” meaning thereby that forests in certain situations protect the soil and regulate water dis- tribution and therefore deserve special treatment in law. In France, Germany, Austria, Switz- erland, etc., any piece of woods on steep ground or otherwise peculiarly locate: may be declared “protective forest.” This action on the part of these govern- iments was not haphazard, it came after full consideration in which the best of European authorities had a hand. Eu- rope as a people, and Europe as a goy- ernment, believes in this forest influ- ence; and has legislated accordingly and is willing to spend money and effort on the strength of this conviction. Just as Mr. Moore neglects to dis- cuss run-off in its true relations to forest so he deals with erosion as if it were a subject of mno_ consideration. How observing Mr. Moore is on this point is well illustrated by the following on page 24: “In level countries it makes but little difference in this particular whether the ground is waste, cultivated, or densely "forested, Cte. a NVerhave here a veiled revival of the old, worn out “low gradient” argument which used to tell us that for instance, in the great lake countries erosion could not be serious. And yet right here in Mich- igan, Indiana and Ohio we have hardly a section of our rolling clay and loam lands where the farmer is not troubled by erosion. On thousands of acres it requires every year extra plowing to fill up gullies, and on thousands of acres more the gullies have become so deep and numerous as to ruin the land for agricultural purposes. On every line of railway out of Washington, D. C., Mr. Moore could see hundreds of gul- lies which have come there since “the clearing of the land. How much more serious in mountain countries! That every bit of this erosion is injurious, that thousands of tons of fertile soil wash from the land even where no dis- tinct gullies have as yet been formed, and that every rod of gully affects run-off and thus affects water storage, flood and AMERICAN FORESTRY drought, all this is not merely common observation but is capable of experimen- tal proof such as was given by Wollny long ago. But Mr. Moore finds it cheaper and more effective to resurrect the “agricultural use” argument and puts in italics the following: “for the time is come—clear up the land, seed to wheat, corn, grass and‘ fruits mil- lions of acres that now lie idle under brush or forest.” The same evasion, the same substitu- tion of political bosh for argument. A similar unmeaning argument is put forth in the “ratio of forested area, or mountain watershed to the total water- shed.” Here the fundamental argument may be stated thus: Because only ten per \cent?of the: entire watershed of the Ohio River is mountain country and subject to flood and erosion, there- fore the Ohio floods are practically un- affected by what happens in these moun- tains, and, by inference, there is no need bothering about this unimportant ten per cent. The argument is a typical one, and is about as sound as if some one were to say that, because the peo- ple of New Orleans formonlyaboutone- third of one per cent of all the people of the United States it is entirely un- necessary and unwarranted for the federal government to concern itself with the floods or any other conditions affecting the people of that city. That these mountains cover in themselves millions of acres of land, contain thou- sands of people, that their streams affect millions of people more, that the floods pouring out of these mountains endan- ger life and property every year, and that every regulation we can give to these waters is of the greatest import- ance, all these things are carefully hid- den by a lot of argument. about moon- shine. How exact Mr. Moore’s data are is clearly shown by the following on page 34: “According to our line of reas- oning which we believe to be fair and conservative it is shown that the aver- age discharge of the Ohio River is not greater as the result of deforestation, etc.” It is the line of reasoning which we are asked to accept for facts and then we are bluntly told in the conclu- Paes INECUPNCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE AND FLOODS sions that floods are not more numer- OUSMeErGs The entire paper is a jumble, it deais with a lot of irrelevant stuff crudely and poorly put together. It is full of fal- lacy and contradiction and is an insult to the thinking and observing people of our country. But it is even more. We have here an official of the United States Department of Agriculture going out of his way to oppose a most important piece of constructive and useful legisla- tion, exerting himself to oppose the ex- press wishes of millions of people, of dozens of prominent associations, of several state governments. And why all this? Is it because the law is a dan- gerous one, one that is likely to harm any person, any district? No, it isa simple effort at keeping a few million acres covered with woods to prevent the same millions of acres from becom- ing waste land. Then why does Mr. Moore exert himself? Are the reasons for this law so untrue in fact ? Are there exact scientific data to prove them un- true? Evidently not, for if this “report’’ is any criterion, it is evident that the be- lief of the people of the whole civilized world is based on observation, good sense and experience, all of which seem sadly lacking in Mr. Moore’s paper. Then why does Mr. Moore do this? Vee Meare BE FORESTS AS FACTORS IN STREAM FLOW By L. C, GLENN, Professor of Geology in Vanderbilt University T HAS been the writer’s good for- tune to spend a number of seasons studying in the field the problems of denudation and erosion as presented in the Southern Appalachians and in the Monongahela river basin. As the result of this study certain conclusions have been reached as to the role forests play in the production of floods, the erosion of lands, and the silting of streams that are believed to be based on too great an amount and variety of direct field evi- dence to be successfully controverted. This investigation was undertaken to PAG, secure data bearing on the proposition to create a national forest reservation in the region examined. The examina- tion showed that in many places condi- tions are already bad and are steadily becoming worse and that remedial meas- ures need to be taken without delay, to protect the forests on steep slopes and to prevent erosion, silting, flood dam- ages and interference with navigation. Because of the inter-state character of the streams involved, such remedial measures can only be taken by the fed- eral government and several bills, the latest of which is the Weeks bill, have been introduced in Congress in the last few years seeking to remedy these con- ditions. Until recently the opponents of such federal action have had little or no material on which to base their opposi- tion. Recently, however, several cham- pions have appeared, the latest of whom ise erot, Wallis sl. Moore, chief, of. the Unied States Weather Bureau. A re- cent report by him on “The Influence of Forests on Climate and on Floods” is being widely circulated and used as an argument against the creation of these forest reserves, since the report is a denial that forests exert any beneficial influence on climate or floods. This report of Professor Moore is too full of errors to be let pass unchal- lenged. Some of these errors are due to the statements made by Professor Moore being too broad and sweeping ; some are due, either to Professor Moore’s failure to. grasp what. the ad- vocates of reforestation really propose todo) lor, to) a tailuresen his part to make an adequate statement of their proposals; some are due to his confus- ing conditions on mountain head-waters with conditions on the lower navigable portions of river systems; some are due to a lack of information on his part of the actual conditions that prevail over thousands of square miles in the South- crn Appalachians. Furthermore, a considerable portion of the report is not pertinent to the case in hand, so that when the non-pertinent and the errone- ous portions are discarded there is but little left. So much for a general state- ASBURY FRANCIS LEVER Representative from the Seventh South Carolina District who has had charge of the Weeks bill in the Committee on Agriculture, from which it has just been favorably reported. Mr. Lever was born at Springhill, Lexington County, South Carolina, January 5, 1875; grad- uated at Newberry College, 1899, and from the law department of Georgetown University, 1899, when he was admitted to the bar of his state. He was private secretary of Hon. J. William Stokes, whom he succeeded in Congressin 1900, upon Mr, Stokes’s death. Mr. Lever was a member of the state legislature in 1900, resigning to make the run for Congress, to which he has been four times reelected. ihe INPLUBNCEOF FORESTS ON CLIMATE AND FLOODS ° 219 ment as to the nature of the report. Let us examine it in some detail. On the opening page he says, “It has frequently been stated that forests control the flow of streams, both in high-water stages and in low-water StdciGS ete ee) EMishstarementeimay be technically correct but is certainly misleading since it is not generally con- tended to-day that forests control but only that they strongly influence in a beneficial way the high and low water flow. If they controlled the flow pre- sumably floods would be unknown. Page 4 is misleading inasmuch as nobody proposes either to reforest or to keep forested lands that would sub- serve a higher usefulness as agricultu- ral lands than they would as forest lands. The lands it is proposed to keep in forest are either those too rough to be of any agricultural value or those too steep to be cleared because of the danger of rapid erosion and ruin and the consequent destruction of lower lying lands and other property in the same drainage basin as well as to the streams themselves and navigation in- terests from silting and increased de- struction due to floods. Lands so steep that under present careless methods of agriculture they are properly classed as forest lands may by improved cultura! methods gradually come to be agricul- tural lands and so provide in the future for the time when population presses upon subsistence, but at present in the Southern Appalachians the people would be better off if they cultivated less land rather than more land. Pro- fessor Moore’s phrase “‘the pleading of the poor man’s children for bread and meat” used in the same connection on page 4 as an argument for further de- forestation does not apply to conditions in the Appalachians and so is not pa- thetic, however well it may sound. Nor would “homes and a_ well-fed people take the place of wild animals and the wilderness” as Professor Moore would lead one to suppose but rather a desolate waste would soon result, rain-scarred on the slopes and flood- swept in the valleys. Such destructive processes are actively at work to-day in these mountains and would only be made worse by adopting his proposals for further deforestation. Near the bottom of page 4 the state- ment “It is found that in some limited areas where the forest is cleared away, the soil, owing to its nature and slope, will not admit of successful cultiva- tion, ’—(italics the present writer’s )— is misleading. The writer would like to know how Professor Moore found that such areas are so limited. Per- sonal examination shows that at least two-thirds and perhaps three-fourths of the southern mountain area will not ad- mit of successful cultivation under present methods of agriculture and probably half of it could not be safely cultivated under any improved methods of farming likely to be introduced for yearsmtoncome.\, Phe phrase a; some limited areas” is therefore misleading in that it unduly minimises the extent of the non-agricultural area and tends to belittle the problem that demands solu- tion. It would seem to be merely the personal opinion of its author and is not supported by the facts in the case. On the top of page 5 it is admitted that such areas would be fit places for national control if it can be demon- strated that conditions there materially affect the navigability of streams. An examination of the Tennessee made by the writer does show that much material eroded from the steep mountain slopes is accumulating in the navigable reaches of that river and is injuriously affecting navigation. This material tends to fill the deeper pools, to lodge on the shal- low bars, to obliterate dredged channels, and to aid in the growth of islands, the displacement of the channel, and the undercutting and caving of the banks. Pages 5) tor 15° discuss” the effects of forests on climate particularly with regard to their influence on rainfall and on temperature. So far as the writer knows no one is claiming that there has been any such serious change in the rainfall or in the temperature in either the Northern or the Southern Appa- lachians as a result of deforestation, as 220 to base on such change any important argument for congressional action. The pages devoted by Professor Moore to such discussion are not pertinent to the case at all. In discussing the influence of forests on floods in the latter half of his paper Professor Moore fails to distinguish between the characteristics of the many non-navigable head-water tributary streams and those of the main naviga- ble stream. It should be kept clearly in mind that the steep mountain basins of these head-water tributaries are the areas where reforestation is advocated because they are the areas of greatest erosion and greatest flood damage. The marked increase in the frequency, height and violence of floods in recent years in the Southern Appalachians has been on these head-water tributaries such as the Doe, the Watauga, the Nolichucky and the French Broad, for instance, of the Tennessee system and not in the lower Tennessee itself. In March, 1907, for instance, the remark- ably destructive flood in the Ohio river system was at and above Pittsburg, not down at Cincinnati, Louisville, or Cairo. On the Savannah, the Broad, the Ca- tawba, and all other large rivers head- ing in the Southern Appalachian moun- tains the locus of maximum flood vio- lence and destruction is near where they, or their head-water components, first leave the mountains, not far out on the plains along their middle and lower reaches. Professor Moore confuses these two portions. Instead of focus- ing his attention on the navigable mid- dle and lower parts of a river system like the Tennessee, he should become acquainted with the upper or head- water part. Colonel Chittenden and other army engineers fall into the same error. The navigable portion of any large river system does not exhibit such marked change of regimen as a result of deforestation as its constituent head- water tributaries do. Each of these tributary basins is small enough to be affected throughout its entire extent by unusual weather conditions and_ the tendency in such basins is toward an AMERICAN FORESTRY extreme condition while the tendency in the trunk stream formed by the union of many of these tributaries is to a mean of the conditions, either high or low, that characterize the tributaries. Profound changes in the high and low water stages of certain mountain head- water tributaries might occur. without producing any strongly marked change of regimen in the middle and lower reaches of the trunk stream. A flood on the Watauga, for instance, five feet higher than any ever previously known and utterly destructive of all property within its reach might not add a couple of inches to the stage of the Tennessee at Chattanooga or be perceptible at Pa- ducah. Professor Moore and others are either ignorant of the locus of maxi- mum flood damage or confuse it in their reasoning with conditions in the middle and lower part of the stream basin where such extremes do not occur. Most of their arguments apply to these lower reaches. It is believed by the present writer that a very general change of regimen on the head-waters will be reflected in a corresponding mean change in the high and low water stages in the main trunk stream in any large river system but this mean change will be far less striking on the trunk stream. It should be remembered, however, that so far as the navigable middle and lower parts of a large river system are concerned the amelioration of flood and drought conditions is not the only, and may not in a given case be the chief, effect, but that the prevention of ero- sion of steep slopes and the consequent serious silting of the navigable portions of the streams will also be a most im- portant effect of reforestation. In discussing run-off and absorption on page 16 it is not sufficient for Pro- fessor Moore to say that “it can be shown that the run-off from a smooth surface and from one covered with sticks, dense grasses, or forests are equal (italics mine) after the rough surface becomes saturated.” They may be ultimately equal in total volume of run-off but still be far from equal in Sand Deposited on Alluvial Bottoms by Freshets, 1901, Catawba County, North Carolina rapidity of run-off and it is the rapidity of run-off that counts in flood produc- tion. It is a matter of elementary physics, merely, to show that the rapid- ity or velocity of run-off from a rough surface such as a forest covered one would not be as great as from a smooth one of the same slope, whether the sub- surface were saturated or not. The writer feels very certain trom his field studies that the absorptive capacity of the average Southern Appa- lachian forest area is very materially greater than the absorptive capacity of the average cleared field in the same re- gion, and this balance in absorptive capacity in favor of the forest is a po- tent factor in preventing or mitigating flood disasters. Up to a certain maxi- mum limit of rainfall that would vary in each individual case, the forest cover would preyent any run-off at all; if the rainfall be doubled the forest cover would retain half of it; if quadrupled a fourth; and if in torrential down- pours it retained only a tenth, say, of the rain that fell, it is still just so far beneficial in its influence and without it the resulting flood would be just so much the worse. It is illogical to con- clude that the forest has no_ beneficial influence merely because it fails to con- trol floods entirely, and it is in the very worst floods that any ameliorating in- fiuence; jis most snecdeds, It. may be remarked that the writer knows no kind of vegetation on cleared land in the Appalachians that exerts anything like as great a conserving influence on the rainfall as the forest does, simply because the covering of humus and lit- ter in the forest is both thicker and a more efficient absorptive agent than any vegetable cover on the cleared land. In regard to the quotation from the French engineer, Mr. St. Clair, on page 221 222 AMERICAN 18, it might be of interest to Professor Moore to learn that of the two types of springs there described,—the small or superficial ones, drawing their supplies from the strata very near where they issue and the large or deeply subterra- nean ones drawing theirs from long dis- tances and large areas as in limestone regions—only the first or local type of springs is found, except in a few rare cases such as at Warm Springs in North Carolina, in all the Southern Appalach- ian region and Professor Moore’s French author admits the increased irregularity of flow and even the drying up and entire disappearance of such small springs as a result of cutting away the forests. This is exactly in accordance with what is found in the field in the South and had Professor Moore known the actual conditions in the region about which he was writing he probably would have omitted this quotation. Several pages are devoted by Protes- sor Moore to discussing the academic question of the source of flood waters in the United States. Whatever the source of these waters no one has yet pro- posed to alter or change in any way the general system of atmospheric circula- tion over the country at large and until this is successfully done the rains will continue to come from the same sources as of yore. It is not a question of where the rains come from, but what we are going to do with them—or they with us—after they have gotten here. Erosion is handled very briefly and lightly by Professor Moore and no very definite conclusion or conviction as to it is expressed. Erosion is, however, one of the most powerful destructive agencies at work in the mountain region and is of supreme importance in any study of the relationship between forests and streams. There is not room here for any detailed discussion of erosion but it will be referred to again in discussing the question whether floods are increas- ing or not. In discussing the ratio of the forested area, or mountain watersheds, to the to- tal watershed there is the same failure to appreciate the differences between FORESTRY these mountain watersheds and the roll- ing or level plain portion of the great stream systems that has been noted al- ready. The flood problem so far as the lower, more nearly level lands is concerned, is not a forestry problem but an agricultu- ral one and nobody is proposing to con- sider it as a forestry problem. On page 25 Professor Moore itali- cises two consecutive sentences, each of which demands some brief comment. They are as follows “The rugged moun- tain slopes and tops, where land has lit- tle value, are unimportant as flood pro- ducers. It will be necessary actually to reforest the lower slopes and valleys where the land is of great value and where it should be devoted to agricultu- ral purposes.” In the first of these sen- tences there is, apparently, the former confusion of linking steep mountain slope causative factors directly with mid and lower main stream flood results and there is at the same time apparently a total ignorance of the perfectly evident fact that these rugged slopes are most important flood producers in such large tributary basins as the Watauga, the French Broad, the Pigeon and the Little Tennessee, all of which lie among the mountains themselves. With regard to the second sentence above quoted one wonders if there has been a slip of the pen or if, despite all of his arguments to the contrary, its author really means to say that forests do after all exert an efficient regulative influence on flood production. The last topic discussed is whether floods are increasing. Here again Pro- fessor Moore has in mind floods on the lower, navigable portions of stream sys- tems. His argument and array of sta- tistics, when balanced against Mr. Leighton’s opposing ones, are at most not convincing. The present writer, however, has studied in the field certain processes that are of such widespread occurrence and distinctive character as to leave no doubt that floods are increas- ing both in frequency and in height. These processes have to do with erosion as the chief causative factor and a very brief statement concerning them be- comes necessary. ON THE TENNESSEE RIVER, NORTH CAROLINA Pines that sprung up in this badly gullied pasture were cut out. Under natural forested conditions streams in steep-sloped mountain basins receive comparatively little eroded mate- rial from their slopes and expend much of their energy in eroding their beds and so soon produce good deep channels that are efficient agents for the rapid removal of flood waters. Such deep stream channels. may be seen in any well for- ested region. | When the steep slopes have been denuded of their timber, how- ever, they are rapidly attacked by ero- sion and the soil and disintegrated rock are swept into the stream channels in such great quantities as to overload and choke the streams and soon fill up their deep channels and even cover up their fermer flood surface. With their deep channels obliterated, the streams can no longer remove rainfall efficiently and rapidly and it consequently accumulates and rises to greater heights than for- merly. Futhermore, many a small rain They would have checked the wash that, with the former deep channel well fitted for the rapid removal of flood waters, would have failed to make a bank-full stage, now overfills the greatly shallowed channel and spreads as a flood over the adjacent lands, so that there can be no doubt that in the denuded and eroded mountain basins of the size of the French Broad or the Nolichucky, for instance—each of which are good sized rivers—floods are to-day both higher and more frequent than they for- merly were under natural forested con- ditions. The problem of whether floods have increased in height and violence in re- cent years may be approached from another and in many respects a more certain and satisfactory viewpoint than either that just given or that of the meteorologist dependent on his gage readings. This third viewpoint is that of the geologist and physiographer, and 22, 2a AMERICAN its superiority consists in the great length and permanence of the record and in the unmistakable character of the data it furnishes to one skilled in read- ing such a record. The meteorologist depends on gage readings of flood heights, made by man and often incomplete, the best of which in this country extend back for only a few score years and in Europe for only a few hundred years. The geologist depends upon records thousands of years in length made during all the long ages in which the valley and the flood plain were forming and written in the materials of the flood plain and in the width, slopes, and other features of the valley. Beside these records the length of even the longest meteorological gage records becomes insignificant. The flood plain deposits that have been built up by the ages of slow flood activ- ity reveal the character of the floods by which they were formed. If these have been gentle, the deposits will consist of fine alluvium; if they have been violent, the deposits in a region such as the Southern Appalachians, will be corres- pondingly coarser and will consist of sands, cobbles, or boulders. If the sands, cobbles, and boulders that have been repeatedly strewn over their flood- plains in the last few years by such streams as the Watauga, the Doe, the Nolichucky, the Catawba, and other southern rivers had been the kind of material these rivers had for ages been accustomed to deposit, their entire flood plains would be composed of such coarse materials instead of being, as they are, of fine rich sandy loam or clay. Had they at any time in their past history been accustomed to build such coarse material into their floodplains that mate- rial would be there to-day as a mute wit- iess.o1 the fact. Itas only ofirecent years, however, that they have formed such coarse deposits because only in re- cent years have their floods had the height, velocity, and power to enable them to carry such coarse materials. The normal change in the regimen of a river as the ages pass is such as to make its flood plain deposits grow constantly finer. In these rivers, however, this FORESTRY process is reversed and thin deposits have recently grown coarser. This re- cent anomalous change in the regimen of these rivers can only be due to the denudation and erosion that have re- sulted from man’s activities in the re- gion. The rivers of the region have re- cently changed their regimen and floods have become higher and more violent, else sands, cobbles, and boulders would not have been strewn during the past decade over the finer alluvial accumula- tions of many previous centuries. Finally, to say as Professor Moore does in his summary, that the run-off is not materially affected by any other factor than precipitation is ridiculous. “THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE AND ON FLOODS" A Review of Prof, Willis L. Moore's Report By GEORGE F, SWAIN, LL.D. Professor of Civil Engineering, Harvard University T MAY be well to preface this dis- cussion by a brief reference to the proper methods of scientific investiga- tion, because these are often forgot- ten, even by those who lay claim to scientific acquirements, and because it will be shown in what follows that in the paper under consideration such has been the case. In the investigation of scientific phe- nomena two methods alone may be em- ployed: The inductive and the deduc- tive. If the relations between two phe- nomena are to be studied by the induc- tive method, the process is to collect observations, or to make experiments, in which one of these phenomena is varied, while the effects upon the other are ob- served. The method consists in accu- mulating a sufficient number of such observations and experiments, and from them drawing generalizations. It is a statistical method—a reasoning from particulars to general principles. In the deductive method the process is reversed ; starting from general prin- ciples all conclusions are deduced from Southern Appalachian Mountain Field Ruined by Erosion them; the reasoning is from general principles to particulars. Omitting metaphysical subtleties, it may be said that the general principles which form the starting points may be obtained in either of two ways: they may be truths which the mind perceives or arrives at without experiment or observation, such as the fundamental truths of math- ematics and mechanics; or they may be truths which themselves have been ar- rived at by induction and which are then used as the basis of deductions. Some minds instinctively prefer one of these methods, some prefer the other. Some people are only satisfied by statis- tical proof, or what appears to be such. - I presume some people would require a statistical proof of a future life; they would desire to have records of inter- views with departed spirits, to know how many of such departed spirits said they were alive, and how many said they were dead, and whether the proportion of those who said they were alive had increased in recent years. Some minds, on the other hand, seem almost incapa- ble of inductive reasoning. They must start with fundamental principles and reason from them, and if they have no fundamental principles to start with, they will create them from their own imaginations. Clearly, a proper combination of both methods, using each where it is applica- ble, is the basis of reasonable scientific investigation. DIFFICULTIES WITH THE INDUCTIVE METHOD There are several serious difficulties which are likely to be encountered in the application of the inductive method, and many precautions which must be taken if error is to be avoided. In the first place, a very essential point to be observed is, that in order to determine the effect upon Phenomenon B which is exerted by Phenomenon A, the observations or experiments must be so conducted that, of all the elements which may effect B, all remain constant excepting A. In other words, only one 225 226 phenomenon at a time must be varied. If the physician wishes to determine whether mince pie is a cause of indiges- tion, he will not give his patient, at the same time, mince pie, lobster salad and Welsh rarebit, for, if he does and indi- gestion results, he cannot fairly attrib- ute it to the mince pie. If a metallur- gist wishes to determine the effect ot various percentages of carbon upon the strength of steel, he must be very care- ful to procure a number of samples of steel precisely alike in every respect, ex- cept that the percentage of carbon va- ries: and it will not do, in such a case, to say that because there is only a slight difference in the percentage of some other element, such as nickel, the expe- riments prove the effect of the carbon, because it may be that an extremely small variation in nickel would have more effect than a large variation in carbon. Only one element must be va- ried at a time, and this is an extremely important consideration. A second difficulty arises with the in- ductive method if the observations vary very greatly from each other. If, for in- stance, it is desired to find the effect of Phenomenon A upon Phenomenon B, and if this effect in any case is small, while Phenomenon B, is exceedingly variable, it may be difficult to show bv statistics that Phenomenon A has any effect at all, though that effect may be unquestionable. There are other mat- ters affecting the general methods of scientific investigation which are sug- gested by this paper, but they will be taken up in connection with the specific points in Professor Moore's paper which illustrates them. EFFECTS OF FORESTS ON RAINFALL Fourteen pages out of thirty-six in Professor Moore’s paper are devoted to a discussion forests and rainfall. This relation is of no consequence so far as concerns the Weeks bill, or the claims made by those who believe that the government should acquire forest reserves. No one has insisted, so far as I know, that forests have any consider- of the relation between ~ AMERICAN FORESTRY able effect upon rainfall. Mr. Pinchot in his “Primer of Forestry” states that no generally accepted result has yet been reached in the matter; that the observa- tions are not all in agreement, and con- cludes by saying: ““The truth probably is that more rain falls over the forests than over open country similarly placed, but how much more it is impossible to say.’ Professor Moore deals with this subject as though it were one of the most important involved. He quotes from several authors with reference to desiccation in other countries, where the rainfall, once abundant, has become much less or disappeared entirely, and says that “this decrease or precipitation might better be regarded as the cause rather than as the result of the barren condifioncor thersoil. Sen aS that the forests ceased to exist when the rainfall became deficient ;’’ and he seems to think that this proves that forests do not increase the rainfall. He compares the rainfall records in New England and in the Ohio Valley for the past seventy years and concludes that it is not decreasing. His conclusion on this point is stated in the following para- graph: “In New England, where deforestation began early in our history and has been extensive,the mean of the fluctuations of the rain-curve is a steady rise since 1836 up to a few years ago, and in the Ohic Valley, where the forest area has been greatly diminished, there has been no decrease of rainfall shown by the aver- age of the fluctuations of the curve. These facts are important and cannot be successfully disputed.” A careful examination of Professor Moore’s statements will show that they offer no proof whatever that forests do not affect precipitation. It is admitted that climatic and geologic changes are taking place very slowly at many places on the earth; mountain ranges are being elevated, other districts are subsiding, ocean currents are changing, and in the course of thousands of years variation: in climate, including temperature and rainfall, result. Undoubtedly forests have disappeared in many places be- cause the rainfall has been diminished ; ib INeEUENCE OF FORESTS ON, CEIMATE AND FLOODS. 227 but that does not prove that the forests may not increase the rainfall; a man ceases to drink water after he dies, but that does not prove that the drinking of water has no relation to keep- ing him alive. There may be; and no doubt is, a reciprocal relation between the forests and the: wtamralle Lh) athe rainfall disappears the forests, of course, will die, and great climatic changes may make the rainfall disappear; but, all the same, the forests may increase the rain- fall. AS avimatter (ot, fact, this subject affords an excellent illustration of the imperfections of in- ductive reasoning in this case. The rainfall is an exceedingly variable quantity; the annual rainfall this year may be double what it was last year. Even taking the average in ten-year periods, Professor Moore’s curve for New Bedford shows an aver- age of about forty-nine and a half inches in the ten years from 1820 to 1829, and forty-three and one half inches in the ten years from 1840 to 1849. In 1883 the rainfall near Boston was thirty-one and two-tenths inches; in 1888 it was fifty-six and ninety-three one-hundredths inches; in 1892 it was thirty-nine anil four one-hundredths inches. Moreover, these observations of rainfall them- selves are subject to large errors. A rain-gauge whose mouth stands one foot above the ground may collect six per cent more water than if it were placed level with the ground, and if placed higher the difference may be. sti!l greater ; moreover, the methods used for VIRGIN SPRUCE IN WHITE MOUNTAINS But little of this once typical forest remains measuring the snowfall and reducing it to inches of water involves errors, and there are still other sources of uncer- tainty. Considering that, even if the forests are untouched, the rainfall over a given area may vary fifty per cent or more in consecutive years, how can it be expected to demonstrate by a compara- tively few years of observations the effect of the forests—which, in any case, will be small? Any effect of the forest would very likely be less than the prob- able error of the observations them- selves. Under these conditions, there- fore, the inductive or statistical method fails. What then, are we justified in doing? Professor Moore draws this conclu- sion: “Precipitation controls forestation, but forestation has l:{'e or no effect 228 upon precipitation.” He further makes “a plea for tolerance of opinion” and, presumably in connection with this plea, quotes the very intolerant opinion of Prof. Cleveland Abbe: “In this day and generation the idea that forests either increase or diminish the quantity of rain that falls from.the clouds, is not worthy to be entertained by rational, intelligent men.” If he were present- ing a fair and a scientific discussion, recognizing that the inductive or statis- tical method will not give definite re- sults, he would see that we must resort to the deductive method, provided we can find some fundamental principles, reasonably established, upon which to base our deductions. He recognizes, indeed, that the statistical method will not work for he says: (page 16) “All of these problems could be definitely settled beyond the possibility of argu- ment if we had accurate river gaugings from day to day and from year to year, together with a full knowledge of the rainfall and of the proportion of wooded to cleared areas, data which, unfortu- nately, we do not have.” But, he goes on to say, incorrectly, that we must, therefore, “reason empirically from the best information at hand.” Empirical reasoning will scarcely lead to reliable results. Now as a matter of fact, there are several well established principles which bear upon this matter, and which give very good a priori reasons for believing that forests do slightly increase the rain- fall. The first of these Mr. Moore mentions (page 22) quoting from Prof. Bailey Willis: “The mountains are wet because they are high, and they are heavily foreste:] because they are wet. But there is also a reciprocal action of the forests on the wetness, for the radiation the dark-green uniform and promotes frequent and steady rains. Were the mountains bare they would, like the bared sierras of Spain, receive occasional but violent downpours and ‘send down excessive and disastrous floods, even more disas- trousy than mows) 1): 7. from For in-so- expanse is comparatively: AMERICAN FORESTRY far as we clothe the surface with green crops we lower the temperature of the rising air and favor precipitation on the verdure-covered plain.” Regarding this statement by Profes- sor Willis he goes on to say “It would be difficult to either confirm or disprove this statement of Mr. Willis.” If this is the case, why does he draw the con- clusion that forests have no effect? It would be fairer, as well as more logical, to simply say, what is the truth, that many competent meteorologists believe that forests increase the rainfall, that there are good theoretical grounds in favor of it, but that the effect is slight, and difficult 1f not impossible to prove by observations, considering the varia- bility of the phenomenon. It is a reasonably established fact that forests decrease the mean annual tem- perature. This has been proved by many observations. They therefore bring the air nearer to the point of sat- uration, and therefore tend to increase the rainfall. Professor Moore argues that this effect amounts to nothing be- cause “the rain is precipitated largely from air masses that exist at a consid- erable distance from the surface of the earth.” The height above the ground at which vapor is condensed in the air is variable ; it may be at a great height or it may be close to the ground. On mountain sides, particularly, the con- densation may occur at, or even below, the level of the forest. We all have seen rain falling from clouds lying at a height considerably below the tops of mountains or even high hills. Any effect of the lowering of the temperature pro- duced by forests, therefore, will be par- ticularly noticeable in mountainous re- gions. Just how much the effect will be will depend upon various circum- stances; among others, the distribution of the rainfall through the year, for the effect of forests on temperature differs in summer and winter; but with a rainfall distributed with tolerable uni- formity through the seasons, the resui- tant effect should be to increase—even if but slightly—the amount of rainfall. A second principle from which we Ds iNPE UENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE AND FLOODS | 229 may proceed in this matter, is the effect of forests on evaporation. By cooling the air and obstructing the wind, for- ests reduce the evaporation from a water surface, but the trees themselves evaporate considerable quantities of moisture, so that the total evaporation over a wooded area is generally consid- ered to be greater than over a cleared area. Those who oppose the preserva- tion of the forests sometimes make a great point of this. Now, the precipi- tation of rain depends fundamentally upon the amount of vapor in the atmos- phere; most of this vapor comes from the great oceans and is carried by the winds over the lands; but if, as it pro- ceeds over the land it is joined by more vapor evaporated from the land itself, there will be all the more vapor in the atmosphere to be condensed when the conditions which produce condensation occur. Any cause, therefore, which increases the evaporation must increase the rainfall; and if—as there is good reason to believe—the growth of for- ests increases the total evaporation from an area, it would seem they must in- crease the rainfall. This does not mean that if I planted trees in my back yard I will increase the rainfall in my backyard; neither does it mean that if forests are planted on a spit of land projecting into the sea like Cape Cod, the rainfall on Cape Cod wiil be increased. The vapor is not precipi- tated where it is evaporated, but is car- ried long distances; some of it may be precipitated on the land and some on the sea. Generally speaking, however, the argument would seem to be sound; that is, if forests increase evaporation they must increase the rainfall somewhere. All this, however, is of little conse- quence as compared with the larger question, and the main question, as to the effect of forests upon floods and the navigability of streams. It must also be remembered that those who are in favor of the Weeks bill do not argue, as Professor Moore would seem to make it appear, that the forests must be preserved on areas suitable for cultivation and needed for cultivation. “The pleading of the poor man’s chil- 4 dren for bread and meat’ referred to by Professor Moore, is a sentimental obscuring of the question. What is claimed is that on the steep slopes and -mountain sides which are not suited for agriculture, the forests should be pre- served, not only as a source of lumber supply but as a protection against the fires which are most apt to start on the cleared lands, and as a protection to navigation by preventing erosion and the silting up of streams, and also as a source Of beauty and health; but the legal justification must, as already stated, rest solely on the effect upon navigation. EFFECT OF FORESTS UPON FLOODS In studying the effect of forests upon floods by the statistical or inductive method, we meet with even greater difficulties than in studying the effect upon rainfall. One of the most impor- tant of these difficulties arises from the fact that we cannot vary only one ele- ment at atime. Not only is the rainfall different in different years on a given area, but the proportion of that rainfall which flows in the streams, even if the rainfall is precisely the same, may vary in different years by 100 per cent. In 1871 the rainfall on the Cochituate watershed was forty-five and thirty-nine one-hundredths inches, of which thirty- three per cent flowed from the surface, the remainder being either evaporated or sinking into the deep strata; while in 1891 the rainfall was almost exactly the same, namely forty-six and forty- two one-hundredths inches, of which sixty-nine per cent flowed from the sur- face ; in 1874 the rainfall was thirty-five and ninety-three one-hundredths inches, of which fifty-four per cent was col- lected; in 1880 the rainfall was thirty- five and eighty-three one-hundredths inches, of which only twenty-nine per cent was collected. Equal variation oc- curs in the manner in which this water flows off; a large amount may flow off without causing a flood, or a smaller amount may flow off causing a great flood. Now, in order to demonstrate by induction the effect of forests on floods, 230 it would be necessary to have the same area under identical conditions except that at one time it should be forested and at another time it should be defor- ested; this condition is manifestly 1m- possible of attainment; it never has been attained and it never will be. In the published comparisons which are found in various papers dealing with the subject, the conditions are never the same. A curious fact, however, is that Professor Moore and some_ other writers should not think it even neces- sary to make any statement as to the proportion of given area under discus- sion which is covered by forests. | Pro- fessor Moore thinks he shows that the floods in the Ohio River have not in- creased, but he does not even tell us and does not seem to think it necessary to inquire whether the total forested area has increased’or decreased and how much. He reasons entirely from one premise. He says: “The floods have not increased, I do not know defi- nitely about the forests, therefore the forests have no effect on floods.” Now while there has been great cut- ting on the mountain slopes during the past decade or two, it is very possible that some other slopes which had been cut previously have been growing up, and the total forested area may have changed but little. Certainly no con- clusion worthy of credence can be drawn until this point is investigated. Statistical reasoning, therefore, is un- satisfactory in this case as it is in con- nection with rainfall, and we must therefore resort to deductive reasoning based on simple fundamental principles ; and here again there are two principles which every observing man knows to be true and which no amount of spe- cious reasoning like that of Professor Moore will suffice to counteract. These are, first, that the forest re- tards the discharge of water from the surface of the ground. The forest causes a million dams, which obstruct the surface water and cause it to trickle along slowly; it also forms a bed of humus which is able to absorb this water; beneath which is a porous ground which can carry it still deeper. AMERICAN FORESTRY When a sudden downpour comes, not only do the forest trees intercept a por- tion of rain on their leaves and branches and allow it to trickle gradually down the trunk or drip to the ground, but the water, when it reaches the ground, is obstructed and has time to sink in, and finds something to sink into. On the open ground, on the contrary; on steep slopes (and it is only these that we refer to) a sudden downpour causes the water to be discharged quickly over the surface into the streams. If the forest then, as every reasonable man knows is the case, retards the surface run-off, it must, on the whole, diminish the vio- lence of freshets. The second fact of importance is that the forest retards the melting of the snow; everybody familiar with the country knows that in the forest the snow lasts considerably longer than it does in the open, although there may be isolated drifts in the open where cer- tain beds of snow may linger longer than the snow in the forest. On the whole, and speaking generally, forests retard the melting of snow, and there- fore every reasonable man will conclude that they must, on the whole, by caus- ing the snows to be discharged in a longer time into the streams, reduce on the average, the floods. Moreover, by facilitating the percolation into the ground and the subsequent slow giving out of the percolated water by springs and seepage, the forests must, on the whole, maintain a higher low-water flow in the streams. Professor Moore’s arguments on this point—if they may be called argu- ments—are in part faulty and in part based on a misconception of the ques- tion, as will now be shown. In the first place, the sum and sub- stance of his claim is that forests do not decrease the extreme floods or increase the extreme low-water flow. This has long been admitted by competent hy- drologists. It is even possible to con- ceive circumstances under which the presence of a forest might increase the flood which, if the forest were not there, would come from a given area. But the navigability of streams, the forma- tH INFLUBNGE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE AND FLOODS: 231 tion of bars, the silting up of channels, do not depend upon extreme conditions. Three or four moderate floods may do as much damage to a navigable river as one extreme flood, and may bring down more sediment to be deposited in the river bed. Professor Moore’s authori- ties in this particular discussion are Prof. Cleveland Abbe and two French engineers, M. Belgrand and M. Valles, both of whom wrote their original dis- cussions on this subject over fifty years ago. To his quotation from Profes- sor Abbe we need pay little attention, as itgetaseaverercnce) to, level 'sround; whereas we are discussing the effect of forests on steep slopes. Ploughed and cultivated land is very likely quite as porous and quite as able to absorb rain- water as forest ground, as Professor Abbe says. It is quite easy to under- stand, however, how he can make out that “under a forest less rain actually enters the humus,’ and yet goes on to say “that the amount of water that is eventually given up from the forest humus varies but little from that given up in the course of time by the unfor- ested cultivated soil.” Less rain enters the humus but essentially the same is given up from it. With reference to the French writers, Belgrand and Vallés give exactly the same arguments that are advanced by Professor Moore, and by Colonel Chit- tenden in his recent paper to which the present author published a reply a few months ago. A sample of M. Vallés’ reasoning may be quoted to show the kind of logic which appeals to his mind. He says that the forest ground is less porous than bare ground because if you should ask a laborer in which he would prefer to dig a hole he will select the latter. He might as well argue that an acre covered to a depth of ten feet with a mattress of barbed wire was less porous than hardpan for the same reason. As a matter of fact, both of these authors entirely agree with the position taken by the present writer and by those who urge the passage of the Weeks bill, that forests should be main- | tained or. steep slopes which are unsuit- } able for cultivation. Belgrand says: “The operation of reforestation is thus excellent when practically possible, although it seems demonstrated that the deforestation of the basin of the Seine cannot be considered one of the causes which contributed to increase or to de- crease the height and the number cf floods. But the forests diminish very notably the volume of earthy matter transported by the streams, becatise they prevent the erosion of the earth, and, tt must be recognized that the wmpoverish- ment of the earth 1s much more to be deplored than the disasters caused by floods.” M. Vallés says: “If the demand is limited to the reforestation of the sum- mits and uncultivated slopes, we wish well of it, but less from the point of view of diminishing the quantity of water discharged than from that of pre- venting the erosion of the earth, partic- ularly if a study is made of reforestation in itself, which shall indicate to us, first, in what circumstances it can be realized, and in the second place, under what conditions it will be useful at the same time to private interests, and will be for the general good. If it is thus that we are to understand the advocates of this system, we do not hesitate to join with them: but if their demands are more extended, if they wish us to reestablish on ancient foundations a condition of things which has been usefully modified, if they desire that we should prefer the Druidical forests to our modern farms, the trees to the corn, the corn to the grain, we say to them for the third time: reforestation will not do.” Bearing in mind that Professor Moore’s argument was written as a contribution to the discussion involved in the Weeks bill, it would be interest- ing to inquire why he did not quote these two passages, if he knew them. If he did not know of them he should not discuss the subject and give the erroneous impression that these authors denied the necessity of preserving the mountain forests. Equally misleading is Professor Moore’s quotation from the Austrian engineer, Mr. Ernest Lauda (page 19) and the conclusions of the Tenth Inter- 232 national Congress of Navigation held at Milan in 1905.. Professor Moore says that Mr. Lauda’s conclusions are “that progressive deforestation of the country has had no effect in increasing floods nor in augmenting their height.” Let us read Mr. Lauda’s conclusions as presented at the Congress in Milan. He says:* “If now the final judgment on the subject of the influence of forests on the regimen of streams be unfavor- able to the forest to this extent, that there are denied to it certain of the properties attributed to it generally, it does not follow from this that it is necessary to oppose the re-wooding of arid surfaces, the replanting of the basins of streams, or the maintenance of plantations of trees. The general utility of the forest is so well settled, the extraordinary appreciation in which it is held, as a means of protecting the soi! against landslides, is so firmly estab- lished, its great advantageousness, es- pecially for the spring district, in hold- ing back earth thrusts and reducing the amount of sediment carried by rivers so important, that these reasons alone jus- tify fully the greatest possible promo- tion of forest culture.” Any fair discussion would have in- cluded this reference. Professor. Moore, referring to this Congress says: “The writers heartily favor the protection of the forests and their cultivation” but “they were unani- mous in the opinion that forests exer- cise little influence upon either the high water or the low water of rivers. Let us now quote from Cipolletti’s review of the conclusions of this con- emiess. 3) Hezsaysi* The other part of the question, concerning the influence of forests upon surface waters, is perhaps the most important of all and to all; and it is, no doubt, the one upon which our authors’ opinions differ most. One may state, that they all recognize, or at least none denies, the beneficial influence of forests upon the regimen of a river in its state of low- water flow, high-water flow, and ordinary floods; but many of the writers, we may say the majority of them, deny that forests have any power not only of preventing, but even of mitigating to any appreciable extent the more serious and damaging floods, which occur in every country at certain periods. *This translation is not mine. AMERICAN FORESTRY The low-water flow—as is commonly known—depends almost exclusively on springs; and having once admitted the fact, that a covering of trees exerts a beneficial influence upon the flow of springs, we may at once draw from it the legitimate conclusion, that the regimen of low-water flow of a river is favourably affected by the existence of forests in its basin; except, be it well under- stood, the cases already alluded to, of an ex- tremely permeable soil or of lands which can be cultivated without the loss of the humus covering, cases in which, as has already been stated, it is possible that deforestation may help the absorption of the water into subsoil and thereby increase the volume of the low- water flow in the general recipients, the rivers. But with regard to the regimen of high- water flow and ordinary floods, there is no material difference of opinion. In such locali- ties the waters running off the surface unite with the springs in providing the supply of water for a river. Thus, all the writers agree that forests exert a moderating influence on the run-off of surface waters, owing to a large proportion of the water being retained by the leaves and other parts of the plants, also on account of the quantity of it being absorbed by the layers of dead leaves, moss and humus which form the top covering of the forest ground, and partly also to the obstruction which roots above ground form to the rapid flow-off of the surface water, by forcing it tc remain stagnant in a thin sheet, instead of accumulating in a mass and running off quickly in the shape of brooks, which is what happens where the surface water finds little obstruction and is apt to produce ero- sion. To this may be added, in the case of cold climates, the additional advantage that the snow lies longer in the forest and melts here more slowly than in the open country. To conclude, forests act as real regulators, obliging the rain water to flow much more slowly to the bottom of the valley, than it would do otherwise, and by this means en- suring a more uniform and continuous flow in the lower reaches of rivers. But, as already stated, opinions differ widely the moment we approach the subject of phenomena which are apt to produce heavy and extraordinary floods. Some of the authors (Messrs. Ponti, Keller, and Wolf- schutz) assert. with insistence that heavy floods are due entirely to climacteric causes and that, consequently, the influence of forests is nil, or at any rate so small, that it can be neglected altogether. The reasoning by which they arrive at this conclusion is as follows: These great and extraordinary floods, they assert, only occur after down- pours lasting several days; hence, under sim- ilar circumstances, we must take it for granted that the leaves and all other parts of the plants have already soaked up the maximum quantity of water they are able to retain, that the upper layer of the soil THE INE LUENCH OF FORESTS ON CEIMATE AND FLOODS: 233 is completely saturated and that the surface waters have already reached the bottom of the valley, when it is still raining in the more elevated and more distant parts of the catchment area. Under these circumstances, they maintain, the volume of water which comes down as rain is equal to the volume of water which flows to the bottom of the valley in the same time; in other words, the moderating influence of forests—like that of lakes and every other agency of this kind—- tends to fall off with increasing length of time, while the phenomena lasts until finally a point is reached when the efficiency be- comes nil. Such is the fundamental argu- ment of all these writers, and it does not appear to us that anybody has given~them as yet a pertinent reply. Although I am only a reporter, I may be allowed to inter- pose in the question, because it does not ap- pear to me that things happen exactly as they might appear. In the first place, I may remark that in order to arrive at such a necessary state of equilibrium, it is not enough, that the phenomenon should last for a sufficiently long period of time, but it 1s also necessary that the intensity of the phe- nomenon should also remain uniform dur: ing the whole period. Everybody will see, how during the same period partial com- pensation will take place, the outcome of which will be-a tendency toward the average value of intensity, with an elimination of the greatest crises, which in itself is already a no mean advantage; but there is still more than this. By admitting that in consequence of the prolongation of the rain, a moment is at last reached when there is as much water coming down into the valley as there is coming down higher up in the catchment area in the form of rain, it still has to be proved— and, as a rule, this does not happen—that this state of equilibrium coincides exactly with the moment of the greatest intensity. In every instance in which I had to study phe- nomena of this kind in respect of lakes and floodings of valleys, I found that this period of equilibrium was reached invariably when the rain was abating, that is, when a falling off had already taken place in the intensity of the phenomena; in other words, that the phenomenon had reached its maximum de- gree of intensity before the moderating power had become exhausted, the latter hav- ing thus already made its beneficial influence felt at the most critical period. If we next proceed to studying the ques- tion by the light of recorded facts, doubts arise and difficulties are met with, which are perhaps not less serious. The advocates of the two opposite views have endeavored, by means of minute and most laborious researches, to get an insight into the past and to see whether it was pos- sible or not to discover any difference in the regimen of great rivers for the past cen- tury, a period from which, generally, dates the deforestation carried out on a large scale in Europe; but they always found them- selves face to face with very serious diffi- culties, to which I will only allude briefly. All records which refer to great floods in past centuries are always surrounded by so many uncertainties and doubts, that it is most difficult—not to say impossible—to draw any certain and indisputable conclusions there- from. We have a striking example of. this in the Tiber—a river after which the Nile is certainly the most historical of all—in the case of which it has been so far im- possible to ascertain if its floods have under- gone any change in the course of centuries. Can the destruction of forests bring about a great deterioration and even the total loss of the layer of cultivated soil of cultivated lands, of those which are next to them, or lying beneath them, and, even further off, of the level portions of large valleys? Can it also cause landslips, landslides, and aval- anches? Upon this point it will be very much more easy for me to arrive at a conclusion be- cause the authors of the papers, without dis- tinction, and all technical experts generally admit that the deforestation of sloping lands, especially if it is followed by a breaking up and cultivation of the soil, will cause the damages and injuries enumerated at the head of this chapter. Otherwise, it is easy to understand, and we are all daily witnesses of it, that when land with a sufficiently steep slope is deprived of the protection which roots of trees offer against erosion, and still worse, when the soil is subsequently broken up with plough or spade, the water, being able to flow off more quickly and to collect on a surface which offers but little resistance, can very easily remove and carry away with it to the bottom the earthy materials which form the cover, and leave the land denuded and barren. One can also easily understand that brooks, formed in this manner, can produce similar effects as regards laying bare the top of the slopes and carrying the material to the bottom of the incline, a place where the ground is better situated; and that the deep gullies, which similar small but impetu- ous, torrents scour upon the slopes of moun- tains and hills, can in their turn also cause the landslides and falls, especially if the un- derlying rock is of a soft and friable nature, and is, therefore, liable to being washed away easily. It is equally evident that on a slope, which is denuded of trees, avalanches are more likely to occur and will be more destructive than on a forest-clad hill, no matter how steep the incline may be. The influence of deforestation on valleys, even when situated at a distance, though less ap- parent and obvious, is nevertheless equally certain and disastrous. Professor Moore quotes from Colonel Chittenden’s recent paper on the sub- ject (pages 19 and 20). ‘As I have 234 elsewhere reviewed this paper and pointed out the inconsistencies, contra- dictions, and purely arbitrary state- ments, presented without demonstration, which it contains, I will not further re- fer to it, but I will quote from Colonel ‘Chittenden’s report on reservoir sites in the arid regions, in which he says: “The forests ought unquestionably to be preserved and the government is the proper agency to do it; but the prin- cipal arguments therefor apply with ac- centuated force to the construction of reservoirs.” Professor Moore says “army and civilian engineers and meteorologists generally believe that the broken, culti- vated, permeable soil is equally as good a conserver of the rainfall as the forest area itself.” Here again Professor Moore obscures the point of this sub- ject by talking about cultivated areas, although he knows perfectly well that his paper would be used as an argu- ment against the preservation of for- ests on the steep slopes not suitable for cultivation. I protest against such mis- representations in the discussion of an important measure. As a matter of fact, the only references in the reports of the Chief of Engineers to this sub- ject which I have been able to find, are the following: In the report for 1875, Vol. 2, page 172, reference is made to the paper of Wex, a prominent Austrian engineer, who wrote an elaborate argument in favor of the proposition that forests exercise an important regulative influ- ence, and the statement is made by S. T. Abert, United States Assistant Engi- Heer : “This decrease is assigned to the dev- astation of the forests and the conse- quent decrease of atmospheric moisture —a cause often assigned but not yet demonstrated. * * * But whatever may be the causes operating, there can be little doubt as to the effect of the sediment brought down by the annual rainfloods.”’ On page 510 of the same report, Maj. Charles R. Suter, then in charge of the improvements on the Mississippi AMERICAN FORESTRY River, says: “The influx of sand from above must first be stopped; then the river will have a chance to clear itself, and as its width contracts the shores can be revetted to prevent any further inju- rious changes.” In the report for 1879, page 1211, Maj.-Charles ©. Allen says: “The weight of evidence collected by va- rious writers upon the subject of rain- fall seems to indicate that reforesting of extensive areas of country is fol- lowed by a more equable distribution of the rainfall throughout the year.” In the same report, page 1373, Assist- ant Engineer T. P. Roberts says: “The clearing of forest lands, I believe, is followed by greater fluctuations in our rivers. I think the storm-waters un- doubtedly reach the streams more rap- idly now than formerly.” And in the report for 1891, page 1107, Maj. Charles W. Raymond, one of the most scholarly and capable of- ficers who has ever been connected with the corps, makes the following forcible statement, which it may be well to quote in full: CAUSES WHICH INCREASE THE DESTRUCTIVE EFFECT OF FLOODS Such causes may be considered under the three following heads: 1. Destruction of forests and cultivation of land. 2. Artificial constructions, such as bridges and dams. 3. Collection of logs, lumber, and ice in the stream and upon its banks. 1. The destruction of forests from the mountain crests and slopes of a watershed 1s undoubtedly the principal cause of the increase of the average magnitude of floods.* The evidence collected during the last twenty- five years establishing this conclusion is well- nigh overwhelming, and it is verified by re- peated observations, not only in the moun- tains of Europe, but also in our own land. By the removal of the forests from the mountain slopes the ground is robbed of its protecting covering of roots, moss, leaves, and porous soil, which forms the forest floor and serves as a natural storage reservoir, holding back the water of rainfall and melt- ing snow, and compelling it to descend slowly to the channels. By the subsequent cultiva- tion of the lands, ditches and drains are made to facilitate the more rapid discharge from Tee INP EUPNCE OR PTORESTS ON, CEMTATE AND FLOODS 235 the cultivated surfaces, until the rain rushes down the hillsides in destructive torrents, gullying the ground and choking the minor lines of drainage with rocks, sand, and gravel, and hurrying into the recipient of the water- shed volumes of water which before reached it in a comparatively quiet flow. Colonel Torrelli affirms as the result of careful observations that four-fifths of the precipitation in forests is absorbed by the soil or detained by the surface of the ground, to be gradually given up in springs and gentle rills, and only one-fifth of the precipitation is delivered to the rivers rap- idly enough to create floods. Upon the same slopes and surfaces denuded of their forests, the proportions are reversed. That the destruction of the forests in mountainous watersheds is followed by dis- astrous floods where previously such floods were unknown is not a matter of theory, opinion, or probability, but it is a welli- established physical fact. * * * The method of prevention by the maintenance and planting of forests upon the headwaters and upper slopes of the affluents of the basin depends for its efficiency upon the ability of forest-covered slopes to retain for a considerable time a large percentage of heavy rainfall, thereby preventing the sur- charge of the lines of drainage. Jn France, Italy, Germany, and Austria the systematic planting of mountain slopes as a means of restoring lost fertility and preventing the inundations following the destruction of forests, is an established fact followed by results more satisfactory than the most san- guine anticipations.” *The following information with reference to the deforesting of the watershed of the West Branch of the Susquehanna was re- ceived after the completion of this report: Lumbering operations were commenced in this region in 1850, but no systematic record of the amounts cut was kept until 1862. in the latter year the cut was 38,000,000 feet board-measure.~* It rapidly increased until it attained its maximum of 319,000,000 feet in 1873, and then fell to about 212,000,000 feet in 1890. The total amount cut since 1862 is about 5,250,000,000 feet board-measure, which represents about 30,100,000 logs. In the vear 1880 the timber on nearly 700,000 acres of land in Pennsylvania was destroyed by fire. The above statements are based on the census report for 1880, and on information furnished by Mr. George S. Banger, Secre- tary of the Susquehanna Boom Company. There is at least one officer of the United States Corps of Engineers who is acquainted with the teachings of ex- perience. Colonel Chittenden himself, the of- ficer who has most recently written on the subject, apparently believes that the sediment carried by the Mississippi River into the Gulf of Mexico comes entirely from the mountain areas at the sources of the tributaries, for he says: “It must be clear from the foregoing that the bottom-lands of the Missouri add nothing whatever to the total quantity of sediment that passes out of the mouth of the stream, for these bottoms have been increasing rather than diminishing in quantity. Like- wise, the Mississippi bottoms contribute noth- ing to the volume of sediment that is car- ried into the Gulf of Mexico. It all comes from the uplands far and near, but principally from the more remote and hilly regions. This load is in the nature of through traffic. The local freight picked up from a caving bank is mostly discharged at the next station. It follows, therefore, that if the banks of these streams were revetted from the Gulf to Pittsburg, the Falls of St. Anthony, and the mouth of the Yellowstone, the quantity of sediment passing into the Gulf would not be diminished a particle.” In my previous discussion of Colonel ‘Chittenden’s paper, I have shown, I think, the incorrectness of this state- ment. Any sediment washed into a river, whether from the uplands or from the banks in the lower portions, is gradually carried downstream and adds to the total volume of earthy mat- ter that is being transported or moved by successive floods. But the point is, as indicated in the extract from Major Suter’s report (and this is perhaps what Colonel Chittenden means) that unless the influx of the earthy material from the uplands and mountain slopes above the navigable portions is prevented, the protection of the banks along the lower navigable portions will not be sufficient to maintain, the navigation, because the channel will be gradually filled up by this sediment coming from above. As Major Suter says: “The influx of ma- terial from above must first be stopped.” 230 EROSION The most important question -con- nected with this whole matter is the effect of the forests on erosion, which has been already incidentally referred to. This matter Professor Moore passes over with astonishing silence, and if it was his intention to offer a scientific contri- bution to the subject of the effect of forests, it is difficult to understand his reticence on this point. The fundamental principle is self-evident. The surface water running off from forest ground takes less earthy matter with it than the surface water from bare ground, from partially wooded ground, from grass land, or from cultivated land, especially on steep slopes. Land partially grown up in forest or bushes, or grass land, is of course better than cultivated land in this respect, but neither is anything like as effective as forest land. Forests, therefore, are the most efficient protec- tion of the ground against erosion, and this is the strongest argument in favor of their preservation on steep slopes. In his argument before the Commit- tee on Agriculture, March 1st, Profes- “ce sor Moore stated that erosion was ‘a’ beneficent action.’ In his published paper, however, only about half a page has been devoted to this important sub- ject as against fourteen pages to the en- tirely unimportant subject of the effect of forests on rainfall! In his paper he again befogs the issue on this point by bringing forward the argument that “every acre that will grow food for the people and thereby reduce its cost and furnish sustenance to the population and the teeming millions that are on their way to these shores, should be so employed.” In other words, again “the pleading of the poor man’s children for bread and meat” is allowed to stand in the way of the fair discussion of a great public policy. Everybody knows that streams that flow from forested mountain areas are comparatively clear, while streams which flow from bare ground are com- paratively muddy, and the efficiency of forests in preventing erosion of the AMERICAN FORESTRY ‘fore. ground is admitted by all competent authorities. First in importance, then, is the effect of forests in preventing erosion ; second is their effect in moderating, in general, the violence of floods and in maintain- ing a high low-water stage, and least or insignificant in importance is their effect upon climate. RATIO OF MOUNTAIN WATERSHEDS TO THE TOTAL WATERSHED Another claim put forward by Pro- fessor Moore is that the ratio ‘of the mountain watershed in a large basin like that of the Ohio River, is so small that the reforesting of the mountain area will be of little benefit. A brief examination will show the fallacy of this and the unfairness of Professor Moore’s reasoning, and to make this clear it will be necessary here to explain, briefly, the cause and action of a flood. The fundamental cause of the flood, of course, as every one admits, is ex- cessive and long continued precipitation over a large area. The rain which falls on the mountain sides is. gathered rapidly into the brooks and larger streams, but much more rapidly from bare areas than from forested areas, and carrying much more sediment. The transporting power of water varies about as the sixth power of the velocity ; that is to say, if we dou- ble the velocity of flowing water it can move a cubical particle of rock or earthy matter sixty-four times as large as be- The waters come down from bare hill-sides, therefore carrying large masses of sediment, and as the waters reach the upper navigable portions of the streams where the slope is flattened, they gradually deposit their sediment. Succeeding floods carry portions of this sediment further down, and so it grad- ually reaches—perhaps only after a con- siderable length of time—the lower reaches of the river. The immediate effect of deforestation on floods and on the deposition of sediment will clearly be felt first in the upper reaches of the streams; on the Ohio River, for in- stance, at Pittsburg and points above, rather than at Cincinnati, Cairo, Mem- PTE INE EUE NCH OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE AND FLOODS 237 phis or New Orleans. It is hardly fair, therefore, as Professor Moore does, to compare the mountain watershed of the Ohio River with the entire drainage area of that stream. The mountain watershed is more fairly to be compared with the drainage area above Pittsburg, of which it would form a considerable proportion. The sediment brought down by the mountain stream is, in the course of years, washed farther and _ farther down the river, and that carried in sus- pension is gradually deposited, as the slope becomes less and the velocity of the flowing water correspondingly less, in the bed of the stream. Subsequent floods find therefore a smaller chan- nel in which to flow, the bed of the river having been raised by sediment brought down by previous floods. The floods, therefore, in the lower reaches. finding the channel contracted, are obliged to rise higher and to overflow bottom lands, and in doing so they wash away the banks where these are al- luvial, causing still more material to be swept into the channel of the river. At the same time, some of the sedi- ment from above is deposited over the bottom lands. Now, the point is—and it may as well be once more emphasized—that even if the banks in these lower por- tions were protected against washing away, the gradual filling up of the chan- nel of the stream by sediment brought down from above would in itself cause the floods to rise higher and higher as the years go by, and to overflow larger and larger areas. Once more to quote Major Suter and Colonel Chittenden, “the influx of sand from above must first be stopped.” To estimate, therefore, the value of the forests in preventing erosion, it is grossly incorrect to compare the moun- tainous area with the total area of a large drainage basin. If we could pro- tect the mountain sides, and limit the erosion to what would naturally come from flat, cultivated land, and from caving banks, the problem would be comparatively easy; and it should fur- ther be noted that the erosion from flat, cultivated lands can be largely pre- vented by proper methods of cultivation and plowing, which will not allow the water to flow with great velocity through the furrows. Plowing should be done not up and down the slopes, but along the contours. Land suitable for cultivation should be used for culti- vation if necessary, but there is noth- ing in all this discussion of Professor Moore’s which casts a shadow of doubt on the efficacy of the mountain forests as conservators of the navigability of streams. Before leaving this subject, it may be as well to say that probably the best authorities upon it are neither meteorol- ogists nor engineers in general practice, but foresters and forest engineers, and that these are practically, if not quite, unanimous as to the value of forests. An engineer whose duty it is to main- tain harbors and the navigable por- tions of streams, like the officers of our Corps of Engineers, does not, in the course of his daily experience, have much opportunity to observe or study forest questions. He sees banks cave and the material form a bar below; he does not see the constantly-moving mass of sediment in the bottom of the stream; he does not see the erosion on the mountain slopes; out of sight is out of mind, and he may easily fail to rec- ognize the importance of what he does not observe. Professor Moore ad- mitted that he had never studied ero- sion in the mountains, and yet he pre- sents a paper which dismisses this most important element in less than one page and which is offered as a presumably weighty contribution to a great sub- jeer! A volume could be filled with quota- tions from the writings of these who have observed this matter, but as an illustration only one will be given from a review of a work published in 1901 on “Forestry in British India,” by 3erthold Ribbentrop, who has_ spent thirty-four years in the forest service. 238 Statements like this should overbalance a thousand statement like those in the paper we are considering: In the Hoshiarpur district of the Punjab the Siwalik range of hills stretches from the Bias to the Sutlej River in a southeasterly direction. These hills consist of a very soft friable sandstone, alternating with strata of loam and clay. Formerly these hills were fairly well wooded. In 1846 they became British territory; the consequence was a rapid increase of population, a great demand for wood and charcoal in the fertile plains below, and the influx of a floating popula- tion of graziers with large herds of cattle. The result was complete denudation of these hills; the loose soil, no longer protected by vegetation, was washed down, broad rivers of sand spread into the plains below, and the end has been that fields and gardens of 940 villages, once prosperous, are now cov- ered with sand, which has laid waste upward of 70,000 acres of fertile lands. This dis- trict, rich formerly, is now traversed by nu- merous broad, parallel sandy belts, cut out of the fertile and crop-bearing area. Efficient protection of the reserved forests was only commenced a comparatively short time ago, and yet the author is able to state numerous instances from different parts of the country, in which protection has com. pletely changed the character of the torrents and streams taking their rise in the forests. After rain, the water no longer rushes down, carrying sand and silt with it; the channels have been confined into permanent beds; they have become narrower and deeper, and the old beds to the edge of the channel have be- come stocked with grass and thousands of seedlings. * * * The denser vegetation, which is the result of efficient protection, has everywhere counteracted erosion, has _pre- vented landslips and sudden floods.* ARE FLOODS INCREASING Professor Moore devoted thirteen pages of his thirty-six to the discussion of this matter, in which he criticised the discussion of Mr. Leighton of the Geo- logical Survey, and of Messrs. Hall and Maxwell of the Forest Service. His objections to these two papers are the following: First: He claims that they discuss “not floods as such, but moderate stages of the river.” Second: He maintains that their method of discussing the observations 1s incorrect. I have not at my disposal the records bearing upon this matter and therefore *Nature, April 18, toot. AMERICAN FORESTRY cannot, even were it desirable, here dis- cuss them in full. Mr. Leighton’s dis- cussion of the Tennessee River com- pares the conditions existing in the twelve years 1884 to 1895 with those existing in the twelve years 1896 to 1907. Professor Moore admits that this period of time is too small to allow of definite conclusions being drawn. He further says that ‘‘no records or other evidence are presented that there is not as much forest area in this basin as there was twelve years ago.” The most that can be said, therefore, with refer- ence to this discussion is that the evi- dence is not sufficient to justify definite conclusions either way. Personally, I think the figures given by Mr. Leighton indicate an increase in floods, but not having the full data at hand, and particu- larly data as to the forested area, I believe this is simply another illustration of the fact that the statistical method is of very limited use, and perhaps of no use at all, in the case of meteorological and hydrological phenomena covering so short a period of time. Professor Moore apparently takes the same view, for he says: “No matter how complete the data may be or how fundamentally sound and fair its collation and grouping, the comparison, the one with the other, of such short periods as those measured by only twelve years cannot give results with regard to changes in climate and floods that will permit the most skilled meteorologist or engineer to draw fun- damental conclusions that can have any value.” If Professor Moore had stopped here we could agree with him on this point. Unfortunately, however, he goes on to give what he considers a different and more reliable form of investigating this question of the relation of precipitation to run-off. For this purpose he takes the records of the height of the Ohio River at Cincinnati from 1871 to 1908, and from a consideration of these re- sults he draws the following definite conclusions: (p. 33) “The average discharge of the Ohio River where, J presume, deforestation has been as great as in any other part of the country during recent times, has not changed for a period of thirty-eight THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE AND FLOODS 239 years except as caused by precipitation.” He draws this conclusion from the fol- lowing facts: ° Average stage of the Ohio River at Cincinnati, Ohio, Ft. hee 1i's's'o) gia be ea 07.3 TASC OST 0.0850 ee te D5 Average precipitation in the Ohio watershed : In. [its LATS easy A) Ah a nr 41.3 SC 0=1C.0 clatt- A aioe ee ee rs 41.8 Professor Moore is apparently will- ing to draw definite conclusions from insufficient data where this data indi- cates to him that forests have no ef- fect. He criticizes others for drawing definite conclusions where the reverse is indicated. Only on page 28 he has made the remark, which is_ perfectly Gamhect, (that) Precisely’ “the same amount of rain falling in the two pe- rigds and no change whatever in forest or cultivated area, might produce largely differing results on floods ;” and yet, because the average stage of the Ohio River in the two periods corre- sponds, in general, with the average precipitation, he concludes that “‘the average discharge has not changed e-- cept as caused by precipitation.” Now.) the), tact . is that Professor Moore’s figures give no indication what- ever of the discharge of the river. He is evidently ignorant of the fact that a given river at a given place, when the water stands at a certain height on the gauge, may be discharging much more or much less than it may be discharg- ing at another time when the water stands at precisely the same height. Readings of gauge heights are very in- accurate indications of discharge. The discharge of a stream depends not upon the gauge-height alone, but also upon the slope of the surface of the water, not upon the slope of the bed of the stream. A channel may have a level bed for a mile, but if the depth of the water at one end of the distance is greater than the depth at the other end, there will be a rate of discharge, de- pending upon the slope of the surface as well as the depths. On the other hand, if the bed of the stream is in- clined, but the water surface level, so that the depth is different at the two ends, there will be no discharge. When a flood wave comes down a river, the front of the wave is steeper than the back, and when the water reaches a given height on a given gauge, and is rising—that is, when the front of the wave is passing, the slope of the surface of the water will be greater and the discharge greater than when the crest of the wave has passed and the water stands at the same height on the gauge as before. It is, therefore, fundament- ally wrong to draw any definite con- clusion with reference to the flow of a river merely from observations of the gauge-heights. It is equally incorrect, as Professor Moore does, to draw any conclusions with reference to the in- crease in number and violence of floods from the number of days at which a river stood above a certain stage. In his testimony before the Agricultural Committee, Professor Moore, when con- fronted with these facts, said that it made no difference whether the dis- charge was measured by a gauge-height or not, flood conditions were to be de- termined by the number of days at which the water stood above a certain height. Now, let us suppose that from 1865 to 1885 on a given stream, there were forty floods in which the water stood above a given gauge-height at a given. place, an average of four days for each flood, or 160 days in all; and that be- tween 1885 and 1905 there were eighty floods in which the water at the same place stood above the same height an average of two days each, or 160 days in all, the same as before. According to Professor Moore’s discussion, the conclusion would be that the floods were not increasing because the total number of days at which the water stood above a given height had not changed! . 240 I think it will be clear from the above remarks that Professor Moore’s figures prove nothing whatever. As a matter of fact, the effect of the removal of for- ests, (reasoning now deductively) is unquestionably to increase the sudden- ness with which the flood waters are gathered into the streams. It is there- fore fair to believe that such deforesta- tion increases the number and sudden- ness of floods, diminishing also their duration. The damage done by floods clearly does not depend simply upon the number of days of flood. If an area is partly submerged it ‘makes compara- tively little difference whether the sub- mergence lasts four days or ten days, the damage is not thereby increased perceptibly ; but if, after one flood has subsided, there comes another one after an interval of a few months or a few years, although both may be short, the damage will be approximately doubled. Other points in Professor Moore’s paper might be criticised, but this discus- sion is already too long, and they will be passed over. It is much to be regretted that the head of a presumably scientific department of the government should, while claiming to be in favor of forest preservation, have produced such a paper as the one under consideration, the influence of which—so far as it has any influence—would be to discredit action which, as already stated, depends for its legality upon the effect of forests on the navigability of streams. Profes- sor Moore’s paper, in which he practi- cally leaves out of account entirely the question of erosion, which is the most important one of all; in which he at- AMERICAN FORESTRY tempts to prove that on certain streams there has in recent years been no in- crease in floods, but in connection with which discussion he offers no figures regarding the decrease or increase in forested area, and on which, as has been shown, his argument is in many re- spects unscientific and proves nothing ; and in which he devotes a large amount of space to the entirely unimportant question of the effect of forests on rain- fall, the general effect of which is to lead the mind to the conclusion which may have been desired, but which cer- tainly has not been proved, that forests are of little value as regulators of flow, is much to be deplored. The matter is one of national importance and simply involves the question whether we shall learn by the experience of other coun- tries, in which deforestation of moun- tain areas has resulted disastrously, or whether, with the rapidly increasing de- mand for wood, we are to allow our mountain forests to be rapidly de- stroyed. The beneficial effect of such forests on the navigability of streams, is, as has been shown, unanimously agreed upon by foreign engineers, al- though of course, no one attempts to state that effect quantitatively. There is, therefore, ample scientific justifica- tion for the acquirement by our govern- ment of forest reserves in the East. The fact that there are many other rea- sons why such forests should be pre- served, some of which may be stronger than the beneficial effect of forests on navigation, is certainly no reason for neglecting to take action whose legality is amply justified by experience. CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS BY STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS By C. D, MELL, Assistant Dendrologist, Forest Service INTRODUCTION HE study of wood for the purpose of finding structural characters, on which to base a classification is still in its infancy. No one has pub- lished anything comprehensive on- the subject, although it is pretty generally recognized that an intimate knowledge of woods is one of the utmost practical importance. The principal contribu- tions to this branch of dendrology have been made by students of botany in the German universities where all technical investigations are greatly encouraged. Since the introduction of forestry into this country a good part of this infor- mation has been translated into English directly by those familiar with German. Much has been contributed in this way to the English literature of the subject. Books on the botanical characters of American trees are being constantly written, but up to the present time no one has written a work on the structu- ral characters of the wood, with which the forester should be quite as familiar as with the characters of the leaf, flower, and fruit. Ever since timber has been bought and sold dealers have been rely- ing on the “rule of thumb” method for discriminating between woods. This method is sufficiently reliable for the carpenter or the timber merchant, for he deals with only a few kinds of woods and a knowledge of their general prop- erties is easily gained through the senses of sight, touch, smell, and taste. Anyone who constantly works with cer- tain woods can easily distinguish them by their most obvious characters. A new wood, however, will leave him en- tirely at sea, nor will his method suffice for the forester who deals with a good many different species. It is necessary, therefore, to have much wider informa- tion, methodically arranged, to help out the rule of thumb method. LITERATURE DEALING WITH WOOD STRUC- TURE Unfortunately there are no English publications that contain a scheme of classification for even a single group of woods. J. S. Gamble’s “Indian Tim- bers” is a most excellent work, but it does not give very definite information helpful in identifying the timbers of India from their structural characters. Gamble does not attempt to point out the chief features even of the most im- portant woods. Sir Dietrich Brandis’ book on “Indian Timbers” is the best descriptive English work. Although this work is the most authoritative of its kind, the author has taken more pains to give the botanical characters than to point out the chief distinctive features of the woods themselves. Thomas Laslett’s “Timber and Timber Trees, Native and Foreign,’ does not con- tain anything that approaches a key even to the most important kinds. Dr. Marshall Ward’s book dealing with timber and some of its diseases con- tains some very helpful suggestions rel- ative to the importance of a scheme of classification. Herbert Stone’s works, Guieiy orm awaich is’. ihe “Timbers of Commerce,” are among the latest books dealing with the structural char- acters of commercial woods. His “Timbers of Commerce” is also very helpful both to the forester and_ the timber merchant, but it lacks a discus- sion of the structural characters. Dr. G. S. Boulger’s book entitled ‘“Wood” (last edition) is an excellent work and 241 242 contains a key to some of the European woods. The author does not give a great deal of original matter in this book; the analytical key appears to be chiefly from Dr. Robert Hartig’s “Tim- bers and How to Know Them.” Students of wood structure in Amer- ica are less numerous. Chief among those who have done orginal research is Dr. D. P. Penhallow, whose labors on the North American Gymnosperms extend over a period of twenty years. He is easily the greatest living authority on the anatomical characters of the North American Gymnosperms. Ro- meyn B. Hough’s sections of woods de- serve praise, for they offer the named wood itself for comparison which lends much assistance to dealers in American woods. Among others who have done work along this line are Roth of Michi- gan University, Jeffery of Harvard University, Sudworth of the United States Forest Service, Toumey of Yale University, and Snow of New York University. It is to the Germans that we must look for substantial progress in this work, and chief among them is Radlko- fer and the botanists of his school. Dr. Hans Solereder worked out a classifi- cation based on purely morphological characters. Unfortunately, however. he confined himself to the examination of small twigs, and consequently includ- ed characters that belong only to pri- mary wood, which yields few characters present in market samples that consist wholly of secondary wood. Nordlin- ger has briefly described 1,100 species from small transverse sections. A num- ber of these sections, however, as is true also of Solereder’s, are taken from small twigs which do not show structures characteristics of secondary wood. Nordlinger did not make a key for tracing down the woods to the group to whicltthey belong. Although a num- * ber of German botanists have confined their attention to particular groups of woods, they have accomplished a great deal of good. Among them are Abro- meit on the Cupulifere; Beyer on the Anonacee; Burgerstein on the Pom- ace, a Dippelutand Mayr’: on’ ithe AMERICAN FORESTRY Conifere; Goppert on the Magnoli- aceze; Hitzemann on the Dipterocar- paceee and Chloenacee; Jaensch and Saupe on the Leguminacee; Knob- lauch on the Laurinacee; Moll, Jans- sonius, Reinsch, Schroder, Schwartz, Springer, etc. Altogether a great deal has been done by the different investiga- tors toward making a key based-on the anatomical characters found in wood. If the knowledge now accumulated in English and German publications could be simply compiled a very valuable work would be done. THE IMPORTANCE OF MICROSCOPICAL RESEARCH An investigation of this kind has al- ways been considered one of great im- portance, and it does not require any extended defense. What is needed is simply the collection and determination of special, well-chosen structures, so recorded that they may be readily re- ferred to when needed. If only a few objects are to be classi- fied it may not be necessary to compile very many distinguishing characters, but when the objects run up into the thousands it becomes necessary that the characters employed in a key be multi- plied accordingly. The required num- ber of characters can not be determined by the unaided eye or even with a hand lens ; on the contrary it may require the closest observation with the highest power of the compound microscope in order to detect a sufficient number of constant characters. Objections have been, and may well be, raised against such microscopical research on _ the ground that the results will. be too tech- nical to be useful to the mass of wood users most in need of a key. English timber merchants have tried for many years to prepare a key based on the more obvious gross characters for the reason that they are not equipped to make a microscopical examination of woods. The time has arrived, however, when the number of foreign woods in general use is becoming so great that a knowledge of the gross characters alone will no longer answer as means of iden- CEA SsSIRCATMON OF WOODS BY STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS © 243 tification. Purposely or through ignor- ance, importers appear constantly to be endeavoring to palm off upon their cus- tomers substitute woods, sometimes in- ferior, whose superficial appearance is close enough to deceive the uninitiated. The real mahogany, Szwietenia mahog- ani is now becoming scarce, and at least a score of different woods from Central and South America, India, Africa, and the Philippine Islands, are being sold as the “only genuine mahogany.” The Australian eucalyptus and a number of other woods are being so skillfully stained to imitate ebony that no one ex- cept an expert can distinguish the coun- terfeit. Dic the timber supply declined in the north- ern hemisphere another suitable source of supply must be looked for in the southern hemisphere. The demand for different woods and the growing scarce- ity of the most useful kinds in this country forces us to go to the tropical countries of the southern hemisphere for millions of feet annually. The for- eign woods now in general use are too numerous to be distinguished by super- ficial characters. We must look to min- ute structural characters as a means of tracing down woods with which we are not familiar. For this, recourse must be had to the microscope. The result of such investigations are far reaching in usefulness, including the needs of the forester, lumberman, and timber mer- chant, and even of the pharmacist. There are numerous medicinal properties de- rived from different woods, and it is very important in their preparation that the right kind of wood be used. There are certain woods, for instance, that re- semble quassia in external appearances. In order to detect the numerous at- tempted uses of these as substitutes or adulterants of genuine quassia, it is nec- essary to know the microscopical char- acters of quassia to distinguish the real from the spurious wood. Work of this character is primarily technical, but it does not aim to replace Schlich once remarked that as entirely nor to underrate the old rule of thumb method. Attention is drawn only to the necessity for more scientific investigations of woods and the compil- ation of existing expert knowledge as a means of meeting the needs of tech- nical institutions and of private per- sons possessed of the training anil equipment to make use of such help. It is not implied by this that the more ob- vious characters of woods seen in the block should not form part of the natu- ral system so far as they can be made to serve. Such characters of wood, as color, weight, hardness, and_ odor, often help in making determinations. So also color solutions, obtained by boiling the wood in water, acid, alkali, iron salts, or glycerine, yield very valuable and interesting data. Even burning tests are often helpful in discriminating between woods. For example, the eu- calypt Jarrah always burns to a black ash, while Karri, another species, burns to a white ash. The importance of such characteristics can not be too greatly emphasized. Since systematic botanists generally have no special concern in the identifica- tion of woods, it is a task that naturally devolves upon the foresters who are professionally interested in the uses of this and other forest products. The field is so large and all-absorbing as to require specialization apart entirely from other branches of technical fores- try. It requires a specialist trained not only as a lignologist, but also as a botan- ist. Moreover work of this character requires a most sedulous investigator with one aim, the good of the work. Such a work as this has fitly become, with other dendrological investigations, a most important economic study in the Forest Service of the United States De- partment of Agriculture. The results, which are being very rapidly put into shape for publication, are practical aids to practical manufacturers and users of woods, as well as to other students of trees and other products. PROTEST AGAINST THE WOODSMEN OF THE FOREST OF GASTINE By PIERRE DE RONSARD (1524-1581) Translated by Bristow Adams [This poem by Pierre de Ronsard is historically interesting, since it shows a sentiment for forest preservation in France in the middle of the sixteenth century. France has suf- fered greatly from forest destruction, and in recent years has been at great pains and expense to repair the damage. The naive philosophy of the last two stanzas is somewhat prophetic, as poetry often is, of the changes to earth forms that may, and do, come about through forest destruction and its attendant evils. The poem is, of course, far from the modern spirit. The original meter and rhyme-scheme have been retained. B. A.] Ah, woodsman hold! Stay thy destroying arm; These are not trees that thou dost bring to harm. Dost thou not see the blood that trickles dark From veins of nymphs that dwell beneath the bark. If murderers deserve the stake, the rope, How much less thou shouldst ever dare to hope For mercy from such punishments as these,— For thou art killing our divinities. O, forest home in which the song-birds dwell! The squirrel and the stag shall miss the spell Of thy cool depths when summer’s sun assails, Nor more find shelter in thy shadowed vales. No longer will the love-lorn shepherd lean Against thy trunks; nor will his pipes shrill keen— His dog at heel, his crook beside him set— The tale of love he bears the fair Janet. All will be silent; Echo will be dead; A field will lie where shifting shadows fled Across the ground. The mattock and the plow Will take the place of Pan and Satyr now. The timid deer, the spotted fawns at play From thy retreats will all be driven away. Farewell, old woods where Zephyr played so free; Where first I turned my soul to poesy; Where first I heard Apollo’s arrows whirr; Where first I heard my better impulse stir; Where first I met Calliope divine, And through her learned to know the Muses nine. Their wreaths of roses on my brow were pressed The while Euterpe held me to her breast. Farewell, old forest, sacred crowns farewell! Revered in letters and in art as well Thy place becomes the scorn of everyone, Doomed now to burn beneath the summer sun. All cry out insults as they pass thee by, Upon the men who caused thee thus to die! CORRESPONDENCE AND QUERIES 245 Farewell, old oaks, that once were wont to crown For deeds of valor and of great renown! O trees of Jupiter, Dordona’s grove, How ingrate man repays thy treasure trove That first gave food, that human-kind might eat, And furnished shelter from the storm and heat. Ah, how unhappy he, that pins his faith In forms that will but vanish as a wraith; How true it is that everything must change, And take on habits that are new and strange! The peaks of Athos shall in plains be lost; The Vale of Tempe to a mount be tossed; Where Neptune rules shall all be sowed to grains; All form is lost; matter alone remains. CORRESPONDENCE AND QUERIES Natural Checks to Distribution of White Pine The Editor of American Forestry: While studying charts of distribution of certain species of conifer, I could see no reason why the white pine (P. strobus) should not occur indigenously in abundance near my country place at Stamford and Greenwich, Conn. There was no natural check in evidence, and I proceeded to set out several thousand of these trees, along with other conifers seven years ago. Every year since that time more white pine have been added, but it is apparent that the species cannot be expected to thrive in this region, which the charts show is normally favor- able. My loss amounted to something like 10,000 white pines, varying in age from two years to ten years at the time of transplantation. These trees came from va- rious nurseries, and some were raised from seed in my own nursery. Some were com- mon seedlings, others were stock “trans- plants,” and the larger ones were chiefly shipped from nurseries, with balls of earth about the roots of the trees. A few hundred trees were lost in ordinary ways—girdled by rabbits and field mice, terminal buds eaten by red squirrels and roots eaten by pine mice, but the sweeping destruction has been caused by the white, wooly aphis and by another aphis which I have not classified. The latter 5 is not so abundant as the white aphis, but it multiplies on individual trees so rapidly that the tree is more quickly destroyed. It is a small, dark-colored aphis which runs nearly as rapidly as the ant guardians when dis- turbed. The only white pine trees that I have been able to save are a few that have re- ceived constant supervision on the part.of my superintendent, who personally wipes every infected area of bark with a sponge soaked in a decoction of Persian insect powder. He goes over each infected tree several times in the course of a season, and will not allow any of my other employes to take the re- sponsibility of caring for the few living white pines. Tobacco stems are used for mulch about the roots of these trees. Trees which have been lost by the thousand were set in all sorts of soil,—swamps, sand, rocky cliffs and rich cultivated ground. All shared the same fate, in a general area something more than a mile in length. Here and there in the neighborhood, on other properties, a very few white pines are seen, but it is my feeling that this region is unfavorable for white pine, not because of soil or climate, but because the two species of aphis have been indigenous to the locality, and have always served as a natural check to distribution of this species of pine. Rosert T. Morris. New York. EDITORIAL The Weeks Bill Reported S FORESHADOWED in the pages A of this magazine last month, the Committee on Agriculture of the House of Representatives voted to report the Weeks bill for the purchase of national forest land. The vote in the committee was ten to seven in favor of so report- ing. Chairman Scott, Mr. Haugen of Iowa, Mr. Hawley of Oregon, Mr. Howell of Utah, Mr. Chapman of IIli- nois, “Mr. Beall “of Texas) and SM Rucker of Missouri, voted against it as they have always done. Mr. Stanley of Kentucky, a good friend of the bill, was absent on account of illness, so that the actual poll of the committee on re- porting the bill was eleven to seven. Two or three of those who voted for the report, however, reserved the right to take such action as they deem wise when the bill comes up in the House. The report for the majority of the com- mittee was put in charge of Mr. Lever of South Carolina, and Mr. Plumley of Vermont. Mr. Weeks has reintroduced his bill, with certain minor amendments that do not change in any respect the substance of the bill. This statement is made here to explain variations that may be found between the bill as it will be before the House and the copies of it that have been issued up to this time. The bill is now before the people of the country for action. There will be a hard fight against it in the House and probably another in the Senate. The work of informing the people and their senators and _ representatives must, therefore, go on with increased thor- oughness, for the bill must be passed at this session. A recent advice from New England says that “the condition 246 in the White Mountains is such that if the matter goes over to the short ses- sion it means grave and _ irreparable loss.” We know that this is no idle word. The men who play with consti- tutional quibbles, or spend their time in considering engineering subtleties, should go up into the great woods among the hills and see what destruc- tion is being wrought by man and the forces of nature that his work has let loose. One day of the real thing would be worth a week of arguments in com- mittee rooms. In the Sixtieth Congress, Mr. Weeks of Massachusetts and Mr. Lever of South Carolina were actively in charge of the bill in the committee. In the present Congress, Mr. Weeks is no longer a member of the Committee on Agriculture, though he retains his keen interest in this legislation and has per- sonally prepared the bill which bears his name and which he will actively champion in the House. The work of managing the bill in the committee this year was borne by Mr. Lever of South Carolina, and the thanks of every friend of the Appalachian Mountains, north and south, are due to him for his ear- nest, painstaking, and capable work. He has made a thorough investigation of this subject, his efforts in its be- half have been a labor of love as well as duty, and his management so far has been most wise and successful. He has been ably assisted by Mr. Plumley of Vermont, a new member of the House and a new member of the com- mittee, but one who has brought to the consideration of this subject a valuable knowledge of New England conditions and the legal acumen which long ago won him recognition as one of the fore- most lawyers of his state. Friends of EDITORIAL forestry, and particularly of the Ap- palachian forests, have reason to be grateful that the place from which we miss the Hon. Kittredge Haskins has been filled by so able and so friendly a successor. Not a One-man Cause E FIND in a somewhat lurid edi- torial comment on the Pinchot- Ballinger investigation this statement : “So far as this generation is concerned it now appears that that principle (con- servation) will stand or fall with Gifford Pinchot.” To this we wish to take decided ex- ception. It is worth noticing if only because it represents quite a wide- spread sentiment among admirers of Mr. Pinchot and one which we think does injustice to him as well as to the cause of which he has been one of the apostles and leaders. AMERICAN Forestry can not have left any doubt as to the extent and quality of its re- spect and regard for Gifford Pinchot, but the principle of which he has been one of the chief evangelists and organ- izers is greater than any man, nor is it praise for him to say that the govern- ment service which he built up from almost nothing is so weak that it will fall without his guidance, or that the cause that he is advocating so unself- ishly and so brilliantly has no hold out- side of his personality. The idea of forestry and conservation has become impressed upon the thought and convic- tions of the American people so thor- _ oughly that it will be permanent. The truth is greater than any one man. Nor does he stand alone. There were other wise men and prophets be- fore him—men upon whose _ achieve- ments his great work was builded, and most of them are still with us. They and he have given powerful inspiration to a generation of young men of faith and energy, and to a great body of people who have come to know the truth and have organized to main- 247 tain that truth. Nature is teaching the lesson from day to day so that he who runs may read. The minor incidents of legislative politics should not blind us to the real bigness of the issue and the tremendous power of facts. The re- moval of Mr. Pinchot from the Forest Service did not eliminate him. His technical defeat, if that should happen, in the congressional investigation in which he has played so prominent a part, will not change the popular con- viction that he and the men who have fought for the salvation of the people’s heritage from conversion to the per- sonal profit of a few are right in principle—and that principle will hold its own. If the law and the constitution do not protect the interests of those for whom they were created we shall still uphold the law and the constitution, but they will have to be made to serve the purpose for which they were created, and that was not to serve private inter- ests or secure exclusive privileges to a few, but to promote the general welfare of the whole. We shall soon learn, if we do not already know it, that those words “the general welfare,” at which the constitutional lawyers sometimes shy, are really the key note of the Constitu- tion of the United States. We should re- peat that pregnant phrase “government of the people, by the people, and for the people,” until its meaning and spirit are indelibly printed on heart and _ brain. That is what we are slowly coming to— the comprehension of a great truth. Per- sonalities are only incidental, great and valuable though they may be. We We pe Pulp Wood Economies Tee article by Mr. Griffin on econo- mic selection and processing of raw materials in the paper industry, pub- lished last month in AMERICAN For- ESTRY, is suggestive of a great opportu- nity for economy in production that will sensibly promote the conservation of our forest resources. Mr. Griffin shows that the wide variation in the character 248 of paper products offers an opportunity for adaptation of the raw material which our manufacturers have not suf- ficiently availed themselves of. Therein also lies a reason for the failure of some of the fibres that have been proposed as a substitute for wood as a base for paper making. They have not been rightly applied. We believe that there is here a wide field for economy of the forests by the use of annual plants of rapid growth and that close study of its possibilities will be of advant- age to paper makers and to the country in this age of disappearing forests. The late Edward Atkinson, the well-known Boston economist, instituted and was conducting at the time of his death ex- periments in the use for paper making of the tall grasses that are now grown wholly for ornamental purposes. Mr. Atkinson believed that he had found an easily grown new paper material, and he was one whose imagination always confined itself closely to the narrow path between the hedgerows of close-clipped facts. Since his death we have heard of no continuance of those experiments, but they were certainly worth while. Perhaps our resourceful Department of Agriculture might take them up. A Western View N THE Pueblo (Colorado) Chieftain we find a notably fair and intelligent discussion of the question of conserva- tion of western resources, which is en- titled to careful consideration for it un- doubtedly represents one of the best western points of view, while it comes from a part of the country from which we hear much intemperate and utterly prejudiced ranting against forestry and conservation. The article begins as follows: The true friends of conservation in the west realize that they are confronted with danger on both sides. The opponents of ‘the conservation policy in the western states _are, for the most part, either men that seek to gain a selfish profit through a continu- ation of the policy of spoliation and monop- oly, or men that are striving to score a AMERICAN FORESTRY partisan point against the administration and the party in power. On the other side, many of the advocates of conservation in the eastern states and some of those that are participating as officials in the institution of the conservation policy, have an avowed purpose to establish and maintain a great national domain which is to be administered for the benefit of the federal treasury and not for the individual benefit of the citizens of the states in which the national lands are situated. With respect to the latter paragraph it may be suggested that the great national estate or domain already exists, and has existed since the Louisiana pur- chase and the Mexican cession, that it is the property of the whole people and that for reasons which the article we are quoting calls attention to in suc- ceeding paragraphs, it should be ad- ministered for the benefit, not indeed of the federal treasury, but of the people of the United States. And this admin- istration for the people of the United States will inure most directly to the benefit of the people of the western states in which this domain is located. The Chieftain continues : Under such conditions it 1s important to recall what was the original purpose of the land laws, what have been their degrees of success, and in what particulars they have proved to be faulty or opposed to the public interests. The main purpose of the land laws was the disposition of the national re- sources, and primarily the agricultural lands, among individual holders. It was not re- garded as good judgment to build up a great system of tenantry or to hold title to the national lands in the nation. The ideal condition was thought to be that of an agri- cultural population owning their own lands. That purpose is just as important now as it ever was, and no modification should be tol- erated that tends to build up a great perma- nent national estate in mines, in forests or in agricultural lands. With the main idea of this statement we are in cordial agreement, but in par- ticulars it requires modification. It is perfectly true that there should be no building up of great national holdings cf agricultural lands. It is for the in- terest of the nation, both east and west, that its agricultural lands should be di- vided in small holdings among individ- ual resident owners. With regard to forest land, however, conditions are en- EDITORIAL tirely different. We have learned now that our national resources in forests are not inexhaustible and that the high- est scientific skill must be used to foster the supply. There are large areas of land suited only for forest production and in no respect adapted to agricultu- ral purposes which can add to the wealth of the nation only by growing forests. It is perfectly well understood that the growing of forests in these mountains offers too many difficulties for the private owner and will only be carried on by the state or the nation, and that if they are not so managed and controlled, they will fall into the hands of great corporations which will exploit them for immediate profit and thereby the permanent interests of the nation will suffer.. And this suffering falls most on the people of those states in which the forests are situated, and which are necessarily the most direct beneficiaries of the many blessings the forests can bestow upon the people in whose territory they lie. The Chieftain goes on to admit this point and states the case very clearly. But it has been a defect of the land laws that they have tended toward the creation of monopolies. This is not true of agricultural lands, because the nature of their use and occupation has made it difficult to keep large holdings in individual ownership, and the tendency has been rather to break up large holdings, where these existed, into smaller farms. But with the, mines and the forests the case has been different, and the mines and the forests and lands not suitable for farm- ing have increased greatly in relative impor- fance in recent years. This is especially true of the coal fields, of the oil fields, of the water powers, and of other resources that lend themselves easily to single ownership in large bodies and that increase rapidly in value without the expenditure of money for their maintenance or development. The conservation movement owes _ its initiation and its strength to the knowledge that the national resources are in serious danger of waste, of depletion, of extortionate exploitation, and that the only remedy for these imminent dangers must be found in such a modification of the land laws as will give the people of the nation, acting through the government, power to protect themselves from these evils. 249 For many reasons the conservation move- ment might be better left in the hands of the state governments, rather than in the hands of the federal government, if it were not for the fact that in many cases the states themselves are held in the power of precisely the powers and influences against which it is necessary to guard the people’s inheritance. In some western states it would be nothing more than a farce to turn the coal lands, the water powers and other resources over to the state legislatures for protection, when the majority of the members of those legislatures are customarily elected and controlled by the big corporations of those states. That it is entirely possible to conserve the national resources in such a way as to prevent monopoly and at the same time to secure the original purpose of the land laws, is not a matter of doubt, for it has been de- monstrated by the very effective work that has already been done. The objects of the conservation movement ought to include a reasonable use and devel- opment of the national resources. and this use should be equally free from the extor- tions of a private monopoly and from the service charges of the federal government. If by service charges of the federal government, the Chieftain means rea- sonable charges for use—for grazing, waterpowers, and so on—its view that such charges are improper is an incor- rect one. The government, the fed- eral treasury, are not things apart and served in and for themselves. The pay- ments made for the use of the national domain are for the benefit of the whole people whose territory this is. Those who derive the direct benefits of use therefrom may fairly be expected to pay to the people a fair compensation for what they receive, as to any other owner. We are slowly outgrowing the idea that the nation through its govern- ment can recognize any favored class or individuals. This is a matter of simple democracy and equity and not tyranny, Oppression or extortion. We think that this is where some of our western friends make their mistake. They went out to open a new country and everything was free and the work of the pioneer was deserving of reward. But the country has been built up and large expenditures are being made by the national government to develop it, 250 AMERICAN and these expenditures result in a special benefit to the people of the western states. They create rich prizes for the careless freebooters who throng a new country, and instead of giving away privileges it becomes necessary to guard them closely. Why then, should not the national domains provided for the people of the whole country and which are maintained by the people of the whole country, bear their fair share through those who use them of the ex- pense incurred in their maintenance? The time is coming, undoubtedly, when the western forests will more than pay their own expenses and will yield a re- turn to the national treasury. This is the experience of all countries which have a national forest policy; but at present they are a source of expense which all the states pay. We have quoted the article from the Chieftain fully, with some notes of our own, because we feel that the writer and ourselves are not so far apart on the general principle and that we could very easily get together on the details. There has been too much sectional feel- ing and too little understanding of the west by the east and of the east by the west. Suppose we start from the fact that the east is not a great soulless banking corporation and that the west is not a wilderness to be exploited and work up to a conception of the United States as one nation, with common in- terests, a common faith, and a common hope. Some of our Denver critics are hopeless but we think that with our friend from Pueblo we might climb the heights. ye ye The Cost of War and Peace STRIKING circular has been is- sued by the New York Peace So- ciety showing the cost of armed peace to the people of the United States. In this circular several striking comparisons are made of the cost of the mainte- HO RIS SiN: nance of our navy and the cost of many of the conservation enterprises which are proposed and upon the prosecution of which our legislators halt on the ground of extravagance. For example, attention is called to the fact that the proposed White Moun- tain forest reserve could be purchased and planted for the cost of one battle- ship. This is too moderate a statement. The cost of one of the latest type of battleships now being built by the United States would very nearly finance for the next five years the whole pro- posed Appalachian forest enterprise. The cost of six or seven more battle- ships would pay for the great possible expenditure to which some believe this policy may lead and which so alarms Mr. Cannon and other watchdogs of the treasury. But this is not the end of the story. In twenty-five years the Appalachian forests would pay the nation a good net return on the investment and_ they would increase in value, under proper forest management, from year to year, making a permanent addition to the national wealth. In twenty-five years the battleship would be fit only for the scrap heap, and during the period of its life its up-keep would have been a heavy expense to the nation. In making this comparison, we do not need to enter into the question of the necessity of maintaining an ade- quate armament. The Peace Society made the comparison for one purpose— we make it to show that the nation that spends its millions annually for build- ing new battleships that soon become obsolete and which will be useful only in the case of a problematical war, should not hesitate to make such in- vestments as the proposed Appalachian legislation calls for for the sake of keeping its own house in order. The house owner who allows his property to go unpainted and without shingles and to fall into general disrepair, is re- garded as incapable and as a poor busi- ness man. What shall be said of the nation that allows its property to run down from year to year? This we are BDITOREAI doing, and we have not the excuse of poverty er ignorance, for we have the example of other nations to guide us in the way ef intelligent management. Me ye The Growing of Eucalyptus UCALYPTUS growing inthe south- west has assumed such consider- able commercial importance that it is being exploited by numerous companies interested in selling lands for the pur- pose of growing trees. These enter- prises when in reliable hands and under good management will probably have excellent prospects, and, as is always the case when some new investment field of this kind is being pushed to the front, it is necessary to guard against improper methods and incom- petent management. The Department of Agriculture has found it necessary to issue a warning in regard to the mis- quotation of some of its publications dealing with eucalyptus. One of these publications, Circular 97, of the Forest Service, has been misrepresented as saying that California would in a few years be the only source of hardwood supply in the United States. Such a statement, the department says, “has never been made in any of its Forest Service publications, and is not con- sidered a fact.” The department state- ment further says that its “experts be- lieve that there is promise of consider- able success in the cultivation of euca- lyptus trees in many parts of California, 251 but estimates of profits and of growth have been attributed to the department which are unauthorized. There are many uncertainties connected with euca- lyptus culture which the investor should take into account.” Naturally, the de- partment objects to being misrepre- sented and to having its name used in advertising enterprises of which it has no knowledge and the managers of which are not conscientious in making statements that will promote _ their business. This whole question of eucalyptus growing is one of great interest and importance, and experts are now at work upon it in the southwest and in Florida to ascertain under what con- ditions it can be successfully carried on. Owing to the rapid growth of the tree, its habit of growth, and the use- fulness of its wood, it can be cultivated when the conditions and climate and soil are favorable so as to produce commercial crops in a much shorter time than other trees; but, like every other plant product, there are limita- tions which must be known and allowed for if any particular enterprise is to be commercially successful. Those who intend to enter the field, or to invest in any of the eucalyptus projects should, therefore, inform themselves as to the actual conditions and as to the manage- ment, and not absorb too readily the prospectuses of promoters. AMERICAN Forestry will take up this subject in forthcoming issues and will endeavor to give its readers adequate and reliable information in regard to it. NATIONAL FOREST WORK Working on Administrative Problems Associate Forester A.F. Potter has returned recently from a trip of about a month to confer with national forest officers on the ad- ministrative methods of the Forest Service and to take up with them the questions of changes in procedure considered desirable by the Secretary of Agriculture and the For- ester. He visited the offices of the dis trict foresters at Missoula, Mont., Portland, Oreg., Ogden, Utah, and Denver, Colo. At Missoula and Portland he attended meetings of all the forest supervisors of ,Montana, northern Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. Mr. Potter attended the meeting at Missoula during the early part of the week of March 21 to 26, and the meeting at Portland during the latter part of the same week. Secretary Wilson is anxious that in apply- ing the national forest policy the fullest con- sideration compatible with the welfare of the forests be given to users and to persons en- titled under the land laws to patents of na- tional forest land. The listing of agricultural lands within the national forests, permitted by the law of June II, 1906, when the land is found to be actually more valuable for agri- cultural purposes than for its timber, is an es- tablished part of the Forest Service work. Com- plaint has been made in some quarters that forest officers have shown an excess of zeal in opposing bona fide claims, and that the Forest Service has been too strict in applying the law permitting agricultural settlement. While the great majority of such complaints have been found, on investigation, to be without just cause, Secretary Wilson regards it as worth while to inquire whether any modifications of the present procedure are called for to insure that his wishes are actually carried out. This does not mean that any departure from the policies which have governed the admin- istration of the national forests is contem- plated. It may be, however, that the details of the administrative work require looking after in some particulars to insure that the decisions of field officers actually apply the principles laid down for the Forest Service, and it is to inquire into this matter that the Secretary authorized Mr. Potter to make his trip. ye we Squatter Rights in National Forests Secretary Wilson has just issued an order providing for a more liberal treatment of bona fide squatters upon unsurveyed land which has been included within national for- 252 ests since the time of actual occupancy of the land by the squatter. ; Under the homestead law it is impossible for any one to secure legal title to unsur- veyed public land, but occupancy pending sur- vey is recognized as giving a prior claim to the land after survey, under what is known as “squatters’ rights.” A squatter who had, in good faith, taken possession of a piece of national forest land before the national for- ests were created is not dispossessed of his claim by the Forest Service, and if he lives upon it and cultivates it until the land has been surveyed, he is able to get his homestead just as though he had settled on any part of the unreserved public domain. But since the passage of the Act of June II, 1906, which permits the Secretary of Agriculture to list for settlement land which he finds chiefly valuable for agriculture, it has been possible for squatters to apply for the listing of their lands under this Act, and thus to obtain title prior to the government survey. The object of the new order of the Secretary is to pro- vide for the listing of the full amount of land which the occupant would receive if he exer- cised his option of awaiting the government survey, irrespective of whether or not the en- tire area is cultivable, provided the claim is bona fide and the land is not more valuable for its timber than for agriculture. Secretary Wilson’s order is as follows: “A: person who has settled upon and continuously occupied unsurveyed lands within a national forest before its creation and is at the pres- ent time occupying such lands in good faith and is in all ‘respects complying with the homestead law, has the right to include within the lines of his homestead 160 acres after the land is surveyed. Therefore, if the land is OC- cupied for agricultural purposes and is not more valuable for its timber than for such purposes, and there are no circumstances which would in the opinion of the District For- ester tend to discredit the bona fides of the claimant, he should be allowed to make ap- plication for the patenting of such lands un- der the Act of June 11, 1906, and the exami- nation for listing should be made with a view of listing 160 acres of land where possible. The tracts as listed should conform so far as practicable to the form of the public land sur- veys. The listing of lands as above should not in any way govern the determination of the total area or amount of non-cultivable land listed for applicants under the Act of June 11, 1906, who were not residing upon the land before the creation of the forest. In cases where less than 160 acres of land has been listed to a person who settled upon the NATIONAL FOREST WORK land prior to the creation of the forest, an ad- ditional area sufficient to complete the home- stead entry may be allowed upon proper ap- plication.” ye We ps Grazing—Trespass on National Forests Still Criminally Actionable The enforcement of the grazing regulations on the national forests is not affected by the recent decision of the Supreme Court of the United States, affirming the decision of Dis- trict Judge Wellborn, of California. The position of the Secretary of Agriculture is set forth by Associate Forester Potter in the following letter to the District Forester at San Francisco: “The decision of the United States District Court for the southern district of California in the case of the United States against Caza- jous, Grimaud, and Inda has been affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States by an even division of justices, there being four for affrmance and four against, the ninth member of the court not sitting. No written opinion was rendered, and could not be, in the nature of the case, because of the even division of the justices. Being evenly divided, the decision of the Supreme Court merely means an affirmance of the decision of the lower court in these particular cases, without any binding force in any subsequent cases that may arise for violation of the regulations of the Secretary of Agriulture governing grazing on the national forests. Therefore, you will continue the enforcement of the law and regulations and take the same action regarding any violations thereof as heretofore. “In the event of a trespass case occurring in your district in which the circumstances are similar to those involved in these cases, you should proceed in accordance with the instructions relating to criminal trespass and if, upon presentation of the facts by the United States Attorney, the grand jury finds an indictment, and upon demurrer the decis- ion of the court is in favor of the defendants, the United States Attorney will be instructed to remove the case to the Supreme Court of the United States for review. When the case reaches the Supreme Court, there will proba- bly be a full bench and a final and authori- tative decision of this court will be rendered.” In the decision rendered by Judge Well- born sustaining the demurrer in the cases of Cazajous, Grimaud, and Inda, he did not question the right of the Secretary of Agri- culture to control grazing upon the national forests, nor his right to prohibit any unper- mitted grazing. That the Secretary has such authority had been expressly held by a higher court, the United States Circuit Court of Ap- peals of the Ninth Circuit, sitting at San Francisco, both in the case of Shannon vs. U. S. (120 Fed. Rep., 70), and in the earlier case of Dastervignes vs. U. S. (122 Fed. Rep., 30). Indeed, the authority of those decisions 253 was expressly recognized by Judge Wellborn. These cases were, however, civil cases in which the United States was granted injunc- tions restraining the defendants from grazing trespass upon forest reservations, while the cases of Cazajous, Grimaud, and Inda, de- cided by Judge Wellborn at Fresno, were criminal prosecutions. Judge Wellborn held that while the Sec- retary of Agriculture has full authority under existing laws of Congress to promulgate reg- ulations prohibiting grazing upon national forests except under permits, and while the forests can be protected against any violation of such regulations, by the bringing of civil actions and suits for injunction, still a viola- tion of the regulations cannot be held to be a crime. In other words, the decision of Judge Wellborn did not question the right of the Secretary of Agriculture to enforce by civil process proper observance of the grazing regulations, but held merely that violations of the regulations could not be made the basis of criminal action. Under the Criminal Appeals Act of March 2, 1907 (34 Stat., 1246), the Attorney General has instructed the United States Attorney at Los Angeles to sue out writs of error at once and have Judge Wellborn’s decision re- viewed by the Supreme Court of the United States. This is the first opportunity the gov- ernment has had to obtain a ruling upon this question by the Supreme Court. The appeal will be prosecuted to as early a decision as possible. Judge Wellborn’s ruling is directly contrary to decisions by the following courts, which have held that violations of the Secretary’s regulations are criminal and may be the sub- ject of criminal prosecution: U. S. District Court, District of Idaho, in the case of U. S. vs. Domingo (152 Fed. Rep., 566), decision by Judge Beatty, March 14, 1907 ; U. S. District Court, Northern District of California, in the case of U. S. vs. Dequirro (152 Fed. Rep., 568), decision by Judge De- Haven, October 2, 1900; U. S. District Court, South Dakota, in the case of U. S. ws. Bale (156 Fed. Rep., 687). decision by Judge Carland, September 3, 1907 ; The Supreme Court of Arizona, in the case of Dent vs. U. S. (76 Pac. Rep., 455), opinion by Chief Justice Kent; United States Attorney-General, John W. Griggs, also held (22 Opinions of Attorneys- General, 266) that any violation of the graz- ing regulations constitutes a crime and may be prosecuted and punished as such. As heretofore, the grazing regulations will continue to be vigorously enforced upon every forest. Any willful violation will be at once reported by the forest officers and prompt action will be taken. Past experience has shown that only upon very rare occasions indeed is court action necessary. The ac- knowledged justice and propriety of the graz- 254 ing regulations have generally appealed to the sense of fairness of forests users, with the result that willing compliance with, and hearty cooperation in the enforcement of, the regulations have been the rule, and cases of willful violation have been of rare occurrence. ye ye ue The Use of Hickory in the United States In cooperation with the National Hickory Association, the U. S. Department of Agri- culture has just completed a canvass of the principal hickory-using establishments to as- certain their annual requirements. In the last few years the users of hickory have be- come very much alarmed over the decreasing supply; so far, however, it has been impos- sible to get satisfactory statistics either of the total quantity of hickory yet standing in the forests or of the amount used each year. This is partly because a great deal of hickory is cut by small portable or stationary mills, which, after consuming all the timber within a radius of from two to eight miles, are either sold or moved to new points. Much hickory is also split into billets for spokes, handles, etc., instead of being sawed into lumber. Altogether, therefore, it is extremely dificult to make even a fair estimate of the total hickory consumption. While the figures gathered by the asso- ciation and the department are not as com- plete as were desired, they are at least signifi- cant. Hickory is especially sought for the manufacture of vehicle parts and of handles, in which great strength and toughness, to- gether with moderate weight, are essential. It is estimated that, in the manufacture of their special products, the hickory-using es- tablishments consume the equivalent of the following: Product Board feet Hor, SpOokesweans Mucor 45,000,000 Por handles jccaonkte te ee ee 29,000,000 Hon polessand) shattse ese aeeeeer 18,000,000 IRoyrsboaein ss eA cM olGooes solap.0 ¢ 16,000,000 For singletrees, doubletrees, neck- volkesu ands WOlStensua eee reer 16,000,000 Ty OF cies Tove Kchoyng wea era ene AU Aer Se 6,000,000 Rorgsucker rOds aun ec oe enere 1,000,000 Ron wehiclecean woods... eee 600,000 ARCS) Het REAR eer eae tis Pe bc 131,600,000 In addition to the hickory which is made directly into these special forms there is man- ufactured each year about 200,000,000 feet of hickory lumber, most of which is later re- manufactured. The total quantity of hickory cut in the United States each year is there- fore equivalent to not less than 330,000,000 board feet. According to the reports of the Bureau of the Census, the average value of hickory lumber at the mill is about $30 per thousand, while the high-grade material which is necessary for the special uses listed above is worth at least $50 per thousand. This makes the total value at the mill of the AMERICAN FORESTRY annual hickory production not less than $12,000,000. Hickory is one of our most useful woods, but it constitutes only about two to five per cent of the total stand of timber in our hard- wood forests. It is widely distributed throughout the eastern hardwood forests and was formerly most abundant and of unusually high quality in Indiana and Ohio. The supply in these states, however, has been greatly reduced by cutting, so that at present Arkansas is distinctly in the lead in hickory production, followed by Tennessee, and then by Indiana, Kentucky, and Ohio. wu National Forest Work in Florida Florida is about to get its first practical ex- perience of the results of national forest ad- ministration. A reconnaissance survey of the Choctawhatchee Forest, which was put under control of the Department of Agricul- ture in November, 1908, by presidential proclamation, is now being made by a force of Forest Service experts. This survey will furnish information in the light of which use of the forests can be promoted through properly regulated timber cutting, through turpentining under the cup-and-gutter or the cup-and-apron method, and through grazing, without harm to the permanent value of the forests. Florida was the first state east of the Mississippi to have a national forest. The Choctawhatchee Forest containing ap- proximately 467,606 acres, is located in the western part of the state, along the Gulf, in Walton and Santa Rosa Counties. The Ocala Forest, embracing some 207,285 acres, lies in the central part, the greater portion of the forest being in Marion County, with a small fraction in Lake. The two forests were placed under administration November I, 1909. As long ago as 1825, Congress appropriated $10,000 to buy live oak land on Santa Rosa Sound to make sure of a supply of ship tim- ber for our war vessels. This reservation, together with other tracts subsequently set aside, made a total of 208,224 acres in Florida timber lands which the government proposed to hold as a source of supply for its ships. Large quantities of acorns were planted and many young oaks set out. But the plantation was not a great success, and the main effort was ultimately restricted to thinning out, pruning, and other silvicultural care of the trees of the natural forest. To- day the new attempt at forestry in the Penin- sular State promises much more encouraging results. The party of eight Forest Service cruisers, headed by A. B. Recknagel, Assistant Chief of Silviculture at Albuquerque, New Mexico, have already commenced operations near the head of Little Alaqua. The crew will pro- ceed westward to the western border of East Bay River. An accurate survey of all the NATIONAL FOREST WORK government land will be taken, the stumpage estimated, and a report made of the number of turpentine cups that, in accordance with the latest federal regulations, may properly be placed on the forest. When the cruisers have completed their work on the Choctawhatchee, a similar in- spection of the Ocala Forest will be made. It is thought the surveys will engage the force until the beginning of summer. Sites have been selected for the rangers’ houses, to be built by contract. A local estimator figures that the country- school and road funds will profit by the tur- pentining, grazing, timber cutting, and other receipts of the Choctawhatchee Forest to the extent of $700 or $800 this first year, since twenty-five per cent of all such reve- nues is to go into these two funds. we oe ye The New Pine Tree Nursery of Montana The Ferest Service is to have a new nursery in Montana. The Savenac nursery, the twenty-fifth of its kind maintained by the Department of Agriculture for its forest work, is situated in the Lolo National Forest on Savenac Creek, Montana, near De Borgia. The ground was plowed and harrowed last fall, the irrigation ditches run, and an ample water system installed. The tract will be laid out in 150 beds, each four feet by twelve. Over these will be broadcast the best of the seeds of native conifers gathered in the forest the past autumn. To prevent mice and birds from eating the seeds each bed will be protected by a lath and wire frame. This will also serve to shade the delicate plantlets during the tender period of their first year’s life. A water system will supply the means of sprinkling the seeds and irrigating the young trees during the warmer, drier months. One man will be kept con- stantly at work watering the thirsty soil and otherwise caring for his interesting charge. The Savenac nursery will have an annual productive capacity of 1,500,000 seedlings. When one year old—beginning probably in 255 the spring of 1911—these will be set out in transplant beds, where they will be expected to develop in two more years into respecta- ble young trees. Thence they will be re- moved to their permanent home in the hills of the Lolo National Forest. Planting and direct seeding will be done on the great burned areas visible to passengers on the trains of the Coeur d’Alene branch, and also on extensive burns around the head waters of the Rattlesnake River in the Mis- soula Forest. The work is designed to add to the national timber supply in the coming years and to aid in the regulation of the flow of Montana mountain waters. The Savenac nursery will bring the aggregate an- nual plant-producing capacity of the twenty- five national forest nurseries up to 10,000,000 seedlings. MME OME Government Improving Forests It will be a source of surprise to many who do not understand the work of the Forest Service to learn of the permanent improvement work which has been carried on in the National Forests. On the forests of Arkansas, Arizona, and New Mexico the Service spent during the last fiscal year $68,923.84 for permanent improvements. The primary object of expending money in this way is to make the forests more accessible to the public. Consequently a very large percentage of this money was spent in the construction and repair of roads and trails and many miles of telephone lines were also constructed. The report shows that a large percentage of the money was expended in the construction and repair of 253 miles of trails, thirty-two miles of wagon road, and 206 miles of telephone lines. The stockmen residing within the boun- daries of National Forests are receiving con- siderable help from the Service through the development of watering places. The Service further helps stockmen by cooperating with them in the construction of drift fences, which aid stockmen in handling their stock. STATE WORK Colorado State Forestry Association The following resolutions were adopted by the Colorado State Forestry Association, at its annual convention January 13th, held in the senate chamber of the capitol at Denver: GIFFORD PINCHOT AND THE FOREST POLICY “WHereas, Gifford Pinchot has accom- plished a work of inestimable value in the conservation movement, and especially in forestry, therefore “Resolved, That the Colorado State Fores- try Association in convention assembled hereby expresses its appreciation and ap- proval of the work accomplished by him in the past, and “Resolved, That we express the hope that he may continue his valuable services in the cause of conservation, of which he is the recognized leader; and be it further “Resolved, That we hope that his successor may carry out the forest policy, already in- augurated, and in this hope we extend to him our hearty welcome and earnest sup- port.” WHITE MOUNTAIN AND APPALACHIAN FORESTS “WHEREAS, the establishment of the pro- posed White Mountain and Appalachian National Forests would result in the pro- tection of the sources of numerous rivers and streams, which are of priceless value for water power and navigation, and would re- sult in the conservation of the forests thereon, and greatly increase the timber sup- ply of a region which by nature is better adapted to the growing of valuable hard- woods than any other area in the United States, therefore “Resolved, Vhat this association urges the Congress of the United States to enact, at the earliest possible date, such laws as will result in the establishment of the aforesaid national forests.” The resolutions also approved the work of the Colorado Conservation Commission and asked that an appropriation be made by the state to render it more effective; urged the establishment of a national park and game preserve at Estes Park; commended the pro- posed forestry school at the State Agricul- tural College at Fort Collins and endorsed “the effort of Congressman Edward T. Tay- lor to secure the setting apart and granting to the said college by Congress of a suitable tract of timbered land from the public do- main, conveniently located, for the permanent 256 and perpetual use of such school, for forestry study, experimentation and the practice of forestry, for the advancement of the science and knowledge of forestry within our state,” and urged the employment by the state of a technical and practical forester who shal] investigate and make public report on (1) the amount, species, value and condition of the timber on all state and private land in Colorado, and (2) on the advisability and na ture of such legislation as shall ensure the most efficient protection from forest fires of the timber lands owned by the state and by private individuals, and of such other legisla- tion as shall encourage the practice of for- estry on such lands. us y Ys os iz Forest Fire Protection in Idaho Reports submitted at the annual meetings of four timber protection associations of northern Idaho in the offices of A. L. Flewell- ing in Spokane, March 15 and 16, show that in an area of 6,300 square miles 17,000,000 feet of green timber and 290,000 feet of logs were destroyed by fire in 1909. These figures are embodied in the report prepared by A. W. Laird of the Potlatch Lumber Company, head of the North Idaho Forestry Association, composed of organizations in the Potlatch, Coeur d’Alene, Pend Oreille and Clearwater districts. After showing the benefits of protection given by the owners of timber tracts in Idaho, Mr. Laird said that of the total number of feet of timber affected by fires there is a small percentage which may be utilized with but little depre- ciation in value, adding in part: “The total expense of the four forest fire associations in the panhandle was $51,251.94 last year, and of this amount $14,936.52 represents the wages of fire wardens or pa- trolmen; $5,472.73 was spent in clearing and building trails, $4,171.87 in fighting fires, and the balance, $26, 670.82, was spent among our merchants and others for supplies, provisions, tools, camp equipment. A large sum found its way into the pockets of our homesteaders for board for patrolmen, horse feed, fresh vegetables, buttermilk and eggs. “While the territory protected was more than 4,000,000 acres in extent, the entire ex- pense was borne by the owners of 1,450,000 acres. The interests back of this great movement for the conservation of our timber protect two acres of timber from the devas- tation of forest fires for each acre which they themselves own. STATE WORK “The experience we are gaining each year in the prevention and control of forest fires is greatly reducing the loss of timber from this cause. Our interest in the stumpage value of this timber is a mere bagatelle as compared with the interest of the community at large, for it is safe to say that in logging and manufacturing the timber now standing in the five northern counties of Idaho not less than $200,000,000, and more likely $300,- 000,000, will be paid out in the one item of wages to residents. “Any one of the 322 forest fires which we successfully fought in 1909 with but small loss, or in fact any one of the thousands of small fires which were discovered by our patrolmen before any serious damage had been done, had it not been for the most ex- cellent work of our men, might have devel- oped into conflagrations which would have swept away hundreds of thousands of dollars of our investments, millions in the wages of our employes and caused untold loss in life and property of the residents of the locality. “The moral as well as the financial sup- port of the state board of land commissioners has been a potent factor in the success of the last year, as well as in previous years.” These trustees were elected for the North Idaho Forestry Association: President, A. W. Laird, Potlatch Lumber Company, re- elected; vice-president, J. P. McGoldrick, McGoldrick Lumber Company; secretary- treasurer, W. D. Humiston, Potlatch Lumber Company; T. J. Humbird, Humbird Lumber Company; C. P. Lindsley, Craig Mountain Lumber Company; E. N. Brown, Clearwater Lumber Company, and A. L. Flewelling, Monarch Lumber Company. The Potlatch Association elected A. W. Laird, president; George A. Day, vice-presi- dent, and W. D. Humiston, secretary and treasurer. The directors are G. A. Day, C. H. Fancher, E. N. Brown, G. A. Rubedew and A. W. Laird. The president announced that the loss from fire in the Potlatch district last year was practically nothing, notwith- standing the danger caused by the clearing of a right of way for the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound Railway. At the meeting of the Clearwater Fire Protective Association the following officers were elected: President, E. N. Brown; vice- president, G. A. Day; secretary and treasurer, B. E. Bush. The directors are E. N. Brown, G. A. Day, W. M. Deary and George R. Schofield. The meetings were attended by James Tur- rish, Western Land Company; G. A. Rube- dew, Rupp & Holland; E. M. Hoover, Pay- ette Lumber and Manufacturing Company ; F. A. Silcox, acting district forester, district No. 1, Forest Service; F. H. Fancher, Mil- waukee Land Company; J. P. McGoldrick, McGoldrick Lumber Company; A. W. Laird, Potlatch Lumber Company; E. N. Brown, Clearwater Lumber Company; T. J. Hum- bird, Humbird Lumber Company; W. D. Humiston, Potlatch Lumber Company; 257 F. J. Davis, Edward Rutledge Timber Com- pany; George A. Day, state land commis- sioner; B. E. Brush, state of Idaho, and W. G. Weigle, government supervisor of the Coeur d’Alene forest reserve. af ue ue be ve Kansas The Arbor Day proclamation of Governor Stubbs of Kansas, deserves perpetuation as an appreciative eulogy of the tree: ARBOR DAY PROCLAMATION “The genial days of spring call to our memory again the duty we owe to that an- cient and useful friend of man the tree. “Tn all ages. of the world it has been true to our interest and loyal to our service. it has furnished the cradles and coffins of our ancestors; tables for the king and cottager alike. It has given comfort and shelter to the peasant and the prince—to the pauper and the potentate. “Trees are the royal family of the vegeta- ble kingdom. Neither the quarry nor the mine has done more for civilization than the forest. Neither stone nor steel can outlive or outrival the usefulness of the tree. It is more useful to civilization than silver— more valuable to civilization than gold. It gives us food and fire and shelter; it gives us books and newspapers and a greater variety of the necessities and luxuries of life than any other article of ancient or modern commerce. “Trees have always figured in our divine and patriotic relations. Among them the religion of man was born. Groves were the first cathedrals of our race. Birds singing in their boughs and branches gave us the first idea of sacred music and the choir. God planted them in Eden for the sustenance of our first parents. From their leaves were fashioned the first garments that covered their naked- ness. When God’s displeasure threatened the extinction of our race Noah looked into the forest and found there the means of sal- vation. It was under the oak tree that Jeho- vah conversed with a great man in Israel. It was in the tree tops that David heard the voice of the Lord. It was among the palms of the Garden of Gethsemane that Jesus spent the last evening of his life. The battle for American freedom was consummated under the apple tree of Appomattox. “For centuries, and until man came to profit by its use, nature denied the tree to the greater part of Kansas. We are now learning how it conserves the moisture in our soil, that it changes and modifies our climate, that it gives beauty and charm to our land- scape, that it can solve the problem of slides and drifts and floods, that it influences our civilization and adds materially to the wealth and happiness of the people. “Therefore, I, W. R. Stubbs, Governor of the State of Kansas, in accordance with the 258 custom of my immediate predecessors, and the delightful sentiment of a better genera- tion, do hereby ordain and proclaim that Friday, April the eighth, will be set apart and dedicated to the planting of trees throughout the state, and I do especially urge the 500,000 school children of Kansas to participate in the enterprise. “W.R. STUBBS, “Governor.” Ohio The graduates of the Ohio State Univer- sity forestry course will be qualified to per- form valuable services to their own state if the proper encouragement is given. Ohio should secure and maintain forest reserves. There are large areas of cheap land on the watersheds of the state that should be per- petually forested. The service of these for- ested areas as natural reservoirs holding back flood waters and preventing drouth and the washing of the land would be very great. That the ripe timber taken off the land from time to time would pay an ample revenue has been demonstrated in the case of similar re- serves. Doubtless Ohio has as great a need of the forestry service as any other state — The Umwversity News-Bulletin. AMERICAN FORESTRY Pennsylvania Arbor Days have been named by the Goy- ernor of the Commonwealth, and on April 8 and 22, some attention will be given to tree planting by a very few devoted to the cause of forestation. The trees planted on these days are not sufficient in number to be con- sidered in connection with forestation. If a state-wide boom for wayside trees could be inaugurated and Arbor Days converted into genuine working holidays for planting trees by the side of the roads of the state, a great change would soon be effected, and our shadeless, treeless country highways be con- verted into long avenues of shade and beauty. Our laws provide for this wayside tree planting, but nothing is done about it. The shaded country roads seen elsewhere have in- spired a desire to emulate them in this state. A sunburned, starving highway is easily made a shady lane, grateful to man and beast. If walnut, chestnut and hickory trees are planted there they will afford a beautiful setting for the street and their nuts will be appreciated and valued by boys and squirrels. Our native trees make good wayside trees in country districts and serve a double purpose. Arbor Day is intended not so much to in- crease the number of trees as to increase the knowledge and love of trees and an under- standing of their value among the people. The wider and more general is the obser- vance of these special tree days the better it will be for the state and for the people who live in it+-Philadelphia Press. NEWS AND NOTES Foreign Planters Seek American Trees The enterprise of German foresters and the importance of tree planting for forest pur- poses are strikingly shown by two items of news which come, the one from Montana, the other from Ontario. It is reported that a demand has developed for Montana larch seeds to be used by German nurserymen, while white pine seedlings are to be imported from Germany by the town of Guelph, Ont., for planting a 168-acre tract of land belonging to the municipality. The Germans recognize that the introduc- tion into their forests of valuable trees native to other countries may be decidedly to their advantage. Although as a rule the forest trees best adapted to each region are those which naturally grow in it, there are many exceptions. Norway spruce and Austrian and Scotch pine have been carried from their na- tive home to other parts of Europe and to America and have been found well worth the attention of the grower of timber. Several of our own species have met with favor in Europe and flourished there, such as the Douglas fir, black walnut, and others. The Australian eucalyptus is proving a great find for America and South Africa. Our own white pine long ago crossed the Atlantic in response to the needs of Euro- peans, whose forests are comparatively poor in tree species, and is now grown commer- cially on such a scale that when it is wanted for planting in its own native habitat the German nurserymen are often ready to de- liver young plants here for a lower price than our Own nurserymen will quote. Now the Germans are going to try the Western larch also. The request from the German nur- seryman instructs the collectors to gather the choicest seeds when ripe this fall. One nur- seryman on Flathead Lake has offered to ex- change larch seeds for seeds of desirable Ger- man shrubs, which he intends to cultivate and sell in America. In the same region, four or five months ago, foresters of our own De- partment of Agriculture gathered seed for use in the neighboring Lolo Forest, where a new forest-planting nursery was begun last year. The objects of the Guelph planting are, ac- cording to -local accounts, to protect the town’s water source by a forest cover over its springs in the hills, to make beautiful woods for a public park, and to provide for a future timber supply as a municipal asset. This follows the extensive work on the same broad grounds by the Metropolitan Water Board of Massachusetts. In foreign coun- tries, forest tracts are often owned and managed by towns and cities as a paying in- vestment and to insure a permanent supply of wood for local consumption. The kinds of trees to be grown in the Guelph park have already been decided upon by the Ontario Agricultural College. The proposed reforestation promises to be of so great econ- omic and sanitary value that the estimated cost of $8 per acre for importing and plant- ing the seedlings and caring for the growing trees is regarded as well worth while. ye ye ye Trade in Pacific Coast Timber San Pedro, a name almost unknown eas of the Mississippi, is to-day one of the biggest lumber-receiving ports of the country, accord- ing to the figures of her collector of customs. The gazetteers of eight years ago assigned less than four lines of description to San Pedro. It was described as “a bay and inlet of the Pacific Ocean, in California, 105 miles southeast of Santa Barbara, thirty-three de- grees, forty-eight minutes north.” To-day it is known as the ocean port for the immense horticultural and commercial activity that centers about Los Angeles. San Pedro’s custom house figures show re- ceipts last year of over 500 million board feet of lumber. This was largely redwood, Doug- las fir, and yellow pine, brought in by coast vessels from the forests of the northwest. According to the Department of Commerce and Labor, New York’s coastwise receipts of southern pine, for the year ended December 25, were a little under 490 million feet. Chi- cago received by water, for the full calendar year 1909, not quite 340 million feet of all kinds of lumber exclusive of logs; North Tonawanda, N. Y., received over 170 million; Ludington, Mich. nearly eighty million; Cleveland, about seventy-two million, and Detroit, a little over sixty-six million. The arrivals of redwood, pine, and fir, at all the ports of San Francisco Bay totaled 900 mil- lion feet. The lumber arrivals at San Pedro are sug- gestive of the remarkably rapid development of southern California and also of the inland southwest. The fruit-growing section of southern California consumes much lumber. most of which is cut a full thousand miles to the north, but Washington, Idaho, and Oregon lumber is also distributed by rail from south- ern California to many inland points. Despite 259 260 the cost of the long ship transit added to the rail freight charges, the competition of lum- ber shippers who use the all-rail routes from the northwest coast states, or from the east, can be successfully met at several of these points by the ocean-and-rail route shippers. The lumber business of the matchless for- ests of the northwest has been fighting against great odds in the Mississippi valley and eastern markets because of the cost of transportation. “In the Pacific Coast states, which contain so large a part of the total stand of national forest timber,” says the Forester of the United States Department of Agriculture, in his Annual Report for 1909, “sales are made only -when a fair price is offered and only under restrictions which safeguard the future welfare of the forest. Both these conditions tend to restrict sales in a region where timber is at present so abundant and so cheap. * * * The open- ing of the Panama Canal will of itself almost revolutionize the situation. Cuttings which cannot now be made in the best way for the welfare of the forest, because only the rela- tively high grades of timber can be sold, will then be practicable under much more favor- able conditions.” ae v4 ue ye ve The Pennsylvania Railroad Company's Forest Work The Pennsylvania Railroad has planted 3,482,186 trees since it undertook forestry work on a comprehensive scale about eight years ago. In 1909 alone more than 1,000,000 trees were planted along the company’s right of way. Prior to last year, the forestry operations were confined to a limited area between Phil- adelphia and Altoona. In 1909, however, 7,800 trees were planted near Pomeroy, Pa., 188,200 in the vicinity of Vandyke, Pa., 35,000 near New Brunswick, N. J., 352,000 near Eyer, Pa., 30,000 near Metuchen, N. J., 161,825 at Denholm, Pa., 204,500 at Conewaga, Pa., and 74,500 at Parkton, Md. The total number of plants shipped from the com- pany’s forest nursery at Morrisville, Pa., was 1,240,381. A special effort was directed to growing ornamental shrubbery, and 6,000 plants, im- ported from France, were placed in beds at the nursery. . There are 56,000 trees and shrubs which are now being held in nursery. This work, so far as trees are concerned, has been forced upon the company by the in- creasing shortage of cross-tie timber. Other companies are forestalling future scarcity in the same way, but none, we believe, on so large a scale as the Pennsylvania. Nor does this company, like some of the others confine itself to the cultivation of the quick-growing catalpa, but gives preference to black locust AMERICAN FORESTRY and red oak. And the effort is not confined to the cultivation of suitable timber, but in- volves the study and eradication of insect enemies of different trees and the perfection of wood preservative processes. ’ nh ors i Forest Destruction In his circular on the status of forestry in this country, Mr. Treadwell Cleveland, jr., of the Forest Service, assembles some notable facts. Speaking of the stocktaking of our forest resources, he says: “It has shown that we are still destroying the forest as we used to; that we are taking from it every year three and a half times as much wood as is added by the new growth. It has shown that less than one-third of the growing tree felled by the lumberman is ever used at all, so that two-thirds of all the timber cut is simply destroyed. “Tt has shown that one-eleventh of all the forests are swept by fires every year, and that on the average, since 1870, forest fires have yearly cost $50,000,000 in timber and fifty lives. “Tt has shown that over ninety-nine per cent of the forests in private hands—which comprise three-fourths of all the forest land and four-fifths of all the wood—is thus dev- astated by destructive use and the scourge of unchecked fires, while less than one per cent is properly handled for successive crops or effectively protected from fire. The forest as a resource is rapidly being obliterated.” We ME Bonds for Waterways Speaking of the proposal to let Congress appropriate $100,000,000 for the improvement of waterways, the Houston (Tex.) Post says: “One thing is evident, however. No Con- gress is apt to appropriate $100,000,000 for waterways out of current revenues. The revenue situation is entirely too precarious for that. Still, it would be entirely feasible to provide that sum, and even more, through the sale of low-interest-bearing bonds, such as are issued for the work on the Panama Canal. “The sale of bonds for the purpose indi- cated would be good policy, certainly as justi- fiable as the sale of bonds for the work on the Isthmus. The importance of the isthmian canal to this country is going to be deter- mined largely by the extent we improve our rivers and harbors. If it were a choice be- tween the two, it would be more important to improve our own waterways than to dig the canal, but since both tasks are within our capacity, both ought to be completed as soon as possible.” The American Forestry Association OFFICERS FOR 1910 PRESIDENT CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts VICE-PRESIDENTS JOSHUA L. BAILY, Pennsylvania RUTHERFORD P. HAYES, North Carolina CHARLES W. ELIOT, Massachusetts GEORGE FOSTER PEABODY, New York B. E. FERNOW, Ontario, Canada J. E. RANSDELL, Louisiana W. W. FINLEY, District of Columbia J. T. ROTHROCK, Pennsylvania DAVID R. FRANCIS, Missouri ALBERT SHAW, New York EXECUTIVE SECRETARY EDWIN A. START, 1410 H StreetN. W., Washington, D. C. TREASURER OTTO LUEBKERT, Washington, D. C. DIRECTORS PHILIP W. AYRES, New Hampshire GEORGE H. MAXWELL, Illinois ROBERT P. BASS, New Hampshire CHARLES F. NESBIT, District of Columbia CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts CHARLES L. PACK, New Jersey WILLIAM S. HARVEY, Pennsylvania M. V. RICHARDS, District of Columbia JOHN E. A. HUSSEY, Massachusetts CUNO H. RUDOLPH, District of Columbia OTTO LUEBKERT, District of Columbia FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Pennsylvania GEORGE D. MARKHAM, Missouri JAMES S. WHIPPLE, New York GEORGE P. WHITTLESEY, District of Columbia Advisory Board, Representing Affiliated Organizations YELLOW PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION PHILIP S. GARDINER, Laurel, Miss. N. W. McLEOD, St. Louis, Mo. H. H. WHELESS, Shreveport, La. NATIONAL WHOLESALE LUMBER DEALERS’ ASSOCIATION ROBT. C. LIPPINCOTT, Philadelphia, Pa. LEWIS DILL, Baltimore, Md. R. M. CARRIER, Sardis, Miss. NORTHERN PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION C. A. SMITH, Minneapolis, Minn. WILLIAM IRVINE, Chippewa Falls, Wis. KX. E. WEYERHAEUSER, St. Paul, Minn. MASSACHUSETTS FORESTRY ASSOCIATION : NATHANIEL T. KIDDER, Milton, Mass. FREDERIC J. CAULKINS, Boston IRVING T. GUILD, Arlington, Mass. LUMBERMEN’S EXCHANGE ; : WILLIAM L. RICE, Philadelphia, Pa. FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Philadelphia, Pa. SAMUEL B. VROOMAN, Philadelphia, Pa. NATIONAL SLACK COOPERAGE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION J. T. WYLIE, Saginaw, Mich. JAMES INNES, Chatham, Ontario C. H. KEYS, New York City NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BOX MANUFACTURERS B. W. PORTER, Greenfield, Mass. S. B. ANDERSON, Memphis, Tenn. ROBT. A. JOHNSON, Minneapolis, Minn. CARRIAGE BUILDERS’ NATIONAL ASSOCIATION H. C. MecLEAR, Wilmington, Del. D. T. WILSON, New York Cc. D. FIRESTONE, Columbus, Ohio BOSTON PAPER TRADE ASSOCIATION N. M. JONES, Lincoln, Maine JOHN E. A. HUSSEY, Boston, Mass. ARTHUR L. HOBSON, Boston, Mass. Application for Membership fo EDWIN A] START Secretary American Forestry Association 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become a member of the American Forestry Asso- One dollar ($1.00) for annual dues is enclosed herewith. Very truly yours, Name P. O. Address of Photo by F. N. LeConte **The upper forested part of Hetch-Hetchy Valley is charmingly diversified with groves of the large and picturesque California live oak, and the noble yellow pine, which here attains a height of more than two hundred feet, growing well apart in small groves or singly, allowing cach tree to be seen in all its beauty and grandeur. Bencath them sfreacs a sumptuous fern carpet.'’—JOHN MUIR, ee eee AMERICAN PORESTIN Vole Savi MAY, Ig10 Nous RE HETCH-HETCHY VALLEY A National Question By JOHN MUIR HE better part of the world is be- ure, rights of way, etc. Nothing ginning to know that beauty plays an important part in human prog- ress, and that regarded even from the lowest financial standpoint it is one of the most precious and productive assets any country can possess. Most of our forests have already vanished in lumber and smoke, mostly smoke. Fortunately, the federal gov- ernment is now faithfully protecting and developing nearly all that is left of our forest and stream resources; nor even in these money-mad commercial days have our beauty resources been altogether forgotten. Witness the mag- nificent wild parks of the west, set apart and guarded for the highest good of all, and the thousands of city parks made to satisfy the natural taste and hunger for landscape beauty that God in some measure has put into every human being. Timber and water are universal wants, and of course the government is aware that no scheme of manage- ment of the public domain failing to provide for them can possibly be main- tained. But, however abundantly sup- plied from legitimate sources, every na- tional park is besieged with all sorts of plans and pleas for possession of some coveted treasure of water, timber, past- dollarable is safe, however guarded. Thus the Yosemite Park, the beauty, glory of California and the nation, Nature’s own mountain wonderland, has been attacked by spoilers ever since it was established, and this strife, I suppose, must go on as part of the eternal battle between right and wrong. The Yosemite National Park is not only the greatest and most wonderful national playground in California, but in many of its features it is without rival in the whole world. It belongs to the American people and is among their most priceless possessions. In world- wide interest it ranks with the Yellow- stone and the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. The “Yosemite National Park was created in 1890 by Congress in order that this great natural wonderland should be preserved in pure wildness for all time for the benefit of the entire nation. The Yosemite Valley was al- ready preserved in a state park, and the national park was created primarily to protect the Hetch-Hetchy Valley and Tuolumne Meadows from invasion. The Yosemite Park embraces the headwaters of two rivers—the Merced and the Tuolumne. The Yosemite Val- ley is in the Merced Basin and the 263 PUNOIBo10} Ul MOpeIUS JaMoy !}Y3tI uO YOY eUe|OY ‘UIIM}2q UedeD JW YIM ‘s]je-y eWede~” pur ejEININ OISLaUDLY UBS *4IQVT 69 0704 LNIOd AStmdunNs WOYA AUTIVA AHOLAH-HOLAH dN ONIMOOT TEE Hater Lh TCEY VALERY Hetch-Hetchy Valley, the Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne, and the Tuo- lumne Meadows are in Tuolumne Basin. Ex- cepting only the Yosemite Valley, the Tuolumne Basin is the finer and larger half of the park. Practically all of the Tuolumne Basin drains di- rectly into Hetch-Hetchy Valley, which is a won- derfully exact counter- part of the great Yosem- ite, not only in its crystal river, sublime cliffs and waterfalls, but in the gar- dens, groves, and mead- Ows of its flowery park- like floor. This park-like floor is especially adapted for pleasure camping, and is the focus of all the trails from both the north and the south which lead into and through _ this magnificent campground. The floor of the Hetch- Hetchy Valley is about three and one-half miles long and from one-fourth to one-half mile wide. The lower portion is mostly a level meadow about a mile long, with the trees restricted to the sides and partially sep- arated from the upper forested portion by a low bar of glacier - polished granite, across which the river breaks in rapids. Standing boldly out from the south wall is a strikingly picturesque rock called “Kolana” by the Indians, the outermost of a group 2,300 feet high corresponding with the Cathedral Rocks of Yosemite, both in relative position and form. On the opposite side of the valley facing Kolana there is a counter- part of the El Capitan of Yosemite rising sheer and plain to a height of 1,800 feet, and over its massive brow flows a stream which makes the most graceful fall I have ever seen. From Photo by Rodney L. Glisan Rancheria Falls, Hetch-Hetchy Valley the edge of the cliff it is perfectly free im ‘the? air for+a thousand feet, then breaks up into a ragged sheet of cas- cades among the boulders of an earth- quake talus. It is in all its glory in June, when the snow is melting fast, but fades and vanishes toward the end of summer. The only fall I know with which it may fairly be compared is the Yosemite Bridal Veil; but it excels even that favorite fall both in height and fineness of fairy, airy beauty and be- havior. Photo by Herbert W. Gleason KOLANA ROCK IN THE HETCH-HETCHY VALLEY 2,000 feet high Photo by F. F. Kinman General View of Hetch-Hetchy Valley So fine a fall might well seem suff- cient to glorify any valley; but here, as in Yosemite, nature seems in no wise moderate, for a short distance to the eastward of Tueeulala booms and thun- ders the great Hetch-Hetchy fall, Wa- pama, so near that you have both of them in full view from the same stand- point. It is the counterpart of the Yosemite Fall, but has a much greater volume of water, is about 1,700 feet in height, and appears to be nearly ver- tical, though considerably inclined, and is dashed into huge outbounding bosses of foam on the projecting shelves and knobs of its jagged gorge. No two falls could be more unlike—Tueeulala out in the open sunshine descending like thistledown ; Wapama in a jagged shad- owy gorge roaring and_ thundering, pounding its way with the weight and energy of an avalanche. Besides this glorious pair, there is a broad, massive fall on the main river a short distance above the head of the valley. There is also a chain of magnificent cascades at the head of the valley on a stream that comes in from the northeast, inostly silvery plumes, like the one between the Vernal and Nevada falls of Yosemite, half-sliding, half-leaping on _ bare glacier-polished granite, covered with crisp, clashing spray into which the sunbeams pour with glorious effect. And besides all these, a few small streams come over the walls here and there, leaping from ledge to ledge with birdlike song and watering many a hid- den cliff-garden and fernery, but they are too unshowy to be noticed in so grand a place. The principal trees are the yellow and sugar pines, Sabine pine, incense cedar, Douglas spruce, silver fir, the California and goldcup oaks, Balm of Gilead poplar, Nuttall’s flowering dog- wood, alder, maple, laurel, tumion, etc. The most abundant and influential are the great yellow pines, the tallest over 200 feet in height, and the oaks with massive, rugged trunks four to six or seven feet in diameter, and broad, arch- ing heads, assembled in magnificent groves. The shrubs forming conspic- uous flowery clumps and tangles are manzanita, azalea, spirea, brier rose, ceanothus, calycanthus, philadelphus, wild cherry, etc.; with abundance of 267 showy and fragrant herbaceous plants growing about them, or out in the open in beds by themselves—lilies, Mariposa tulips, brodiaeas, orchids—several spe- cies of each; iris, spraguea, draperia, collomia, collinsia, castilleia, nemophila, larkspur, columbine, goldenrods, sun- flowers, and mints of 268 many species, honeysuckle, etc., etc. Many fine ferns dwell here, also, especially the beautiful and interesting rock-ferns—pellaea, and cheilanthes of several species—fringing and rosetting dry rockpiles and ledges: woodwardia and asplenium on damp spots with fronds six or seven feet high; the delicate maiden-hair in mossy Photo by Herbert W. Gleason TUEULALA AND WAPAMA FALLS, HETCH-HETCHY VALLEY Photo by F. F. Kinman Park-like Floor of Hetch-Hetchy Valley nooks by the falls, and broad-shouldered _ pteris oaks and pines. lnwispites orsthemtact that this isa national property dedicated as a public park for all time in which every citizen of the United States has a direct in- terest, certain individuals in San Fran- cisco conceived the idea that here would be an opportunity to acquire a water supply for the city at the expense of the nation. But light has been brought to bear upon it, and everybody is beginning to see more and more clearly that the com- mercial invasion of the Yosemite Park means that sooner or later under va- the sturdy, beneath the rious specious beguiling pleas, all the public parks and playgrounds through- out our country may be invaded and spoiled. The Hetch-Hetchy is a glar- ingly representative case, involving as it does the destruction of one of the grandest features of the Yosemite Na- tional Park, which, if allowed, would create a most dangerous precedent. Judging from the way that the coun- try has been awakened to the impor- tance of park preservation, it is incred- ibte that the people will tolerate the de- ShRUeEOnN Ot aly part (ol the, @reat Yosemite Park, full of God’s noblest handiwork, forever dedicated to benefi- cent public use. 269 HISTORIC TREES OF WASHINGTON By B, R. WINSLOW HE cry of “Woodman, spare that GR tree,” that has been sent ringing through the parks and gardens of the Nation’s Capital by the champions of the trees who are fearful that a new order of architecture will destroy them, has brought to public attention some of the many historic trees of Wash- ington. Every country has its memorial trees which are highly venerated and around which cluster traditions and hallowed memories of antiquity dear to the hearts of the citizens. In the parks of European and Asiatic cities these trees are quite numerous, but in the cities of the United States they are compara- tively few, not that we are lacking in veneration, but for the obvious reason that we are comparatively young. Nevertheless, Washington’s public parks and gardens contain many speci- mens of trees which are notable because of the historic interest attached to them. It is seldom, however, that the aver- age sightseer runs across them for they are not tagged, at least not all of them. Memento hunters, who are always found among the large number of an- nual visitors to the Capital, make the labeling of these trees dangerous. The knives of souvenir hunters would soon ruin them. The superintendents in the various parks are acquainted with the location of the trees and the facts re- lating to their planting, and can point out the memorial trees to visitors. inysthe Botanic (Garden “theres are planted a large number of trees as me- morials of men prominent in the Na- tion’s history. One of the most inter- esting memorial trees in this garden is that planted in commemoration of President Garfield. It is growing on the border of the walk near the south entrance to the large conservatory. 270 This tree has a novel history. At the funeral ceremonies of President Gar- field a small seedling branch of acacia was placed on the coffin by a member of the Masonic order. After the burial this seedling plant was brought to Washington and was subsequently planted in its present location, where it has thrived from the first. Near this tree on the opposite side of the walk an acacia tree has been planted as a me- morial to the late Gen. Albert Pike. An Overcup oak tree was planted in 1863 by former Senator Crittenden of Kentucky, south of the eastern gate to the garden. The acorns from which this tree grew were brought from Ken- tucky by Robert Mallory, a warm per- sonal friend of Senator Crittenden. There is also in the garden a speci- men of Chinese oak tree which has a novel history. Many years ago a friend of the late Charles A. Dana, while traveling in China, picked up a number of acorns under a tree shading the grave of Confucius and brought them to America, giving them to Mr. Dana, who planted several in his garden. One of the saplings grown from these acorns was sent to the Botanic Garden and was planted south of the green- house near Maryland Avenue and Sec- ond Street. There are many other memorial trees in these gardens, among the most no- table being the following: The Beck memorial tree, an Ameri- can elm, planted by the late Senator Beck of Kentucky south of the east gateway entrance. It was propagated from the roots of the Washington elm that was removed when the Capitol grounds improvements were in prog- ress. The Alexander Shepherd memo- rial tree, another American elm, locat- ed near the- Beck tree; the ye WWVeeron. Photo by W. L. Huber KOLANA ROCK, HETCH-HETCHY VALLEY From the foot of Wapama Falls 72 ney and Edwin Forrest trees, two cypress trees near the southern en- trance to the gardens; the Conger tree, planted by the late Senator Conger of Michigan, south of -the east entrance; the Hayes memorial tree, a rare native oak, planted near the western gate by Mr. Hayes when he was a member of Congress; the Palmer memorial tree, a Japanese walnut, planted by Mr. Palmer, the “former public “printer, near the western gate; the Bingham memorial tree, a European hornbeam bordering the south walk between First and Second Streets; the Hoar and Evarts memorial trees, two handsome specimens of the Cedar of Lebanon, planted by the late Senators Hoar and Evarts along the south walk between First and Second Streets; the Holman memorial tree, a superb Crimean fir, planted about forty years ago by the late Representative William S. Holman of Indiana in the lawn near the west door of the conservatory. The most interesting of these nature monuments, however, grow in the White House grounds. One of the most notable of these is a stately Amer- ican elm which was planted by John Quincy Adams, during his incumbency of that office. This tree is located on a mound southeast of the White House; and it stands a conspicuous ob- ject, towering above the surrounding plantings of a later date in the grounds. Another American elm growing near the west entrance of the north roadway approach to the White House was planted by President Hayes in March, 1878, and a sweet gum tree in the lawn northeast of the Executive Mansion was planted by President Benjamin Harrison in April, 1892. President McKinley planted a scarlet oak in the lawn west of the White House, border- ing the walk which now leads to the executive offices, and President Roose- velt and Mrs. Roosevelt each planted a fine specimen of fern-leaved beech in the White House lawns, as memorials to the “father of our country.” AMERICAN FORESTRY A Russo-American oak, planted April 6, 1904, in the lawn east of the west terrace of the White House, by President Roosevelt and Secretaries Hitchcock and Wilson, has an interest- ing history. The tree is a lineal de- scendant of a native American oak which formerly grew above and over- shadowed the old tomb of Washington at Mt. Vernon. Acorns from this oak were sent by Charles Sumner, while he was a Senator of the United States, to the Czar of Russia. Secretary Hitchcock, while Ambassa- dor at the court of St. Petersburg, made inquiry with respect to the dis- position of the acorns sent by Sumner to the czar and found that they had been planted on what is known as Czar- ina Island, which is included in the superb surroundings of the czar’s pal- aces near Peterhof. There he found a beautiful oak with a tablet at its base bearing a Russian inscription, the trans- lation of which is as follows: “The acorn planted here was taken from an oak which shades the tomb of the celebrated and never-to-be-forgot- ten Washington; it is presented to his imperial majesty, the emperor of. all the Russias, as a sign of the greatest respect, by an American.” Secretary Hitchcock gathered a handful of acorns from under this his- toric tree and sent them to Washington for planting, and thus secured a few oak saplings, one of which was set out in the White House lawn. A beautiful specimen of the oriental plane tree, originally planted in the Bo- tanic Garden by direction of the late Thaddeus Stevens, now forms one of the chief forestry attractions in Lincoln Park. The tree suffered in 1870 from an overflow of the Potomac River, which threatened its destruction, and it was removed from the Botanic Garden to the park, then an unimproved gov- ernment reservation, and was planted in what is now the center of Lincoln Park. In 1872, when this park was graded and improved with walks and orna- mental plantings, a part of the plan HISTORIC TREES OF WASHINGTON adopted for improvement was the con- struction of an oval mound in the cen- ter, intended to form the site of a co- lossal statue of the martyred President, Abraham Lincoln, which at that time it was proposed to place there. This oriental plane tree was then bare stemmed, with a few small branches near the top about eight feet from the original ground surface. The mound 273 was made around the tree, but from this bare stem roots were speedily sent out, and the tree commenced a vigorous growth of phenomenal rapidity and luxuriance, which has continued until the present time. It is now over seven- ty feet high with a nearly equal spread of branches, and is regarded by many as the most highly ornamental tree in the park. The Capitol is but a fitting background for the display of its surrounding parking HOW NEW JERSEY IS TRYING TO IMPROVE HER FORESTS By ALFRED GASKILL, State Forester of New Jersey N NEW JERSEY the campaign for forest conservation is taking a somewhat different line from that conducted in most states. With a pop- ulation that in average density 1s ex- ceeded only by that of Rhode Island and Massachusetts, the state has up- ward of 2,000,000 acres. or forty-six per cent, of its land area still in wood- land. The opportunity for practical, profitable forestry of an intensive char- acter is thus made evident. Probably nowhere in the United States do the forest areas and lumber markets lie so close together. In many ways the conditions are comparable with those of Wurttemberg. Saxony, and other German states where the forests often yield a higher net revenue than farm lands. Like those of all other states which have little of the original forest leit, the woodlands of New Jersey are little valued and their present product is al- most insignificant. Yet this fact is an- other argument for forest manage- meni, since the necessary investment in land and immature trees is less than would be required were the property rated at a value based upon its pro- ducing power. This producing power is relatively high, for, even on the poor sands oi the pine section, several com- mercially valuable trees = gTow at a more rapid rate than is the rule on the average il in the east. This, of course, is due to a iavorable climate. With the remnants of a once ex- tensive and valuable forest that make planting unnecessary, with markets for Te —s a forest products close at hand, with a soil better adapted for the growth of forest trees than is usual, the forest commission of New Jersey faces the problem how to make the properties productive, how to turn the people from their old habit of neglect and abuse to a reasonable measure of care for their condition and earning power. The solution of the problem clearly lies in the control of forest fires, for it is a fact that since the state was settled these fires have been allowed to run almost unnoticed, and the harm done has been considered insignificant, or ac- cepted as inevitable. Knowing that forest fires are controllable, the forest commission is giving most of its ef- fort, and the greater part of the money appropriated. to the organization of a fire service covering the whole wood- land and intended to protect the forests without regard to ownership. The state now owns about 14,000 acres of forest land which it is developing as examples of forest management, yet for the pres- ent this is only an incident in the larger task. In most respects the New Jersey law is an unusually good one, and has three main features: First. the local fire- wardens, now numbering upward of 200, are all appointed, not ex officio, and are paid small annual salaries to compensate them for their clerical work and for the prevention of fire. In ad- dition, each is allowed 30 cents an hour for time spent in fire fighting, with a minimum of $2 for any call. Helpers are paid 20 cents an hour, with a minimum of $1. The whole organiza- tion is under the control oi a state fire- warden, who is responsible to the forest commission, and is paid by the state. Second, every one who wants to burn brush or to make an outdoor fire for any purpose, must get a permit from a firewarden. except the fire be made in Mpuery y it, (4) { MAN NYAH LAOS FO S.LSANOd esr a uae see AdSual AN NYFHLNOS AO SLSANOA FORESTS: OF SOUTHERN NEW JERSEY (3) A commoner type of pine forest, in bad condition through fire an open place more than 200 feet away from the woodland, or in the more set- tled sections of the state where there are no wardens. This provision 1s steadily reducing the proportion of for- est fires due to reckless burning. Third, as a means of controlling or prevent- ing forest fires started from the rail- roads, each railroad in the state is re- quired to construct and maintain fire lines not less than 110 feet wide, on each side of the track, wherever the road traverses a body of forest. The value of this last requirement is yet to be determined, for the first lines, about 180 miles in all, are only just made and five years are allowed for the construction of the total mileage. The belief is practically unanimous, how- ever, that few fires will escape from them. There is nothing new or novel in these protective lines; they have been employed in other countries for years, and even in this country some similar lines, though always much _ narrower, 2 have been made voluntarily by various railroad companies. A law making such fire lines a feature of the forest policy of an American state is, however, an innovation. These fire lines have two features: (a) Ata distance of 100 feet from ‘the nearest rail a strip ten feet wide is completely cleared of all in- flammable matter and the bare earth exposed; (b) between that strip and the track is a zone from which only the undergrowth and the suppressed, or interfering, trees need be removed. All established trees as much as three inches in diameter at the base are al- lowed to stand, except where they are less than six feet apart, but each must be cleared of branches to a height of six feet. Where the line is made in unbroken forest this 100-foot zone is virtually given an improvement thin- ning. The better trees are freed from competition and allowed to grow so that their crowns will intercept and chill sparks thrown from the locomo- tive stack. In other situations, as where 277 FORESTS OF SOUTHERN NEW JERSEY (4) Volunteer pitch pine crowding out scrub oak; an early stage of a forest of vigorous growth and thousands of acres in extent, whose future is conditioned solely by fire the right-of-way, or a wider zone, has been cleared, all forest growth must be sacrificed to the necessity of keeping the ground free from inflammable mat- ter. The law provides that these fire lines must be worked over at least once a year and kept in a condition to pre- vent the escape of fire across the ten- foot strip. One point in connection with this law is to be noted; namely, that the railroad managers themselves are among those most hopeful of good results. The forest commission has had very little difficulty in carrying the law into effect. New Jersey is thus definitely em- barked upon a policy of fire control as the most hopeful means of preserving and developing her forests. Some at- tention is given to instructing the peo- ple in forest management, and some planting in an experimental way has been undertaken, yet in the firm belief 2785 that forest management, forest plant- ing, or even popular education in for- estry will accomplish little that is prac- tical so long as there is danger that everything will be lost through a forest fire. Therefore, the subjection of these fires will hold chief place in the pro- eram of the state forest commission. It is true that only a fraction of the woodland is burned over every year; it is true that fires are less frequent and less serious than they were a few years ago, yet it is likewise true that if the owner of a piece of woodland escapes for a few years he is sure to hasten the cutting of such a crop as he can get before the inevitable fire destroys it. This results in an overproduction of cordwood and an underproduction of everything else. Our forests must be so handled that every acre will weld timber at a profit to the owner. Fire- wood is rarely more than an incident. RAILWAY FIRE LINES IN NEW JERSEY (1) Looking from tracks across fire line RAILWAY FIRE LINES IN NEW JERSEY (2) Looking along fire line; the bared strip makes a sharp break between the danger zone and the forest STATE REGULATION OF UE I CUTTING NG ee 7th on March, 1907,.the Maine senate asked the opinion of the Maine supreme court as to the power of the legislature in order “to promote the common welfare, etc.,” to “regulate and restrict cutting or destruction of trees on wild and uncultivated land.” March 10, 1908, the court rendered an opinion which has been widely com- mented on, especially since President Roosevelt’s mention of it in his address to the Conservation congress. This opinion is frequently referred to as a “decision,” which it was not, no case being before the court. It was a dic- tum in response to an inquiry by a branch of the legislature, and one of the justices declined to join in it, on the ground that no exigency existed sufficient to warrant the inquiry. The opinion, an abstract of which is given herewith, was reported in the Atlantic Reporter, Vol. 69, No. 9, of date June 4, 1908. The question of state regulation was made a subject of discussion at the an- nual meeting of the American Forestry Association in January, and two papers were presented, one from the standpoint of a forester, the other from that of a lawyer. These papers follow the ab- stract of the court’s opinion below. OPINION OF THE MAINE SUPREME COURT. I. Constitutional Law. — Police Power. The legislature of Maine has, by the constitution of Maine “full power to make and establish all reason- able laws and regulations for the de- fense and benefit of the people of this state, not repugnant to this constitu- tion nor that of the United States.” 2. Same.—lIt is for the legislature to determine from time to time the oc- casions and what laws and regulations 280 are necessary or expedient for the de- fense and benefit of the people; ana however inconvenienced, restricted or even damaged particular persons or corporations may be, such general laws and regulations are to be held valid unless there can be pointed out some provision in the State or United States Constitution which clearly prohibits them. 3. Eminent Domain. Deprivation of property without compensation. Legislation to restrict or regulate the cutting of trees on wild or uncultivated land by the owner thereof, etc., without compensation therefor to said owner in order to prevent or diminish injurious droughts and freshets, and to protect, preserve and maintain the natural water-supply of springs, streams, ponds and: lakes, efe., and “to prevent) -or diminish injurious erosion of the land and the filling up of the rivers, ponds and lakes, etc., would not operate to “take” private property within the inhi- bition of the constitution. 4. Same. While such legislation might restrict the owner of wild or un- cultivated lands in his use of them, might delay his taking some of the pro- duct, might defer his anticipated profits and even thereby might cause him some loss of profit, it would never- theless leave him his lands, their pro- duct and increase, untouched and with- out diminution of title, estate or quan- tity. He would still have large meas- ure of control and large opportunity to realize values. He might suffer delay but not deprivation. While the use might be restricted it would not be ap- propriated or “taken.” Such legisla- tion would be within the legislative power and would not operate as taking of private property for which compen- sation must be made. REGULATION OF In discussing this opinion the Maine justices cited two Massachusetts cases: Commonwealth vs. Tewksbury, I1 Metcalf 55 (a case decided in 1846), which prohibited the owners from re- moving any stones, gravel or sand from their beaches in Chelsea, as they were necessary to the protection of Boston Harbor. The Massachusetts decision defined this as a “just and legitimate exercise of the power of the legislature to regu- late and restrain such particular use of property as would be inconsistent with or injurious to the rights of the public.” Also, Commonwealth vs. Alger, 7 Cushing 53 (a case decided in 1851), in which the defendant was prohibited, by statute, from erecting a wharf on his own land, although it was admitted that his rights were complete, barring the statute, and that the wharf would not be an obstruction to navigation. Chief Justice Shaw in the most sweep- ing terms asserted the right of control of private property by the legislature in the public interest. The following paragraph from the Maine opinion is of interest for its broad application to the present conser- vation movement. “There are two reasons of great weight for applying this strict construc- tion of the constitutional provision to property in land: such property is not the result of productive labor, but is derived solely from the state, itself the original owner; second, the amount of land being incapable of increase, if the owners of large tracts can waste them at will without state restriction, the state and its people may be helplessly impoverished and one great purpose of government defeated.” This opinion was signed by Justices Emery, Whitehouse, Strout, Peabody, Spear and Cornish. Justice Woodard had died while the matter was pending and Justice Savage declined to express any opinion on the ground that a suff- cient exigency had not arisen to justify the senate in calling upon the supreme court. It was, therefore, practically a unani- mous opinion of the court. TIMBER CUTTING 281 DISCUSSION BY A FORESTER By AUSTIN CARY Superintendent of State Forests of New York HE ideas which I have to contribute on the subject under discussion arise mainly from experience, first in the employ of operating lumbermen, and second as a state official. I believe they are all on the conservative, go-slow side. In the first place, the opinion of the Maine supreme court (and as a resi- dent of Maine up to seven months ago, I have taken great interest in that), while it may be thoroughly good law, does not seem to me from the lumber- man’s or forester’s point of view to cover all the ground. The court says that preventing a man from cutting his smaller, growing trees is not taking his property but postponing its use—that he has it just the same and may use it at a later time. That is true in the literal sense, but does not cover the whole prob- lem. Not, I think, for the owner of the timber. He has in the first place to bear interest charges on his investment from one period to the other and the relation is questionable between inter- est and the income from growth that might offset it. Second, he has to pay taxes on the property, and to my mind no greater hardship or injustice could be worked on a forest owner than to compel him to hold his property subject to the sort of taxation which he is liable to in some of our states. Third, the safety of the property from one period to another is by no means assured. The owner prevented from realizing on his timber at the present time may before he can get at it again find it burned, killed by insects or blown down. Lastly this principle as far as enunciated leaves out of sight entirely the desires, necessi- ties and financial relations of the owner of the property. Such property may be held with reference to a particular manufacturing enterprise or for income derived at a particular time. The inter- est of the community perhaps should override these considerations, but at 282 least in our enthusiasm to promote that interest they should not be left out of sight. It is public sentiment apprehending the necessity for it that will bring about regulation of cutting whenever it does come, and I feel that it is very import- ant that public sentiment should be sound and sane, based on just views and correct information. In this connection let me call attention to one thing that illustrates the principle. From time out of mind we have had periodical agitations on the subject of timber supply, calling attention to the decrease of supplies, predicting timber famine and calling for radical measures of one sort or another to forestall it. In recent years this agitation has been renewed, with much better spirit than formerly and on a much stronger basis, but still, as some are convinced, in a form that goes beyond the exact facts. There are many who, seeing that timber supplies in large sections are reproduc- ing, believe that lumber for common purposes will be abundant for a very long time; who reflect that the finest sizes and grades of timber are in the main luxuries, not necessities, and that, too, their enjoyment may be greatly ex- tended by the use of veneers; and who, in regard to the whole problem feel a confidence that the invention and re- source of their countrymen, manifested already in this very field, will very largely stand in the gap to prevent the sustaining of heavy shocks and great loss. If this view is correct, then some recent agitation has been exagger- ated; and while striking pictures are often indispensable to give birth to a public sentiment that will call for and sustain action, when the time comes for legal regulation an over-strained senti- ment, based on exaggeration, may be a very dangerous thing. I feel that it may not be too early, even in our pres- ent deliberations, to reflect on that. Let us Clearly understand, for another thing, that the enforcement of regula- tions by the state means in and of itself higher prices for forest products. AMERICAN FORESTRY Coupled with this thought is the further one that regulation of forest cutting should not be an outside or an ex parte matter, but that all interested and informed parties should contribute to it with their special information and with their assent. I do not mean by this that the consent of all forest owners is essential, or that they should be the formulators of the plan. But I do think they should be consulted in regard to the operation and effect of such meas- ures, and it does seem to me that one true test as to whether any regulating law is desirable and workable is that it is assented to by some at least of the liberal and progressive lumbermen. This touches not merely the soundness and fairness of the method of regula- tion, but the possibility of the law’s enforcement ; for laws that run counter to the interests, the judgment and the sense of fairness of those who “are touched by them cannot be enforced and had better not be passed. It seems to me that New York state during the past year in the history of the law requiring tops to be lopped from soft wood trees cut in the forest preserve counties, furnishes an illus- tration of how these things should be done: Lhe= law “itseli=, passed ibysaune legislature of 1909, was framed with the cooperation of lumbermen. In its administration the state authorities, realizing that it was a new thing, were reasonable and patient, though firm. Some men on whom the expense came and who from the operation of the law could not possibly derive benefit them- selves naturally objected to it, and based on one ground and another a con- siderable body of opposition during the course of the season grew up. This came out at the recent meeting of the Adirondack Lumbermen’s Association, where also the state was represented, and after full and fair discussion the opposition was outvoted and the law will continue in force. Whatever it may be worth, here is an example of successful regulation by the state, yet it might have been turned into failure by mistakes at several points. REGULATION OF Then we want to understand that legal regulation, in order to accomplish its own ends, is not altogether a simple matter. Men have talked many times as if all that is necessary tc carry out the principles of forestry is to leave standing the timber under a certain size. Working foresters have long ago zotten beyond that point. They know that the cleanest kind of cutting is often tie best forestry, and that a hard and fast rule shuts out the possibility of some highly desirable operations such as thinning. Further, they understand perfectly that regulation of any kind that is to result in the best way must take into account many important considerations—the sil- vicultural facts, operating methods, the owner’s desires and necessities. Only such regulation as this is entitled to be called forestry, and only such will fully meet the necessities of the case. It may not indeed be practical in our early at- tempts at regulation to aim for or ex- pect the best results, but only to set broad limits beyond which men shall not go; but the real complexity of the matter must be held in mind, adminis- trating officers must be men who thor- oughly understand the ideais to be gained, and it must be recognized that regulative laws might easily be framed that would do less good than harm. As illustrating this matter, let me re- mind my hearers of the problem put be- fore + the forestry profession of the country by Mr. E. A. Beamiff, formerly in charge of lumbering on Indian res- ervations in Wisconsin. With ten years to operate a country by railroad and limits of expense naturally in force, he asked the help of the profession in for- mulating plans by which the operation could be carried on at a profit and a reproduction at the same time secured. This showed a real grip on the actual points of the problem on the part of this forester. I do not know that Mr. Bea- miff received any satisfactory replies. A problem somewhat similar the au- thorities and lumbermen are trying to work out in New York state. Legal regulation at its best is not a simple or inflexible matter. ploiting acts and dealing with them appr« priately. Thus for us exploitation and conservatio come to stand respectively for very defini things. They become sharply contrastin words, each meaning precisely what the oth: does not; and each requiring the other as background to make its own meaning pe fectly clear. Each embodies a whole seri of conceptions, interests, public policies, legi lative acts, and court decisions. We hay naturally first applied the test of these wort to physical resources. We have determine not only in the interests of posterity, but - our own and our children’s interests, to p an end to exploitation of forests, soils, mi eral ores, and natural power, and to wo: out policies of conservation. This social co: trol of natural physical resources we right deem to be essential to our dignity as 320 state, to our physical and moral well-being, demanded by justice, dictated by sound public economy, and warranted by the political insti- tutions, the constitutions and laws, under which we live. We suffer for the sins of omission of our fathers in this respect and for our own sins, but -our neglect is not ir- reparable, and we have announced, as clearly as party platforms and statutes enacted or pending, and court decisions made or cer- tain to be made, can announce anything, that we shall repair this neglect and lay broad the foundations for effective conservation in future years. Conservation and development, educational, financial, agricultural, and indus- trial, rather than exploitation and incidental destruction, are to be the watchwords of our new social democracy, and the political banners on which these watchwords are hon- estly inscribed are the banners under which the young men of the republic will enroll themselves. We have applied these watchwords to phys- ical resources, but it has not escaped atten- tion that there is also a human side of the policy of conservation. Life is more than AMERICAN FORESTRY meat and the body than raiment, and if our food supply and our lumber supply and our coal and iron supply must be conserved and developed instead of exploited, as they must, how much more must the bodies and the lives of our people no longer be exploited but conserved. The most important part of conservation, merely from the standpoint of dollars and cents, is the preservation and development of strong, healthy bodies, a de- cent, dignified status for workingmen, and a hopeful outlook into the uncertain but friendly future. But we must not speak from the standpoint of dollars and cents—save as they symbolize real wealth, genuine welfare, substantial prosperity, of which the test is life and not property. A religious writer insists that the force of the religious spirit should be bent toward asserting the supremacy of life over property. “Property exists,” he says truly, “to maintain and develop life. It is unchris- tian to regard human life as a mere instru- ment for the production of wealth.” It is not merely unchristian; it is unjewish, unmoham- medan, unintelligible, and unhuman. The American Forestry Associatior OFFICERS FOR 1910 PRESIDENT CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts VICE-PRESIDENTS JOSHUA L. BAILY, Pennsylvania RUTHERFORD P. HAYES, North Carolina CHARLES W. ELIOT, Massachusetts GEORGE FOSTER PEABODY, New York RnR. E. FERNOW, Ontario, Canada J. E. RANSDELL, Louisiana W. W. FINLEY, District of Columbia J. T. ROTHROCK, Pennsylvania DAVID R. FRANCIS, Missouri ALBERT SHAW, New York EXECUTIVE SECRETARY EDWIN A. START, 1410 H StreetN. W., Washington, D. C. TREASURER OTTO LUEBKERT, Washington. D. C. DIRECTORS PHILIP W. AYRES. New Hampshire GEORGE HW. MAXWELL, Illinois ROBERT P. BASS, New Hampshire CHARLES F. NESBIT, District of Columbia CURTIS GUILD, Jr.. Massachusetts CHARLES L. PACK, New Jersey WILLIAM S. HARVEY, Pennsylvania M. V. RICHARDS. Distriet of Columbia JOIN E. A. HUSSEY. Massachusetts CUNO H. RUDOLPH, District of Columbia OTTO LUEBKERT, District of Columbia FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Pennsylvania GEORGE D. MARKHAM, Missouri JAMES S. WHIPPLE, New York GEORGE P. WHITTLESEY, District of Columbia Advisory Board, Representing Affiliated Organizations YELLOW PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION PHILIP S. GARDINER, Laurel, Miss. N. W. McLEOD, St. Louis, Mo. H. H. WHELESS, Shreveport, La. NATIONAL WHOLESALE LUMBER DEALERS’ ASSOCIATION ROBT. C. LIPPINCOTT, Philadelphia, Pa. LEWIS DILL, Baltimore, Md. R. M. CARRIER, Sardis, Miss. NORTHERN PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION C. A. SMITH, Minneapolis, Minn. WILLIAM IRVINE, Chippewa Falls, Wis. E. WEYERHAEUSER, St. Paul, Minn. MASSACHUSETTS FORESTRY ASSOCIATION NATHANIEL T. KIDDER, Milton, Mass. FREDERIC J. CAULKINS, Boston IRVING T. GUILD, Arlington. Mass. LUMBERMEN’S EXCHANGE i J : WILLIAM L. RICE, Philadelphia, Pa. FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Philadelphia, Pa. SAMUEL B. VROOMAN, Philadelphia, Pa. NATIONAL SLACK COOPERAGE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION J. T. WYLIE, Saginaw, Mich. JAMES INNES, Chatham, Ontario C. H. KEYS, New York City NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BOX MANUFACTURERS k B. W. PORTER, Greenfield, Mass. S. B. ANDERSON, Memphis, Tenn. ROBT. A. JOHNSON, Minneapolis, Minn. CARRIAGE BUILDERS’ NATIONAL ASSOCIATION : H. C. MeLEAR, Wilmington, Del. D. T. WILSON, New York Cc. D, FIRESTONE, Columbus, Ohio BOSTON PAPER TRADE ASSOCIATION nae, N. M. JONES, Lincoln, Maine JOHN FE. A. HUSSEY, Boston, Mass. ARTHUR L. HOBSON, Boston, Mass. NN ee ees Application for Membership To EDWIN A. START Secretary American Forestry Association 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become a member of the American Forestry Asso. ciation. One dollar ($1.00) for annual dues is enclosed herewith. Very truly yours, Name P. O. Address Se ER ET SS RE ES SAS SS Ta S14 ay} Je Suimoys jsnf sjjez ewede~y /42A14 3} Ssosoe WOT] MTA URED ES) Ah CANE ATL Gl POL EN Call AATIVA AHOLAH“HOLSH ‘STIVA VIVINSNL Sen forest amounts to 2,280,000 board-feet, the larger part of which consists of Scotch pine and spruce. 2. Near Konig, in the Odenwald, the white pines introduced 120 years ago by the Hessians who went to America to visit George Washington, have be- come twenty-two inches to thirty-four inches in diameter, breast-high. (See illustration No. 4.) ain Ileidelbers Horest; “experi- mental plots of white pine and other American conifers were started in 1887- 1888; 2,735 two-year-old White pine 22 Du seedlings were outplanted per acre at an expense of $10.60. Subsequent syl- vicultural treatment cost $14.28 per acre. In 1908, the stand was fifty cords Diameter at middle of log, inside the bark Less 20-244 OL=20 2210 ae O; 2 aenhanlow $49.00 $37.00 $30.50 21.50 $12.50 26.00 23.00 22.00 18.00 14.00 30.00 27.00 20.00 21.00 14.00 25.00 23.00 20.00 16.00 27.00 22.00 19.00 14.00 per acre. From 1903 to 1908, the av- erage annual growth was three and eight-tenths cords per acre (cords of 128 cubic feet, containing eighty-five cubic feet of solid wood). A thinning of two and eight-tenths cords per acre in 1903) netted’) $3.50. i per acters elle lustration No. 5 shows the density of the stand, the uniformity of growth, and the clearness of the boles after pruning. 4. An excellent stand of White pine fifty-five years old is found near Isen- burg, south of Frankfurt, in the delta region of the Rhine and Main rivers, where conifers form twenty-four per AMERICANS cent of. the forests, beech forty-six per cent, and oak thirty per cent, the soil be- ing mainly sand over lime- Stone: ‘Ac vearly as 1430, oak acorns and pine cones (not Pinus strobus, for Co- lumbus_ sailed sixty-two years later) were intro- duced from Nuremburg, and working plans were formed for the production of timber for boats and houses. In 1857, American white pine seedlings two years old were outplanted, with alternating rows of oak, the soil having been occupied by beech. To-day, a dense forest of white pine, 285 trees per acre, averaging seventy- five feet in height and thir- teen anehes in diameter, breast high, is the reward for the careful work of the German foresters (see il- lustration No. 6). The av- erage annual increment has been as follows: Up to 1880. Up to 1902. Up to 1907. .6 cords per acre cords per acre .I cords per acre NO wb H The present stand, timber only, is 101 cords per acre. The investment will prove remunerative, as the in- ferior Scotch pine brings $15 to $40 per 1,000 board-feet. The forests of this district cover 4,500 acres, yielding a net yearly revenue of $5.50 per acre. The yearly planting expense is $2,400, or 53 cents per acre on the entire area. The yearly road expense is $1 per acre. Heavy investments of this character are possible only under fa- vorable economic conditions, such as high prices for forest products, safety 9 a= —_— (mo ) — ( — SS = SSS) — IN THE FORESTS OF GERMANY 333 AMERICAN WHITE PINE One hundred and twenty years old, Konig, Germany from fires, small forest area per capita of population, system of transportation without and within the forest, taxation based on soil produc- tivity, agreement among owners to cut only enough to supply the demands of the consumer, ownership of state or community or corporation able to with- stand long-time investments. complete TA on / SS ao OR EE, CI Tt ten FL te em iN rt AMERICAN WHITE PINE Fifty-five yearsold, Isenburg, Germany Vee ee are aon erm 28 ete ded AMERICAN WHIITE PINE Experimental plot, 24 years old, Heidelberg, Germany PINERIES OF RHINE VALLEY Studying a clear cut of Scotch pine. 114 years old, containing 10,800 board feet per acre,and 35cords, Value of cut $350 per acre LOGGING TRAIN Germany LINCOLN DAY IN GERMANY American forestry students celebrate at Darmstadt by unloading two cars of yellow poplar ard oak from North Carolina OAK LOGS IN GERMANY These logs at Mitteldiek are worth $100 per thousand ee. THE MISSION OF EUCALYPTUS By FLORENCE LILLIAN PIERCE, Secretary of the Forestry Society of California AN’S ingenuity is wizard-like. M It has conquered earth, water, and air. It has controlled war, pestilence, and famine, yet the danger attending the rapid depletion and the foretold future exhaustion of the for- ests has taxed more than the genius of man. It has almost challenged nature. The present outlook of the country from a forestry standpoint is appalling. Civilization is steadily crowding into the timber reserve; commercialism is denuding the hillsides of shade, warmth, drainage, soil, and water supply, to ob- tain merchantable lumber; and the of- ficial reports calmly state that unless some means of prevention or cure is taken, the forests will be exhausted in the measurable future. The war debt can be paid, the gov- ernment can levy a revenue to meet its expenses, but the forests have no means of conserving themselves, no natural method of sure, immediate, or rapid re- cuperation except through the assist- ance of man. The forestry departments, national and state, and the forestry societies, have done much to arouse the country to a realization of the approaching for- estal crisis. The result has been a spurt of economic forestry, so to speak. De- nuded lands are being clothed with young trees; ugly scars left by forest fires are being hidden by sapling foli- age; where there has not been shade enough for a humming-bird, miniature forests are waving; and the farmer who has a patch of trees, just for fuel, has grown conservative with his ax- strokes. Yet alarming conditions have been little bettered for immediate real- ization, because the time required for trees to mature to forestable age makes the present planting practically noth- ing but an impetus toward supplying woodlands for posterity. 3 A wise proceeding; but something must be done to obtain results for us as posterity’s ancestors. The man who is putting money in the bank for future use must have present sustenance. To conserve the forests for coming gen- erations, there must be an immediate timber supply to meet the present ex- isting demands. The frenzied question has been and is, “How shall we fulfil the demand?” The answer has come from the far- off island of Australia. In 1856 she sent us missionaries destined to become the saviours. of the nation, mission- aries that are to have an unerring influ- ence on the geological, geographical, agricultural, industrial, and climatic conditions of the golden state—the eucalyptus trees, of Australian parent- age, the adopted trees of California. Missionaries there are who have been sent to far lands; others have remained in the home field; but who has heard of their being imported into this coun- imy? ~Yet “it has been, done; and re- markable are the things which the euca- lyptus missionaries are to accomplish, and lasting are to be the results, for they bid fair to replace the trees that have been slaughtered; to become a substitute for much of the timber in current commercial use; to provide for future needs of the present generation ; and to furnish forests for generations of descendants. With remarkable tenacity to life, these trees rush in and grow where other trees are helpless to root; are cut down, and again reproduce from the hacked stumps. And therein lies the wonderful secret of their remarkable adaptability as a means of reforestation. The second growth, contrary to the habit of other trees to weaken in sec- ond production, furnishes a better qual- ity of wood than the first, and through 337 EUCALYPTS AS SHADE TREES These dimensions are attained in from ten to twelve years rb VSSION OF EUCALYPTUS time indefinite the tree stumps will re- produce and each growth is superior to the ones preceding. It is said that the eucalyptus never dies a natural death. The eucalypts rival the garden weeds in their rapidity of growth; and they compete favorably with the hardwoods in strength, beauty, and texture. For every purpose for which wood is used, the eucalypts meet the demand. They may serve as forest blankets to cover hills and mountains, to conserve the moisture, to save the soil, to provide warmth and shelter from winds, and, while performing these duties, the trees are becoming invaluable for lumber and timber supply. In spite of the critical and skeptical ideas concerning eucalyptus dissemi- nated by those who. have not taken the trouble to investigate with a view of determining the truth or falsity of ex- travagant statements, the fact remains that the eucalypts are the missionaries that will reforest our country, for the current time and for futurity. The state and the nation are awake and rubbing their eyes to the possibili- ties of eucalyptus. The value of the trees for forest purposes in this coun- try was practically unknown until re- cent years. True to its botanical name, which means “well concealed,” the eu- calyptus has reserved its qualities, it would seem, until a period in which they could be fully appreciated by the country which they have come to convert. Eucalypts grow the most rapidly of any hardwood timber trees in the world. With only this quality to back them, they are invaluable in use to replenish the land devastated by forest slaughter, besides acting indirectly as the agents of good soil, moisture conservers, and exercising a perpetual climatic influence. California has been especially hon- ore by this imported tree, for outside of its native environment, eucalyptus reaches its fullest and most satisfactory development in this state. For years she played with this treasure, not know- ing that through its cultivation she is likely to become the forestry angel of the nation. Of all the southwest, the 339 golden state has the monopoly of con- ditions favorable for the extension of the cultivation of eucalyptus, placing her in the enviable position, if she im- proves them, of supplying the United States with hardwood—that, too, with- out a long wait of years. The value of a tree depends on its adaptability to the use to which it is put. Surely, a tree in whose trunk are stored the products which keep a great portion of the industrial world revolv- ing, has proved its adapability. The study of the trees made by the national and state governments has been ex- tensive, and the reports issued, in favor of the eucalyptus industry, have led to liberal planting. The maximum period of careful cul- tivation required by the eucalyptus is two years. After that the tree goes into partnership with itself and stores its crop values with the owner absent or present. Reasonable judgment in planting is sure to be rewarded with astonishing profits. The drawbacks that usually attend new industrial ven- tures are conspicuously absent in the cultivation of eucalyptus, unless at- tempts are made to grow the trees un- der exceptionally unfavorable condi- tions. Then toleration and patience are needed to stem a crisis or failure. Un- der half-way encouraging conditions, the industry is capable of practical man- agement and becomes profitable. The future will see few barren hills or tree- less deserts, for the towering eucalypts, with their blue-green foliage, will cover the unsightly and monotonous wastes. Exaggerated statements have been made concerning the profits to be de- rived from eucalyptus growing. These are spread through ignorance, for a brief acquaintance with the tree and its habits shows any one that it is not nec- essary to overstate truths that are al- most exaggeration in their veracity. “By their fruits ye shall know them.” Millions of these trees not yet planted and others not yet sprouted will be ready proof of their value inside of ten years or less. To the golden state the culture of the eucalyptus means more than its gold EUCALYPTUS Second growth, six years old. This has not been thinned, the shoots being allowed to grow for luel purposes PP ovis tON OF EUCALYPTUS 341 mines. The slender shoots planted to- dayeatemto be thesrescue of the state and nation for all of the to-morrows. The groves they produce will be stand- ing, and yielding timber, when the ce- ment buildings of to-day are crumbling in decay. We have the history of the remarkable longevity of life of these trees in their native country, Australia, to back the statement ; and it is through such ceaseless productivity and cling- ing to’ lite; and their rapid growth, ) ranking them above all other hardwood trees, that the eucalypts of California will perform their mission of reforesta- tion. Eprror’s Note.—The foregoing article puts effectively the views of Californians in regard to the eucalyptus. It must always be remem- bered that the eucalyptus is fastidious in ‘re- gard to climatic conditions and can only be grown in certain limited areas of the south- west and possibly Florida. Other articles on this subject will appear later, one by the state forester of California. EUCALYPTUS AS FOREST COVER FOR PARK Los Angeles, California WOMAN'S WORK FOR CONSERVATION Notes from the Biennial of the General Federation of Women's Clubs By MRS, LYDIA ADAMS-WILLIAMS note of the biennial meeting of the General Federation of Wom- en’s Clubs at Cincinnati during the sec- ond week in May, and the spirit of “Let’s work for it with all our hearts”’ permeated the atmosphere of the great convention. Former Secretary of the Interior James R. Garfield was to have delivered the address at the formal opening of the convention, but he was prevented by illness in his family, and his place was taken by Rev. Charles Frederick Goss, who spoke of some of the phases of conservation, especially in its relation to the home, and of women’s great part in it. Friday, May 13, was Conservation Day, and it was the consensus of opinion that it was the best of all. At the gen- eral meeting in the morning in Music Hall, Mrs. F. W. Gerard, the able and painstaking chairman of the committee on forestry of the general federation, opened the discussion, submitting the report of her committee. (a a was the key- REPORT OF FORESTRY COMMITTEE Mrs. F. W. Gerarp, Chairman Madam President and Delegates: It was the good fortune of your chairman of Forestry to begin her official duties by attending as delegate the conference of the National Conservation Commission, held in Washington, December, 1908. This commis- sion was called to report, after taking an inventory of the nation’s natural resources, in continuance of the work inaugurated at the memorable meeting of the governors at the White House, in May, 1908. These meetings have passed into history, but they are regarded as making a national epoch, second only in importance to that at which the Constitution of the United States was framed. It has been truly said, that never in the history of any nation has a 342 statement so valuable been compiled and prepared; never has any nation known so well where it stands with regard to its na- tional resources, and never has any nation had such a terrible indictment for profligate waste of its inheritance. Two states have established precedents which are significant of the trend of public opinion toward European methods of forest administration, namely, in New York we have the first example of a privately owned reserve under state control; and the supreme court of Maine has recently rendered a de- cision in a hypothetical case, that the state can regulate the cutting of privately owned woodlands, When four-fifths of our timber lands are in private ownership and only one-third of a tree is utilized in our wasteful system of lumbering, and only enough timber left to last thirty years, it can readily be seen that for our own interest the state or nation must soon interfere. The most eminent conservation work begun by our Federation, the saving of the Big Trees, was brought to a successful conclusion last year. The credit for this belongs to Mrs. Lovell White, of California, who worked un- ceasingly for nine years, and finally, after personally interviewing every representative and senator in Congress, succeeded in her efforts to preserve these greatest living won- ders. If no other work but the preservation of the Big Trees and the Palisades of the Hudson had been accomplished by our Fed- eration, we should have justified our exist- ence as an organization. Another campaign to secure the passage of the Weeks bill has been very actively con- ducted this last year by the women’s clubs. It is interesting to note that there is no sec- tional feeling among the women in regard to this question. In Colorado, which is the seat of hostility to all forestry reserves among the men, the women have worked unceasingly for this bill. It is to be regretted that time is only al- lowed to present some of the most notable lines of work undertaken by the clubs. The reports show that thousands of trees have been planted, and that shade trees in towns and cities are becoming generally the wards of women’s clubs; while this is valuable and necessary, the point should be emphasized that it is not forestry. WOMAN’S. WORK FOR CONSERVATION The Colorado federation last year was re- sponsible for the expenditure of a fund of $5,000 for trees and shrubs, and has dis- tributed tree seeds to every club in the state, and is also using active influence for a great irrigation scheme at the present time. Delaware clubs cooperated with the trus- tees of their university and secured a state forester, which is the first step that should be taken in a state desiring to establish a for- estry system. Florida women were instru- mental in securing the national forest re- serves in their state. The New England states and New Jersey are cooperating with their state foresters, to use their club audiences as lecture centers to spread the gospel of forestry. Hundreds of acres are now going under forest cover in Connecticut as the results of this system of education, the state forester, the president of the Connecticut Forestry Association, and the chairman of the Federation forestry com- mittee forming a lecture staff. It is the opinion of your chairman that that is the best way to get actual results in forestation. The civic division of the Iowa federation will put thousands of dollars of bluff park lands into the hands of commissions and co- operate with them in caring for it. Illinois has been active in many directions. One club in Chicago succeeded in having the city forester appointed. The Belt line park system was the suggest of another club. The Federation is doing yeoman work to save the Ogle County white pines for a state reserve. Maine also has worked for Mount Kahtadin as a state reserve. The state chairman of forestry for Kentucky has compiled a valu- able manual of the trees of her state. Florida had a similar list prepared for the Fed- eration by Mr. John Gifford, by request of the state chairman. Mrs. Patterson, chairman for Indiana, has written a charming little play for the use of the schools on Arbor Day. Mrs. Wilkin- son’s efforts as chairman for Louisiana have covered a large field; she is responsible for the organization of a state forestry associa- tion. This is most valuable work, as it means an organized body, watching and working for state forestry legislation. Ohio has only had a forestry department this year, but has already donated trees to a hospital, saved historic trees, and is work- ing in many lines of civic improvement. Notable work for school gardens is done by the City Federation of Saginaw, Mich. The Grand Rapids Woman’s Club has bought land and planted it with trees. Nearly all the states are studying forestry questions, and are trying to have some elementary forestry introduced into the schools. Our work for the Audubon Society is not as active as it should be. Can we logically work for conservation, and expect to be lis- tened to, while we still continue to encourage the destruction of the song birds by follow- ing the hideous fashion of wearing song birds and egrets upon our hats? 343 We know that the insect pest has worked an economic change in agricultural processes, and if we wish we can, not only as federa- tions but as individuals, render great service to the cause of conservation by refusing to be decorated with dead song birds. It women can raise freight rates because of the size of their hats, they can reduce the insect pest by changing the trimming. It has been the policy of your chairman to urge the women’s clubs to seek cooperation with existing commissions, associations, and persons engaged in forestry work in their respective states. Membership in the Amer- ican Forestry and National Conservation as- sociations is recommended. Conservation of native plants and birds are lines of work particularly in the province of women, and are therefore urgently recommended. As all civilized countries but the United States have a quarantine law against im- ported nursery stock, and as more than half the agricultural insect pests have come to us from other countries, it is urged that we work for a national quarantine law against imported nursery stock. The first recommendation sent to the clubs from your chairman is the last one—work to secure a state forester, or, if you have one, place yourselves under his direction. The questions sent from this department were designed to be suggestive of lines of work, as well as to secure information. Realizing that they do not fully cover all the work, reports from chairman have been requested. Very few have responded. Your chairman has delivered fifteen for- estry addresses, visited two state federations, and been twice to confer with the forestry department of the New Jersey state federa- t10n. Report from the Questions—1,876 Clubs Report What especial line of conservation has your club undertaken? 150—Forestry, water- ways, trees in cities, Weeks bill, and Hetch-Hetchy Valley. 2. Has your club assisted other associations in holding forestry institutes, lectures, or in introducing elementary forestry into the public schools or normal training schools? 266—Lectures and introducing elementary forestry in public schools. H 3. Have you helped to secure any state legis- lation in behalf of forestry laws by let- ters, personal interviews, or petitions, such as forest fire laws, remission of taxes for afforestation, or appropriations for buying waste land for demonstration forests? 283—Have sent petitions and letters for state and national legislation. 4. Has your club studied any of the follow- ing forestry questions: (a) Raising Christmas trees as a crop, by the farmers ? (b) Forest cover for reservoir lands? (c) The city or municipal forest for in- come and esthetic value? 168 clubs have studied some or all of these questions. 344 Are you helping the movement for bird : protection or to prevent the extinction of the mountain laurel, arbutus, and maiden-hair fern? 250 clubs help bird protection. 6. Is Arbor and Bird Day observed in your public schools? 964 cities and towns keep Arbor Day. 7, IDO) ae use the Forest Service bulletins? 218 clubs use Forest Service bulletins. 8. Do you cooperate with the tree warden or other tree official in your city. If so, in what way? And with what results? 240 clubs cooperate with city officials— excellent results. In closing this report, it is a great pleasure to thank the members of the board and mem- bers of the forestry committee for their courtesy, and especially Mrs. Henry F. Brooks, the vice-chairman, whose instant re- sponse to every request and earnest coop- eration in all details of our arduous work have been of the greatest assistance. Respectfully submitted. (Signed) Jesste BRYANT GERARD. May 13, IQ10. The best way to express Mrs. Ger- ard’s interest and work for forestry 1s to say that she has been everlastingly at it for the last twenty years or more. She was chairman of forestry for Con- necticut even before the general fed- eration took up the work. Mrs. Gerard believes in doing rather than in talking and she always gets practical results from her efforts. She cooperates with the state forester and arranges meetings for the clubs, and the clubs advertise the meetings and make the local ar- rangements. She does much work before farmers’ clubs, men’s clubs, and wom- en’s clubs ; these lectures by Mrs. Gerard always lead up to practical results, as planting and reforesting follow her ad- dresses. Mrs. Gerard’s special work for Connecticut is to get the different cities to get their reservoir sites under forest cover. Notable work has already been accomplished along these lines in Norwalk and South Norwalk, in Mrs. Gerard’s home locality. “We all ex- pect to do good work in New Eng- land,” said Mrs. Gerard, “for we are all going to pull together, as our in- terests and needs all through New Eng- land are similar. Thousands of shade trees have been planted by the women’s AMERICAN FORESTRY clubs, and it would seem as if the shade tree is the ward of the women’s clubs.” Gifford Pinchot was to have spoken at the morning meeting on “The Forest and the Family,” but his absence in Eu- rope prevented. This was a great dis- appointment to many who had counted on hearing him, but his place was taken by William L. Hall, first assistant for- ester of the United States Forest Serv- ice, who spoke on “Progress in Saving Forest Waste.” Many who heard it pronounced this the best speech of the convention. Mr. Hall paid a high tribute to the work women are doing for forest con- servation, saying: “As one actively en- gaged in forestry work, I want first of all to acknowledge the wonderful serv- ice of women in forest conservation. The work has advanced notably, but without the aid of the women, who have given of their time and energy, for the sake of their convictions, it would not have made such appreciable strides. The women have sometimes led,” said Mr. Hall, “sometimes been among the first followers, but they have never lagged. They were the first to sense the importance of this great movement, and not a single step has been taken except by the aid of the women of America. If we stop now,’ continued Mr. Hall, “little permanent good will result; all our work will be lost. What we have done will only amount to something if we go on.” Mr. Hall made the prediction that lumber prices will go higher and re- main higher for a good while. He said the checking of waste of forest prod- ucts can be accomplished by the coop- eration of the lumber-using public and the government and the application of proper lumbering methods. In speaking of the waste which threatens the destruction of the forests at present, Mr. Hall said the waste from the mills where spruce, hem- lock, and poplar are sawed would pro- duce all the wood pulp necessary to make all the paper produced in the country. Enough pine wood goes to waste in the southern sawmills an- nually, he said, to produce all the tur- WOMAN’S WORK FOR CONSERVATION pentine the country consumes, and most of the nation’s con- sumption of wood alcohol could be made from the waste in northern mills using beech, birch, and maple. Mr. Hall declared there was also an uncalled-for waste when new lumber was used for the manufacture of such simple articles as meat skew- ers, when they could be made just as well from the trim- mings from vehicle factories. He said the time would come shortly when the lumber-using public would have to be con- tent to buy short lengths of lumber, and means would have to be taken to utilize the waste. Mr. Hall said that a concerted effort is being made on the Pacific Coast to put odd lengths of lumber on the market. He said it was a wasteful policy to buy sixteen- root lengths and then cut them into four-foot lengths. He also said that from two to three feet should be the mini- mum length, instead of ten feet, as at present. Mr. Hall said that we cut every year wood enough to make a solid cube one-half mile square. Twenty- five per cent of this wood never is taken out of the forest at all, but goes to waste there. Thirty-five per cent is lost in slabs, edgings, sawdust, etc. Waste never ceases. Even when the wood goes into houses, chairs, ships, bridges, boxes, or ties, the waste continues. There is waste in the woods, in the mill, and in service. The causes of waste in Hise acige! ike, “decay, itisects, marie borers, or ship worms, mechanical wear, etc. Nine billion (9,000,000,000) board- feet annually is the estimated loss from these sources. This may be largely pre- vented through the preservative treat- ment of lumber by which the life of railroad ties, bridge timbers, paving blocks, posts, poles, etc., may be pro- longed and their usefulness increased. MRS. F, W. GERARD Of Connecticut. Chairman of the Forestry Committee of the General Federation of Women's Clubs There are at present eighty commercial plants for treating lumber with wood preservatives. Mr. Hall gave an excellent account of the Forest Service laboratory, which will be opened at Madison, Wis., June 4, and which will be prepared to investi- gate all practical forest problems. Mrs. Hoyle Tomkies, of Shreveport, La., president of the Woman’s National Rivers and Harbors Congress, spoke at the morning session and at the confer- ence in the afternoon. Special enthusi- asm greeted her appearance, as her gra- ciousness, tact, and executive ability have won her way to the hearts of all who have met her. She spoke of the work of the congress on behalf of the waterways, and made a plea for coop- eration. Hon. Joseph E. Ransdell, of Louis- lana, president of the National Rivers 346 and Harbors Congress, and author of the slogan “A water policy, not a water project,” aroused the women in the con- vention to great enthusiasm. He showed the function of waterways, free high- roads for all the people in preventing monopoly in transportation. Terminals on navigable waters, he said, should be public property and all transportation agencies by land or water should use them on equal terms. He declared the pending rivers and harbors bill to be the best ever enacted. It carries an ap- propriation of $50,000,000; it is to be annual hereafter, instead of triennial; and it adopts a fixed policy for com- pletion of the great projects within a definite period of time. Another of the bright women who are earnest in conservation, Mrs. Emmons Crocker, vice-president for Massachu- setts, of the Women’s National Rivers and Harbors Congress, was one of the speakers, taking as" “her,..text “Wilful Waste Makes Woful Want.” She spoke upon waste of soils, fertilizer, sewage, and minerals. THE CONFERENCES The afternoon conference on forestry was opened by Mrs. Gerard, and the work of a number of the state federa- tions was reported upon. Especial dis- tinction was accorded to the achieve- ment of the Kentucky federation in publishing an admirable hand-book of the trees of the state, prepared by Mrs. Mason Maury, of Louisville, chairman of the forestry committee. Another work of publication is an outline for study classes in conservation, by Mrs. F. H. Tucker, chairman of the forestry committee of the Massachusetts federa- tion. Edwin A. Start, executive secretary of the American Forestry Association, was the speaker at this conference. He paid a high tribute to the work of the United States Forest Service, and to the national forester, Henry S. Graves. He laid down a conservation platform, in regard to which he felt sure there would be no disagreement, and on these premises discussed the question, “What AMERICAN FORESTRY shall we do to be saved?” insisting that every one has a personal responsibility. Referring to the need of organization, he described the work of the American Forestry Association, its relation to such organizations as the General Fed- eration of Women’s Clubs, and the ways in which each could be helpful to the other. He took up the question of per- sonal duty toward these questions, urg- ing this point: “Study this question for yourself until you have a clear, intelli- gent understanding of its main princi- ples at least.’ Having discussed this question of personal knowledge and the means of attaining it, he took up the application of this knowledge, which consisted in general in doing the task nearest at hand, passing along in the home the knowledge obtained by per- sonal study, seeing that adequate pro- vision is made in libraries and schools for informing the younger generation, practicing principles of tree and forest culture 1f a landowner, and promoting municipal, state, and national forestry. Above all, he made a plea for earnest- ness, sincerity, and thoroughness, as only work so characterized counts. Mrs. S. B. Sneath, state chairman of conservation for Ohio, presided over the waterways conference in place of Mrs. John Dallas Wilkinson, the national chairman, and she immediately turned over the management of affairs to Col. John L. Vance, president of the Ohio Valley Improvement Association. He in- troduced Capt. J. F. Ellison, of Cincin- nati, secretary of the National Rivers and Harbors Congress, who is always a welcome and pleasing speaker. Other speakers of the conference were Con- gressman J. E. Ransdell, and the two energetic field secretaries of the Na- tional Rivers and Harbors Congress, John A. Fox and S. A. Thompson, each of whom made an eloquent plea, urging the women to exert greater efforts to secure cheaper transportation and the better development of the waterways. The national chairman, Mrs. J. D. Wilkinson, called a waterways confer- ence for the following morning, at which Mrs. Lydia Adams-Williams pre- sented the year’s report for the District of Columbia Committee on Waterways. WOM SOME WORK DONE AND WORDS SPOKEN Mrs. A. B. Avery, secretary of the Louisiana Forestry Association, is one of the tireless and efficient forestry and conservation workers who was present at the biennial. Mrs. Avery secured the passage by the Yellow Pine Association at New Orleans in January of a reso- lution relative to regulation of the cut- ting of timber to meet conditions of sup- ply and demand. Mrs. Avery maintains a small nursery of her own, in which she planted 2,700 seedlings last year. Her object is purely philanthropic, the trees being furnished for public im- provement. She recently donated forty trees, in pairs of different species, to be used on the grounds of a public school. Mrs. Herbert M. Bushnell, of 1942 South Seventeenth “Street, Lincoln, Nebr., who is general secretary for her state, takes a great interest in forestry. She prepared and read the first paper on forestry that was ever presented at her state federation. That was over twelve years ago. “I didn’t know much about forestry then,” said Mrs. Bush- nell, “but I began to study up, and since that time I’ve done everything I could for the preservation of our forests.” One of the many bright women from Indiana, Mrs. Virginia Sharp-Patterson, who is chairman of the Forestry Com- mittee of the Indiana Federation, has written a play, “The Lady of the Green Scarf,” which embodies the need for conserving our country’s natural re- sources, and which may be used as an entertainment exercise for schools, clubs, and Arbor Day programs. The book is prefaced by the following quo- tation from the writings of Mrs. “Lydia Adams-Williams: “By inculcating in the children the precepts of economy in relation to natural resources, the entire sentiment of the nation may be changed in a single generation and convert this people from the most wasteful and ex- travagant to the most prudent and con- servative.” All the friends of conservation, for- ests, and waterways, especially the of- ficers of the Woman’s’ National Rivers and Harbors Congress, were delighted to welcome back, safe, happy, and i AN’S WORK FOR CONSERVATION 347 perfect health, from her round-the- world tour, their national vice-president, Mrs. Charles Warren Fairbanks. In company with her distinguished hus- band, she visited many foreign lands and was strongly impressed by the dif- ferent forestry conditions in each of them. “In the Hawaiian Islands,” said Mrs. Fairbanks, “I noticed particularly that there is a great deal of planting of trees, especially on the high moun- tains. Also in some places in China they are planting trees; but the condi- tions there are very hard; the people are poor and wood is scarce, and the soil has much of it been washed away by erosion. In Korea they are also planting trees. I was much impressed by the beauty of the German forests and the care which seems manifest in their management. I take an intense interest in all vital subjects for the bet- terment of humanity; consequently, | am much pleased with the work that the general federation is doing for con- servation, and I congratulate them and the country in general upon the stand they have taken in this great move- ment.” At the general federation meeting, Mrs. Fairbanks spoke in favor of the mountain laurel for the national flower, and suggested that the federa- tion would aid the movement if it would endorse the laurel. Another one of Louisiana’s enhusi- astic workers is Mrs. John Dallas Wil- kinson, national chairman of waterways for the general federation, and state chairman of forestry for Louisiana. Mrs. Wilkinson is also chairman of the executive committee of the Louisiana Forestry Association. At her water- ways conference she gave a very full report of the year’s work, and said that thirty-nine states, including the Canal Zone, have taken up the work for water- ways. The other ten states are inter- ested and sent in reports showing act- ivity and a desire to know more of the work. Mrs. Samuel B. Sneath, of Tiffin, Ohio, the able state chairman of con- servation, which includes forests, water- ways, and mines, at the waterways con- ference, reported work for purifying, beautifying, parking, and making sani- 348 tary the streams. She has distributed literature, and worked in the schools and through the press. Mrs. Sneath says: “In Ohio we must protect the banks of streams from spring freshets.” The state chairman of forestry for Nebraska is Mrs. W. A. Harrison, of York, Nebr., of the well-known Har- rison family who have done much patri- otic work for the state, especially along forestry lines. In recognition of the work she has done, Mrs. Harrison is called “the tree woman.” Mrs. Har- rison says: “We have a woman’s state conservation committee, and we have had two state conservation congresses in Nebraska. At the next state con- servation congress to be held this win- ter, we shall have our woman’s con- servation committee recognized, and we shall have a woman speaker on con- servation on the program. AMERICAN ER ORES ERS @ “My publicity chairman for my con- servation committee of forestry and waterways,” continued Mrs. Harrison, “is Mrs. J. M. Ragan, 505 Bellevue Avenue, Hastings, Nebr. She is a sis- ter of Governor Shallenberger, of Ne- braska,” said Mrs. Harrison, “and he is an ardent supporter of the conserva- tion movement, consequently our con- servation committee of forests and waterways expects to accomplish great things.” Mrs. Harrison said that in her state wherever there were women as college professors, superintendents, or school teachers, she received many requests for information on forests and waterways and conservation, but that she had not received a single inquiry from any of the male teachers, superintendents, or professors. This was probably because they did not know where to inquire. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON FORESTS AND WATER-FLOW By J. T. ROTHROCK HE report, “The Influence of For- ests on Climate and on Floods,” recently published, by Willis L. Moore, chief of the United States Weather Bureau, though quite full and apparently intended to discuss in detail the entire relation of forests to water- flow, singularly enough omits entirely one most important aspect of the problem. So far as I can discover, little, if anything, is said specifically of the in- fluence of forests on water-flow during the winter. The least reflection should have in- dicated that this merited special con- sideration, if for no other reason than that the problem of leaf-evaporation is almost wholly eliminated at that time and that this would materially affect the quantity of water retained by the soil for flow at the period of low-water stage. There is, however, another and more direct relation to be considered, which seems to me to be of great importance. It is the capacity which the forest floor has in winter for receiving and retain- ing moisture as contrasted with the same power of the open, cultivated land, at the same time. I am led to call attention to this by some observations made by me during the last winter: It will be remembered that the sum- mer, autumn, and early winter of 1g09 were, in Pennsylvania—at least, in the eastern half—of exceptional drought. The soil was literally dried out. Springs and wells which had not, within the memory of living men, failed, ceased to flow. Cattle were driven and water hauled great distances. So it may be fairly assumed that the soil in forest and in field was in a most receptive con- dition for any rain which might have fallen. December) 13, there (was. aa Chester County (Pennsylvania), a re- markable rainfall of two and seventy- eight one-hundredths inches, and there was also some little snow before Christ- mas. This moisture was speedily gone, apparently, owing to the thirsty condi- tion of the soil, and on Christmas day the drought was again so pronounced as to elicit general comment. There had been but little added to the general water-flow, and the country was still in a very suffering condition. On Christmas there was a fall of snow which averaged in depth, on the level, from sixteen to eighteen inches. This was followed by a lowered tem- perature, and on the 28th the mean thermometer was twenty-one degrees. On the 30th the mean temperature was ten desrees, “Wecember 3, it was, 17 degrees. The ground was solidly frozen to a depth of several inches. January 1, 1910, the mean temperature was twenty- seven degrees. January 2 it was forty- three degrees, and on the following day the mean was thirty-five degrees. It is needless to say that the snow was melt- ing rapidly, though it showed but little corresponding flow in the fields, be- cause, as the ground was frozen, most of the water was absorbed by the snow itself, and the country was in a slushy condition. For several days I had been making observations in the woods and on the fields upon the condition of the sur- face soil. In the woods, where the leaves covered the ground, I found that it was possible to thrust an iron-shod cane without difficulty to a depth of eighteen inches into the earth, unless 349 350 AMERICAN FORESTRY it was stopped by a root or a stone. This was, no doubt, mainly due to the fact that the leaves had retained the heat of the earth, as our clothing re- tains the heat of the body. It is prob- able, also, that some heat was evolved by the process of decay in the lower portion of the bed of leaves. On the open ground, whether the snow still re- mained or had drifted away, the resist- ance to the thrust of the cane was solid, almost as if I had struck a rock. To this there was but one exception, where there was an unusually dense covering of long grass. Under a matted surface of this kind I could still thrust my cane into the ground of an open field. It requires no argument to prove that in the dry, unfrozen soil of the forest the water could and did penetrate. It is equally obvious that it did not pene- trate the frozen’ surface of ‘the ~ field: Had the thaw continued, there is no doubt we should have had a consider- able rise in our streams, but on January 4 the mean temperature fell to ten de- grees. Observations made on the morn- ing of the 5th showed that where there was more water than was taken up by the snow it had run off on the surface, and what had not so escaped was frozen in the temporary channels on the fields. On the 5th the mean temperature was seventeen degrees. The thaw was ar- rested and the freeze was upon us. Jan- uary 6 the mean temperature had risen to thirty-three degrees. There was also .33 inches of rain. January 7 the mean temperature was twenty-five degrees, and that of the 8th was eighteen de- grees. January 9 and Io it was twenty- five. January I1 it was twenty-two de- erees. The mean remained near the freezing point until January 18, when it rose to forty. There was at the same time (réth) half an inch of rainfall: Whe mean for the 19th was thirty-three de- grees.. On the 2oth it was thirty-six degrees. On the 21st it was forty-five degrees, and on the same day the rain- fall was .72 of an-inch. My journal for the same date records that in the forest-tree nursery at Mont Alto I found the ground solidly frozen, though in woods immediately adjacent the leaf- covered forest floor was not frozen. At this time, on the mountain plateau, back of Mont Alto, at an altitude of 1,650 feet above tide, the rain and melt- ing snow from the cleared land flowed over the road, and even the culverts were inadequate to remove the. volume of water. I had never before, during a residence of six years, witnessed such a condition of affairs. But mark the contrast on the adjacent forest-covered slopes of from two to three thousand acres. The snow was melting there, too, and rain was falling on the forest floor just as rapidly as on the open fields. There was, however, no torrent, be- cause the water was being taken up by the unfrozen soil of the forest. When toward the end, the stream.which car- ried the water off did rise, the increase was small in comparison with the flood from the open ground. I should add that the flow from the open ground went off by one stream, and that from the forest went by an- other, so that it was easy to make the comparison. From the 22d of January until Feb- ruary 6, the mean temperature varied but a few degrees on either side of the freezing point. I merely allude to this to remark that the forest floor was stili unfrozen, and the surface of the field remained frozen. The heat of the day was not sufficient to overcome the cold of the night. During the nineteen days from the 6th to the 25th of February, the mean temperature was beiow the freezing point thirteen days, and the surface of the fields remained frozen. The thaw which commenced on Feb- ruary 27 may be said to have broken up the winter. From the upper waters of the Susquehanna, almost to the Mary- land line, vast quantities of melting snow were pouring out of the country. It was a flood of sufficient magnitude to have satisfied Mr. Moore’s most ex- acting demand. Observations made at this time showed that the forest lands were still absorbing water. The most of the flood must, therefore, have come from the open ground, for the forest streams were not greatly swollen. RESIN CANALS No doubt some of this water from the’ fields did, as surface water, aid in the temporary restoration of our springs and wells. From March 1 until April 17 we had (in Chester County, Pennsylvania) but little rain. (The West Chester record kept by Doctor Green shows but 1.37 inches. ) The country was again suffering from: drought. Farming operations were delayed because of the condition of the soil. Complaints were again heard because of shortage of water. The relief obtained from the surface flow in the last of February was ceas- ing. It is fair to say that probably most of the water available just prior to the DNS Witt hE EIR AE bountiful rains of the middle of April came from our forest ground storage. Where the leaves and humus on the forest floor have been destroyed by fire the ground freezes, just as it does in the open field. I am aware that there come times when the ground freezes in the forests as well as elsewhere, but I also know that in our Central States this is the exception rather than the rule. Mr. Moore could not have been ig- norant of facts like these, and of their bearing upon the question he was dis- cussing, but the wonder is that he did not make specific allusion to them in so extended a paper as “The Influence of Forests on Climate and on Floods.” Me tS TOLOCY OF RESIN CANALS IN WHITE FIR By C. D. MELL, Assistant Dendrologist, Forest Service INTRODUCTION NP CLASSIFYING. the “woods of Coniters by their stractural - char- acters, they are usually divided into two groups; first, those that contam resin). canals imgiethe- ~sec- ondary wood, and, second, those in which resin canals are wanting. All conifers so far investigated have resin passages or resin sacs in their leaves, bast, or primary wood. Pinus, Picea, and Larix are usually regarded as the only ones that have resin canals in the secondary wood of both stems and roots. Von Mohl* states that resin canals are not present in the wood of white fir, Abies pectinata D. C., while Schacht? declares that resin canals are wholly wanting in the wood of all spe- cies of Abies. Following the announce- ment of these observations, Dippel* "Bot. Zitg., 1860, No. 30, page 337. “Bot. Ztg., 1862, Nos. 48 and 4o. “Bot. Ztg., 1863, No. 35, page 253. ‘tudied numerous samples of wood of white fir from trees grown under dif- ferent soil and climatic conditions. The samples were taken from different parts Of (trees thirty to) 100 years of age: With these samples Dippel proved con- clusively that resin canals are not en- tirely wanting in white fir; that they occur less frequently than in the wood of pine, spruce, and larch. The isolated wood-parenchyma cells are invariably associated with the production of resin, and for this reason are termed resin cells ; when they enter into the composi- tion of compact groups of cells leading to the organization of secretory passage they are termed resin canals. The building of resin in these pass- ages is dependent upon the starch in surrounding wood-parenchyma fibers, but it must nct be taken for granted that all starch is consumed in the for- mation of resin, for a great deal is used in other processes. The origin of resin in resin canals is the same as that in small groups of resin cells. As has al- 352 ready been stated, the contents of young cells is gradually converted into an oily mass and eventually into resin. Trans- verse and longitudinal sections of older shoots show that during the winter the resin cells are filled with semi-fluid resin occurring either in the form of a thin layer or in small globules. For convenience of study, Dippel grouped the resin-containing elements in the wood of white fir into single resin cells, large groups of resin cells, and true resin canals. He briefly described the structure of the different groups, their relation to the surrounding tissue, as well as the form and function of the individual cells composing the different groups. The following are the chief facts brought out by Dippel: DESCRIPTION OF GROUPS 1. Among the single resin cells may also be included small groups of from two to four resin cells (transverse sec- tion) found in the wood of the roots and stems (Fig. 1). In the latter they usually occur among the thin-walled tracheids of the early wood (spring- wood of Schacht), and are seldom pres- ent among the thick-walled cells of the late-wood (fall-wood of Schacht). In wide concentric zones of roots they oc- cupy a similar position, but in narrow zones they are found either among the thick-walled tracheids of the late-wood or in the transition zone between early and late-wood. They are found in all genera of the coniferz except in Pinus and Picea, and in structure are similar to those of the wood-parenchyma fibers in Dicotyledonous woods. The individ- ual cells composing these fibers form a AMERICAN BORE S@URY perpendicular row of elements that have either horizontal or oblique cross-walls and contain numerous simple pits. Where the side-walls of such elements are adjacent to other elements of the same order or border on pith ray cells the pits are invariably simple; where they are adjacent to tracheids the pits within the walls of tracheids are bor- dered, and within the walls of the wood- parenchyma fibers are simple, semi- bordered pits. The character of pits in resin cells correspond exactly with that of pith ray cells. The pit cavi- ties within the walls of tracheids ad- jacent to resin cells are invariably smaller in diameter than those in the contiguous walls of tracheids. . The lumina or central cavities of the resin cells are somewhat smaller than those of the surrounding tracheids which are the elements forming the ground mass of coniferous woods. The average length of the resin cells is between .30 and .35 mm., but they have been found to vary from .15 to 1.05 mm. In older parts of stems the majority of resin cells are completely filled with resin, while others have thick layers of resin deposited on their inner walls. There are individual cells that are filled during the winter with starchy matter the same as the pith ray cells. In the wood of ultimate twigs resin cells are filled almost completely with starch. With the beginning of the season’s growth the starch disappears and a strong light-refracting solution that is volatile and coluble in alcohol takes its place (Fig. 1). In the older portions of the twig the number of starch- containing cells diminishes and those of oil and resin-containing elements in- crease. In longitudinal section of one- year-old twigs it is found that the cells near the end of the twig contain starch, while those farther back contain merely an inner layer of resin. Here and there Starch Grains andaresin aGiic2) ta es) are often present in one and the same cell. 2. Large groups of resin cells, with which may be classed all those groups that consist of from six-twenty or more, are usually found just inside the RESIN CANALS concentric layers of thick-walled trach- eids of the late-wood (Fig. 3).. Small groups of resin cells may be distin- guished from the large groups by the fact that the latter are always sur- rows of wood- containing starch rounded by several parenchyma fibers during the winter. The structural characters of the wood-parenchyma fibers of the single resin cells are simi- lar to those of the large groups, though they are usually much longer, some- mm. length. in a tOrel, The individual starch cells of the wood- times from parenchyma fibers are .very much shorter than the resin cells, varying in length from .o8 to .2 mm. 4 IN WHITE FIR 353 3. True resin canals are present in the wood of the roots, stems, and branches. Dippel investigated sections of wood cut from different parts of the tree and determined that resin canals are perpendicular structures extending for a considerable distance, and that they are not wholly independent of each other, but communicate with one another here and there. Dippel also pointed out that resin cells originate as such in the cambium, but for. lack of proper material he was unable to follow in detail their subsequent development to maturity. A very careful investiga- tion of resin canals in young twigs, and also in mature wood cut from many different parts of the stem, vielded im- portant facts from which Dippel made interesting deductions relative to the origin and development of resin cells, and which served him later in his study of resin canals in Pinus, Larix,: and Picea. He found resin canals in all samples of white fir and determined that their presence cannot be regarded in any way as abnormal. He also found individual resin sacs similar to those present in other coniferous woods, and concluded that they are a result of ab- normal cell development and a subse- quent disorganization of their cell walls. 354 Resin canals in white fir occur in small groups of two to six or more in the early-wood, and usually near the inner boundary of concentric zones (Figs. 5 and 6). These canals are al- ways in direct communication with pith tays (Rigs. “5Ac 5B, and +6); and are surrounded by wood-parenchyma fibers that contain starch during the winter (Figs. 5 and 6 st. g.). Transverse sec- tions of twigs cut from the top of the tree show that young resin canals con- sist of compact groups of cells, the cen- tral portions of which are composed of SOV AY 58 Crt) numerous round cells with wide cell cavities, but in other respects are simi- lar to the cells that are filled with starch during the winter (Fig. 7). In the early spring, when the vegetable pe- riod begins, the starch is replaced by a volatile oil, and during the first win- ter there is no trace of resin in these cells. Longitudinal sections show that resin passages are surrounded by wood- parenchyma fibers, the cells of which are from two to three times as long as those in the center of the group. In other respects the inner and outer rows AMERICAN FORESTRY of cells are similar. The pits are sim- ple, and only where resin cells touch tracheids do they appear to be _ bor- dered; such borders are always within wD ‘Bats. (Slelstel=) the walls of the tracheids. The cells of the young resin passages are filled dur- ing the winter with starch (Figs. 7 and 9), which is eventually converted into a fluid mass and later into resin. Trans- verse sections of two to four-year-old twigs exhibit structures similar to that of one-year-old twigs. There is, how- ever, a difference in cell content. In RESIN. CANALS older twigs the large central cells of resin canals surrounded by longer cells of the same kind contain small globules of resin, and rarely a uniform thick in- ner layer. The general structure of resm canals is exactly alike in-all parts of the stem. Transverse sections show that the cells in the central portion of the canal have wide cavities and are surrounded by shorter resin-containing cells. The outermost cells are longer and contain starch in winter, and in the beginning of summer -contain volatile oil. Such cells are always in direct communica- tion with the pith rays. Resin canals originate from rows of wide cells above referred to, or by the gradual disorganization of the central cells of a group. Seen in a longitudinal section, the canal that is filled with resin appears to have been formed by the absorption of the walls of resin cells. Such sections show that resin canals are not continuous, but that there are places where the cross-walls have not been wholly absorbed. Twigs from five to ten years old are best for studying the development of resin canals, because in older wood they are already fully developed. If the canals consist simply of wide central cells, such elements may be seen either in their original form or with their cross-walls perforated or totally absorbed. In this stage the side-walls have undergone very little change, and the canal merely consists of one or more rows of cells IN WHITE FIR 355 with their cross-walls partly or wholly absorbed. In older twigs all gradations of disorganized side and cross-walls oc- cur, which gradually dissolve, and ca- nals with smooth side-walls develop. The cell-walls within the resin canal are sometimes found intact (Fig. 9). The simplest form of resin canals consists of one perpendicular row of resin cells. The wood-parenchyma fibers in the uppermost part of one-year-old twigs contain starch during the winter, the same as the pith-ray cells. In older wood the starch is replaced by a semi- fluid resin in which there may be a few grains of starch. After growth has started in early spring the starch grad- ually disappears, and the cells become filled with a fluid mass which is later transformed into a yellowish or reddish- colored resin. The resin gradually hardens and forms an inner layer or oc- casionally fills the entire cavity. Longi- tudinal sections of young twigs show perpendicular rows of wood-paren- chyma" bers \. that ~ contaim ~ starch grains in the uppermost cells, while the lowermost ones contain starch and resin or resin only. The starch grains which originally filled the cell cavities 356 are replaced by a fluid mass which is further transformed into resin. A com- parative study of resin passages in young and old parts of stems shows that there is no visible change in the cell- walls while the resin hardens. Careful measurements also show that the walls do not diminish in thickness whatso- ever, whether the resin is merely de- posited in thin layers or whether the cavities are completely filled. In the large groups of resin cells, the behavior is similar to that in the small groups. The entire parenchymatous tissue in the younger parts of the ulti- mate twigs is filled with starch. In the older twigs the cells toward the inner part of the stem are filled with resin, while the wood-parenchyma cells surrounding them are filled with starch during the winter, and during the sum- mer contain a liquid resembling tur- pentine. The starch yields material for the manufacture of resin. Similar con- ditions are present in the older wood. The resin mass eventually becomes so hard that it may be removed from the canal without breaking it (Fig. 4). There is a continued increase of resin mass in the cells of old wood by the conversion of starch cells into resin cells. This is shown by the fact that old wood contains more resin cells than younger wood. A comparative investi- gation, however, affords no definite in- formation as to when this process ceases. The origin of the resin is, therefore, dependent upon the conversion of starch into a fluid mass resembling tur- pentine. Later it is diffused from the outer into the inner cells, where it un- dergoes further change and is con- verted into resin. The normal increase of resin is, therefore, supplied by the surrounding starch cells. The new sup- ply of converted starch always passes on toward the inner cells of the group for the formation of resin. The conclusions derived from this investigation are that the resin-contain- ing elements in the wood of white fir can be conveniently grouped as follows: I. Resin Cells——Wood-parenchyma fibers (Hartig’s cell-fibers) are usually scattered among the thin-walled trach- AMERICAN FORESTRY eids, and invariably contain resin in old wood. 2. Large Groups of Resin Cells.— Large groups of elongated wood- parenchyma fibers containing resin are invariably surrounded by elements that may Or may not contain resin in the older parts of the wood. 3. Resin Canals—True resin canals are always surrounded by wood- parenchyma fibers that are invariably in communication with pith rays and contain starch. The investigation also shows, first, that resin in the white fir originates in the wood-parenchyma fibers and that it never occurs normally in tracheids; second, resin is developed by the con- version of starch in wood-parenchyma fibers; third, that true resin canals are developed by the disorganization of cell- walls prior to the hardening of resin; and fourth, that the formation of resin canals must not be considered as a cause, but as a result of resin develop- ment. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES The illustrations are magnified 280 diam- eters and are slight modifications of those given by Dippel in Botanishe Zeitung, 1863, p. 253. The abbreviations used with these figures are as follows: r. c, resin cells; st. c., starch cells; st 2 pistanch) seranules: r. p., resin passage; p. r., pith ray. Fig. 1. Transverse section showing a small group of resin cells partly filled with a semi- fluid mass. Fig. 2. Longitudinal radial section showing cells of a wood-parenchyma fiber containing starch granules. Fig. 3. Transverse section showing a larger group of resin cells just inside thick walled tracheids of the late wood. Fig. 4. Longitudinal radial section showing hardened resin in resin canal. Fig. 5A. Longitudinal radial section show- ing resin passage with certain cells partly filled with resin. Fig. 5B. Transverse section of a resin passage. Fig. 6. Transverse section of a resin pass- age among the thin walled tracheids of the early wood. Fig. 7. Transverse section of a resin pass- age in a young twig prior to the formation of resin. Fig. 8. Longitudinal radial section of resin passage in young twig prior to the formation of resin. Fig. 9. Longitudinal radial section of a resin passage, showing partially dissolved ace and cross walls of the original resin cells. THE NEW CANADIAN REGULATIONS UMBERMEN and paper and pulp Il manufacturers, as well as all users of print paper, are watching with much interest the action of Canada and of the Canadian provinces in the way of protection of the timber resources of the north country by means of reg- ulations and prohibitions. The action of the provincial government of Quebec in prohibiting the exportation of pulp- wood from the crown lands of the prov- ince was not unexpected, but the defi- nite announcement of this action, coup- led with the statement that it has been carefully considered and is not tem- porary or retaliatory, but is to be a permanent policy for the protection of the timber resources of Quebec has, as might be expected, been the subject of much discussion on this side of the line, especially in the trade journals. The St. Lows Lumberman, after in- dicating quite fairly the strong reasons leading to the action of the Quebec au- thorities, nevertheless regards this ac- tion as a “petty and unfortunate ex- hibition of unneighborliness, following so closely on the heels of tariff nego- tiations by Canada,” and thinks that un- der the circumstances it looks “like a bit of calculating, tricky politics.” This journal believes that our paper mills -will “discover that there are plenty of home woods that can be used in the manufacture of paper to the entire neg- lect of the Canadian spruce,” and that “the Quebec prohibitions of pulpwood exports may, in the long run, prove to be a blessing in disguise for American paper mills and American forest owners alice ce The Paper Mill and Wood Pulp News is reserved in its expressions of opinion. Its Washington correspondent says “that the decision of the Quebec au- thorities is designed to benefit Canadian labor is the general belief of the Wash- ington officials. Ultimately, they think, it will result in the establishment of pulp factories in the province, thus re- ducing by so much the manufacture of pulp at American factories.” On the Canadian side of the line, opinion in regard to the Quebec pro- hibition is not unanimous, but as re- flected by the leading Canadian trade papers it seems to be largely favorable. The Canada Lumberman and Wood- worker finds the course of Quebec justi- fied by the similar action of Ontario in 1897 in regard to sawlogs. It says: It is to be hoped that the result will be the adoption of a definite policy of protection of the forest resources of the province from reckless exploitation in the interests of the consumers of a foreign country. If properly cared for, the forest resources of Quebec will provide a perpetual supply of pulpwood sufficient to furnish paper not only for the province itself, but for many outside mar- kets. Undoubtedly history will repeat itself in Quebec and we shall see in the near future the establishment of large paper mills in various parts of the province, to turn. into finished product the raw material which until now has been shipped to the paper mills of the United States. Noting the dissatisfaction felt by the lumbermen of Quebec, in common with those of Ontario, at the coincident in- crease in stumpage dues and ground rent, by which the governments of these provinces seek to share in the unearned increment, this journal thinks the lum- bermen may find their industry so greatly benefited by prohibition of ex- port that “they will overlook the in- crease in the stumpage dues and ground rents.” It continues: Legislation prohibiting the export of pulp- wood was not only necessary but impera- tive, if the industry was to be saved from extinction. United States paper mills have been for years the only industry to secure the benefit of Quebec’s pulpwood. Naturally, the people who are interested in United States mills are now confusing the issue with their own political affairs. Paper manu- Sio¢/ 358 facturers of the United States are accused of having contributed to the present situa- tion by clamoring for a high protective duty upon paper, and for free import of pulpwood. It is argued along the same line that the prohibition of the export of pulpwood by Quebec is an act of discrimination against the United States which would justify the imposition of the maximum tariff, 1f it were not for the fact that the governments ‘of both countries are now considering the feasi- bility of introducing a measure of reciprocal trade relations, which will perhaps include a settlement of the pulpwood question. The people of the United States are draw- ing the wool over their own eyes in connec- tion with this matter. If the action of Que- bec in prohibiting the export of pulpwood were in reality an act of unneighborliness and not one of self-protection, there might be reason for complaint on the part of the United States, but there is no question that the people of Quebec are adopting the only reasonable course for the preservation of their natural resources, and that, irrespective of any question of mutual good-will, it is imperative that this prohibition be continued even at the expense of the paper-making and publishing industries of the United States. The interests of the people of Quebec are paramount in the preservation of their own resources, and those who finally have to deal with the matter in the United States should be easily convinced of this. That the action of Quebec was not influ- enced one way or the other by the tariff question is illustrated by the public utterances of Premier Gouin and several others of his government, who stated long ago that the present action would be taken before Septem- ber, 1910. Premier Gouin, in making his announcement regarding the matter in the legislature, shed further light upon the situa- tion by saying that the reason for his delay in making an announcement upon the sub- ject was that he wished to avoid any interfer- ence with the tariff negotiations which have only recently been concluded. In its Assue “of- May. sis.) tae. same journal notes criticism of the prohibi- tion ordinance both in the United States and Canada, saying of the latter AMERICAN FORESTRY that there is only one criticism which “can reasonably be directed against the measure, namely, that the smaller - owners of pulpwood in the province will be cut off from the United States mar- ket and will suffer heavy loss until mills can be built in Quebec to use their pulpwood.” It believes, however, that the demand for paper and the advanc- ing prices will lead to the building of mills without delay. The claim is made that this action has nothing to do with the “tariff tangle,’ but is a “direct de- velopment out of natural conditions.” While ‘the loss to the United States newspapers, if it really becomes ex- tensive, will be regrettable enough,” the loss which “the people of Quebec are concerned in most closely is one which they have already submitted to for many years, 1. e., the loss of their own natural resources, and the perma- nent injury resulting from the placing of these resources under the control of. a foreign people.” _ It “thimks=the United States can have no ground for offense if Canada follows the course that has made the United States so prosperous. This is directly in line with what AMERICAN Forestry has already said, that we cannot look to Canada to help out our diminishing timber supply, since our neighbor’s resources are not so limitles as some suppose. We have already cited the opinion of a German government expert, sent to examine Canadian conditions, to the effect that Canadian forests can only take care of the home demand in the near future. The Maritime provinces, it may be noticed, are taking steps to similarly protect their crown lands. EDITORIAL We Must Eliminate Waste OOD conservation consists no less in economies of operation than in the development and maintenance of sources of supply. This side of the question must come more and more to the front, for we have been sadly waste- ful in all our operation and use of natural resources. To eliminate waste by greater care and economy and by more thorough and scientific methods must be our effort. We find in several of the leading lumber journals frank admission of the fact that there is chaos in the field of production and distribution of lumber. This has been especially noticeable re- cently in discussions ofthe yellow pine situation. Over-production and waste- ful milling throw upon the market a larger amount, especially of low-grade material, than the market really calls for. This surplus has to be “dumped” somewhere, at prices often not re- munerative to the manufacturer, while the whole process is wasteful, unbusi- nesslike, and tends to unnecessary for- est destruction. Then there is the enormous factory waste so characteristic of much of our manufacturing. That suggestive mag- azine, System, in an article entitled “What Wanton Waste Means to You,” points a moral here by naming two towns, one in Wisconsin and one in Michigan, which started on an equal basis but have separated on the high- road—one becoming a dead town, the other a live and prosperous one with a promising future. The difference lay in the spirit and method in which their resources were utilized. Both based their industries on the surrounding timber supply. One wasted its forest products in its mills so that the local supply became exhausted, and plant after plant had to shut down. There was left a waste country where once had been productive forests, and, as the natural sequence, a moribund town. In the Michigan town, on the other hand, a study was made of the utiliza- tion of waste and industries were devel- oped with that in view. The first of these towns represents the old, careless spirit of a country over-rich with the bounty of nature, the second stands for the new, conserving spirit that is com- ing to the salvation of the country just before it is too late. We are using ten times more lumber per capita than. France and seven times more than Germany. We must not go on doing it. We must provide for the future, not only by increased produc- tion, but by eliminating waste. In his thoughtful and instructive ad- dress at the biennial of the General Federation of Women’s, Clubs at Cin- cinnati, Mr William L. Hall; of the Forest Service, emphasized this matter as one of the important and vital things in forest conservation, bringing facts and figures to support his position and indicating some of the steps that are being taken in the way of scientific ex- periments by the service to guide us in accomplishing the result. Another recent address on this sub- ject was made at the annual meeting of the National Lumber Manufacturers’ Association, by Capt. J. B. White, who discussed from the operator’s point of view the utilization of waste in forest and mill. This address was a real lumberman’s gospel of good works. Captain White said that his subject led into the entire science of forestry. He pointed out how the production of wood must adjust itself to the conditions of the country, those regions, chiefly moun- tainous, which can do that to the best advantage, growing forests, while other regions blessed with a rich soil will produce the other needs of a civilized people, general profit arising from the interchange. This, it may be interpo- 359 360 lated, illustrates the national incidence of this whole question, because all sec- tions alike have to use the forest prod- ucts which not all may profitably pro- duce. Lumbermen, Captain White urged, should be as diligent in conserving for- ests and making their land produce a paying crop as farmers in studying the production of agricultural crops and the maintenance of soil fertility. We quote the following particularly sug- gestive statement: In the south we are cutting over two and a quarter million acres of yellow pine every year, or about 7,500 acres every day, pro- ducing 13,000,000,000 feet of lumber each year, and twenty per cent waste makes the enormous sum of 2,600,000,000 feet of lumber. This means loss to the transportation com- panies in freight of 173,000 carloads each year, and at $7 a thousand means an annual loss to labor of $18,200,000. And in the entire Nation we are cutting 40,000,000,000 feet annually, leaving 8,000,000 acres a year of cut-over lands, and a total waste from un- salable low grades of at least 6,000,000,000 feet, or half a million carloads annually lost to the country. Add to this the estimated loss of $50,000,000 by fires every year, and we have a total loss to the Nation and to the world of over $100,000,000 per annum. At this rapid rate of forest cutting, some- body will soon have to plant trees, and it is best that we should begin soon. There are doubtless localities in each state where some variety of trees can be produced more eco- nomically and profitably than other crops. Trees do not exhaust the soil, and they thrive on soil that has been exhausted by other crops. It is our duty to study forestry, our greatest prosperity is coming through the practice of wise methods, and it is the great privilege and duty of lumbermen to help lead in this great work, and not leave it to mere theorists and to impractical and unwise poli- ticians to pass laws that will not only injure lumber manufacturers, but will injure the cause of forestry. Referring to the prohibition of pulp wood exports from Canada, Captain White found this a text, also, for he held that we must meet such limita- tions of our supply by learning to utilize the waste-of cottonwood, yellow pine, fir, hemlock, and other woods to make paper. In this connection there is an illustration given by’the writer of the article in System, to which we have al- teady teterged. ~The New “York wand Pennsylvania company, which is _ pri- AMERICAN FORESTRY marily a paper company, sends all its clear logs to the sawmill, making pulp from slabs, tops, and imperfect trunks. This problem of saving of waste is many-sided, as will be seen. While its fundamental principle is simple, it has an infinite variety of applications. We can by reforestation and intensive forest cultivation make two trees grow where one grew before. This is a great work and must be done to supply the ever-growing demand. Moreover, it appeals to the sentiment and the imag- ination. But there is the other method of saving that we must also learn to practice of making one tree do the work that we have been accustomed to use two for. This is a homely method and does not appeal to the imagination at all, but it is a good practice and quite as necessary as the other. We must work at this thing from both ends. The first is the task of the state, the capi- talist, and the land owner in varying degrees. The second is: the task -of every one who uses wood, and espe- cially of the manufacturer, who handles it in considerable quantities. It in- volves the application of science, care, and industry. ye We oe The Forest Products Laboratory E PUBLISH this month the full- est statement that has yet ap- peared of the plans and purposes of the new Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis. It was the coming opening of this institution that sug- gested the thought which is prominent in this number of AMERICAN FORESTRY —the prevention of waste—for it is that which is the reason for being of the new building and of the enlarged activities of the Branch of Products of the Forest Service, an enlargement which means much to the wood-using industries of this country. The establishment of a completely equipped central station for testing and experimentation with the properties of wood gives such an opportunity as has not existed before to really know our wood resources “for all there is in them.” EDITORIALS The institution of the new labora- tory and of the corresponding sta- tistical office in Chicago are further steps in the policy of dispersal of the activities of the Forest Service to bring them nearer to the people whom it serves. This will make the people bet- ter acquainted with the personnel and work of the service, from which knowl- edge will result, we believe, a greater understanding and better confidence. The first and greatest step in this di- rection was the establishment of the district offices in the national forest states, each with its district forester and full staff. This brings the workers nearer their work and nearer the people whom this work directly affects. The results have already approved the plan. There is increasing efficiency in the service and a much better feeling in the west for it. Now comes the laboratory in Wis- consin and the office of utilization in Chicago. We are building up by de- grees a great national forest admin- istrative service which we have good reason to hope and expect will soon compare with any in the world. pe Ye ye The Forest Fire Season qs month we have given much space to the» subject of ywaste and its prevention. Meanwhile dis- patches in the newspapers from many sections of the country apprise us that forest fires, one of the most constant sources of preventable waste, are get- ting in their usual work and prepar- ing the annual lesson which legislators are so unaccountably slow to learn. And yet this legislative indifference is not so unaccountable when one thinks that it is only the natural reflection of the indifference of a large part of the community to a danger which the av- erage citizen regards as remote and lacking in interest to him. It is a good piece of work for all of our forestry associations to educate the public to the general economic importance of this matter. That is the best way to break down legislative indifference. 301 The annual loss from forest fires cannot be put into figures. All at- tempts to reduce it to statistics have proved inadequate and unsatisfactory. Estimates of loss are seldom supported by sufficient knowledge and judgment on the part of the estimators, and the great damage to the future that may be done even by a ground fire that de- stroys little actually existent and avail- able property is outside of statistical computation. We can see, however, without exact figures, the terrible re- sults of the burns that not only destroy standing timber and all property in their path, but affect for years the pro- ductive capacity of the soil and _ set back often for a generation the young growth. This is a form of waste that, if not absolutely preventable, can be reduced to an inappreciable minimum, and must be if our forestry work is to be made practicable. The cost will be no greater proportionally than that involved in the protection from fire of town and city property. Prevention is easier in the case of the forest, because man is the uncertain element in the fire problem, and the human conditions are much simpler in the forest than in populous communities. Insurance of forest property can only be obtained at prohibitive rates under present conditions, and prudent men hesitate before entering upon long-term investments in property that is pro- tected neither by insurance nor by ade- quate exercise of the state’s police power. States and municipalities rec- ognize their obligation to protect all other property from fire and other perils. The owner of a stand of tim- ber who holds it in good condition cer- tainly deserves as well of his com- munity as the man who salts his prop- erty down in stocks and bonds. Fur- thermore, as a property owner and, un- der present laws, an inequitably bur- dened taxpayer, he has a right to claim protection. In the May number of this maga- zine, Mr. Gaskill showed us how New Jersey is directing its forestry work at present solely against the fire evil, believing that other things will take 302 care of themselves if that is well at- tended to. This may be an extreme attitude, but there is much reason in it, and if the state can only handle prop- erly one phase of the question, that is the one that demands first considera- tion. We cannot expect much private for- estry until we make forest property as reasonably secure as other property. ww A Powerful Ally 2 WE may judge from the reports of and comments on the great meet- ing of the National Lumber Manufac- turers’ Association at New Orleans in April, that gathering was most signifi- cant in its serious consideration of the larger problems of lumbering and for- estry. The purely commercial ques- tions that have largely occupied our business associations of this kind seem to have been markedly subordinated. The Southern Lumbermen expresses this at the beginning of its report of the meeting when it says: The striking feature of the eighth annual meeting of the National Lumber Manufac- turers’ Association held here at the Grune- wald Hotel yesterday and to-day, was the fact that the excellent papers which com- posed the program and the general trend of discussion were not directly along the lines of a study of sales methods for the market- ing of forest products, but rather for the conservation of timber anda complete util- ization of all forest products. It might well have been mistaken for a conservation meet- ing, as that was the subject that was most discussed, and with it the discussion of tim- ber land taxation, which is so closely allied to the subject of conservation. It was the sense of the body that the present system of taxation is in many respects deficient and unjust, and that some action should be taken leading toward a more equitable system of taxation. The two addresses which seem to have aroused the most active interest were those by Forester Graves on pri- vate forestry, on which we commented last month, and by Professor Fairchild on the taxation of forest lands. President Hines, in his annual ad- dress, emphasized the importance of forest conservation to the lumberman AMERICAN FORESTRY and its national bearings, which make it primarily a matter for a national as- sociation to deal with rather than the local affiliated bodies. “One reason for this,” he said, “is that under the pres- ent protective system practically every timber section is in more or less direct competition with every other section, and if costly restrictions and duties are placed upon the lumber manufacturers of one state, they are placed at an arti- ficial disadvantage with their compet- itors in another state.” In view of this fact, he announced the establishment by the board of governors of a conserva- tion committee of the association, headed by Capt. J. B. White. “Under the guidance of the able chairman of this committee,” President Hines prom- ised, “the lumbermen of the country will be placed in their proper light in the front ranks with this new handling of conservation on enlightened and practical lines, and must be recognized by those theorists who profess to be the only conservationists.” This declara- tion from such a source is assurance that the cause of forestry is at last coming to its own and perhaps the theorists have had something to do with bringing this about. President Hines mentioned among the subjects for this committee the treatment of cut-over lands, require- ments as to cutting, diameter limits of cutting, and replanting, remarking that in some states propositions have been seriously considered which are abso- lutely impractical. - The following state- ment made by him is significant and shows a wise grasp of the situation: Many lumbermen might like to have all these subjects dismissed, but it is my con- viction that the conservation movement has gone so far that it cannot be stopped, but its direction can be controlled somewhat and practical ideas and methods can be in- sisted upon by us. He also spoke briefly and forcibly of the tax question as one of the utmost importance. In this sentence he de- scribes a fundamental difficulty in the tax situation, especially in some of our more conservative states: “One great trouble with the present method of tim- EDITORIALS ber land taxation is that most states make no distinction between the dif- ferent classes of property, their value to the community, and the effect of taxes upon them. The timber owner cannot be a timber grower under pres- ent conditions.”” He announced the con- clusion of the board of governors and the conservation committee that so far they found the best plan to be to levy the tax only when the timber was cut, when a full tax would be levied, but it would be so definite that it could be figured in estimates of cost. They be- lieve that so long as the owner keeps land in growing timber there is no rea- son why he should be taxed. This, by the way, is the plan that is advocated by Professor Fairchild of Yale, who has studied this problem more thor- oughly, perhaps, than any other econo- mist or forester in this country. All through the meeting ran this awakening interest in practical, work- ing forestry, the kind that every sincere conservationist, whether theorist or not, wishes to see. It appeared in nearly all the reports and many suggestions were made looking to effective action. Unquestionably, our foresters and lum- bermen are getting together and some- thing is sure to be accomplished when forestry secures such support as that which a powerful organization like the National Lumber Manufacturers’ Asso- ciation can give it. ye ye * The Women's Clubs and the Forests HE support of the women of Amer- ica is a powerful aid to any cause. This is such a truism that it seems un- necessary to have uttered it, but it sug- gests some thoughts concerning the connection of the federated women’s clubs of the United States with the for- estry and conservation movements. These clubs have shown a splendid pub- lic spirit in taking up many of the great movements for national better- ment. But there is much danger that this inclusiveness of interests will be attended with some vagueness of thought and action. We beg the women to guard against this, and to keep their thought on every subject they take up aN et a ee ee hn wae op TAT, TAACTE 363 tive and based on well matured judg- ment. Forestry and conservation seem to make a special appeal to the women, and their clubs are laying increased empha- sis upon this work. This is a fine thing for the movement. It means that this question will get into the homes of America and be brought to the children by the strongest influence they know. It is, we believe, especially necessary in these fields that clear thinking should be secured through sufficient knowl- edge. Much harm has been done in the course of the forestry movement, and the same is true of all branches of con- servation, by immature thought arising from insufficient knowledge. To know whereof we speak must be our con- stant care. Now, if we may venture suggestion, the women’s clubs some- times undertake too much and gain only that little knowledge which is a dan- gerous thing, on subjects they take up. This produces mental dissipation in the individual which is unfortunate, but. when it is applied to the advancement of a great public cause resting on a scientific foundation, it really becomes serious. Therefore, we say to the clubwomen of America, your support is the most welcome that could come to our work, but in order that you may accomplish what you yourselves desire, be earnest, sincere, and thorough in every under- taking, and study these forest and con- servation questions so that you can give sound reasons for the faith that is in you. The great biennial meeting at Cin- cinnati showed clearly not only that the clubwomen are taking -up forestry and conservation with the greatest en- thusiasm, but that under: wise leader- ship they are more and more develop- ing thorough methods of action. Mrs. Gerard and Mrs. Brooks in the national committee, Mrs. Tucker in Massachu- setts, Mrs. Mautner in Michigan, Mrs. Maury in Kentucky, Mrs. Avery in Louisiana, and many others who might be named, have given excellent exam- ples of the right spirit and method, and through the influence of these women and others like them, we hope to see this work in the Federation brought to ee baie in TEND. erwin yany AS OTHERS SEE US Translated from the Revue des Eaux et Forets, February 15, 1910 ford Pinchot from the Forest Service of the United States De- partment of Agriculture makes timely a reassuring word as to the high state of efficiency, stability, and encouraging prospects for the future which this able man has contributed to the government work in forestry and to the science in general in America. A statement of the actual results accomplished during the eleven years of Mr. Pinchot’s serv- ice is a tribute to the ability of any man under the best of conditions, but ne adequate description can be given of the tremendous prejudices and diffi- culties under which he worked and which his foresight and perseverance enabled him to conquer, nor of the tre- mendous revolution in popular thought, from reckless improvidence to conserv- ative economy which his administration has brought about. When Mr. Pinchot began his service as Chief of the Division of Forestry, he was “a forester without a forest.’ The government forest reserves, then comprising 42,000,000 acres, were prac- tically unmanaged. Land laws designed to encourage settlement throughout the west made easy the fraudulent as well as the legitimate but wasteful ex- ploitation of timber over great areas, while year after year fires ran through the poorly protected reserves, not grad- ually, but rapidly destroying their pro- ductive value. The duties of the Divi- sion, later the Bureau of Forestry, were purely advisory. Now, all this is changed, even to the name of the bu- reau. From a small division of thirteen men, not more than four of whom were technically trained foresters, the Forest Service has become an administrative force of over 2,000 men, with control Over some 195,000,000 acres of land. a | ‘HE recent dismissal of Mr. Gif- b) The “Forest Reserves,’ from which only dead timber could be cut, are now National Forests, which already yield nearly 400,000,000 board-feet of ma- ture as well as dead timber per year, the cutting of which is done according to plans prepared by technically educated men. The employment of such men has led to the rapid growth of forest schools from two, at the time of. Mr .Pinchot’s accession to office, to twelve at the present time. This, together with the awakened interest of practically all the eastern and some of the western states in their own forest resources, has brought forward the subject of con- servation as a great national issue. The United States embraces so va- ried a range of climatic, topographic, and forest conditions that scientific ex- periments performed upon them cannot help but be of service to the cause of forestry almost throughout the north- ern ehemisphere. Hitherto, America has come to Europe for her ideals, her examples, sand to a> large sextent — her methods of forest practice. Europe, on the other hand, has found in America some of her most beautiful and promis- ing “timber™ species: he Sworkot Schwafbach and Mayr, among others, brings. out the fact that European for- esters already take no small interest in American species. With the establish- ment of forest experiment stations brought about during Mr. Pinchot’s term in office, the time is without doubt drawing near when the United States can supply to the world not only species but also technical information, based on thorough scientific experiment. The initiation of experimental methods, per- haps more than any other one feature, illustrates the great advance during re- cent years of forestry in America. 364 CURRENT LITERATURE While Mr. Pinchot’s departure 1s un- doubtedly a loss to the Forest Service, the structure in the building of which he has been so largely responsible rests on too solid a foundation to be seriously disturbed. The need for a successor who should be above all a technical for- ester has become apparent. Prof. Henry Solon Graves, director of the Yale Forest School, has received the appoint- ment to this position, and the nation may well be congratulated upon the choice. Professor Graves brings to the work the benefit of wide experience in forest practice in the United States, 365 supplemented by European study. He is thoroughly in sympathy with the sys- tem built up by Mr. Pinchot, with whom he has formerly served. Under his administration and with the in- creased appreciation of the necessity for forest conservation which has grown up, the future of forestry in the United States is assured. The technical prob- lems in need of solution are many, but the impediments to their solution are now largely removed or in process of removal. Economics, not politics, will determine the future of American forestry. CURRENT LITERATURE REVIEWS American Inland Waterways: Their relation to railway transportation and to the na- tional welfare; their creation, restoration, and maintenance. By Herbert Quick. With eighty illustrations and a map, pp. xx, 241. New York and London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1909. _— Price, $3.50 This handsomely typed and printed volume surprised the reviewer by its unflageging in- terest. The subject is treated with broad grasp and clear insight, not with any pet project in mind, but with a fine sense of proportion and of the inter-relation of various projects forming the whole of a true national conservation policy. From the first chap- ter on “The Grand Strategy of Trade” to the last on “The Battle of the Engineers,” which brings the book almost up to the minute, the attention of the reader is held by the author’s rapid, well integrated array of facts and arguments. The strategic relation of waterways and trade, a comparison of the work done in Europe with our own arrested development on these lines, is the first point brought out, and it is made with great force, empha- sized by effective facts and examples. In his chapter on “Bringing the Sea to the Farms,” Mr. Quick shows the significance of waterway transportation to our rich agricultural inte- rior, and treats especially the development of the Mississippi River system of waterways. In this connection he discusses quite frankly the problem of turning the waters of the Lakes Mississippiward. He recognizes the vastness of the Mississippi project, its diffi- culty, and its cost, but he thinks this need not stagger us since the end to be attained is commensurate. The historic competition between the rail- ways and the waterways is the subject of an interesting chapter. The keynote to the argu- ment on this phase of the subject is found in the following sentences: “And yet the rail- ways should not desire the extinction of water-borne traffic. All over the world they have extinguished it so far as possible, but there is no basic reason for this antagonism. Of surface, shortsighted reason there is plenty. Waterways regulate and _ control rates on competing railways, but at the same time they powerfully promote the prosperity of the very roads with which they compete. Paradoxical as this may sound, to railway men especially, the transportation specialist (which the average railway man is not) knows that this is true, and understands the reason.” In discussing the need of new railway facilities to handle the business of the coun- try, the author says we need from 75,000 to 120,000 miles of track, and so many new cars and engines that there is not enough iron in the country to meet these needs—and, he might have added, nor wood enough to tie the tracks. There is a long and ably worked out chap- ter on the neglected subject of terminals, showing how much better this matter is han- dled abroad, and how our railways in their policy of suppressing water competition have closed the gates by monopolizing the water- fronts at strategic points. To quote again 306 one of the striking statements with which the book abounds: “There is good reason to contend that the federal government should insist upon an adjustment of the matter of terminals all along every such waterway be- fore spending the people’s money upon it; for a waterway with monopolized banks at the ports is a gift to the owners of the water- front. The time to acquire rights for the public is before the highway is completed. To wait is, first to make a road for trade, and then pay for it over again to the owners of abutting land. The right of the railways to handle their terminal business to the de- struction of waterway trade may well be considered; and, in a general way, the effects of terminals on water transportation should be worked out while there is yet time.” With his fifth chapter on “Rivers and the Conservation Movement,” the author begins to link the waterways with the other prob- lems of conservation and especially with for- estry. In this and the following chapters he shows his breadth of view. He does not advocate simply a project or group of proj- ects. The big national self-preservation and development problem is before him. He pre- sents the case for Mr. Leighton’s scheme of reservoirs for regulating streamflow, not as a lonesome scheme, but as an ally of moun- tain forests maintained for the same purpose; a part of a big system, as it really must be to be effective. The Southern Appalachian and White Mountain project appeals to Mr. Quick as one of the first needs for the water- ways and the case is argued clearly and forcibly from this point of view. Here, again, is a statement that embodies a good deal of conservation philosophy: “The old scientists divided nature into the four ele- ments of earth, air, fire, and water. We have seen how, in matters of coal consump- tion, forest destruction, power waste, flood damages, soil waste, and the like these four react on each other. We have begun to see that we cannot allow them to ravage the world unchecked. The time must come when he who cuts a tree must ask permission of the rest of the world, and he who burns coal must first prove that there is no way of doing the work by waterpower. A mud- died stream, carrying off the richest of the soil, will be proof of crime in the com- munity whence comes the silt; and all over the land will be found the reservoirs—small and great—from which in drought will flow the waters to make all our rivers navigable In those days the ‘blight of continental dis- tances’ will be removed. From Pembina on the north, Great Falls on the northwest, and Sackett’s Harbor on the northeast, down to the Gulf, will run the new seaboard, and the same ships will ply the lakes in summer and carry cargoes to the tropics in winter. In a hundred streams now useless will run the regulated flow that will carry commerce, and, save in exceptional cases, every town in the land will have its waterway to the sea.” Whether this dream can be fully real- AMERICAN FORESTRY ized in all of its details or not, the principle in the author’s mind is sound. The closing chapter of the book, on “The Battle of the Engineers,” reviews in an im- partial way the discussion that has been in progress for some time, and with which our readers are quite familiar, on the effect of forests on streamflow. After a review of all the testimony, the author finds-that per- haps the best summing up is contained in the comment of the Wisconsin lumbermen on Colonel Chittenden’s noted paper: “Why, a man doesn’t need any learning to know that forests protect the hills from washing and regulate the flow of streams. All he needs is common sense.” The appendix contains citations of value for reference. Finally, we should say that this is distinctly a popular book on a great subject, and a book that is worth while for the reader. Indeed, we do not know of any book that will give the non-technical reader so good a general view of the most vital points of conservation of natural resources in the United States, and of the big far- reaching principles underlying them, with, of course, especial emphasis on the waterways. The Care of Trees in lawn, street, and park, with a list of trees and shrubs for dec- orative use. By Bernhard E. Fernow, Dean of the Faculty of Forestry, Uni- versity of Toronto. Illustrated, pp. x, 392. New York: Henry Holt & Co. 1oio. Price, $2.00 This new book from Doctor Fernow’s pen answers the description of a well-worn phrase in that it really fills a long-felt want. It is much of a surprise to see the author’s name on a book of this character, but in his pref- ace he shows that he, like others having to do with forestry work, has had to meet in- quiries which showed an urgent demand for a comprehensive book of this kind. Not every one has anything to do directly and personally with forestry, but there are hosts of people concerned with the care of trees, yet with all the agitation concerning trees and all the in- terest in them which has been aroused in recent years, there has been nothing published comprehensive and practical in regard to the care of trees for shade and ornament based on scientific study. The nearest approaches to such a manual were a pamphlet monograph by the late Colonel Fox, superintendent of state forests of New York, and bulletin No. 125 of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experi- ment Station, issued by the station and the Massachusetts Forestry Association in coop- eration about two years ago. The latter was called forth by a pressing local demand and a large edition was very promptly exhausted, but this publication was only a pamphlet and was adapted primarily to Massachusetts con- ditions, especially in its consideration of the shade-tree law. GERRENT LITERATURE Doctor Fernow’s volume is a substantial one, comprehensive in substance and well il- lustrated. In his introductory chapter the author disclaims the presentation of new knowledge. His book, he says, is “mainly a compilation of the well-known facts which bear upon the subject.’ In his arrange- ment and inclusion of material, the author acts upon the belief “that a knowledge of the nature of trees is necessary to care for them properly.” In view of Doctor Fernow’s scientific habit of mind, we are not sur- prised to find him making a very important distinction which is often lost sight of: ‘The care of shade and ornamental trees is an entirely different matter from the care of forests. It is unfortunate that the distinc- tion has not always been clearly perceived. The object of forestry is the substance of the tree; only when the tree is cut and its wood utilized, is the object of the forester attained; he grows trees, not to be preserved, but to be harvested. Hence, to call the tree-wardens of towns and cities ‘foresters’ is a misnomer. The tree that satisfies the forester is most unsatisfactory to the landscape gardener or street planter, and vice versa. The latter ar- boriculturists are after shade or beauty of form, hence their treatment of trees is en- tirely different from that of the forester, al- though, to secure the object in either case, the nature and life history of trees must be understood. On the other hand, no more fitting title, no better description of the duties of those who are set to care for our roadside trees or our city trees in street and park could be invented than that of ‘tree warden, a most expressive, dignified, and honorable designation.” In the second chapter the characteristic structure and life of trees are considered, the subject being presented in a simple, non- technical way. There are two chapters on diseases of trees. The first is a general dis- cussion of old age, general causes of dis- ease, fungus diseases, and damage by insects. The second is devoted to diagnosis of dis- eases, treating insect damage, fungus, and bacterial diseases, physiological diseases, ef- fect of soil conditions, atmospherical influ- ence, obnoxious gases, electric currents, light conditions, and mechanical injuries. The next chapter is an important one, covering the field of control of physiological diseases and treatment of mechanical injuries, and the general care of trees. Here are considered such topics as soil improvement, fertilizing, grading, pruning and trimming, manner of operation, callusing and repairing, treatment of street trees, care of aged trees, and quack medicines. In connection with this last chapter, we note one omission. There are numerous cuts illustrating most of the types of tree tools, and there is a page of comment upon them— too little, perhaps, for a subject upon which 367 the amateur at least needs specific informa- tion. But this paragraph, although it has a heading, is not included in the synoptical con- tents, nor is a reference found in the index. In the too-brief paragraph on quack medi- cines we do not find mention of the proved fact, which Professor George E. Stone, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, has discussed at length, of the injuries to trees from banding substances, nor does Doctor Fernow mention this. Doctor Stone has shown that several substances on the market for banding are distinctly injurious and should be avoided. Chapter six deals with the control of para- sites, that great army of fungus and insect enemies that preys in these days on nearly all of our most valued ornamental trees. This is a most important subject and is treated briefly, but perhaps as adequately as could be expected in a general work not devoted to this particular subject. There is a very valuable chapter on “Care in Planting Trees,” a subject on which the author is quite at home. It is treated clearly and concisely. There is a short chapter on “Esthetic For- ests, or Woodland Parks,” an interesting field of discussion in which the forester, the land- scape gardener, and the tree expert come together -on a common ground in which the functions of each are not clearly separated. There are 126 pages devoted to the choice of plant material. This matter is -very helpful. It consists of practical suggestions regarding the selection of the most desirable trees and shrubs and with this a list of trees and shrubs, with brief descriptions and notes. The author explains this chapter at its beginning by saying: “Although this book is not designed to be a guide in the laying out and planting of grounds, it seemed, nev- ertheless, germane and desirable to add a chapter on the selection of plant material, in- asmuch as the after care is to some extent influenced by the original choice of trees.” The list seems to be well selected, con- veniently arranged, and contains in very con- cise form the most important information on the shade tree required by the planter and gardener. The book has quite an extensive index, although beyond the omission which has already been noted we have not ex- amined it as to completeness. There is also a brief list of books on related subjects. This list contains twenty-six separate titles and a number of general books on landscape gar- dening, which are grouped together. Most of the titles are those of bulletins published by United States experiment stations, but there are a few larger and more complete volumes. We are very glad that this book has been provided for the use of tree lovers. It was much needed, and it is very fortunate that an authority like Doctor Fernow could find opportunity to fill this need so satisfactorily. 368 MONTHLY LIST FOR MAY, 1910 (Books and periodicals indexed in the Library of the United States Forest Service) Note.—A list of current literature will ap- pear regularly in American Forestry in the future, as a continuation of the lists which have been issued monthly -by the Forest Service since February, 1904. Forestry as a whole Proceedings of associations University of Nebraska—Forest club. The forest club annual, vol. 2, 1910. I14 p., plates. Lincoln, Nebr., 1910. Forest aesthetics Street and park trees Fernow, Bernhard E. The care of trees in lawn, street, and park, with a list of trees and shrubs for decorative use. 392p.,illus., plates. New York, Henry Holt & Co., IQIO. Hall, Harvey Monroe. Studies in ornamental trees and shrubs. 74 p., illus., plates. Berkeley, Cal., 1910. (University of Cal- ifornia. Publications, botany, vol. 4, 110. 1.) New Jersey—Forest park reservation com- mission. The planting and care of shade trees. 82 p., illus. plates. Paterson, N. J., State printer, 1909. Phillips, T. Glenn. City tree planting; the selection, planting, and care of trees along city thoroughfares. 26p.,illus. De- troit, 1910. (Detroit city plan and im- provement commission. Report no. 1.) Forest education Outline for lectures on for- Albany, t910. (New York and game commission. Cary, Austin. ESinyemel2 eps —Forest, fish Bulletin 5.) Arbor day Kellogg, Alice M. How to celebrate Arbor Day in the schoolroom. 96 p._ Phila- delphia, Penn Publishing Co., 1907. Forest schools University of Minnesota forest school— Itasca summer school. Prospectus, 1910. 24 p., illus. Arago, Minn. Forest legislation Hirst, E. C. Forest laws of New Hamp- Shines salios ips. Concord: a Ne sheaQo0G: (New Hampshire—Forestry commission. Bulletin 1.) AMERICAN FORESTRY Forest description India—Madras_ presidency—Forest depart- ment. Reports on certain continental forests, by F. L. Cowley-Brown. 83 p., illus. Madras, 1908. Thompson, H. N. Gold coast; report on forests. 238 p., illus. map. London: Wyman & Sons, 1910. (Colonial re- ports, miscellaneous, no. 66. Whitford, Harry Nichols. Studies in the vegetation of the Philippines: 1. The composition and volume of the diptero- carp forests of the Philippines. 27 p., plates. Manila, Bureau of science of the Philippine government, 1909. Forest botany Trees: classification and description Graves, William Elliott. Studies in euca- lyptus. 96 p., illus. St. Louis, Euca- lyptus timber corporation, 1910. Maiden, J. H. The forest flora of New South Wales, pt. 38. 22 p., illus. Sydney, N. S. W., Government printer, IIo. Maury, Sarah Webb. Native trees of Ken- tucky; a handbook. 140 p., illus. Ken- tucky federation of women’s clubs, 1910. Rogers, Julia Ellen. Trees that every child should know; easy tree studies for all seasons of the year. 263 p., plates. New York, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1909. Woods: classification and structure Troup, R. S. Petwin or trincomali wood, Berrya ammonilla. 8 p., plate. Calcutta, 1910. (Indian—Forest department. For- est pamphlet no. 12.) Silvics Forest influences Ashe, W. W. Special relations of forests to rivers in the United States. 21 p. Washington, Government printing office, 1909. Ecology Warming, Eugenius & Vahl, Martin. CE£col- ogy of plants; an introduction to the study of plant-communities. 422 p. Ox- ford, The Clarendon press, 1909. Silviculture Planting Langdell, R. S. Forest nursery and refor- estation work in Massachusetts. 36 p., plates. Boston, State forester’s office, IQI0. Macoun, W. T. Culture des arbres forestiers en pépiniére. 36 p. Ottawa, C. H. Parmlee, 1909. CURRENT Morris, O. M. Tree culture. 35 DP. illus. Stillwater, Okla. 1910. (Oklahoma— Agricultural experiment station. Bulle- tin 86.) Forest protection Schenck, Carl Alwin. Forest protection; guide to lectures delivered at the Bilt- more forest school. 159 p. Asheville, N. C., The inland press, 1900. Insects Stebbing, E. P. The blue pine “polygraphus” bark-borer. 7 p., illus. Calcutta, I9I0. (India—Forest department. Leaflet no. 5.) Stebbing, E.P. The larger deodar bark-borer. 12 p., illus. Calcutta, 1909. (India— Forest department. Leaflet no. 4.) Fire Halle WiasGw) end: ©’Hara, B. L. Treatise on the protection of forests from fire. 31 p., plates. Quebec, Department of lands and forests, 1900. Forest management Ashe, W. W. The farm forests of Vir- ginia and recommendations for their im- provement. 12 p. Richmond, Va., State board of agriculture, 1910. Ashe, W. W. Forest conditions in Virginia and proposed measures for forest pro- tection. 20 p. Richmond, Va., Super- intendent of public printing, 1910. (Vir- ginia—General assembly—House. Docu- ment no 5.) Forest mensuration Baughman, H. R. A. Baughman’s buyer and seller. 8th ed., 293 p. Indianapolis, Ind., The author, 1906. Forest organization Caccia, A. M. F. Tables showing the prog- ress in working plans in the provinces outside the Madras and Bombay presi- dencies up to the 31st December, 1908. 44 p. Calcutta, 1910. (India—Forest de- partment. Forest pamphlet no. 9.) Forest administration India—Andaman Islands—Forest department. Progress report of forest administration, 1908-9. 23 p. Calcutta, Superintendent government printing, IQIO. India—Baluchistan—Forest department. Prog- ress report of forest administration in Baluchistan for 1908-9. 41 p. Cal- cutta, Superintendent government print- ing, I909. India—State board of forestry. Ninth annual report, 1909. 88 p., illus. Indianapolis, Ind., I9I0. 5- LITERATURE 369 Massachusetts—State forester. Sixth annual report, 1909. 109 p., illus. Boston, Mass., 1910. New Jersey—Forest park reservation com- mission. Fifth annual report, 1909. 56 p., illus. Trenton, N. J., 1970. Orange River colony—Department of Agri- tulture—Forestry division. Fifth annual report, 1908-9. 56 p. Bloemfontein, 1909. Quebec—Department of lands and forests. Report for the twelve months ending 30th June, 1909. 202 p., plates. Quebec, IQIO. Forest economics Statistics Alsace-Lorraine — Abteilung fiir finanzen, handel und domanen. Beitrage zur forst- statistik von Elsass-Lothringen, heft 27, 1908. 124 p. Strassburg, IgI0. Forest utilization Beauverie, Jean. Les bois industriels. 420p., illus. Paris, Octave Doin et fils, 1910. Lumber industry National lumber manufacturers’ credit cor- poration. Credit rating book, 13th vol- ume, April, 1910. 102 p., maps. St. Louis, Mo., 1910. Wood preservation Wood preservers’ association. Proceedings of the 6th annual meeting, I910. 168 p. Galesburg, IIl., rgto. Auxiliary subjects Conservation of natural resources Titsworth, Frederick S. Notes on the legal aspects of the conservation problem. 20 p. Denver, Colorado scientific society, I910. Grazing Griffiths, David. ove canner esos 50 1,419,000,000 Southwest Washington Manufacturers’ Association.................- 28 200,000,000 Pacific Coast Lumber Manufacturers’ Association..........+-++-+-00- 165 3,000,000,000 Mellow Pines Manmfacturersweassociation(. .<...s0<%-ios-2++s0 <2 -aecs ees 275 3,649,000,000 Oregon and Washington Lumber Manufacturers’ Association......... 105 800,000,000 Hardwood Manufacturers’ Association of United States............. 272 600,000,000 Georgia-Florida Sawmill? Assoctation.. .. 20. ....-----eeeee-: Petit anak 76 800,000,000 13,420,000,000 Me ME OME Practical Reforestation Work The Paper Trade Journal gives this ac- count of the practical reforestation work of the West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company: “The company owns practically the entire Cheat Mountain Valley, near Cass, W. Va., the holdings starting at the sources of the river and continuing down the main stream a distance of probably thirty-five miles, an aggregate of about 100,000 acres of virgin spruce forest. The spruce of that section is of exceptionally fine quality and the stand is very heavy. S. E. Slaymaker, of New York city, who is at the head of the lumber de- partment, is an altruistic man. His con- science bothers him when he thinks about the havoc his several hundred woodsmen make in the forest every year, and it has been troubling him so greatly that he has devised a practical scheme for replacing the timber. This tract was examined by experts of the government several years ago, and a plan was suggested for replanting with small trees to be shipped in from a distance. Instead of following this plan, those in charge of the work devised one of their own. In certain valleys conditions are ideal for the propaga- tion of an overabundant growth. The sur- plus plants are taken out of the ground in the afternoon and are replanted the next morn- ing. The company has set out 25,000 spruce trees during 1909, of which eighty per cent are said to be thriving, and this spring the company has planted 169,000 spruce trees, also 10,000 to 12,000 young poplars, and ex- pects to put in about 60,000 additional, and hereafter at the rate of about 100,000 trees a year. Another practical feature of the op- eration at that point is the precaution taken to prevent the inception and spread of fire. A space of fifty to 100 feet is cleared along every logging road and spur. During the dry seasons every locomotive is followed by a ranger, who stamps out small leaf-fires which originate in its wake. During the ten years in which this company has operated only a little more than 1,000 acres have been burned over, and this was cut-over land. The of- ficers of the company deem it just as im- portant to keep the fire out of cut-over land as out of timber, and are guarding the pre- serves in such a manner as to insure prac- tically a continuous supply of saw logs and pulp wood. pe pe ye Minnesota Lumber Lumbermen estimate that of the 1,000,- 000,000 feet of Norway and white pine cut in northern Minnesota last winter, at least twenty-five per cent and possibly thirty-five per cent, is still in the woods and cannot be 382 moved until next winter. This twenty-five per cent to thirty-five per cent represents ap- proximately the profit margin of the win- ter’s cut, and the impossibility of getting it to the mills may affect prices, though com- petition from the west and south, which is growing stronger, may make it unavoidable for the Minnesota lumbermen to ask more for their product. As the result of this tie-up in the woods, many of the sawmills of the state, especially those on the lower Missis- sippi, will be unable to operate, and sawmill labor will be cheapened for such mills as are able to run on full or part time. Sev- eral of the larger mills in Minneapolis which usually begin sawing about May 1, will not open until June 1, and will run only on half time from that. The Minnesota lumbermen are in a peculiar position in the market. The overproduction of yellow pine in the south is seeking a market in the north; the west stands ready to flood Minnesota markets with high-grade Washington and Oregon fir—more than enough to meet any deficiency in the home market. The season’s cut of Norway and white pine will bring almost any price that the lumbermen care to ask, but at the present time they want to dis- courage rather than encourage competition. In this cement plays an important part. Lum- bermen are noting with more or less alarm the advance that cement is making as a cheap and efficient substitute,for pine, and they realize that a raise in prices now will give the cement manufacturers an advantage which it would later be hard to overcome.— Pioneer Western Lumberman. ve ye ye The Question of Coercion The recent decision of the United States supreme court in the Mississippi association case has a far-reaching: significance. It marks the passing of the idea of coercion. That policy was long since abandoned by prac- tically all lumber associations as ineffective. Years ago many of the associations by force sought to prevent competition, to control prices, or to regulate the trade. Retail associations found that to boycott manufacturers or wholesalers was a _ diff- cult and even dangerous undertaking, and most of them long since contented themselves with promulgating the facts, leaving sales to consumers by the wholesaler and manufac- turer a matter of conscience and policy. Man- ufacturers have learned the futility of agree- ments, “gentlemanly” or otherwise. More conservative ideas have been indorsed and these more effectually than any court deci- sion have put an end to attempts at coercion. In the affairs of the Mississippi-Louisiana association the court decision will have an important effect. In the affairs of most of the other associations it will have no effect at all, because such a decision long had been anticipated by most of them. AMERICAN FORESTRY It is always a question in the minds of many association men whether coercion can be permanently successful. Such men_be- lieve that the most an association can do is to establish a principle and leave it to the individual to follow his own judgment. The conviction is growing in all depart- ments of trade that more is accomplished by the “get-together” spirit than by alignment in battle array. Men are endeavoring to en- force their rights by logic rather than by coercion. They are endeavoring to secure their rights by education rather than by re- course to force. Experience has demon- strated that the man or the association that goes about with a chip on the shoulder and looking for trouble produces bitterness and disputes that make the settlement of mooted questions more difficult instead of more easy. The days of passion are passed. The time of cooperation, arbitration, and calm considera- tion of disputed rights has come in its stead. It may be that the man who deliberately dis- regards the rights of others may not yield to persuasion or logic; but, if he is thus set in his ways, there is no reason to suppose that he can be forced to be good. He is an extreme type, no matter on which side of the controversy he is aligned. A larger class are those who commit error rather than wrong. This larger class may be antagonized by force. It can be converted by reason.— American Lumberman. we Pe YE Utilizing Hardwood Timber Manufacturers of southern hardwoods might well take a leaf from the experience of northern pine operators. At some of the largest and most modern plants in Wis- consin and Minnesota a system of economy is employed that goes far toward proving that practical conservation comes from util- ization. Dead and down timber and short top logs are sent to the mill. These are thrown on to the carriage, split, and trans- ferred to horizontal band resaws. There they are sliced into boards, passed to the edger, thence to the trimmer, and out into the yard. At some points the mills are turn- ing out sizes ranging from one by three, two feet long, to heavy timbers. If an attempt were made to apply this sys- tem to southern hardwood plants, the first step would be in the woods. How many manufacturers have ridden through their cut- over lands and found in the top of a tree a clear piece of timber anywhere from three to ten feet long, or found that the loggers left a good stick four to six feet long rather than cut an unusually long-length log? Those portions of southern hardwood tim- ber growing between clumps of limbs usually are absolutely sound and free from defect. Many trees fork after the first limbs are reached, and on some of the forks can be found a stretch of trunk eight to sixteen NEWS AND NOTES inches in diameter absolutely free from vis- ible defect. Would it not pay to make an effort to utilize such stock? Such blocks or logs are well adapted to the manufacture of dimension stock. They could be split on the main saw and _ transferred to a resaw, then run through the edgers or, if deemed advisable, transferred to the de- partment where dimension stock is cut. This should make it possible to utilize the product closely and to produce high-grade dimension without interfering with the usual cut of the mill. It would require only a few seconds for the bandsaw to split a block or log and the halves could be handled with great dis- patch in the resaw. Of course, if an upright resaw be used, it would be advisable to slab both sides of the log. 383 The only question involved is whether or not it would be profitable to develop this phase of the hardwood trade of the South. The field is practically illimitable. In addi- tion to oak dimension, shooks could be cut from cotton-wood and red gum blocks, han- dles and small dimension stock from ash and hickory, table and chair dimension stock from oak, washing machines and similar ma- terial from cypress, and like classes of mate- rial from other kinds of wood. So far as the American Lumberman is aware, the idea never has been applied, but it would seem possible to do so with ex- cellent results, increase the productivity of the timber owned, prolong the life of the mill, and swell the income greatly—Amer- ican Lumberman. NEWS AND NOTES CANADIAN CONDITIONS Consul Van Sant Gives Some Facts in Regard to Lumbering and Forestery Referring to recent discussions of Canadian forestry and to the attention that is being directed to the subject by our neighbors across the border, Howard D. Van Sant, United States consul at Kingston, Ontario, is quoted as making the following interesting statement in regard to Canadian forest re- sources : “The area of the merchantable forests of Canada has been very much overestimated. Estimates of the forest area vary from 200,000,000 to 600,000,000 acres, the timber belt stretching from Ungava across northern Quebec and Ontario, and thence north of the prairies to the Peace River country, but the larger portion of this is not merchantable ex- cept for firewood, and cannot be transported long distances. The area of merchantable timber is estimated by some authorities at 100,000,000 acres. The secretary of the For- estry association stated that the amount of Canada’s merchantable timber was one-third that of the United States, a liberal estimate placing the available supply at 532,000,000,000 feet board-measure. A recent Ontario esti- mate was to the effect that the timber, used at the present rate, will last the province thirty years. “In Ontario the last annual return of rev- enue was $2,082,878. The only reason given that Ontario has not had to resort to direct taxation is because the revenue of her crown lands has been sufficient to meet this need. The annual revenue of Ontario from these crown lands amounts to about $1 per capita. The total revenue from forest lands held by the Dominion is, in round numbers, $4,500,000, which all goes to reduce taxes. “Besides these revenues, the total exports of lumber, timber, pulp wood, and firewood in the last fiscal year, for which returns are available, was $44,507,528. The home con- sumption is estimated at $50,000,000 per year and constantly increasing. “The value of pulp wood exported in 1890 was $168,180, while in 1908 it had increased to $4,037,852, the United States taking $3,- 545,530 and Great Britain $385,199 worth. “In manufactured wood products the trade with the United States from 1886 to 1908 has increased from $7,842,526 to- $27,470,574, and with Great Britain during the same period the trade has increased from $9,354,244 to $11,843,094, while the total export from Can- ada during this time has increased from $18,742,625 to $44,170,470. In 1908 the total exports of wood products increased to $49,- 168,535. “There is importation of forest products into Canada, principally from the United States, and the value of these imports has increased from $2,412,572 in 1874 to $12,- 032,505 in 1908. For the ten years—1897 to 1906, inclusive—the total imports amounted to $50,934,770, of which $57,520,731 was im- ported from the United States. In 1905 the import of pine alone from Minnesota and Wisconsin was 125,000,000 feet, board- measure, largely to the western prairie nrov- inces. In the other provinces the imports are mostly of hardwood, such as oak, ash, walnut, hickory, and cherry. “Tt is claimed that over 8,000,000 acres of waste land in Ontario could be managed for forest crops. There are also over 200,000 384 acres of sand lands, a large portion of which was formerly farm lands that have been sanded over because of the ruthless destruc- tion of trees. It was shown that the destruc- tion of these forests had also caused a com- mensurable loss of water-power because the snows of winter and the rains of spring and autumn hold back’in an even flow the water fed to the brooks and streams. “Considerable portions of the waste-sand area in Ontario are being replanted in plats of 100 acres or more at a season, under the direction of the Canadian Forestry Associa- tion, and in almost every instance the most barren wastes are beginning to show surpris- ingly satisfactory results in reforestation. In the prairie provinces, where the soil is richer, the young tree planting has met with even better returns. “The southern part of the Kingston dis- trict the writer has found practically de- nuded of its best timber, especially along and near the shores of the St. Lawrence River and Lake Ontario. Firewood is selling in Kingston at from $6.50 to $7.50 per cord, as compared with half these prices a few years ago. “On Amherst Island, one of the most beau- tiful and fertile islands in the district, con- taining some 13,000 acres, more than 5,000 acres of valuable large and straight white oak, pine, hickory, maple, and basswood tim- ber have been cut and carried away without regard for conservation, so now there are not 100 acres of timberland on the entire island. The population of the island has decreased from 1,300 to 800 since this timber cutting ended, and those remaining are burning fence rails for fuel, or are paying higher prices for coal brought in vessels during the open season. Wood is at a premium and the price is constantly increasing.” ye oye oe ~ The Glacier National Park The President, on the 12th of May, signed the bill creating the Glacier National Park in the wild, scenic region on the Continental divide. The Canada line is the northern boundary of the park, which extends from the Flathead Valley on the west to the Black- feet Indian reservation on the east. Forest and Stream, which has been the project’s strongest advocate, says of it: “Beautiful to the eye as is the Glacier Park, stupendous as are its mountains and wonderful as are its lakes, snowfields, and glaciers, the park has another value and an- other beauty quite apart from this. The abundance and variety of game indigenous to its rough mountains is noteworthy. For- merly it was a great range for bison, the dark timber-inhabiting animals, of which a few yet linger in the Yellowstone National Park. AMERICAN FORESTRY . Some moose still inhabit the thick timber of the Glacier Park’s mountain slopes, where there are also a very few elk, some mule deer, and some whitetail deer. Black and grizzly bears, and their signs, are seen from time to time. The great importance of the region, however, is as a range for mountain sheep and for white Rocky Mountain goats. In this park there are probably more wild sheep than in any equal area in the United States, and in some sections white goats are very abundant. Only a few years ago some travelers counted at a single view several little bunches of goats—forty in all—feeding in a valley below the snow line near Iceberg Lake. “With protection and the introduction of a few buffalo, the Glacier Park will become a wonderful preserve for the perpetuation of many forms of the large animal life in North America.” ye ye oye State Must Aid Reforestation The editor of the Duluth News Tribune has his own ideas about what should be done to renew the forest growth of the state. He would let the remaining trees do the refor- esting and have the state devote its energy to protecting the new growth. This will do where there are some remaining trees to start things. Where they have been cleaned up altogether the seedlings or the seeds must be furnished by the aid of the state—Mzissis- sippt Valley Lumberman. we OM The Demand for Cypress Cypress dealers note an increasing demand for cypress in northern markets, where white pine and other native woods have held the field. The claim is made that cypress has been selling, comparatively speaking, much below its intrinsic value, and that the in- creasing demand will bring about a rise in price. we The Great User of Mahogany The United States is the greatest user of mahogany, and about seventy-five per cent of the world’s output is marketed here. Our mahogany supply comes chiefly from Africa, through Liverpool, where it is sold at pe- riodical auctions. The American dealers, being the heaviest buyers, get the best. Shortage and the increasing demand have pushed prices at present to the highest point known. The American Forestry Association OFFICERS FOR 1910 PRESIDENT CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts VICE-PRESIDENTS JOSHUA L. BAILY, Pennsylvania RUTHERFORD P. HAYES, North Carolina CHARLES W. ELIOT, Massachusetts GEORGE FOSTER PEABODY, New York B. E. FERNOW, Ontario, Canada J. E. RANSDELL, Louisiana W. W. FINLEY, District of Columbia J. T. ROTHROCK, Pennsylvania DAVID R. FRANCIS, Missouri ALBERT SHAW, New York EXECUTIVE SECRETARY EDWIN A. START, 1410 H StreetN. W., Washington, D. C. TREASURER OTTO LUEBKERT, Washington, D. C. DIRECTORS PHILIP W. AYRES, New Hampshire GEORGE H. MAXWELL, Illinois ROBERT P. BASS, New Hampshire CHARLES F. NESBIT, District of Columbia CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts CHARLES L. PACK, New Jersey WILLIAM S. HARVEY, Pennsylvania M. V. RICHARDS, District of Columbia JOHN E. A. HUSSEY, Massachusetts CUNO H. RUDOLPH, District of Columbia OTTO LUEBKERT, District of Columbia FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Pennsylvania GEORGE D. MARKHAM, Missouri JAMES S. WHIPPLE, New York GEORGE P. WHITTLESEY, District of Columbia Advisory Board, Representing Affiliated Organizations YELLOW PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION PHILIP S. GARDINER, Laurel, Miss. N. W. McLEOD, St. Louis, Mo. _ H. H. WHELESS, Shreveport, La. NATIONAL WHOLESALE LUMBER DEALERS’ ASSOCIATION ROBT. C. LIPPINCOTT, Philadelphia, Pa. LEWIS DILL, Baltimore, Md. R. M. CARRIER, Sardis, Miss. NORTHERN PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION C. A. SMITH, Minneapolis, Minn. WILLIAM IRVINE, Chippewa Falls, Wis. F. E. WEYERHAEUSER, St. Paul, Minn. MASSACHUSETTS FORESTRY ASSOCIATION NATHANIEL T. KIDDER, Milton, Mass. FREDERIC J. CAULKINS, Boston IRVING T. GUILD, Arlington, Mass. LUMBERMEN’S EXCHANGE WILLIAM L. RICE, Philadelphia, Pa. FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Philadelphia, Pa. SAMUEL B. VROOMAN, Philadelphia, Pa. NATIONAL SLACK COOPERAGE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION J. T. WYLIE, Saginaw, Mich. JAMES INNES, Chatham, Ontario C. H. KEYS, New York City NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BOX MANUFACTURERS B. W. PORTER, Greenfield, Mass. S. B. ANDERSON, Memphis, Tenn. ROBT. A. JOHNSON, Minneapolis, Minn. CARRIAGE BUILDERS’ NATIONAL ASSOCIATION H. C. McLEAR, Wilmington, Del. D. T. WILSON, New York Cc. D. FIRESTONE, Columbus, Ohio BOSTON PAPER TRADE ASSOCIATION N. M. JONES, Lincoln, Maine JOHN E. A. HUSSEY, Boston, Mass. ARTHUR L. HOBSON, Boston, Mass. | | Application for Membership To EDWIN A. START Secretary American Forestry Association 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. _ Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become a member of the American Forestry Asso- ciation. One dollar ($1.00) for annual dues is enclosed herewith. Very truly yours, Name P. O. Address UISUODSI ~ ‘UOSI pe] ANOLVUNOsVT SLONGOUd LSAYOd AHL eon FORESTRY | No. 7 Vola evil GAL Nis atone) THE NEW FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY By EDWIN A. START (Last month, in AmeERIcCAN ForESTRY, It is about five years since the efforts William L. Hall, assistant forester in charge of the Branch of Products, United States Forest Service, set forth clearly the key thoughts underlying the work of his branch and the significance of the new laboratory, which was formally opened June 4, and which is described in detail below. ) HERE are still lumbermen, and other citizens less directly inter- ested, who regard the work of the l‘orest Service as impractical and in the air, but not one of them can come into contact with the branch of products without recognizing the immediate eco- nomic value and applicability to busi- ness of the solutions of the problems with which it deals, for the task of this branch of the service is to ascertain the best uses for all forest products and the best and cheapest way to obtain them, without waste in the forest or at the mill. That is a simple business question, is it not? And the most hard- ened Philistine can see it. And because no capable business man can fail to see this, and because the work of the branch of products is only an interlocking and dependent part of the whole forestry program, this branch has in its power, with the facilities it now commands, to do more than any other agency to educate the men of the wood-using industries into true believ- ers in the complete forestry gospel. began to obtain such a laboratory, but Congress would not provide for it, and it was only through the cooperation of the University of Wisconsin that it was finally made possible. There was a keen rivalry between Minnesota, Wis- consin, and Michigan for the institu- tion, but it was finally located in Wis- consin. No mistake would have been made in locating it in any one of these states, but to an unprejudiced observer the present surroundings seem particu- larly fortunate. Wisconsin still ranks near the head of the list of lumber states and its paper and other wood-using in- dustries are important. Its prosperity rests on the fundamental industries of the soil and the forest. In the develop- ment of its university it closely followed Michigan as the western leader in higher educational work, and for many years its university has ranked with the first state universities of the country. In no state has the university so nearly met the needs of the people and made itself so much a part of their daily lives. Here is realized the ideal which was in the minds of the founders of William and Mary College, when they put it down at one end of the Duke of Glou- cester Street in the old colonial capital of Virginia, looking through the long vista to the capital at the other. From 387 AMERICAN HORE ST RY a om * & = ¥ WASTEFUL LUMBERING Redwood, red fir, and spruce in California time at the formal opening on the 4th of June. Typical operations were in progress in all the departments, and the visitors, numbering nearly 500, had an opportunity to see the plant in ac- tion. There were in attendance rep- resentatives of the American Paper and Pulp Association, Beer Stave. Manu- facturers’ Association, Michigan Hard- wood Manufacturers’ Association ; Na- tional Box Manufacturers’ Association, National Electric Light Association, National Hardwood Lumber Associa- tion, National Slack Cooperage Manu- facturers’ Association, National Lum- ber Manufacturers’ Association, Na- tional Hickory Association, National Wagon Manufacturers’ Association, Wheelmakers’ Club, Northern Hem- lock and Hardwood Manufacturers’ As- sociation, North- ern Pine Manu- facturers’ Associ- ation, Northwest- ern Cedarmen’s Association, Ve- hicle Woodstock Company, Wood Preservers’ Asso- ciation, Yellow Pine Manutactur- ers’ Association, Field Museum, Chicago; Amer- ican Society of Civil Engineers, American For- estry Association, educational insti- tutions, technical periodicals, — rail- roads, and large concerns engaged wood- industry. in every using The were simple and appropriate. The building was in- spected- and “the work explained during the fore- noon, and, after luncheon, attended by about 150, in one of the university’ halls, there were addresses by Governor Davidson, Henry S. Graves, forester of the United States; Charles R. Van Hise, president of the University of Wisconsin ; Capt. J. B. White, chairman of the Committee on Conservation, Na- tional Lumber Manufacturers’ Associ- ation; B. R. Goggins, of Grand Rapids, Wis., representing the American Paper and Pulp Association, and O. B. Ban- nister, of Muncie, Ind., representing the implement and vehicle industries. The speaking: was in every way suited to the occasion, each speaker filling well a distinct place. Ex-Governor W. D. Hoard, chairman of the board of regents of the university, presided. exercises So Governor Davidson, speaking for the state, set forth with abundant facts its relation to this national institution that has been placed in Wisconsin with the cooperation of the state. He used an array of statistics in regard to the for- est products of the state, which are just being made available through joint investigations of the United States and Wisconsin forest services. Of the inter-dependence of natural resources, the governor well said: Every one of our great natural resources exerts far-reaching influence. Every industry in this country has profited vastly by the ex- istence of our iron and coal deposits. In the same way, every industry in the United States has becn helped—indeed, has been more than helped: has been in part created—by an abundant supply of the mest useful kinds of timber. The forest, in fact, bears a relation to other resovrees and to their dependent in- cust.ies which is entirely peculiar. If we speak of the right use of the forest, and understand the full meaning of our words, we know that we cover not only the products which come from the trees themselves, but the influence which the forest bears to re- sources and industries outside of itself. If we speak of forest waste, we should bear in mind that our meaning extends not only to wood that is not used, but to soil which can- not be used, water which cannot be used, im- provements which cannot be used, and even power which cannot be used, because of the misuse of that controlling factor, the forest. I want to make very clear this point—that when we misuse the forest, we waste not only its products, but, also, other very im- portant resources. Nature has placed in ef- fect a direct and vital relation between for- ests and soils, and forests and streams, that must be heeded by man if he is to reap a full harvest from any of these resources. And of waste in lumbering, he said (and in Wisconsin people know some- thing about this) : _ It is of great importance to all wood-using industries of the United States to bear in mind that our present imperfect use of the forest also causes great waste of wood itself, which is a most important material. This waste begins when the lumberman first sinks his ax into the tree in the woods, and does not end until the piece of wood is fitted into final form and goes into use. We waste about half of the tree getting the other half into useful form. It has been the practice to leave a considerable part of the tree, and oftentimes the very best part, in the stump. AMERICAN FORESTRY A lot of wood is wasted in the tops. Many trees are cut and felled, but never taken out of the woods, because they are in part defective. Yet they contain much sound wood. In the old white pine operations in Michigan and Wisconsin, only prime logs were taken. Lumbermen working near these old operations -during the past few years found it profitable to take out a considerable number of these which still remain sound. Many logs are also lost. Some are left in the woods, but more sink into the streams. Probably as much as twenty-five per cent of the wood which is cut down in the forest is left there to decay. Mr. Graves set forth the work and plans of the service of which he is the head, as expressed in this new realiza- tion of its ideals. His address, “The Work of the Government in Forest Products,” is printed elsewhere in this magazine, as. 1S. the address of “Ma. Goggins, of the American Paper and Pulp Association, setting forth the rela- tion of his constituency to this work. Captain White gave some instances showing the early interest of the lum- bermen in the work represented by the new laboratory. Among others, he made the point, a favorite one with him, and a just one, of the cost of con- servation. On this he said: Once the farmer reaped and put nothing back for the soil. He gathered all, and the consumer got the benefit of cheap farm prod- ucts. But he has now learned that he must put back into the soil the chemical food nec- essary to sustain it. He must add this to the cost of the product, and the consumer must pay the bill. Hence, conservation doesn’t necessarily mean that through its practice everything is to be cheaper, but it does mean that all the necessaries of life, with its com- forts and blessings, shall continue, and that there never shall be famine, human suffering, or want caused by useless waste and extrava- gance. There will be no more 10-cent corn and no more $10 lumber. The farmer who feeds 50- cent corn to his hogs and his steers will necessarily get higher prices for his beef and bacon. And the lumberman, now that the day has passed when there was an enormous surplus of timber, when it had to be burned to make way for settlement and cultivation of the land; now that he has to conserve and grow his forest, has got to add thereto the cost of the forest growth, and the con- sumer will pay the bill. Yet we are each and all consumers of each other’s products, and thus it is all evened up by our paying each other’s bills. There is no economical THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY Timber Physics, principle through which one can continue to secure to himself any product at less than it costs to produce that product. President Van Hise spoke on con- servation and on the relation of his great university to this new project with the force and cogency which his scientific knowledge and his profound convictions give to all his utterances on these subjects. The speaking was well closed by Mr. Bannister, who aptly represented an in- dustry that has already learned the practical business value of the work of the forest products branch, whose tests made possible the reclassification of hickory and the use of the formerly discarded red -btekery. Mr. Bannister referred to this in his address. That there was general interest in the new laboratory and great satisfac- tion with it on the part of the visitors no one who was present could doubt. As one cooperage man was heard to say to another after watching a dem- Dead load testing machine onstration of the structure of dif- ferent varieties of oak: “This shows us the reason for things we have simply run against in our experience without understanding them.” This more per- fect know ledge i is certainly worth some- thing. AMete, IPILANIN (I iS a Substantial at brick building, 180 The laboratory tractive two-story feet long and eighty feet wide. it was erected, and will be supplied with water, light, heat, and power by the state of Wisconsin. The United States, through the Forest Service, provides the equipment and the staff and all other maintenance. As a further evi- dence of the fine spirit of cooperation which is embodied here, it may be noted that the railroads are furnishing free carriage for the supplies of the labora- tory, and that lumber companies and associations are giving material of great value for experimental purposes. 393 THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY The wood working shop On the ground floor are the paper and pulp mills, laboratories for timber physics and timber testing, wood pres- ervation, and wood distillation, and the woodworking shop. The last is fully equipped with saws, planers, and all re- quired woodworking machinery. In the rear of the building is a spur track by which timber and other supplies can be brought to the door on the car. There is also a roomy storage shed, and there are two large tanks for stor- ing preservatives. On the second floor are the offices of the assistant forester in charge of the branch of prodtcts, William L. Hall; the director of the laboratory, McGarvey Cline, and the assistant directors, H. S. Bristol, and EROS. Weiss. iheresisea large lecture room and there are offices for the computing clerks, files and other requirements of a highly organized modern business. Also on this floor are the chemical laboratories, drafting room and photographic dark room. The building is: airy, well lighted, and at- 394 tractive—yet already the young enthu- siasts of the service, who dream of to-morrows while they work at the tasks of to-day, are talking of possible enlargement in the near future. This is a healthy sign. The work grows constantly, not only in scope, but in real value as well. THE BRANCH OF PRODUCTS The branch of products undertakes to conduct investigations and dissemi- nate information regarding the mechan- ical, physical, and chemical character- istics and properties of wood, utiliza- tion of forest products, air seasoning and artificial drying of wood, agencies destructive to wood, wood preserva- tion, wood distillation, production of naval stores, pulp and paper and other chemical industries using forest prod- ucts, chemical analyses of forest prod- ucts and materials used in their treat- ment ; statistics of production, consump- tion and prices of forest products, proc- THE NEW FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY esses and waste in their manufacture and use, standard requirements, and substitutions of wood with other mate- rials. In carrying out projects along these lines, it is required that there be a clear and definite object, method and record, for it is the part of this organ- ization to do those things which busi- ness men need to have done but cannot do because of pressure of the immediate business of the day. Here there can be experiment, study, computation, and so full and exact a record that the re- sults will always be of use, and avail- able. Forest products is not a new branch of the service, and a very complete or- ganization and method of procedure have already been worked out. The scope and plan of the organization are shown in the accompanying diagram. WOOD UTILIZATION Office of Chief Chicago, lil. PRODvUCTS Office of Asst: Forester Madison, Wis. 395 5. Wood Pulp, in charge of E. Suder- meister. 6. Chemistry, in charge of Bateman. 7. Engineering, in charge of Thelen. 8. Pathology. connection with Industry at Humphrey. ) g. Maintenance, a non-technical sec- tion, in charge of W. K. Kempfer. Ernest (This 1s conducted in the Bureau of Plant Washington, by C. J. On: the staff of the laboratory are four Yale men, including the assistant directors ; three Cornell men, two from Purdue, two from Massachusetts In- stitute of Technology, two from Ohio State University, and one each from Stevens Institute of Technology, Uni- versity of Maine, University of Michi- gan, and University of California. PRODUCTS LABORATORY Office. of Director Maclison, Wis. PRESERVATION| || CHEMISTRY DISTILLATIO DISTRICT 2 DISTRICT 5 DISTRICT 6 Denver, Col. Son Francisco, al. Portland Ore. The work of the laboratory is divided into nine sections : 1. Timber Physics, in charge of H.D. Tiemann. 2. Timber Tests, in charge of J. A. Newlin. 3. Wood Preservation, in charge of F: N. Bond. 4. Wood Distillation, in charge of L. F. Hawley. An outline of the different sections, the projects that they have in hand, and the equipment with which they have to work, will give a comprehensive idea of the function of this laboratory. TIMBER PHYSICS It is the business of the section of timber physics to study the structural and physical properties of wood and 6 PO Re —_ =e Ma ti aaa a“ » “we ad a — i ee A | gf yerww « : h twtr © ‘= =e 4 phar re ae etl =e a tome an —e € fe =mme Eas need ee a. a — | — wee oe ntimtints wa -extoammen ate Soe i ——_, a 5 ie alee ewe: ol Semele ll mee a ae ee soumenes . eh pecwie: oi@« Ge a= —_ = te ~) - . : . « = THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY Wood preservation wood most effectively with the presery- atives. To study the first class of these prob- lems, the laboratory is provided with a fungus pit, which contains chambers in which the wood can be thoroughly in- oculated with various destructive fungi. The humidity and temperature of the pit can be regulated to produce condi- tions most favorable to fungus growth. Woods treated with different preserva- tives are placed in this pit, where they can be isolated in chambers. The ef- ficiency of the preservative is indicated by the ability of the wood treated with it to ward off the attacks of fungi un- der these conditions. The second class of problems involv- ing the impregnation of wood are chiefly those of mechanical engineering and the plant of the laboratory is most complete in this respect. It is, in fact, a reproduction of a fully developed commercial plant. The machinery is provided for- forcing any required amount of preservative into the species Open tank treatment on the left; commercial treating plant in the ceatre and forms of wood which may tested. This is done under high pre ure, and the treated cylinders are test for great resistance. The outfit cludes one treating cylinder three a one-half feet in diameter and twe feet in length, which will withstan¢ working pressure of 300 pounds to | square inch. There is also a small | perimental cylinder one and one-h feet in diameter and three feet lo: designed to withstand a working pre ure of 600 pounds to the square in This apparatus is connected with a s tem of tanks, force, air, and vacu' pumps for handling these preservati and forcing them into the wood, Th is also an open tank outfit for the si pler treatment of butts of posts ¢ poles, such as is practicable for farm and others using much of this mater but not enough to justify having course to a commercial plant. In 1 connection it may be time only can tell what much superior value the suggested | and h closed ti 396 to ascertain how these properties are affected by different methods of drying and handling. This section has in hand at present a miscroscopic examination of American woods for the purpose of developing a key to their identifica- tion- based. on ‘the structunemor. the wood; experiments to determine heat conductivity and other heat constants for the principal commercial timbers. In the kiln drying of lumber and in the treatment of woods with preservatives it is of importance to know how much heat is required, and how long it takes to heat wood to a given temperature. A third line of experiments is the study of different methods of drying wood. The equipment of this section in- cludes microscopes, microtomes, and other apparatus required for micro- scopic work,apparatus for taking micro- phetographs, a cylinder desizned for the study of the different methods of crying wood, and an experimental dry- kiln, balancers, ovens, calorimeters, and other miscellaneous equipment. TIMBER TESTS In the section of timber tests studies are made of the strength, stiffness, hardness, and other mechanical prop- erties of commercial wood. There are some very interesting machines for de- termining these points. Tests are made on woods that have been treated with preservatives and other substances to determine the effect of the preservative treatment upon the mechanical prop- erties of the natural wood. The lines of work to be taken up in this section include tests of the dif- ferent commercial woods to determine their relative strength, toughness, hardness, etc. This work is of par- ticular value to wood users in finding substitutes for woods now becoming scarce. It is the same type of work that led to the discovery which has already been referred to of the value of red hickory. Tests will also be made to determine the influence of knots, checks, and other defects used in grad- ing structural timbers upon _ their AMERICAN FORESTRY strength and other mechanical prop- erties. The results of these tests, of course, will be of great value to archi- tects, engineers, and lumbermen = in making specifications and grading rules for structural timber. Tests will be made to determine the strength of wood under dead, impact, or repetitive loading. Such tests will assist in de- termining the working stress that may be used upon timber structures. One of the interesting pieces of apparatus used in this laboratory is the machine for making the dead-load test, and one of the surprising results which the rec- ord of this machine shows is that the rapidity of loading does not affect the elasticity of the wood. The mechanical properties of wood that is impregnated with creosote and other preservatives will also be determined in this section. The equipment of this laboratory in- cludes one 200,000-pound extension- base Reihle testing machine, one 150,000-pound extension-base Olsen testing machine, three 30,000-pound Olsen universal testing machines, one 60,000-inch-pound Reihle torsion ma- chine, one Dory abrasion machine, one impact testing machine, deflectome- ters, and other instruments used in testing structural materials. Our il- lustrations show some of this machin- ery. The nature of some of the timber tests 1s also shown in some of the ac- companying illustrations. WOOD PRESERVATION This is an interesting and important section. More and more it becomes necessary, in the face of a diminish- ing timber supply, to preserve in some fashion poles, posts, ties, and all timbers that are exposed to influences that will cause them to deteriorate. Somehow their life must be extended until sup- plies can be regrown. Much progress has been made in the work of wood preservation, but a great deal remains to be learned. This section is making a broad study of the problems involved. These deal with the preservatives them- selves and their effects upon wood, and with the methods of impregnating the THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY Wood preservation. wood most effectively with the presery- atives. To study the first class of these prob- lems, the laboratory is provided with a fungus pit, which contains chambers in which the wood can be thoroughly in- oculated with various destructive fungi. The humidity and temperature of the pit can be regulated to produce condi- tions most favorable to fungus growth. Woods treated with different preserva- tives are placed in this pit, where they can be isolated in chambers. The ef- ficiency of the preservative is indicated by the ability of the wood treated with it to ward off the attacks of fungi un- der these conditions. The second class of problems involv- ing the impregnation of wood are chiefly those of mechanical engineering and the plant of the laboratory is most complete in this respect. It is, in fact, a- reproduction of a fully developed commercial plant. The machinery is provided for- forcing any required amount of preservative into the species Open tank treatment on the left; commercial treating plant in the centre and forms of wood which may be tested. This is done under high press- ure, and the treated cylinders are tested for great resistance. The outfit in- cludes one treating cylinder three and one-half feet in diameter and twelve feet in length, which will withstand a working pressure of 300 pounds to the square inch. There is also a small ex- perimental cylinder one and one-half feet in diameter and three feet long, designed to withstand a working press- ure of 600 pounds to the square inch. This apparatus is connected with a sys- tem of tanks, force, air, and vacuum pumps for handling these preservatives and forcing them into the wood. There is also an open tank outfit for the sim- pler treatment of butts of posts and poles, such as is practicable for farmers and others using much of this material but not enough to justify having re- course to a commercial plant. In this connection it may be suggested that time only can tell what and how much superior value the closed tank 307 THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY Wood distillation pressure treatment has over the sim- pler and far less expensive open tank process. The theory is, and there is no reason to doubt its correctness, that the deeper the preservative is forced into the wood the less will be the op- portunity for fungi to enter. Those who cannot use this elaborate treat- ment, however, need not despair, for there is known to be great value in open tank treatment, or even in the ap- plication with a brush of good pre- servatives. WOOD. DISTILLATION Alcohol, turpentine, wood creosote, and acetates are the present best known products of wood distillation. It is the task of this section to conduct experi- ments to determine what products of this kind can be secured from different woods, and the best processes for ob- taining them; to study the design and operation of machinery best adapted for the production of these by-products so that they can be produced most eco- 208 nomically, both as to quantity and qual- ity, and to study the refining of crude products. It is obvious to anyone who has noted the development of these in- dustries that here is a large field for the utilization of much material that now is wasted. Already, great advances have been made, and there is no ques- tion in anybody’s mind that greater still are not far distant. The species to be first studied are southern pine, Douglas fir, Norway pine, and other resinous woods. Al- ready the products that can be obtained from these woods are known, but there is greater room for improvement in the methods of production and refining. The distillation of different hardwoods will also be studied. Slabs, sawdust, stumps, and all forms of mill and forest waste are material for such a laboratory as this. The equipment includes a steam dis- tillation and extraction retort; one oil- jacketed destructive distillation retort, and three product continuous refining still and accessory apparatus. THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY One end of pulp and paper mill THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY The pulp and paper mill, showing the little 15-inch Fourdrinier paper machine 402 which do not require laboratory work, those which can be solved by coop- erative studies with the manufacturers, or which can be worked out by statis- tical study. The question is sometimes asked why this office is located in Chi- cago. The answer is in a sense an ex- planation of the nature of its work. Chicago is not only central, but it con- tains every industry that is concerned with forest products. When any in- formation is needed in regard to the results and requirements of any in- dustry, Mr. Sackett can get into com- munication with representatives of that industry without delay. Seventeen of the great wood-industry organizations have secretaries or managers in Chi- cago. Chicago is the greatest lumber and wood-manufacturing center in the country. These are a few of the most cogent among many reasons for the es- tablishment of this office here. The nature of the work of this office is suggested by some of the projects at present on the program. A report has already been made on the vexed ques- tion of odd lengths. This shows that in the yellow pine district of the south one and twenty-one one-hundredths per cent of the products of the planing mill are wasted annually because of the non- manufacture of odd lengths. This en- tails a loss of about $600,000. The re- port urges the manufacture of odd lengths with some concession to the buyer. Samples of red cedar, alligator juni- per, western juniper, redwood, incense cedar, western red cedar, Port Orford cedar, and Alaska cypress from the na- tional forests of the Rocky Mountains and mountain cedar from a private for- est in Texas have been furnished to four of the largest pencil manufacturers of the east, and they will give them a thorough trying out for pencil manu- facture. A report is about due on this work. In a similar way, several west- ern woods are being sampled for the manufacture of shuttles. With the as- sistance of manufacturers of butter and tobacco boxes, a test is being made of AMERICAN FORESTRY short lengths of cypress for these pur- poses, and of incense cedar for to- bacco boxes. At the request of the National Hick- ory Association, a study of better meth- ods of utilizing hickory will soon be begun and is expected to occupy about four months, Studies are being made-of markets and market reports; and statistics of consumption have been gathered in co- operation with Massachusetts, North Carolina, Kentucky, Wisconsin, and Maryland. The service alone has gath- ered the statistics for Illinois. These reports are of great value. “They show what part of the total demand, and of the demand for each species, is met by forests and woodlots in the state, and what part is supplied from without. The kinds of wood demanded by the various industries are shown, together with the amount of each species used, the prices paid at the factory, and into what product each wood is manufac- tured. With this information before them, the woodlot owners who are look- ing to the future can determine what kinds of timber promise best returns and can give preference to those kinds. Those who have timber or lumber to sell can form an intelligent opinion as to where the best market can be found for what they have to offer. On the other hand, the manufacturer who is in the market for woods of certain kinds, will have the means to determine whether he can buy near home- or whether he must look beyond the state ; and a study of average prices paid by others will show whether or not he has been buying on an equal footing with others.” The Massachusetts report is printed, by that state, and those for Wisconsin, North Carolina, and Maryland are in type. These studies will be continued the coming season in Louisiana, Michi- gan, Missouri, and Pennsylvania. The office also gathers statistics of cost and prices, giving data not here- tofore available in any form. The office has taken up the question of fiber and wood boxes. While be- THE NEW FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY lieving that fiber as a box material has its place, and has come to stay, Mr. Sackett has reached certain conclusions under which he regards wooden boxes as more desirable for general use under present conditions. As an element in conservation, fiber has the same draw- back as wood pulp, for since everything can be used its adoption on a large scale tends to more complete forest de- struction. The question is now being taken up by the National Box Manu- facturers’ Association and National Lumber Manufacturers’ Association. Accurate information is sought on the amount of business lost by wooden box manufacturers, and on the character of the material going into the fiber, whether mill waste or material that should go into high-grade lumber. These few examples illustrate the wide range of inquiries continually opening before this office, which, through close relations with the manufacturers, can do much to promote the most com- plete and economic utilization of all the products of forest and mill. It is the business of the office to show the manu- facturer how he can add to the profits of his business by reducing waste and economizing production. CONCLUSION For several days following the open- ing of the laboratory, the heads of the sections and divisions of the branch of 403 products from all of the different of- fices were in conference at Madison, with the purpose of developing their program and organizing their work so as to take up slack all along the line, cut red tape as much as possible, and bring the methods of their branch up to the highest standard of business efficiency. In the systematic methods and the actuating spirit of this conference, with its strong esprit du corps, there is something admirable and full of assurance for the future of the great work entrusted to this group of young men. The fact cannot be too strongly em- phasized that the new laboratory, as well as every office of the branch, wher- ever located, is national in its work and outlook. Removal from Washington does not localize it in the least. In fact, it broadens the outlook, inasmuch as it takes it out of the official atmosphere of the national capital, right among the people who are doing the work with which its activities are directly» con- cerned. Through its several offices, it reaches into all parts of the country, touching the users of wood at all points. and supplementing with its admirable facilities for experiment the daily prac- tical experience of business. The new laboratory is the most ex- tensive and best equipped of its kind in America, and probably in the world, and it is in the hands of a group of men qualified to make good use of it in the country’s service. HENRY S, GRAVES == Forester of the United States, and one of the chief participants in the opening of the new laboratory at Madison THE WORK OF THE GOVERNMENT IN FOREST PRODUCTS By HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester of the United States An address delivered at the opening of the Forest Products Laboratory, June 4, 1910 HE United States is now facing the problem of forest conserva- tion which must be solved by every country some time during its his- tory. The original American forests were unexcelled anywhere in the world. Not only did they cover a vast area, but they were characterized by trees of great age and size, and by an unusual variety of valuable species. Heretofore we have drawn chiefly upon the original supply of timber, and the bulk of the lumber used in this country to-day is still from trees over 150 years of age. In spite of the rapid rate of cutting and the destruction of forests by fire, ample supplies have been made avail- able by the opening of new regions through the extension of railroads and through the development of logging en- gineering. The process, however, can- not be continued indefinitely. Already the end of the virgin supply of timber is clearly in sight, and all thoughtful men who are familiar with the condi- tions appreciate that there is before us a problem which very profoundly af- fects the welfare of the country The problem of forest conservation must be worked out from two stand- points; first, by securing the greatest possible economy in the utilization of forest products, and, second, by pro- ducing new supplies through forest growth. At present, there is a great loss in the utilization of forest products, and the production of new supplies is en- tirely inadequate to meet the require- ments of the people in the future, Within recent years great progress has been made in the protection of forests from fire. The loss from that source has been greatly reduced, although there is still an enormous amount of destruction of young growth by fire, and in some sections fire has almost entirely prevented forest reproduction. One of the most important aims of the forestry movement has been to bring about not only the protection of stand- ing timber from fire and other agencies, but also the replacement of forests as they are cut and the establishment of new stands of timber on denuded lands. ' Forestry, however, does not stop with the growth of trees. It concerns itself equally with the disposal and utilization of the products. The two branches of forestry, forest utilization a forest production, are inseparably _ related. The market for products is one v6 the factors most controlling the selection of species to be grown and the methods of handling woodlands for forest growth. The study of forest products is, therefore, one of the most important lines of work of the Forest Service. The fundamental purposes of the work of the Service in products are, first, to bring into use the greatest pos- sible amount of the products of the for- ests with the least possible waste, and, second, to place these products to their best use. In other words, the Service aims to aid in. making the material which can be obtained from the forest meet in the highest degree the real re- quirements of the people. This broad principle is the foundation of the work which will be done at and in connection with this laboratory. In its work in products, the Forest Service keeps in view two objects: 405 406 AMERICAN First, direct aid to the various wood- using industries, and second, forest con- servation in its broadest sense. The interest, cooperation, and sup- port given to the Service by practical men engaged in different industries is proof of the appreciation of the work in products which has been done and is projected. The science of forestry in this coun- try is at its very beginning. While the American species of trees are well known botanically, the study of their life-history, their behavior in the forest, and their possibilities of production has only recently made much progress. It is equally true that our knowledge of the products of the various species is still very inadequate. The first necessity is to determine the fundamental properties of the various woods. This information is essential as a foundation for the study of the suitability of the different species for specific uses. At the present time there are many species which are little used or not used at all because of ignorance of their properties or prejudice against them. Many of the common commer- cial species are for the same reason con- fined to only a few of the possible uses. It is the aim of the Forest Service to show the possibilities of all the species and to demonstrate the uses to which each is best adapted. The demonstrations at the laboratory to-day have illustrated many of the spe- cial lines of work and the methods of conducting the investigations. You have seen the methods of studying the fundamental physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of wood. A further aim of the work at the laboratory is to study the methods of handling wood products so as best to adapt them to certain purposes. Studies will be carried on at the laboratory to show the behavior of the various woods under different conditions. One of the important problems is to determine the influence of different’ conditions of moisture on the strength, durability, and other characteristics of wood. This work will form the foundation for the investigation of the best methods of seasoning wood in order to bring the HORE SURRY products into the market in the most suitable condition for their various uses. The next problem is the study of how to treat wood products so as to improve their natural qualities. One of the most important lines of work at the laboratory will be the study of the treatment of wood to prolong its life. There is required in the first place a thorough study of the various preserv- atives. Then follows the investigation of the methods of treating the different species with reference to their peculiar specific characteristics. There are a multitude of problems of wood utilization, but among the most important are the investigations of the possibilities of the different species for the manufacture of paper,and the study of the by-products which can be ob- tained by various processes. The lab- oratory is especially equipped to make these investigations. I have given special emphasis to the fundamental and scientific character of the work to be done at the laboratory. Every investigation, however, is di- rected to the solution of some practical problem. Many experiments are con- ducted at the laboratory on a commer- cial scale, or commercial tests are made in cooperation with private concerns. In many cases, the work at the labora- tory is supplemented by extensive field experiments. Through cooperation with private companies and trade associa- tions, the investigations will not only be brought into the most practical lines. but the results will be given an imme- diate application. The branch of ‘forest products has been established at Madison. The lab- Oratory.1s the center of its work. It concerns itself, however, with the whole field of forest utilization. There are special branches of its work in the va- rious districts of the national forests of the west, and there are two sub- sidiary laboratories, one in the state of Washington, and one in Colorado. It is the design to bring the work into the closest relation with all the wood-using industries. The determination of the fundamental facts and principles of wood-utilization is the first step. To secure the practical application of those WORK OF THE GOVERNMENT IN FOREST PRODUCTS principles: requires the assistance and cooperation of all those interested in them in a practical way. There has been a most gratifying co- operation with the Forest Service by the different railroads, lumber com- panies, paper companies, woodworking concerns, and trade associations. I wish to take this occasion to express the ap- preciation of the Forest Service for this cooperation and assistance. From the standpoint of conservation, the work of the government in forest products is of great importance. When one examines the losses in the utiliza- tion of wood products, one finds that these begin in the woods. Many species dtesnot cut at all:.often the. trees left uncut deteriorate rapidly, or are blown over, or are injured in logging; fre- quently long tops containing a large amount of low-grade lumber are left in the woods; and many logs only partially defective remain on the ground. The cause of this seeming waste is the con- dition of the market. The lumberman seeks to take out only what he can dis- pose of at a profit. It is to his own in- terest to take out of the woods just as much as he can possibly utilize, because every increase in amount of marketable material removed reduces the cost of production and increases profits. The amount of waste in the woods is there- fore definitely governed by market con- ditions. In exactly the same way it is the condition of the market which causes a great loss in the manufacture of lumber. Close utilization follows good markets. It is the market, also, which most powerfully influences the problem of forest production. The better the market, the greater is the value of the timber; an improved market means a correspondingly increased inducement to protect the forests from fire; there is an increased value of immature and young growth; and a correspondingly greater justification for investments in holding and protecting cut-over lands for the production of new stands of timber. The work of the Forest Service in products will have a direct influence in the long run on market conditions. The 407 development of new uses of wood will bring into the market species and grades not before merchantable. The uses of wood for by-products will re- duce waste and enable the lumberman to use material now frequently left in the woods or wasted at the mill. The extension of the use of treated timber will enable the marketing of the less valuable species for uses now requiring the most valuable. There will thus be a constant tendency to extend the mar- ket and to decrease the loss in utiliza- tion all along the line from the stump to the manufactured product. There are, however, other factors in- fluencing the market which will not be directly touched by the investigations at the laboratory. These factors must not be overlooked in the consideration of the relation of the market for forest products to conservation. Problems connected with the methods of logging and manufacture of lumber, grades and sizes of lumber, rates for low-grade lumber, the car-stake question, etc., con- cern conservation. In some of these problems, the Forest Service can be of assistance through its work of products. One of the most serious problems, however, in the whole realm of forest conservation is that of over-production of lumber. In some sections of the country more lumber is being manufac- tured than is needed. There is, in con- sequence, a poor market for the lower grades and a great deal of waste in the woods and at the mill. From the standpoint of conservation, the condi- tion would not be so serious if the for- ests were being replaced after cutting. But the conditions which lead to waste in utilization prevent, also, the practice of forestry. There is, then, a double loss—waste of the present resources and prevention of the production of new resources. I doubt if this situation can be met at once or by the application of any one remedy. It is clear to my mind, how- ever, that in this case, as in other con- servation problems, there must be some present public investment for the fu- ture welfare of the country. This in- vestment will take two forms: First, an increased price of products which must 408 approach the cost of producing these by growth, and, second, direct invest- ment in public forests and forestry So far, the public has not appreciated this condition. There have been pub- lic appropriations for the administra- tion of the federal forests, but the va- rious states are not now making the investments necessary to solve their lo- cal problems of forestry ; the general public is apparently not yet prepared to pay more for the products in order to cover the cost of conservation. One of the first necessary steps is public education regarding our resources and the conditions of their utilization. A better appreciation by the public of the conditions of forest production, logging, and manufacturing of lumber is essential to work out this phase of conservation and bring about a proper adjustment between the limited re- sources and the needs of the people. I have felt justified in calling atten- tion to this problem because it is very closely related to the work of forest products and the application of the investigations in this branch of the Service. As I have only recently become con- nected with the Forest Service, I feel that I can speak without reserve in praise of the work which has been un- AMERICAN FORESTRY dertaken. I wish especially to com- pliment the work of Mr. Hall, Mr. Cline, and their associates in their work of forest products. I wish at this time to express my deep appreciation of the support and cordial cooperation of President Van Hise, and other authori- ties of the university who have made possible the Forest Products Labora- tory. I regard the cooperation with university of the greatest value. It is not only in the general educational work in forestry that the Forest Service will be greatly aided, but the associa- tion with the university will be very valuable in the conduct of the scientific work at the laboratory. We wish to maintain among our workers that spirit of search after truth which character- izes this great institution. The science of forestry is still in the creative stage. A great deal of the research and of the work of establishing the practice of for- estry must be done by the government. To carry on this work, I consider it of the greatest importance that there be no lessening of that spirit of individual initiative, personal responsibility, and high ideals which has characterized the members of the Service under the in- spiration of Gifford Pinchot. the SOME EXAMPLES OF TIMBER TESTS HE cuts on the five succeeding pages illustrate very clearly the = nature and the methods of some of the work done in one depart- ment of the forest products laboratory—that of timber tests. Machines of great simplicity, but efficiency, have been devised for deter- mining the strength of wood under different kinds of strain. Figure 1 shows a bridge tie of western yellow pine .which was broken by the blow of a 515-pound hammer falling twenty inches. Figure 2 shows a similar piece of timber which sustained under gradual loading a maximum load of 2,380 pounds, concentrated at two points equally distant from the center and one-third of the space apart. Figure 3 shows a white pine packing box which sustaind a maxi- mum load of 1,370 pounds, applied at diagonally opposite corners. This box was eighteen by twenty by thirty inches in size. Figure 4 shows the manner of testing hickory buggy spokes. Figure 5 shows the results of tortion or twisting tests upon sticks of red gum and four commercial grades of hickory. These tests were made some years ago, but they are typical of the work done in the section of timber tests. With the new equipment, the section will be able to do a much more comprehensive work in the future. 409 Sutpeoy] yoedusr tay adprsgq aurd mojjaA e Surysay — | ay sjutod pry} ye parjdde peo] ‘surpeoy jenpeas tot} aSpisq aurd mojjaA e 8u1}s2] —]] ‘314 Fig. III —Testing a white pine picking box; gradual loading ei oa) " PReamio aes 4) - Fig, IV--Testing a hickory buggy spoke VY ANY YSN NN in a hn a Os ore oe Gare Oa GO it dt ? Nahe v7 Axoy>iy JO Sopesd [e}9.19LUWOD INO} pue WN Pr. jo sHD13s UOdN s}s2} SU}JSIM) JO UOISI0, Jo S}]Nsay—A ‘314 wg pay OBE : xX) Kuosionp re he wynnig peso : ~—WNO psy puy haus ]eld4e WW’) jo sapoug ANd 30 Saunie Saver) Bumoys THE PAPER AND PULP INDUSTRY AND CONSERVATION By B. R. GOGGINS An address delivered by the author, representing the American Paper and Pulp Association at the opening of the Forest Products Laboratory, June 4, 1910 manufacturers of this country that the paper industry is specifically in- cluded within the purposes of this in- stitution. Wisconsin is the greatest paper- making state of the middle west, and ranks third in the Union. Its location, the extent and variety of its forest products and other natural conditions make it fairly typical of. the paper- making sections of the United States and an ideal location for this Forest Products Laboratory. Wisconsin’s seventy-five mills, owned by forty-five different concerns, manu- facture annually 459,000 tons of paper, 264,900 tons of groundwood pulp, 216,000 tons of sulphite pulp, or a total annual product of 939,900 tons, requir- ing annually for the production of such groundwood and sulphite pulps (480,900 tons), 300,000 cords, or 645,000 tons OL Spruce, ands 540,000: cords, Or 1, 350,000 tons of hemlock. Thirty years ago, as compared with to-day, but little paper was made or used in this country. At that time, little or no groundwood pulp was made, and no chemical pulp at all in the west. Commencing shortly after that time, groundwood pulp from poplar was made and used on a small scale, and within the next ten years, owing to its superior quality, groundwood pulp from spruce was largely used. About twenty-five years ago, sulphite pulp came into use in a very small way, and for a number of years was made entirely from spruce; but, as this tim- ber became scarcer, hemlock came into | T IS gratifying to the paper and pulp use for this purpose and has since been used therefor with success. Less than twenty-five years ago, paper-makers of Wisconsin regarded the supply of spruce in this state as in- exhaustible, but it grows sparsely and mixed with other timber, and in a few years they were undeceived, and for some years past have been forced to look to Minnesota and Canada for a supply of this timber. An important progressive step was the combined use of sulphite, manufac- tured from the more plentiful hemlock, with groundwood pulp from = spruce. But, notwithstanding our vast forests of hemlock and spruce, it soon became apparent that without provision for new growths and use of other kinds of timber or vegetation, the supply of both hemlock and spruce would in time be- come exhausted. And as they have be- come less in quantity, their cost has greatly increased. Within the last twenty years for a considerable period the price of spruce pulp wood of the best quality, delivered f. 0. b. cars at points in the Fox River Valley, Wis- consin, ranged from $4.50 to $5 per cord. Now, a comparatively inferior quality runs in prices from $10 to $11 per cord. Hemlock, then practically without value, now ranks even higher than spruce did at that time. Thus far, the production of pulp, groundwood or sulphite, has been prac- tically confined to spruce and hem- lock. Theoretically, there is no reason why any plant of the vegetable king- dom having fiber cannot be converted into pulp suitable for the manufacture 415 416 of paper. In the timber belts of this country are many kinds of wood in great quantities, and upon its soil are annually grown to maturity many plants Ww hich, it is believed, will be used in the manufacture of paper by proc- esses yet undiscovered. The planting and growing of new forests is already an assured fact. Thus will be brought to the paper industry an inexhaustible supply of raw material from farm and field and from forests now grown and growing and forests hereafter to be planted and grown. A cord of spruce, weighing about 4,300 pounds, yields on the average, by present methods employed, 1,700 pounds of groundwood pulp, or thirty-nine and fifty-three one-hundredths per cent of its weight. A cord of hemlock, weigh- ing about 5,000 pounds, yields in sul- phite, 800 pounds, being further re- duced in the process of converting it into paper to 727 pounds, or fourteen and fifty-four one-hundredths per cent of its weight. Therefore, in convert- ing spruce and hemlock into paper, there is at present a direct loss in ma- terial of sixty and forty-seven one- hundredths per cent and eighty-five and forty-six one-hundredths per cent, re- spectively. This illustration is sufficient to show the great loss of raw material in the manufacture of pulp and paper by the processes now known. As yet, no successful method for pro- ducing suitable groundwood pulp from hemlock has been discovered. What a wonderful saving in raw ma- terial there would be if a way were found of producing from hemlock groundwood pulp equal in weight and usefulness to that now derived from an equal weight of spruce! This alone would more than double the present pulp product from hemlock. What a wonderful addition there would be to the raw material for use in paper manufacture, should ways and means be discovered for use of the many other kinds of wood, cornstalks, and the numerous grasses found and grown in plenty in this country. Wealth AMERICAN FORE SERY. is always increased to the extent that waste is prevented and new sources of supply discovered. In this respect the paper industry is no worse off than any other. Man’s ways and devices for reducing to usable form the things which nature has pro- vided in such abundance for his happi- ness and comfort have usually been too crude and wasteful. He thinks seri- ously of efficiency and saving only when he can see the end of what he thereto- fore regarded as an inexhaustible sup- ply. It has been by one competent to speak, truthfully and timely written that: “Nature's operations are character- ized by marvelous efficiency and by lav- ish prodigality. Man is a child of na- ture as to prodigality, but not as to efficiency. If it had happened the other way—if he had followed nature’s lead as to efficiency, but had taken up par- simony as a distinctly human virtue— the human race would have become wealthy beyond conception.’ So, till very recent years, the people of this country, blessed with everything that goes to make a great people pros- the perous and happy, rested on as- sumption that its mines and forests were practically inexhaustible. They now know better, and the great prob- lem of the day is to reduce to a muni- mum the waste in the present ways of converting raw materials into product fit for consumption, to bring into serv- iceable, economical use everything that nature produces, and to provide ways and means for the reproduction of that which has been consumed. Timber has, and will continue to have, a multitude of useful purposes. However, while buildings, bridges, and other structures will in increasing num- bers and proportion be hereafter con- structed from stone, brick, cement, iron, and other like materials, thereby lessen- ing the claims on our forests for such purposes, resort must ever be had to the vegetable kingdom for materials out of which to make paper. *Harrington Emerson in July, 1908, En- gineering Magazine. THE; PAPE RAND PUEP INDUSTRY ” There are thus here pointedly pre- sented to us overpowering reasons why the paper industry should be specifically included within the purposes of this great institution. And it is fitting that such purposes should include the dis- covery of ways and means for the production, if possible, of a suitable grade of groundwood pulp from hem- lock and other kinds of wood than spruce; for the use of cheaper, more plentiful, and more quickly grown kinds of wood for use in the sulphite, soda, and sulphate processes; for the production of suitable pulps from corn- stalks, the different grasses, and like vegetation grown annually; for the saving and use of mill waste from pulp and fiber manufacture; for the mate- rial increase of the amount of pulp of all kinds from the raw materials. People engaged in the productive in- dustries, no matter how great their in- clination, have not always the leisure, means, or training necessary to work out to the best advantage methods and means for getting the most out of our natural resources. And it is because of this fact, among others, that the na- tional government wisely here assumes one of its greatest and most beneficial functions; for the nation which most economically and beneficially uses its natural resources must longest endure in happiness and prosperity. The united harmonious labors of the gov- ernment’s experts and the people prac- tically employed in the industries must necessarily be productive of the most satisfactory results, for the highest Success must necessarily attend upon the union of scientific experiment with practical application. Paper-making is an important and great industry. No other article, to my mind, has so many varied and ex- tensive uses. It has become a necessity of everyday life and has been and must continue to be identified with the ad- vancement of civilization. In the sense of the use of raw material from the forest, it is a new industry. It is but twenty years since the first paper was manufactured on the Wisconsin River, the present seat of a large part of the 4 417 Wisconsin production. Nine hundred ninety-six mills, representing an in- vestment of $350,000,000, are now en- gaged in the manufacture of pulp and paper in this country, yielding an an- nual product in value $250,000,000. In Wisconsin alone the direct investment in the industry is about $30,000,000, distributed in ownership among over 3,000 persons, with over 7,000 persons directly” employed therein, producing annually paper in value $23,000,000. About these mills have grown up thriv- ing cities and villages dependent upon this industry for support. This does not take into account the thousands of persons engaged in the preparation of the wood in the forests and in trans- portation of the raw materials to the mills and the finished products there- from to the market. It is safe to say that no other article in common use by the people has been furnished to them so cheaply and has increased more slowly in cost to the consumer, despite the great advance in cost of raw mate- rials and labor. Neither is it a decadent or dying in- dustry in this country, and, generally speaking, never will be in the localities where it is now made. The fact that the people of this na- tion must continue to have paper is, in itself, a reason why it should never become a decadent industry in this country. Combined with such necessity is the great economic reason that it re- quires great power and great quantities of raw materials in fairly close asso- ciation with each other. In Wisconsin alone there is estimated to be 160,000 horse-power of water-power employed in this industry. This country had at Hieetstac: sreat areas. of the finest forests, including about all the kinds of timber indigenous to our latitude. While its spruce is much depleted, it yet has great quantities of hemlock. Its still greater quantities of jack pine and other kinds of timber and other mentioned probable sources of supply, it is confi- dently believed will, at no distant day, be made available to this industry. It has great stretches of land which can and will most profitably be, and are now 418 AMERICAN to some extent being devoted to a new growth of timber. Some have thought that the paper industry must shortly die here and be transported to Canada. This is a mis- take. The quantity of timber there available for the purpose is less than some time ago supposed, and its water- powers, on account of the greater cold, are less efficient than our own. Its sup- ply of timber would and will, unless renewed by the very means by which our supply can and will be perpetuated, soon be exhausted, and what then? The necessary reestablishment of the industry in our own country. With our water-power in such large amount and improving efficiency, and our pres- ent supply of raw materials and facili- ties for the production of more, I be- lieve that this important industry will forever remain with us and continue to supply paper to this country at less cost than if the industry were trans- ferred to some other land. Tariffs have been considered necessary to the estab- lishment of industries for the produc- tion of things of prime necessity to the people. The continuance of such tariffs is often more necessary to the con- ¢ FORESTRY « tinuance of the industry thus estab- lished. But more important for the permanent welfare of the people is the direct, energetic, and intelligent appli- cation by the government of scientific thought and effort to the discovery and application of ways and means by which to reduce to the minimum loss in raw materials in the process of converting them into forms suitable for use, the discovery of new sources of supply. and to the replacement of what has been consumed by new growths where possible; for thereby such industries, however established, dependent on such raw materials, are perpetuated to the everlasting benefit of the people. For such purpose, in one department, is this institution established and to-day dedicated. The principle of conserva- tion of natural resources can have no truer or more beneficial application. In this work, no class of producers feel and have a greater interest than the paper and pulp manufacturers of the whole United States. Their loyal, active support and cooperation will never be found wanting in this important under- taking. TENNESSEE RIVER IMPROVEMENT AND SEDIMENTATION A reply to the testimony of Capt, Edward N, Johnston, U, S, Army, before the House Committee on Agriculture, on March 2, 1910, when considering the Weeks Bill By L. C. GLENN, Ph.D., Professor of Geology, Vanderbilt University years before the Committee on Agriculture of the House of Rep- resentatives, the writer has given testi- mony as to the harmful effect the ma- terial eroded from the steep head- water mountain slopes of the Tennessee River Basin is to-day having on the navigable portion of that stream. At the hearing on March 2, 1910, in response to an invitation extended by the committee to the army engineer’s of- fice, for information on the same sub- ject, Capt. Edward N. Johnston ap- peared as the representative of that office. After being questioned by the chairman to develop for the committee the fact that he was “familiar with the reports and the literature on the sub- ject” —not only published but unpub- lished—Captain Johnston said, in be- ginning, that there had developed among the engineers of the corps “a feeling of irritation at the fact that certain parties interested in forests, or others, have deemed it necessary to criticise the methods which have been followed up to the present time in the improvement of streams by the engineer department. Our hair bristled up, perhaps quite nat- urally, at some of these criticisms, and also because we feel that this com- mittee has been furnished, probably un- intentionally, with a considerable amount of misinformation on these subjects.”’ He then proceeds to quote at such length from the writer’s testimony be- fore the committee on January 30, 1908, that there can be no doubt as to one, \ T SEVERAL hearings in recent for this misinformation. His first quotation is as follows: I will take the Tennessee River. It is the largest and most important one, and it is a fair type of the rest of them. At Knoxville, Tenn., the head of navigation on the river, 650 miles above its mouth, I found a govern- ment fleet there—not one or two boats, but a fleet—engaged in dredging the channel and keeping it navigable. They dredge on a bar this summer, and they go back next summer and dredge the same bar. It fills up as fast as it is dredged out, and it is practically an unending work. They are receiving the ef- fects of the erosion of the steep mountain slopes. They are helpless. *k *K * cs * The natural fill becomes concentrated along the side of the island, and it is there that bars begin forming, and it is there that the United States Army engineers must step in and begin with their dams and locks and spend millions of dollars in improvement. He proceeds to refute the statements as to the importance of sand and gravel bars in the river, and tries to make it appear that the great majority of the obstructions down to Chattanooga are hard rock ledges. In order to do this he quotes from an old report of an ex- amination made by Lieut.-Col. S. H. Long, in 1830—eighty years ago. If Captain Johnston is at all familiar with the subject on which he was testifying as the official representative of his de- partment, he would know that one of the essential features of the contention of the advocates of forestry is that, as a result of the clearing of forests on steep slopes and the consequent increased at least, of those he thinks responsibleerosion, sedimentation has become much 419 420 AMERICAN more active within recent years, and that these changes have all occurred long since 1830. When his attention was called to this point by a member of the committee, Captain Johnston replied that he had no argument to make. Very naturally ; there was none to make. An examination of this same upper section of the river was made by army engi- neers in 1893, and the report was pub- lished, and while this is sixty-three years later, even it does not describe present conditions as the annual reports of the army engineers in the last few years give them. If Captain Johnston is as familiar with the published reports of his office as it is fair to presume him to be, and as the committee was given to believe at the outset of his testimony, why did he dig up an old 1830 description of the river and try to have the committee take it as an accurate description of present-day conditions? Why did he not at least come down sixty-three years later and quote from the 1893 report? Or, better still, why did he not quote from very recent annual reports—for much change has occurred since 1893— if he desired to really enlighten the committee on present-day conditions there? Let us, however, look somewhat closely at the testimony he does offer. He begins his quotation from the 1830 report with the following: No. 2. Lyons Shoals. These shoals are created by an extensive rocky bar, etc. It will be remembered that he is min- imizing the gravel and loose material, and magnifying the solid rock ledges. If we are curious why he did not begin with No. 1, instead of No. 2, and turn to the 1830 report, printed in 1875 as House, Exec. Doc: No. * 167. horny third Congress, Second Session, we will read: No. 1. Knoxville Shoals. * * * They are occasioned by a Eravelly bar extending quite across the river. * * This was opposed to the view he de- sited to impress upon the committee, and so was very conveniently left out. PORES? RY After’ quoting Nos 2 as@ fare asmas given above, he adds: “I will not go on with the rest of that.” If our curi- osity is again aroused as to why he did not go on, and we read on, we find a second bar mentioned under that head- ing, and then the statement: “The ob- structions on both [1. e., bars] consist of rocks at the bottom, mostly loose. * * *” That is, the bars were mostly of loose boulders, but Captain Johnston quoted just far enough to leave the opposite impression that they were firm rock ledges. Back in 1830, although there were some gravel bars on the upper river, they were doubtless stable, and_ re- mained so until within very recent years, when old ones began growing and new ones forming, as may be seen by reference to the recent annual re- ports of the army engineers. In 1830 most of the obstructions probably were rock ledges, and much of the money spent on the river in open channel work has been for building training walls and dams, but in recent years an _ ever- increasing proportion has been spent in dredging, and three dredging plants are now maintained on the river, one for each of its three sections. As to the magnitude of the gravel bars on the upper river, the 1893 report describes a number that vary in length from 2,500 to 7,000 feet each, and a number of gravel bars with occasional ledges of rock that run up to 15,000 or 20,000 feet each in length. Captain Johnston told nothing of these and did not quote from p. 1705 of the 1908 report that the dredge on the upper river had been doing such heavy digging that after only a few years’ use it had to be en- tirely rebuilt. As to the middle section of the river, he next quotes from the report of a sur- vey of the Tennessee River from Scott Point to Lock A, made in 1go1, that “there is little or no bar-making ma- terial traveling downward in the river bed,” sand. that ,there; 1s) lithe; on. ne moving material in the bed of the stream. He failed to tell they com- mittee that this same report, in direct conflict with the statements he did quote from it, shows that, in this distance of TENNESSEE RIVER IMPROVEMENT 159 miles, of the portions of less than five feet depth at mean low water, 81,850 feet, measured along the line ot the channel, have a sand and gravel bottom, 77,800 feet are of gravel and rock and only 27,900 feet are rock. Nor did he say that in this section between Guntersville and Hobbs Island there are a number of gravel bars on which the 1903 report on p. 1595 says shoaling is occurring and from which over 200,000 cubic yards of gravel have been removed in recent years. Captain Johnston also fails to quote from p. 2441 of the 1901 report concerning this same section in which the committee had been assured there was no loose, mov- ing, bar making material, that “at the entrance to both divisions of the [Muscle Shoals] canal also a large amount of silt accumulates at every high water, and constant dredging therefore is required to keep the canal cleared.” And all of this in a section that Captain Johnston would have the committee believe had no loose material in the bed of the river! Captain Johnston told the committee nothing whatever of the lower section of the river, 226 miles in length, where, as in all normal rivers, because of its slight slope, more gravel and sand lodge than in the upper reaches. Had it not been so thoroughly out of harmony with the idea he was trying to impress on the committee, he might have quoted from pp. 1712-13 of the engineer report of 1908 that some of the bars there per- sistently reform and require dredging every year or two, or from p. 566 of the same report, that while in 1896 there were forty-nine shoals—all but two or three being of gravel—in this lower section, several more have since devel- oped ; that 1,127,660 cubic yards of sand and gravel had been removed at about thirty-one of these localities in the last few years; and that as to the results of dredging, the best they themselves can say is that results appear to be fairly permanent at about two-thirds of the places improved. None of this fitted into his picture of a river prac- tically free from sand and gravel, and so was most conveniently omitted. 421 Captain Johnston continues quoting from the writer’s testimony in 1908 as follows : I have here a table, which I will not read, giving the streams in the south that are nav- igable, the length of navigation in each one, and the total expenditures of the United States government in 1790 to 1907, inclusive. On that Tennessee River over $8,000,000 have been spent. Under present conditions, there is no chance to permanently improve that navigable channel, because of the incessant inrush of the sand and gravel. If the ma- terial is checked before it ever starts, up in the mountains, and kept there by keeping forests on those steep slopes that ought never to be cleared, then the necessity for this con- stant dredging would be greatly decreased, or perhaps obviated entirely. Merely as a business proposition, is it better to bale out sand forever from the stream and take no means for preventing it from getting in there, or is it better to go to the root of the trouble and hold the sand where it was made, on those steep mountain slopes, and keep it from ever getting down into navi- gable streams? He then states that only $1,700,000 of this total of $8,000,000 has been spent in open river work, and contrasts it with—to quote in his own words— “Professor Glenn’s inference of over $8,000,000 having been wasted.” At this point the chairman of the com- mittee interrupted and added: ‘The statement was made here that it had cost $8,000,000 to dig out of the Ten- nessee River the detritus that had washed down from the slopes.” No such statement was made by the writer. His statement was that the total ex- penditure had been over $8,000,000, and in the same testimony the distinct statement had been made and was in- cluded in the first quotation made by Captain Johnston, as given above, that army engineers had to step in and be- gin with their dams and locks and spend millions in improvement. This distinctly recognizes lock and dam work on the Tennessee as costing millions. If the river is kept free from sandbars, these millions spent on locks and dams may not be wasted, but if the bars are not kept dredged out, then these mil- lions are wasted, for no matter how many locks and dams there are, a single sandbar across a river will render it useless for tarffic just as surely as a 422 AMERICAN single wreck will block a railroad, or a single break deaden a telegraph line. The sand and gravel, like the stream, flow down forever. The writer did not say that the army engineers were hopeless and had thrown up their hands in disgust, as Captain Johnston attributed to him in his testi- mony. He did say, and repeats, that while they may dredge out the sand, they are helpless to check or prevent its incessant inrush from the eroding mountains. Nor is this any criticism ‘of the engineers. That the sand and gravel are constantly swept down to them from the headwaters is no more a reflection on them than to say that the water that brings it is being con- stantly carried down the same course to them. They are not hopeless or dis- gusted, but will dig and work as long as appropriations are forthcoming, and the history of their plans for improving the upper Tennessee River shows that their estimates to secure a three-foot channel at mean low water have steadily mounted for years, and that they are far from being ready to quit. In 1871 the estimate was $175,000; in 1877, $225,000; in 1884, $300,000; in 1891, $340,000; in 1894, $650,000, in addi- tion to the $296,000 already spent; in 1907, $1,080,000, in addition to the $629,152.85 already spent, and in 1910 the writer understands that in a report on the upper river, recently submitted but not yet published, the plan of open channel work adopted years ago with the assurance that this upper section of the river was admirably suited to it, is now regarded as impracticable, and it is proposed to substitute in certain FORESTRY parts of it locks and dams. The writer does not yet know what the estimates for this work now are, but lock and dam work is always costly, and it is safe to predict that, like the tariff, this last revision is like all of its prede- cessors, ever upward. They have not thrown up their hands, but constantly raise their estimates, instead. It is probable that we at last have a plan of improvement that is adequate to meet present conditions, and that the increased estimate of cost is only what we may naturally expect to pay because of these conditions. Captain Johnston is throughout his testimony, by his convenient omissions and garbled quotations, pleading a spe- cial cause, rather than presenting actual conditions fully and fairly. The many annual and special reports of the army engineers on the Tennessee River give too much information as to real condi- tions on it to make it necessary to draw on one’s personal knowledge of the river to refute Captain Johnston’s one- sided statements. It has, instead, been thought best to refute the army engi- neer testimony as cited Captain John- ston’s out of the mouths of the army engineers themselves. The writer would heartily agree with Captain Johnston, after finding it so necessary to correct and supplement his quotations, that the committee has been furnished ‘with a _ consid- erable amount of misinformation”’ on the subject, and he also agrees with the member of the committee who says, on page 158 of the report on the hearings of 1910, that “it is best for us to know the truth.” EDITORIAL What Is Conservation? . ee VIEW of the prominent place that the issue which has been named con- servation has occupied in the press of the country for some time, it seems un- necessary to ask the question at the heading of this article. It is, never- theless, a fact that conservation is hon- estly misunderstood by many people, and that on the part of some others there is a persistent and reprehensible attempt to misrepresent its whole spirit and purpose. At frequent inter- vals there come, generally from the west, although the western complain- ants have eastern allies among the ad- vocates of special privilege, sharp at- tacks on the advocates of conservation. These attacks take the form of news- paper editorials, of speeches addressed to public gatherings, of complaints by individuals who have found some of their privileges curtailed by the exer- cise of the functions of government in the public domain, or perhaps of hand- somely printed circulars from banking houses setting forth the evils of the con- servation policy and appealing to the pa- triotism of the people to permit the de- velopment of the country. Often they take the subtler and more dangerous form of undermining through political and official channels the great enter- prises for real national development. The attempt is made to make it appear that the conservation of natural resources 1s a sentimental idea designed for the ben- efit of future generations by the sacri- fice of the interests of the present. Our forests, our water powers, our minerals, are given to us, say these critics, not to bottle up and preserve for an indefinite future. They argue that the present generation is just as important as the next and those that will follow. This is plausible. We have no doubt that many of those who advance these arguments sincerely believe in the jus- tice and patriotism of their position. Neither have we any doubt that many of those who use this argument use it deliberately to disguise plans for the personal exploitation of the property of the people. The principle of conservation has been so often clearly stated that this misinterpretation by intelligent men is incomprehensible. Must it be repeated over and over again that conservation, in its special sense as now used among us to designate a definite national policy, means use, wise use, determined by the actual needs of the people; use without waste, and with perpetuation where that is possible, as in the case of forests; and use of the natural resources of the earth, the gifts of nature for the great- est good of the greatest number. Con- servation has no idea of restricting use. It does exist for cutting out waste. It denies the primary right of a few indi- viduals to use for their private and per- sonal gain the resources of the people. That is simple and that is the reason for all this * misrepresenation. The galled jade winces. It is characteristic of the exploiters to represent themselves true benefac- tors, the real friends of the people. Personal exploitation of the public property always shelters itself behind the guise of “promoting the public good,” “the development of the coun- try,” “adding to the country’s wealth,” and many people believe the claim. We all believed it a few years ago until we began to study the forestry question, which has taught us many things about our national domain. Mr. Garfield stated the issue clearly, when he said in reply to a question while he was on the stand in the Pinchot-Ballinger inquiry, “We believe in present day use of the resources so 423 424 AMERICAN far as they are needed, but we do not believe in unregulated and unrestricted monopoly.’’ That we understand to be the whole question in a nutshell. Let us look at some concrete ex- amples. In the west were millions of acres of virgin forest, growing where, for the most part, only forests would grow. A few lumbermen might take these lands up and under some of the acts which were passed to encourage the pioneer, cut and market the timber as fast as practicable, accumulate swollen fortunes, and leave the land bare and non-productive and the water courses unprotected. This would de- prive the present generation of much of its working material and it would entail upon those who come after us great deprivation. Millions would have lost their share in the national birth- right that a few might secure abundant profits. This is what was happening when we began to reserve national for- est land and otherwise to safeguard our western possessions. And when cer- tain western statesmen wax eloquent over the wrongs of the poor western settler, it is worth inquiring whether there is not behind the poor western settler a principal who is anything but poor and who is angered at seeing his opportunity for looting the rich public domain taken away. This is not theory or inference. It has been abundantly proved, even as to some of the ‘‘men higher up.” Again, the United States, not a syn- dicate of its citizens, bought Alaska, taking the risk of what seemed to al- most every one except William H. Seward a decidedly speculative invest- ment. Up there we, the people of the United States, own vast beds of excel- lent coal which we have been informed on good authority can be got out for about $2 a ton. Government vessels on the Pacific coast, within easy reach of the Alaska supply, use tens of thou- sands of tons yearly, and pay a large price for it. Why should we turn over these Alaska coal fields for a song to the Guggenheims or any other com- bination in order that they may turn around and sell to us, the United States, FORESTRY for $12 a ton, coal that cost them $2 a ton to mine and an insignificant sum to own? That is not development of the national property. That is swndling the nation out of its own. This is a simple business question for the people of the United States, and it is the simple business aspect of some of these questions that we who demand proper conservation of natural sources are asking consideration for. These questions are just as important to the present generation as to the next. If we entail our national prop- erty, we are just so much the poorer, even if a few fortunate gentlemen are a few millions richer. Profits made by individuals through this kind of manip- ulation are not legitimate, for they are unearned and are taken from the real owners. The legitimate interest of in- dividuals may be easily provided for without throwing away the _ people’s birthright for a mess of pottage. This is not socialism. It is hard- headed, everyday business fact, and it is a part of the policy of conservation. The individual complaints of genuine settlers on the public land who wish to secure cultivable lands which are in- cluded within national forest areas, are no proper part of this misrepresentation and attack on conservation. They are merely incidents in the development of the national property, although they are used by the assailants of conservation to make arguments in opposition to it. These cases, which are sometimes hard- ships for deserving individuals, can be and will be adjusted in due course of time. It is unfortunate that the public business cannot be transacted more simply and directly and more effect- ively, and that such cases cannot be promptly and equitably disposed of; but we have not yet succeeded in free- ing the government machinery of its entanglement of red tape. This, how- ever, is no argument against conserva- tion, which is a vital principle of the nation’s life. Conservation will not withhold from settlement and develop- ment by genuine settlers any cultivable land. On the contrary, the develop- ment of the agriculture of the country re- . EDITORIAL to its fullest extent, the maintenance of soil fertility and its improvement wher- ever possible, are essential parts of the conservation doctrine. Conservation is not a national policy only. A Michigan paper recently made the remark: “There is not a state, a county, nor a city that isn’t saving at the ‘spigot and wasting at the bung- hole.’ The old idea that any man may do as he pleases with what he calls his own needs revision. Every man’s rights are limited and restricted by the rights of all others.” Here is the funda- mental principle of the whole conserva- tion movement, and it is something that we must learn. It is irrelevant to make pathetic appeals in behalf of the pioneer. He should have a square deal in every respect, but the American pioneer has always shown himself capable of taking care of his own interests. The ques- tion of society to-day is a complex and difficult one and we must take into consideration the interests of the mil- lions of people for whom these nat- ural resources must be used if they are to continue to live on this earth in peace, happiness, and prosperity. a a The Reply of Professor: Glenn oe THE hearing on the Weeks bill before the committee on agri- culture this year one of the most im- portant testimonies that has ever been given in behalf of the maintenance of the Southern Appalachian forests for the protection of streamflow was that presented by Prof. L. C. Glenn of Van- derbilt University. Mr. Glenn testified from the standpoint of a geologist, and. of one who had wide experience and who had made special field studies in the Southern Appalachians. At the same hearing, by invitation of the com- mittee, certain officers of the army en- gineer corps appeared. Some of their testimony contained admissions very helpful to the cause of the proponents of the bill. Some of it was along lines less favorable, such as have been made familiar through the published argu- ments of Lieutenant Colonel Chittenden, 425 of the same corps. Some of them were irrelevant, because they related to con- ditions far removed from the Appa- lachian area and very dissimilar to the mountain conditions. The last of these officers to testify was Capt. Edward N. Johnston. Captain Johnston was placed in a very difficult position. He was frankly put forward to defend his corps, by citations from their own docu- ments and reports, against assumed criticisms of their river work. It seems to us that this voluntarily defensive attitude showed an undue sensitiveness. The claims of the advo- cates of forest preservation that such preservation would go a long way to protect the streams from the sedi- mentation which the engineer corps is constantly called upon to fight, does not imply a criticism of the corps for the excellent work that it has done in its own way. The corps is not a forest service, and its great mistake has been in assuming certain things in regard to the effect of forests which are not in accord with the experience of a large body of civilian engineers and foresters, here and abroad, who have studied the question with more thoroughness than any of our army engineers has ever claimed for himself. However, this was the purpose for which Captain Johnston appeared, and he disclaimed, with en- gaging candor, any desire to attack the proposition before the committee, or to be drawn into any discussion of it. This is where the difficulty and delicacy of his position developed. The question before the committee had become an eminently controversial one, and it was next to impossible for any one to ap- pear while that was under discussion before the committee without being drawn more or less into the contro- versy. Thus it happened that Captain Johns- ton’s testimony was not simply a docu- mentary defense of the engineer corps, but an attack upon the testimony of some of the witnesses who had ap- peared in behalf of the Weeks bill, and particularly of Professor Glenn. We felt while the hearing was in progress that this criticism of Professor Glenn in his absence involved a measure of 420 AMERICAN unfairness, as it challenged directly the accuracy of his statements. We also felt that Captain Johnston’s testimony unintentionally, as we fully believe, was not complete, and to the extent of its incompleteness did not fairly represent the case. We even think that he did not fairly represent his own corps, for the reports of the engineer officers are always fair, very often full and en- lightening, and they contained much information which Captain Johnston, either through lack of time or for some other reason, did not give in his cita- tions to the committee. We have, therefore, invited Professor Glenn, after a perusal of the testimony as preserved in the minutes of the hear- ing, to make such reply as he chose to Captain Johnston, both on his own be- half as a witness, and on behalf of the cause that he represented, so far as it was involved in the points of the testi- mony. This reply is published in the present number of AMERICAN For- ESTRY. We believe that our readers will find it an interesting and important addition to the discussion to which we have already given much space, but no more than its importance deserves. Professor Glenn’s reply is a compact citation of facts and figures bearing di- rectly upon the points at issue. It is not published in any spirit of hostility or of criticism of the engineer corps, for which we have the greatest respect and admiration, or of the able and courteous officer who spoke for the corps, and to whom it is a reply. We believe, however, that the questions in- volved are of too much importance to be settled upon the basis of the preju- dices or esprit du corps of any body, but that all the interests concerned will be best served by a fair and full discus- sion and a knowledge of all the facts. Me YE The Proposed Morton Memorial HERE has been introduced in the Senate and referred to the com- mittee on agriculture and forestry, a bill to promote the science and prac- tice of forestry by the establishment of the Morton Institution of Agriculture FORESTRY and Forestry as a memorial to the late J. Sterling Morton, former Secretary of Agriculture. This bill, as its first section sets forth, is for the purpose of aiding in the advancement of the science and practice of forestry, includ- ing tree planting and tree culture among the people of the several states, by furnishing to students and teachers of said subjects adequate facilities for study and scientific research, as well as _ for experimental tree culture. A prom- inent feature of the plan is a museum for the reception of specimens, models, and other illustrative material. The bill also provides that the institution shall be located at or near the former home of Mr. Morton, in Nebraska City, Nebr. The institution is to be under the control of the Secretary of Agriculture, who is to secure the site and erect: the buildings, at a cost of not exceeding $250,000, these buildings to be of suf- ficient size for the carrying on of the work of such institution and for the reception and arrangement of speci- mens, pictures, maps, charts, instru- ments, and models, showing the uses of wood and all products of the forest, together with suitable rooms for a lab- oratory, lecture room, chemical appli- ances and equipment. The institution is to be in charge of a director whose salary will be $6,000 annually, and other teachers, lecturers, instructors, and assistants are to be ap- pointed by the Secretary of Agricul- ture as the needs of the institution re- quire. It is further provided that the specimens, maps, pictures, charts, in- struments, models, literature, chemical and laboratory equipment now in the custody of the Department of Agricul- ture, which the Secretary shall see fit to place in the new institution, shall be delivered to the director thereof. The institution is to be open at all times free of tuition, to teachers and students of state agricultural colleges and to per: sons in the service of the government of the United States, and all others in- terested in the study of forestry fo: study and research under proper regu- lations. EDITORIAL This is an interesting project, and has much to commend it, but the meas- ure as introduced has grave defects and should not be passed without ma- terial amendment. In the first place, the location at Ne- braska City is a decided objection to the bill. This is not a desirable location for a great, national institution for the ben- efit of the whole country. It is pro- posed to put this institution in charge of a director whose salary is larger than that of the forester of the United States, and such an institution so of- ficered and containing the most valua- able material which has been accumu- lated by the Forest Service and the De- partment of Agriculture, should either be at the nation’s capital or at some center where it will be easily accessible. This is not true of the location pro- posed by the bill. The only reason that can be adduced in favor of the Nebraska location is the purely senti- mental one, that it was the home of Mr. Morton, and this should not in the least control action in the location of so important a national institution, which would have a practical work to do. The honor to Mr. Morton in establishing and naming for him this institution would be sufficient. It is not neces- sary that it be established in his home town. It is desirable that the salary of the director of such an_ institution should be sufficient to command the highest grade of scientific attainment, but that the director of this proposed forest school should have a salary greater than that of the forester of the United States, under whom is the ad- ministration of all our great forest do- main and the working out of the many problems connected with the develop- ment of forestry in the United States, would be unreasonable and unjust in the highest degree. The position of the latter official requires the highest grade of administrative ability as well as scientific attainments equal to those required by the director of the pro- posed institution. The proposed removal to the new in- stitution would practically remove from the capital the headquarters of the 427 United States Forest Service, because its offices would naturally have to fol- low its material. This goes back to the first objection made. Of course, if the proposed institution were located in Washington, as it certainly should be, the objection would not hold. If the bill should be amended to remedy these defects, to establish the institution in Washington, to make it the headquarters and scientific center of the Forest Service, and to place its director in proper relation to the for- ester, we believe it would be productive of great good and we should give it cordial approval. ww The East and Irrigation A RECENT letter referring to the hostility of the east to irrigation projects and to the arm-chair critics of the eastern section of the country who fear that the reclaiming of the western lands will introduce dangerous compe- tition with eastern farming communi- ties, calls for a suggestion that it is a mistake to suppose that there is any general hostility in the east to the rec- lamation of the arid lands of the west. Such opposition as there is has been largely stimulated by the western ene- mies of national irrigation, who, though few in number, have sometimes been abnormally active. It may be re- membered by those who participated in the movement to secure irrigation legis- lation, that the support of the east, through its newspapers, through the good will of its people, and finally through the very necessary votes of its representatives, was freely accorded, and the east as a whole has always sup- ported the reclamation work, believing that the development of the west was a development of the United States. We have frequently had occasion to note a lack of reciprocity of this senti- ment on the part of the west. Look- ing at the subject from a national point of view, as AMERICAN Forestry does, we can only suggest that the very best thing for the people of both sections is to become acquainted with each other 428 AMERICAN and with the different parts of our great country, to know their mutual needs, and to drop sectional jealousy and rivalry and consider national de- velopment from a national standpoint. The only competition should be a com- petition to see which section will do most by its own energy and ability for the common advancement. There is need enough for all the land in the United States to support the people who will be living here within the coming century. Widespread intensive cultivation of all lands that can be made available for that purpose, and _ the growing of forests, for wood supply and protection of springs and streams, on all non-agricultural lands are the means by which alone the future wel- fare of the country can be maintained. Me Me ge Our Spendthrift Reputation HE Montreal Star throws a side- light upon Canadian relations with the United States in an article on reci- procity and conservation. Referring to negotiations said to be progressing favorably between the dominion goy- ernment and Belgium and Italy for trade agreements, the Star says frankly that the advantages of trade with the United States are obvious because of the proximity of the two countries, their mutual trade needs, and the near- ness of markets. It concedes that im- mediate gain to Canada is likely to be greater from trade with the United States, but it turns from this aspect of the case to consider the advantages of trade with Belgium and Italy, which it regards as none the less important for being less obvious. It notes the fact that “immediate trade gain and the wel- fare of the Dominion may be two very different things.” And here is the in- teresting point of the argument to us on the south of the Canada line: _ One of the outstanding needs of Canada is capital for the development of her re- sources. We are likely to obtain that capital from countries with whom we do a large trade. The capitalist will bring with him the method of development to which he is ac- customed in his own land. The American PORESTRY capitalist has wasted his own resources and he is not likely to conserve ours. The Euro- pean capitalist—the capitalist of Belgium, of Italy, and in a high degree of Germany—has learned well the lesson of conservation. If we can secure the development of our re- sources by European capitalists, we will be likely to get a development which will guard the interests of future generations and en- rich instead of impoverishing the country. If we give the American free scope, he is likely to land us where he has already landed his own nation. These are strong and far- reaching reasons why we will do well to en- courage the European trader to come among us and bring in his wake the European capi- talist. Does this argument seem overdrawn ? It must be remembered that Canada views questions sometimes in a large way and looks deeply into things for causes and effects. It has often hap- pened that her policy has been di- rected by visions of imperial develop- : ment, and we know that on the sub- ject of conservation, while Canada may not be talking as much as the United States, she is taking positive action in many directions, notably in that of forest protection. The viewpoint of the Star is espe- cially significant in its exposition of the fact that we are looked upon from out- side as an extravagantly wasteful peo- ple whose methods cannot be trusted. Of course, we are disposed to reply with a loud and patriotic flourish, ac- companied by the eagle and the flag. But perhaps it will be more profitable to sit down quietly and consider the reasons for our neighbor’s opinion of us and its probable effect upon our standing as a nation. Protection from the Canadian Side N THE last number of the Canada Lumberman, James Innes of Chat- ham, a prominent cooperage manufac- turer of the dominion, makes an argu- ment for the protection of the coop- erage industry in Canada on the ground that it is in bad condition and cannot recover without the assistance of the sovernment. Curiously enough, this familiar argument is directed against cheap labor in the United States. The EDITORIAL Lumberman, in its editorial comment on the article of Mr. Innes, refers to the fact that foreign staves made from southern pine by negro labor can be sold in Ontario, which they enter free of duty, at prices which prohibit the manufacture of staves in Canada. This condition was brought about by the de- cision of the customs department that staves were lumber and entitled to free entry into Canada. Further discussing conditions in this country, our contemporary says that the negro laborers live on wages which would not enable the Canadian to feed himself decently. How much this re- minds us of the argument in regard to protection of our products against the pauper labor of Europe. The Canada Lumberman has another article discussing reciprocal trade rela- tions with the United States and ex- pressing the opinion that there will be much less interest than heretofore among Canadians in reciprocity with the United States. The recent approach of the United States in this matter is treated as being of very little interest to Canada. The Lumberman remarks that Canada has been selling her goods in foreign markets against the compe- tition of every nation and has been selling them to Englishmen in many parts of the world. The emphatic statement is made that Canada does not need reciprocity to-day, that she needs instead caution against too easy access to her home markets for the products of the United States. ‘“There is no feeling of prejudice,” says the Lumberman, “against the people of the United States in Canada, but there is a well founded belief that United States goods are produced in too many instances under economic conditions which are not satisfactory to Canadian ideals, and that, therefore, unless sim- ilar ideals are to be introduced into Canada, these goods must be prevented from flooding our markets.” s 429 Having said this upon the general question of reciprocity, the Lumberman goes on to take up the question in its relation to the conservation of the nat- ural resources of Canada, presenting the view which we have already cited in AMERICAN Forestry that the protec- tion of Canada and her interests in her natural resources, and especially in her forests, requires great caution in dealing with the United States. It says that it is a question even to-day whether Canada would not be better off if it sold less lumber in this country and made more certain of a continuous sup- ply for its own needs. The closing par- agraphs of the article are extremely in- teresting, and we quote them in full: _ In the United States the political situation is marching rapidly toward something which looks like a tariff revolution. The west is feeling the size of its muscles and is training seriously for a tussle with the east on the question of protection. The east is attempt- ing to improve its position by various methods, not the least interesting being the proposed reciprocity negotiations with Can- ada, bearing promise of some tariff rear- rangements which will be acceptable to the whole country, and appear in the light of a fulfilment of recent anti-election pledges of cheaper goods for the consumers of the im- portant necessities of life. If Canadians understand their own wel- fare now as thoroughly as they have in the past, the hopes of the Republicans in the United States will not be greatly gratified by reciprocal trade arrangements. Canadian sentiment is growing rapidly against it, and in regard to lumber, which will be one of the storm centers of discussion, there seems to be no question that Canadians already look upon freer access to United States markets as something of a gold brick. The immedi- ate future, therefore, is full of interest and importance to the people of both countries and events are sure to be followed by Canad- ians with a watchful eye. In discussions of questions of the forests and their protection, we gen- erally look at our own side of the case. It is interesting, sometimes, to have the light turned upon the “other fel- low’s” point of view, and for this reason we cite the article which we have re- viewed. NATIONAL FOREST WORK Boundary Changes in National Forests The work of revising the boundaries of the national forests continues: The President has signed a proclamation eliminating 94,290 acres from the Las Animas National Forest and 5,675 acres from the San Isabel National Forest, Colorado. The proclamation also provides that the two forests shall be con- solidated and known as the San Isabel Na- tional Forest. The entire area will be ad- ministered by the supervisor stationed at Westcliffe, and the supervisor’s office at La Veta will be discontinued, the Las Animas division being administered by a ranger un- der the direction of the Westcliffe office. Much of the land eliminated has already passed into private owenrship. The rest is for the most part open parks and scrub oak land chiefly valuable for grazing, though a comparatively small portion is suitable for agriculture. The small proportion of the eliminated area that has a forest growth has been cut over and in addition extensive burns have occurred. These burns are re- stocking with yellow pine, but it is very scattering, and the percentage of public land is so small that further administration as a part of the national forest is considered impracticable. The eliminations from the San Isabel forest consist of numerous small areas scattered along the exterior boundary. The area re- leased from the Las Animas comprises a strip of land for the most part from three to six miles in width along the northeast, east, and southeast boundaries. The eliminations are the outcome of de- tailed field examinations made by the Forest Service during the summer of 1909 under the direction of the Secretary of Agriculture. The unappropriated areas will be restored to settlement and entry after having been ad vertised in the local papers by the Secretary of the Interior. _ The President has also signed a proclama- tion eliminating 203,635 acres from the Wall- owa National Forest, Oregon. The elimina: tion is the result of a careful examination during the past summer, which disclosed the fact that the areas now eliminated were either open grass land with very little timber or timbered areas so largely alienated that fur- ther administration by the Forest Service was considered impracticable. The lands re- leased are not needed for watershed protec- 430 tion, and are not considered to be chiefly valuable for national forest purposes. Some sections are transferred from the Wallowa to the Wenaha Forest, the area having been isolated from the Wallowa by the large eliminations. The unappropriated portions of the areas eliminated by this proc- lamation will be restored to settlement and entry after having been advertised in the local papers by the Secretary of the Interior. A third presidential proclamation adds to the Datil National Forest, in New Mexico, 183,091 acres, and eliminates 95,178 acres. These changes are also the result of the re- cent field examination. Three areas are added to the eastern division of the forest, and one to the western. The largest addition to the eastern division brings within the forest the Bear Mountains and surrounding country, lying east of the old boundary. On the. north, a strip containing eighteen sec- tions of the southern watershed of Alamosita Creek is added. The new boundary prac- tically coincides with the foot of a line of bluffs along the creek, and is therefore ad- vantageous from an administrative stand: point. The third addition to the eastern di- vision is five sections of land at its south- western corner, west of Crosby Mountain. The addition to the western division takes in the Luera Mountains on the east. The only large elimination is from the southern end of the Magdalena division. Smaller elim- inations and additions alter the boundaries of all the divisions at various points. The additions contain good growths of merchantable saw timber, totaling about 30,- 000,000 board feet, besides a large amount of cordwood. The soil and topography make forest protection necessary in many parts. It appears that overgrazing of the lands now added has seriously hampered the growth of reproduction. The greater part of the Datil National Forest is rough and mountainous, but is particularly adapted to grazing. There are many deep, narrow canyons, with large mesas between them sloping off toward the river courses. The water is important for irrigation on the level country beyond the forest limits. The eliminations consist almost wholly of open grazing lands, where no watershed protection is necessary. There is also eliminated the little mining camp of Fluorine, located on the south half of Sec- tion 34. The lands eliminated from this forest will also be promptly restored to set- tlement and entry in the usual manner. Tae WEEKS BILE The President has also signed proclama- tions eliminating from the Gunnison Na- tional Forest, Colorado, 11,195 acres; from the Cochetopa Forest 5,640 acres, and from: the Uncompahgre Forest 45,489 acres. The lands excluded from the Gunnison com- prise several strips from one-half mile to one mile in width, located along the exterior boundaries of the western portion of the forest and embracing particularly lands which have agricultural possibilities. The most ex- tensive and important of the changes af- fects lands lying along the western boundary south of the north fork of the Gunnison River, and along Minnesota and Reynolds creeks. Also a few sections have been elim- inated along Smith’s Fork and Crystal Creek. The lands excluded from the Cochetopa are rolling foothills and level flats along the ex- terior boundaries of the southeastern portion of the forest in three different places. The lands excluded from the Uncompahgre are located in the southeastern corner of the old Uncompahgre Forest, in San Miguel County. The territory contains no merchant- able timber of value, and is not considered of importance from the standpoint of forest con- servation. Of this area, 23,560 acres has al- ready been alienated through homestead and other entries. we ME The Fire Protection Work with the Railways In the Northwest arrangements have been made to put in operation the cooperative agreement between the men of the depart- ment of forestry and the officials of the rail- road companies which traverse the national forests. The forest engineers are making de- tailed maps, showing all the vantage points and the zones of greatest danger along the railroad lines. Clause 1 of the agreement re- 431 quires that the railroads clean up effectively all the rubbish, debris, and inflammable ma- terial in the zones of greatest danger, and it is necessary for the forest service to desig- nate these zones on maps. The maps have spaces for the railroad companies to insert the names of the men to take charge of this work. The location of the caches of tools are marked on the map and the telephone stations are made in colored spots. This work will be very valuable in helping the parties to the agreement to get together quickly in case fire is discovered along the railroad territory. The zones of greatest danger from fire will be patrolled by men on “speeders,” while other districts will be patrolled by men on foot. The forestry department’s map will be completed in a few days and then turned over to the railroad companies to fill in their part of the work. ye pe pe District No, 1 Recently W. B. Greeley, district forester of district No. 1, has been upon the north edge of the Flathead national forest examining two large areas of timber that the government has decided to sell on account of the timber being thoroughly mature. Some of it meas- ures from three to four feet in diameter. When this large timber is removed, it is planned to replant the district cleared. It is reported that the examination also showed some tracts adapted for agricultural purposes, and as soon as the timber, which is very dense, is cut, the land will be open for homestead entry subject to the existing laws of the government. These lands to be opened for agricultural purposes are situated at the bottom and along the high water- shed on the north side of the reserve. THE WEEKS BILL The bill for the acquisition of national for- ests which has become popularly known as the Weeks Bill, passed the House of Rep- resentatives at midnight on Friday, the 24th of June, by a vote of 130 to 111. It was fought at every stage by its opponents in the House, and an attempt was made te pre- vent its passage by dilatory tactics, when it finally came before the Houcc. Its passage was a triumph for the management and hard work of the men in whose hands it has been. In the Senate the bill came up on Thurs- day, and an open filibuster was immediately begun by Senator Burton of Ohio and Sena- tor Newlands of Nevada, assisted, to some extent, by certain other senators. Owing to the determination of the Senate to adjourn on Saturday, the filibuster was successful in preventing the passage of the bill at that time, but an agreement was reached by which a vote will be taken on the bill on the rs5th of February, 1911. In the August number of AMERICAN For- ESTRY we shall give a fuller account of the proceedings, and an analysis of the vote on the bill in the House. STATE WORK The Louisiana Forest Law Unless unexpected delays occur, by the time this issue of the Journal reaches its readers, Louisiana will have placed itself upon record as having enacted into law the first up-to-date forestry bill to be passed in any of the southern states. The bill would have been introduced several weeks ago, had not some of the larger lumber interests of the state asked for additional time to examine it. The bill as it seems certain to pass is es- sentially a fire protection measure. The tax imposed for fire protection will be three quarters of a cent per 1,000 feet on pine, and the same amount on hardwoods. The constitutionality of this tax on lumber has been questioned, and may ultimately be tested in the courts. The sentiment of the lumbermen seems to be that, inasmuch as the passage of such a bill is demanded at this time, the provi- sions of the bill, as introduced by Repre- sentative Henry Hardtner, representing the Conservation Commission, are as mild as can be expected, and most of the lumbermen seem inclined to accept this bill in lieu of other and more radical measures which might be forced through—Lumber Trade Journal. ye ue ye Forestry for Profit M. W. Wentworth, steward of the sani- tarium ot Battle Creek, has embarked in an extensive experiment in forestry, according to Michigan Roads and Forests. He has bought the sanitarium farm of 200 acres at the south end of Lake Goguac, formerly known as the Gregory homestead, and wil! plant 10,000 trees. The varieties that will be planted are the black locust, the catalpa, and the spruce. The spruce will be grown for Christmas trees and the locust for fence posts and rail- road ties. The catalpa and locust will be grown on the marsh land, of which there ts quite an extensive area adjacent to the lake. This will utilize land that has hitherto been useless for cultivation. Mr. Wentworth is the second person in that section of Michigan to make the experiment. The first person to make an experiment in this Jine was Clayton Strait, of the town- ship of Emmett, Calhoun county, who three years ago set out 300 sweet chestnut trees on a piece of land on the shores of Beadle Lake. The trees were obtained from the Michigan Agricultural College and at that time were 432 only a few inches in height. They have nearly all lived and are now from five to si feet in height. So far Mr. Strait’s experi. ment has been a success. The experiment of Mr. Wentworth wil be watched with much interest, as it is on ¢ much larger scale than Mr. Strait’s. If th black locust and catalpa will grow in marsl land there are thousands of acres in Michigar that can be devoted to tree growing. we ye New Hampshire Two nurseries, intended largely for th production of white pine seedlings, have re cently been started in the state. The mem bers of the New Hampshire Forestry Com mission, not having succeeded in obtainin; state legislation to establish a nursery, hav undertaken to start one themselves as a object lesson, and this has been establishe in Pembroke. It is the hope of the pro moters of this enterprise that at no distar day the state will maintain a nursery fror which New Hampshire land owners can ot tain stock at cost price for reforesting th lands of the state. The forestry commis sioners conceived the idea of establishing thi nursery because, for a number of years pas they have received annually a great many 1r quiries from residents of the state as to th best method of procuring seedlings and th nearest place from which they could be ot tained. It was felt that those who mad these requests should not have to be set outside the state, and after a tour of tk state to determine the most desirable site, a: rangements were made for establishing tk nursery on the farm in Pembroke. Alread about 80,000 seedlings had been successfull raised on the farm, and these were take over as a nucleus for the new work. Tt members of the commission personally me the expenses of the enterprise. There is 1 intention of making this a commercially pro itable enterprise. The object is to furni: seedling trees to residents of New Hampshi at the actual cost of production. The nurse contains at present between sixty and sixt; five thousand trees, and it is the plan | largely increase its production. e In the town of Hinsdale, the Keene Fo estry Association has about fifteen acres u1 der cultivation and is growing 400,000 yea ling pine trees, while about 170,000 trees tv years old were sold this year. There are al: several acres of trees of this year’s seedir EDUCATION which are just coming up, the length of the seed-bed, figuring each row, aggregating no less than three miles. Me YE Private Forestry in Pennsylvania On lands owned by him near Reading, Pa., Jacob Nolde carries on forestry operations, employing a professional forester. Under his direction, says the Reading Telegram, there have already been planted hundreds of thousands of trees, and important investiga- tions are being carried on as to trees best adapted to this locality, as well as to the dis- eases to which the trees as most subject. It it impossible to expect that Mr. Nolde’s ex- ample will be extensively followed at once, but he is pointing the way by which the wealth of the country may be greatly added to during the coming generation, and when the people wake up to the great possibilities of the reforestation, on scientific lines, of the great acreage of waste lands that lie within the borders of the county, it will only be necessary to follow in the path which he has marked out. The extent of Mr. Nolde’s op- erations may be judged by the fact that his plantings, this spring, ran to the number of some 150,000 trees. 433 Washington A commission of twelve men has been ap- pointed by Governor Hay to devise a com- prehensive scheme of forest legislation. The commission is to study the logged-off lands problem, forest fire protection, reforestation of lands unfitted for agricultural purposes, and similar matters, embodying their investi- gations into a report, which will be trans- mitted by the government to the next legis- lature The members of the commission are: A. G. Avery, lawyer, Spokane; J. J. Brown, presi- dent Washington Conservation League, Spo- kane; George S. Long, president Washington Forest Fire Association, Tacoma; E. G. Ames, vice-president, Port Gamble, and D. P. Si- mons, Jr., chief fire warden, Washington Forest Fire Association; J. J. Donovan, Bellingham, president Washington Logged-off Lands Asociation; Prof. F. K. Benson, Uni- versity of Washington; George E. Boes, Seattle; Prof. F. G. Miller, dean of the for- estry school, University of Washington; R. W. Douglas, elective secretary Washing- ton Conservation Association; Frank H.° Lamb, Hoquiam, secretary Western Forestry and Conservation Association, and Prof. R. W. Thatcher, dean of the agricultural school of the state college at Pullman. All are mem- bers of the Washington Conservation Asso- ciation. EDUCATION University of Wisconsin In considering its educational opportunities and responsibilities in connection with the new forest products laboratory, the Univer- sity of Wisconsin, recognizing the thorough- ness with which the neighboring universities of Michigan and Minnesota occupy the field of forestry instruction, decided that it could do the best service for education by provid- ing practical courses along special lines, such as the laboratory would offer special facilities for. The announcement of these courses, as planned for the coming year, is now made. They are described as courses of instruction in wood technology and the mechanical en- gineering of woodworking plants. The three phases of the problem of saving timbers and using all the present waste from the lumbering and wood manufacturing in- dustries will be considered in the new lec- tures and laboratory practice by the stu- dents, including special study of the physical and chemical properties of wood; of presery- 5 ing and utilizing not only the timbers, but the stumps, small branches, bark, sawdust, and all the waste bits; and of the mechanical means of transforming standing timbers into commercial products. Four courses in wood distillation, wood preservation, the chemical constituents, and the physical properties of wood will be given by the staff of government experts in charge of the laboratory. A fifth course in wood manufacturing machinery will be given by Prof. Robert McKeown, of the engineering college. In the course on the properties of wood, the study will be mainly of the elementary structure of different species and its effect on the value of woods for use in various arts and industries. Methods of testing woods and conditioning them will also be shown in the laboratory demonstrations. The course will be given during the first half of the first semester. The chemical constituents and fibers of wood, with reference to the uses made of the 434 AMERICAN material in art and industry, will form the subject-matter of the course to be given the second half of the first semester. Hardwood and softwood will be studied and compared as to their use in distilling alcohol and producing turpentine and other materials in a course to be given in the first half of the second semester. All of the basic principles, as well as the processes and prod- ucts of such distillation will be taught, and the students will have an opportunity to make a personal study of the government’s in- vestigations in ways and means of using all the waste products of logging, lumbering, and wood manufacturing, amounting altogether to two-thirds of every tree cut down. How to save timbers, especially those in mines and on the water front, from animal and fungous pests, will be the problem on which a course in wood preservatives will work. The students will compare the resist- ance of different woods, their fibers and the conditions of deterioration, and will be shown the different preservative processes in the laboratory, including both those in which the timbers are given surface appli- cations and those in which the aseptics are forced into the fibers. All the machinery and methods used in logging and in wood manufacture with the designing of woodworking plants, will be taught by Professor McKeown during the sec- ond semester in his course on wood manu- facturing machinery. In addition, advanced research work may be done by students who are prepared for it in the government laboratory under the su- pervision of the experts in charge. FORESTRY Michigan Agricultural College The summer forestry school opened on th« 28th of June and closes on the r1th of Au gust. The session is held at Cold Springs on the shores of Higgins Lake, and is con ducted in cooperation with the Public Do. main Commission. The state forest reserve of 38,000 acres, timbered with jack pine Norway pine, white pine, scrub oak, anc white cedar, is located here,:and it is upor this that the students will work. This summer term is required work fo junior foresters. Two courses will be given one in surveying methods and one in fores mensuration. These courses are not com plete in themselves, but are followed by ad. vanced work during the remaining terms o: the junior and senior years. Each cours« entitles the student to five college credits The program provides for one lecture hou and eight hours of field work each day. Ar hour will be given to target practice, swim. ming, and boating. The mail address i: Roscommon, care of M. A. C. Forestry Camp ww Washington State Agricultural College C. H. Goetz, who has been for two year: teacher of forestry at this institution, ha: resigned his position. During the summer he will be in the employ of the Washingtor State Fire Association in its work of protect: ing the forests of Washington against fire Ten or more men have gone out of this in stitution since Mr. Goetz took charge of it: forestry work and are now in the Unitec States and other forestry work. CURRENT LITERATURE MONTHLY LIST FOR JUNE, 1910 (Books and periodicals indexed in the Library of the United States Forest Service) Forest aesthetics Street and park trees Guild, Irving T. Is the tree in the highway? 2p. Boston, 1910. (Massachusetts for- estry association. Bulletin 1.) Olbrich, Stephan. Vermehrung und schnitt der ziergehdlze. 2d edition. 241 p., illus. Stuttgart, E. Ulmer, roto. Forest legislation Shade Bos- Massachusetts forestry association. tree laws of Massachusetts. 24 p. ton, IQIO. Forest description Kansas—State forester. Report upon forest conditions in central and western Kan- sas. 63 p., illus. Manhattan, Kans., rgro. (Kansas—Agricultural experiment sta- tion. Bulletin 165.) Silviculture Dittmar, Heinrich, J. A. Der waldbau, ein leitfaden fiir den unterricht und die praxis, ein handbuch ftir den _ privat- waldbesitzer. 279 p. Neudamm, J. Neu- mann, IQIo, Grenander, Tell. Kort handledning i varden af ofre Norrlands skogar (Short direc- tions for the care of the forests of upper Norrland). 55 p., illus. Stockholm, A. B. Fahlcrantz, 1909. Lovén, Fredrik. Hufvuddragen af vara barrskogars lif, sk6tsel, och vard (Lead- ing features of the life, cultivation, and care of our fir forests). 23 p: | —Filip- stad, Filipstads tidnings tryckeri, 1905. Lovén, Fredrik. Rad vid afverkning och skogsodling af barrskog (Advice in re- gard to the working and cultivation of fir forests). 20 p. Filipstad, Filipstads tidnings tryckeri, 1906. Planting Dybeck, Wilhelm. Om insamling och hem- klangning af tall-och grankott (Collect- ing pine and spruce cones). 8 p., illus. Hedemora, A. Lidman, 1900. Pettis, C. R. Reforesting operations. 46 p., plates. Albany, N. Y., Forest, fish and game commission, 1909. Forest administration Bavaria—K. staatsministerium der finanzen— Ministerial-forstabteilung. Mitteilungen aus der staatsforstverwaltung Bayerns, heft 8. 193 p. Munchen, 1908. India—Burma—Forest department. Reports on the forest administration in Burma for the year 1908-09. 225 p. Rangoon, India, roto. India—Madras_ presidency—Forest depart- ment. Annual administration report for the twelve months ending goth June, 1909. 240 p. Madras, 1910. Russia—Lyesnoi departament (Forest de- partment). Otchet po lyesnomu uprav- leniyu za 1907 (Report on forest admin- istration for 1907). 489 p. St. Peters- burg, I9QI0. Switzerland—Département fédéral de Tin- térieur—Inspection des foréts, chasse et peche. Rapport sur sa gestion en 1909. 20 p. Berne, I9fo. Switzerland—Inspektion ftir forstwesen. Etat der schweizerischen forstbeamten mit wissenschaftlicher bildung ; aufgenommen auf den 1. Januar, 1910. 21 p. Berne, IQIO, National and state forests American academy of political and _ social science. Public recreation facilities. 232 p. Philalephia, 1910. (Its Annals, March, IQI10, vol. 35, no. 2.) Moon, F. F. The Highlands of the Hudson forest reservation. 19 p., plates, map. Albany, N. Y., Forest, fish and game commission, 1900. Wood utilization Lumber industry Stephen, John W. Lopping branches in lum- bering operations. 9 p., plates. Albany, N. Y., Forest, fish and game commis- sion, 1909. Switzerland—Oberforstinspektion. Statistik des holzverkehrs der Schweiz mit dem auslande in den jahren 1885-1907. 180 p. Ziirich, 1910. Forest by-products Edson, H. A. Buddy sap. 28 p. Burling- ton, Vt., 1910. (Vermont—Agricultural experiment station. Bulletin 151.) Wood technology Wilda, Herman. Das holz; aufbau, eigen- schaften, und verwendung. 125 p., illus. Leipzig, G. J. Gdschen, 1909. 42c 436 Wood preservation National chemical co. The prevention of blue stain in yellow pine; a few words about the cause of it and much about eradicat- nevi, 12, illus; “Syracuse aie, Yellow pine manufacturers’ association. Yel- low pine creosoted blocks, the modern perfect pavement for streets, bridges, and crossings. 29 p., diag. St. Louis, Mo., IQIO. Auxiliary subjects Botany Hegi, Gustav. Illustrierte flora yon Mittel- Europa. vol. 1-2. illus., plates. Mtinchen, J. F. Lehmann, 1906. Meteorology Moore, Willis L. Descriptive meteorology. 344 p., illus. New York and London, D. Appleton & Co., 1910. Irrigation National irrigation congress. Official pro- ceedings of the 17th National irrigation congress, held at Spokane, Wash., Aug. 9g to 14, 1909. 546 p., plates. Spokane, Shaw and Borden Co., 1900. United States—Reclamation service. nual report, 1908-1909. 222 p. ington, D. C., 1910. 8th an- Wash- Periodical articles General American naturalist, April, 1910—Recent in- vestigations on the comparative anatomy of conifers, by E. C. Jeffrey, p. 253-6. Boone review, February, 1910—A plea for action regarding forestry in China, by R. Rosenbluth, p. 13-17; To extend agricul- ture and forestry as a means to revive industries, by H. E. C. Kwei-lung, p. 24-32. Farm and fireside, June 10, 1910—Conserva- tion and the farmer, by T. R. Shipp, p. 3. Gardeners’ chronicle, April 9, 1910—Leitneria floridana, by J. Dunbar, p. 228. Independent, May 5, 1910—Deforestation and drouth, p. 908-9. Journal of botany, May, 1910—Notes on syn- onymy in Ulmus, by A. Ley, p. 130-2. Minnesota horticulturist, June, I910—The lumberman’s attitude toward forestry, by J. E. Rhodes; “pr 203-73) Lumber ean Washington and Oregon, by R. Orr, p. 216-10. National geographic magazine, April, 1910— Landslides and rock avalanches, by G. E. Mitchell, p. 277-87. Overland monthly, April, 1910—How forest rangers protect Uncle Sam’s forests, by AVE Dahle. 357-01 AMERICAN FORESTRY Penn ‘state farmer, April, 1910—Results experiments in creosoting shingles, k J. A. Ferguson, p. 63-4. Philippine agricultural review, Februar: 1910—Growing kapok in Java, by P. I A. M. van Embden, p. 89-93. Plant world, April, t910—An aberrant wa nut, by I. D. Cardiff, ‘p. G25: Review of reviews, June, 19t0—A new play ground for the nation; Glacier nation: park, Mont., by G. E. Mitchell, p. 710-1 Scientific American, April 16, 1910—Big f trees of the northwest, p. 323. Torreya, May, 1910—The vitality of pine see in serotinous cones, by J. C. Blume p. 108-1t. United States monthly weather review, Marcel 1910—Coconino forest experiment statio near Flagstaff, Ariz., by A. E. Hacket p. 486-8; The petrified forests of Arizon: by F. H. Bigelow, p. 488-91. Trade journals and consular reports American lumberman, May 21, 1910—Fo: estry in the University of Washingto1 Sap sase: American lumberman, June 4, 1910—Imm: gration to and settlement of cut-ove lands of the south, by P. H. Saunder p. 46. American lumberman, June 11, r1910—Ne York conference on national hardwoo grading rules, p. 46-7. Architect and engineer, May, 1910—Concret as a preservative of wooden piles ex posed to seawater, by C. C. Hortor p. 65-7; Hardwood veneers for interic trim, by M. W. Davis, p. 69-75. Canada lumberman, June 1, 1910—Straigl line saws; methods of care, by Kendal p. 25-6. Engineering record, April 16, 1910—Dry rc in timber, p. 525; Preservatives for woo paving blocks, by C. N. Forrest, p. 531-: Engineering record, May 7, t1910—Characte1 istics of creosote, p. 610-11. _ Engineering record, May 14, 1910—The drair age of the Everglades, p. 625; The pre vention of dry rot, p. 633. Furniture journal, May 25, 1910—Red gun a cabinet wood of notable merit, p. 60-: Hardwood record, May 25, 1910—Utilizatio of hardwoods; gold furniture, p. 33. Hardwood record, June 10, 1910—Spanis oak, p. 23-4; Utilization of hardwoods wooden tanks and silos, p. 40-1; Com parison of quarter-sawing method: . 42-4, Lumber trade journal, May 15, 1910—Devel opmen of cut-over lands, by P. M Ikeler, p. 19-20. Lumber trade journal, June 1, 1910—Louisi ana conservationists make initial report p. 20-1; Government forest expert re ports on great timber resources of Louis iana, by J. H. Foster, p. 30-2. CURRENT LITERATURE Lumber world, May 15, 1910—Efficient work of the Forest service, by H. S. Sackett, 5 Paes Mississippi valley lumberman, June 3, 1910— Dry kiln construction, by W. T. Plue and others, p. 34-5. National contractor and builder, May 15, 1910 —Timber resources of southern forests, by R. S. Kellogg, p. 49-53. New York lumber trade journal, May 15, 1910—The eucalyptus tree, by W. E. Marsh, p. 18. Paper mill and wood pulp news, May 7, 1910 —German paper making, by T. H. Nor- ton, p. 7, 38. Pioneer western lumberman, June I, 1910— Forest fire protection methods, by A. W. Laird, p. 17-19; New vs. old dry kiln equipment, by F. C. Young, p. Io. St. Louis lumberman, May 15, 1910—Some in- formation about red gum and its uses, p. 58-9; Soda treatment for prevention of sap stain, p. 59. St. Louis lumberman, June 1, 1910—History of the wood block pavement, p. 68-72; The work of the Yale forest school in Louisiana, by D. Bruce, p. 74-5. Southern industrial and lumber review, May, 1910—The forest wealth of the Philip- pines, p. 30. Southern lumberman, June 4, 1910—How fast do trees grow? by J. B. Atkinson, p. 26-7, 34. Southern lumberman, June 11, 1910—Report of the Committee on forestry of the Na- tional hardwood lumber association, p. 24; Forest products laboratory opened, p. 40-2; Training Yale forestry students, p. 44. Timberman, May, 1t910—Cattle raising suc- cessfully carried forward on cut-over lands, by D. O. Lively, p. 20; Modern methods and science of kiln drying lum- ber ay i. C. Young.) p37: United States weekly consular report, May 14, 1910—Gutta-percha and substitutes, by R. P. Skinner, p. 481-5; Basket-willow industry, by F. Dillingham, p. 491; Co- coanut products; Germany, England, and Spain, by R. P. Skinner and others, P. 492-4. United States weekly consular report, May 21, 1910—Street paving in London; cost and life of wooden blocks in populous districts, by J. L. Griffiths, p. 535; Lum- ber trade; United Kingdom, Italy, France, by H. B. Miller and others, Pp. 540-1. United States weekly consular report, May 28, 1910—Foreign timber trade; England, Venezuela, by H. L. Washington and others, p. 602; Paper industry; Uruguay, Siam, by F. W. Goding and others, p. 603. United States weekly consular report, June 11, 1910—Lumber trade; United King- dom, Transvaal, Canada, by €. L, Liv- ingston and others, p. 685-6. Wood craft, June, t9o10—The making of moldings; descriptive and practical, by J. Hooper, p. 80-2. 437 Forest journals Allgemeine forst-und jagd-zeitung, April, 1910—Der deutsche forstverein und die forstwirtschaft in den deutschen schutz- gebieten, by Koehler-Biberach, p. 113-15; Einiges tiber Schwedens forstliche ver- haltnisse, by E. Metzger, p. 115-22; Zu- wachsuntersuchungen an fichten, by Use- ner, p. 122-3; WVerwachsungen, by F. Kanngiesser, p. 123-8. : Allgemeine forst-und jagd-zeitung, May, 1910—Der gemischte buchenplenterwald auf Muschelkalk in Thiiringen, by Matthes, p. 149-64. American forestry, June, rt910—A forward step in forest conservation, by W. L. Hall, p. 323-8; Forty-five Americans in the forests of Germany, by H. R. Krin- bill, p. 329-36; The mission of the euca- lyptus, by F. L. Pierce, p. 337-41; Wom- an’s work for conservation, by Mrs. L. A. Williams, p. 342-8; Some observations on forests and water-flow, by J. T. Roth- rock, p. 349-51; The histology of resin canals in white fir, by C. D. Mell, p. 351-6. Bulletin de la Société centrale forestiére de Belgique, May, 1910—Binages dans les pépinieres, by L. B., p. 350-13. Les plus gros pins sylvestres de la forét de Soigmes by Nu | Crahiay: op. o351-2- Plantations domaniales d’essences a caoutchouc au Congo, p. 352-4; Emploi du bambou pour la fabrication du pa- pier, p. 355-6; Commerce du bois de que- bracho dans la République Argentine, P. 356-9. Centralblatt fiir das gesamte forstwesen, March, t910—Ueber den ausbau der osterreichischen forststatistik, by J. Marchet, p. 97-115; Versuche tiber auf- bewahrung von waldsamereien, by E. Zederbauer, p. 116-21; Die studienreise des O6sterreichischen reichsforstvereines durch die Schweiz im September, 1909, by A. Ciesler, p. 125-34. Forest leaves, June, 1910—Forests and water- flow, by J. T. Rothrock, p. 130-1; The relation of animal life to forestry, by T. R. Morton, p. 131-3; The improvemeut of farm woodlots, by H. E. Bryner, p. 133-5; A forest road, by G. H. Wirt, p. 135-6; Municipal ownership of forests, by F. H. Dutlinger, p. 137-8; Forestry in a new nation, by F. W. Rane, p. 138-42. Forstwissenschaftliches centralblatt, May, 191o—Saat oder pflanzung, by D. Frém- bling, p. 255-71; Einwirkung von kalk auf tannentrockentorf, by M. Helbig, p. 271-4; Zur nonnenfrage, by Sihler, p. 274-7. Hawaiian forester and agriculturist, April, 1910—The closer utilization of ohia lum- ber, by L. Margolin, p. 118-26. Revue des eaux et foréts, May 1, 1910—Esti- mation des coupes de pins maritimes dans la région du Sud-Ouest, by P. Biquet, p. 257-62; Voyage en Norvége Juillet- Aotit, 1909, by H. Perrin, p. 263-76. 438 Schweizerische zeitschrift fiir forstwesen, April, 1910—Schlagraumung, by J. R., p. 112-6; Zur frage des anbaues fremd- landischer holzarten, by F. Fankhauser, p. 121-6. Tharander forstliches jahrbuch, 1910—Ueber den einfluss verschiedener durchforst- ungsgrade auf die schaftform der fichte, by M. Kunze, p. 1-18; Ueber den einfluss verschiedener durchforstungsgrade auf den wachstumsgang der waldbestande, by M. Kunze, p. 19-43; Die reinertrags- tibersichten der kgl. sachs. staatsforsten fiir das jahr, 1908, by Kassner, p. 74-88; Ueber die fichtengenerationen von Pineus pini, by W. Baer, p. 89-94; Ueber Pau- rurus juvencus, by W. Baer, p. 95-6. Zeitschrift fiir forst-und jagdwesen, April, 1910—Forstwirtschaftliche rtickblicke auf das jahr 1908, by Semper, p. 195-215; Aus dem gebiet des blendersaumschlags, by Kienitz, p. 215-24; Der leimring als kampfmittel gegen die nonne, by Las- peyres, p. 235-42. . wwe Reports and Bulletins from Massachusetts Five substantial pamphlets of considerable local importance and of value to students of forestry all over the United States have come from the office of the state forester of Massachusetts. The first of these is the Annual Report for 1909. This report shows a great expansion in the scope and organiza- tion of the department, owing to the placing upon it of the task of the gipsy and brown- tail moth control, which until a year ago was in the hands of separate officials. The staff now includes, beside the state forester, Mr. Rane, four assistants, a secretary, three clerks and fifteen agents and division superintend- ents. Besides these, there is a forest warden in every town of the, state, whose appoint- ment is primarily by the town or city officers, subject to the approval of the state forester, under whom the forest warden’s work is done. The expenditures for 1909 were $10,000 for the general forestry work, $0,842.87 for reforestation work, and a little less than $300,000 for the moth suppression work. A bulletin on “Reforestation in Massachu- setts,’ by R. S. Langdell, assistant forester, is of much interest in view of the modest but persistent work which the state has un- dertaken in the way of reforestation. This work is being carried on under a systematic plan, authorized by law and supported by a continuing annual appropriation of $10,000. The bulletin referred to describes the methods of work pursued, shows by illustrations the character of it, and discusses the trees most favorable for such work in the state. From the forester’s report for 1909 we learn that nine hundred and twenty-seven acres were planted by the state in that year, these being in tracts from five to 107 acres. And 111,509 trees have been planted by several water AMERICAN FORESTRY companies and private individuals under advice of the state forester. The third bulletin is entitled “How Make Improvement Thinnings in Massac setts. Woodlands.” An earlier bulletin “Forest Thinning” was published by the s service, but this is much more comprehen in its discussion of the subject, and 1 some of the material of the earlier publ tion. The author is H. O. Cook, assis in charge of that part of the state fo Works ane W. F. Fiske, agent and expert of the reau of Entomology, United States Dep ment of Agriculture, who has been in chz of the work of developing parasites of gipsy and brown-tailed moths in Massa setts, is the author of another bulletin lished by the state service on that sub: It is an extremely interesting publication, pecially for all those who are within danger zone of these destructive moths. Fiske is an industrious and careful wor and has obtained a very good mastery of subject. He treats the nature of insect p sites, the natural control of the moths, theory and practice of introducting paras the sequence of parasites, and the diffe parasites in detail. The bulletin is quite 4 illustrated, and is full of practical entomo ical information. The last on this list of state publicatior the report on “Massachusetts Wood U Industries,” by Hu Maxwell, the exper the United States Forest Service, und cooperative arrangement between the Ur States and the state services. It is the of a series of these reports to appea! printed form. This report gives the am of different varieties of woods used in industries of the state, the cost at the fac’ and the amount grown in the state. It gives an anlysis of the wood used by > class of industries and the average cos them of their raw material. It is interes to notice that the manufacture of boxes crates heads the list, using sixty-four cent of the lumber that is consumed in state. There is, finally, a list of the v manufacturers from whom the inform was obtained and a table showing the by species of different woods. These rep which are a part of the work of the offic wood utilization of the branch of the proc of the Forest Service, will be of great tical value in determining the exact s! of the lumber business in the country. ports from several other states are nov preparation. we Ye OS A Tree Manual for Kentucky Federation of Won service when it pla and carried out the publication of “Native Trees of Kentucky.’ This h book by Mrs. Maury, the chairman of forestry committee of the state federatio The Kentucky Clubs did good NEWS AND NOTES an excellently done piece of work and is a complete tree manual for the state. The il- lustrations are good and as the work has been guided and approved by eminent authorities, it is safe to assume its accuracy. It is well printed and the illustrations really illustrate. At the end of the book is a list of 112 trees, native to Kentucky, a list of eight trees that are in doubt, and of ten, the occurrence of which in Kentucky is in doubt. Besides these, there is a list of foreign trees that have become spontaneous in Kentucky. The preparation of such a book as this in all our states would be of great educational value and would doubtless stimulate tree sttdy. 439 A Fire Protection Hand-book Among the numerous publications that are now being issued by forest officials in regard to the management of forest fires, one of the most practical and serviceable that has come to our attention is a “Treatise on the Pro- tection of Forests from Fire,” by W. V. J. Hall and C. L. O’Hara, superintendent and assistant superintendent of the Bureau of Forestry of the Province of Quebec. This is printed in convenient pocket form with a durable cover and treats of the whole sub- ject of prevention and handling of forest fires in a practical and comprehensive way. There is a useful glossary which makes the manual more serviceable for the average layman. NEWS AND NOTES Railroad Cooperation in Fire Protection The Western Forestry and Conservation Association, of which Albert L. Flewelling of Spokane is president, has perfected a plan to utilize certain departments of the railroads operating in Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, and Montana in warning the people in the five states against carelessness with fires in the forests during the summer months. E. T. Allen, forester of the association, made the foregoing announcement while in Spo- kane, and outlined the plan in brief as fol- lows: “Forest protection is of the utmost benefit to all our people, and we believe we can en- list their cooperation in this work. With that end in view all ticket envelopes, time-tables, folders, and pamphlets describing mountain, lake and forest resorts for western distri- bution will contain suggestions as to how to avert camp and other fires, also the means to be employed in combatting the element. Booklets dealing with the same subject will be placed in observation cars and placards are to be posted in the waiting rooms of forest stations. The association will bear the extra expense occasioned by this work. “No agency has quicker and better means of reaching the public than the railroads, as almost every one travels and reads railroad literature, and this step the Western For- estry and Conservation Association is taking is the first attempt to utilize it for forest protection. Railroad officials are keenly in- terested in the plan, as the roads _ profit equally with the public in reducing the de- struction of forest resources. The lumber industry not only furnishes a large propor- tion of their traffic, but also brings into the northwestern and coast states more than $150,000,000 a year, most of which goes into general circulation to build up business of all kinds. Irrigation and power development de- pend much on forest regulation of stream- flow. Tourist and resort travel is affected by destruction of scenic and game condi- tions by forest fires, and every acre of timber or second growth destroyed means a money loss. to the railroads as well as to the nation.” LUMBERMEN AND LUMBER JOURNALS The Lumberman’s Attitude Toward Forestry By JOHN E. RHODES, President Minnesota Forestry Association Reprinted from the Minnesota Horticulturist I am interested in forestry in spite of the fact that I am in the lumber business. I might say I am interested in forestry be- cause I am in the lumber business. The lumbermen have looked upon the forester in the past as a good deal of a crank. There was considerable antagonism between the for- ester and the lumbermen. It is the lumber- man who blazes the path. While the theorist looks around for danger, the practical man has his gaze concentrated upon his own busi- ness. There are on my grandfather’s farm in New York a good many stumps of black walnut larger around than this desk. Those trees were ‘originally cut for firewood, because at that time they had no value and could not be cut for lumber; hence they were used for fuel. The same is true of lumber opera- tions in this country. They cut the white pine because it had the greatest value; later they cut the Norway; and as the price of lumber has advanced the log has decreased in size, the available trees of highest value have decreased, and they have taken one species after another. The lumbermen are taking increased. interest in forestry simply because the timber supply is getting to a point where they can afford to do so. There are two obstacles to the practice of forestry. Lumbermen are confronted first by the fire risk. There is more timber burned in this country every year than is cut by the lumbermen—a great deal more. The lum- bermen feel they should not be criticized for what is called “wanton destruction of the forests.” Lumbermen are engaged in the cutting of the timber for the purpose of sup- plying the demand that exists for it, and the public generally is equally responsible and should share that responsibility with the lum- bermen. The great prairie sections tributary to Minneapolis, the great state of Iowa, south- ern Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Da- kota, could not have been built up by the people with the rapidity they have been had it not been for the near and cheap supply of lumber, and if these great forests had not been sacrificed, the present development of this great prairie country would have been impossible. It would not only have meant much to the development of this prairie sec- tion, but it would have meant much to the nation at large and to the world at large if the sacrifice of these forests had not been made. 440 As the lumber production has decrease and the price of timber has increased fro 50 cents to $5 and $10 per thousand feet, has become possible to consider the e2 penditure of money for fire protection an for other things relating to forestry. Son reference has been made to the burning « slashings, and by that is meant the refu: left from logging operations. Lumberme having large interests found that their pro; erty was menaced by timber in which tl “slashings” had not been burned, and the favored the law which was passed by Mi nesota requiring slashings to be burned. Th law is being generally complied with. T1 lumbermen found it did not cost as mu as they thought it would, and they are no taking care of the slashings at 25 cents to | cents per thousand on an average They a sorry they did not do it years ago, and whe they add 25 cents to the present value of tl timber for fire protection it is a small pe centage of the cost compared with what was when standing timber was worth $1 p thousand. Lumbermen in the west are interested organizing extensive fire protection systen and are cooperating with the nation and sta in an effort to establish a federal system | control, putting in telephone lines, hiring e tra men during the dangerous season, a1 taking every possible precaution to prote their timber from fire. The chief cause | fires is railroads; forty-five out of every hu: dred fires are started by locomotives. Ra: roads cooperate actively in keeping the rights of way cleared of dead grass ar leaves because it is in that way that fir usually start. Thirty-five out of every hundr« forest fires are started by settlers clearing lan If the land is to be used for cultivation, tl settlers are anxious to clear it off as rapid as possible, and the quickest way to do th is to burn the refuse, and they are not cat tious enough in taking care of these fire When there is a high wind and a dry seaso there is extreme danger. It was the settle who caused the fires in northern Minneso and Wisconsin two years ago. Those fir worked such great destruction that the se tlers who were responsible for starting the: were arrested and taken before a justice « the peace in the town, where they were fine $5, and they said: “It is worth more to 1 than that to have our land cleared.” Ther LUMBERMEN AND LUMBER JOURNALS was no healthy public sentiment back of the law. The pine will grow if the fires are kept out, but will not if the fires are not kept out. If the fires are not kept out, it will burn up the small seedlings, the cones are destroyed, and worthless brush will come up. The second great obstacle to the adoption of forestry by lumbermen is the question of taxation. There is much agitation in the country for the preservation of forests and for reforestation of cut-over lands. The lumbermen are interested in this question just as much as the forester or the public and hope some solution will be worked out. It takes from seventy-five to eighty years to grow a white pine tree to merchantable size. We are confronted with the fact that we are obliged to pay taxes every year upon a crop that has not been harvested or that may not be harvested twenty years hence. The farmer pays taxes on his land, but he harvests a crop every year. The lumber- man may pay a large amount of taxes before his crop is harvested. The present system of taxation makes scientific logging methods absolutely impossible. We have considered this question from every standpoint, and va- rious plans and methods have been pro- posed. state of Minnesota a proposed amendment to the constitution, permitting the legislature to enact a special forest land tax law. If there exists sufficient public sentiment in Minnesota — that amendment to the constitution will pass. It is very difficult indeed to arouse sufficient interest on the part of the general public to vote in favor of an amendment to the con- stitution. We need to go through a few more fire years such as we have had in the past to arouse public interest to see the necessity of revising the tax laws, and if there is a demand for practical forestry methods we must secure some relief from taxation, or they cannot be undertaken. The lumberman is greatly interested in for- estry schools. We are particularly interested in the forestry school of this state in charge of Prof. Samuel B. Green. We look to the foresters that are now being educated to work out these problems for us. The lum- bermen who are now passing—the older gen- eration of lumbermen—who have been en- gaged in business under methods in vogue for the past forty years, cannot be expected to see the necessity for new methods. They cut the timber to supply the demand that existed then, and they did it in the cheapest possible way. It has only been within the past five or six years that the people have come to realize that the timber is not inexhaustible—the older lumbermen now realize it. The production of lumber has about reached its maximum. It has greatly declined in Min- nesota. In 1890 the production in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan was 9,000,000,000 feet, and this year it has been less than 3,000,000,000 feet, but there has been a great increase of yellow pine in the southern and western states, so that the total production There is before the people of the - 441 in the United States at large last year was greater than ever. It will be about the same this year, but I think it has reached its cli- max. Some reference was made by one of the speakers to the fact that the production was less in 1908 than in 1907. That was due to market conditions. You will remember that we had a panic in 1907, which retarded building operations and which extended its effect into 1908. I also wish to refer to a statement made by one of the speakers in reference to a decision by the Maine supreme court. The papers of the country had a great deal to say in re- gard to it. The state of Maine has a pe- culiar law, under which the legislature can ask the opinion of the supreme court regard- ing the constitutionality of any law pro- posed before the law is passed. The state legislature of Maine asked the supreme court if a law providing for putting private lands under certain restrictions would be constitu tional. The supreme court stated that under the conditions mentioned, which would inure to the benefit and welfare of the community at large, such a law would be constitutional, but the law has not been passed, and the constitutionality of it has not been passed upon. Investigating that subject, we find if there is a tendency to restrict cutting on pri- vate lands it is going to result in very serious complications, for this reason: that if the law prohibits the cutting of trees of certain diam- eter, you immediately get into technical for- estry, because different species of timber are of different growths and ages. There are also different requirements for different sizes of logs. We are looking to foresters to work out questions of this kind. Personally, I have no fear of a timber fam- ine in the future, because I feel sure that, with the careful study which is being given to the forestry question—especially by the lum- bermen and timber owners—who, by the way, control three-fourths of the timber supply in the United States—they will find some solution of the question; but it will not be without further advances in values of timber lands, and that will mean a further increase in the price of lumber. Already the price has reached a point where you are using substitutes for lumber. Its principal com- petitor is cement, and the inroads that cement has made upon the lumber industry in the past few years you are all familiar with. A few years ago the average town had wooden sidewalks; to-day it is a rare thing to find a sidewalk not made of cement, and that change took out of the market the demand for mil- lions of feet of plank. Fences used to be made entirely of lumber; now they are made of wire. Lumber is still being used for buildings to a great extent. Our buildings are nearly all put up in a hurry in the cheapest possible manner, and we are only just beginning to build them of fireproof ma- terial. The price of lumber has reached a point that even where it costs to build a house of cement a trifle more than it would to build 442 it of lumber, the cement will be used, be- cause it provides greater permanence, with a reduced fire risk. So we expect in the near future, possibly in fifteen or twenty years, to see a natural decrease in the production of lumber. This also takes into consideration the lum- ber to be cut on national forest reserves and the increasing tendency of the states to buy timber lands for state reserves. We are go- ing through the experience of the older countries. It is here exactly as it has been in Germany and France up to this stage, and there is no reason to believe that the future will be any different from what it has been in the old countries, where the con- sumption per capita of lumber is less than a hundred feet, compared with the per capita consumption in this country of 500 feet. We will have to reduce the consumption per capita, protect our forests from fires, and pro- vide a just and proper system of taxation. I may say in regard to this system of taxa- tion that there should be no tax on land until a crop is taken from it, and when the crop is harvested it should be taxed for its full value. This method has several ad- vantages: it enables the owner to protect the timber from fire; it eliminates the carrying charge which comes every year; and it makes it an object for him to save and protect the timber until it is ready to cut. We pe ye National Hardwood Lumber Association The National Hardwood Lumber Associa- tion held its thirteenth annual convention in Louisville on the 9th and toth of June. The meeting was an important one, as the future policy of the organization was discussed and action was taken on the question of uniform inspection. The solution of this matter car- ried with it the appointment of a committee to secure a uniform standard of grading. The report of the committee on forestry was presented, as follows: REPORT OF COM MITTEE ON FORESTRY “The annual report made by your com- mittee during the last several years has con- tained an intelligent survey of the existing conditions, and it has been its desire during the last year to watch closely developments and to note the attitude of the national gov- ernment, as well as those of the various states, together with the action of the indi- vidual lumbermen, toward this all-important question. “Among the nations of the world, the United States has for the last fifty years been noted as a country of deplorable waste, and, as we know, the hardwood lumber industry has keenly felt the lack of economy. We be- lieve that our association has had much to do with the present recognition on the part of the chief executive of our nation and of Congress as to the crying need for the en- AMERICAN FORESTRY forcement of such regulations as will effect ively bring about a real conservation of th natural and national resources of this coun try. : “We deem of first importance a rationa tax exemption law, patterned after the timbe regulations of our neighbor, Canada, whic! will encourage the preservation of our for ests, and not force, as at present, an imme diate cut under penalty of expensive taxes. I laws were enacted which ‘would make th American taxes only nominal, as in Canadz until the timber is cut and manufactured int lumber, then judgment and sagacity woul be exercised in the amount and sections t be cut each year, so that the supply could b intelligently regulated to the demand, and re forestation could be greatly encouraged. “At the present rate of consumption in th United States of over 50,000,000,000 feet c lumber per annum, it requires no prophet t foresee a complete exhaustion of the visibl supply, unless a superhuman effort is exerte by the national and state legislatures, tc gether with cooperation on the part of a men interested in lumber, to safeguard th standing timber and adopt effective measure for reforestation. “Available statistics show that 3,000 t 5,000 sawmill men who are yearly sawin out their hardwood stumpage do not kno which way to turn for future operation. Fin; exhaustion of hardwood timber in the Unite States would constitute an incalculable con mercial loss and be far more reprehensib than the extermination of the American biso: “Finally, the establishment of forest patr by the government for the national forest and by several of the states and many lars concerns, is becoming wonderfully helpful ; preventing forest fires. The annual averag expense of this work has been about 4 cen an acre, including patrolling, clearing out o| trails, making new trails, and actually figh ing new fires. “In southern California, where the fore cover of the mountains is of tremencot value in conserving the water to be use for irrigation, business men and _ banke combined with the fruit growers, who we directly interested, and contributed a lar: sum of money, which they offered to tl Forest Service on condition that the gover ment give an equal sum, the whole to | spent by the Forest Service for fire prote tion work on the San Bernardino nation forest reserve. The offer was promptly a cepted, and a plan was adopted dividing tl forest region into sections, which were se arated by fire breaks or lanes fifty-five © eighty feet wide. “From these lanes the brush and timb were removed to the roots, so that if a fi started it would be confined by the brea to a comparatively small area, even if n discovered promptly. Trails were construct to give ready access to the most importa parts of the reserve, and a patrol was form to watch for the first thread of smoke fro LUMBERMEN AND LUMBER JOURNALS a Starting fire. The result has been that since the beginning of the work in 1906 not a single fire of any magnitude has destroyed either timber or brush, or, what is perhaps more important, the spongy forest soil which is depended upon to hold back the water for a longer period of use. “The forest rangers who have charge of the national forest reserves in the United States each have about 670 square miles to watch; in Germany each forester has but two square miles to patrol. These rangers are valuable in many directions, because they not only patrol the forests and direct the fighting of the fires, but also collect evidence of and institute prosecution for violations of the fire and timber laws “This is only another evidence of the trend of the times in recognizing the value and needs of the great timber industry, and of intelligently applying regulations which can not only mean the prolongation of the nat- ural supply, but also prevent our becoming dependent in a few years on our Canadian neighbor for a timber supply that she may be loath to accord us. In view of the ex- panding growth of northwestern Canada, which has of late attracted so many Amer- icans, that progressive country, with a watch- ful eye for the future, will profit by the economy of the old world and the extrava- gance of the United States, and undoubtedly reserve for her own use the virgin timber with which she has been so richly endowed by nature. : “In conclusion, we urge your honorable body to reaffirm your past declarations and extend effective effort on the following im- portant points: (1) Tax exemption, which will result in an equitable annual cut; (2) a system of ranger patrol, preventing and cur- tailing fires and wanton waste;\ (3) a prac- tical reforestation plan which will instill into the minds of every citizen the necessity of providing a timber growth for future gen- erations.” The following officers were elected: Pres- ident, F. A. Diggins, of Cadillac; vice-presi- dents, F. S. Underhill of Philadelphia, Orson E. Yeager of Buffalo, and J. V. Stimson of Huntingburg, Ind., and the following direc- tors: For three years, T. M. Brown of Louis- ville, C. A. Goodman of Marinette, Wis., Oliver O. Agler of Chicago, E. E. Good- lander of Memphis, E. V. Babcock of Pitts- burg, J. H. P. Smith of Cincinnati, and Charles B. Dudley of Memphis; for the two- year term, Arthur H. Bernard of Minne- apolis. Mr. Diggins, the new president of the as- sociation, is one of the group that are re- sponsible for the good management and skil- ful utilization that has distinguished the wood manufacturing industries of Cadillac, Mich., above those of many other towns with equal advantages in the beginning. It was decided that the annual meeting of the association in 1911 should be held in Memphis, Tenn. 443 The Grading Conference On the 31st of May and the ist of June, representatives of the Eastern States Retail Lumber Dealers’ Association, the New York Lumber Trade Association, and the Hard- wood Manufacturers’ Association met in New York and conferred upon the matter of grad- ing rules. The changes decided upon are epitomized as follows: I. It was decided that when a question of grade only was in dispute, it would be neces- sary to hold only that part of the shipment intact that was complained of, instead of the entire car, but that when the question was one of quantity, the entire car must be kept intact until agreement was reached. 2. The standard rough thicknesses were adopted as shown in the book, and to this was added that ten per cent of the shipment, which might be one-sixteenth inch scant of the standard thickness 3. Slight reconstruction was made in the sap specifications for No. 1 common poplar, the quantity of sound discolored sap admitted being reduced to twenty per cent. 4. In the divisions of lengths under No. 1 common in the various woods, the percent- age of short lengths was held by the eastern lumbermen to be too severe, and these divi- sions were changed one foot. 5. Also, along the same line of short lengths, the percentage of the short lengths allowed the first and seconds and in No. 1 common were reduced five per cent in all the various woods. 6. In the grading book of the Hardwood Manufacturers’ Association, except in poplar, no percentage of firsts was specified, and it was decided to insert in the rules the per- centage of firsts that should be contained in the combined grade of firsts and_ seconds. This was set out in detail. Secretary Doster, of the Hardwood Associa- tion, is quoted as saying that this is the first time in the history of the hardwood industry that an agreement has been reached along these lines of such far-reaching proportions and of so great importance to the industry. The representatives to the conference were men of high standing in the business and they represented influential associations with very large interests. The St. Louis Lumber- man, in its report of the conference, sums up the result by saying: “The question of waste will be helped toward solution by the workings of this agreement, which allows the producer to work up more of his mate- rial than in the past, and thus conserve the ends of conservation. He is enabled to utilize the short clear lengths, by the cutting up process, which, in the entire board, would not be of sufficient value to stand the freight on long hauls, and would be left in the woods to decay.” 444 Chicago as a Lumber Market Lucius FE. Fuller, editor of the Lumber World, in the Pioneer Western Lumberman, describes Chicago as the “premier lumber market of the world.” He states that the largest wholesale lumber yard in the country is located there, and that there is a stock on hand at all times in the pine and hardwood yards of from 300,000,000 to 380,000,000 feet of rough lumber. He also notes the quantity of hardwoods and the great variety of all kinds that may be called for. The receipts of lumber at Chicago by rail and water in 1909 aggregated 2,578,309,000 feet, an in- crease of 509,675,000 feet, or twenty-four per cent, over the receipts during 1908. Of this amount 1,614,000,000 feet were consumed in the city for purposes of various kinds. The shipments from Chicago in 1909 were 969,- 000,000 feet, being nearly 200,000,000 feet larger than in 1908. These figures, Mr. Fuller says, are far ahead of the reports furnished by New York, and fully double the figures emanating from other markets where any record is kept of the lumber movement. we Making the Most of the Log A subscriber for the American Lumberman directs attention to the large amount of stumpage that well could go into higher uses that is being sawed into low-grade products by men who are not directly engaged in the lumber business. In the east such operators are buying areas of timber, logging them, and turning the entire product into goods for their specific requirements, with the in- evitable result that a large amount of high- grade stock goes into this consumption along with the low-grade timber that is properly suited thereto. They are satisfied because they can manufacture these articles at a low cost, even with the high grades in, since the operation is all their own and the profits of manufacture their own exclusively. AMERICAN FORESTRY Yet a question arises as to whether th are not throwing away good profits in sawi up No. I pine or spruce into low-grade ticles. Unfortunately, not only they are t losers, if such be the case, but the public large is a loser. Their own loss is their 0 lookout, and the man who ignores the opp« tunity to take a larger profit receives t scant sympathy. In recent years, howev the men who are cutting the forests of t United States have had it indicated to the that they have responsibilities larger th that they owe to stockholders or themselv Every good log that is used for a baser pt pose than that to which it is suited is a lc to the lumber industry of the United Stat and to the consumers who are dependé upon that industry for their lumber supply It is difficult in this practical age to prea altruism, but perhaps a demonstration of t sacrifice of profit in this indiscriminate 1 of timber might appeal to such a timl consumer and thereby serve the higher pt pose of saving high-class stock for high-cl: purposes, now certainly sufficient to consu1 all of the upper grades that are availal without permitting them to be manufactur into articles that can as well be made fr« lower grades.—American Lumberman. we We pe More Money for Fire Protection The state forestry commissioner beliey that if the legislature and the forest fis would occur at the same time, the state wot be better equipped to fight the latter. At t present time_there is available each ye $14,000 to support the work of protecting t forests of the state, a sum by far too lit if the work is to be effective in seasons wh there is the greatest danger. The proper « penditure of a much larger sum would sa many times as much in property that is n wiped out annually by fires in the timl sections of the state—Muississippi Val Lumberman (Minneapolis, Minn.). 1 AST a Me OAV, NEWS AND NOTES Forests as Gatherers of Nitrogen At a recent meeting of the Society of American Foresters, a paper was read by Treadwell Cleveland, Jr., on ‘Forests as Gatherers of Nitrogen.” This paper sum- marized results recently obtained by Jamie- son, of Scotland, and by Zemplen and Roth, of the Royal Hungarian Experiment Station at Selmecbanya, which tend to show that forests are able to appropriate free atmos- pheric nitrogen by means of their trichomes. Jamieson investigated several forest trees (as well as a number of small plants), among which were Accr campestre, Tilia europea, Ulmus campestris, Sorbus aucuparia, Fagus silvatica, and Picea concolor. Zempien and Roth included a large number of additionai species. In all cases chemical tests show the presence of nitrogen in the trichomes, and the investigators believe that they have ex- cluded all other sources for this nitrogen than the atmosphere. Professor Henry, of the Forest School at Nancy, Irance, was the first to point out that forest soils are en- riched in nitrogen by the decay of fallen leaves. Zemplen and Roth are cautious in their conclusions, and urge that further investi- gations be made in this field. we Me Eucalyptus for Railway Ties The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé is one of the great railway systems that has gone largely into the growing of trees to supply it with cross ties. On the San Dieguito Ranch, of 8,600 acres, purchased by the com- pany several years ago, eucalyptus is being grown on a large scale. The ranch lies in the valley of San Dieguito River, five miles east of Del Mar. Much of the land was rough, hilly, and overgrown with grease- wood. The ground was first cleared, har- rowed, and then prepared for planting. Three years ago the first seedlings were set out. The company since then has planted 500 acres a year. The seedlings are set out eight feet apart in rows and the rows five feet apart. This provides for the planting of 1,100 trees to the acre. When about six years old many of the trees will be thinned out. At that age the trees so cut out will yield three or four. good fence posts to the tree, with leav- ings for firewood, bringing in considerable revenue. The thinning process will be kept up until about 200 trees are left on each acre of ground, which means several thousand ties when they are eventually cut. Ordinary ties now are worth about $1 each. Twenty years from now they will be worth a great deal more. Eucalyptus culture demonstrates that saplings will grow from old tree stumps. This provides for a second crop to be grown more quickly than the first. The blue gum is expected to make a yearly growth of from twelve to fifteen feet during the first few years. The Santa Fé started in to grow the trees without irrigation, and so far has been successful beyond expectations. However, to insure a more rapid growth, recently a large pumping plant has been installed. Several varieties of the sugar gum planted three years ago have reached a height of eighteen to twenty feet and from fifteen to sixteen inches in circumference. The sugar gum is being grown exclusively for tie- making purposes. The company expects to allow the trees. to grow twenty years before they are cut. 445 For Sale by AMERICAN FORESTRY, 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. IMPORTANT BOOKS ON FOREST PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF FORESTRY FOREST MENSURATION. By Henry SoLton Graves, M.A. A complete text book of this important subject and the first written for American Foresters. It deals with the determination of the volume of log, tree, or stand, and with the study of increments and yields. Price, $4.00 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY, THE. By B. E. FERNOW. This volume treats of forests and forestry from the standpoint of political economy, and is designed to fur- nish a trustworthy basis for formulating public policy. Price, $1.50 HISTORY OF FORESTRY. By B. E. Frernow. A brief his- tory of forestry in Europe, the United States, and other countries. Price, $2.50 FIRST BOOK OF FORESTRY, A. By Friuipert Rora. An outline of the general principles of forestry, written in simple, non-technical language, designed particularly for the beginner. Price, 90c PRACTICAL FORESTRY, FOR BEGINNERS IN FOR- ESTRY, AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS, AND WOOD- LAND OWNERS. By JouN Girrorp. A good general description of the principles of forestry with enough technical information to prepare the beginner. Price, $1.20 HISTORY OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. By J. BD. DeresaucH. The first authoritative work of its kind yet issued, and one which will commend itself alike to the timber owner, lumberman, lumber manufacturer, or merchant, or student of economics. In four volumes bound in half leather. $5.00 per volume FOREST PLANT™NG. By H. NioHoLas JarcHow. An il- lustrated treatise on methods and means of restoring de- nuded* woodland. Price, $1.50 HEDGES, WINDBREAKS, SHELTERS, AND LIVE FENCES. By E. P. Powsrtu. A treatise on the plant- ing, growth and management of hedges with informa- tion concerning windbreaks and shelters. Price, 50c NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY. By ERNEST BRUNCKEN. This volume, expository in its char- acter, is written in a style intended for the general reader, to whom it should convey a good idea of our forests forestry. Price, $2.00 PRACTICAY FORESTRY. By ANpREW S. FULLER. A treatise on the propagation, planting and cultivation, with descriptions and the botanical and popular names of all the indigenous trees of the United States, and notes on a large number of the most valuable exotic species. Price, $1.50 PRINCIPLES OF AMERICAN FORESTRY. By SamMueE.L B. GREEN. Prepared especially for students in elementary forestry and for the general reader who wishes to se- eure a general idea of forestry in North America. Price, ®EASIDE PLANTING OF TREES AND SHRUBS. By ALFRED GautT. Illustrated from photographs by FRANK SuTcLIFFEH. This is a new volume in the English Country Life Library. Advice regarding selection and manage- ment to get satisfactory effects under adverse influence of closeness to seashore. Price, $1.75 FOREST MANAGEMENT. By C. A. ScHENOCK. Describes methods here and abroad to bring the most profit from all investments made in woodlands. Price, 75¢ $1.50 FOREST MENSURATION. By C. A. ScHENOK. Treats eonditions in U. S. from mathematical and practical standpoint. Price, $1.25 FOREST FINANCE. By C. A. SCHHNOK. Treats of the financial side of forestry, dealing with the scientific and practical development of forest finance, viewing forestry as an investment. Price, $1.25 FOREST PROTECTION. By C. A. SoHENCK. Treats on protection of forests from the various causes which lead to injury and destruction. Price, $1.75 PROFESSION OF FORESTRY, THE. By Guirr oHOT. A pamphlet containing an address on ~ ject by Mr. Gifford Pinchot; also an address by ton W. Price, on ‘‘Study in Europe for Amer est Students,’’ and a Hist of reference publica students. ] FOREIGN IMPORTATIONS ENGLISH ESTATE FORESTRY. By A. C. For authoritative volume on English forest methods pen of a well known forester, that should pro terest to Americans. Pri FORSTWISSENSCHAFT. (Schwappach.) FE MANUAL OF FORESTRY. (Schlich.) Five volur plete, or separately, as follows (price, complete, Viol. “FORESTRY POLICY IN THE BRIT PIRE Pri Vol. Il. “SYLVICULTURE.’’ Pr Vol. III. ‘FOREST MANAGEMENT.”’ Pri Vol. IV. ‘FOREST PROTECTION.”’ Pri Vol. V. “FOREST UTILIZATION.”’ Pri This is perhaps the most authoritative work been issued on the technical side of forestry, 1 from the German. WOOD. By G. S. BoutesR. An important new arboriculturists and forestry students. A manu natural history and industrial applications of th of commerce. Cloth. 82 Illustrations. Pri FAMILIAR TREES. By Prof. G. S. BouLesr. by an eminent botanical authority, yet couche guage easily understood. The coloured plates work of celebrated artists, and are truthful a worthy in every respect. A special feature is | of photo-micrographic illustrations of sections « Three yolumes. rice, per volur DENDROLOGY, BOTANY, AND IL FICATION OF SPECIES MANUAi OF THE TREES OF NORTH 4 (exclusive of Mexico). By CHARLES SPRAGUE A volume that presents in convenient form and cellent illustrations, authoritative information c the trees of North America. It is written in that enablea the reader to readily find to what species any particular tree belongs. Pri AMERICAN WOODS. By RoMnyn B. HouGH. A parture in the publication of an authoritative w trated with actual wood sections of the variot described. Three are given of each, viz.: radi verse, and tangential. Issued in ten parts, bet 11 HANDBOOK OF THE TREES OF THE NORTHE AND CANADA, EAST OF THE ROCKY MOU By Romeyn B. HovueuH. Pictorial description Two pages to each species; photo-engravings © leaves, flowers or fruit, section of wood, and m: tribution, with botanical description, and brief formation. Price, in buckram, $8.00; in half morocc FLORA OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. CuHapm is an excellent key to the flora of the South, and accurate in its scope. Pr GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH THE TREES Horack McFarRuanp. A handseme volume, cop lustrated, and with facts accurately presented tertaining way. , Pri HOW PLANTS GROW. By Asa Gray. An unde of the way in which a tree grows is of prime ir to the forester, and the matter here presented tes and authoritative. 1 PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD; THEIR CHA ICTIC PROPERTIES. By CHaRgtns Henry § attempt is made to give exhaustive descri| species. but the author presents a mass of in designed for the use and instruction of woodworl in a popular style. A host of concise infor brought under each head, and the work is a one. Pri These books sent prepaid upon receipt of price indicated, by AMERICAN FORESTR) 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. The American Forestry Association OFFICERS FOR 1910 PRESIDENT CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts VICE-PRESIDENTS JOSHUA L,. BAILY, Pennsylvania RUTHERFORD P. HAYES, North Carolina CHARLES W. ELIOT, Massachusetts GEORGE FOSTER PEABODY, New York B. E. FERNOW, Ontario, Canada J. E. RANSDELL, Louisiana W. W. FINLEY, District of Columbia J. T. ROTHROCK, Pennsylvania DAVID R. FRANCIS, Missouri ALBERT SHAW, New York EXECUTIVE SECRETARY EDWIN A. START, 1410 H StreetN. W., Washington, D. C. TREASURER OTTO LUEBKERT, Washington, D. C. DIRECTORS PHILIP W. AYRES, New Hampshire GEORGE H, MAXWELL, Illinois ROBERT P. BASS, New Hampshire CHARLES F. NESBIT, District of Columbia CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts CHARLES L. PACK, New Jersey WILLIAM S. HARVEY, Pennsylvania M. V. RICHARDS, District of Columbia JOHN EE. A. TIUSSEY, Massachusetts CUNO H. RUDOLPH, District of Columbia OTTO LUEBKERT, District of Columbia FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Pennsylvania GEORGE D. MARKHAM, Missouri JAMES S. WHIPPLE, New York GEORGE VP. WHITTLESLEY, District of Columbia Advisory Board, Representing Affiliated Organizations YELLOW PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION PHILIP S. GARDINER, Laurel, Miss. N. W. McLEOD, St. Louis, Mo. H. H. WHELESS, Shreveport, La. NATIONAL WHOLESALE LUMBER DEALERS’ ASSOCIATION ROBT. C. LIPPINCOTT, Philadelphia, Pa. LEWIS DILL, Baltimore, Md. R. M. CARRIER, Sardis, Miss. NORTHERN PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION (. A. SMITH, Minneapolis, Minn. WILLIAM IRVINE, Chippewa Falls, Wis. F. E. WEYERHAEUSER, St. Paul, Minn. MASSACHUSETTS FORESTRY ASSOCIATION NATHANIEL T. KIDDER, Milton, Mass. FREDERIC J. CAULKINS, Boston IRVING T. GUILD, Arlington, Mass. LUMBERMEN’S EXCHANGE WILLIAM L. RICE, Philadelphia, Pa. FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Philadelphia, Pa. SAMUEL B. VROOMAN, Philadelphia, Pa. NATIONAL SLACK COOPERAGE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION J. T. WYLIE, Saginaw, Mich. JAMES INNES, Chatham, Ontario C. H. KEYS, New York City Pe NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BOX MANUFACTURERS B. W. PORTER, Greenfield, Mass. S. B. ANDERSON, Memphis, Tenn. ROBT. A. JOHNSON, Minneapolis, Minn. CARRIAGE BUILDERS’ NATIONAL ASSOCIATION H. C. MeLEAR, Wilmington, Del. D. T. WILSON, New York C. D. FIRESTONE, Columbus, Ohio BOSTON PAPER TRADE ASSOCIATION N. M. JONES, Lincoln, Maine JOHN §E. A. HUSSEY, Boston, Mass. ARTHUR I.. HOBSON, Boston, Mass. Application for Membership to EDWIN A. START Secretary American Forestry Association 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become a member of the American Forestry Asso- ciation. One dollar ($1.00) for annual dues is enclosed herewith. Very truly yours, Nameé_ P. O. Address of > =~ Vs 2 c a) mM io) Cc oc 4 “ > @ Co Q, € ° O 00 I ‘ = nc) ee ao c u vu Q s wn Cc ° 7 v = ° am dS 00 = > American Forestry Vol. XVI RUGUST,-1910 PLANTING FORESTS IN KENTUCKY By J. B. ATKINSON IF ALL the great questions to be é, solved in this country of ours, that of forestry is preeminent. It is the one closest to every citizen. It is related to agriculture, to the navi- gation of our rivers, to the rainfall as regards great floods or great droughts, to the mining industry of coal, iron, gold, silver, in fact, of all metals dug from the earth. Timber is as neces- sary to all mining operations as is labor. Twenty years ago, the St. Bernard Mining Company of Earlington began to plant trees on lands that had largely been turned out as no longer valuable for the growth of tobacco and corn. My experience as a mining man indi- cated to me that the time would come when timber would be far more valu- able and difficult to secure for mining operations. At that time I had given little thought as to the time it takes our forest trees to mature, and had little knowledge of tree growth. Much timber of the many varieties growing in our Kentucky for- ests had been cut, and the study of tree growth began by counting the annular rings of the stumps, and much time was spent, then and since, in determining how long it took the destroyed tree to grow. I was surprised and interested. The following table shows the number of years it took various trees to reach the diameter given: No.8 Age, Diameter, Variety years inches a AYol <2 12k ee ee eee ee a? 115 25 Wihiitetselinieete, cts tee es 120 27 Blackp@alkie: cate. ce 148 28 Blacke willows =e ass a 50 18 Sassaina Se ctsisar. mace nat II2 19 Susamumaplenatcrce ee cise. 155 38 Swatips maples wc Samad 134 28 Blivemalsh ease mien arc 273 36 Wellowschestmtte see eee er aN Se aloe ceca: Mm oe nies one 186 21 ROSteiOdkeae atic. eae neces 150 20 Whlnitteleoalkess eines cs ences tk 261 48 Scrubwoaksr vis esse ak ee 150 15 Fe Cina especie oer at aren eee 147 27 SycammOners tee is aes oe 260 57 ABulipentneeen ads ce ac eee 25 57 lack lOCuS ween ean ce. oe 45 13 BEC CH Bien atintri Ba enon ees 165 36 op) lornbeanns = 52 <= 55 13 Sweet oui es ae eee 184 34 SO liters oii eect na arse et 141 2° Blacks walmtiteqe serene ee 189 20 Witte chretsinieen actin tk | fers 46 16 ShellEbark iiekotry 2.6 0-... 120 2 Kang nut hickory}... . 2s 163 19 lenker Satie, Jt(S Cine eee sone OF 163 13 Nenttickya'cGotieen see a. 25 5 Syoewencln (Opies geo che Saeed donee 38 exasmneduGadlc.. SOs ono ue 215 43 NViinitetioakeroh tesco at ie 33 Winite soakus.sabo. ne) cone 312 30 White oak. 290 35 WVilanern@alene oem so. Saws oe 275 35 WAVAati Cet e(a eet eh Won tie ee Daan 207 21 Witter oale sin. ees Bek Ac Hi(o) 36 WAV nhl enc 0 ail ita ile peat OU es Base ee 325 AI This list includes thirty varieties of our most prominent ferest trees. Dur- ing these twenty years, especial attention has been given to finding the growth 449 nares rane sm Ame co asm Peper ee r 4 ee ee ee é eee ot es ves = ie at Aa GROWING WALNUT, BLUE GRASS AND JERSEY CATTLE St. Bernard Mining Company Earlington, Ky. Walnut grove twenty years old from seed, PLANTING of the white oak. Forty-five white oaks of Hopkins county, grown on hills, in the valleys, and on the slopes between, were examined as to the ages when the trees reached twelve inches diameter. The average age was found to be Io1 years. The average age when cut was 231 years, with average diameter of thirty-one inches. The oldest tree when cut was 325 years old, with a diameter of forty-one inches, and was ninety-five years growing to a diameter of twelve inches. The youngest was 142 years old when cut, with a diameter of twenty- seven inches, and was seventy-five years growing to twelve inches. Thirty-five of these trees were over 200 years old. Four of them were over 300 years old. From the facts collected during these twenty years, I have made a table of the time it takes certain trees, in Kentucky, to grow to a diameter at the stump of twelve inches. This is not an infallible table, but it is based on ac- tual tree growth as observed in the for- est: and has no reference to isolated growth, or to unusual conditions. The pin oak will grow to twelve inches di- ameter in forty years; black locust in forty-five years; tulip in fifty years; black walnut in fifty-six years; Texas red oak in fifty-eight years; sweet gum in sixty-two years; ash in seventy-two years; hickories in ninety years; white oak in 100 years. The first tree planting was with the black walnut, the nut of which was planted in the autumn with the hull on, when the nuts became mature. The ground was prepared as for corn, and the nuts planted four feet apart each way, Or 2,770 to the acre, being cov- ered with soil from one-half to one inch in depth. The land was cultivated for three or four years the same as for corn, and then blue grass sown, the idea being that in ten or twelve years the trees would be large enough to permit pasturage. On the poorer of the thrown out farm lands we plant black locust. This tree, belonging to the pulse family (the family of the clover and the peas), draws its nitrogen from the air and enriches the soils. We plant these trees BROKE SES IN - KENEUCKY 453 seven or eight feet apart each way, and cultivate as we do the walnuts. We also plant the catalpa speciosa, a rapid growing tree from the Wabash Valley. I have found this tree, grow- ing from twenty-one inches to twenty- four inches in diameter at the stump in thirty-eight years. This catalpa, ac- cording to authorities, makes the most enduring fence posts, telegraph poles, and railroad ties. It is planted spaced seven or eight feet, and cultivated like the walnuts for three or four years. The tulip tree, commonly called the yellow poplar, is a most durable tree, and should be planted on good land, the trees ten feet apart each way, or 435 fo theeaere: Up to the present time, the above- mentioned four varieties are the only ones planted by us for the growing of new forests. From the autumn of 1888 to the spring of 1909, inclusive, my company has planted 430,000 black wal- _nuts on 162 acres; 160,000 catalpa spe- Elsa: Ol 230) ~acres ; °.200,000: ‘black locust on 280 acres; 10,000 tulip on twenty acres; and 850,000 black wal- muts. Mmevacane- places: in” the forest, largely in bottom lands, a total planting of 1,650,000 trees. As one of the most accomplished of foresters, Dr. C. A. Schenck, of Bilt- MOL NEO... wWiites ties. If forestry is a desirable industry, it is entitled to the fostering care of the public. As an industry, it stands unique, by the long time required for the production of its raw material, which exceeds the length of production entailed in any other kind of industry. This makes forestry im- possible unless the people offer to the corporation or private individual prac- ticing forestry special aid and special inducement and special privileges, simi- lar to those which the people have given for public purposes, as railroad and tel- egraph companies, and other corpora- tions acting for and in the people’s com- mon interest.” In Europe, planted forests are esti- mated to mature as follows: Spruce, ninety years; pine, 100 years; fir, 120 years; beech, 120 years; and oak, 160 years. PLANTING FORESTS IN KENTUCKY In Kentucky, the tulip would com pare with the spruce or pme. with a diameter at the stump oi twenty-four inches m the 100 years. The black wal nut at 120 years should be twenty-five inches in diameter. and compare with the European or American beech Our white oak would be cighteen mches to twenty inches im diameter m the 160 years, considered as mature as m Eu- rope. All trees thrive as the sol ts good or indifferent, and maturity de pends much on the same condition. The forest planting of walnuts twenty years ago has been thinned out until the stand is much less than 1.000 to the acre. Twenty-nime trees twenty- five to thirty-five feet high. cccupymg 1,100 square ieet. have now an average circumference of seventeen and ome hali mches, or five and onme-hali mches diameter. The largesi tree is mine and three-tenths meches m diameter, the smallest three and four-tenths mches. A young tulip forest, eleven years old ee ee six would be no danger oi fire. The leaves and stems of the walnut trees quickly assimilate with the soil When a natural forest is grazed, the cattle destroy much of the young growth, and my company is fencing our woodlands as rapidly as possible. The preserving Of seed trees. together with fencing, will let nature do much to m crease growth of present forests. Then reduce the cutting of timber to some thing below the annua! growth. and a good beginning will have been made to restore Kentucky forests to their org- imal glory. Besides this, there are tens of thousands of acres of cleared land in Kentucky that should be returned to the forest. Let the farmer select ten to twenty acres of medium good land and plant it in walnuts and blue grass. A better or more combina- tion could not exist. On poor land, 435 plant the black locust, and presentiy be possessed of a perpetual woodlot On meadow lands plant catalpa speciosa. and agam have 2 perpetual and quick growmg forest Kentucky bas too much land m so called cultivation. Hali the acres, well culitwated, would bre larger and bet- ter crops iham are now secured. Hence the planted woodlots could be spared_ In 1907 there was coi irom Kew tucky forests 912,000,000 icet, board measure. [i the annual growth of our forests is mo greater tham the average of the entre country. thmteen cubic feet to the acre. or 150,000,000 cuhac fect jor the 12,000,000 acres of forest land *2 the state, i would mdacate that we cut (ver three times the annual growth The =ut of 1907 was am imerease of thit;-exghht per cent over that of 190 Denmg ihe past twenty-seven years Kentucky is credittai with 2 cut of 14,531.000,000 feet, board measure, or am average Of 53%.000.000 per year. “To sum up the case: Forests are necessary io life and civilization. Ken- tucky las about half ts area sill cow ered with forests, and is m better com dition 0 reiam is present acreage and mecrease the amnual growth than most of the states of our coumiry. We are a patmotic people. but patriotism alone will not merease ithe production of oar forests or add to is acreage. Legnie- ton is required. Ii the commonwealth of Kentucky can protect i quail, & cam protcet ms trees. We have mot vet been awake lomg emough to the great problem before us that must be met m the near future. to kmow what is best We do know that a tree planted 5 an added guarantee to contmued aviliz2- tion, but we have yet to study what m- ducements are needed to plant the tree and protect and imecrease the forests we already have. Not only is Kentucky interested im solving the problem, which will tax the best mmds m the commonwealth and the nation. Our mountam forests are the watersheds of great rivers, and aid 456 in regulating the flow of streams, and preventing the erosion of the soil. Every citizen of our country is inter- ested. Kentucky has about 12,000,000 acres in forest lands, which is about one-half the acreage of the state. It is not pos- sible to get from the books the assessed value of forest land, but the value of all lands in Kentucky for 1907 was assessed at $12.60 per acre. On this valuation the forest land would show a value of $150,000,000. An assessment for state and county purposes of one per cent on this yields a revenue of $1,500,000, of a tax of $0.12% per acre. The cut of timber for 1907 was a little over 912,000,000 feet, board meas- ure, valued at $19,000,000. If this value of the timber cut had been taxed AMERICAN FORESTRY eight per cent, it would about equal the revenue derived from the $0.12% per acre. I believe the theory of free forests and revenue from the product of the forest may aid in the solution of the tax question. Then the man who plants trees would have an inducement. He would not be taxed on his growing crop until he sold his trees. The owner of forest lands would not be apt to cut immature trees, but await mature growth. One thing the American peo- ple may well understand at once—there will never be cheap lumber again. A people that cuts three feet to one that erows, as at present, will require gen- erations of skilled forest management to increase the annual growth of the forests to meet the wants of civilized life. AMERICANS AND AMERICAN TREES IN GERMANY Heavy snowbreak in Douglas fir near Hamburg AMERICANS AND AMERICAN TREES IN GERMANY AY SERIES” OF PICTURES By HOWARD R. KRINBILL, Assistant, Biltmore Forest School, Winter Quarters, 1909-10, Germany Sawing Scotch pine railroad ties in Mitteldick Forest. One man hews and saws ten ties daily at seventeen cents each, An American holds the hewing axe poom jseay JO Ajzatyo ysIsuod Ady} se /3urjoso0a49 azinbas ou op sani auyd asoyy “Ye> HTS OF OZ'IS ‘MILA 324 %QY Aq ‘UT QT Aq UT HQ ‘suoIsUaUG Isdu¥Od MOIGTALLIN ‘SAIL JNId HOLOOS Americans cruising in the Black Forest. The forty students composing the Biltmore School were divided into four parties, each being assigned a large tract of fir znd spruce Cruising party looking over the tract and ‘'thinking'’ before beginming strip estimates ee atc ee a Sa ee al ai a Ce oe en Experimental plot in Heidelberg Forest, Twenty-s x years old; Douglas fir. Caliper men, chain man and tally man among the firs and spruces Adjoining Outplanted at three years of age. Sixty-two cords per acre. of the Black Forest Lifting machine in the Odenwald. The Americans are in the background inspecting methods of transplanting. Eight thousand two-year-old Scotch pine are outplanted per acre at a cost of $16, the seedlings costing 15 cents per thousand Transplanting machine in the Odenwald, One man and four girls transplant 18,000 seedlings daily ore, Roos y bar ds aes z. ae ~~, Douglas fir, 45 years old, 20 inches diameter breast high, on private estate of 6,000 acres in the Odenwald THE WEEKS BILL IN CONGRESS The Story of Its Passage in the House of the Sixty-first Congress, and of the Senate Filibuster N THIS magazine (then known as | Conservation) for May, 1909, there was published a brief history of “The Fight for the Appalachian For- ests,” bringing the story up to that time, and closing with this statement : “The issue is now clearly before Con- gress and the country. It rests on the vital principle of conservation of nat- ural resources, and will not down. The people have unmistakably asked © for legislation on this subject. They will demand it of the Sixty-first Congress.” The first session of the Sixty-first Congress has closed, and it is possible now to write another chapter of this history—unfortunately, not the final one. Mr. Weeks took his bill which had been before the last Congress and elim- inated one or two features which, while they seemed wise to him, were unim- portant and made enemies for the bill— especially the provision designating the income from the national forests as the source of the funds for purchasing the new forests. This modified bill, agreed to by the best friends of the proposed legislation in both houses, was intro- duced during the extra session in the House by Mr. Weeks, and in the Senate by Senator Gallinger. In both bodies it was referred to the committees on agri- culture, but the Senate reference was later changed to the committee on for- est reservations, the committee which had previously had charge of it, and of which Senator Brandegee of Connecti- cut is chairman. The Connecticut sen- ator had been subjected to some criti- cism at home for lack of interest in this bill and was quite ready to take it into his committee and assume charge of it, 3 The policy of the senators was, how- ever, to await the action of the House a policy that proved to be a tactical mistake, however good the reasons may have been for it. It produced a feeling in the country outside, where interest in the bill was keen, that the Senate’s interest in it was perfunctory. The senators who were most actively en- listed for the bill, however, gave as- surance that the bill could be reported and passed in that body at any time. The statement was repeatedly made, up to the last hours of the session, ““We have the votes.’’ The policy of delay was encouraged by the President, who wished the bill to wait until what he regarded as the more urgent admin- istration measures were disposed of. Meanwhile, action dragged in the House. The members of the commit- tee on Agriculture were known to be divided eight to seven, with three new members whose position was unknown. Of the seven one was Chairman Scott, an uncompromising enemy of the bill, who would do everything within the limit of the law to defeat it. The com- mittee did not find time for the hear- ing that had been asked for on the bill until February 23. This resolved itself largely into a discussion by experts. chiefly Professors Swain, Roth, and Glenn, of the pronouncements of Willis L. Moore, chief. of the Weather Bu- reau, and certain officers of the En- gineer Corps, in regard to the influ- ence of forests upon streamflow. So effective were the attacks upon the views of these officials that they were given an opportunity to appear before the committee on the Ist and 2d of March to defend their own position. 463 464 AMERICAN Reports of these discussions and papers more fully presenting the case, were published in this magazine in March and April, and it is not necessary to review them at this time. Some time elapsed without any fur- ther action being taken by the commit- tee. Finally, a vote was taken and all of the new members voted for the bill, making the standing of the committee eleven for and seven against. It is in- teresting to note in this connection that the advocates of this measure have never failed to convince a majority of any committee they have appeared be- fore in either house that the measure is a good one and should become a law. Within a few days of the action by the committee, the report of the ma- jority, which had been put in charge of Mr. Lever of South Carolina and Mr. Plumley of Vermont, was ready to sub- mit to the House, but that of the mi- nority was delayed several days. This was in charge of Chairman Scott, and his reason for the delay was pressure of other work, but every day’s delay hin- dered the passage of the bill, which Mr. Scott was certainly not anxious to further. There are many times in the course of legislation when a minority can be just as effective as a majority, if ob- struction is all that is needed. On the 15th of April, the report was made and committed to the committee of the whole house on the state of the Union and ordered to be printed. It was then hoped that an early opportu- nity would come to bring it up on cal- endar Wednesday, when, under the rules, each committee in turn has an opportunity to call up bills for consid- eration. It soon developed, however, that the turn of agriculture on the cal- endar had passed and was not likely to come again, owing to the number of important bills to come from other com- mittees that had the call before it. The friends of the bill outside of Congress meanwhile grew anxious, and appeals for action began to pour in upon the members, especially those from the New England states. It had become evident that the only hope for FORESTRY action was in a special rule, which 1 be obtained from the new rules « mittee of ten. It was no longer a ¢ tion of securing the consent of Speaker, who is not even a membe the new committee. Of the ten n bers only one, Mr. Lawrence of M: chusetts, was in favor of the bill, so well was the case urged by Weeks, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Cut Mr. Lever, and their supporters, the committee consented to bring rule. Even then so much business 1 vened that days passed before the was reported, and it was not unti afternoon of June 24 that Mr. S of Towa introduced the rule for committee and yielded the floor to Lawrence of Massachusetts, who 1 an admirable speech, brief, clear, pointed, in support of the rule anc bill. Concluding, he said: It would be interesting to consid length just what is being done for the ervation and development of fores France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Britain, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, many, and Japan. Such consideration » convince us that America has been very to realize the importance of this work. are much behind other first-class count: But we are waking up, and the p: of this bill will be a long step forwa: wish it might have carried a larger < priation and provided for work cover longer period. Its advocates, howeve sure that the expenditure here provide will remove all doubt as to the wisdc the policy and that it will be follow much larger appropriations, which wil mit more rapid and thorough develo This is practical conservation. It pre to save what the people want saved, a1 proposition should receive the heart; unanimous support of the members o house. f The rule was adopted on a roll 154 voting in favor of consider and ninety-nine against. T went answered present, and 114 did not Several opponents of the bill wer enough to vote for its consider: but others fought the measure ev this point, and Mr. Rucker of Mis began the dilatory tactics with | he endeavored up to the final pa of the bill to obstruct it and to tir THE WEEKS BILL IN CONGRESS the House. Conference reports also intervened, and it was late in the after- noon of a very hot day when the bill finally came up in committee of the whole. Mr. Rucker continued his dila- tory tactics, but Mr. Weeks and Mr. Lever held control of the committee and of the House through it all, and to Mr. Weeks, when he was given the floor by Mr. Lever, to speak for the bill which has been known by his name and to which he has given so much patient effort, diplomacy, and parlia- mentary skill, was accorded the rare tribute of genuine applause from all over the house. | Following his brief and straightfor- ward statement, an attempt was made to put the matter over until the follow- ing day, but the men who had deter- mined to pass that bill could not be shaken, and it was only when an agree- ment to go on in the evening was se- cured that a recess was taken until eight o'clock. A large number of members took part in the general debate and in the debate under the five-minute rule. The principal argument against the bill was by Mr. Scott of Kansas, chairman of the committee on agriculture. Mr. Scott based his objections chiefly upon the allegation, which he claimed was supported by the most competent en- gineering testimony, that the forests at the headwaters of streams do not ex- ercise any appreciable effect upon the navigability of the streams. Mr. Scott reached this conclusion by the simple and convenient intellectual process of eliminating all conflicting testimony and accepting only that which fitted his prejudgment. Mr. Tawney of Minnesota discovered a peril to the structure of our govern- ment in the make-up of the commission under the bill, in that it included mem- bers of the executive and_ legislative branches, thus transgressing the com- plete separation decreed by the fathers. A point made much of in the House debate and by Senator Burton in his filibuster in the Senate, was the fact that the bill was brought forward in the closing hours of the session and 46, an attempt made to rush it through without adequate discussion. This taunt came with bad grace from the men who for years have used every means in their power to prevent the consideration of this or the similar measures that preceded it, and have only yielded when they were fought to a finish by a majority that was the final product of ten years of extraordinarily full discussion in Congress and outside, years in which several official govern- ment investigations have been made by Congress, resulting in reports which have been available in printed form for varying periods of time. If there was not sufficient informa- tion, and if there had not been suffi- cient discussion, these opponents of the bill were the responsible parties, and the ignorance which they claim argues their own failure to do their duty in considering a great public measure. There has been no desire on the part of its friends to hold it back. The truth is that the opponents of the bill were driven to the last resort of oppo- sition in fighting a plan which had ample precedent and ample warrant in the history of our governmental activ- ities, and was so strong that it could only be beaten by delay. They had found arguments against it, not by a survey of all the evidence, but by choos- ing their own witnesses and belittling those on the opposite side. The speakers in opposition to the bill were, beside Mr. Scott and Mr. Rucker: Mr. Engle- bright of California, Mr. Howland of Ohio, Mr. Beall of Texas, Mr. Parker of New Jersey, Mr. Sims and Mr. Gar- rett of Tennessee, Mr. Crumpacker and Mr. Cox of Indiana, Mr. Focht of Pennsylvania, Mr. Southwick of New York, and Mr. Tawney of Minnesota. The general character of the speeches for the bill was of a higher order. The speeches were more dignified, dealing with facts rather than with abuse of the other side, and always holding steadily to one purpose, to make the strongest possible case for the bill. The closing word for the bill in general debate was a brief, clear, snappy speech by Mr. Lever of South Carolina, who had 466 AMERICAN FORESTRY charge of the bill for the majority of the committee on agriculture. Those who spoke in favor of the bill, in addi- tion to those who have already been mentioned, were: Mr. Currier of New Hampshire, Mr. Guernsey of Maine, Mr. Small of North Carolina, Mr. Bur- nett of Alabama, Mr. McCall of Massa- chusetts, Mr. Austin of Tennessee, Mr. Keliher of Massachusetts, Mr. Thomas of North Carolina, Mr. Cole of Ohio, Mr. Tilson of Connecticut, Mr. Tirrell of Massachusetts, Mr. Gillett of Massa- chusetts, Mr. Fordney of Michigan, Mr. Mann of Illinois, Mr. Keifer of Ohio, Mr. Saunders of Virginia, and Mr. Davis of Minnesota. It was late in the evening when de- bate ended and voting began. Mr. Rucker of Missouri, tenacious in his hopeless attempt at delay, moved to recommit the bill to the committee, and a roll call had to be taken on this r tion, which was defeated by a vote TI2 yeas to 131 nays, with sevent present and 129 not voting. It was midnight when the final call on the passage of the bill ended ¢ the result was declared, the bill hav passed the House by 130 to III. had been a strong and courageous fis in the face of odds and of the mr determined opposition. At the sz time, it detracts in no respect from work done by members in the Ho to say that they would never have d it except in response to the vigor expression of a widespread public mand for the passage of some meas that would make it possible to check destruction of the forests of the . palachian system, north and south. ‘ vote is given below in detail, with analysis : THE ROLL CALL The vote on the Weeks Bill in the House of Representatives, June 24, 1 was as follows (this is a direct transcript from the Congressional Record): YEAS—130 Ames Esch Hitchcock Morgan, Mo. Austin Estopinal Hubbard, W. Va. Morgan, Okla. Anthony Finley Hughes, N. J. Murdock Bell, Ga. Fish Hull, Tenn. Needham Bennett, N. Y. Fordney Johnson, S. C. Nelson Bingham Fornes Keifer Nicholls Borland Foss, Ill. Keliher Norris Boutell Foss, Mass. Kinkaid, Nebr. O’Connell Burke, S. Dak. Foster, Vt. Kinkead, N. J. Olcott Burleigh Foulkrod Kustermann Padgett Burnett Gaines Lamb Palmer, A. M. Byrns Gallagher Law Plumley Calder Gardner, Mass. Lawrence Poindexter Cary Gardner, N. J. Lenroot Pou CocksssNNS Gill, Md. Lever Pratt Cole Gill, Mo. Loud Rainey Conry Gillett Loudenslager Ransdell, La. Cooper, Wis. Graff Lundin Reynolds Coudrey Graham, III. McCall Roberts Covington Grant McDermott Robinson Craig Greene McKinney Rodenberg Currier Griest McLachlan, Cal. Saunders Davidson Guernsey McLaughlin, Mich. Sharp Davis Hamilton Madison Sheffield Denby Havens Maguire, Nebr. Slemp Dodds Heald Mann Small Driscoll, D. A. Heflin Maynard Sterling Durey Higgins Moon, Tenn. Sturgiss Ellerbee Hill Morehead Sulloway Taylor, Ala. Thomas, N. C. Tilson Turnbull Adamson Aiken Alexander, Mo. Barchfeld Bartlett, Ney. Beall, Texas Booher Bradley Brantley Burgess Burleson Calderhead Campbell Carlin Cassidy Chapman Clark, Mo. Cline Collier €ox Ind: Crow Crumpacker Cullop Dalzell Dawson Denver Dickinson Dies Carter Douglass Gillespie Goldfogle Adair Alexander, N. Y. Allen Anderson Andrus Ansberry Ashbrook Barclay Barnard Barnhart Bartholdt Gilmore Glass Godwin Goulden Gregg Gronna Hamill Hanna Harrison Haugen Henry, Conn. THE WEEKS BILL IN CONGRESS Wanger Washburn Watkins Webb Weeks Wickliffe Wilson, II. Wilson, Pa. Nays—III Dixon, Ind. Driscoll, M. E. Dwight Edwards, Ga. Ellis Englebright Fassett Flood, Va. Flood, Ark. Focht Foster, Ill. Fuller Gardner, Mich. Garner, Texas Garrett Goebel Good Gordon Giralnenan, J, Hamer Hamlin Hammond Hardy Hawley Hay Helm Henry, Texas Hollingsworth Houston Howard Howell, Utah Howland Hubbard, Iowa Hughes, Ga. Humphrey, Wash. James Johnson, Ky. Johnson, Ohio Joyce Kendall Kennedy, Iowa Knapp Korbly Lloyd McCreary McKinley, III. Macon Malby Martin, Colo. Mays Miller, Minn. Millington Moore, Texas Morrison Moss Murphy ANSWERED “PRESENT’—I3 Hardwick Hayes Kennedy, Ohio Langley Sabath Smith, Iowa Not Votinc—136 Hinshaw Hobson Howell, N. J. Huff Hughes, W. Va. Hull, Iowa Humphreys, Miss. Jamieson Jones Kahn Kitchin Knowland Bartlett, Ga. Bates Bennett, Ky. Boehne Bowers Broussard Brownlow Burke, Pa. Butler Byrd Candler Kopp Kronmiller Lafean Langham Latta Lee Legare Lindbergh Lindsay Livingston Longworth Lowden McCredie McGuire, Okla. McHenry McKinlay, Cal. McMorran Madden Martin, S. Dak. Miller, Kans. Mondell Wood, N. J. Wore INL, VE Oldfield Olmsted Parker Payne Pickett Randell, Texas Rauch Roddenbery Rucker, Mo. Scott Sheppard Sherley Simmons Sisson Smith, Cal. Southwick Stafford Steenerson Stevens, Minn. Tawney Taylor, Colo. Taylor, Ohio Thomas, Ky. Thomas, Ohio Tou Velle Volstead Woods, Iowa Sparkman Spight Tirrell Moon, Pa. Moore, Pa. Cantrill Capron Clark, Fla. Clayton Cook Cooper, Pa. Cowles Cox Ohio Cravens Creager Dent Morse Moxley Mudd Nye Page Palmer, H. W. Parsons Patterson Pearre 468 AMERICAN FORESTRY Peters Sherwood Garner, Pa. Thistlewood Pray Sims Slayden Townsend Prince Dickson, Miss. Smith, Mich. Underwood Pujo Diekema Smith, Texas Vreeland Reeder Draper Snapp Wallace Reid Edwards, Ky. Sperry Weisse Rhinock Elvins Stanley Wheeler Richardson Fairchild Stephens, Texas Wiley Riordan Ferris Sulzer Willett Rothermel Fitzgerald Swasey Woodyard Rucker, Colo, Foelker Talbott Young, Mich. Shackleford Fowler Tener The Speaker So the bill was passed. The following additional pairs were announced: Until further notice: Mr. Bradley with Mr. Goulden. On this vote: Mr. Clark of Florida, in favor, with Mr. Sims, against; Mr. Sulzer, favor, with Mr. Boehne, against; Mr. Morse, in favor, with Mr. Slayden, agains Mr. Swasey, in favor, with Mr. Byrd, against; Mr. Diekema, in favor, with Mr. Vreelan against; Mr. Kronmiller with Mr. Sabath. Mr. Spight—Mr. Speaker, I wish to know if the gentleman from Connecticut (M Henry) is recorded on this vote. The Speaker—He is not. Mr. Spight—I voted “No” with the understanding that the gentleman from Connectic (Mr. Henry) would vote for this bill if he were present, and I thought he was going | vote for it. I want to withdraw my vote and answer “Present.” Mr. Tirrell—Mr. Speaker, I would inquire if the gentleman from North Carolina (M Kitchin) is recorded ? The Speaker—He is not. Mr. Tirrell—I withdraw my vote and answer “Present.” The result of the vote was announced as above recorded. On motion of Mr. Lever, a motion to reconsider the vote by which the bill was pass« was laid on the table. THE INDIVIDUAL RECORD BY STATES Below are given the individual records of the representatives, arranged | states and districts. The figure preceding each name is the number of the co gressional district of the member. The index numbers following each nan have the following meanings: *Voted Yes in the Sixtieth Congress. “Voted No in the Sixtieth Congress. *Did not vote in the Sixtieth Congress. “New member; predecessor voted YEs. "New member; predecessor voted No. *New member; predecessor did not vote. Names in italics are those of Democrats. : ALABAMA Yes No Not voting 1. G. W. Taylor’ 2. Stanley iH. Dent, Jr.“ 4. William B. Craig’ 3. Henry D. Clayton’* 5. James T. Heflin’ 6. R. P. Hobsow 7. John L. Burnett 8. W. Richardson’ 9g. O. W. Underwood’ ARKANSAS 6. J. T. Robinson’ 1. Robert B. Macon’ . Ben Cravens* 2: W. A. Oldfield* . Charles C. Reid*® 3. John C. Floyd® 7. R. M. Wallace?’ np THE WEEKS BILL IN CONGRESS 6. J. C. Needham’ ir, 7. James McLachlan* 8. CALIFORNIA W. F. Englebright’ S. CG. Smith? COLORADO At large—E. T. Taylor® 2. John A. Martin*® At large—John Q. Tilson* 3. Edwin W. Higgins* 4. Ebenezer J. Hill’ At large—W. H. Heald* 9. Thomas M. Bell’ At large—Thomas R. Hamer’ . James R. Mann* 12. . William W. Wilson? 19. . James T. McDermott’ 23 . Fred Lundin® 24. 2 3 4 ri 8. Thomas Gallagher’ g. H.S. Boutell? 10. George E. Foss’ 14. James McKinney* 16. Joseph V. Graff? 17. John A. Sterling® 20. Henry T. Rainey’ 21. James M. Graham‘ 22. William A. Rodenberg® HoOhWNH CONNECTICUT DELAWARE FLORIDA . D. A. Mays* GEORGIA . G. Edwards* . A, Roddenbery* . M. Hughes*® .C. Adamson® OW. M. Howard’ . W.G. Brantley’ IDAHO ILLINOIS Charles E. Fuller’ William B. McKinley” Martin D. Foster’ Pleasant T. Chapman’ INDIANA W. A. Cullop® . Willis E. Cox’ . Lincoln Dixon? . Ralph W. Moss® . C. A. Korbly’ M. A. Morrison* . E. D. Crumpacker’ . G.W. Rauch’ . Cyrus Cline‘ 469 2. D. E. McKinlay’ 3. J. R. Knowland* 4. Julius Kahn* 5. E. A. Hayes™* *Present 1. A. W. Rucker’ iin 18, S, elena 2. N. D. Sperry’ *Paired with a negative vote 1. S. M. Sparkman** 2. Frank Clark® *Present L. F, Livingston*® C. F. Bartlett’ . Gordon Lee’* . T. W. Hardwick* (S) I ene | 1. M. B. Madden? 5. A.J. Sabath?* 6. Lara ye Moxley’ 11. H. M. Snapp? 1 EF O. Lowden? 15. George W. Prince’ 18. Joseph G. Cannon? 25. Napoleon B. Thistlewood* *Present. 1. J. W. Boehne* 6. W. O. Barnard® 8. J. A.M. Adair’ 13. H. A. Barnhart’ 470 AMERICAN FORESTRY IOWA 1. C. A. Kennedy’ 4. G. N. Haugen* 2. A. F. Dawson” Fa Motte ds IaGauiF 3.-C.E. Pickett 8. W.D.Jamieson* 5. James W. Good’ 9. W. I. Smith** 6. Nathan E. Kendall’ — o. Frank P. Woods® *Present I . E. H. Hubbard’ KANSAS 1. D.R. Anthony, Jr.* 2. Charles F. Scott? 4. J. M. Miller’? 7. E. H. Madison’ 3. P. P. Campbell? 6. W. A. Reeder’ 8. Victor Murdock’ 5. W. A. Calderhead? KENTUCKY 1. Ollie M. James® 2. A. O. Stanley" 3. R. Y. Thomas, Jr. 6: J, LE Rhinock 4. Ben Johnson* 7. James C. Cantrill* 5. S. Sherley g. J. B. Bennett’ 8. Harvey Helm’ 10. J. W. Langley’* 11; D) C:-Edwards, *Present. Paired with Ba lett of Georgia LOUISIANA 1. A. Estopinal’ 2. S. L. Gilmore® 4. J.T. Watkins’ 3. RF. Broussard® 5. J. E. Ransdell’ spol len Sealer 6. R.C. Wickliffe MAINE 3. E.C. Burleigh’ t. A. L. Allen’ 4. F. E. Guernsley* 2. J. P. Swasey** *Paired with a negative v MARYLAND 1. J. H. Covington® 2.3. FC. Talbott 4. John Gill, Jr2 3. J. Kronmiller® 5S. ba Mindds 6. George A. Pearre® MASSACHUSETTS 1. G. P. Lawrence’ ab, (CO), irra 2. F. H. Gillett* 11. A.J. Peters* 3. C.G. Washburn’ oe 5. Butler Ames*® *Paired with a negative v 6. A. P. Gardner’ 7. FE. W. Roberts’ 8. S.W. McCall’ 9. J. A. Keliher’ 10. J. F. O'Connell’ 12. John W. Weeks’ 13. W.S. Greene’ 14. Eugene N. Foss* MICHIGAN 1. Edwin Denby’ 3. Washington Gardner* 2. C. E. Townsend’ 4. Edward L. Hamilton’ 5. G. J. Diekema’* 8. Joseph W. Fordney’ 6. Samuel W. Smith’® 9g. James C. McLaughlin’ 7. H. McMorran* To. George A. Loud’ 12, H.O. Young” 11. Francis H. Dodds* *Paired with a negative v TAR WEEKS BILL IN CONGRESS 471 MINNESOTA 3. Charles R. Davis’ 1. James A. Tawney’ 5) EF Mo Nye . 2. W.S. Hammond’ 6. C. A. Lindbergh? 4. F.C. Stevens? 7. A.J. Volstead?” 8. Clarence B. Miller* 9. Halvor Steenerson’ MISSISSIPPI 4. T. U. Sisson* 1. E. S. Candler, Jr. 8. J. W. Collier® 2. Thomas Spight* 3. B. G. Humphreys' 5. Adam M. Byrd’ 6. Eaton J, Bowers’ 7. William A. Dickson® *Paired with affirmative vote MISSOURI 5. W.P. Borland® I James 1 Lloyd 8. D. W. Shackleford* 11. Patrick F. Gill* 2. William W. Rucker’ to. Richard Bartholdt* 12. Harry M. Coudrey’ 3. James W. Alexander* 13. Politte Elvins® 15. Charles H. Morgan’ 4. Charles F, Booher* 6. C. A. Dickinson’ . 7. Courtney W. Hamlin® 9. Champ Clark? 14. Charles A. Crow’ 16. Arthur P. Murphy‘ MONTANA Charles N. Pray’ NEBRASKA 1. John A. Maguire* 3. James P. Latta’ 2. Gilbert M. Hitchcock’ 4. E. H. Hinshaw’ 5. George W. Norris® 6. Moses P. Kinkaid’ NEVADA At large—G. A. Bartlett’ zat NEW HAMPSHIRE 1. C. A. Sulloway’ . Frank D. Currier’* to NEW JERSEY 1. H.C. Loudenslager?® 2. J. J. Gardner’ 4. Ira W. Wood" 6. Wiliam \Hughes' 9. E. F. Kinkead* 7. R. W. Parker’ 3. B. F. Howell? 5. C.N. Fowler’ 8. William H. Wiley® 10. James A. Hamill’ NEW YORK . William W. Cocks’ 20. T. W. Bradley® 2. George H. Lindsay" I 4. Charles B. Law’ 5. Richard Young* 6. William M. Calder’ 1. Charles W. Fornes* 2. Michael F. Conry* Sa Jo Ve Olcott” . G.N. Southwick* . George R. Malby* . CS. Millington® . Charles L. Knapp* . M.E. Driscoll? 30. J. W. Dwight? 3. Otto G. Foelker* 7. J.J. Fitzgerald’ 8. D. J. Riordan® 9: H. M. Goldfogle™ 10. William Sulzer’} 13. Herbert Parsons* 472 17. W.S. Bennet* 21. Hamilton Fish’ 25. Cyrus Durey” 32. James S. Havens* 35. D. A. Driscoll* . John iH, Small’ . Charles R. Thomas* . Edward W. Pow . John M. Morehead* . Edwin Y. Webb* . John G, Grant* OOM BRWH | J. Warren Keifer” . Ralph D. Cole’ 14. William G. Sharp' CoN 2. Dick T. Morgan‘ 1. Harry H. Bingham’ 5. William W. Foulkrod’ 8. Irving P. Wanger® g. William W. Griest* 10. Thomas D. Nicholls* 14. Charles €, Pratt 15. William B. Wilson? AMERICAN FORESTRY NEW YORK—Continued 31. Sereno E. Payne’ 33) J owbassetts 34. J. S. Simmons* NORTH CAROLINA NORTH DAKOTA OHIO 2. Herman P. Goebel’ 4. William E. Tou Velle* 6. Matthew R. Denver’ 10. Adna R. Johnson‘ 12. Edward L. Taylor, Jr.” 15. James Joyce® 16. David A. Hollingsworth*® 19. William A. Thomas’ 20. Paul Howland’ 21. James H. Cassidy‘ OKLAHOMA OREGON . Willis C. Hawley’ 2. William R. Ellis” La PENNSYLVANIA 6. George D. McCreary’ 17. Benjamin K. Focht* 18. M. E. Olmsted?’ 29. William H. Graham*® 30. John Dalzell* 32. A. J. Barchfeld? 14. William Willett, Jr2 16. F. B. Harrison’ 18. Joseph A. Goulden’® 19. John E. Andrus? 22. William H. Draper’ 24. G. W. Fairchild? 36. De A. S. Alexander’ 37. E. B. Vreeland?t *Present +Paired with a negative vote t{Paired with an affirmative vote . Claude Kitchin7t . H.L. Godwin’ . Robert N. Page’ . Charles H. Cowles? CON Ah tPaired with an affirmative vote At large—A. L. Gronna? At large—L. B. Hanna‘ 1. Nicholas Longworth’ 3. James M. Cox* 5. I. T. Ansberry’ g. I. R. Sherwood* 11. Albert Douglas’* 13. C.C. Anderson® 17. W. A, Ashbrook* 18. James Kennedy* * Present . Bird McGuire’ . Charles E. Creager’ . Charles D. Carter’ . Scott Ferris’ np WH 2. Joel Cook* 3. J. Hampton Moore? 4. Reuben O. Moon? 7. Thomas S. Butler’ 1. Henry W. Palmer* 12. Alfred B. Garner® 13. John H. RothermeP THE WEEKS BILL IN CONGRESS 19. John M. Reynolds* 26. A. M. Palmer* il . W. P. Sheffield® . J.T. Johnson* David E. Finley’ James E. Ellerbe* . Asbury F. Lever’ NU At large—Charles H. Burke‘ . Richard W. Austin‘ . John A. Moon’ . Cordell Hull . Joseph W. Byrns* . Lemuel P. Padgett’ NOOR bd 1. David G. Foster’ 2. Frank Plumley* . H. L. Maynard’ . John Lamb* . Robert Turnbull ._ E,W. Saunders’ . Charles B. Slemp' OmnBwWbd 8. Miles Poindexter® PENNSYLVANIA—Continued RHODE ISLAND SOUTH CAROLINA 3. Wyatt Atken’® SOUTH DAKOTA TENNESSEE 5. W.C. Houston? 9. F. J. Garrett? 10. G. W. Gordan? TEXAS 1. Morris Sheppard’ 2. Martin. Dies* 4. C. B. Randel? 5. Jack Beal? 6. Rufus Hardy’ 8. John M. Moore? 9. George F. Burgess* 10. A. S. Burleson® 11. Robert L. Henry’ 15. J. N. Garner UTAH At large—Joseph Howell’ VERMONT VIRGINIA 7. James \Hay* 8. C.C. Carlin’ 10. Henry D. Flood’ WASHINGTON 1. W. E. Humphrey” 16. John -G. McHenry 20. Daniel F. Lafean 21. Charles F. Barclay’ 22. George F. Huff? 23. Allen F. Cooper’ 24. John K. Tener* 25. Arthur L. Bates* 27. John N. Langham’ 28. Nelson P. Wheeler’ 31. James F. Burke’ to . A. B. Capron’ 1. George S. Legare® 2. J. O. Patterson® At large—Eben W. Martin’ 1. W. P. Brownlow’ 8. Thetus W. Sims? 7. A.W. Gregg’ 12. O- W. Gillespie™* 13. John H. Stephens’ 14. James L. Slayden* 16. W.R. Smith’ 473 Gordon Russell’, Third dis- trict, does not appear in the Record. *Answered “Present” 1. William A. Jones’ 6. Carter Glass’ 2. W. W. McCredie® 474 . W. P. Hubbard’ WNH . Henry A. Cooper’ John M. Nelson* Walliamy jie Gary: John J. Esch G. Kiistermann’ =O ONE WH Fy New ENGLAND IMIDE WTONE on, AG Seis ao oc New Hampshire VieiNOnteeerer eee ae cee cee Massachusetts. .... Rhode Island..... Connecticut MIDDLE New? Jienseyne- an. Pennsylvania ..... Delawaneesss sae CENTRAL Michigan Ohio Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa South Dalkotae =o. ING@OASIER, 5 sco m6 cas Kansas Oklahoma . George C. Sturgiss’ . Joseph H. Gaines* . James H. Davidson’ . Irvine L. Lenroot?® AMERICAN FORESTRY WEST VIRGINIA 4. H. C. Woodyard® 5. James A. Hughes® WISCONSIN 5. W. H. Stafford’ 3. Arthur W. Kopp* 6. C. H. Weisse® 10. Elmer A. Morse’ WYOMING At large—F. W. Mondell’ SUMMARY BY STATES AND SECTIONS Sixtieth Congress Rocky MouNTAIN AND COAST Montana Wyoming Colorado Yeas Nays Not voting ae hain se nls aera 4 a + Pee. Ae aS 13 1 hs eet I I De trict. heat a ea 4 1 26 3 ude a eh ane MO Aa 17 IT 9 Bien, Sa een PC! 3 4 3 £58 ANE tah Do 10 12 10 Rh chon ch RM eae I wr Bi 27 22 Fite by ete cnc ree 8 3 I sl A Se aera ere: 10 5 6 So So Ee: 3 9 I Bec eM Paar es ce 5 13 6 Rat eee meen 5 4 2 Rt Ue Pen 2 7 ig a a an ee 2 7 2 Bs he eat pocr ors 3 fe) 4 BMPe Res ieee a at wes I 4 Ppt pe Meat hn 2 I I oS Ske Oe eee 4 I I Lalo eee eee 2 4 2 tied hte ee eee 4 I 46 67 27 ERT EEE oin 6 8c a I ONS. oc cs Le I Be: Was bine tons. 28 eis aa ag ey eee Orezonte. «oer California = ee 5 N ANd wWHH.: W a) ios) Sixty-first Congress Yeas | ° . — N | =| \ | = w HWE. RR HNW:? WBA NI] ROWD dS lwrAnddDNDDHND sy 6 w Nays Not + > COON AHROOH 50 Bell are fo) DHDHHR HED: - voting 2 % | Ble COlANNHNWAHYW CARON Ql - -_ + col mp: > THe WERK S BILE N CONGRESS 475 SOUTHERN IMEWaenats lo oes dint, c.ci ou pe noe aoa 3 ae 3 2 4 Minginia Henmeree nace Grea een ates 7 I 2 5 3 2 Wiest? Virroiniaterycts cia ereree. oss 2 3 3 - 2 Kenticky*eerercts wa terioe ener Stays 5 3 3 NG 5 6 Rennessee’ (Ss aewrare ee cere recs Ms Stace 6 4 re 5 3 2 North (Carolinasecir see aoe aoe Gi) 2 I 6 or: 4 Souths Carolinayee saree area 4 I 2 4 I 2 GeOr gid) s:, So ee Ee eae 2 6 & I 6 4 EL Onid ais... hee ees ee ee ot Noe ae B I 2 AMlabaimna cA eee ee ene 6 PB I 4 ae 5 IMiSSISSIDDIeeaares ee riieoee aoe ele sade ci 2 3 B 2 6 leouiSianaa eee ee ee eee 4 I I 4 3 Auikarisasiects ere dee pe oa hatoeee cree 2 2 B I 3 B REX ASTIN CME Tore ne eT iets oc cans 3 I BD 10 5 53 30 30 35 34 50 HOW THE HOUSE DIVIDED POLITICALLY Yea Nay Not voting R. 1D) R. D. Re D: PMMabaniaeeeeee tren coke olor ese SLE 4 we ov Ag 5 ANTIKBITIERION SRA oles che picmaiainye oteaen tn caer aed I is 3 ee 3 (Calllibtormanin “Rae ee at ties ere oy ne en ee : 2 : 4 ae (COO) es ces cs a soa ee aeton ea ae an My 2 Ay: I COTMACHCU Pian s on Sno BOanins Geer 2 i a ae ee 2 Delaware... acer ce cen ve cece ae I ~ a e Nil One clase... 255 eee Pe eT hee i oo ne I 2 Gre mneiiel kee Sop ee ar une ts I 6 4 IGEN GVGy c-ReeR ere ee ANGE ch eR eee Arr: Fo nae es oh I Si + = TQUDSENGIES sp Me mere Antics tne Umi 2, NOME atari 9 4 3 I 7 I TinvaVeWaya 22 Reraasc ene itis Cieteooe Oe eee de I 8 I 3 OWA es oilers ssid omit mete ei 7 3 I EATS ASMP tes, «205 gare mks te haa eee OE: g i 3 sae B a Reentirckey marry |p. cs assists er ogee ae ae 5 3 3 IDGTENGTETIE. o/s renee caer icie aieee ararote las 2: ake 4 oe £2 ats 3 IMENT CR ee tik st ucr cian oa are 2 in 2 re MV Ueatay leat ese ves. outsiads: Pcie a sue Sect oreyeter wero ter tomer 2 3 I MIDSCAO NUNES Us hese wan ee ch E,cc0 clo eel 9 3 Pi I I Juilricel ouyeseN aes cesaean acme dace a oceeoinG Gor: 6 ie I - 5 IMESSYDGSOTA. “4 itp SoG heeeh tee raid Lae Bid I BE 5 I 2 IMISSISSID Dima erisiasv tok ane shee Aas ae. 2 ie 6 MUTSSOUIR 5 So Petshdiaces cate meets etc ore 2 2 2 7 2 I MIORBITR . Sone Oe ee Noe NG aioe ei a ae I ae IN|GTEISIKE|, co SURE ae ERIS Ota DIMERS cic 2 2 ag a I I INIGYAGA o-¢66 BAe One Ee eT. oo ge at a I ate sive Niewy Blain (OS) obtain serine oeeineribeee nr ec 2 ar ye 5 INI@ty. ICTS Te Ieee IEE Orcs c 3 2 I 3 I BMRA ITEM Sorc sifuayorcrsidiarevare ) oe-svare +: SONA 9 3 10 7 8 INOrrday (Cac) btn ie eelees eee eee eT eS oe 2 4 a I 3 Nerih Dalkey. Gages ieee tc oc oo be - ae : 2 es UTED ergy itt 2 2 oe ae io 2 I 8 2 3 5 OV sIeviNO THAME evs ose os oo cote uaa Soo ne I ae ie : 2 2 (QiPEON oss o> 0 CRE OR ROO Oe Dao oe a 2 ae : IPERNGR ARTE ONE: ee eee Oks Soro oc 6 2 6 15 2 Riutrod ea listings .)2 < siee @ sre aie ats ae a cere I mt. “te bes a 2 South Ganoluntat s.2 etc Oe ra Ment se 4 ae I 2 Sot alkcOtaresio. tit. se oe eer. I ae 5 Ak a I ANSSTROVESRIe 3 FEI oe Een Orne ee bic Sevciotad I 4 oa 3 I I eI WeSecl Ste sy sera ayo stirny ccs clic eat culo nies Sea ah RCMB e a letee'c. : ap sf 10 5 (Ui EG Oe PR it caterer eer én ay I WieTInOntinespnytcsc he rite | et cee o 2 ft: WATE LOSE isco 3c) SRERERE CRG: Beeps eae ee I sd . 3 476 Washington) jeeyba osse50 tle eens cone I NWGGes Witertitiel sy o6 bids ope abeemoogs oon 3 Wihiscomniim Poo gees osmecomon saree sou aac 7 WWW OITIITT OS crete cece oc ssatctia arm where o otslohatetenrn embers 82 AMERICAN FORESTRY Nd Ne 48 WHAT TWO VOTES SHOW In the two votes taken on the Weeks bill, that in the Sixtieth Congress and that in the Sixty-first, all but fifty-two members of the present House have gone on record. Owing to the condi- tions under which the vote was taken in the present House, many of the members having left Washington, the vote was lighter than that in the Six- tieth Congress. A comparison of the individual records, as shown in the pre- ceding statement, show that there were twelve changes from “No” to “Yes’— three in Illinois, two in Pennsylvania, and one each in California, Kansas, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and Wisconsin. There were five changes from “Yes” to “No’’—three in Ohio, one in Illinois, and one in Vir- ginia. This takes account only of per- sonal yotes, and does not include the votes of new members whose prede- cessors may have voted in the same or in a different way. Considering this individual record, it is interesting to tabulate the standing of the present House as shown by the two _ record votes. This is given in the following table. In making up these figures, members who voted differently in the two Congresses are placed according to their last vote. Those who did not vote this year, but who did vote in the Sixtieth Congress, are placed according to their vote at that time. This gives a fair estimate, and it is evident that very few changes would have occurred. IN: THE While this successful fight was being waged in the House, the bill had come up in the Senate, and very different and very unexpected conditions developed there. On the 22d of June, Mr. Brand- egee moved the consideration of the | ecm Cape re Beers Tmaoem Ee ete (Pe | ee SS Non- Nay committal EN a eL ee 6 2 JATIaNSa Shag eee el Californias eee sere Coloradone tener Connecticut Delaware sae ol lonidayaee eer Georeiaeess eee 2 Ndahorreece ee linOisee cee Ihavaliginels sae 4n0ko ok 6 lO wale eee ees Keanisaispese ee eee Kentickyereen eer [eouisianaae eee WileiiSeeon ceatoac ace WileragleniGl, 55505560 Massachusetts..... IMachiganees seer Minnesotaseeen ne IMUSSISSIPDIseeee eee IMGSSO liberi IMiontatiaaaere ree enee Nebraskan eerie INievadaln-enee ieee: New Hampshire... 2 New? Jersey inca. 05 New Yorke 19 North Carolina.... 8 Noxth Dakotas Ohio Oklahoman ereeete Oregon Pennsylvania...... Rhode Island..... South Carolina.... South Dakota..... Tennessee......... “REXAS eee > bts NO; 5 me me Ne 14 ite . 4 . -* stn B COOH WO #H Cr - = mMndrFrOLHHHHH LS) Serene eas Oh CON: : _— . RO. & hd we: NANL WN Vermont Virciniaeeee errr: Washingtoneerns.r West Virginia.... IWiasconSitinses i) \WAYOMOKINS soooasned oC I 179 COwWHnNhnd: ol NO we Sie SENATE body as the Gallinger bill. On a roll call this was voted forty-eight to six- teen, with twenty-eight senators not voting. This made the bill the unfin- ished business of the Senate, and Sena- tor Brandegee at that time contented Seed es fe Le, Cae) | re ee FA ee Ji OR, ekg pai ta Pe EE WEES SBIBEsINe CONGRESS 47 with the report of the committee on forest reservations and the protection of game, and the report by the Secre- tary of Agriculture of 1907 on the ex- amination of the Appalachian and White Mountain watersheds. This made these documents a part of the record and put them in printed form before the sena- tors on the following day. At two o’clock on Thursday, the 23d, the unfinished business was taken up and the bill read. Senator Burton of Ohio at once entered upon obstructive tactics. Senator Brandegee presented the bill with a speech in its favor, but was subjected to frequent interruptions by Senator Burton, assisted by Senator Newlands. It became evident very early in the discussion that a few sena- tors were playing for time. Following Senator Brandegee’s speech, Senator Newlands secured the floor and proposed an amendment to strike out all after the enacting clause and to sub- stitute a bill of his own providing for a conservation commission. In support of this, Mr. Newlands made a long argument, some parts of which were more or less pertinent to the question which he was supposed to discuss. The discussion of the bill was also inter- rupted by conference reports at inter- vals and some of these occupied con- siderable time. Senator Stone of Mis- souri offered an amendment providing for the survey of certain swamp lands in the states of Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana, and his argument on_ this amendment was made somewhat at length. Finally, atfer a long-drawn-out ses- sion, a quorum failing, the Senate ad- journed at a little after seven o’clock. On the following day, when the hour for unfinished business arrived, the consideration of the bill was resumed and a desultory discussion followed in the intervals of other business. On Sat- urday, when it became evident that the filibustering senators would hold their ground, negotiations were entered into for an agreement to secure a vote at the next session. The House bill, having passed that body and been sent to the Senate, was substituted for the Senate bill as unfinished business. Having s cured this result, Senator Brandege made the following statement : This being the unfinished business, I, a fe minutes ago, made a request that the Sena should vote upon it before adjournmen There was objection. The senator frot Ohio stated that there were other senato1 who desired to be heard, and he had no ide that it could be finally acted upon at tt present session. It has been perfectly ev dent to everybody from what has been gi ing on here ever since we have had this bi under discussion that it could not be passe at this session. I am satisfied, and I thin every senator on this floor is satisfied, th: it is hopeless, in view of the present situ: tion, to press the measure further upon tt attention of the Senate at this time. In view of that fact, and not desiring 1 block other business on this, the last day « the session, I ask unanimous consent. th: upon February 15, 1911, the Senate shall vo upon all amendments pending or to be offere to the bill (H. R. 11798) entitled “A bi to enable any state to cooperate with ar other state or states, or with the Unite States, for the protection of the watershec of navigable streams, and to appoint a con mission for the acquisition of lands for tt purpose of conserving the navigability « navigable rivers,” and upon the bill itsel before adjournment on that day. During the discussion on the agre¢ ment asked for by Senator Brandege Senator Newlands frankly stated thc he desired to have matters so arrange that every man who was a friend of th Appalachian proposition would be com pelled to vote for the general water ways scheme, which he is interested i having embodied in legislation. Senz tors Brandegee and Gallinger bot stated that they were in favor of er larging the commission provided for b the bill and extending its functions t include at least some of the things de sired by Senator Newlands. Finally after a long discussion, the request c Senator Brandegee was agreed to an the matter was disposed of for this se: sion by the Senate with that under standing—that the bill with all amend ments that may be proposed in th meantime, shall be voted on before ac journment on the 15th of Februar next. This introduces an uncertai element in the form of possible amenc 47 AMERICAN ments in regard to which the friends of the bill must be on their guard. Therefore, the only vote taken in the Senate was that by which the bill was made unfinished business. The division on this was practically what it would have been if the vote had been upon the bill itself. as follows: The roll call on this was Bacon Gallinger Beveridge Gamble Bradley Guggenheim Brandegee Hale Briggs Keane Bulkeley LaFollette Burkett Lodge Burnham McEnery Burrews Nelson Carter Oliver Chamberlain Overman Clapp Page Clark, Wyo. Perkins Crane Piles Cullom Purcell Cummins Scott Curtis Simmons Depew Smith. S.C: Dixon Smoot du Pont Stephenson Elkins Sutherland Fletcher Taylor Flint Warner Frazier Wetmore Bailey Gore Bankhead Heyburn Bourne Hughes Bristow Jones Brown Newlands Burton Paynter Crawford Percy Dick Shively NOT VOTING—28 Aldrich Martin Borah Money Clarke, Ark. Nixon Clene < Owen Culberson Penrose Daniel Rayner Davis Richardson Dillingham Root Dolliver Smith, Md. Foster Smith, Mich. Frye Stone Johnston Taliaferro Lorimer Tillman McCumber Warren FORESTRY An examination of the detailed vote by states, given below, shows that thirty-nine Republicans voted yes, eight voted no, and thirteen were not re- corded. Of the Democrats, nine voted yes, eight voted no, and fifteen were not recorded. An analysis of the vote by sections and states is also given. From this, however, in the case of the Senate, little can be inferred. The question seems to have been largely one of personal judgment, or of personal relations with other senators. THE SENATE VOTE IN DETAIL ALABAMA John iH. Bankhead, no. J. F. Johnston, did not vote. ARKANSAS James P. Clarke, did not vote. Jeff Davis, did not vote. CALIFORNIA George C. Perkins, yes. Frank P. Flint, yes. CoLorApo Simon Guggenheim, yes. Charles J. Hughes, Jr., no. CONNECTICUT Morgan G. Bulkeley, yes. Frank B. Brandegee, yes. DELAWARE Henry A. du Pont, yes. Harry A. Richardson, did not vote. FLORIDA J. P. Taliaferro, did not vote. Duncan U. Fletcher, yes. GEORGIA Augustus O. Bacon, yes. Alexandcr S. Clay, did not vote. IDAHO W. B. Heyburn, no.. William FE. Borah, did not vote. ILLINOIS Shelby M. Cullom, yes. William Lorimer, did not vote. INDIANA Albert J. Beveridge, yes. Benjamin F. Shively, no. THE WEEKS BILL IN CONGRESS Iowa J. P. Dolliver, did not vote. Albert B. Cummins, yes. KANSAS Charles Curtis, yes. Joseph L. Bristow, no. KENTUCKY Thomas H. Paynter, no. William O. Bradley, yes. LOUISIANA Samuel D. McEnery, yes. Murphy J. Foster, did not vote. MAINE Eugene Hale, yes. William P. Frye, did not vote. MaryLAND Isidor Rayner, did not vote. John W. Smith, did not vote. MASSACHUSETTS Henry Cabot Lodge, yes. W. Murray Crane, yes. MiIcHIGAN Julius C. Burrows, yes. William A. Smith, did not vote. MINNESOTA Knute Nelson, yes. Moses E. Clapp, yes. MISSISSIPPI H. de S. Money, did not vote. Le Roy Percy, no. Missouri Wilham J. Stone, did not vote. William Warner, yes. MontTANA Thomas H. Carter, yes. Joseph M. Dixon, yes. NEBRASKA Elmer J. Burkett, yes. Norris Brown, no. NEVADA Francis G. Newlands, no. George S. Nixon, did not vote. New HAMPSHIRE Jacob H. Gallinger, yes. Henry E. Burnham, yes. 4 New JERSEY John Kean, yes. Frank O. Briggs, yes. New York Chauncey M. Depew, yes. Elihu Root, did not vote. NortH CAROLINA F. M. Simmons, yes. Lee S. Overman, yes. NortH Dakota P. J. McCumber, did not vote. W. E. Purcell, yes. OHIO Charles Dick, no. Theodore E. Burton, no. OKLAHOMA Thomas P. Gore, no. Robert L. Owen, did not vote. OREGON Jonathan Bourne, Jr., no. George E. Chamberlain, yes. PENNSYLVANIA Boies Penrose, did not vote. George T. Oliver, yes. RuHopE ISLAND Nelson W. Aldrich, did not vote. George P. Wetmore, yes. SoutH CAROLINA B. R. Tillman, did not vote. E. D. Smith, yes. SoutH DaKoTa Robert J. Gamble, yes. C. I. Crawford, no. TENNESSEE James B. Frazier, yes. Robert L. Taylor, yes. TEXAS C. A. Culberson, did not vote. J.W. Bailey, no. UTAH Reed Smoot, yes. George Sutherland, yes. VERMONT W. P. Dillingham, did not vote. Carroll S. Page, yes. 479 480 AMERICAN FORESTRY VIRGINIA John W. Daniel did not vote. Thomas S. Martin, did not vote. ‘W ASHINGTON Samuel H. Piles, yes. Wesley L. Jones, no. WEST VIRGINIA Stephen B. Elkins, yes. Nathan B. Scott, yes. WISCONSIN R. M. LaFollette, yes. Isaac Stephenson, yes. WYOMING Francis E. Warren, did not vote. C) DuGlark,, yes: THE VOTE BY STATES AND SECTIONS Not New ENGLAND Yea Nay voting Main @ se sence I ae I New Hampshire... 2 a ay Wierinonterece seis I coh I Massachusetts..... 2 he ve Rhode Island..... I ie I Connecticut: .:.... 2 9 3 MIDDLE INeGwe WOnknaeenne I A. I IN Jews Seoocases 2 A: Pennsylvania...... 1 I Delawareanecee cal I 5 3 CENTRAL Michi ganmeasesseie I I Ohiove- anes cee : 2 Indiana eee I t Midis Mn — ne y NAAN Sapa Ni 8) Le LPNS CENTRAL—Continued Yea Tlinoist seen NVASCONSINEeR Ee eee MiinneSOtaernaene nee Missounioe eee North Dakota..... South Dakota..... INehraslcamsaeeeene ‘Kansas’ soe crete Oklahomaee ee Rocky MounrtrvAIN AND COAST Miontanamenae cece Wiyoniines se eee (Goloracom-aeeeeice Washington........ Onrecoil sss ee Galitoniiaee eee SoUTHERN Miatayiaridme settee \WibreRtal, mou oos oor West Virginia..... Kientuckyeeeeneac Tennessee......... North Carolina.... South Carolina.... (Georgiare eee ane Hilonidare nec Milabamaseeeeeeenee Massissippiee seeer Wouistanass eae Ag kansasseeeeeeere hexast. cere masa omer Te Nay voting ay I I I oa I I I I 6 I I i 6 ao I I e I I I I I I 5 3 2 2 I I I se I I I I I I = 2 I I 4 13 AGENCIES FOR THE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION OF FORESTS By S. B, ELLIOTT Member of Pennsylvania State Forest Reservation Commission nations is aware that the destruc- tion of the forests over any great expanse of a populated country has led to soil conditions there which now show little better than absolute barrenness ; and he is also well aware that the intel- lectual condition of the inhabitants of such regions verges on barbarism. He is likewise cognizant of the converse fact that the countries which have con- served their forests in usefulness have also maintained the fertility of the soil, are enjoying abundant prosperity, and stand high in intellectual, moral, and social well-being. It certainly is not necessary to show at length that this assertion is true, for even the casual observer must see that it is; and whoever seriously doubts it needs only to glance at the conditions of several of the Old World countries to be convinced of its accuracy. As- suming it to be an established fact that the destruction of the forests of a coun- try results in barrenness of soil and a low state of civilization, and that the useful conservation of the forests pro- motes prosperity and high intellectu- ality, it would be illogical and unrea- sonable to conclude that an intelligent people, with history before them, will permit such destruction and thereby suffer the inevitable results that it en- tails. And, further than this, it is safe to conclude that such people will put forth every effort to restore their for- ests where destroyed and to conserve Flee student of the history of Note—This paper was given as a lecture in the valuable course of public lectures on forestry under the auspices of Lehigh Uni- versity. and maintain them in perpetual useful- ness after restoration, for any other course is inconceivable. Accepting this as a settled endeavor of the people of this country, it is left for our con- sideration, on this occasion, to deter- mine through what agencies the res- toration and conservation of our for- ests can be secured, and by whom and through what instrumentalities, both near and remote, such desirable ends can be brought about. Not until recent times has the gen- eral public given any thought to our forest resources. It has been believed that they were ample to supply all our needs, and that we had only to exploit them, and could do so to any extent; but the irresistible “logic of events,” manifesting itself through:the growing scarcity of the best grades of lumber, and the rapidly increasing price of all kinds, has forced a consideration of what must be done to avert a timber famine in the near future—a famine which it is but truth to say will surely be felt for a long time, and its severity will be measured by such action as shall be taken to alleviate it. Realizing that something must’ be done, it was but natural that the agencies through which it could be brought about should be considered, and the trend of thought, or, to use a somewhat hackneyed phrase, the “con- sensus of opinion,’ has designated the national and state governments as the proper parties to begin and carry on the work. Now, while the question of ownership and exploitation of our nat- ural resources is involved in the restora- tion and conservation of our forests by 481 482 AMERICAN FORE Sik government,that debatable subject must be ignored here for the reason that conditions and not theory will deter- mine in the matter of the forests. But this much can and should be said: If conditions were alike, there is no more reason why either national or state gov- ernments should grow, maintain, and dispose of forests and forest products than there is that they should grow, harvest, and sell wheat or other prod- ucts of the soil known as farm crops, a work not recognized as a govern- mental function. But conditions are unlike; the element of time of ma- turity enters largely into the case. Farm crops, in the main, mature in one year, while it takes well on toward a century for forests to grow fit to har- vest. In one case, the time is well within the limits of the average indi- vidual’s lifetime; yet that feature does not prevail when he grows trees, but it does when the government engages in it. We do not contemplate the gov- ernment’s death; we assume that it will live for all time, and that it is as much its duty to provide for the future as for the present. For that reason, grow- ing and disposing of the forests of the country should not be classed with the control of other natural resources. Nor iSwthis the Only: diherence: | It “is: no wild shriek when we declare that the forest is the only one of our natural resources that can be perpetuated. It is a living, burning fact, the existence of which all must admit; and it car- ries with it the obviously greater need to put forth efforts to maintain in per- petuity the only one possible, for in our frantic efforts to exploit our nat- ural resources we are hastening the pe- riod of their exhaustion, and when that time is reached development and destruction will have become prac- tically synonymous terms. In a recent speech at Spokane, Presi- dent. Taft “stated: that. s)he iUiited States government timber land is only about one-fourth the timber land owned by private individuals.” He referred to the productive forests and did not include cut-over lands, of which the United States government owns but little. This gives us a basis upon w to approximately determine what national government can now do tov furnishing a supply of forest prod If the forests of the country are ai in extent, then the government’s ply of one-fifth will suffice; if ample, then that supply may fall short of the needed amount, a su which will continue to grow through exhaustion until new fo can be grown. The question arises, are they. ampler™ Recent tistics show that we are consuming forest products more than three t faster than they grow. If this be and it undoubtedly is, the forests oy by the United States government utterly fail in supplying the dem of the country, and that, too, wit considering any increase of populz or new uses for wood, both of w will inevitably occur; and, furthern it must be remembered that some o timber lands now belonging to the ernment must be given up for s ment, for forestry must not claim suitable for agriculture. Thus, restoration and conservation of our ductive forests by the United S government will be greatly restr unless it shall plant additional one purchase them, as advocated in the of the Southern Appalachian and White Mountain reservations—a { osition which the judiciary comm of the House of Representative Congress has decided would be ur stitutional, unless -for the sole anc clared purpose of providing for protection and preservation of the gable rivers receiving their waters | such areas; and this would prot give no power to harvest the tin and without that power such « would be of little value in supp! forest products. It will appear this that a constitutional amend will be necessary to enable the go ment to increase its timber prodt forests, unless by planting. That power should be given, there is question; but whether it will be, matter of uncertainty. —r= Rio lORATION ANDFCONSERVATION OF FORESTS 48: Whether the United States is admin- istering its forests in the best manner possible to produce the fullest yield, is not a point that need now be consid- ered. If it is not, that certainly can be remedied; but those who anticipate larger returns from government lands must bear in mind that most of the timber lands owned by it are in moun- tainous regions, where intensive for- estry will be found extremely difficult, if not impossible, and that much of the present stand must be maintained intact in order to preserve the water- sheds of the rivers that are to be used for irrigation. Of course, the govern- ment may possibly increase its forest area by planting trees where none now are, and it is gratifying to know that vigorous efforts are being made in that direction. But it must be understood that the forest trees of the Great West are not suited for all locations. In fact, the most important ones have been found to flourish only in their natural habitat. Notwithstanding that government ownership of our timber lands seems inconsiderable, it may appear in a dif- ferent light when we compare it with that of European nations where the crown and state of the German Empire own but thirty-three per cent of the productive forests within her borders, the government of France thirteen, and the crown and state of Austria seven; and that, too, where forestry has been systematically carried on for more than 150 years. But for all this, it must not be inferred that any thought is enter- tained that the United States govern- ment should not do all reasonable things within its power to maintain our for- ests in perpetual usefulness, for it cer- tainly should; but that is not the ques- tion under consideration. We are dis- cussing only its ability to do. When we consider the part that our state governments can and should take in caring for the forests we find a somewhat different condition. Few states now hold land by sovereign right, as does the United States government. Nearly all the older states disposed of their original possessions long ago. If there exist, within any State, forests “ which do not belong to it, and it shal seek to possess them, the state mus purchase them of the owners by agree ment, or exercise its right of eminen domain and pay such sums therefor a: may be adjudged under legal process In either case, the cost would, no doubt be prohibitive. There may be thos who would favor such proceedings a any cost, but they should remember tha no matter who owns them, such for ests must be harvested in the near fu ture to supply the demand for fores products, nor should the power of emi nent domain be tyrannically invoked. So it will be seen that there is littl probability that many states will secur productive forests to any appreciabl extent. However, the state of Nev York has purchased quite a large are: of such forests, but not one tree thereit can be cut until the state’s constitutiot shall be amended; while Pennsylvania New Jersey, and Minnesota, and possi bly one or two other states, have se cured some lands. upon which there i: a young growth coming on, and fron which a small amount of timber car soon be harvested; but, in the main we must wait until forests grow. A change of ownership will help little the need of the hour is more forests Therefore, about all that can be con sistently and profitably be done by the states in their governmental capacity i to purchase land now practically de void of forests and grow new one: thereon, and when grown, to so con. serve them that they will yield a con. tinuous supply; and this also brings uy the question of ownership and exploita tion of natural resources by state gov- ernments, quite the same as in the casé of forests owned by the national gov- ernment. That the states should owr and manage forests to a limited extent will, doubtless, be conceded by most economists, and possibly some woulc set no limit; but that question need not here be discussed any more than be fore, for conditions govern here as well and put a limit beyond which it ap. pears impracticable if not impossible to go; and we must accept such con. ditions and do the best we can. There are some states in which there is com 484 AMERICAN paratively little land, except the farmer’s woodlot, which should be given to for- estry, because quite all of it is well adapted for agriculture, and should be devoted to that purpose. Then, there are some states whose financial re- sources are so limited that no consid- erable planting of forests and main- taining them until maturity need be ex- pected of them. It is unnecessary to name these, but such is the fact, and the truth is patent that no great amount of forest restoration and ownership by the state governments can be depended upon. It is true, however, that there are some states in which this can be profitably undertaken, but there is a limit even there. Take, for instance, our own state of Pennsylvania, which is among those best conditioned—if not the very best— for the restoration of her forests and conserving them in useful perpetuity when restored. Her virgin forests are nearly all gone, and will be practically so within the next decade; but were there a million acres, she could not pur- chase even one, for the law limits the price to be paid by the state to $5 per acre, and the value of such forests is now not less than $50, and much of it above $1oo. Whatever is done must be done along the line of restoration on cut-over and burned-over lands. There are about 8,500,000 acres—practically thirty per cent of the total area—of non-agricultural land within her bor- ders, and, mark you, it is not proposed to devote land to forestry that it suit- able for agriculture. While much of this is in large bodies, and some owners have large holdings, still a great pro- portion of it is in possession of small land owners. There is scarcely a farm that does not contain some of it, and but few of such small tracts can be secured by the state, except by the ex- ercise of its right of eminent domain, even were they desirable, and they cer- tainly would not be if in small and de- tached pieces. The state already owns almost 1,000,000 acres of cut-over and much of it burned-over land, and it is constantly purchasing more. But there is a limit to what it can as well as what FORESTRY it should do, for fully three-fourths of what it now owns, or will be likely to own, must be reforested by planting trees, as has been found necessary in European experience, in order to re- store and maintain forests in perpe- tuity. It is possible that the state can secure, Say, 2,000,000 acres, perhaps more, but she should possess not less than 6,000,000 to meet the demands of her own citizens, and it is not probable that so much can be obtained; and that would be only about forty-one per cent of her total area, while Germany’s for- ests cover twenty-six per cent of the empire’s domain, and she imports one- third of the forest products consumed by her people, and her forests are far more productive than ours. Thus it will be seen that the power of the state governments to restore and conserve the forests within their do- main is, as in the case of the general government, quite limited; but, were they not limited by prevailing condi- tions which cannot be overcome, would it be best for a state to own all or any great portion of the forests within her borders? If our government were of a form in which there would be little or no change of policy consequent upon the triumph of one or the other of po- litical parties, it would present a dif- ferent case than now confronts us, when a change of party control may come every four years. As long as politics can be kept out of forestry manage- ment, all things may go along well; but who can depend upon or guess what may happen in the realm of politics when the forests become valuable? To imagine they would not then become the prey of the grafter and political schemer would be no less absurd and improbable than to believe the millen- nium would then come. That the state as well as the national government should own and control enough forests to at least prevent a monopoly through a combination of private owners, must not be denied; but that either or both should do all this is impossible, and would be impracticable were it possible, yet the claim advanced by some that private interests should alone develop RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION OF FORESTS natural resources is as objectionable as that the state should do all. Private ownership of a public necessity should be placed under such governmental con- trol as to protect public interests, and it may be best, ere long, for the states to exert their inherent police power to control, to a limited extent, the forests belonging to corporations, municipali- ties, and private individuals. This has been found necessary in Europe in or- der to prevent damage to public in- terests. The state of Maine has al- ready adopted measures looking to such control, and others will be likely to fol- low. At first glance, this seems a se- rious encroachment upon private rights, but, as in all like cases, the rights of the public are paramount. As has already been stated, public opinion has heretofore been almost en- tirely in favor of governmental action alone, and other agencies have been given little consideration; but if what has been thus far insisted upon are the actual conditions prevailing, then others, though at present thought of little moment, are the important ones; for if the government cannot do the work, other agencies must, or it will not be done. Who, then, must conserve the forests on four-fifths of the timber land of the United States which the Presi- dent tells us is in the hands of private individuals? and who must plant and restore the forests on the cut-over and ‘burned-over lands unfitted for agricul- ture? It would seem that the answer is not hard to find, and yet few have given it serious thought. As has been indicated, the duration of the life of the party undertaking the restoration and conservation of our for- ests play an important part in the probability of their accomplishment. Those having a legal existence—cre- ated by law and “take no note of time” —do not labor under the disadvantages incidental to human life. Such are known as corporations, whose lives are seldom limited by the power which cre- ates them. Among those whose inter- ests would be greatly enhanced by the restoration and conservation of our forests are the railroads, who need tim- 485 ber for ties and many other purposes; the mining corporations, who must have timber for props and a multitude of other uses; the paper manufacturers and lumbermen, whose very existence depends upon a supply of wood, and others, like the tanneries, which largely depend upon forest products to carry on their work. Not only is there an economic reason why all these should engage in the work of restoration and conservation, but there is another fea- ture that is important and must not be forgotten. All these are consuming the forests for what may be termed self- aggrandizement or gain, and the public at large receives only the benefit of be- ing served at a price, and a good round one at that. All such bodies should recognize the duty they owe to the pub- lic to restore and keep good the forests which they are exploiting for them- selves only, and if they will not recog- nize that duty, and act upon it, they should be compelled by law to do so. In some European countries, no one is permitted to remove trees from his own land without planting an equal or greater number, so that destruction of the forests will not ensue. If the cor- porations do not possess forests of their own—but many of them do—laws should be enacted whereby those who cut down forests for them shall restore them by planting. Doubtless, this scheme to compel the replacing of what is cut off will be looked upon as revo- lutionary and subversive of natural rights, and we may not be prepared for it just now; but be that as it may, it will come to that in due time or the index hand on the dial of progress of this nation will go backward, never to again advance until that or something akin to it shall prevail. But there is another class of corpora- tions which stand in a different atti- tude toward the public. In such the public at large is interested in every- thing connected with them, and is in full control of them—in fact, they be- long to the public. These are the mu- nicipal corporations — the townships, boroughs, cities, and counties. That they can and should grow and maintain 486 forests is no new thing in forestry in Europe. It has long been carried on there by cities and communal organiza- tions, and to their financial profit, too; and I beg indulgence to give a few sta- tistics which have been furnished me by a friend who secured them recently from original sources in Germany : The Grand Duchy of Baden con- tains 3,726,732 acres of forest, of which 577,405—about sixteen per cent—be- longs to communities and corporations. These are allowed to cut annually 261,- 724,000 board feet, with a value of about $3,600,000, free from the expense of cutting. This shows a yield of 700 board feet per acre; our forests do not exceed 12m feet: The city of Baden owns 10,576 acres, which yield a net annual income of $6.25) per acre: The city of Frieburg has 8,085 acres, and receives $5.79 net per acre annu- ally. The city of Heidelberg possesses 6,860 acres, and it brings in annually $1.91 per acre. This city is acquiring forest land, and is in the period of ex- pense; besides, the city looks more to esthetics than for income from forests. The city of Villingen has 8,822 acres, and receives annually a net return of $4.84 per acre. The village of Braunlingen has 1,600 inhabitants and owns 3,504 acres. The yearly annual allowance is 2,500,000 board feet—7oo feet per acre—of which an equivalent of 3,500 board feet is given each citizen, and 100,000 board feet is given to schools, churches, town hall, etc. The timber sold brings in an annual income of $21,600, so that the community is not cnly free from all communal taxes, but is able to estab- lish modern works, as electric plants, water-works, schoolhouses, churches, etc: The village of Volterdingen has 784 inhabitants and owns 1,124 acres. The annual allowance is 675,000 board feet —6o0o feet per acre—and the village realizes more than enough to be free from all communal taxes, and to be able to keep the village on a good financial footing. AMERICAN FORESTRY The village of Aufen has 220 in- habitants and 163 acres of forest. It gives each citizen eight cubic meters of wood (value, $12), and sells $1,440 worth annually. The sanctioned an- nual yield of this forest is 137,500 board feet—about 800 feet per acre. We may not yet have reached the point when townships and counties must undertake restoration and care of for- ests, but the period is fast approaching when some of the counties in this state whose areas are composed largely of cut-over and burned-over forest lands, will be compelled to take such lands for unpaid taxes, and will then receive no income from them whatever, and unless relief shall come in some way not now seen they will, ere long, face bank- ruptcy and possible extinction as county organizations. But we have some bor- oughs and cities which may now profit- ably engage in it in an official capacity, —in part as a business transaction, but more for securing and controlling an ample and uncontaminated water sup- ply. This has been made possible in our state by an act passed at the last ses- sion of the legislature, largely through the instrumentality of the American Civic Association. By its provisions, municipalities can engage in forestry; but for some unaccountable reason, the act mentioned was robbed of an impor- tant feature—the right of eminent do- main. However, that can be restored, and undoubtedly will be, by a more enlightened legislature. Now, to illustrate this view of the possibilities of municipal undertaking in forestry, permit me to cite the case of the great city of Philadelphia. Sup- posing it had purchased a few vears ago from 100,000 to 200,000 acres of land in the counties of Monroe and Pike, in this state, which could have been secured at an expense of not ex- ceeding $2.50 per acre, and probably less. Upon most of this there was a growth of young timber, which, by proper treatment, and adding thereto by planting, could have been made pro- ductive enough to soon aid in defraying expenses for care, and by the lapse of forty years, or thereabouts, come into RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION OF FORESTS 48 full production and be as remunerative as the German forests noted. By doing this, it would have come into possession of a large number of lakes with which that elevated region abounds. These could have been converted into storage reservoirs for the numerous clear, pure streams that flow into them, by con- structing dams at their outlets. Then, if at the time of purchase, it had con- ducted that pure water supply by grav- ity to the distributing system in its borders—the elevation is ample—it would to-day be far better off finan- cially, and thousands of lives would have been saved. The city’s depend- ence now is upon a filtering system both costly in maintenance and uncertain in results, and, withal, insufficient. The returns from the forests would more than defray the expense of maintenance to the city limits. Such an undertaking would have been no more gigantic and expensive for Philadelphia than is the one New York city is now carrying on to se- cure a new source of water supply from the Catskill Mountains, where no rev- enue can come to the city from the forests; nor as much so as that of Los Angeles, where water is being obtained in the Rocky Mountains 300 miles away. Besides, Philadelphia could have fur- nished water to towns and cities along the route. When our people come to understand and appreciate how impor- fant (forests “are in. maintaimineal an equable flow of springs and streams, they will see that municipalities, by an investment in forests on the water- sheds of streams which supply them, can secure a pure and continuous sup- ply, and, beyond that, reap a financial profit from the sale of forest products. Dismissing national and state gov- ernmental action, and that of all ixinds of corporations, we come, at last, to the land owner, who must do what the others will not, and who must do it in his individual capacity ; and here is a problem so complicated and so large that it can be discussed only in a gen- eral way at this time. Conditions here are wholly unlike those in most coun- tries. With us, large land holdings by individuals are frowned upon as ini ical to public interests, and entail is nc tolerated. Our land owners compris a vast multitude. They hold in fee, an their domains are mainly small, an nearly all of them should, for their ow protection, engage in restoration an conservation of. the forests of the cour try. This is especially true of farmer: who must, of necessity, possess whe are known as woodlots, where shall b grown their fuel and such other timbe as may be required about the farm. I a short time such work will become in perative, and the farmer should n longer delay entering upon it. Twe thirds of the people in the United State use wood for fuel, and more will a soon as natural gas and coal becom less plentiful. Unfortunately, the gre: importance of this feature is not ye realized, and every effort should b made to awaken the farmer to a cor ception of it. There is no more reaso why the farmer should purchase hi fuel than that he should buy his fooc He must become an important factc in restoration. Besides the farmer, there are other who may own large areas, and thes can in no other way leave a more benef cent legacy to their children than in well-forested domain. It will be bette than life insurance, and _ individual whose large wealth gives them an of portunity to bestow benefits upon pos terity can do so in no better form, no one which will so benefit mankind 2 large and bless those whose rightful in heritance we are rapidly destroying From whatever standpoint we may loo at it, we will see that individual actio must largely control, and that it will nc prevail until the people are educate to an appreciation of its importance. But, after all this insistence that cor porations, municipalities, and individ uals shall engage in the good work, am forced to, and sorrowfully do, ad mit and declare that under the presen tax laws of our own and most othe states neither corporations, municipal ties, nor individuals can now afford t engage in reforestation, for if they d their trees will be practically confiscate 488 by tax levies. The assessor is bound by law to add the value of the trees to that of the land on which they stand, and that value is, in the main, a pros- pective and uncertain one. It may never materialize. Disease, winds, fire, or in- sects may destroy the trees, and at best there can be no return for a long time, while the taxes are continually increas- ing. Our tax laws were framed when we had a plethora of forests; now we have the reverse, and our laws should be made to conform to present and prospective conditions. The land upon which young trees of valuable species are growing should be taxed as naked land only, and when the crop matures and is harvested, that should be taxed, but not before. Tax the land and product separately. Here is a point for serious consideration, and our lawmakers should take a broad, statesmanlike view of it and remove the incubus that now rests upon the restoration of our forests, for, unless it shall be removed, no improve- ment of our forest conditions can be expected, except what national and state governments can bring about. Presi- dent Taft stated in the speech to which I have referred that but three per cent of private timber lands of the United States were administered according to forestry methods. My belief is that not one per cent is, certainly not in Penn- sylvania. But that is as much as we should expect under our present system of taxation. Such changes should be made in our tax laws as will encourage all land owners to plant and grow forest trees. We now not only discourage, but practically prohibit them. No half-way work will answer. Hamlet’s advice to the players to “reform it altogether” will apply here. It is confessed that the foregoing ex- hibit of our condition is neither assur- ing nor cheerful; but, on the other hand, it is somewhat discouraging. But it must not be forgotten that the whole subject is a new one to our people. Be- lieving our forests inexhaustible, we have not only been diligent in exploit- ing them, but actually wasteful; and all this must and will cease. It has been this almost universal belief in a perma- AMERICAN’ FORESTRY nent supply that has brought about our deplorable condition. But there is good ground for hope. The same conditions prevailed in Germany, France, and Switzerland 200 years ago, and they have succeeded in establishing remuner- ative forests, and to assert or assume that our people are unable to cope with our present conditions, is to challenge their spirit and intelligence. We can retrieve our misfortune if we but first comprehend the situation. But how is all this to be accom- plished? Briefly stated, it must come through the education of the people; and before closing it will be well to see, for a moment, what instrumentali- ties are or can be made most potent in that work. Foremost among them all is the public press, next the schools, and after these comes the efforts of asso- ciations, societies, and individuals. Too much cannot be said in praise of the willingness and desire of the press to. do in the matter of forestry. Rarely does one see anything against the for- estry movement in the editorial columns of any influential newspaper of the day. It is only when a partisan spirit is man- ifested over some proposed legislation which some one deems should be op- posed because the opposite party favors it, that anything hostile is to be seen. The public press may be safely set down as friendly to reforestation and conserva- tion. Editors seldom fail to publish any well written communication favor- ing such measures. It is through the press that the great mass of the people can be reached, and newspapers should be encouraged in their efforts. Next to the public press, but not so quick to meet conditions and bring about results, are the schools of the land, especially those of the higher erades. Out from their doors go teachers, who, in a broad sense, are public educators and of wide influ- ence, and they mingle with the youth of the land, who must, ere long, take up the work now in its infancy. No more useful effort can be put forth than you are displaying here in Lehigh Univer- sity. Your efforts are not confined to the classroom, from which they may be- NOTES ON IDENTIFICATION OF TROPICAL WOOD 48 a long time in reaching the public, but work is of great importance. Yet som they are manifest to all, and you may of these, like that of the Pennsylvani well rejoice in the beneficence and Forestry Association, have taken up th spirit which give you an opportunity practical as well as the sentimental fea to make your institution one of the tures of forestry and have accomplishe agencies through which shall come the much good. restoration and conservation of our Lastly, is the individual. Here, a forests. well as elsewhere in all societies, com The work that associations and so- munities, and nations, the height whic cieties may perform is such as the other each attains and keeps is practically the instrumentalities named are not espe- of the average individual composin cially seeking to accomplish, for that of them. Our forestry advance will b the former is mainly along esthetic jyst what the average individual er mes Les ie of enamemce can deavors to make it, and you and I mu: Se eee CO soe BEeC auOUOn UNE Wake upon ourselves the work that ; beauty of the wooded landscape, the opportunities the forests offer for na- © be done as though the busden Ls ture study, and their enjoyment as OUTS alone, to the end that this nation places of amusement, recreation, and prosperity shall be continued and mair health resorts. Though not what com- tained and new forests grown for thos mercial forestry mainly seeks, their who are to come after us. NOTES ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF A TROPICAL WOOD By C. D, MELL, Assistant Dendrologist, Forest Service of a Brazilian wood submitted for very careful study and comparison ar identification, with the object of therefore necessary before one can b ascertaining its botanical name and of sure that an identification is correc learning something about the distribu- After a long search in botanical literz tion and occurrence of the tree and its ture, it was found that Doctor vo commercial importance. The sample Martiust described in his Materia Mec was collected by Mr. H. von Bayer, in ica a Brazilian tree called Sebipir Para, Brazil, and has no other data ex- Sicopira, Sebupira, Sebepira, Sepipir: cept that it was cut from the heartwood Sucopira, or Sicupira, botanically know of a log about two feet in diameter and 45 Bowdichia virgiloides H. B. KR. that the wood is occasionally imported Was not safe, however, to conclud into Europe for the manufacture ot without further technical investigatio eee canes that the tree from which this wood we ss Ss . taken is a species of Bowdichia. The common or trade name of a wood PB ; Set tad he : Pecholtz? made a study of Sicopir often aids in determining its botan- gum, and in this connection describe : : fe si , and high ‘Systema Materie Medice Vegetabilis Bra- hard, heavy, very resinous, and high giliensis, Composnit Car. Frid. Phil. De Mar- esteemed in Brazil for all kinds c tius, Lipsiz, 1843. building purposes. He also stated thz *Archiv der Pharmacie, Januar, 1862. the stems yield a fluid known by th Sees is an empirical name often have the same common name, an 490 Indians along the Amazon River as Cereja de Sicopira, which means Sico- pira beer. The beer is said to foam very copiously, and to be exceedingly bitter. The.wood to be identified is slightly bitter, which is a character in favor of Bowdichia. Kalsch? deter- mined the oe gravity of Sebupira wood to be 1.348. The sample to be identified has a specific gravity of I.0, which is considerably lighter than the wood Kalsch investigated. The dif- ference in weight, however, does not prove that these are different woods. The transverse section shows struc- tures that appear, on first glance, to be successive rings of growth ‘having parts corresponding to early and late wood. There is, however, a very marked dif- ference between these two structures. The part corresponding to late wood is very dense and has a wavy outline. A tangential section may therefore show both the more dense and the less dense portions. Since the latter 1s composed of wood-parenchyma fibers, one might infer that the wood is light in weight and rather soft; yet, on account of the unusually thick walls of wood paren- chyma, it is decidedly hard and very brittle. The width of these tangential bands varies from one-half millimeter to one and one-half millimeters, with an average of about one millimeter. Careful observations show that these contrasting structures frequently meet, which proves that they are not con- centric zones (annual rings). These bands have such different characters that the radial section shows alternat- ing dark brown and lighter streaks which consist, respectively, of the denser and softer layers of tissue. This struc- ture is so well definied in the radial section that it often resembles the wood of palms. So far, the anatomical study pre- sents a great many difficulties. The wood is hard and exceedingly brittle, making it almost impossible to obtain good microscopic sections. The radial surface shows that the wood is com- posed of two kinds of tissue, which, as stated, alternate with each other. The *Botanische Zeitung, Januar, 1863. AMERICAN FORESTRY darker, close-grained layers are com- posed of very strongly thickened, elongated wood fibers without pits, while the lighter and softer ones con- sist of vessels and thick-walled wood- parenchyma fibers with pits. The wood fibers are very closely cemented to- gether. The wood-parenchyma fibers are compactly arranged, while the ves- sels are found scattered singly or some- times in groups of two to seven in radial direction within the bands of wood parenchyma. The vessels con- sist of numerous segments placed end to end, directly communicating with one another through extended pit canals, but in the older wood these canals are closed up and communica- tion ceases. The vessels which can be seen with the unaided eye in a smooth cross-section are about sixteen one- hundredths of a millimeter in diameter. The groups of vessels within the bands of wood parenchyma become greatly extended, thus rendering the tangential structures very irregular. The pith rays in a transverse section are scarcely visible to the unaided eye. They are more strongly thickened and contain more pits than the wood- parenchyma elements. The rays are from two or three rows of cells wide, having one row of rather wide mar- ginal cells above and below. In trans- verse sections they often seem to be only a single cell wide. Within the tangential bands of wood fibers the pith rays cells have a considerablv smaller horizontal diameter than within the bands of wood parenchyma, which can be seen to best advantage in transverse sections. For a complete study of this wood, it is necessary to have, in addition to the transverse and radial sections, two tan- gential sections; one through the dense layer of wood fibers and the other through that of wood parenchyma. One is first struck by the presence of two kinds of pits: the bordered pits in the vessel walls, and the simple pits in the walls of the pith-ray cells and wood- parenchyma fibers. In longitudinal sec- tions, the vessel walls show long, slit- like pit openings which are almost as NOTES ON wide horizontally as the borders of the pits themselves. The pits are uniformly arranged over the entire surface of the vessels. They are close together, uni- form in size, and hexagonal in outline. The partitions between the pit cavities are thin and delicate, resembling the walls of honeycombs. The regularity in the number and occurrence of pits in vessel walls is rarely disturbed, but there are places where the pits are not fully developed; here the pit canals are present and the cavities are wanting. The lenticular pit cavities and the slit- like pit canals can best be seen in trans- verse sections, especially if the section be treated with a solution of iodine and sulphuric acid or chloriodide of zine. The pit canals in the cross-walls of abutting vessel segments cannot always be clearly distinguished in longitudi- nal sections. ‘The canals themselves are often mistaken for partition walls between the adjoining pits. This error may be avoided if one remembers that pit canals always begin where the pit cavities end. The lenticular pit cavities are seen best in longitudinal sections. Where the vessels are adjacent to wood parenchyma, the pits within the walls of the latter are the same as those in pith ray cells, and those within the ves- sel walls are bordered. The pits in the cells of wood-parenchyma fibers and pith rays are simple, and in vessels they are bordered, resembling those in tracheids of conifers. The pit cavi- ties, however, are not shown so plainly as they generally are in coniferous woods. The cross walls of vessel segments are now always in close union.’ The portion between the abutting segments is composed of a soluble substance. By treating thin sections with potassium chlorate and nitric acid, this substance is dissolved, leaving the cross walls dis- tinctly visible. The vessels are devel- oped directly from wood parenchyma, as may be determined from the inter- IDENTIFICATION OF TROPICAL WOOD 49 mediate forms which are very abund ant, especially where more than thre vessels are located side by side. Tw of these vessels are, then, as a rule, o the usual diameter, and the others ar smaller. The structural characters of thi wood are like those of woods related t Robima, Gleditscha, Hematoxylo campechianum L., Cesalpinia echinat Lam., ete., which are known as legumi nous woods. As was said, the occur rence of vessels as vessel cells and nc as vessel tubes is charactertistic of th woods of this group. In conclusion, the question to b solved is whether the regular alternat ing bands of wood fibers and woo parenchyma correspond to annual in crement layers. The gross character showing that they do not coincide wit SO- cealled annual rings have alread been given above. An anatomical in vestigation reveals the fact that ther are no elements present, either in th parenchyma or prosenchyma layer which resemble intermediate forms in variably found in that part of the con centric zone where it changes graduall from early to late wood. Nor is there known wood in which the early growt is composed of tissue wholly differen from that formed later. The facts determined thus far shov beyond doubt that it is a leguminou wood. There is no analytical key base on structural characters by means o which it can be traced down to it proper genus. Both the gross an minute characters have been carefull compared with those of authentic sam ples of Bowdichia virgiloides, wit which they agree in every particulas The generally accepted trade name fo this wood is Sebipira, which is also generic name given to it by Doctor vo: Martius in 1828. It had been previ ously described, however, by Hum boldt, Bonpland, and Kunth as Boz dichia cvirgiloides. ay DE SSN TAT ITN 9 =e () SIS EDITORIAL Samucl Bowdlear Green atete cause of forestry, particularly in the field of forest education, suf- fered a severe loss in the recent death of Prof. Samuel Bowdlear Green, dean of the school of forestry at the Univer- sity of Minnesota. When Professor Green took up forestry as his life work, more than a score of years ago, he was a pioneer. The outlook was discourag- ing in those days. The very word for- estry was novel, and its meaning ill understood, while, often enough, to ig- norance were added indifference and active opposition. To achieve results, to be a successful leader, in those con- ditions, required both the power to fight and the discretion to conciliate ; it called for a large and many-sided man, know- ing thoroughly what was wanted, yet moderate and adroit enough to seize and develop whatever was offered. It was because he possessed these qualities that Professor Green accomplished so much. By persistent and judicious effort, sus- tained by unflagging pluck and confi- dence, he built up the course of forest study at the University of Minnesota, carried forestry into practice at Itasca Park, exercised a controlling influence in the development of a state forest policy, won the liking and cooperation of lum- bermen, and had the satisfaction, a short time before his death, of seeing the re- sults of his work take permanent shape in a separate school of forestry at the university, and of being its first dean. The high regard felt for Professor Green among lumbermen is shown in an editorial in The American Lumber- man for July 23, from which the fol- lowing is taken: In Samuel B. Green forestry had a noble champion. He was a sane, conservative, but none the less persistent worker in the cause which in late years had become his life work. Just as the science of forestry itself is the 492 cutgrowth and development of agriculture, so Professor Green, originally a scientific agriculturist, ultimately became a_ scientific forester. He long ago realized the impor- tance of forestry as a science and he realized also that to succeed forestry must be prac- tical and useful, and he bent his efforts as professor of horticulture in the University of Minnesota to the building up and develop- ing of the forestry work of the university. Professor Green was essentially of a judi- cial temperament. He saw both sides of every question. He possessed the one fac- ulty that is indispensable to leadership in any movement in which interests are varied and conflicting. He was not a radical partisan or advocate of any policy, party, or interest. He understood, recognized, and respected the rights and opinions of all. His advocacy was in the direction of education. He knew that the forests must be used to be conserved, and it was his chief end and aim to teach the people to know that true conservation of the forests is synonymous with their proper use. Thus in his policy the theoretical and prac- tical were so combined and harmonized as not to arouse the antagonism or opposition of any interest. He had the fullest confidence aoe respect of lumbermen and all who knew im. Professor Green was born at Chel- sea, in 1859, the son of Thomas and Anna (Marden) Green. He was grad- uated from the Massachusetts Agricul- tural College in 1879, having specialized in forestry and horticulture. He con- tinued his studies in a number of for- eign countries. From 1888 to 1898 he was a teacher in these subjects, and in 1898 was appointed to a professorship at the University of Minnesota. He had been an associate editor of Farm and Fireside since 1888. Besides his dean- ship at the school of forestry at St. Paul, he was president of the Minne- sota Horticultural Society and of the board of administration, Farmers’ In- stitutes of Minnesota. He was author of a number of books, including “Ama- teur Fruit Growing,” “Vegetable Gar- dening,” “Forestry in Minnesota,” and “Principles of American Forestry.” EDITORIAL 49 Statesmanship jee world likes a clean fighter, who makes his fight and if defeated yields without complaint. It also likes the man who fights fair. Theodore E. Burton, ju- nior senator from Ohio, is one of the able men, intellectually, of the Congress of the United States, but he does not fight fair nor yield gracefully to defeat. His fili- buster in the Senate, by which he post- poned for another year the passage of the bill that would have made possible the salvage of some of our eastern mountain watersheds, remains unex- plained on any rational grounds. This is not a job that would justify one or two legislators in blocking its passage, in the face of a majority. It is a popu- lar measure, with no graft or selfish in- terest behind it. All that Mr. Burton accomplished was to exhibit a personal animus and hold for a little while the center of the senatorial stage, a cheap notoriety that a man of his mental cali- ber should be above. If we are not mis- taken, this petty part will be remem- bered much longer than some of his more creditable acts of statesmanship. Two comments from able and consery- ative journals will indicate the estimate that is placed upon the Ohio senator’s action. The Providence Journal said: The fact that Senator Burton of Ohio is, generally speaking, one of the most useful and intelligent members of Congress makes his pernicious activity against the bill for the preservation of the Appalachian and White Mountain forests the more discredit- able. Without judging motives, it is difficult to absolve him from the charge of having sinned against the light. The importance of the measure is admitted by every real friend of conservation. In the White Mountains, especially, the work of devastation is going on apace. True, the state of New Hampshire is greatly to blame for not following the ex- ample of Massachusetts and Vermont and doing something of its own accord to protect its most valuable natural asset. But this fact will not relieve Congress of the odium of failing to pass the Weeks bill. It is dis- tressing that, after the efforts of the Speaker of the House to prevent this legislation have been defeated, a member of the Senate should have the power by a mere exhibition of volu- bility to disappoint expectation once more. The second editorial is not from the hotbed of Appalachian forest agitation, but from Senator Burton’s own. state. The Columbus Dispatch, voicing a ser timent to which the senator may b more sensitive than to that of Nev England, said: For five hours, Friday, in the United State Senate, Mr. Burton, talking on a multitud of irrelevant subjects, filibustered to kill th White Mountain and Southern Appalachia forest reserve bill. He succeeded by resor ing to legislative sharp practice and misus of senatorial privilege in preventing a vot on one of the most vital and importar measures in the general scheme for the cor servation of the natural resources of th country. Secretary Ballinger himself and a the interests in opposition to conservatio could not have been more devoted advocate The junior senator from Ohio was not cor tent to register his individual antagonism, t state his case and make his appeal for reac tion. He chose, rather, to stop the machiner of legislation altogether, fearing the majorit of the Senate was in favor of the bill an would pass it if accorded an opportunity. What has led the senator to this chan pionship of the cause of those who despo the forests and the streams for their ow gain? He says he is fighting conservatio because of the cost of it. But what of th cost of the failure to conserve the forests And when did this nation become so poc that it had not money for the necessarie of its own existence and prosperity? M Burton is posing as a watchdog of th treasury, but in that role he is a sham. He: serving not the people, but the special ir terests which he served so conspicuously whe he voted almost continuously with Aldric on the tariff. When Mr. Burton was elected to the Ser ate from Ohio he was believed to be a zealot champion of the interests of the people. H was supposed to represent a new order c things. As a senator of the United State he shattered these beliefs and supposition of public opinion in Ohio almost at the be ginning. His record since his elevation t that high office has been more than a disart pointment. It has been a calamity. Mr. Burton was ably assisted b Senator Newlands of Nevada, a con servationist who insists in conservin in his own way or not at all. Mr. New lands declared his belief in the objec of the pending bill, and then talke and voted to defeat it. If Mr. New lands wishes to win support for hi methods and ideas, the way to do it i not to use the club of a filibuster upo: the sorely tried patience of the easter friends of forestry. The height of statesmanship in th House was reached by the Hon. Edga 494 D. Crumpacker of Indiana, in his speech against the bill. He suggested the em- ployment of two old-fashioned wind- mills with pumps at the head of the Connecticut River as a means of sup- plying more water in the river and do- ing “more for navigation than will be done under this scheme in a quarter of a century.” The Indiana statesman also said: Fifty years ago and more the great prairie states in the Mississippi Valley were covered with swamps and sloughs that were saturated with water the year round. They contributed much toward the rainfall in the valley dur- ing the hot days of July and the dog-day season. They gave to the atmosphere vapor that went up into the clouds and made rain. Those swamps have all been drained. They are dry. They are farms and gardens now. The government might as well enter upon an undertaking for the common good to re- establish those swamps and sloughs on those fertile lands in the prairie states, with a view to promoting rainfall in the Mississippi Valley. The New York Sun was so impressed with this powerful argument that it re- marked, after reviewing the speech at some length: “There were other foolish speeches made in opposition to the Ap- palachian forest reserve bill, but the palm must be awarded to the Hon. Bdcage Crumpacker.. If this bill needed more support than the powerful scientific, economic, and legal arguments that have been massed in ats) behali during’ the ten years on discussion, this would be found in the fact that the best its cpponents can do against it is typified by the filibuster in the Senate and such arguments as Mr. Crumpacker’s in the House. ye ye ue The Rocks Ahead N OTHER pages of this maga- zine the record in the first ses- sion!) of” the present ~Coneress or the Weeks bill for the acquisition of national forests is given at some length. The failure to pass the bill at this ses- sion is a bitter disappointment, and the present situation has an element of dan- ger in it which calls for a word of warning. AMERICAN FORESTRY The fight in the House was successful because, although the Speaker and the House leaders on both sides have stead- ily opposed the bill, it was in the hands of some of the shrewdest and most re- sourceful parliamentary fighters in that body, and they put the measure through by sheer hard work. In the Senate the opposition was far less—so much so, indeed, that we were constantly assured of the passage of the bill by those who had it in charge. Why, then, did it fail in a body where it has always had a comfortable ma- jority in its favor? Simply because it was brought up too late in the session. By holding the bill back to await the action of the House, when an ele- mentary knowledge of the situation would have made it clear that the House would not get at this bill until near the close of the session, an opportunity was fitted to the hand of those senators who, to show their own power or accomplish a personal end, were prepared to filibuster against it. The President was partly responsible for this delay. Naturally anxious for the success of his especial measures, he did not wish to have anything inter- vene to block them, and while he desired and recommended its passage, he asked that it be not brought forward until the so-called “Administration bills” were disposed of. The bill might have been reported at any time from the Senate committee on forest reservations, which was unanimously in favor of it, and pushed in the Senate without reference to the House. Then it would have been safe. The game of the filibuster is time, and it is impossible to hold either house in session in the heated Washington weather when a time of adjournment has been fixed upon. The senators did the best they could under the circum- stances, but the circumstances should not have arisen. As it now stands, the danger that must be guarded against is the attach- ment of amendments, making necessary a conference. The bill has passed the House: it will be voted on“in the Senate on the rsth of February next; but so will any proposed amendments. It is EDITORIAL possible for the eminent statesmen from Ohio and Nevada to attach amendments to the bill that will throw it into con- ference if they are accepted by the Sen- ate, and then, with only two weeks re- maining of the session, the conference and the succeeding discussion could be prolonged until it would once again be too late to enact the bill. We ask the senators who support this bill to guard against such a disaster, for it would be nothing less. We ask President Taft to throw the weight of his influence to secure the prompt passage of this bill, most vital, most immediately necessary of all conserva- tion measures, and the only one for which the east has asked. The delay this year means a heavy loss, especially in the White Mountains. Any further delay, in view of the well- known facts, would be a crime. There is a strong feeling among many people who know the legislative ways of Washington that there is no inten- tion of passing this bill; that enough is to be done at each session to pacify troublesome constituencies, and that the measure, having been used as a football between the houses, will be allowed to quietly “fall through the slats” at each session. Expressions of this opinion have come to us from so many sources that we believe it may be well for sena- tors and representatives to know that it exists. The country is impatient of anything that looks like unfair play, and the football game has been played, with this bill for the leather, as often as it is safe to play it. The next game must be a fair one in which votes count. Ww Me Prize Essays in Forestry Bees pupils in the high schools and township schools of Indiana recently carried off as many prizes for essays on the subject of “Forestry in Indiana.” The winners were Myrl Ellen Simmons, of Union City; Olive O. Shideler, of Attica; Garfield V. Cox, of Fairmount, and David Erwin, of Fort Wayne. Col- lectively, the essays give a fairly ade- 5 495 quate acount of the present situation in the state, while individually they do. credit to the writers and their instruc- tors as well written and thoughtful bits of exposition and argument. Most of the salient points are well brought out, and enforced with good sense and in good English. The extent to which the Indiana forests have been exploited in the past, the chief present problem— that of planting, and the value of the farm woodlot as part of the well- balanced use of agricultural land are accurately and convincingly indicated. There is no more productive soil in which to sow the seed of sound think- ing upon forest economics than that of- fered in the public schools of the coun- try. For a lifetime the pioneers of for- estry have been expending immense stores of energy in converting adult minds, educated in days when indiffer- ence to the forest, an over-sensitive sense of private rights, and the tradi- tions of half a dozen generations were stubborn counter-tendencies. In over- coming these tendencies there has been great waste of effort; the minds of grown men and women responded but slowly and incompletely. Meantime, the forces that make for forest waste remained in full swing; the speculative view of forest investments, encouraged by experience of quick and rewarding profits, even augmented the speed and magnified the scale of the exploiting process. It became more and more evi- dent that a change for the better could be brought about only by showing the financial advantages of permanent for- est management, on the one hand, and by rousing and guiding civic responsi- bility, on the other. The required means were a sound education in the principles of forestry and a moral enlightenment as to the responsibility of the state for the general welfare; in other words, the development of well considered forest policies, private and public. The foundations for these policies are to be laid most effectively in the schools, where forestry has become at once a cultural study and a department of civics. The Indiana school essays are, therefore, not only thoroughly worth 496 while in themselves; they have a wider significance as part of the general schooling by which the rising genera- tion will be prepared to handle more efficiently the forest problems of their day. We Ye ye The Woodlot OR the eastern United States, the woodlot is and will long continue to be an important factor in the for- estry problem. Generally speaking, the eastern farm has its woodlot, large or small, a very valuable part of the prop- erty, and a part that is too little ap- preciated by its owner. It follows that the farmers have a di- rect interest in forestry second only to that of the lumbermen. That the wood- lot may be maintained in such condition as to yield a continuous supply of fire- wood, fence posts, poles, and lumber for home use, with perhaps a surplus for sale, is the object for which its owner should strive, and to this end he should know something of the main principles of forestry and of the special applica- tion of those principles to the condi- tions on his own farm. As an illustration of what this may mean to him in money, consider an in- cident that actually happened, involving two New England farmers. Their woodlots were of the same character, the principal growth being pine. One of them had his lot, which he proposed to cut, examined by a forester, who made an estimate of the stumpage value. AMERICAN FORESTRY The stumpage was then sold to a lum- berman at $7 a thousand. The same lumberman had been try- ing to buy the stumpage on the second farmer’s lot, and had last offered $800 for it. Now, as he was going to work the neighbor’s lot, he increased his of- fer to $1,200, which was accepted, the owner congratulating himself on hav- ing pushed the price up $400. But note the result. From this second lot the lumberman cut 1,000,000 board feet. Had this brought the price that the first lot brought, the owner would have re- ceived $7,000, instead of $1,200. He gave the lumberman $5,800 because of his ignorance of the value of his own property. This is only one case among thou- sands, but the opportunity afforded for comparison makes it especially valuable for illustration. How many of our farmers know what a bank account there is in the woodlot, and how to make it yield the most interest? On many of our eastern farms there is land that is more available for tree growing than for modern agriculture, that is neglected and doing nothing— too run out for pasture, too rough for cultivation. A plantation of forest trees on this land would not yield an imme- diate return, but it would cost little and would enhance the value of the land each year, besides providing for the needs of the future. The scientific farmer should know something of forestry as well as dairy- ing and horticulture, if he would have his farming well balanced and profitable in all its departments. NATIONAL FOREST WORK Boundary Changes in National Forests Further revisions of the boundaries of na- tional forests were made during July. The President has signed a proclamation eliminat- ing approximately 54,590 acres in Idaho and 5,480 acres in Wyoming from the Targhee National Forest, and dividing the remaining area into two forests. The eliminations are the results of a careful examination made by the Secretary of Agriculture last summer, which showed that the lands now excluded are mainly non-timbered areas of more or less value for grazing or agriculture and not needed for forest or for watershed protec- tion, By the division, the northern section of the forest remains as the Targhee and the southern section becomes the Palisade. By other Presidential proclamations, an area of approximately 239,360 acres has been transferred from the Wenatchee to the Chelan National Forest, Washington. The land thus transferred from the eastern bor- der of the one to the western border of the other is a timbered mountain area forming the Entiat watershed. It is believed that the territory can be more satisfactorily admin- istered as a part of the Chelan Forest from the headquarters at Chelan than as a part of the Wenatchee from the headquarters at Leavenworth. For better administration, the new Chelan Forest was divided on July 1 into two parts. On July 1 the Black Hills National Forest, the largest national forest in the country, was divided into two units, the new forest consisting of the southern portions of the previous one. The plan has been under consideration for some time. Besides being the largest forest in the United States, the Black Hills National Forest is ranked as the most important in the matter of business transactions and con- tains 1,190,040 acres. The forest had become unwieldy, and a new forest was established by drawing a line east and west through the existing forest, just south of Redfern in Pennington county, making the two forests almost equal in size. Restocking National Forests More than ten tons of tree seeds will be used this year on the national forests, in extensive experiments in broadcast sowing and machine planting designed to supplement the more expensive methods of planting nursery stock. Most of this seed has already been planted. The rest will be used later in the season when the right conditions are pres- ent. Altogether, the ten tons of seed are equivalent to perhaps 300,000,000 single seeds. Most of the seed will be sown, either broad- cast or in seed spots, or planted with a corn planter, directly in the place where the trees are to stand. Broadcasting has already been found to give good results in some regions. It was first tried in the Black Hills of South Dakota, with an encouraging outcome. Mew Planting Work Forest planting work on the Fishlake, Manti, and Nebo national forests was very successful during the past year. In the re- gion where these forests are located, approxi- mately 4,000,000 acres of land need to be re- forested. Sooner or later, this big task must be accomplished. During the past few years a great deal of knowledge of conditions was obtained and much has been learned about how best to meet them. Already a good beginning has been made. Three large tree nurseries have been established, one on the Wasatch Forest near Salt Lake City, one on the Uinta, and one near Pocatello. Ten mil- lion plants are growing in these nurseries this summer. A great deal of planting will be done in the fall. YE We Damage from Porcupines Porcupines have been giving so much trouble by girdling seedlings in certain na- tional forests that the work of exterminating them has been undertaken by the Forest Service in cooperation with the Biological Survey. The porcupine feeds to a large ex- tent in winter upon the inner bark of young pines. Methods of poisoning are being in- vestigated in both the Colorado and Cali- fornia national forests, where the most trouble is experienced. Dr. N. Dearborn and Prof. D. E. Lantz, of the Survey, have recently visited the Routt and the Pike forests, in Colorado. 497 STATE WORK The New Lookout Station in New Hampshire A map has been prepared showing the loca- tion of the present forest fire control sta- tions in New Hampshire and those which the state forester desires to add to the sys- tem. The thirteen lookout stations which are in operation, in course of instruction, or for which the money has been subscribed, are located in Pittsburg, Dixille, Millsfield, on the peaks of Mounts Madison and Washing- ton, in Bethlehem, Bartlett, Liermore, Ben- ton, and Croydon. These are so placed as to command a wide view and to practically pro- tect the northern section of the state from forest-fire loss, although the chain will be more complete if the state forester can secure the funds necessary to build stations in Sand- wich, on Mooselake, in Albany, and in Bean’s Purchase. Returns from forest fires for the first six months of the year show heavy losses in the lower counties by reason of the unusually early spring and the long-continued dry weather. wow ow Fire Protection in New York Following the enactment of new fire pro- tective legislation in I909, a year of experi- ence with the law demonstrated the need of establishing a fourth fire district in the Adirondacks. Commissioner James S. Whip- ple recommended this step in his report for the year I909, and an act of the legislature which amends the forest, fish and game law provides for the additional district and an- other fire superintendent to take charge of it. PENNSYLVANIA Corporation Owners Taking up Forestry Corporations having large holdings of land have recently sought the advice and assist- ance of the Pennsylvania department of for- estry in taking care of their timber lands. This branch of the work has become so well established that it takes up practically the entire time of George H. Wirt, who was for- merly in charge of the state forestry school at Mont Alto, but who is now in the office of the department. 498 Among the requests for assistance of this character which have recently been received are one from one of the large anthracite coal companies of the state and another of a similar character from one of the large bi- tuminous companies. In each case, the coal corporations own outright the land in which they mine—surface as well as coal deposits— and the officials desire to do the best they can with the timber. Some of the tracts brought to the atten- tion of the Commissioner of Forestry have good stands of timber on them, which it is the desire of the owners to preserve and to better; other lands are bare because of the devastating fires, and these it is desired to restock with timber. Whatever the circum- stances, a comprehensive scheme of treatment is outlined after an inspection of the premises and all possible advice and assistance given. Several Jumbermen in the western part of the state are planning to protect and manage their holdings according to the instructions of the department of forestry. One of them told the commissioner that he had cut con- siderable timber and now wants to redeem himself by planting some trees; he will set out about forty acres next spring. A number of other lumbermen are contemplating similar planting. wow The State Forest Academy E. A. Ziegler has become director of the State Forest Academy, at Mont Alto, suc- ceeding George H. Wirt, who has become the chief forester for the state forestry com- mission. The state reserves now cover prac- tically 1,000,000 acres, and are administered by thirty foresters trained in the State Forest Academy. This number is being increased by about ten men annually. Mr. Ziegler is a college graduate and has also been with the United States Forest Service for a number of years, serving in the office and the field as well. During that time his work was devoted mainly to forest mensuration. The assistant director, I. T. Worthley, is also a trained forester, a graduate of the New York College of For- estry at Cornell, and a member of the only class that ever graduated at that institution. He has also taken forestry work at Yale and Harvard. These two men have charge of the forestry branches. In addition to these, there are two more instructors in the allied sub- jects. EDUCATION The Educational Question The question of the proper curriculum for a forest school was freely discussed at the forestry convention, held in Washington last January. Many points of view were pre- sented, and there were many papers pro and con each way. Some of these points were very well taken, and will undoubtedly tend toward a uniform standard in all the schools in the country. There are some, however, which seem to be receiving more attention than they rightfully deserve. One point, especially, which was threshed over and over was the question of whether it is the duty of the school to give instruc- tion in “practical” work. The opinions on the subject seem to be widely divergent, but will not a careful analysis of these opinions show that it is mostly a seeming difference, and that the real difference lies in the defini- tion of “practical work?” Some take the stand that all work taught outside the class- room is “practical;” others apply the term only to such manual labor as bears but indi- rectly on the science of forestry. Some are in favor of “practical” work, others think that it has no place in the school at all. In any case, they all seem to agree—such is the only inference—that all classroom work is impractical. Of course, that is not at all what is meant, but it is the impression given. All work -is practical, whether given in the classroom or field, if it teaches anything useful; if it does not teach anything useful, it should be cut out in no matter what class it may happen to belong. On this same prin- ciple, all useful (practical) work which can be learned more readily in the school than anywhere else should be included in the regular course. It has now, for many years, been the tend- ency in the development of modern educa- tional work to do more and more of the teaching in scientific lines in the laboratory. Ocular demonstration will teach the average student more in a week than he can learn in the class-room in a month. This has been generally accepted in most lines of work; why should we deny its application in the teaching of forestry? The nursery and the forest form the laboratory for the work in technical forestry. One afternoon’s work in the seed bed will teach more of the handling of seedlings than a month of lectures, and no amount of instruction can take the place of a little actual practice in thinning. The one supplements the other, and only the two together can make an efficient worker, with the ability and self-reliance to carry on inde- pendent work. That much of the practical is absolutely necessary, probably even the strongest supporters of the strictly theoretical would not deny. The work which meets the most objection is that in the lumber camp, sawmill, and na- tional forest. It is held that this is not the proper work for a school and can be learned better elsewhere. This is partly true in that there is not the time to take it up in the short period allotted to school work. It is, however, an important part of the for- ester’s training. The properly trained for- ester is supposed to know thoroughly all the work connected with the formation, care, harvesting, and marketing of the timber crop. He should know enough about them to super- vise and direct all these operations. Any captain of industry, whatever the par- ticular industry may be, will tell you that a man cannot be a successful director, no mat- ter how complete his theoretical training may have been, unless he has worked through all the stages of the business and learned all the details. This is no less true in forestry than in anything else. The more of such work a man has had, the better prepared he is to take up his life work, to perform the duties of a forester. This is true in Germany, where the theoretical side has been most highly devel- oped, and it is even more true in the United States, where the forester is more closely mixed up with these lines of work. It is a well-known fact that the school graduate must serve a year or two of apprenticeship before he is capable of doing his work. This is true in any profession, and cannot very well be entirely remedied, but it can be helped some. The more of this apprenticeship work that can be done before graduation, the less there is to do afterward, and the better pre- pared the graduate is. The practice work should never be allowed to interfere with the theoretical and scientific studies—for these cannot be obtained anywhere else—but all of it that can be sandwiched into the spare hours is so much gained. Vacations passed in this way are invalu- able. The insight gained on the nature of the work and the knowledge of woods con- ditions enable the student to discriminate in his subsequent studies and see the application of theories he is learning. Many things which he would have otherwise been obliged to take on faith, and only half understand, are per- fectly clear when fitted into their proper place in the field of his experience. The same amount of this work, after graduation, would not be nearly so beneficial. Many of the theories which the student should then apply he will have forgotten because he only half understood them when he studied them. If these premises are correct, it follows that all such work is essential to a proper school training. Let all the work of the school be practical, and let there be as much practical work as possible—The Minnesota Forester. 499 _ CURRENT LITERATURE MONTHLY LIST FOR JULY, 1910 (Books and periodicals indexed in the Library of the United States Forest Service) Forestry as a whole Bibliographies Tharandt—K. Sachsische forstakademie. Kat- alog der bibliothek; nachtrag 1, 1900 bis 1904. 88p. Tharandt, J. & R. Stettner, 1905. Proceedings of associations Pennsylvania—Forestry, department of. Pro- ceedings of the first convention of Penn- sylvania foresters, held at Harrisburg, Pa., March 4-6, 1908. 49 p. Harrisburg, IQIO. Forest description Kellogg, R. S. The forests of Alaska. 24 p., plates, maps. Washington, D. C., 1ero. (U. S.—Forest service. Bulletin 81.) Forest botany Trees, classification and description Cook, O. F. Relationships of the ivory palms. 9 p., illus. Washington, D. C., 1910. (Smithsonian institution—U. S. national museum. Contributions from U. S. na- tional herbarium, vol. 13, pt. 5.) Woods, classification and structure Mell, C. D. The histology of resin canals in white fir. 6 p., illus. Washington, D. C., American forestry association, IQIO. Troup, R. S. Burma padauk, Pterocarpus macrocarpus. 41 p., plate, map. Cal- cutta, 1909. (India—Forest department. Forest pamphlet no. 14.) Silvics Forest influences Girod-Genet, Lucien. Les inondations; a la recherche des causes. 29 p. Nice, G. Mathieu, IgIo. Studies of species Schwarz, Frank. Physiologische untersuch- ungen uber dickenwachstum und _holz- qualitat von Pinus silvestris. 371 p., illus., plates. Berlin, P. Parey, 1899. 500 Sterling, E. A. Chestnut culture in the northeastern United States. 28 p., illus., plates. Albany, N. Y., Forest, fish and game commission, 1902. Silviculture Fron, Albert. Sylviculture. 2d edition. 496 p., illus. Paris, J. B. Bailliére et fils, 1909. Forest protection Insects Felt, E. P. Insects affecting forest trees. 50 p., illus., plates. Albany, N. Y., For- est, fish and game commission, 1902. Forest management Hole, R. S. Notes on best season for cop- pice fellings of teak, Tectona grandis. 29 p. Calcutta, Supt. of government printing, 1910. (India—Forest depart- ment. Forest pamphlet no. 16.) Forest administration New York—Forest, fish and game commis- sion. Fifteenth annual report, 1909. 426 Dp: plates “Albanyz Ne Yon 19O10: New York—Forest, fish and game commis- sion. Annual report of the Department of forestry. 34 p., plates. Albany, N. Y., IQI0. Forest engineering Holmes, J. S. Relation of good roads to economic forestry. 6 p. Chapel Hill, N. C., Southern Appalachian good roads association, IQIO. Forest utilization Fisher, W. F. Forest utilization. 2d edi- tion. 840 p., illus., plates. London, Brad- bury, Agnew & Co., 1908. (Schlich’s Manual of forestry, vol. 5.) Wood-using industries Troup, R. S. The prospects of the match in- dustry in the Indian empire, with par- ticulars of the proposed match-factory sites and woods suitable for match man- ufacture. 172 p. Calcutta, Supt. of gov- ernment printing, 1910. (Indian forest memoirs, economic products series, v. 2, DENI) CURRENT LITERATURE Auxiliary subjects Botany Fink, Bruce. The lichens of Minnesota. 269 p., illus., plates. Wash., D. C., 1910. (Smithsonian institution—U. S. national museum. Contributions from U. S. na- tional herbarium, vol. 14, pt. 1.) Scribner, F. Lamson-, and Merrill, Elmer D. The grasses of Alaska. 46 p., plates. Wash., D. C., 1910. (Smithsonian insti- tution—U. S. national museum. Con- tributions from U. S. national herbarium, VOlvmlichip tna) Nature study Coulter, John M., and others. Practical na- ture study and elementary agriculture; a manual for the use of teachers and normal students. 354 p. N. Y., D. Ap- pleton & Co., I909. Flint, Lillian C. Small gardens for small gardeners, or, What little hands can do with plants. 118 p., illus. Chicago, A. Flanagan Co., 1910. Parks and reservations Strough, Arthur B. The St. Lawrence res- ervation, or International park. 16 p., illus., plates. Albany, N. Y., Forest, fish and game commission, 1902. Periodical Articles General American homes, May, 1910—Trees and shrubs to avoid in general planting, by J. E. Johnson, p. 212. American naturalist, May, 1910—Anatomical characters in the evolution of Pinus, by I. W. Bailey, p. 284-93. Country Life in America, May, 1910—How to know our tree neighbors, by J. E. Rogers, p. 66. Farm and ranch, July 2, 1910—The forests of Alaska, by J. A. Arnold, p. 11. Gardeners’ chronicle, May 7, 1910—Ptero- carpa, p. 201. Gulf states farmer, June, 1910—Eucalyptus in Louisiana, p. 4-5. Journal of the Royal society of arts, April 1, 1910—Indian state forestry, by S. Eard- ley-Wilmot, p. 493-508. Penn state farmer, May, 1910—The develop- ment of forestry education in the United States, by J. A. Ferguson, p. 73-7; Ex- tracts from a letter from a student in forestry in the University of Munich, by H. P. Baker, p. 77-82; The importance of the farm woodlot, p. 82-85. Report of the West Virginia state board of agriculture, 1910—West Virginia’s future timber supply, by A. W. Nolan, p. 98-100. School science and mathematics, May, 1910 —The catalpa tree, by J. P. Brown, p. 428-30. 50) Science progress of the twentieth century Jan., 1910—The productivity of woodlanc soil, by J. Nisbet, p. 504-10. Tropical life, March, 1910—The rubber in dustry of Mexico, by P. Olsson-Seffer p. 50-2. Trade journals and consular reports American lumberman, June 25, 1910—Coop eration in settlement of cut-over lands i1 southern states, by E. Hines, p. 34-5. Engineering magazine, May, 1910—Reforesta tion of reservoir lands, by E. R. B. Al lardice, p. 267-9. Engineering news, May 12, 1910—The nev timber-treating plant of the Eppinger an Russell Co. at Jacksonville, Fla., by G. B Shipley, p. 545-7: Engineering news, June 23, 1910—Records o deforestation and gage heights for th St. Croix and Chippewa rivers, by C. W Durham, p. 732. Hardwood record, June 25, 1910—Souther: red oak, p. 23-4; Utilization of hard woods; pyrography, p. 50-1. Lumber review, June 15,1910—Timber wealtl of the Philippines, p. 44-6. Mississippi Valley lumberman, June 2 1910—Conservation of natural resource: by W. M. Bray, p. 35-6. Pacific lumber trade journal, June, 1910— Taxation of timber lands, by D. E. Fair child, p. 36-42. Pioneer western lumberman, June 15, 1910— A brief consideration of California’ lumber industries, p. 13-15; Eucalyptu commercially considered, by G. B. Lull p. 23-5. ; St. Louis Lumberman, June 15, 1910—Blu stain in lumber and its prevention, by W. B. Harper, p. 63-4; Increasing in terest in the soda-dipping process, pf 64-5; Mechanical means for the auto matic dipping of lumber, p. 66-7; Sod: dipping at the plant of the Gilchrist Fordney lumber co., p. 67-8; Agricul tural possibilities of the pine lands of th south, by B. Colbert, p. 72-4. St. Louis lumberman, July 1, 1910—Preven tion of blue stain in lumber, by H. vor Schrenk, p. 60-1; Comparison of result from experiments on cut-over pine land with other agricultural lands of th United States, by B. Colbert, p. 65-7 The yellow pine creosoted block, p. 68-7c Timber trade journal, June 11, 1910—Th timber trade in Grand Canary, by W. H R., p. 877-8; Tree felling by machinery p. 881. Timberman, June, 1910—Method of dryin; wood with superheated steam at low tem perature, by D,. E. Lain, p..§2. United States weekly consular report, Jun 15, 1910—The rubber industry; Mexicc Honduras, East Indies, by W. W. Can ada and others, p. 769-73; Wooden wate 502 pipes; Australian factory started for supplying a heavy demand, by H. D. Baker, p. 792. Wood craft, July, 1910—A museum of trees, the Arnold arboretum, p. 103-5; Mold- ings, their construction and practice, by J. Hooper, p. 106-9; Storing lumber and handling shavings, by J. F. Hobart, p. 110-11; A heart-to-heart talk with the wood finisher, by A. A. Kelly, p. 112-13. Wood-worker, June, 1910—The history of balata belting, p. 52-4. Forest journals Allgemeine forst-und jagd-zeitung, June, 1910—Die forstlich wichtigen bestimmun- gen des vorentwurfs zu einem deutschen strafgesetzbuch, by Eberts, p. 188-99; Abermals “Neue methode zur raschen und genauer ermittelung des holzgehaltes ganzer bestande,” by Schubert and Wim- menauer, p. 199-205; Ueber die wahl der durchschlagszeit von waldungen zur bestimmung des hiebssatzes, by F. Gas- card, p. 205-6; Die grésse der nattirlich verjiingten waldflachen, p. 217-18. American forestry, July, 19t0—The new for- est products laboratory, by E. A. Start, p. 387-403; The work of the government in forest products, by H. S. Graves, p. 405-8; Some examples of timber tests, p. 409-14; The paper and pulp industry and conservation, by B. R. Goggins, p. 415-18; Tennessee river improvement and sedimentation, by L. C. Glenn, p. 419-22; What is conservation? p. 423-5. Bulletin de la Société centrale forestiére de Belgique, June, t910—A propos de la provenance des graines de pin sylvestre, by E. de M., p. 380-04; Le pin cembro, Pp. 305-7. Centralblatt ftir das gesamte forstwesen, April, 19to—Neue gesichtspunkte tiber die entstehung von nonnenkalamitaten und die mittel zu ihrer abwehr, by F. A. Wachtl, p. 145-51; Bodenphysikalische untersuchungen in mischbestanden von eiche und buche, by R. Wallenbdck, p. 151-6; Zur theorie der abrundungs- kluppen, by N. von Lorenz, p. 157-62; Konstrucktion und berechnung der streb- werksklausen auf gleiche biegungsfestig- keit, by L. Hauska, p. 163-76. Forestry quarterly, June, 1910—The cost of forest mapping and estimating in Mon- tana, by K. W. Woodward, p. 147-57; The effect of grazing on forest conditions in the Caribou national forest, by E. R. Hodson, p. 158-68; Comparison of large and small sawmills on Tahoe national forest, by M. B. Pratt, p. 169-73; Yield tables of western forests, by E. I. Terry, p. 174-7; Notes on the wood structure of the Betulacee and Fagaceze, by I. W. Bailey, p. 178-85; Forestry in the agri- AMERICAN FORESTRY cultural colleges and experiment sta- tions, by S. B. Green, p. 186-90; Notes of a civil engineer on a forester’s education, by F. B. Knapp, p. 196-7; The place of forestry in general education, by H. A. Smith, p. 191-5; Growth of the Forest service library, by H. E. Stockbridge, p. 198-200; Some European forest notes, by C. E. Bessey, p. 201-9; A supervisors’ meeting, p. 210-21. ; Indian forester, April, 1910—Indian state for- estry, by S. Eardley-Wilmot, p. 179-91; Notes on the forests of Heppenheim in Hesse-Darmstadt, by F. Cowley-Brown, p. 191-202; The bamboo forests of the Ganges Division, U. P., by B. A. Rebsch, p. 202-21; Effect of rainfall on forests, by E. Batchelor and R. S. Pearson, p. 222-5. Revue des eaux et foréts, May 15, I910— Insectes nuisibles aux arbres forestiers de l’Inde, by E. H., p. 303-7; Alcohol ordinaire tiré du bois, p. 314-15. Revue des eaux et foréts, June 1, 1910—Di- visions botaniques et régions forestiéres de l’Algérie, by G. Lapie, p. 324-8; Timpot forestier en Allemagne, by A. Arnould, p. 328-39; Le probléme _ sylvo- pastoral dans I’Italie du sud, by J. Din- ner, p. 339; Foréts inexplorées en Chine, p. 347-9; La distillation séche du bois avec la vapeur surchauffée, p. 349-50; La situation forestiére dans l’Afrique du Sud, p. 350-2; Tarif général de cubage pour l’estimation en bois et résine des coupes de pins maritimes dans la région du Sud-Ouest, by P. Biquet, p. 353-67; Tariére de Pressler, by A. Schaeffer, Pp. 367-70 Zeitschrift fiir forst- und jagdwesen, May, 1910—Veranderungen des bodens durch aufforstung bisheriger ackerlandereien, by Fricke, p. 259-64; Der Kameruner kiistenwald, by M. Biisgen, p. 264-83. wow Oregon Pamphlet PAG Ina pamphlet just sent out by the Oregon Conservation Association, it is stated that the association is working for the following items: Protection of timber from fire, pro- tection of immature timber from destruction and waste, reforestation of burned and cut- over areas, protection of forests from de- struction by insects, fish and game protec- tion, topographic surveys and inventories of state resources, development of inland water- ways and good roads throughout the state. It is also stated that the association is not working for politics, prevention of legitimate development, legislation for the benefit of any class, or legislation against any particular class. NEWS AND NOTES Congress of Experiment Station Workers For the first time, the United States is to be represented among the forest experiment station workers of the old world. The United States Department of Agriculture is a mem- ber of the International Association of Forest Experiment Stations, and the Forester has designated Prof. Filibert Roth, of the Uni- versity of Michigan, as the representative of the Forest Service at the convention of the association, which will be held in Brus- sels in September in connection with the Brussels centennial exposition. This first participation of the United States in a meeting of the international association is most significant. It means that this coun- try has begun to work out original experi- mental results in forestry which are consid- ered worthy of being presented before Euro- pean foresters; and it means, too, that Amer- ican foresters are to gain all the advan- tages which must come of active cooperation with forest experiment station workers throughout the world. we ME Forestry in Missouri State University The curators of the University of Missouri have voted to establish a school of forestry at the university. wow Reforesting to Protect Water Supply at Guelph The city of Guelph, which stands foremost in the Dominion of Canada as regards mu- nicipal ownership of public utilities, is now started upon a new enterprise. About four and one-half miles from the city, and well above it, lie 168 acres of land surrounding the springs which provide the city with water; over one-fourth of this is already well supplied with trees, but the need for further forest protection of the springs was seen by the people to be imperative, as the demand upon the water supply was increas- ing with the city’s growth. Accordingly, the city has set out 40,000 young trees in the locality. White pine, Norway spruce, larch, and Scotch pine have been used, about thirty acres having been planted up to date. The cost has been $13.23 per acre, which cost is for the trees, planting, and care only, the value of the land not having to be con- sidered, as it had no rental value, for, owing to its position relative to the water supply, it had to remain idle. The trees are reported to be doing well after the first few months’ test—Christian Science Monitor (Boston). Ye ye ye Good Results at Corbin Park J. G. Peters, of Washington, chief of the office of state and private cooperation in the United States Forest Service, and State For- ester Edgar C. Hirst, of New Hampshire, have recently inspected the forests in Corbin Pendie ING. Jeb Mr. Peters’ visit to New Hampshire is for the purpose of inspecting the forests which have been worked under plans furnished by the government, and in the case of Corbin Park, Mr. Peters found that the recommenda- tions in the matter of cutting and reforesting had worked out admirably. There are from 18,000 to 20,000 acres of forest lands in the park enclosure, and while 3,000,000 feet of lumber were taken out last year, it was done so scientifically that little evidence of it is presented. The work of reforestation has gone along with the cutting. In places the cut-over spaces have been replanted with new trees, while in others the trees have done their own seeding and the young growth is coming along well. ww ye Pennsylvania Railroad Nursery There is a sharp lesson, and encourage- ment, in the record for rapid forestry reached at the nursery of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Trenton, where 27,000 saplings one year old have been taken out of a space four by twenty-four feet. If the Pennsylvania Rail- road can do this, others can—and should, for profit—Boston (Mass.) Advertiser. a Large New Canadian Reserve The entire slope of the Rocky Mountains, from the international boundary line north- ward to within a short distance of the Fifty- fourth parallel of north latitude, is now re- served from settlement or occupation and will be administered entirely with a view to the proper utilization and reproduction of the forest, the protection of the water supply of the prairie provinces and other related objects. Such is the effect of an order-in-council just passed. 503 504 AMERICAN The total area of the district now reserved from settlement along the eastern slope of the Rockies in Canada is about 14,400 square miles. On the additional 48,000 square miles just reserved, the effect of the reservation will be to withdraw the timber from dis- posal under license. It is not intended, how- ever, to withdraw the resources of the area from use, and the use of timber, minerals, stone, and other building materials, under certain specified restrictions, will not only be allowed, but encouraged. For hunting and trapping, it will be necessary to have a per- mit. The reserve will be under the admin- istration of the forestry branch of the de- partment of the interior—Chicago Record- Herald. we we Must Look to Her Senators and Representatives The agreement which was reached in the Senate before Congress adjourned that a vote upon the Weeks Forestry Bill should be taken on February 15 next is cause for some consolation in the face of a failure - to enact that measure at the present session. If reports from Washington are to be trusted, there is little reason to doubt the passage of the bill at that time; although there is some danger of the insertion of amendments, and the consequent possibility of its being held up in conference between the houses. New England will have to look to her sena- tors and representatives to avert any such disappointment. But, at the best, the fact remains that the taking effect of this impera- tively needed legislation has been postponed practically another year, and that the destruc- tion of the forests, which might otherwise have been protected, will continue through another winter’s lumbering season. It is impossible to definitely assert what “might have been,” yet it is not improper to suggest that had the forestry bill been brought up earlier in the session by Senator Brandegee of Connecticut, as he was earnestly urged to do by the advocates of the measure, there would have been far less incentive to employ obstructive or filibustering tactics against it such as were only too effectively followed by Senator Burton of Ohio. The appearance of any bill in the closing days of a con- gressional session always offers a temptation to the cantankerous to obstruct its passage, because of the knowledge that only a com- paratively brief objection will cause it to fail. It is open to serious doubt whether Senator Burton would have felt impelled to make his stand had the bill been brought forward at an earlier date—Springfeld Republican. FORESTRY Annual Meeting of New Hampshire Society The annual meeting of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests will be held on August 2 and 3 at Bretton Woods. There will be an important conference on the forest reserve bill to which a number of- distinguished public men have been invited. Among those who have accepted are Con- gressmen Currier of New Hampshire and Lawrence of Massachusetts. The New Hampshire forestry commission is to hold, on the afternoon of the first day, a convention of the town forest fire wardens of the state. Among the topics for discussion there will be “Forest Taxation,” “State and Town Forests,” “Gypsy and _ Browntail Moths,” and the “Plan for Local Forestry Associations in the Towns.” Forest planting and the condition of the mountain forests will be pictured by the stereopticon. All of the sessions will be open to the public. The sessions will be presided over by the Hon. Frank W. Rollins, the president of the society, and by the Hon. Robert P. Bass, chairman of the state forestry commission. MW Ye Eucalyptus in California George M. Homans, state forester of Cali- fornia, after inspecting 3,000 acres of euca- lyptus plantation in Escondido, Bernardo, and Encinitas, expressed himself as highly pleased with the results which have been at- tained in the growing of eucalyptus in this section. Mr. Homans, who recently succeeded G. B. Lull in the office of state forester, has been on a tour of inspection over the state, with especial reference to the eucalyptus industry. It is the idea of his department, he says, to secure all the official data possible concerning the industry and to lend its fostering influ- ence to it. Mr. Homans states that California is taking the lead in the raising of eucalyptus. The acreage of eucalyptus in California is now said to be greater than the acreage of all the remaining states of the Union. In the years 1909-1910 more than 23,000 acres were set out to eucalyptus trees in California. It is the opinion of Mr. Homans that the industry will become an important one in the state. Mr. Homans visited the 600 acres of eu- calyptus at Bernardo, planted by the Euca- lyptus Culture Company of San Francisco; the 7oo acres planted by the Pratt Euca- lyptus Company of Los Angeles, under the direction of S. J. Flintham, and the 1,700 acres planted by the Santa Fe Railway Com- pany near Encinitas—Los Angeles (Cal.) Examiner. SSS ee a Se ae STATE FOREST OFFICERS Important changes have taken place during the past year in both the organization anc the personnel of the state forest departments, and similar changes are taking place con. stantly. In order to record the progress made, as well as to invite corrections and make the list complete and accurate, a table of state forest officers, with their titles and addresses is printed below: STATE FOREST OFFICERS State ; Name and post-office Official position or territory Nilabaimaeeeeeee John H. Wallace, Jr., Montgomery. .Commissioner, department of game and fish Cahitornniaeseeeer G. M. Homans, Sacramento...... -State forester. Connecticut......S. N. Spring, New Haven........ State forester. Hawai? Seen Ralph S. Hosmer, Honolulu...... Superintendent of forestry. Indiana eeeer Charles C. Deam, Indianapolis....Secretary, state board of forestry. Towa. ereenee CavAG Scott, “AMES eye ererstece .Forester, agricultural experiment station. Henry Cooper, Dodge City...... .-Commissioner of forestry. Kansas ........ 1D, Ish, Rickeaagng, Ocak sGo5asaas Commissioner of forestry. Kenttieky>.« .2..... MAG Urankins Hrankforks. 9245-1. Commissioner, department of agriculture labor and statistics. Woutstanae. ees BaeaGtaces Sato Rouges... 4- State forest commissioner. IMainekesnence es Bdsar Ea RinesAuestas .-soeene Land agent and forest commissioner. Maryland igs F. W. Besley, Baltimore.......... State forester. Massachusetts... F. Wm. Rane, Boston........... ‘State forester. Waiehosen { Marcus Schaef, Roscommon..... State forester. Sesean ores > Bilibert Roth; Ann, Arbor:.:..... State forest warden. Minnesota .:.....Gen. €. C, Andrews, St. Paul..... Forestry commissioner. Miontaiiaeent aie Charles W. Jungberg, Helena..... State forester. New Hampshire. .@)) burst) Concorde. oe. - State forester. f New Jersey..... AMlfcedtGaskall yy Mrenton. ss. sees Secretary, forest park reservation commis sion, and forester. James S. Whipple, Albany....... Commissioner, forest, fish and game com New York..... mission. Co Re Pettiser Albany eyes cccce a Superintendent of state forests. North Carolina..J. S. Holmes, (Chapel@Eiilie eerie Forester. Oliogse- ones Edmund Secrest, Wooster......... Forester, state agricultural experiment sta tion. Ocehan { J. W. Baker, Cottage Grove. .... Forestry, fish and game warden. resent. a PACE Be Wastell, Portland..........Secretary, state board of forestry. Peed eae tiv, . Robert S. Conklin, Harrisburg. .- Commissioner of forestry. Rhode Island. ... Jesse B. Mowry, Chepachet tee ‘Commissioner of forestry. MENTIESSEE Hs. c.08- H. A. Morgan, Knoxville....... Director, college of agriculture and ex periment station. Wetrimontwan... Austin F. Hawes, Burlington.... State forester. Wanoimicam si. .G. VV.) Womner, Richmondaees cass. Commissioner, department of agricultur and immigration. R. W. Condon, Port Gamble.....Chairman, state board of forest commis Washington... sioners. Je Re Welty, Olympiaas- asa aeer State firewarden and forester. West Virginia... A. B. Brooks, Morgantown...... State forester. Wisconsin.......Edward M. Griffith, Madison.... State forester. 505 STATE FORESTRY ORGANIZATIONS A list of state forestry associations and their secretaries is printed below. Corrections in this list will be carefully recorded by AMERICAN ForEsTRY. Name of organization Secretary Address Appalachian Mountain Club................- Re. B. Lawrence, .. se sects Tremont Bldg., Boston. Arizona—Salt River Valley Water Users’ Charles A. van der Veer. . Phoenix. Association. California—Water and Forest Association...I. C. Friedlander....... 1405 The Merchants Ex- change Bldg., San Francisco. Forestry Educational Association.......... 1S Mo RIOT aves Hane San Diego. Sierras Clipse ioneiice ie nae erence Williams as Colbyane ee San Francisco. Pacific Coast Forest, Fish and Game Wm. Greer Harrison... San Francisco. Association. Tri-counties Reforestation Committee..... hiss Je ANS itareltis oon eeec Riverside. Colorado) Forestry, Association... 4. Hee Ellsworth Bethel....... Denver. Connecticut Forestry Association............ eeidee Stadtmiulleraeeere Elmwood. Georgia Forestry Association................ Alfred Akerman........ Athens. Iowa Park and Forestry Association........ Welsey Greene......... Des Moines. Maine Horesthys Associations eer eree er Edgars Rincon ee ee. Augusta. Massachusetts Forestry Association.......... irvine & Guild. ..2.. 2. 4 Joy St. Boston: Michigan Forest Association. ...\..-.--..--= tole (Gs Susnengees bacaeac 25 Band Chambers, De- troit. Minnesota State Forest Association......... Ea Gaa Cheyneveneem erie St. Anthony Park. Nebraska Park and Forestry Association....Miss Leila B. Craig.... York. New England Forest, Fish and Game As- Arthur T. Harris....... 16 State St., Boston. sociation. New Hampshire—Society for the Protec- Allen Hollis............ Concord, N. H. tion of New Hampshire Forests. New York—American Forest Preservation Geo. Milroy Bailey..... (Gopnity INE VG Society. Forestry, Water Storage and Manufactur- Chester W. Lyman...... 1 Broadway, New York. ing Association of the State of New York. Northern New York Forestry Association..O. B. Trappan, Director. Potsdam, N. Y. State of New York Fish, Game and LL. C. Andrews.......... Elmira. Forest League. The Association for the Protection of Edward Hagaman Hall. Tribune Bldg, New the Adirondacks. York City. North Dakota State Sylvaton Society....... Miss Ella J. Mitchell... Penn. Ohio—Cincinnati Forest and Improvement Adolph Leue........... 127 West Twelfth St., Association. Cincinnati. OhiogStatesHorestry Society ssee ee eee Prof. J. J. Crumley.... Wooster. Oregon Conservation Association........... ARBs \Wiastelleere sensor 904 Lewis Bldg., Port- land. Pennsylvania—Franklin Forestry Society....W. G. Bowers.......... Chambersburg. Pennsylvania Forest Association.......... iP Se Bitlem rae 1o12 Walnut St., Phila- delphia. Vermont Forestry Association.............. Ernest Hitchcock....... Pittsford. Washington Conservation Association....... Clarence H. Bailey..... PP) ©; Box 236,)seattle: West Virginia Forestry Association.........: Ara WeuNiola niceres sieve custers Morgantown. 506 The American Forestry Associatio OFFICERS FOR 1910 PRESIDENT CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts VICE-PRESIDENTS JOSHUA L. BAILY, Pennsylvania RUTHERFORD P. HAYES, North Carolina CHARLES W. ELIOT, Massachusetts GEORGE FOSTER PEABODY, New York B. E. FERNOW, Ontario, Canada J. E. RANSDELL, Louisiana W. W. FINLEY, District of Columbia J. T. ROTHROCK, Pennsylvania DAVID R. FRANCIS, Missouri ALBERT SHAW, New York EXECUTIVE SECRETARY EDWIN A. START, 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. TREASURER OTTO LUEBKERT, Washington, D. C. DIRECTORS PHILIP W. AYRES, New Hampshire GEORGE H, MAXWELL, Illinois ROBERT P. BASS, New Hampshire CHARLES F. NESBIT, District of Columbia CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts CHARLES L. PACK, New Jersey WILLIAM S. HARVEY, Pennsylvania M. V. RICHARDS, District of Columbia JOHN E. A. HUSSEY, Massachusetts CUNO H. RUDOLPH, District of Columbia OTTO LUEBKERT, District of Columbia FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Pennsylvania GEORGE D. MARKITAM, Missouri JAMES S. WHIPPLE, New York GEORGE V. WHITTLESEY, District of Columbia Advisory Board, Representing Affiliated Organizations YELLOW PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION JOHN L. KAUL, Birmingham, Ala. N. W. McLEOD, St. Louis, Mo. : H. H. WHELESS, Shreveport, La. NATIONAL WHOLESALE LUMBER DEALERS’ ASSOCIATION ROBT. C. LIPPINCOTT, Philadelphia, Pa. LEWIS DILL, Baltimore, Md. R. M. CARRIER, Sardis, Miss. NORTHERN PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION C. A. SMITH, Minneapolis, Minn. WILLIAM IRVINE, Chippewa Falls, Wis. F. E. WEYERHAEUSER, St. Paul, Minn. MASSACHUSETTS FORESTRY ASSOCIATION NATHANIEL T. KIDDER, Milton, Mass. FREDERIC J. CAULKINS, Boston IRVING T. GUILD, Arlington, Mass. LUMBERMEN’S EXCHANGE WILLIAM L. RICE, Philadelphia, Pa. FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Philadelphia, P: SAMUEL B. VROOMAN, Philadelphia, Pa. NATIONAL SLACK COOPERAGE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION Ue 15a AMAYIELG Oy eee Mich. JAMES INNES, Chatham, Ontario A C. H. KEYS, New York City NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BOX MANUFACTURERS B. W. VORTER, Greenfield, Mass. S. B. ANDERSON, Memphis, Tenn. ROBT. A. JOHNSON, Minneapolis, Minn. CARRIAGE BUILDERS’ NATIONAL ASSOCIATION 7 i. C. McLEAR, Wilmington, Del. D. T. WILSON, New York C. D. FIRESTONE, Columbus, Ohio BOSTON PAPER TRADE ASSOCIATION N. M. JONES, Lincoln, Maine JOHN §E. A. HUSSEY, Boston, Mass. ARTHUR UL. HOBSON, Boston, Mass. PHILADELPHIA WHOLESALE LUMBER DEALERS’ ASSOCIATION i R. G. KAY, Philadelphia, Pa J. RANDALL WILLIAMS, Philadelphia, Pa. B. PRANKLIN BETTS, Philadelphia, Pa. RY AE Application for Membership To EDWIN A. START Secretary American Forestry Association 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. _ Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become a member of the American Forestry As: ciation. One dollar ($1.00) for annual dues is enclosed herewith. Very truly yours, Name P. O. Address ISduO4 IVNOILVN LANISVS ‘NOILVLS LNOMOOT V > American Forestry Vol. XVI SEPTEMBER, 1910 No THE PROTECTION OF FORESTS FROM FIRE By HENRY S. GRAVES Forester, U. S, Department of Agriculture (Owing to its great importance, Bulletin 82 of the Forest Service, which has just been published, will be reprinted entire in American Forestry, in six instalments, of which this is the first.) INTRODUCTION HE first measure necessary for the successful practice of forestry is protection from forest fires. As long as there is any considerable risk from fire, forest owners have little in- centive to make provision for natural reproduction, to plant trees, to make improvement cuttings, or to do other work looking to continued forest pro- duction. In many localities great progress has lately been made in forest protection. Organized fire protection has been es- tablished in the national forests and in most of the state forest reservations. A number of states have begun to de- velop systematic fire protection on pri- vate lands through the organization of state firewardens. In some instances private owners have formed cooperative associations for fire protection and em- ploy a regular force of rangers for pa- ou ‘Guring the fire season. he. most are ies ened by certain ee companies in Idaho and Washington. Throughout the country there are here and there instances of serious effort to- ward thorough fire protection by indi- vidual private owners. In spite of all that has been done, however, the fact remains that most of the forests of the country, particularly those privately owned, are inadequately protected from fire. It is probable that in fully seventy- five per cent of the private forests there is no attempt whatever at systematic protection. CHARACTER OF FOREST FIRES It is customary to distinguish three coat of forest fires, as follows: ) Surface fires, which burn the sur- cee layer of dry leaves and other litter, dry grass, brush, and small trees. (2) Ground fires, which occur where the mineral soil is covered with a deep accumulation of vegetable mold, and which, on account of the peaty charac- ter of the material, burn much more slowly than surface fires. (3) Crown fires, which burn through the crowns of the trees. 510 AMERICAN SURFACE FIRES Nearly all forest fires start as surface fires. The dry litter on the surface of the ground is ignited by a spark, per- haps from a locomotive or a campfire. At first the fire burns in a small circle, gradually eating out in all directions. If there is a wind, the fire burns with greatest intensity on the leeward side, and quickly assumes an oval form. If the wind is very strong, the fire may die out entirely on the windward side, but it burns intensely on the other side, soon developing a distinct front or head, with side wings running diagonally with the wind. At first the front of the fire is very narrow, but it gradually widens and takes the form of a broad, irregular line. The front may reach indefinite proportions, from a few hundred feet to a number of miles in width. Irregu- larities of topography and differences in the amount of inflammable material cause the fire to burn more rapidly in some spots than in others, so that the entire front becomes scalloped and ir- regular. Ordinarily a surface fire simply burns along the ground and does not get into the tops of the trees. Sometimes, how- ever, the flames reach up into the crowns and scorch them, or even ignite them here and there; but such a fire still has the character of a surface fire, unless it actually burns through the crowns. The manner of burning, the form of the fire area, the rapidity of burning, and the intensity of the fire depend upon the following conditions: (1) The character and quantity of in- Hammable material. (2) The topography. (3) The characterJof theysoik: (4) The condition of the atmosphere. Inflammable Material The severity of a surface fire de- pends largely on the quantity of dry material in the forest. If there is an accumulation of leaves represent- ing the fall of a-number of years the fire is much more severe than if the litter is the result of the fall of only a FORESTRY year or two. The quantity of accumu lated litter is greatest with species hav ing large leaves and large crowns Maple and red oak, for example, mak a heavier litter than ash or birch; whit pine makes a heavier litter than pitel pine: - The severitysob amine depend further on the character of the leaves A layer of resinous softwood needle: burns more rapidly and with a hotte: fire than does a layer of hardwooc leaves. The amount of dry wood on the ground influences largely the severity o a fire. In some types of forest there ar a great number of fallen dead trees which litter the ground, and thus in crease the fireedaneers.- [ais as7 wel illustrated in the lodgepole pine forest: of the Rocky Mountains. In localitie: subject to windfall there is likely to bi a large amount of fallen timber, whil fires, disease, and insects leave standing dead trees and snags, which are easih ignited. After lumbering in the old fashioned way, the ground is coverec with a mass of tops and rejected logs which soon become dry and highly in flammable. Again, the condition of the litter an: débris governs largely the characte and severity of the fire. The most se vere fires occur where the material 1 thoroughly dried to the mineral soil When the material is only partially dr. the fire is slow and the litter is no completely burned. Since the ground litter is, as a rule unevenly distributed, a surface fir burns very irregularly. Still anothe cause of the irregularity of surface fire is the varying soil moisture. Topography A fire runs uphill with great rapidity because the heated air currents draw th flames upward. If the litter is evenh distributed, the velocity with which « fire will run up a slope is in direct pro portion to the steepness of the slope After passing the crest, a fire travel: slowly in its descent on the other side Mechanical obstructions, such a abrupt walls, narrow ridges, outcrop PROTECTION OF FORESTS FROM. FIRE 511 ping ledges, and so on, tend to check a fire and to prevent its gathering volume. On extensive level ground, fires burn more uniformly, gather a greater vol- ume, generally do more damage, and extend overa larger area than in rugged topography. Character of the Soil Any influence which tends to dryness increases the intensity of a fire. Thus on sand and limestone soils, which warm up and dry out readily, fires are likely to be very severe. Southern and western slopes are apt to be more severely burned than others, because they are the warm and dry exposures. Condition of the Atmosphere The character of a fire is influenced, further, by the condition of the at- mosphere. Roughly, the greater the ve- locity of the wind, the more rapid is the progress of the fire. A fire burns more severely when the wind is constant than when it is gusty. It is the steady high wind which makes the most intense fire. A fire burns most fiercely when the atmosphere is dry. Fires are, therefore, most severe during the hot part of the day and when fanned by a dry wind. A moist atmosphere retards a forest fire. The well-known fact that the night is the best time to fight a fire is thus explained; for at night there is usually little or no wind, while the air is com- paratively heavy and damp. Rapidity of Surface Fires No reliable estimate of the rapidity of surface fires can be made, because it varies so greatly under different con- ditions. In the hardwood regions of the east a surface fire seldom travels more than five miles a day, but in the coniferous forests of the west instances are known where this rate of speed has been more than doubled. Grass Fires In nearly all open forests there is a certain quantity of grass which, when dried, carries fire very rapidly. In many forests the presence of grass consti- tutes one of the important problems connected with surface fires. This is particularly true in the southern pine torests. A grass fire is more influenced by the density of the grass than by its height. Where the grass is in separated patches, with no leaves or other inflammable material between, it is difficult for a fire to spread. Uniformly dense grass burns with the greatest intensity. High grass burns with greater intensity than low grass, but the fire does not usually run so rapidly. Grass a foot high, if dense, may produce such a hot fire as to start a crown fire. In short grass, with an ordinary wind, a fire will run from three to four miles an hour; with a high wind, twice as fast. The chief factors affecting the burning of grass are its dryness and the force of the wind. Other factors have their influ- ence, however, just as they do in the burning of litter. Brush Fires Bushes and small trees frequently re- tain many dried leaves late into the fall, and in some cases even into the follow- ing spring. This is particularly true.of some of the oaks. A fire will sometimes run through such brush and do an im- mense amount of damage. Such a fire is called a brush fire. It is carried along in part by the burning of the litter, but, wherever the opportunity offers, it runs up through the dried leaves remaining on the brush. In the eastern United States a brush fire is most likely to run during the late fall. Under ordinary circumstances, it has rather the char- acter of a surface fire than that of a crown fire. Fires running through young stands of conifers consume the foliage and readily kill the trees. In a very young stand, in which the trees stand isolated and the crowns have not yet grown to- SI4tJ JO ZINSIY 24) ‘224, MOTJOH[—'7 “314 SABIS IY YSNOIY] 224] Surpsez}Yy snduny—‘] ‘Sty I] ALW 1d ROLE CLION-OF gether, the fire has the nature of a sur- face fire, intensified by the burning crowns. Ifthe crowns meet, and there is a more or less complete canopy, a true crown fire is developed. A special class of brush fires are those in the chaparral of the southwest. The brush is dense and there are many spe- cies with inflammable foliage. In many places a thick layer of litter and humus is formed on the ground, just as in a dense forest. Fires in this type of scrub forest are very ferce and: de- structive, and are analogous to fires in dense stands of young conifers. GROUND FIRES This term is applied to the slow fires that burn in the deep accumulations of vegetable matter common in many of our damp northern forests. Here the fallen leaves, needles, and other off- castings of the trees decompose very slowly, and a deep layer of partially de- cay ed organic matter accumulates, often to a depth of from two to three feet. This material absorbs moisture with avidity and retains it tenaciously. Con- sequently, in most seasons it 1s not read- ily ignited. In some seasons, however, it becomes thoroughly dry and will burn. A fire in this peaty substance burns slowly, but with very intense heat, and is exceedingly difficult to ex- tinguish. Ground fires in the Adiron- dacks have been known to burn all win- ter, creeping along under a deep layer of snow. Ordinarily a ground fire will not cover more than a few acres in a day. Frequently, however, there is upon the surface a large amount of dry or small coniferous trees, so that there accompanies the ground fire a surface fire or a brush fire, or both, and occa- sionally a crown fire. CROWN FIRES Crown fires are those which burn through the crowns of the trees. (See Plate II.) They almost invariably start from surface fires. Occasionally, how- ever, they are started when lightning PORESIS débris. FROM FIRE 513 strikes and ignites a dry stub or resinous tree surrounded by a dense stand of conifers. If the crowns are of such a character that they will burn they may be easily ignited by the flames which rise from a surface fire. Sometimes a crown fire is started by the flames from a burning clump of young growth, and where the trees have exuded resin or there is loose inflammable bark, a crown fire may be started by the flame’s run- ning up the trunk. Crown fires occur when the woods are very dry and when there is a high wind. Without a strong wind a crown fire is seldom started, Pad even if the crown of an individual tree is ignited, a fire does not usually spread and run through the crowns on a still day. Be- fore a high-wind, a crown fire spreads with great velocity, taking at once a V-shaped form with a distinct front or head. This head may be only from fifty to 100 feeet wide, but in the case of the largest fires its width may be very great. In the case of the larger fires the front is generally carried forward by a se- ries of heads. The head of the fire burns very rapidly through the crowns, and there follows closely a surface fire burning with the same rapidity. There are well developed wings, where the fire runs through the crowns on each side oi-the head.=) Rhese, in turn, are accompanied by surface fires, while spreading out on the skirts are wider surface fires, eating out diagonally with the wind and covering a broader area than the crown fire. The strong draft of heated air aris- ing from the fire carries up with it an immense quantity of burning cinders and pieces of bark. The wind, in turn, carries this material far in advance of the main fire head, and thus innumer- able new surface fires are started. This gives rise to the popular idea of a spon- taneous starting of fires in advance of a crown fire. An ordinary crown fire does not run more than two or three miles an hour. although undoubtedly the great con- flagrations of the north woods, such as the famous Hinckley fire in Minnesota in t894, are swept along at a much 514 greater rate, particularly if the starting of new fires by burning cinders is taken into consideration, Even in extreme cases, however, it is questionable whether crown fires burn at a rate of more than from six to ten miles an hour. The behavior of a crown fire depends on the character of the crowns. Crown fires are mainly confined to coniferous forests, for the leaves of hardwoods are not easily ignited. They may, however, run through for- ests of mixed hardwoods and conifers, and in such cases the heat generated is so great that the hardwood leaves are scorched or killed. The velocity of the fire depends, further, on the density of the stand, the thickness of the crowns, and the force and steadiness of the wind. Other influences affect the se- verity of crown fires in much the same way as they affect that of surface fires. DAMAGE BY FIRES The damage done by forest fires may be discussed under the following heads: (1) Death of standing trees. (2) Injury to trees that are killed. (3) Injury to the soil. (4) Reduction of the rate of growth of the stand. (5)°Effect of reproduction. Death of Trees Crown fires kill outright most of the trees in their paths. In a severe crown fire the foliage of coniferous trees is completely consumed. Hardwood trees in mixture are generally so badly scorched that the buds, leaves, and liv- ing tissues in other finer parts of the tree are killed, if not consumed, by the heat. Sometimes, however, where as fire burns somewhat irregularly for example, where there are a oer many hardwoods in mixture or the fire is broken by irregularities in topography single trees or groups of trees often escape injury. Ground fires, also, usually kill all trees in their way, for although they burn very slowly, they generate a great volume of heat and kill the living tis- AMERICAN FORESTRY sues. of the roots. Sometimes the in- jury is not apparent above ground, all, but the trees die and after a time are blown over, because the roots have been killed and weakened. Surface fires kill seedlings and young trees with tender bark, but in a great many cases do not kill outright the larger trees. Nevertheless, a very severe sur- face fire may kill everything in its path, and, not uncommonly, hardwood forests are entirely destroyed by fires which do not at any time assume the character and proportions of crown fires. Some species have much greater power of resisting surface fire than have others. This is usually due to the character and thickness of the bark. Trees with delicate, thin bark are killed much more readily than those with thick, corky bark.» Youne- trees: ‘are killed more readily than ail ones, be- cause the bark is thin and there has not been developed the layer of cork, which increases in amount with age. Accord- ingly, some trees which are very re- sistant to fire when mature are exceed- ingly sensitive when young. Good ex- amples are the eastern and western white pines, the red pine, the western larch, and Douglas fir. The cork in the bark acts as a nonconductor and protects the living tissues from over- heating. Some species exude from the bark a great deal of resin, which catches fire and increases the intensity of the heat. A good example is lodgepole pine, which often exudes resin over a considerable portion of the trunk and increases the damage by fire. Other trees have soft, Paky “bark, which catches fire readily. Like the resinous trees, these are killed at the point burned by the heat gen- erated in this way. Shallow-rooted trees may be killed by surface fires when the heat of the burning humus is great enough to injure the insufficiently cov- ered roots. The livin® parts of a tree are more sensitive to intense heat at some periods of the year than at others. The most sensitive period is during the early part of the growing season, when active cell division is taking place and new cells airy Aq peseweg surg 20dadpoq]——] ‘314 aulg je2[3u07—xog aurjuadiny Buruing y—'Z B14 Tl] AlVdId 516 are being formed, which are tender and naturally sensitive to abnormal condi- tions. This is very well shown by the damage of late spring fires. Thus, a surface fire in May or June may entirely kill hardwood trees which in the early fall would successfully resist a fire of equal severity. a Living tissue is killed when it is heated to fifty-four degrees Centigrade (129.2 degrees Fahrenheit).* Very often the forester wishes to determine after a fire the extent of the injury. If the inner bark is brown or black, in contrast to the normal green color, this is an indication that the cambium is dead. Injury to Trees Many surface fires do not kill trees outright, but seriously injure them by killing a portion of the roots or trunks. It is very common to find, after a fire, that nearly all the trees is the forest have been killed on one side. (PI. III, fig. r.) This is usually the leeward side, because here the flames have an oppor- tunity to burn in immediate contact with the tree long enough to injure it. If a fire is burning up a slope, even when there is no wind, the upper side of a tree is usually more damaged than the lower side, both because of the accumu- lation of leaves and cther litter above the tree and because fires are carried upward by the currents of hot air, just as a fire on level ground is swept along by the wind. In the case of a well-established tree, the killing of one side may not result in its death for a long period ; and if the wound is not large it may heal over. Very commonly, however, the killing of one side of the tree induces the attack of some fungous disease, which ulti- mately results in the tree’s death. (PI. Il, fig. 1.) Trees injured and weakened by fire are subject to the attack of in- sects. In many cases the death of trees after a burn is the result of insects’ work and not of the killing of the tis- sues by the fire. Damage by fire often follows damage by insects. Thus, in *Der Waldbau, by Heinrich Mayr, p. 12. AMERICAN FORESTRY certain conifers insects injure the trunks, causing a local accumulation of pitch. A surface fire later burns the tree at this point and kills one side. The defect called “cat-face” is often caused in this way. Insect attacks, moreover, by increasing the number of dead trees in the forest, increase the fire danger. In the case of large trees, which are very resistant to fire, a first fire may kill the tissues on one side, and subsequent fires may then burn into the dead wood until the trunk is nearly hollow. This result is very commonly seen in large white pines, that have a large propor- tion of the butt gouged out by repeated fires and are still alive. Many of the larger trees on the Pacific coast, like red fir, yellow pine, sugar pine, and big- tree, stand for many years after injury of this character. The damage to a tree by killing a part of the trunk or a part of the roots depends on its resisting power and a variety of other circumstances. — In some cases the tree is so weakened by the burning that it is afterward broken off at the butt. This is very common in longleaf pine forests, where old tur- pentine “boxes” burn out and weaken the tree. (PI. III, fig. 2:) The injury to the tree usually results in a reduced rate of growth. It is ob- vious that if a portion of the tree is killed the whole tree cannot perform its functions so effectively as before. The killing of a part of the crown, stem, or root system necessarily reduces the amount of nourishment which the tree can take in and furnish the growing parts. It is not only in shortening life and in reducing growth that fires injure trees; the quality of the product is also af- fected. Even where there is no infec- tion by insects or fungous disease, a fire that has killed one side of a tree usually leaves its scar. In time the wound may entirely heal over, but there is nearly always a point of weakness which may ultimately cause a seam or wind shake and unfit the butt log for lumber. Ti rot sets in, it may spread throughout the trunk and make the tree worthless, even if it does not kill it. PROPECMGN OF KORESDiS Injury to the Soil A surface fire burns the dry leaves, and usually the humus which lies on the surface of the ground. If the trees are all killed by the fire, the crown cover, as well as the layer of litter and humus, is destroyed, and injury to the soil fol- lows this exposure to the wind and sun. If the canopy is not ‘seriously inter- rupted by the fire and only the surface litter and humus are burned, the extent of the soil injury from one burning is not serious. A very light surface fire that merely burns off the dry litter formed by one or two years’ fall of leaves has little influence on the eee and probably no single fire, even if 1 burned the entire humus and layer a litter, would so injure the soil as se- riously to affect the growth of well- established trees. Normally in every forest a certain amount of humus is mixed with the mineral soil. This is of value, both physically and chemically. If a forest is burned over repeatedly, however, the humus in mixture grad- ually disappears, and since the leaves which fall are destroyed, and no new humus is formed, the soil is injured. While the soil loses its supply of nitro- gen and the physical benefits of humus, the mineral ashes are not lost except as they are subsequently leached away. Nevertheless, repeated fires are very in- jurious to the forest. Besides the direct injury to the soil through changes in its chemical content and physical quality, fires do further damage through opening the way to soil erosion. A leaf litter reinforces the forest canopy in protecting the soil against the impact of falling rain, and the network of roots which, fill the eround hold the soil in place. The greater the humus content of the soil, the more absorptive the soil is. Fires leave the soil condition to be easily borne away by running water, and in- crease the amount of water which runs over the surface instead of sinking in. if the slopes are’ steep and the: soil easily borne away, erosion is sure to follow fires. In mountain country, if FROM FIRE tn the rainfall is heavy, thin soils may so badly washed as to be no long capable of supporting forest growth. Reduction of Density Most fires kill a certain number trees, or injure them so that they eith die or deteriorate in value before t forest can be cut. Whis 1s particula: the case with immature forests. T result is a reduction in the number trees which will come to maturity, a hence reduction of the total increme and the final yield. If a stand is mature and a part of t treesmare injured or killeds it 1sesom times possible to prevent loss by cutti directly after the fire. Often, howev it is not practicable to make a cutti in a given part of a forest just wh desired. When some of the trees in an imn ture stand are killed or injured the is always a loss. If the stand is c there is a loss through cutting tre which are in full productive growth. the stand is allowed to grow, the fir yield is reduced nearly in proportion the reduction in the number of tre killed in the dominant or leading cla An owner is often confronted wi the problem of dealing with an imm ture stand in which a part of the trees say thirty to sixty per cent—are kill or injured by fre. If the remaini trees are sound and thrifty, the be plan is usually to cut out the dead ai damaged individuals, utilizing such are marketable, and permit the 1 mainder to mature, provided enou: can be realized to cover substantial the cost of the work. Effect on Reproduction Reproduction in the forests of tl country has been more influenced | fire than by any other one factor. TV present composition, form, density, at yield of a great many stands are due the influence of fires on reproductic Repeated fires prevent reproducti by destroying the seed and killing tl seedlings. This is well illustrated 518 AMERICAN certain areas of the south, where long- leaf pine is not reproducing itself—not because there is a lack of seed or be- cause the conditions for germination are unfavorable, but because the annual fires kill the young trees. Fires may influence reproduction through their effect on the soil and the soil cover. Frequently, after fires the ground is occupied by heavy brush or by grass, which impedes or in some cases prevents the reproduction of val- uable trees. Many of the grass parks in the western mountains are the result of fire. A grass vegetation has re- placed the forest. The running wild of burned areas to a heavy growth of brush is a common occurrence after fires in many of our eastern forests, as, for example, in Pennsylvania. Forest fires modify the composition of stands. The opening up of a forest may so change the conditions of ger- mination that some species cannot de- velop even when seed is abundantly sup- This is in some cases due to the A species which re- against drought in from plied. drying of the soil. quires protection early youth might be excluded PORESTRY openings made by fire. In the same way the reproduction of a species sensi- tive to frost in early youth is often con- fined to areas protected by old trees. Where the fire makes a large clear- ing, the succeeding forest usually dif- fers in composition from the burned stand, except where there are only one or two species native to the region. The first species to spring up on the burn are those whose seed is readily and abundantly distributed to a distance from the seed trees. Thus, in the north woods of the east, birch and aspen are among the first species, because their seed is very light and is blown by the winds to great distances. Bird cherry comes up in abundance, because its seed is spread widely by the birds, and prob- ably much of it is already in the ground before the fire. The trees with heavier seed creep in gradually after a few years. Fires may kill certain non-resistant species, and thus stop their supply of seed. The tendency of repeated fires is to reduce the number of species in a stand. (To be continued ) A FORESTER WHOSE FIELD ISP ee Cllry By C.3D) MELE of caring for trees in city parks and streets will call for men with professional forester’s training. In- deed, this time is already at hand. More big cities than one have foresters em- ploved, and the work these foresters have to do can be effectively done only by men who have gone through a tech- nical course of study such as prepares a man to handle trees in the mass for profit, instead of individually for orna- ment and recreation. One of these cities is New York, where city forestry has been developed more extensively than anywhere else in the country. In the boroughs of Brook- lyn and Queens there are 150,000 street trees, forty-one parks, and forty-five miles of parkways to look after, and a graduate of the Yale Forest School, : | ‘HE time is coming when the work Mr. J. J. Levison, formerly of the United States Forest Service, is in charge. Mr. Levison is also forester of the recently organized American As- sociation for the Planting and Care of Gitye Erees: It would be a great mistake to sup- pose that the work of a city forester is simple, merely because he has to deal with single trees and not with whole forests.- Assuredly, it is no simple mat- ter to be responsible for the welfare of 150,000 separate and distinct trees, all of which are in plain sight all the time, and most of which some citizen takes an almost proprietary interest in. The tree that stands in front of the city man’s gate is pretty nearly the only tree . that he cares a rap about; but about that tree he cares at least several raps. He wants and expects it to be thrifty and sightly; he considers it distinctly up to the man in charge to keep it In the parks, again, a good m thousands of persons have a chance the time to find fault with neglect trees, swhem there: is neglect-. and nobody has ground for complaint this score, the reason is, whether preciated or not, that-the city fore is energetically holding down his jot So if he is in earnest, the city ester’s job will tax his lore and s forthe -utmest. ~ it is anew line work, with big difficulties and a pr ising future. Mr. Levison was as to outline for AMERICAN FORESTRY work that falls to his share as city ester of Brooklyn and Queens. It found that this outline skirted a v and varied field. THE CARE OF TREES To begin with planting, the city ester, in addition to knowing the ¢ eral principles of tree planting, n be familiar with the best methods handling a much larger number of ; cies than are ordinarily used in c mercial planting, and understand | to adapt trees to a variety of local ¢ ditions that are not met with elsewh On account of the necessarily high « of the work, as nearly as possible ev planted tree must be made to grow. nursery of 80,000 seedling — trees maintained for Brooklyn and Que and extensive experimental work done toward solving special proble One important branch of expert wor the transplanting of extra large tree In ordinary forestry, little prunin done, even in Europe, on account of cost; but in park and street work | 519 FAOK MON 'VATHOOIG ‘yuaujzsedaq Reg ay} JO yinG BurtAeadg ay} jo uonsog SEE ac — FORESTER WHOSE essential. Scientific pruning calls for an intimate knowledge of the structure and life of a tree. The city forester not only supervises the city employees who prune trees, but regulates all pruning done by private persons. Fighting the insects means knowing forest entomology and the use of in- secticides, as well as practical experi- ence with the best methods and ap- paratus. City trees have a vast number of insect enemies, and these cannot be exterminated merely by sprinkling the trees with chemical solutions. The city forester has to contend with epidemics of insects that cause wholesale destruc- tion. The need and value of expert work has been shown by success with such epidemics in Brooklyn. Among other things, it was brought to light that a certain lead arsenate, extensively used in many eastern cities, was inef- Rive D ASB, -Crpy 52 fective. A better one was found f exterminating leaf-eating insects. Tree diseases have to be mastere and this involves a knowledge of fun: and of their life-history. Again, cav ties and wounds require special trea ments, by means of which a forest may save considerable expense. A tacks of the hickory-bark beetle, tl sycamore blight, the chestnut disea: may become epidemic. Detecting the and suppressing them as promptly « possible requires constant close atte tion and the application, sometimes, « heroic methods. A very important fie for scientific experiment is offered — connection with this work. REMOVING TREES Besides planting and tending tree the city forester has to remove ther Removing Egg Masses of the Tussock Moth Caterpillar in Brooklyn, New York Decayed Tree Overthrown by the Wind in the Borough of Queens, New York There are improvement thinnings to be made in the wooded areas of the parks and dangerous and diseased trees must be taken out. In many cases special care and skill are needed to prevent in- jury to shrubbery or property. There are still some 3,000 dead trees standing on the streets of Brooklyn. Dangerous trees are removed within twenty-four hours after notification. What an emergency may call for is shown by the fact that during the severe storm of June 18, 1910, 300 trees were uprooted and made dangerous to life and prop- erty, and the task of clearing them from the streets in forty-eight hours devolved upon the city forester. Trees in the forest do not have to be fertilized, because by the accumulation of humus they themselves keep stor- ing up nitrogen in the soil. The nitro- gen supply in the soil of an old forest may compare favorably with that in ar- tificially fertilized agricultural soils, as Prof. Henry, of the French Forest School at Nancy, has shown. But city trees must sooner or later be fertilized ; 22) am the soil around them becomes impov- erished in course of time, and nourish- ment must be supplied artificially. The protection of trees from physical injury includes all sorts of mechanical devices, such as bars to prevent split- ting, guards around the trunks, drain- age and irrigation pipes, guards against electric wires, and other safety meas- URES: Supervising the work done by six or eight hundred men in the various parts of the city is a task that calls for good organization. Other supervisory work embraces a system of permits and in- spection for regulating the planting and care of trees by private persons; the establishment and enforcement of rules for house moving and street grading where trees are apt to be interfered with; preventing injury by telephone and other electric wire companies, by steam engines placed under trees, by advertising signs, by guy-ropes attached to trees, etc. Not only must the men be well organized for this work, with the proper man in the proper place, but FORESTER WHOSE the work must be carefully checked up. The forester must, moreover, strive to train his men by practical illustrations, lectures, pamphlets and field instruction. Over 25,000 requests for attention from individual citizens have been re- ceived in Mr. Levison’s office in the last three years. These called for ad- vice on all sorts of tree problems, and it was the task of the forester to train men to answer the less important ques- tions and to look personally into the others. The information given ranges from identifying tree species, insects, and diseases, to advising on treatment, planting, and other operations. It is furnished for use on home grounds as well as for public trees. Frequently ad- vice is given even to non-residents, by mail. As imap inthe icity torester’s . office shows the location and condition of every street tree. Other necessary rec- ords include tree maps of the parks, 2,000 photographs, statistics of condi- tions, a record of the treatment ap- plied to every tree that has been brought to the attention of the department, re- ports, and similar details. PROMOTING PUBLIC INTEREST Lectures are given before organiza- tions; before the people, under the 3 FIELD IS THE CITY 523 auspices of the board of education ; be- fore civic bodies in New York — and other cities; before scientific bodies and courses for teachers, and at local scien- tific institutions. Over a hundred lec- tures of this character have been given in the last four years. Articles are prepared for gardening, scientific, and popular magazines, for newspapers, museum journals, and school publications. More than forty such articles have been written, and 150 interviews have been given out. Other educational work includes teaching both children and adults by means of labels placed on the trees in the parks ; through addresses, messages, and celebrations on Arbor Day; by “the publication of tree guides, and by the formation of tree clubs. Special tree labels were prepared and posted for the Hudson-Fulton celebration last summer. The widespread educational effects of good work in caring for city trees will extend, necessarily, beyond the city limits and rouse an interest in economic forestry, the aim of which is strictly practical. For this reason the city for- ester’s task is more than the creation of beauty. But it is through the beauty he achieves that the charm of the forest is made to lay a firmer hold on urban life. His work is, therefore,» of: ar- reaching civic value. Seay EL ne eee, is ’ OE ares [ys VY VIE TE ALY Deeded aad THE REFORESTATION OF DENWAPEK a= Galt a ee 3a Ge aul = sates wer = iw 2 mS ees ee oe Se. ee qi fess he: eee Ge Sess was Ge en cee Te Gira: wn ee Se imp ae it ew ee Gers aol Ge fhe sniffles est ee Resi: ami am fe Dems Sei aa Gp Seon an Ss ae om fe astteswih coum Gee ws = = es Games ge deer see) ieee wee. i te Gest Ge es a Ce SS. Gn 2S Te a am GRE; am act Gr die aes ees was esse whersiv mes Ge me Ge same peu fan 3S. Ses Se ants we guethmyg er eee Ke wa gece et ie aie a Tee STW = see wes TL at 6S 0 eS Wee De 2 a in at on in ae Git ere: are at i: See GS 42s = CERT. ma = a Stall naEST Te ta Ge on ee ae mine ee Tee ee eo a Teme Ce oan Ges oa we ee SFist (Hhe= qcomese: wees Slice gp Hier Cael BE Tas aoe ase a ie aamsSr TEL TS We eS SE ane ami Se Gee Sn Wee se er Gee ie eee es qm Son fie geeviiieme Geel oe ee Sst [bh wee On ee Sse SSS oe Rest Se Set ees Be ite war re eee ee i ie SS Se ess. == 520 and a general feeling of depression and discouragement prevailed. An _ idea, like the reforestation of the country by which large areas of land could be re- claimed, compensating 1n some measure for the lost provinces, would naturally appeal to the energetic and active ele- ments of the population. No man was probably better fitted for this work than Dalgas. He soon succeeded in rousing interest in the cause, formed in 1866 the Danish Heath Society (Det Danske Hedeselskab), and found many warm supporters of his work, prominent among whom was the Danish consul- general in Hamborg, Pontoppidan, who enabled Dalgas to commence the work. Also, the government was induced to give a subsidy, which at first was small, but which in the following years was in- creased and was supplemented by in- creasing private subscriptions. The first technical difficulty to be solved was that of finding a tree which would grow under the adverse condi- tions existing on the sand dunes and on the heath, and it was found that the mountain fir from Central Europe (Pinus montana) served the purpose better than any other tree. This tree would, in fact, thrive in spite of winds and drought, wet or cold, and would kill the heather by spreading close over the ground. Spruce, if planted alone, would generally reach a certain devel- opment, but then stagnation might set in and continue for many years; only in some spots would the trees grow up, where they appeared as hillocks or isl- ands above the average growth of stunted and undeveloped trees. The cause of this irregularity in the growth of spruce was sought in local conditions of the soil, but in many such cases the most scientific research has not revealed any difference in the phys- ical or chemical composition of the soil, and it is now generally considered that the cause is biological. The next great step in the develop- ment was the discovery of the remark- able fact that the mountain fir acted as a nurse to spruce trees planted in its vicinity. In the same localities where spruce, 1f planted alone, would remain AMERICAN FORESTRY stagnant at an early age, it would, if planted close to a mountain fir, grow up vigorously; and on the basis of this discovery a new system of planting was introduced, by which the mountain fir and the spruce were mixed, one moun- tain fir for each one, two, or more spruce trees, according to the quality On rihessouy After some years ol “experience at was, however, found that the mountain fir, which had been an excellent nurse during the early years of the, life of the spruce, would hamper their growth and cause them to stagnate when they were at the age of about ten years; while the mountain fir would grow up and overshadow the spruce. “Now fol- lowed the next important step in the development, when it was discovered that even if the mountain fir was cut down at an early age, the vitality which it had given to the adjacent spruce trees would remain in effect, and these would continue to grow thereafter as well as if they had been planted in good soil. This remarkable discovery was made by Colonel Dalgas’s son, Christian Dal- gas, who is a forester in the service of the Heath Society, and one of its lead- ing men, and who has devoted his life to the continuation of the great work commenced by his father. The influence of the mountain fir on the spruce was for a long time denied by many men of science. The phenom- enon is not clearly understood, but va- rious theories have been propounded, the most plausible of which seems to be that the roots of the mountain fir are inhabited by some microscopic par- asite, which produces the nitrogen nec- essary for the growth of the trees, and that this organism is transferred to the roots of the surrounding spruce trees. Once this infection or transfer has taken place, the presence of the moun- tain fir is no longer necessary, and is, in fact, rather pernicious after the trees have reached a certain age. Hence, by the latest method of plant- ing, mountain fir and spruce alternate, so that one mountain fir is planted for each one or two spruce trees, and at.an early age the fir, when it has done its Planted spruce, with fir nurse trees removed Planted spruce overtopped by fir nurse trees 528 work of starting the spruce, is cut down. The material obtained by cutting down the young fir is used as fence sticks, or it is utilized for burning charcoal and for making tar. The spruces mostly used are white spruce (Picea alba) and red spruce (Picea excelsa). The former, which comes from North America, is particu- larly well suited for use in those parts of the plantations most exposed to the wind; in fact, it seems to stand the wind better than any cther tree. \Vhite spruce is therefore used in conjunction with mountain fir to form the first shel- tering windbrake, and behind such belts the red spruce is planted together with the mountain fir. The mountain fir mostly used is Pinus montana uncinata. In the shelter of and surrounded by the forests, deciduous trees are planted and potatoes and other crops are raised. Live fences of fir and spruce are planted about 120 yards apart, running north and south, so as to provide shelter against the prevailing westerly winds. The soil is ploughed and treated with the proper fertilizers. In this way ex- cellent and profitable results have been attained even in the poorest soil. Not only has the presence of the forests made the climatic conditions more fa- vorable for agriculture, but the entire character of the country has changed. In the large forests deer are found in abundance, and wood pigeons, ducks, and many other wild birds have set- tled in them. The activity of the Heath Society is also directed toward the planting of the sand dunes which cover large areas along the coasts of Jutland ; great works of irrigation and drainage are under- taken and the numerous and extensive bogs have been brought under cultiva- tion. A chalky clay called “mergel,”’ which is found in spots all over the peninsula, is spread over the bog, the water is drained off, and the soil so prepared, with but little additional treatment, is well suited for pastures. In this way useless bogs have in a few years been transformed into the richest pastures. AMERICAN FORESTRY Already more than 100 Danish square miles (2,500 English square miles), er about one-seventh of the entire area of the kingdom, has one way or the other been reclaimed since the Heath Society commenced its work, and in one more generation the heath will probably have entirely disappeared. A movement is in fact already on foot to preserve a cer- tain part of the heath as a sample of what has been for centuries a charac- teristic feature of the country. The growing interest for this cause is evidenced by the increasing means placed at the disposal of the society. The subvention of the government has now reached an amount of $130,000 a year, and about an equal amount is de- rived from private donations. The peasants and farmers are intensely in- terested in this cause, and most farms, even in the poorest part of the country, are now surrounded by trees. Often larger groups of trees or small woods have been planted by the peasants or farmers and are regarded by them as their dearest treasure. At a very moderate expense, land can be bought on the heath through the Heath Society, which at a very cheap rate undertakes planting the trees and their care, including the cutting down in due time of the mountain fir. Large purchases of land have been made by private people in this way, chiefly on patriotic grounds, but in course of time this land and the forests which are planted on it are likely to acquire considerable value, for with the growth of the forests and the increased cultivation of the soil, the density of the population increases rapidly, and the means of transportation are steadily im- proved. A town like Herning, which lies in thesmiddle of the heath district, and which in 1866 had but forty inhab- itants, now has 5,000 inhabitants. Some years ago a caterpillar (Lo- phyrus pint) appeared, and made great devastations in the plantations. Many people predicted the entire destruction of all the fir and spruce plantations; but the Heath Society did not lose cour- age, and proceeded to fight the pest. Soon a parasite was found, a wasp REFORESTATION OF DENMARK 52 which laid its eggs in the caterpillar, and after nine years the pest almost disappeared. The experiences and discoveries of the Heath Society have been made fruit- ful also on the Danish Islands, and have been applied in neighboring countries ; in fact, Germans, Swedes, Norwegians, and Finns have all studied and applied the methods developed by the society. An interesting experiment has been made in connection with this work by employing. in the cultivation of the heath prisoners from the state peniten- tiary for hard labor. About ten years ago, during the summer, a small num- ber of prisoners were taken out to an isolated part of the heath in the middle of Jutland, at a placed called Gedhus, and were there employed in all the va- rious work connected with the prep- aration of the soil and the planting of the trees, under the supervision of two prison officials. Difficulties of various kinds had been anticipated, and many people were strongly opposed to the ex- periment, but it proved a complete suc- cess. Every year an increasing number of prisoners has been employed on the heath. The behavior of the prisoners has been perfect; they have enjoyed their work, the relative freedom and and they tae elite tin=.the: open «ai. have had, the: ereat satisfaction o Secinom the tesuits .Orsetheir wor growing from year to year. Work o the heath has, in fact, always been con sidered by the prisoners a great privi lege, and is granted only to those wh stand highest in point of behavior There are now some forty or fifty pris oners employed every summer on th heath, and a considerable amount c work has already been done this way. The foregoing brief and imperfec sketch is a summary of the informe tion and impressions obtained by th author during a visit to the Jutlan heath and its plantations last summer it is written for the purpose of draw ing the attention of people in the Unite States to the work done and the methoc applied in a country which has alread gone through all the phases ; abundance of primeval forests, deforestation, an the preservation and planting of forest The United States stands at preset in the midst of the second stage, the d forestation, which is proceeding at a alarming rate; it may, therefore, | well for people of this country to tur their eyes to Denmark, where, at an rate, the natural difficulties to be ove! come in point of climate and quality « soil far exceed those confronting tl forester in the United States. VIMLSAV 'LSUVM SHL a rae x THE KARST: REFORESTED WITH AUSTRIAN PINE WHAT: THE-KARST -PICTURES ‘TELE EVEN hundred years ago the police regulations of Triest forbade, un- der strict penalties, the felling or trimming of trees, the setting of fires, and the herding of stock in the country round about. Fifty years ago there was no forest on the land concerning which these regulations had been issued; no pasture; nothing to burn, even if the setting of fires had been attempted. In the interim the place had been laid waste. The regulations had been forgotten, su- perseded, or disobeyed, and the region known as the Karst, consisting of bar- ren limestone without useful vegetative cover of any sort, presented a land prob- lem which staggered the economist: Some 600,000 acres of profitless barren were all that was left where for age productive forests of conifers and hard woods had once supplied ship timber and other wood for the use of the Vene tians. To-day, by forest planting, sup plemented by protective measures wher the ruin was less complete, about 400,09 acres of this waste have once more beet brought into productive condition. In direct benefits also have accompanied th restoration of the forest. Amelioration of the local climate has made possibl the successful pursuit of agriculture o1 the adjacent tillable soils. THE STORY OF MANTI A Study in Cause and Effect By WILL C, BARNES pioneers established themselves in their city on the shores of the Great Salt Lake, when their leaders began pushing out exploring parties, with a view to spying out the land about them and locating smaller col- onies of saints. wherever the conditions seemed satisfactory. With them, possession was the neces- sary nine points, and they could say to new comers not of their faith: “It’s ours. We saw it first; please keep off the grass.” Eventually, the farsightedness of those men who were then at the head of the Mormon church was fully justi- fied. By the time the rest of the west awoke to the fact that Utah was some- thing besides a desert of sage and al- kali, these industrious people had prac- tically covered every available location in the state and, incidentally, had flowed over into a goodly slice of Idaho and northern Arizona. Like the old Spanish conquistadores, these churchly pioneers carried in one hand the insignia of their faith, but in the other, instead of the sword, they held the irrigator’s shovel—a much more peaceful and civilizing weapon. Down in the Wasatch Mountains in southern Utah, a small exploring band of these disciples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints found a lovely valley, lying close under the great mountain range, where a rollicky little stream came dancing out of the hills. Wherever those Mormons found land and water lying in close proximity one to the other, there they located a colony and proceeded to wed these two re- sources, whose offspring are homes and prosperity. c¢290 ieee had the early Mormon The arable land lay right at the mouth of a great canyon, which wormed its way back into the dark forest-covered sides of the mountain. Here they laid out a town, broad as to streets, the lots measured by acres instead of feet, and in the center a “‘stake’’ house, such as all well regulated Mormon communi- ties build almost the first thing. They named the place “Manti’” in honor of one of the ancient cities men- tioned in the Book of Mormon. About the town lay the land—some 6,000 acres in extent—upon which, through irrigat- ing ditches, the settlers carried the water from the creek, while beyond this was one of the best grazing areas in all the west. There seemed no limit to the grass and forage in the mountains. As they prospered, their herds swarmed over the range; they followed the snow as it melted in the warm spring sun when the ground was still wet and soft. They climbed to the very tops of the peaks with their sheep in search of feed, and there they stayed until the snows drove them out in the fall into the win- ter ranges. Other herds than those belonging to Manti were driven from distant points to summer in these splendid pastures, and the stockmen were soon fighting for the ranges like wolves about a car- cass. The feed was eaten off by their hungry animals as fast as it grew, until the whole area was swept bare of all its former cover of grass, weeds, and brush, as if a fire had passed over it. Finally, the Wasatch Mountains were but a “bed ground” for the stockmen’s herds. This was the condition when, in 1903, the government agents went into that region for the purpose of seeing what MANTI, UTAH A street after the flood of August 29, 1901 could be done to protect the forests in the mountains from fire and spoliation. For several years previous to their coming, the little city of Manti had been devastated by floods that came rolling down the canyon from the mountains about them. These floods swept away whole farms, spread sand and silt over acres of fine farming lands, and de- posited in the streets great masses of rocks and boulders. Families -were ruined, and the value of property greatly depreciated. Many, believing the city doomed, moved away. The citizens fought these floods to the best of their ability and built huge dykes above the city in hopes they would turn the waters and keep them in the bed of the stream. But all their work was in vain, for the dykes were swept away as are the sand forts built by the children on the seashore. Then they set about remedy- ing the matter by looking for the cause of the floods. It was not a question of timber cutting, for while some timber had been cut from about the heads of the canyons, not enough had been taken to account for the floods. The older settlers knew that whe they first came to Manti, the hills ar mountains round about were .covere with a dense growth of grass, weed and shrubbery. Added to this there w: a deep cover of humus, composed fc the most part of decayed leaves, pit needles, and such matter. Into th cover the snows of winter and the rai of summer had soaked, to find the way, slowly and without erosive actio to the valleys below. Then came the herds of sheep ar cattle, and the hills were swept. bar The snow and rain fell upon a sc trampled by the stock until it was packe so hard that the water ran off it | from a roof. The ground cover, whic once held the waters, was gone. At what the stock didn’t do to make th destruction complete the fires did. Then followed the floods. very one agreed as to the cause; tl remedy was simple. They asked tl government to set aside the mountai about them for a national forest an when that was done, to prohibit tl grazing of all stock upon the Mar watershed. 534 This was carried out, and the results were marvelous. The grasses soon came back; the weeds and underbrush again covered the ground, and, as fires were kept out, the barren, over-grazed areas began to resume their original appearance. The falling leaves and other decaying vegetation once more began to cover the bare ground, with its soft, spongelike humus, and Dame Nature has done her best to erase the scars due to man’s stupidity and _ short- sightedness. The floods, too, began to be less fre- quent and less severe, and for the last three years the little city of Manti has almost forgotten that there ever were any troubles over floods. During the month of August, 1909, there was an unusual amount of rain- fall in the area covered by the Manti forest. This was uniform all over the region, and from each canyon on the eastern slope of the range came heavy floods. On the western slopes the same con- ditions prevailed and damaging floods swept down every canyon but that of Manti. . The floods in the Ephraim Canyon, which lies immediately north of the Manti Canyon, did a great amount of damage to the little city of Ephraim, covering its fields and the streets of the town with a heavy deposit of mud, rocks, and driftwood. All these canyons on both sides of the range head in ap- proximately the same region; all re- ceived apparently an equal amount of rainfall; yet the Manti Canyon alone was free from damaging floods. AMERICAN FORESTRY The settlers living in the flooded re- gions are unanimous as to the reasons why they suffer from these annual flood troubles, whereas the Manti people do not, and they are now asking for simi- lar protection to their watershed. Then some stockmen from another section, seeing the feed on this water- shed uneaten and, in their greedy eyes, going to waste, coveted it. They ap- pealed to the Forester to allow them to vraze their stock upon the proscribed area. This appal was as a trumpet call to the men of Manti. Almost as one, they begged the government not to allow any grazing upon their watershed. They pointed to the old conditions which ex- isted before the mountains were set aside as a forest, and then to the present conditions, as full justification for the restriction. They urged that the pros- perity of their community of more than 3,000 people was of far more value to the state of Utah than was the feed which the stockmen desired. Nor did their pleading fall upon deaf ears. The request of the stockmen was refused. And, doubtless, just as long as the safety of the Manti fields depend upon the protection of these hills, so long will all stock be denied the privi- lege of grazing over them. There are some who affect to scoff at*these’ facts, but: if they; avill go “to Manti and study them they will find it hard work to convince those Manti farmers that the removal of the pro- tective soil cover on their watershed had nothing whatever to do with the floods. KNOWN BY THEIR FRUITS The Ninth Annual Meeting of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests By EDWIN A. START accomplished more in forestry than has New Hampshire in the last two years. A short time ago the Granite state was very backward for one with such extensive forest interests, but now it has taken a place in the front rank. This gave especial interest to the ninth annual meeting of the So- ciety for the Protection of New Hamp- shire Forests, for it is largely through the unselfish and untiring efforts of this organization that the good results have been brought about. The meeting was held on the 2d and 3d of August, in the Mount Washing- ton at Bretton Woods, in the heart of the White Mountains, and among those present were many men prominent in New Hampshire affairs, and many mem- bers of the society from outside the state, for this organization draws much of its support from other states, so widespread and strong is the love of the New Hamp- shire hills and the forests that clothe them. An interesting phase of the new order is the close cooperation between the so- ciety and the forestry commission of the state. The personal and selfish politics which for many years interfered with the efficiency of the commission have been done away with, and that body has become a clean-handed, clear-headed, vi- tal force in developing the great forest interests of the state. At present it is headed by Robert P. Bass, of Peter- borough, who has been an active agent in the work of reorganization from its beginning. As a member of the last N° STATE in so short a time has state senate, he did great service securing the legislation which has pi New Hampshire on its feet. He is no a prominent candidate for the Repul lican nomination for governor. La January he was made a director of tl American Forestry Association. Wit him are associated W. R. Brown, « Berlin, who represents one of the large lumber interests of the state, and Ge iE. Lollesor Nashua: An indication of the new harmony b tween the commission and the societ was to be found in the program for tl first session of the Bretton Woods mee ing. This was a meeting of town fore fire wardens of New Hampshire, unde the auspices of the state forestry con mission, Hon. Robert P. Bass presi: ing. Several of the wardens attende all sections of the state being repr sented, and there was a live and intell gent discussion of methods of fightin forest fires and of the legal responsibil ties of the wardens. F. W. Rane, stat forester of Massachusetts, and C. | Pettis, superintendent of state fores of New York, contributed to the di cussion accounts of the fire laws an their administration in their states. The second session, Tuesday evening at which Hon. Frank W. Rollins, pres dent of the society, presided, opene with an illustrated lecture by C. I Pettis on forest planting. Mr. Pettis i his service for the state of New Yorl has probably done more actual fore: planting than any other forester in th country, so that his description of th: work and its conditions was of espe 535 536 cial value and interest. After the lec- ture there were speeches by Governor Henry B. Quimby, Senator Henry E. Burnham, and ex-Senator W. E. Chand- ler: Wednesday morning there was a talk by the state forester of New Hampshire, Edgar C. Hirst, which was really a re- port of progress. Its main features are therefore especially well worth summar- izing here. The new forestry law of the state provides for a forestry com- mission and for a state forester, whose duty it is, under the direction of the commission, to have charge of all forest fire wardens in the state, and to aid and diree themiin their duties. Tle is also to give educational lectures throughout the state, and, whenever he deems it es- sential to the best interests of the state, to cooperate with counties, towns, cor- porations, and individuals in preparing plans for the protection and extension of the forests. It provides for the ap- pointment of a forest fire warden in each town, whose duty it is to extinguish fires when they occur, in doing which he may require the assistance of persons and the use of property. The expense of fire fighting is then shared equally by,.the.town and the state. It is the warden’s duty also to keep the town posted with fire notices and persons de- siring to burn brush must in times of drought first obtain the warden’s per- mission. Further provisions of the law prohibit the careless setting of fires and provide penalties for violations. By the enactment of this law, which took effect May 1, 1909, the state of New Hampshire made a long forward step in its forest policy. Under this law, the forestry commission has en- deavored to get the best results with the funds appropriated, and has been able to increase the scope of its work by co- operating with private individuals in- terested in forest preservation. On July 1, 1909, a state forester was appointed and the first work begun was the appointment of forest fire wardens. Tt soon became evident that this would require considerable time, and, as fires were occurring in different parts of the AMBRIGAN PORESTRY state, the wardens who had held office under the old law were asked to hold over until new appointments could be made. In this way other lines of work could be pursued and better men were secured as wardens than if the appoint- ments had been made with undue haste. This method has been fully justified by the results. The state has a corps of wardens who are experienced fire fight- ers, interested in their work and prompt to act. They have posted about 10,000 cloth fire notices, have notified owners of portable sawmills about the use of spark arresters, and have prevented many fires by warning persons about the danger of burning brush in dry weather. In general, the law has worked well, and with a few minor changes will be a very effective law for the southern and central parts of the state. The commission realizes that this sys- tem is not adequate to protect the wild mountain forest,and there is not enough appropriated by the state for this pur- pose. However, contributions from pri- vate parties have permitted the build- ing of several mountain lookout stations, to be connected by telephone and used for fire patrol. Also several mountains are used where telephone lines have al- ready been built. The mountains being used are: Magalloway, south of the Connecticut lakes; Signal Mountain, in Millsfield; Black Mountain, in Cam- bridge ; Sugar Loaf, in Stratford; Pine Mountain, in Gorham; Mount Madison : Mount Agassiz; Mount Moosilauke ; Mount Rosebrook; Mount Osceola; Mount Kearsarge; Mount Carrigain; Croydon Mountain. The value of these stations has already been proved by the quick discovery and extinguishing of fires that otherwise might have caused considerable damage aind expense. Seven more stations, or twenty in all, would cover about all the wild land and make a very effective fire protection system for the mountain region. Beside the administration of the fire law, and the work of cooperative pro- tection, the forestry commission has been aiding private owners in the prac- tice of forestry. Numerous applications \ KNOWN BY THEIR FRUITS 537 have been received for assistance and advice in handling woodland, but the forester has been able to visit only a few of the applicants. In some cases, a preliminary examination has been made and further investigations, plans for cut- ting, planting, and so on, have been car- ried out under the direction of the for- ester by a woodsman paid by the land owners. As many applications were received from persons desiring to plant pines, an agreement was made with a nursery- man to furnish two-year-old seedlings at three to four dollars per thousand, according to the number purchased. The commission and the forester have started a private nursery in order to have thrifty transplanted stock on hand for those who wish to make a beginning in forest planting. It is hoped that an appropriation may be secured for a state nursery, so that this work may be largely extended. Educational work has also been a feature of the commission’s activities. During the past year the forester has made some thirty addresses and talks before boards of trade, granges, and va- rious organizations. He also gave a course of lectures at the State College on the practicability of forestry in the pine, hardwood, and spruce lands of the state. Mr. Hirst pointed out the following immediate needs, most of which require some legislative action: 1. Forest Organization Districts —The state should be divided into four or five districts, according to watersheds, and a chief ap- pointed for each district. Under this chief an efficient fire service could be built up, with firewardens, deputies, patrolmen, and so on. 2p Lookout Stations.—Stations already es- tablished should be taken over by the state, and enough more established to cover all the wild land. Good maps should be made to supplement the lookout work, and_ these should show all topographic features and the trails, logging roads,and all natural fire bar- riers, also the location of storehouses contain ing fire-fighting tools and provisions. 3. Railroad Fires—The railroads should use oil-burning engines in dry seasons, or should use spark-arresters approved by the forestry commission; build fire lines along the right of way, and maintain patrols when the commission thinks it necessary. At pres- ent, there is no law requiring even the use of a spark-arrester. 4. Brush Disposal—There should be a law similar to that of New York, requiring the lopping of branches from the tops of soft- wood trees when logging operations are in progress. 5. Minor Changes in the Law.—(a) The dates between which brush cannot be burned without a permit should be fixed by law. (b) Provisions for the payment of fire bills should be simpler, so that both bills and reports can be acted on promptly. (c) There should be a provision whereby a hunter who is careless with fire should lose his license. 6. Stricter Enforcement of the Law.—This will come as people become accustomed to the law. Nevertheless, prosecutions against offending parties should be pushed. 7. A State Nursery.—An appropriation is needed for a nursery that can furnish espe- cially strong stock for those who are mak- ing a beginning of planting, and larger quantities of seedlings to others. 8. State Cooperation with Private Owners. —The department should be enlarged so that all who apply for assistance can get it. Some plan of state cooperation in planting cut-over and waste lands should be provided. 9. More Educational Work.—Bulletins on white pine and other profitable forestry trees should be issued as soon as there is a de- mand for such information. Bulletins should be issued to school children on various for- estry matters, especially explaining the dan- ger from the careless use of fire. Fire no- tices and fire laws should be printed in dif- ferent languages, to make the foreign popu- lation more careful about fire. Exhibits at fairs should be made often, and the lecture work of the department should be extended. 10. State Forests—The state should at once begin the purchase of small demonstra tion forests, and later should acquire some revenue forests. Following Mr. Hirst’s presentation of the work and needs of the state for- est service, the reports of the treasurer of the society, Gen. George 1. Cruft, and of the forester were presented. The former showed a successful year finan- cially and indicated the growing strength of the society. A great deal of this was due, it was pointed out, to the work of the chairman of the finance committee, Montgomery Rollins. The forester, Philip W. Ayres, reviewed the work of the society for the year, and especially what had been done and had failed to be done in connection with the Ap- palachian forests bill. The Senate fili- buster was examined, with especial ref- erence to the peculiarly malevolent at- 538 titude of Senator Burton of Ohio, and Mr. Ayres expressed himself somewhat pessimistically in regard to the pros- pect of the passage of the bill by the present Congress. Addresses by the Hon. Frank D. Cur- rier of New Hampshire and the Hon. Pee ekensr Ou Massachusetts dealt in detail with the same subject. Mr. Cur- rier showed himself as graphic a mar- rator as he is a skilled parliamentarian, and his story of the strenuous fight for the Weeks bill in the House held the close attention of an interested audience and put his hearers in possession of all the essential facts. He was confident that the bill would pass the Senate in February, 1f not at an earlier date. Ed- win A. Start, secretary of the American I‘orestry Association, who was called upon later, suggested the danger of the bill being thrown into ‘conference by Senate amendments, and Mr. Currier, replying to a question by Mr. Start, ex- pressed his belief, unqualifiedly, that the friends of the measure in the Senate would vote down all amendments and pass the bill as it came from the House. Ex-Governor Jordan and ex-Senator Chandler were among other speakers at this session. Mr. Jordan brought out the interesting fact that John W. Weeks, the grandfather of Representative John W. Weeks of Massachusetts, the author of the Weeks bill, who represented New Hampshire in the national House of Representatives, assisted, ninety years ago, in naming the peaks of the Presi- dential range. The ex-governor advo- cated more care by the state of its own forest lands and less dependence upon national action. Mr. Start emphasized this plea and pointed out the need of the development of American forestry through national, municipal, state, and private action, so correlated and com- bined as to secure the complete utiliza- tion of our forest lands for the fullest continuous production, the national for- ests forming the nucleus, to be com- pleted and rounded out by the state, the municipality, and the private owner. There was an interesting discussion of forest taxation, led by Allen Hollis, AMERICAN FORESTRY secretary of the society, who has given this’ subject muchoattention: 1 = Doar Rogers, who has charge of the gypsy and brow n-tail moth work for the United States Department of Agriculture, gave a talk on the invasion of the state by these pests, which aroused much inter- est, as was shown by the rapid fire of questions to which Mr. Rogers was sub- jected. He held out no hope of entire freedom from this danger, and said most emphatically that the state must adopt a more energetic and liberal pol- icy.,’ Ele said that conditions as to gyp- sies are bad in the eastern part of the state and threaten to be worse in other parts. The state cannot appropriate enough money to solve the problem. So far as possible, each town should hire a competent man to superintend the work of control. In the last analysis, it is up to the property owner. Above all, this state needs a man to head the fight who knows the gypsy from A to Z, and who can instruct town officers and prop- erty owners. He considered the moun- tainous northern section of the state as beyond the range of the moths, although he did not regard this as conclusively proved. Wednesday evening, Austin F. Hawes, state forester of Vermont, gave a sound and suggestive paper on state and town forests. This paper will appear later in AMERICAN FORESTRY. The society reelected its officers, all of whom have done efficient and devoted service: President, Frank W. Rollins; secretary, Allen Hollis ;treasurer, George T. Cruft ; county vice-presidents, James Ae Tatts, Walliame > Gibbs, *thesikxey: Daniel Merriman, Charles E. -Tilton, Willianvet. aiske, Isaac iuses 3a, al. Ghildshrank “EL~ Fosters Ieanrence ae Webster, W. C. R. Hale; vice-presidents at large, Herbert Myrick, Henry S. Graves, John D. Quackenbos, Allen Chamberlain, Henry James, Jr., Orton B. Brown, Brank G; Webster,: -Ber- tram Pike, John S. Runnells, George H. Maxwell: executive committee, Frank W. Rollins, Allen Hollis, George T. Cruft, Robert P. Bass, Montgomery PHILIPPINE FORESTRY Rollins, Robert E. Faulkner, Winston Churchill. Resolutions were adopted authorizing the executive officers to accept gifts of forest lands to the society, if provision be made for the attendant expenses ; pro~ viding for a committee of two to con- sult with railroad officials concerning methods of avoiding forest fires; ex- pressing the thanks of the society to the New Hampshire delegation in Con- gress for their efforts in behalf of the Weeks bill and expressing hopes for its success; requesting President Taft to urge upon Congress early action upon the Weeks bill; authorizing a commit- tee of three to meet individuals and rep- resentatives of corporations to plan bet- ter cooperation in forestry matters. 539 This was the first meeting of the so- ciety since its incorporation, which is in itself an act of some significance, since the society was incorporated to enable it to become the custodian of forest lands. Residents of the Lake Sunapee country have been exerting themselves to prevent the stripping of a tract of several hundred acres on Sunapee Mountain. Their efforts are about to be crowned with success, and the land when acquired will be placed in the hands of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests. Thus the work of the society will acquire a new value, and it will have an opportunity to put into practice the principles it has advocated. THE PHILIPPINE BUREAU OF FORESTRY AND ITS WORK Prepared under the Direction of George P, Ahern, Director of Forestry, by W. D. Sterrett, Forester, Bureau of Forestry [In the February and March numbers of AMERICAN Forestry, Barrington Moore dis- cussed the conditions and problems of forestry m the Philippines. The present article, prepared several months ago for this magazine, is a statement of conditions from the men who are facing these problems.] PURPOSES FOR WHICH CREATED, AND POWERS trusted with the control and man- agement of all public forest land, and no public land of any kind can pass into private hands without the sanction of this bureau. The follow- ing? sections on , Che Forest Act’ of May 7, 1904, will serve to show in a general way the purposes for which the Bureau of Forestry was established, and its powers: “Sec. 2. The public forests and forest reserves of the Philippine Islands shall be held and administered for the pro- 4 : Loi Berean ot Forestry” 1s) ain- tection of the public interests, the utility and safety of the forests and the per- petuation thereof in productive condi- tion by wise use; and it is the purpose of this act to provide for the same. “Sec. 3. The public forests shall in- clude all unreserved public lands cov- ered with trees of whatever age. “Sec. 4. Upon the recommendation of the Chief of the Bureau of For- estry, with the approval of the Secre- tary of the Interior, the civil governor may set apart forest reserves from the public lands, and he shall by proclama- tion declare the establishment of such reserves and the boundaries thereof, 540 AMERICAN and thereafter such forest reserves shall not be entered, sold, or otherwise dis- posed of, but shall remain as such for forest uses. “Sec. 5. The public forests and forest reserves and the timber, firewood, gums, and other products thereof, shall not be sold, entered, leased, or otherwise dis- posed of except as herein provided. “sec. 8. he Chict ofsthe Bureau of Forestry, with the approval of the Sec- retary of the Interior, shall prescribe such regulations not inconsistent with the provisions of this act as may be expedient or necessary for the protec- tion, management, reproduction, occu- pancy, and use of the public forests and forest reserves, and the said chief, with the approval of the Secretary of the In- terior, is hereby authorized to alter and revise such regulations. He shall in particular provide for the use of the public forests and forest reserves in such manner as to insure for the fu- ture a continued supply of valuable timber and other forest products. Poec.910.) he iC hier jot tne manceat of Forestry, with the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, may select for sale or disposal, and may sell or dispose of by license, from the public forests and forest reserves, at rates of charge to be established by him in ac- cordance with the provisions of sec- tions 11 and 12 of this act, any timber, firewood for commercial use, gums, resins, and other forest products, whose removal will not be detrimental to the public forests or forest reserves or to the interests which depend upon them. oec, 207) Lhe ‘Chief sot the spunea of Forestry, with the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, may, when the public interests so require, make requisition upon the bureau charged with public surveys, to proceed to de- marcate, establish on the ground, and erect monuments along the boundaries of any public forest or forest reserves, and it shall be the duty of the last- named bureau to comply with said requisition. “Sec. 23. Every official, employee, or agent of the Bureau of Forestry is em- powered to make arrests without process FORESTRY in or upon the public forests or forest reserves, or territory adjacent thereto, of any person who is committing or at- tempting to commit any violation of this act or the regulations established thereunder, and it shall be the duties of governors of provinces, the Philip- pine Constabulary, and of municipal presidents to assist in making the ar- rests prescribed in this section when called upon to do so. “Sec. 25. The cutting, clearing, or destroying of the public forests or forest reserves, or any part thereof, for the purpose of making caifgins,* without lawful authority, is hereby prohibited, and whoever, in violation of this pro- vision, shall cut, clear, or destroy the same, for such purpose, or shall wil- fully or negligently set fire thereto, shall, upon conviction by a court of competent jurisdiction, be punished by a fine not exceeding a sum equivalent to twice the regular government charge upon the timber so cut, cleared, or de- stroyed, and, in addition thereto, by imprisonment not exceeding thirty days, in the discretion of the court. “The cutting, collecting, destroying, or removing of timber or other forest products, stone, or earth from the pub- lic forests or forest reserves for any other purpose than making a caifigin, without license, permit, or other suffi- cient authority, is hereby prohibited, and any person who, in violation of this provision, shall so cut, collect, de- stroy, or remove the same, by himself, through an agent or employee, or for account of another, shall, in addition to the payment of the regular govern- ment charge on such timber, forest products, stone, or earth, be subject to the payment of an additional sum equiv- alent to the regular government charge thereon, which shall be collected as in this act provided in the case of other government charges.” The Public Land Act provides that no application for homestead, sale, or lease of public land will be granted un- *Caifigins are a system of shifting cultiva- tion extremely destructive to the forests. See AMERICAN Forestry for March, 1910, p. 78. PHIAIPPINE FORESTRY less it is certified by the Bureau of Forestry that the land is “more valu- able for agriculture than for forest uses.” The laws contained in the Forest Act are all that could be asked for as a basis upon which to build up a proper system of forest conservation for the Philip- pines. All that is needed is more money and trained forest experts to carry on the work. PRESENT WORK OF THE BUREAU The work of the Bureau of Forestry is carried on under two divisions—that of administration and that of investiga- tion. The work of the division of admin- istration includes: Granting and inspec- tion of timber licenses, including cut- ting regulations to perpetuate the for- est; patrol against caifigins and tres- pass; fines for violations of the Forest Act; inspection of public land applied for to be leased, bought, or home- steaded ; working plans for large lum- her concessions in cooperation with di- vision of investigation. For carrying out the above lines of work, the islands are divided into three administrative districts, with a trained American for- ester in charge of each, assisted, by a number of Filipino rangers. The for- ester is continuously on the move, and even then is barely able to cover his en- tire district once within a year, and much of the work has to be done by rangers working alone. The work of the division of investi- gation includes: Mapping and land classification ; dendrological work; edu- cation and publication; silvicultural in- vestigations, and working plans. The division is mapping the different classes of land, or broad vegetative types. It has already completed Luzon and Mindoro, the maps showing roughly the location of the foilowing classes of land: Commercial forest, non-commer- cial forest, grass land, and land under cultivation. These maps furnish the basis for determining what areas should be permanently held in public forests or forest reserves and so managed as 541 to secure a continuous timber supply, the protection of watersheds, and a rev- enue for the insular government. The dendrological work includes the botanical identification of tree species, and technological study of the struc- ture, characteristics, and quantity of the woods of different species. This work is carried on in cooperation with the Bureau of Science. The work in- cludes, also, timber testing and dura- bility tests, wood preservatives, and uses and market value of the different kinds of woods. A museum of speci- mens of Philippine woods has been es- tablished, and the public has access to the information relative to Philippine woods collected by the division of in- vestigation. Education and propaganda work in forestry is under this division, includ- ing publication of results of forest in- vestigations and forestry work. The aim is to educate the people to the im- portance of forest conservation ; to keep the people informed concerning the ac- tual work in forestry of the bureau, and its results, and to indicate chances for profitable exploitation of Philippine for- est resources. This is done through publications of the bureau, by news- paper and magazine articles, and by il- lustrated lectures. The Bureau of For- estry must have the hearty support of all patriotic Filipinos, and hence the im- portance of this propaganda work. The silvicultural investigation work includes studies of natural and artifi- cial reproduction, especially of important species; forest types or associations of tree species in the forest ;rate of growth and form of different species, with mill- scale work to determine how much lum- ber trees of different sizes and species will cut. Working plans, or plans of manage- ment for areas of public forests which should be permanently held in forest, are prepared by the division of investi- gation in cooperation with administra- tion. The work of the former fur- nishes the basis for proper forest man- agement of public forests by the latter division—it investigates, collects infor- 542 mation, and organizes the work to be subsequently carried on by the division of administration. WORK OF THE BUREAU FOR THE COMING YEAR Commencing with July, 1909, the work of both divisions of the bureau will be concentrated upon the organiza- tion of systematic forest control for areas in northern Negros Occidental and in Bataan. General administrative work will be attempted for the first homesteads, for the three districts will continue as before, but detailed forest work will be attempted for the first time on the two areas mentioned. The plan is to take additional areas each year for organization and subsequent practice of detailed forest control and management, until all public forest, which should be retained as such, is taken in hand. The work in Bataan and Negros will form the commence- ment of this work. Up to the present the administrative work by the Bureau of Forestry on public forest land has been of a very general character, but the bureau has been investigating and locating areas for future intensive ad- ministration—areas which the general welfare of the Filipino race demands should be permanently held in public forests, managed in accordance with the principles of forestry. During the lat- ter half of the fiscal year the division of investigation will resume the work of mapping the different classes of land and will probably complete the land classification map for the Philippines. The limits of the Negros and Bataan forests have been very roughly located ; there are probably about 160,000 hec- tares in the former, and 80,000 in the latter. The Insular Lumber Company is located in the Negros forest, and the Cadwallader Lumber Company in the Bataan forest, which are the two largest companies in the islands, and an impor- tant part of the work will be mill-scale and volume work to check up the amount of timber cut by these com- panies. This will include, also, the col- lection data as a basis for volume tables AMERICAN FORESTRY of standing trees, showing the amount of lumber in standing trees of different diameters and species; and for tables showing the amount and grades or quality of lumber cut from logs and trees of different sizes and species and the per centage of waste due to rot, shake, and careless sawing. This information will be of value to all lumbermen in the Philippines and to those intending to go into the lumber business. The bureau by this detailed mill study will determine the most economic methods of milling Philippine timbers and will be able to make recommendations for changes in present methods which will mean a saving to the lumbermen. The chief forestry work on the Ne- gros and Bataan forests will be in the collection of data as a basis for a de- tailed working plan or plan of man- agement for the two forests, including topographic and forest maps of the same, with the probable limits of the area which should be permanently held in forest. This data will be gotten more or less in connection with the work of patrol and cutting of trails, which are also important lines of work. For the purposes of patrol, both of the forests have been divided into three range dis- tricts, with an educated Filipino ranger in charge of each, and each of these districts subdivided into a number of patrol blocks with Filipino guards to patrol them. Trails will be cut, where there are none already, as boundaries between ranger districts and _ patrol blocks, and secondary trails made cut- ting up each patrol block into a number of sub-blocks. These trails will be used for patrol and will be useful as fire lines in case of fire. Topographic and forest data will be collected for each sub-block by surveying out all trails cut, and taking careful topographic and forest notes while running out these trails. In the working plan each sub-. block will have a separate description, including the character and condition of the forest, an estimate of the timber, and recommendations as to work to be done—improvements, such as tree plant- PEP PINE RORESTRY ing, and cutting and logging regulations to perpetuate the forest in case of lum- bering. For the working plan, much informa- tion of a political and social nature will be collected: Card catalogue of all offi- cials and influential men, with remarks ; lists of licensees, and all men using the forest and on whom dependent; land status work, including location and his- tory of all claims; location of all people in the forest, including a special study of the non-christian tribes (Montescos, Negritos, etc.), It will be the policy of the Bureau of Forestry to encourage ignorant natives in becoming independ- ent farmers, cultivating homesteads of their own. These natives should be en- couraged in taking up homesteads on good land, much of which is illegally held by caciques, and not allowed to go back into the forest to make caifigins in poorer soil, where they destroy much valuable timber. In connection with the work of or- ganizing these two permanent forests, the bureau will undertake to establish communal forests for neighboring bar- rios and municipalities, on the public land most conveniently located to them, from which timber for personal use can be taken without a stumpage charge. This will check the villagers from going a great distance back into the forest to get their timber for personal use, where they do much damage to the forest. Where there is no public forest near the town, the municipality will be encour- aged to establish one by planting up public grass land and every assistance possible in the work will be given by the bureau. Experimental planting work in connection with the different munici- pal schools will be carried on by the Bureau of Forestry, cooperating with the Bureau of Education, which will be a good way to start planting of com- munal forests. The general administrative work on the Bataan and Negros forests will in- clude: Granting of licenses to cut tim- ber and other forest products, with reg- ulations as to where and what shall be taken, in order to preserve the pro- ductivity of the forest; fines for viola- 4 54: tions of licenses; fines for violation of the Forest Act and the forest regula- tions ; caingins without license stopped | inspection of homesteads; more rigid examination and requirements for the approval of the same, and the collectior of stumpage charges on forest products in cooperation with muncipal treasurers and the Bureau of Internal Revenue. At present the work of collecting stumpage charges is in the hands of the Bureau of Internal Revenue, and is done mainly through municipal treasurers. It is very difficult for these officials, not experts in timber and never getting back into the forest, to properly handle this work. The Bureau of Forestry. cooperating with the municipal treas- urers, will be able to secure for the government a much larger revenue from forest products cut in these twc forests than has been heretofore col- lected. FUTURE NEEDS OF THE BUREAU “The Bureau of Forestry has in its possession to-day the necessary infor- mation and a nucleus of the force tc start an active, efficient administration of what should be permanent forest land in the islands.”* What it will need more and more, in addition to trained Filipino foresters, will be increased ap- propriations for carrying on the work. This could be provided for by allowing sixty per cent or more of the revenue derived from forest products sold from public forests to be used, under the di- rection of the Bureau of Forestry, for the maintenance and improvement of the forests. “Tn all countries where forestry has been practiced for a long period of years. there has been a steady increase of the revenue from the forest, and this increase has been directly dependent upon the amount spent in the care and protection of these forests. In Prussia in 1850 the government annually spent "Circular No. 3, Bureau of Forestry. 544 P1.85? per hectare, and received a net revenue of P2.30 per hectare. In 1897, the same government spent P6.90 per hectare, and received a net annual rev- enue of P6.30 per hectare. This is not an isolated case, but is true for the forests of other European states. Care- ful observation during a long period of years has established the fact that there is a minimum expenditure per hectare for maintenance of forests: any- thing under this minimum means lack of proper care and a deterioration of the property; and anything in excess, up to a certain point, means improve- ment of the property, and an increase of revenue.’ With sixty per cent of the revenue from the sale of forest products, and with the constant increase of the amount this would yield, as would be the case, the Bureau of Forestry would have all the revenue needed for conserving and improving the productivity of public forests. For the first five years, how- ever, the bureau should be allowed all the revenues from the sale of forest products, to provide for the heavy ex- *These figures are in terms of Philippine Island currency. P indicates peso, which has a value of 50 to 55 cents, United States standard. 4 teat = S €,,, 1910. +( Circular, 182): Forest Protection Fire Graves, Henry S. Protection of forests from fire. 48 p., illus. Plates. Wash., 1910. (U. S. Agriculture, Dept. of For- est service. Bulletin 82). Avalanches Switzerland-Innern, Eidgendssiches depart- ment des. Statistik und verbau der lawinen in den Schweizeralpen. 126 p., illus., plates, maps. Bern, Switzerland, IOI. 615 616 AMERICAN Forest Management Judeich, Johann Friedrich. Die forstein- richtung. 6th ed., 575 p. Plate. Ber- lin, P. Parey, 1904. Forest Administration Cape of Good Hope—Forest department. Report of the chief conservator of for- ests for the year ending 31st December, 1909. 25 p. Plates. Cape Town, Gov- ernment printers, IQIO. India—Punjab—Forest department. Prog- ress report on forest administration for 1908-1909. 123 p. Lahore, India, 1909. Minnesota—Forestry commissioner. 15th annual report, for the year 1909. 154 Pp. Plates. St. Paul, 1910. National and state forests ; United States—Forest service. National forests; location, date, and area, June 30, 1910. 4 p. Washington, D. C., 1910. Forest Utilization Lumber industry United States—Forest service. Record of wholesale prices of lumber based on act- ual sales made f. o. b. mill for April, May and June, 1910. 13 p. Washing- ‘eon, ID, (C5 WOKoy Periodical Articles General Botanical gazette, August, 1910.—The origin of ray tracheids in the Conifere, by W. P. Thomson, p. 101-16; on the rela- tionship between the length of the pod and fertility and fecundity in Cercis, by) J. -A., Harris, ps 117-27; Oxidizine enzymes and theif relation to “sap stain” in lumber, by I. W. Bailey, p. 147-7; A modification of a Jung-Thoma sliding microtome for cutting wood, by R. B. Thomson, p. 148-9. Country life in America, September, 1910— At the streams source; a first-hand study of the results of deforestation, by E. A. Mills, p. 519-23; The abandoned farm in New Hampshire, by F. W. Rol- lins, p. 531-4. Greater Colorado magazine, August, I910O— Estes park ideal for national preserve. by A. W. Sowers, p. 3-4; Tells of visits through Colorado, by Henry S. Graves, Pp. 33-5; Work of the Forest Service in Colorado, p. 35-40. Munsey’s magazine, September, 1910.—The passing of the chestnut trees, by Millard, p. 758-65. PORES TRY North American review, August, 1910.— Shall the nation take thought for the morrow? by F. P. Elliott, p. 209-16. Sierra club bulletin, June, 1910—The prop- posed Estes national park, by Enos A. Mills, p. 234-6. Trade journals and consular reports American lumberman, Sept. 10, 1910.— Safe-guarding the resources of the na- tion; annual meeting of the National Conservation congress at St. Paul, Minn., p. 43-48; Conservation of natural resources a trust of the nation, govern- ment and people, by H. S. Graves, p. 49-50; Conservation, its purposes and its application to the country’s national re- sources, by J. B. White, p. 50; Rational system of taxation of natural resources, by FE. L. McVey, ‘ps5t: Canada lumberman, August 1, 1910.—Log- ging machinery in Canadian woods, p. 24-6. Canada lumberman, August 15, 1910.—The timber industry in Nova Scotia, p. 22, Uses of sawdust flour, p. 33. Canada lumberman, Sept. 1, 1910.—Logging operations in Ontario camps, p. 22-4; Howard process of vulcanizing lumber, p. 26-7. Engineering news, Aug. 11, 1910.—Other elements than forestation which effect stream flow, by H. C. Lee, p. 155-6. Hardwood record, August 25, 1910.—Utili- zation of hardwoods; baseball bats, p. 83-4. Hardwood record, September 10, 1910.— Utilization of hardwoods; caskets, p. 32-3; The compound hub, p. 33-4. Lumber trade journal, Aug. 15, 1910.—Pos- sibilities of cut-over yellow pine lands of the south, by R. von Bergen, p. 19-20. Mississippi Valley lumberman, ‘Sept. 2, 1910.—Merits of wood pavements, by G. Winslow, p. 35-6. Municipal journal and engineer, Aug. I0. 1910.—Creosote for wood blocks, p. 187-8. Pioneer western lumberman, Sept. I, 1910.— Logging in the national forests, by F. E. Ames, p. 27-9; Fire prevention in the woods, by D. P. Simons, p. 31-3; Topo- graphical survey and its economic value in logging operations, by J. P. Van Ors- del sD:033-5- St. Louis lumberman, Aug. 15, 1910—Lum- ber conditions in Europe, by G. H. Em- erson, p. 30; Conservation of natural re- sources, by J. B. White, p. 38-9. Southern lumberman, Aug. 13, 1910.—Tree nurseries in New York state, by J. S. Whipple, p. 36-8. Timber trade journal, Aug. 6, 1910.—Korean timber at Japan-British exhibition, p. 182-3. Timber trade journal, Aug. 27, 1910.—Japa- nese woods at the White city, p. 289. CURKENG LITERATURE Timberman, Aug.. 1910.—Second session of Pacific logging congress a brilliant suc- cess, p. 20-64CC. United States daily consular report, Sept. I, 1910.—Rubber cultivation and trade; Brazil and Mexico, by G. H. Pickerell and others, p. 793-801. United States daily consular report, Sept. 15, 1910.—Rubber cultivation and trade; Portuguese East Africa, West Africa, etc., by G. A. Chamberlain and others, p. 809-13. Wood craft, Sept., 1910—The sideboard, its origin and development, by J. Hooper, p. 173-7; Important factors in the oper- ation of dry-kilns, by C. A. Haenssle, p. 178-9; Furniture and hard wood polish- ing in general, by A. A. Kelly, p. 185-7; Dry-kiln methods used by the Browne- Morse company, p. 190-3; Felling trees in the forest, p. 195. Forest journals American forestry, Sept., 1910.—The pro- tection of forests from fire, by H. S. Graves, p. 509-18; A forester whose field is the city, by C. D. Mell, p. 510- 33; The reforestation of Denmark, by W. Hovgaard, p. 525-9; The Karst, re- forested with Austrian pine, p. 530-1; The story of Manti; a study in cause and effect, by W. C. Barnes, p. 532-4; Known by their fruits; the oth annual meeting of the society for the protection of New Hampshire forests, by E. A. Start, p. 535-9; The Philippine bureau of forestry and its work, by W. D. Sterrett, p. 530-44; Agricultural lands in national forests, by H. S. Graves, p. 560-2. Bulletin de la Société centrale forestiére de Belgique Aug., 1910—FExploitation abu- sive des foréts particuliéres, p. 512-23; La culture de l’orme en taillis, by N. I. Crahay, p. 529-31; La Norvége au point de vue forestier, by N. I. Crahay, p. 531-3. ‘Centralblatt fiir das gesamte forstwesen, July, t910—Beitrage zur begriindung der lehre tiber die erziehung der fiichte, by A. Schiffel, p. 291-309; Griin- und 617 rotzapfige fichten, by E. Zederbauer, p. 310-11. Forstwissenschaftliches centralblatt, Aug.- Sept., 1910.—Die tichte im milden klima, by Koch, p. 433-53; Bemerkungen zu der Bohdanecky’schen (Worliker ) methode der erziehung der fitche in lockerem kronenschluss, by D. Tieman, p. 454-66; Zur besteuerung des waldes, by H. Weber, p. 467-93; Kunstliche dingung im walde, by Werkmann, p. 493-6; Die studienreise deutscher forst- manner nach Skandinavien im sommer 1909, by Haug, p. 500-8. Indian forester, June-July, 1910.—The genus Citrus, by A. W. Lushington, p. 323-53; The Imperial forest college and _ re- search institute buildings at Dehra Dun, P. 353-6; Fire conservancy in Indian forests, by H. S. Walker, p. 356-60; For- ‘estry and the state, by W. Dawson, p. 407-19; The forest resources of Russia. p. 419-20; Bagasse for paper, by W. Raitt, p. 428-31. Indian forester, Aug., 1910.—Report on the paper pulp industry in Sweden, by H. M. Villiers, p. 438-50; A new resin cup, by T. S. Woolesy, p. 450-2; The Powell wood process company, India, limited. by G. C. Phillips, p. 452-4. Minnesota forester, Aug., 1910.—Forest fire prevention and control, p., 76-80. Revue des eaux et foréts, August I, I9t0.— Le rouge du pin sylvestre, by E. Maire, p. 458-60. Revue des eaux et foréts, Aug. 15, I910.— Les dunes de Gascogne et le décret du 14 Décembre, 1810, by C. Guyot, p. 481-93. Zeitschrift fiir forst- und jagdwesen, July, 1910. — Nutzholzbaume Deutsch-Stid- westafrikas, by C. Pogge, p. 400-26; Versuche tuber die verwendbarkeit des rotbuchenholzes zu eisenbahnschwellen, by A. Swappach, p. 427-32. Zeitschrift fiir forst- und jagdwesen, Aug. 1910.—Einfluss der herkunft und erzie- hungsweise auf die beschaff enheit des fichtenholzes, by A. Schwappach, p. 455- 73; Neues zur frage des nattirlichen verbreitungsgebietes der kiefer, by Dengler, p. 474-95. SOK Ya > CORRESPONDENCE Shall Wood Prices Be Raised in Order to Secure Conservation? A Letter In considering the important problem of Forestry Conservation there should be some general first principles recognized by all par- ties concerned. On the one hand, the tim- ber owner naturally wishes to market his product at the lowest possible expense and the usual corporate ownership cannot prop- erly recognize sentimental considerations as against stockholders’ interests. On the other hand, we have a general public interest rep- resented by political leaders and also by the few altruistic citizens who give their time and thought for the general interest as they see it. The timber owner must first think of his own interests. Is it not possible that the interests of all might be conserved by one happy solution of the problem? It is said that timber is being cut off four times as fast as new growth will replace it. There is very little replanting of timber in the country, especially as increase in popu- tion turns timber land into farm land when- ever feasible. Increase in population also increases the possibility of forest fires. We are certainly approaching a timber famine and other countries are not in position to help us out in any really corrective way. Now, while value is supposed to be set- tled by supply and demand, the supply at any period as compared with the demand for a series of years does not necessarily show its proper effect on prices. For instance, sup- posing our timber supply to actually repre- sent but fifteen years’ consumption, there will be timber enough so that the scarcity might not be actually felt for ten years at least and timber owners might accept customary prices during that period. Within the next five years, timber might rise in value several hundred per cent. Since we cannot, even by replanting, pro- vide a proper amount of new timber within any reasonable period and since the govern- ment conservation policy is withdrawing tim- berland from the market, the only possible regulating factor is the price of timber in the market. Those, therefore, who are con- scientiously interested in the problem should favor a rise in price that will not only lessen the demand but encourage the use of concrete and steel construction and also make it possible for the timber owners to possibly use suggested methods of a pro- 618 tective nature in forestry operations. To bring about this result, there should be an educational campaign which should make the timber owners realize the true value of their holdings, in view of the coming scarcity, and prompt them to demand prices more in conformity with the situation. An unthinking element of the population might very naturally protest against higher prices for building materials, but the public could better stand a reasonable increase over a term of years, rather than face prac- tically prohibitive prices at some definite - future date. There is far more reason for a legitimate increase in the price of timber than for any other raw material. New gold and silver deposits are discovered every day. There is no hidden supply of timber. New wheat fields are being planted ~ in the Canadian Northwest but no new areas of land are being planted with timber. There is some talk about our coal being used up within two hundred years, but this. is disputed by those who think that we have several thousands of years’ supply in Alaska. Even were coal to be used up in two hun- dred years, there are plenty of possible sub- stitutes, while we are facing a possible fam- ine in timber within fifteen years and for countless uses there is no substitute. The writer is financially interested in large timber tracts in the United States, Canada and South America and thus has a more or less selfish interest in the proposi- tion, but this seems to be a case where the selfish interests of the timber owner and the rea] interests of the whole country are uniform. Yours very truly, GrorGE Otis DRAPER. New York City. The main contentions in this communica- tion are two in number: First, that timber owners are justified in demanding higher prices for their wares; and second, that the consumer, if fully informed and enlightened, should be willing to pay the higher prices demanded. Let us examine the interests of the timber owners and of the consumer separately. 1. The timber owners. To justify tim- ber owners in advancing wood prices, two CORRESPONDENCE reasons are urged. It is argued, in the first place that higher prices are warranted by the real but hidden condition of supplies. The second reason adduced is that higher prices would enable timber owners to put conservative methods into practice. In this form, we admit the general validity of this argument without hesitation. 2. The consumer. It is contended that both prudence and public spirit should in- duce the consumer to pay more for wood. Prudence counsels him that if he refuses to pay more now he will have to “face practi- cally prohibitive prices at some definite fu- ture time’ which is near enough to interest him. Public spirit exhorts him on _ the ground that if he refuses to pay more now he is refusing to contribute his fair share of a legitimate charge for forest conservation in the interest of the general welfare. This argument is by no means such plain sailing. Before he can fairly be expected to assent to it the consumer has the right to have at least two questions answered. He will want to know how great the advance in price ought to be, and whether the money he takes out of his pocket to pay the differ- ence is actually going to be invested in forest conservation. In order to make out their case, the timber owners must there- fore be able to satisfy the consumer by de- vising and defending a satisfactory machin- ery for advancing prices; by furnishing some sort of guaranty that the money ostensibly raised for conservation will be used for conservation, and not simply pocketed as profits needed in the business; and by setting some measure of a fair con- servation charge. This is scarcely a seasonable time for ap- proaching the consumer with a proposal to add to the cost of his living, even with the most disinterested motives, and the motives behind this communication are admittedly colored with “more or less selfish interest.” As long as the law of supply and demand is actually or apparently fixing the price, the consumer is plucky enough to pay the price. But let the price be raised artificially, and his suspicions are at once aroused. These suspicions will have to be allayed. Now, obviously the only machinery for raising prices above the level determined by supply and demand is some sort of combi- nation. As long as competition prevails, if A and B advance their prices, C may fol- low suit, D may undersell, while E, F, and G may withdraw from the market alto- gether and hold out for a further rise. A general advance all along the line would re- quire concerted action among a_ sufficient 619 proportion of the owners. In going to the consumer with such a plan timber owners would have to provide him with the means of protecting himself from extortion; they could hope to persuade him, if at all, only by enabling him to erect safeguards in the form of State regulation and expert super- vision of their business. Having convinced the consumer of the need of advancing wood prices, and placed the control of the advance in his hands, the timber owners would next have to satisfy him as to the amount of the proposed ad- vance and the use designed to be made of it. There is good reason to believe that the amount of the advance would not have to be great. A recent law in Louisiana levies a tax of three-quarters of a cent a thousand on all the lumber manufactured in the state, and the estimated revenue from this source is $25,000 a year. On this basis, and in that state, a tax of three cents a thousand would produce $100, 000 a year, a sum which would doubtless suffice for a complete protective system for the forests of the state. Again, one of the competent foresters in this country has estimated that a large company could put forestry into practice at an added cost which, expressed in terms of the annual cut, would range from 50 cents to one dollar a thousand feet. Should the timber owners retrench them- selves by advancing prices in proportion to these figures, the consumer might never be the wiser and certainly would have slight ground for protest. It seems unlikely how- ever, that such moderate advances, or any- thing like them, would assuage the “more or less selfish interest” of the timber own- ers, while markedly greater advances ought to be rigorously scrutinized, lest the swollen profits be wrongfully diverted. Certainly the consumer would properly expect a consid- eration for his money. On the whole, we are inclined to assent unreservedly to the theoretical argument that higher present prices for wood are desirable if they should furnish a fund which would actually be expended in defraying the cost of forest protection and production. But we can not conceal from ourselves the prac- tical difficulty of securing, first, strictly legitimate advances, and second, the assur- ance of good faith on the part of timber owners and the actual reinvestment of the added profits in conservation. Until this difficulty is met, our correspondent’s pro- posal seems likelv to have rather roueh go- ing with the public. But let the timber own- ers by all means come forward with a work- able .plan.—Ed.) LUMBERMEN AND LUMBER JOURNALS American Pulp Association on Forestry As long ago as 1808 the officers of the American Paper and Pulp Association, real- izing the importance of maintaing a_per- petual supply of pulp wood, devoted the an- nual meeting of that year principally to a discussion of the science and practice of forestry, then almost unknown in the Uni- ted States. At that meeting addresses were delivered by Doctor Fernow, then the Chief of the Government Forestry Department, by Gifford Pinchot, his successor, and Austin Carey, recently connected with the Forestry Department of the State of New York. Hugh J. Chisholm, then president of the association, in his annual message said: “Those among us who have weighed the matter carefully are well aware that if we as a nation are to take and permanently hold the foremost place in paper making, we must begin at once to husband our re- sources. Fortunately, the science of fores- try, until recently but little known, and heeded less, is ready to point out the way. and we shall learn from three of the best authorities in the country, not only why we should but how we may put in practice the principles of forestry. i hope that every one will go away resolved directly or indirectly to do what he can to secure a rational use of this mainstay of our busi- ness.” The attitude of the association, in the past twelve years, has been to exert its in- fluence in every way possible in the en- couragement of forestry conservation. Ey- ery year resolutions have been adopted urg- ing timberland owners in the paper industry to practice conservative methods, and. at the same time attention has been called to the vital importance of preventing forest fires, and in more recent years the subject of taxation of timberlands has also re- ceived attention. Not only has a universal sentiment. in fa- vor of conservation been created in the in- dustry, but practical results have been ac- complished. It is not too much to say that our timberland owners, with possibly here and there an exception, have beén for a number of years all conducting their opera- tions so as not to impair the reproductive capacity of their lands. In the first place, they have carefully studied their holdings, in many instances being assisted by the For- estry Service at Washington. They have thus become enlightened as to how far cut- ting timber can go without jeopardizing the 620 future. In the next place, they ‘have volun- tarily limited the size or the diameter of trees, below which no cutting shall be done. They have very generally, although to just what extent cannot be definitely estimated, adopted the method of felling trees with the saw instead of the axe, and have in other ways sought to bring the waste down to a minimum. But perhaps in no way have they done better service than by encouraging legislation and the enforcement of it for the prevention of fires. It is roughly estimated that the paper makers own in the United States about 5,000,000 acres, consisting mostly of spruce timberlands. While this is insufficient to afford a natural growth equal to the de- mands, the deficit is made up by purchases in the United States and by importations from Canada and the use of other kinds of wood. There is still much more spruce cut for lumber than for pulp wood, but the paper makers are continually adding to their holdings, and there appears to be a readjustment of prices going on which is leading to the substitution of pulp wood production for lumber production. The example set by paper makers is be- ing followed by other timberland owners, so that we may confidently say that no tim- berlands of any moment are in any sense being denuded for the production of pulp wood. Less than 2 per cent. of the con- sumption of wood in this country is domes- tic pulp wood, and with a continuation of the conservative methods now in vogue, there need be no fear of diminution of our forests by the paper industry. In fact, the perpetuation of the industry in the United States depends largely upon the perpetua- tion of the forests of the United States, so that the paper manufacturers have every incentive to maintain them. The use of hemlock and other kinds of wood for pulp making has greatly increased, thus tending to relieve any drain there might be upon the supply of spruce. As most of the paper mills are dependent upon water power, the manufacturers have still further incentive to protect the watersheds. The Forest Commission stated: “Since the advent of the pulp and paper industry in Maine, covering a period of less than twenty years, the system of handling our forest lands has been completely revo- lutionized. Prior to ten years in cutting logs in the .woods, it has been demonstrated by actual tests and measurements that only of Maine has NEWS AND NOTES from 60 to 65 per cent. of the volume of the lumber trees actually cut was saved and utilized for lumber purposes, while since that period on account of the paper indus- try it has been demonstrated by later meas- urements and experiments that from 80 to 85 per cent. of the volume of lumber trees is actually utilized, and what is of far greater importance is the fact that crooked, seamy and defective trees, as well as all of the undersized trees formerly cut and de- stroyed in swamping and in making yards and landings, are now all utilized. * * * Fully one-half of the whole territory of Maine has never as yet produced one sin- gle log for pulp and paper production. J] refer to the St. John River drainage, where the same wanton system of Iumbering, al- though possibly in a somewhat lesser de- gree, is being followed as was followed through the long period from 1860 to 1900. Were this territory fully developed for lumbering by means of proper railroad con- nections or water facilities it is safe to as- sert that conservatively managed, as the paper companies are endeavoring to do to- day with the best knowledge obtainable, it would supply the entire demand for all the mills now located in Maine indefinitely.” In the State of New York all the paper makers who own lands in the Adirondacks have an association including many other lumbermen, which has co-operated with the state authorities in securing legislation which would foster conservative cutting and the prevention of fires. 621 The International Paper Company, own- ing nearly a million acres of forest lands in New England, New York State and elsewhere in the United States, has always conducted its operations with a view to the future supply. In eleven years this com- pany has cut less than two-tenths of a cord per year per acre, which is believed to be less than the natural growth. Two years ago this company started a nursery in Ver- mont, and each year it has been putting in transplants in increasing quantities in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont and New York State, supplementing its own supply by purchases of seedlings and transplants at home and abroad. This replanting is being done on abandoned farms, pasture lands and burns. On their other holdings no replanting is necessary, as there is al- ways sufficient growth left for reproduc- tion. Some other companies have done re- planting, but in general, conservative cut- ting and protection from fire render exten- sive planting unnecessary. The paper industry has acted on its own initiative, and while self-interest may have actuated it, the result is none the less beneficial from the public point of view, and the policy is more apt to be followed per- manently than if impractical laws, attempt- ing to make conservation compuisory, were passed. E. W. Backus, Delegate to the National Conservation Congress, St. Paul, Minn., September 5 to 9, IQIoO. NEWS AND NOTES Invested in Pulp According to the Pioneer Western Lum- berman, ten million dollars will be required to pay the army of lumbermen at work in the forests of the Northeast—Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont, and the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia—this coming winter. There are in this peaceful army of loggers 70,000 men. They are ac- companied by 22,000 horses, and the fruits of the campaign will not be fallen capitals and confiscated territory, but a crop of 2,500,000,000 feet of pine, cedar, spruce, hemlock and birch. In Maine the harvest for pulp mills will reach the enormous total of 350,000,000 feet. Coopers Demand Forestry A report was submitted by a committee on forestry at the recent semi-annual meet- ing of the National Coopers’ Association, in Chicago. The report declares that “only the application of forest knowledge, with wisdom, method and energy, in the next ten years can prevent the starving of national industries for lack of wood. In America forestry has passed through the experimen- tal stage and is in a position to accomplish much needed results. But action, immedi- ate and vigorous, must be taken if the in- evitable famine of wood supplies is to be lessened. We are now using as much wood in a single year as grows in three, with only 20 years of virgin growth in sight.” f AMERICAN Southern Conservation Congress Out of a plan to call together leaders of conservation in the State of Georgia for the purpose of forming a Georgia conservation asseciation, has developed the larger project of a Southern Conservation Congress at At- lanta, October 8 and 9, to discuss the prob- lems of utilizing to the best permanent ad- vantage the resources of the South as a whole. This congress, coming as it does almost at the close of the Appalachian Ex- position at Knoxville, emphasizes the earn- estness of purpose and the progressive spirit in which the Southern people are apparently determined to deal with. their immense nat- ural advantages. Theodore Roosevelt, Hoke Smith, Gov- ernor-elect of Georgia, Gifford Pinchot, Dr. Harvey W. Wiley, Chief Forester Henry S. Graves and other leaders of the conserva- tion movement of national reputation have accepted invitations to address the congress. Governor Brown, of Georgia, will open the first day’s meeting and the mayor of Atlanta, Robert F. Maddox, will follow with an address of welcome. Gifford Pinchot will address the congress on the “Principles of Conservation,” and Charles S. Barrett, president of the Farmers’ Union, who has been a leader in the movement in Georgia, will speak on the “Conservation of Farm Resources.” Among those to address the congress at other sessions are the following: B. N. Baker, the retiring president of the National Conservation Congress; Dr. C. Willard Hayes, chief geologist, United States geological survey; Dr. A. M. Soule, president of the Georgia State Agriculture College; H. S. Graves, chief forester of the United States; Dr. W J McGee, soil-water expert, United States Department of Agri- culture; Frederick J. Paxton, president At- lanta Chamber of Commerce; Paul Nor- cross, Atlanfas Dr Dio B{-flarrns, “State Board of Health; K. G. Matheson, president Georgia School of Technology; Rev. C. B. Wilmer and Rev. J. W. Lee, Atlanta; Mrs. H. M. Willett, Atlanta; Dr. Alfred Aker- man, professor of forestry, University of Georgia; Mrs. J. K. Ottley, Atlanta, and Dr. Joseph Hyde Pratt, president Southern Ap- palachian Good Roads Association. Secretary James Wilson, of the Depart- ment of Agriculture; Henry Wallace, of Iowa, the new president of the National Conservation Congress; Governor Stubbs of Kansas; former Goyernor Blanchard, of Louisiana, all the governors of the southern states and various state officers and mayors of cities have beer invited to attend, and a number of them are expected to have a place on the program. FORESTRY Land and Irrigation Exposition at Pittsburgh There will be held in Pittsburgh, October 17 to 29, a Land and Irrigation Exposition, at which the Forest Serivce will have a for- est exhibit in charge of a representative who will deliver illustrated lectures daily upon various forest topics. WM E. E. Carter, assistant forester in the U. S. Forest Service, has resigned to accept the position of assistant professor of for- estry in the Harvard Forestry School. He has already taken up his new duties. Mw ME To Salvage Timber from Idaho Fires According to the Paper Mill, millions of feet of good pulp wood which a month ago was thought lost in the forest fires in the Idaho “panhandle,” will be saved, together with billions of feet of lumber logs, by an organized movement to salvage the fire swept district. In the hope of saving at least 90 per cent. of the timber left standing in this district, a combination of lumber and land companies will log off thousands of acres of this land within the next two years and store the logs in Coeur d’Alene Lake. Ww Inventory of Canadian Forests The Canadian Commission for the Con- servation of Natural Resources, of which the Hon. Clifford Sifton is the chairman, has planned an extensive program of work for the various committees which constitute that body. An effort will be made by the committee on forests to get together the best available information in regard to tim- ber still standing, its quantity, its quality, acreage, and the acreage owned respectively by private individuals, the provinces and the Dominion. The committee will also make a study of the results which would attend the prohibi- tion of the export of logs. yew The Indian Forest Service The recently organized Indian forest ser- vice, with a view to assisting the Indians to obtain the greatest benefit from the forests on their reservations, is formulating exten- sive plans for the operations during the cur- rent fiscal year. The new service is in the Department of the Interior. The proceeds from the sale of timber produced on the Indian forest lands are used solely for the benefit of the Indians and the greater por- tion of the $110,000 which the service nlans , NEWS AND NOTES to spend on the Indian forests will be used in the care and protection of the forests. Timbered lands on the Indian reservation are estimated at about 24,980,200 acres, having an approximate value of $92,000,000. The logging operations carried’ on within the Indian forests during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1910, resulted in the pro- duction of 195,918,530 board feet of lumber with a value of $1,293,926. Ww Tree Planting on Australian Farms The necessity of replacing, to some extent, the lost forests of the world is becoming more urgent every year—in Australia not less than in other countries. In the preface to his “Annual Catalogue of Trees for Free Distribution, 1910-11,” Mr. Walter Gill, con- servator of forests, says: “It matters not whether we regard it from the standpoint of the protection trees afford against the wind, or from that of the grateful shade they pro- vide in the trying heat of the summer; whether we consider their function as fac- tors in beautifying the landscape, or dwell on their great value as producers of com- mercial lumber—regarded from whatever as- pect may be chosen, they are a source of ever-increasing interest.” It is worthy of note that last year the total number of trees distributed amounted to 317,204, the number of applicants for which was 1,996. A thou- sand catalogues were issued, containing the usual information as to methods of planting, description of trees, and numbers obtainable. Trees have now been issued gratis by the de- partment for twenty-eight years, and during that period 36,994 applications have been re- ceived, in response to which a total of 7,583,729 trees have been distributed. The catalogue contains directions for planting—a most important subject, if success is to at- tend the operation; the conditions upon which young trees will be distributed, a list of the seven state nurseries for the guidance of in- tending applicants, and a brief description of the trees available—South Australian Jour- nal of Agriculture. Ww Largest Cut of Yellow Pine Statistics reviewed by The Southern Lum- berman show that while the production of yellow pine is the greatest in the history of the trade, this production is being exceeded by the shipment. As compared with 1907, the banner year in the yellow pine trade, production for the first six months of this year shows a net increase of 213,347, 340 feet, or 15.1 per cent. For the same period shipments have exceeded cut by 78,420,951 feet, or 5.5 per cent. Striking Figures of Waste At a recent meeting of the National Lum- ber Manufacturers’ Association, Captain ye B. White, an authority on forests and lum- ber, said: “In the South we are cutting over two and a quarter million acres of Yellow Pine every year, or about 7,500 acres every day, producing 13,000,000,000 feet of lumber each year, and 20 per cent waste makes the enormous sum of 2,600,000,000 feet of lum- ber. This means loss to the transportation companies in freight of 173,000 carloads each year, and at $7 a thousand means an annual loss to labor of $18,200,000. And in the entire nation we are cutting 40,000,000 feet annually, leaving 8,000,000 acres a year of cut-over lands, and a total waste from unsalable low grades of at least 6,000,000,000 feet, or half a million carloads annually lost to the country. Add to this the estimated loss of $50,000,000 by fires every year, and we have a total loss to the nation and to the world of over $100,000,000 per annum.” ee ye t Canadian Conservation Pioneer Dies The New York Paper Trade Journal says that in the death of Monsignor La- flamme, rector of Laval University, Quebec, Canada has lost one of her very ablest scholars and most devoted patriots. He threw himself with a whole heart into the problem of the conservation of natural re- sources. He realized with unerring instinct the vital importance of the preservation of Canada’s forest assets, and his work in the field will be gratefully remembered by the pulp and paper manufacturers of Canada, and particularly those of Quebec. There 1s no doubt that the plea he put forth for the preservation of the forests of Quebec had a most important bearing on the policy that has since been adopted by the government and on the grasp which the people of Que- bec now have of this question. we Ye A Club Woman on Florida Forestry Mrs. Kirk Monro, writing in The Florida Housekeeper, says: “Florida forestry is beginning to be what some time will be a great work. I like to think that Florida was among the first to have timber reserves, and now again she is coming forward with her two national for- ests, aided by the splendid work of the wo- man’s clubs and civic societies of the State. “Tt is true we have only begun the work, but it is a great beginning and the people we are most anxious to interest are begin- ning to look up and listen and answer. If we go back to the beginning of forestry 624 AMERICAN work in this country we find that it began in Florida by Congress appropriating in 1825 the sum of $10,000 to buy live oak lands on the Santa Rosa Sound, in Western Florida, and subsequently other Florida lumber lands. “Young oaks were planted on the Santa Rosa lands, but there was much difficulty in inducing the young trees to grow, and finally a large quantity of acorns were planted, a fair proportion of the crop com- ing to perfection. “But even at that time the chief efforts of the foresters were directed toward prun- ing, training and caring for the wild trees. All this was done that we might have tim- ber to build war ships. Then came the civil war and brought a complete change in war vessels by substituting iron for wood, and forestry work was stopped. “The timber lands were neglected and soon began to be occupied by squatters, and after a number of years all reserves except some of the Florida lands were opened to settlers. As long ago as 1885, 25 years ago, a Congress of Forestry was held at De Funiak Springs, at which Profesor A. H. Curtis read a paper on the forest trees of Florida. Professor Curtis enumerated 202 native trees.” ye We oe Beech Leaf Moth in Massachusetts Considerable damage is being done in Massachusetts by the beech leef skeletonizer known as Bucculatrix canadensisella. No permanent injury to the trees is anticipated, since past outbreaks, like that of 1901, have been quickly suppressed by natural enemies. we To Conserve Lake George Region The Lake George Association will lay before the New York legislature at its next session plans for conserving the forests and streams of the Lake George region, by making it either a part of the Adirondack Reserve or a separate park. FORESTRY Teak Forests of Siam The great teak forests of Siam are in Payap or northern Siam and in the upper parts of the Nakonsavan and Pitsanuloke provinces. The teak tree grows scattered among trees of many species at an elevation not exceeding 2,500 feet, and prefers the hill- sides and comparatively dry land in dis- tricts where the average annual rainfall does not exceed fifty inches. The total exports of teak from the port of Bangkok, Siam, are nearly 8,000,000 tons, valued at over four and one-quarter million dollars. It ranks second in the exports of Siam. The survey of these forests was begun in 1907 and is not yet finished. They are now under the supervision of a well organized forestry department, based on the India- Burmese system, with trained European of- ficers in charge. Only trees of seventy-six and one-half inches girth can now be girdled or barked near the ground and a certain num- ber of trees must be left untouched within a given area to seed the ground for future. After being girdled the tree soon dies and is left standing to season for about two years, It is then cut down, dragged by elephants or buffaloes to the nearest stream, and floated to Bangkok or Moulmain. The teak industry forms one of the most important resources of the country and thousands of people are engaged in cutting, hauling, and rafting the . teak logs to the Bangkok markets and saw~ mills. The chief uses for this wood are for ship- building, furniture, the better class of wooden houses, and rolling stock. Besides its hard- ness and durability, it contains an oil which prevents the rusting of iron or steel imbedded in it, and it is not attacked by the white ant, which is so destructive to other woods in the tropics. Forestry in Siam, however, is by no means limited to teak, as many other valuable woods are found in the extensive forests, both in the north and south of Siam. —Exchange. STATE FOREST OFFICERS Important changes have taken place during the past year in both the organization and the personnel of the state forest departments, and similar changes are taking place con- stantly. In order to record the progress made, as well as to invite corrections and make the list complete and accurate, a table of state forest officers, with their titles and addresses, is printed below: State Name and post-office Official position or territory Alabainiaereeeees John H. Wallace, Jr., Montgomery. .Commissioner, department of game and fish. Calitogniaseee G. M. Homans, Sacramento......: State forester. Connecticut... ...S. N. Spring, New Haven........ State forester. IRR WEIN oceco oe ac Ralph S. Hosmer, Honolulu...... Superintendent of forestry. Indianaeeeee eo. Charles C. Deam, Indianapolis....Secretary, state board of forestry. OWA sae ee use G. B. MacDonald, Ames........ .-Forester, agricultural experiment station. IKGyIGOOS ooohaded EGhasueAu Scott. Manhattannes. +=. State forester. Kentuchiy.o2i 0:2). MC vRankin. Wrankfort.',.4 ss). Commissioner, department of agriculture, labor and statistics. Komisianaee eee Hae Gracew batonmioucennes one State forest commissioner. Miainelerrae csiecce Bdsaret wang tietstans essen Land agent and forest commissioner. Manylandia.2 42. F. W. Besley, Baltimore.......... State forester. Massachusetts... F. Wm. Rane, Boston........... State forester. NMisiGean Marcus Schaef, Roscommon..... State forester. 1gaN.--+++--Filibert Roth, Ann Arbor........ State forest warden. Minnesotaz-s. 22 Gen, ©) © Andrews) St Paulee: a Forestry commissioner. Montanaenres ee Charles W. Jungberg, Helena..... State forester. New Eampshires. bn -@, Hirst,’ Concord: 3.02.2. %/-s). « State forester. New Jersey... ..- Alfred Gaskill, Trenton........... Secretary, forest park reservation commis- sion, and forester. James S. Whipple, Albany....... Commissioner, forest, fish and game com- New York..... mission. @. Re Pettise Albany sc. sere. Superintendent of state forests. North Carolina. .J. S. Holmes, Chapel Hill......... Forester. Ohio yee ss a4 Edmund Secrest, Wooster.........Forester, state agricultural experiment sta- tion. Green § J. W. Baker, Cottage Grove. .... Forestry, fish and game warden. a enna UAB: Wastelly Portland: 7a... 5 Secretary, state board of forestry. Pennsylvania.... Robert S. Conklin, Harrisburg... Commissioner of forestry. Rhode Island. ... Jesse B. Mowry, Chepachet..... ‘Commissioner of forestry. Tennessee....... EE VAS Morgan, Knoxvilleso. a. Director, college of agriculture and ex- periment station. Werinontes2i.¢: Austin F,. Hawes, Burlington.... State forester. Wareinia-e.e eG. WV. Koiner; Richmond. ees cs Commissioner, department of agriculture and immigration. R. W. Condon, Port Gamble.....Chadrman, state board of forest commis- Washington... sioners. Ee eem\Welty © lytnipiaes see eee State firewarden and forester. West Virginia... A. B. Brooks, Morgantown...... State forester. Wisconsin....... Edward M. Griffith, Madison.... State forester. Lie i 625 uid STATE FORESTRY ORGANIZATIONS A list of state forestry associations and their secretaries is printed below. in this list will be carefully recorded by AMERICAN Forestry. Secretary RB lawrence: estan Charles A. van der Veer.. Name of organization Appalachian Mountain Club Arizona—Salt River Valley Water Users’ Association. : mE California—Water and Forest Association... ais liehatete ee 9/6 © elar= (analm I. C. Friedlander Corrections Address Tremont Bidg., Boston. Phoenix. 1405 The Merchants Ex- change Bldg, San Francisco. Forestry Educational Association.......... BG) Danion: se. eee San Diego. Sierras Clubs eeeesea crs yess Re ees Walhamy E€olbyneereas San Francisco. Pacific Coast Forest, Fish and Game Wm. Greer Harrison... San Francisco. Association. Tri-counties Reforestation Committee..... IMSS IL. AY IBinAClits Soo 0008 Riverside. Colorado; Forestry, Association. .....-2.--.- - Ellsworth Bethel....... Denver. Connecticut Forestry Association............ Eee Stadtiinll erases Elmwood. Georgia honestryeNsSociationas: eee eeeeeeria: AlfredsAkernany pene Athens. Iowa Park and Forestry Association........ Welsey Greene......... Des Moines. Louisiana HoresthysA\Ssociation= ayers eae Miss cALB Awvetya = aeee. Shreveport. MaimesHorestinva \ssociationtnes serene cece Bidar eaekeini oes see Augusta. Massachusetts Forestry Association Michigan Forest Association Tevitio sAeG rile st eae FAG. Stevense..ee cane EG... Cheyneyaea once: Miss WeilapBeGraiceeee Arthur T. Harris Minnesota State Forest Association......... Nebraska Park and Forestry Association.... New England Forest, Fish and Game As- sociation. New Hampshire—Society for the Protec- tion of New Hampshire Forests. New York—American Forest Preservation Society. Forestry, Water Storage and Manufactur- ing Association of the State of New York. Allen Hollis Geo. Milroy Bailey Chester W. Lyman 4 Joy St., Boston. 25 Band Chambers, De- troit. St. Anthony Park. York. 16 State St., Boston. Concord, N. H. (Goria ING MG 1 Broadway, New York. Northern New York Forestry Association..O. B. Trappan, Director. Potsdam, N. Y. State tof New, York hish.. Game cand)’ ©. Andrews.an.- eee Elmira. Forest League. The Association for the Protection of Edward Hagaman Hall. Tribune Bldg. New the Adirondacks. York City. North Dakota State Sylvaton Society....... Miss Ella J. Mitchell... Penn. Ohio—Cincinnati Forest and Improvement Adolph Leue........... 127 West Twelfth St., Association. Cincinnati. Ohio. State). Forestry; Society...... 8 Jseun Prof. J. J. Crumley.... Wooster. Oregon Conservation Association........... ACB eVWViastellepercr aren ao ike Bldg., Port- and. Pennsylvania—Franklin Forestry Society....W. G. Bowers.......... Chambersburg. Pennsylvania Forest Association.......... Pee Bitlet guerre cre ore eetuge St., Phila- elphia. Vermont Forestry Association.............. Ernest Hitchcock....... Pittsford. Washington Conservation Association....... Clarence Re Balleyeaeese P! ©, Box 236, Seattle. West Virginia Forestry Association........./ WEAN ONG bo 6 ecto co Morgantown. 626 The American Forestry Association OFFICERS FOR 1910 PRESIDENT CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts VICE-PRESIDENTS JOSHUA L. BAILY, Pennsylvania RUTHERFORD P. HAYES, North Carolina CHARLES W. ELIOT, Massachusetts GEORGE FOSTER PEABODY, New York B. E. FERNOW, Ontario, Canada J. EB. RANSDELL, Louisiana W. W. FINLEY, District of Columbia J. T. ROTHROCK, Pennsylvania DAVID R. FRANCIS, Missouri ALBERT SHAW, New York EXECUTIVE SECRETARY EDWIN A. START, 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. TREASURER OTTO LUEBKERT, Washington, D. C. DIRECTORS PHILIP W. AYRES, New Hampshire GEORGE H, MAXWELL, Illinois ROBERT P. BASS, New Hampshire CHARLES F. NESBIT, District of Columbia CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts CHARLES L. PACK, New Jersey WILLIAM S. HARVEY, Pennsylvania M. V. RICHARDS, District of Columbia JOHN E. A. HUSSEY, Massachusetts CUNO H. RUDOLPH, District of Columbia OTTO LUEBKERT, District of Columbia FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Pennsylvania GEORGE D. MARKHAM, Missouri JAMES S. WHIPPLE, New York GEORGE P. WHITTLESEY, District of Columbia Advisory Board, Representing Affiliated Organizations YELLOW PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION JOHN L. KAUL, Birmingham, Ala. N. W. McLEOD, St. Louis, Mo. H. H. WHELESS, Shreveport, La. NATIONAL WHOLESALE LUMBER DEALERS’ ASSOCIATION ROBT. C. LIPPINCOTT, Philadelphia, Pa. LEWIS DILL, Baltimore, Md. R. M. CARRIER, Sardis, Miss. NORTHERN PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION C. A. SMITE, Minneapolis, Minn. WILLIAM IRVINE, Chippewa Falls, Wis. F. E. WEYERHAEUSER, St. Paul, Minn. MASSACHUSETTS FORESTRY ASSOCIATION NATHANIEL T. KIDDER, Milton, Mass. FREDERIC J. CAULKINS, Boston IRVING T. GUILD, Arlington, Mass. LUMBERMEN’S EXCHANGE WILLIAM L. RICE, Philadelphia, Pa. FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Philadelphia, Pa. SAMUEL B. VROOMAN, Philadelphia, Pa. NATIONAL SLACK COOPERAGE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION J. T. WYLIE, Saginaw, Mich. JAMES INNES, Chatham, Ontario A. H. WELLES, Standish, Mich. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BOX MANUFACTURERS B. W. PORTER, Greenfield, Mass. S. B. ANDERSON, Memphis, Tenn. ROBT. A. JOHNSON, Minneapolis, Minn. CARRIAGE BUILDERS’ NATIONAL ASSOCIATION H. C. MeLEAR, Wilmington, Del. D. T. WILSON, New York Cc. D. FIRESTONE, Columbus, Ohio BOSTON PAPER TRADE ASSOCIATION N. M. JONES, Lincoln, Maine JOHN E. A. HUSSEY, Boston, Mass. ARTHUR I.. HOBSON, Boston, Mass. PHILADELPHIA WHOLESALE LUMBER DEALERS’ ASSOCIATION ; ; R. G. KAY, Philadelphia, Pa. J. RANDALL WILLIAMS, Philadelphia, Pa. B. FRANKLIN BETTS, Philadelphia, Pa. _ "ae Application for Membership fo EDWIN? A] START. Secretary American Forestry Association 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become a member of the American Forestry Asso ciation. One dollar ($1.00) for annual dues is enclosed herewith. Very truly yours, Name P. O. Address a anes rT = A PICTURE THAT TELLS ITS OWN STORY,—IDAHO an A NR A EER | American F orestry | RS Vol. XVI NOVEMBER, IgiIo No. 11 FUNDAMENTALS OF THE FIRE PROBLEM By HENRY S. GRAVES Forester, U. S, Department of Agriculture At the request of AMERICAN Forestry, Mr. Graves was kind enough to set forth in the following brief statement the main difficulties in the way of protecting forests from fire, the general status of protective measures throughout the country, and the things which must be done if the waste of forest resources through fire is to be promptly and effectively checked.—Ed. ) O SINGLE forest problem is so important as fire protection, for the risk from fire to-day stands as a great obstacle in the way of the practice of forestry. In the National Forests, the first work has necessarily been to organize the Forests for administration and protection, and this work has con- siderably retarded the development of the work of silviculture. As for private holdings, the main reason why forestry is not more widely practiced is the danger that the required investment may be lost or seriously impaired by sub- sequent fires. The agitation for forestry and forest protection has now been carried on for many years, and the principles of forestry have been endorsed by the public. But the problem of getting the known and approved protective principles carried into actual practice is as yet far from solution. This has been clearly demon- strated during the past season, in which the loss from fires will prove to have been greater, perhaps, than ever recorded before. The bulk of the public forest land in the United States is now included in the National Forests, which are already well organized and are managed by an administrative and protective force. The protective force is, however, inadequate for a complete and effective control of fire. What is first required is a rapid extension of the system of trails, fire lines, and telephone lines. Considerable public expenditures are of course needed for this improvement work, as well as for increased patrol. When the value of the property and the benefit to the forests and to the public are considered, such expenditures, however, would amount to a cheap insurance. 620 630 AMERICAN FORESTRY With private forests, which comprise about 80 per cent of the forests of the country, protection presents a much more difficult problem. Individual owners of large tracts are often able and willing to establish systems of fire protection, and where most of the land is held in such large holdings it 1s often feasible to secure organized protection by cooperation. | Cooperative protection of this kind is being successfully carried on in Montana, northern Idaho, Washington and Oregon, and in certain parts of northern New England. But when there is a great area of wild land, a large part of which is in the form of small private holdings whose owners are men of small means or are non-residents, the difficulty of securing organized cooperative protection 1s very great. Until now, efforts in this direction on private land in wild forest regions have been confined to the larger owners. In the systematic protection of private forests by the states but little progress has been made. To be sure, some states have a system of fire wardens whose duty it is to collect a force of men and attack such fires as may be started within their respective districts; and a great deal of loss from fire has been prevented by such systems. But it is a fundamental principle in all forest fire protection that there must be an organization to prevent the starting of fires, and not merely one designed to put fires out after they get a start. Private forests can- not be fully protected until the individual states assume their responsibilities and establish at public expense effective systems of forest patrol. The states need net and should not assume the entire burden of protecting private lands, but they should maintain a state patrol system, with one or more men for each township whose duty it should be to patrol forest lands during the dry season. Such patrolmen should have all necessary authority in matters pertaining to protection. Private owners will supplement this system with such a force of men as will make the forests safe. In New York the state preserves are patrolled, but the system does not extend to the entire state, and private lands within the preserves are the only private lands directly benefited. In Maine and in New Hampshire, lumbermen, either independently or with the state, have done much to establish systems of watch-towers. The main burden of protecting forests from fire must be borne by the public. The purpose of forestry is to secure certain benefits to the community and to the country as a whole. It is therefore entirely proper that the principal cost of pro- tecting our forests should fall upon those who are benefited. HOW THE FIRES WERE FOUGHT By F. A. SILCOX Assistant District Forester, District 1, U. S. Forest Service (Forests in District 1 were the scene of the terrific fires which, in the absence of sufficient trails and equipment for communication and fire fighting, were swept beyond control by the cyclonic winds of August 20 and 21 and, besides devastating some of the finest virgin timber in the country, cost the lives of seventy-four of the temporary force, injured many other persons, destroyed many millions of dollars worth of property, and lost to industry hundreds of thousands of dollars more in wages. Every cir- cumstance which attended the origin and behavior of these fires proved beyond all doubt the ability of the Forest Service completely to protect the National Forests as soon as the Forests are fully equipped and manned for protection—and not before.—Ed.) CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY District One of the Forest Service, with headquarters at Missoula, Mon- tana, includes all of the National For- ests in the panhandle of Idaho and in Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, and Michigan. It includes 28 National Forests with an aggregate area of 29,918,043 acres. The main continental range, from whose crest the rain and snow waters make their way westward to the Pacific and eastward to the Gulf, divides the district into two natural di- visions. A striking contrast exists in the type and character of the country on the east and west of the divide; and this contrast has such a vital bearing upon the fire situation that in order to understand the great fires of the past summer and the difficulties encountered in controlling them, a clear picture of the respective types of country is essen- tial. East of the divide the timbered areas are broken by open parks, the solid bodies of timber being confined mainly to the north slopes. The predominat- ing species, lodgepole pine, although forming extremely dense thickets in early life, opens up somewhat as the stands grow older and carry little un- derbrush. The red fir and yellow pine types are open stands in which little undergrowth is found and_ through which travel is fairly easy. In this type of country it is possible to travel at a fairly rapid rate, either on foot or with horses, by working through the timber and open parks and along the bald ridges. SLOWNESS OF TRAVEL In striking contrast is the country west of the divide, which includes in this district Northwestern Montana and Northern Idaho. Heavy dense timber with heavy undergrowth and with very few, widely scattered moun- tain meadows, is the characteristic type of country. The predominating spe- cies are Western white pine, cedar, larch, fir, and hemlock, all of which grow in dense stands and through which, both on account of the under- brush and windfallen timber, travel with a horse is, without trails, a physi- cal impossibility, and by foot, with a pack on one’s back, a most arduous and tedious task. Where open areas occur and travel is possible, even without trails, as in the forests of Eastern Montana, fires can be controlled if sufficient patrol is main- tained during the dry season, largely because the fires can be reached shortly after being discovered. The best proof of this is the fact that no fires of any size got beyond control even during the very dry and windy season just closed, east of the divide. Many fires occurred, 631 FIRE HAVOC IN THE BITTERROOT MOUNTAINS HOW THE FIRES WERE but were reached and quickly put out or trenched and brought under control before attaining serious proportions or doing any large amount of damage. The “point is that these fires were dist covered and reached very shortly after they started, and were, therefore, con- trolled with comparative ease. DIFFICULTY OF FIRE CONTROL Fire control in such a territory, how- ever, as the dense forests of western Montana and northern Idaho, is a most serious and difficult problem. All the big fires of this year occurred in this type of country, for very obvious rea- sons—the density and unbroken char- acter of the timbered areas and the ex- treme difficulty and in many instances impossibility of getting to the fires when they were small. There is only one way to meet this problem with any degree of success, and that is by increased patrol in the heavily timbered areas, with means of rapid transportation and communication in the form of trails and telephone lines. Fires must be discovered when they are small. Discovery, however, is but one factor, and although a most important one, it availeth little if after a fire is discovered it is impossible on account of inadequate transportation facilities to get to it. This is exactly what oc- curred during the past season. Many fires were discovered by patrolmen, but before even they themselves could get to them assumed proportions which made a large crew and an organized fire camp necessary In many cases twenty or thirty miles of trail had to be cut before supplies and men could be put in to check the fire. Five miles per day is a high aver- age for trail work, w hich in country of this character is the very roughest kind. The only available means of transporta- tion is by means of pack horses, and in order to use even this method trails are absolutely essential. Only one other known method can be used, to pack the supplies and equip- ment on man-back, but here, too, trails must be had. It is possible, of course, FOUGHT 633 for a man to meander his way through the brush and windfalls with a 30 or 35 pound pack on his back, but when a number of the large mountain fires are 15 to 100 miles distant from railroads, and in many cases without trails, a man cannot be expected to make his way by hard work through the tangle of brush and dense forest at the rate of 10 or 15 miles a day and then be ready to fight fire when he reaches the scene of action. He is too badly in need of a rest before tackling the hard trenching work on a fire. Fresh men must be had in order to be effective. With a comprehensive, well-coordinated system of trails and telephone lines this can be accom- plished. THE PROTECTIVE FORCE Each National Forest under the juris- diction of a Forest Supervisor, with his Deputy and Forest Rangers and Forest Guards, is a unit of 1,000,000 or more acres, in some cases more than 2,000,- 000 acres. This means a tract of land about 75 miles long by 4o to 50 miles in width, or from 1,800 to 3,500 square miles. The country is rough and moun- tainous and hard to travel over. An adequate patrol force for the heavily timbered forests should contain at least one man to every 30,000 acres. On the more lightly timbered forests east of the divide one man to every 50,000 or 60,000 acres has proved suffi- cient. To patrol this area good look- out points on the prominent peaks are selected, from which it is possible to see a large scope of country. Trails along open ridges are used wherever possible in connection with these look-out points. Another important part of the pro- tective work is the patrol of trails fre- quented by campers and hunters. Con- stant patrol during the dry season along the rights-of-way of railroads travers- ing the forests is one of the most impor- tant features of this work. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED With a well-distributed patrol force and a coordinated system of trails and telephone lines, the question of location and control is largely covered with one Back-firing in the Bitterroot Mountains exception—equipment. As a fire de- partment in a city maintains engines, men, and horses, as a form of insurance against loss of city property, in no less degree is it necessary to be adequately equipped to meet a fire in the forests. There must-be men, tools, and pack- trains immediately available if the fire is to be controlled, and it must be reached when it is fairly small. During the past fire season there were at one time in the field in Northern Idaho and Northwestern Montana, on the National Forests,approximately 300 hired pack horses. This, of course, was during the very worst conditions, when the woods were as dry as a tinder box and fires badly scattered. The securing of these pack-trains was one of the chief sources of delay in getting men and supplies to the fires. By equipping each Forest with horses where trans- portation facilities make it imperative, this delay can be largely obviated. In addition to the horses, caches of tools, 634 consisting of shovels, mattocks, axes, and saws, are distributed throughout the Forest. These emergency caches are for equipping at least 10 men. UNCOMMONLY DRY SEASON Usually the fire season begins about the latter part of July and lasts through August and early September. This year no spring rains occurred and the country began to get dry by early June. Steps were taken to prepare for a bad year. Extra patrol was put on. Co- operation was planned and effected with railroads and lumber companies, and people were warned to be very careful about burning brush to clear land. In spite of all precautions, fires originated from the burning of brush, from loco- motives and logging engines, from campers, and from lightning. The practically unbroken drouth dur- ing June, July, and August was accom- panied in many localities by dry elec- Pack Train in the Bitterroot Mountains trical storms and almost incessant high winds. By the fifteenth of July serious fires were burning on nearly every For- est west of the continental divide, anil many more starting every day. EMERGENCY FORCE AND EQUIPMENT By the middle of July over three thousand extra laborers were employed on the fire lines in Northwestern Mon- tana and Northern Idaho. This force had been secured, equipped, and organ- ized for work in the space of from two to three weeks. The labor markets of Missoula, Spokane, and Butte had been called upon, and furnished the bulk of the men. Tools, thousands of mat- tocks, shovels, and axes, were drained from the mercantile stores wherever available, until their supplies were ex- hausted and special orders had to be rushed through in order to complete the equipment of the men. The country had been scoured for pack animals, and trains of from 5 to 40 horses each secured to transport the supplies and equipment of the fire fight- ers into the hills. The heavily tim- bered country afforded practically no feed for the horses, and the packing of horse feed, besides the supplies and equipment, had to be provided. Expe- rienced packers had to be obtained to handle these trains in the hills. Any one familiar with western mountains will appreciate the importance of this one item alone. The inaccessibility of the territory lying immediately contiguous to the Idaho-Montana divide in the Clear- water and Cceur d’Alene Forests made it necessary to equip the pack trains in Montana and have them drop over the divide on to the Clearwater and St. Joe River drainages. Trails from the Mon- tana side were accessible, but when the top of the divide was reached, in most cases trails had to be cut to get the pack horses through. With this done and 635 636 the camps established in the field near the bigger fires, reconnaissance to lo- cate any other fires had to be made. Fires were located, but owing to the impossibility of getting a pack train and supplies into them without trails, they had in some cases to be left burning. FATAL DELAYS ; With adequate patrol, trails, and tele- phone communication, these fires ought to have been discovered and somebody been on the ground within 5 to 8 hours after the first smoke was seen; instead, it actually took from one to five days. If help was needed after the fire was reached, the Forest Guard or Ranger would have, without trails or telephone lines, a trip of from 30 to 60 miles on foot to get it. This would consume Eom stove days. lf-mecessany to fe- turn with a bunch of men, imagine crawling through the brush with packs on your backs to get to a fire, or else cutting out miles of windfall and brush. Think of the time consumed! Fire has the peculiar faculty of showing no disposition to wait. Perhaps on ac- count of this delay a fire which in the first place covered only a few acres has in the absence of any restraining influ- ence covered one or two thousand acres, or perhaps fifty thousand acres. Don’t think this improbable ; visit some of the great areas of charred stumps and snags, where once stood timber worth on the stump from $2.00 to $4.50 per thousand board feet. These were some of the difficulties encountered in the dry season of 1910 THREE THOUSAND FIRES PUT OUT By the middle of August, over three thousand small fires had been put out by the patrolmen and over ninety large fires brought under control by organ- ized crews of from twenty-five to one hundred and fifty men. Fires once brought under control were repeatedly fanned into new life by high winds, and AMERICAN FORESTRY racing up into the crowns of the trees, jumped across the trenches which re- strained them. The weary fighters had to drop back and throw up a second or third or even fourth line of defense. New fires were starting every day, and the dense smoke made it extremely difficult to locate them, except when close to roads or railroad rights of way. With the force of men in the field, however, assisted efficiently by ten companies of Federal troops, and the organized pack-train system of transportation, most of the fires were well in hand on Saturday, August 20. WHEN THE HURRICANE CAME On the afternoon of that day a hurri- cane, strong enough in many localities to uproot whole hillsides of timber and force men out of their saddles, swept over the Forests adjoining the Mon- tana-Idaho state line. The gale con- tinued for fully twenty-four hours and fanned every smouldering fire in its path into uncontrollable fury. They flamed up into the crowns of the trees and spread through the adjoining tim- ber, much of which was uprooted be- fore the fires reached it, with incredible rapidity. The roar of these fires was heard for miles and was likened by some of the Rangers in their path to the noise of a thousand freight trains crossing simul- taneously as many steel trestles. At many points these fires jumped rivers a quarter or half a mile wide, and in sev- eral instances leaped across canyons a mile or more in width, from ridge to ridge, leaving solid strips of green tim- ber untouched. Cinders, ashes, and burning embers were carried many miles. The nearest fire to Missoula, Montana, was about 12 miles,-yet cinders as large as robins’ eggs fell in the streets, and the clouds of smoke and ashes were so thick that the electric lights were lit at 3 o’clock in the afternoon. The sun shining through these clouds gave a vivid, lurid glare as of a great conflagration. For many days it shone only as a great round blood-red disk. HOW WHERE THE MEN WERE KILLED It was the top fires of August 20 and 21, driven by cyclonic winds, which wrought the destruction of life and property in Idaho and Montana this summer. Within forty-eight hours a strip of country along the Bitterroot Mountains, at least one hundred and twenty miles in length, extending from the Clark’s Fork River to the head of the Selway Fork of the Clearwater, and from twenty to thirty-five miles in width, was more or less completely burned over. Seventy-four employees of the Forest Service, all temporary laborers, were killed, and as many more injured. The rescue of the injured and miss- ing men and of the settlers and pros- pectors and others endangered in the mountains necessarily took precedence over fire fighting for several days, but by August. twenty- -fourth the combat with the fires was resumed at nearly all points and continued until the early September rains largely eliminated fur- ther danger. Of all the causes of forest fires, light- ning alone is not controllable. It is, however, possible by an adequate sys- tem of patrol, communication, and transportation, to discover and get to all fires soon enough to put them out. Since lightning is one of the most pro- lific causes of the more remote fires, the importance of catching them when they are small cannot be too strongly empha- sized. But the inadequate trail systems on the Forests, owing to the size of the country and the insufficiency of funds to build any but those of the most urg- ent character, made it impossible to get to a great many of these fires until un- der the stimulus of the winds and dry weather they had become too large to be handled by a few men. It is exactly analogous to the position a city fire department would be in if the streets were kept continually blocked and each time a call was made work would have to be done to clear the streets before the engines could reach the fire. Is it necessary to emphasize the importance of sending in the alarm quickly and getting after the fire before eth oBIKRES: WERE FOUGE TE 637 it gains headway? If the Forests are to be protected from fire, trails must be put through them. THE SECRET OF FULL CONTROL Summarizing the essential things to do to make the location and control of fires in the National Forests possible : (i) A comprehensive system of ridge and stream trails which extend over the entire Forest. These trails average in cost from $60.00 to $100.00 per mile, with an 18-inch tread and 8-foot clear- ing. Each Forest should eventually have from 200 to 400 miles of trail. (2) A system of well-selected look- out points and ridge trails, so coordi- nated as to give primary control of all districts for locating fires. (3) A coordinated system of tele- phone lines extending up the main streams and tapping by tributary lines the look-out points. (4) The purchase and maintenance of pack horses fully equipped with pack saddles. These horses can be used for building trails and, when the emergency arises, put on duty packing fire sup- plies. (5) The location of caches of tools throughout the Forest at strategic points. These tools should consist of mattocks or grub-hoes, saws, axes, and shovels, enough to equip 10 men from each cache. (6) A patrol on heavily timbered areas of at least I man to 30,000 acres, and in the more open regions of 1 man to 50,000 or 60,000 acres. TRENCHING AND BACK-FIRING So much for general control. Now as to the methods of fighting the fires when reached. Fires are of two classes—ground fires and top fires. The ground fires are always the first to start, and the top fires occur only under high winds. Fire runs up hill rapidly under high winds. Trenches from 2 to 4 feet wide are dug down to mineral soil and all the inflam- mable brush and débris possible thrown away from the fire in order to give the men an opportunity to make a stand. If 638 AMERICAN the fire is creeping very slowly it can usually be stopped upon reaching this line. If fanned by a breeze, it is neces- sary, 1f the wind is in the right direc- tion, to start fire all along the trench and back-fire. The trenches are located along the ridges or follow the contour of the hills. Advantage is taken of streams and other natural fire breaks, such as rock- slides, to help out in making the trenches. In many cases back-firing is done at night, even against the wind, by clearing out the timber to a width of 20 feet along the trench. The clear- ing of the timber is to prevent a flare- up and jump across the line. FIRE-FIGHTING CREWS Individual fire-fighting crews include irom 129to 20 —men..~ Chese men are equipped with mattocks, axes, and shov- els. The proportion of each kind of tool varies in accordance with the char- acter of country. In open yellow pine, shovels are mainly used. In dense cedar, hemlock, and white pine, mat- tocks and axes are most useful. Each crew is equipped with 2-man cross-cut saws to cut out large fallen timber. With a 20-man crew in dense timber the distribution is about 10 mattocks, 5 - shovels, and 5 axes. Enough shovels, however, must be provided to supply each man, since the shovel is the most effective tool after the trenching has been done, and patrol on the trench to hold the fire from crossing is the im- portant work. Depending on the country, a crew of 20 men can cut from 34 to 1% miles of trench in a day. It is clear from this why so many men are required on the fire line. A large number for a short period is essential in order that the fire line can be put in as quickly as possible. In placing the fire trench many ex- perienced fire fighters differ ; some fight up close to the line, not giving any more than they can help; others get ahead of the fire line and trench and back-fire to stop it. The method of fighting close is most applicable when the fire is creeping slowly down a hill. On ac- FORESTRY count of the fires’ quieting down at night, the close fighting can usually best be done at that time. In all of the methods the object is to get the ground fire surrounded on all sides by a trench dug to mineral soil and all inflammable debris removed so that it cannot cross the line. Fighting ground fires is hard, mean work. Digging through the forest lit- ter and usually rocky soil in the heat of an August day, with the smoke and ashes smarting the eyes and irritating the throat, is no child’s play. There is no danger until high winds change the ground fires to top fires. The violence of a top or crown fire depends upon the one factor upon which the failure or success in holding a fire depends—the wind. There is no known way to fight a fire of this character when the wind is very high, except to back-fire from a considerable distance, where advantage can be taken of natural barriers, such as roads or bare ridge tops. FULL CONTROL POSSIBLE The question will be raised as to whether it is possible to protect these areas from fires and whether or not it is worth while. Appreciating even the full significance of the catastrophe of this year, there is not the slightest doubt but that with an adequate trail, look-out, and telephone system, and a sufficient equipment of tools, the fires can be controlled. The fundamental factors in the whole situation are tele- phone communication, trail transporta- tion, and man patrol. Now, granting the practicability of locating and controlling fires, the ques- tion, “Is it worth while?’ has been raised many times. The estimate of valuable timber in the present district of periodical fires in the National For- ests of Northern Idaho and Northwest- ern Montana is approximately 80 bil- lion feet. Conservatively valued at $2.50 per thousand feet, this represents a total money value of some $200,000,- 000. The recent fires covered two watersheds where sales had actually been made aggregating in stumpage value $850,000. epee PiGHTERS This timber has all been killed by fire, resulting in an actual reduction in stumpage value of at least a half, which represents a loss of $425,000 to the na- tion. Probably not over 50 per cent of this timber can be sold in its present condition, which increases this loss to over $600,000. These sales aggregated 200,000,000 feet, and for every one thousand feet lost, there is lost $10.00 in wages to the community. Realize, please, that this represents but two 639 small watersheds not aggregating over 15,000 acres. These two areas are se- lected because they represent not esti- mates but actual purchase prices ob- tained under competitive bids. The immediate work which now faces the Service in this district is the disposi- tion of the dead timber while still mer- chantable. The mapping, estimating, and appraisal of the burned areas is be- ing aggressively pushed in order to prepare for sales as soon as possible. THE FIRE FIGHTERS By Arthur Chapman “Where's Smith and Hennessy, Edwards, Stowe— Where's Casey and Link and Small?" The ranger listened, and murmured low: "They're missing, Chief, that's all. “Where the smoke rolls high, 1 saw them ride— They waved good-bye to me; Good God! they might as well have tried To put back the rolling sea. "Tl rode for aid till my horse fell dead, Then waded the mountain stream: The pools I swam were red, blood red, And covered with choking steam. "There was never a comrade to shout ‘Hello,’ Though I flung back many a call: The brave boys knew what it meant to go— They're missing, Chief—that's all." —Denver Republican (CD CANS . Wi epee Gey eee —— 1A WY. 24 SEAR ALT i \y i] dé 7 ; BEE? iN 7A ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF BURNED AND WINDTHROWN TIMBER WHAT PROTECTIVE CO-OPERATION DID By E. T, ALLEN Forester of the Northwestern Forestry and Conservation Association (The success with which the affiliated private fire protective associations of the Pacific Northwest met the difficult situation thrust upon them by the menacing fires throughout the region makes a remarkable showing. Scarcely less noteworthy was due, first, to the example of the Forest Service, whose methods are closely fact that this success ’ followed by is the f the associations, and second, to a liberal policy of spending money in order to get results. The private co-operators spend from one to ten times as much on fire protection alone as the Government spends for the entire administration of the national forests.—Ed. ) PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTION The Pacific Northwest suffers from fire -exactly im the measure that as a whole or locally it ignores the two basic essentials of prevention—respect for fire laws and preparedness for emerg- ency. Excepting the comparatively few caused by lightning, every forest fire results from malice or avoidable care- lessness. Either is criminal, prohibited by laws entitled to the respect and en- forcement accorded laws against theft or murder. With means of securing such respect and enforcement, we should have little fire trouble Every fire, however caused, is smal! enough at first to be easily put out. With an adequate force of trained, vigi- lant men, furnished proper transporta- tion, means of communication, and equipment, fires in the forest do not be- come forest fires. Patrol is essential, and is effectual in the measure of 1 organization and facilities. These proven axioms are recognized by the Forest Service, which proceeds accordingly, as far as wholly inade- quate funds permit, in protecting the national forests. Outside the national forests these ax- ioms are not recognized, or at least not applied, by state or public to a degree even approaching that necessary to pro- tect lives, property, and public welfare generally. This lack of defensive prep- aration results in tremendous injury to the community every year, and in ab- normal years, of w hich 1910 is only one exainple, invites irretrievable disaster. PRIVATE ASSOCIATIONS While the interest of private owners in forest protection is no more direct or great than that of the community, it is more promptly realized. In the Pacific Northwest, especially in Idaho, Wash- ington, and Oregon, private owners of forest land have ‘consequently gone even farther than the Government, and very much farther than the states or the public, in the installation of protective systems. Their methods are practically identical with those of the Forest Ser- vice, making patrol the main point, sup- plemented by fire fighting, trail and telephone building, etc. The expense is largely borne by co-operation, pro rated on the basis of acreage owned, although many owners do much independent work also. There are about ten of these co-oper- ative associations, among the largest being the Cceur d’Alene, Clearwater, Pend ‘Oreille, and Potlach Timber Protective Associations in Idaho; the Washington Forest Fire Association, and the Oregon Forest Fire Associa- tion. They affiliate for many central purposes in the Western Forestry and Conservation Association, which is a grand lodge for all such organizations and for conservation associations in the five states from Montana to California. O41 642 In Idaho the state itself is a member of all associations, paying its full share per acre for state lands embraced. Washington does not share the expense of patrol, but helps defray the expense of additional day labor for actual fire fighting. This work bythe privateowners gives the very highest efficiency in patrol and fire fighting. They are not limited by statute or appropriation bills in provid- ing adequate funds and using them to meet emergencies. Being interested only in the best results, and technically familiar with conditions, they get good men and practical supervision. They spend from one to ten cents an acre for exclusive fire work during the fire sea- son, while the Forest Service has to spread a cent or two over all sorts of administrative work for the whole year. The private owner, however, is prac- tically helpless in enforcing the puni- tive laws which are very generally re- garded with contempt, because there is little state machinery for enforcing them, and here lies one of the greatest dangers to property and life outside the national forests. WHAT THE CONDITIONS WERE To come now to the specific condi- tions of the season of 1910: When it became apparent that un- usual drought was bringing a grave situation, the private patrols were grad- ually increased and every effort was made to reduce the hazard. The West- ern Forestry and Conservation Associ- ation had repeated warnings published in every newspaper in the Northwest. Letters were sent to loggers and others, urging every precaution in the woods. Circulars, posters, and other publicity matter were circulated widely. All this had undoubted great effect, but did not, of course, remove the general careless- ness with fire that prevails where the fire laws are not respected. Although June and July continued hot and dry after an unusually dry spring, and the danger during these two months had been equal to that of the ordinary entire season, the associa- AMERIGANSRFORES DRY tions extinguished hundreds upon hun- dreds of fires in their incipiency and practically prevented any loss within their territory of millions of acres. But finally, in August, there prevailed throughout the Northwest strong winds which, with the forests already like tin- der, fanned every fire that could not be reached at once into a serious confla- gration. An army of private patrolmen was by this time in the field, exerting every effort. The four Idaho associations had from 30 to 50 regular men each, the Washington association 125. Be- sides these, additional and independent patrols comprised several hundred more. Fire fighters were freely em- ployed to check and hold fires that be- came serious. But as conditions became worse, the systems broke at a few of their weak- est places, and almost always for one of two reasons—persistent violation of the fire laws or juxtaposition of unpro- tected lands. It was an utter impossi- bility, especially after the force was taxed to the utmost where life and property was particularly in danger, to meet all the new fires that bust out as a result of public indifference. THE RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED Nevertheless, effort was never once remitted, and the associations, like the Forest Service, massed all the men they could hire wherever they were most needed, without regard for fine distinc- tions of ownership. Menacing fires were fought, although on the lands of men who had refused to protect them. The same credit is due very many own- ers who worked independently. In western Washington $200,000 was spent during the season for private fire work. The Cceur d’Alene association alone spent about $50,000 in Idaho, having as high as 850 men in the field, and its neighbors in proportion. The Washington association had 1,200 extra men. Oregon owners were less per- fectly organized, so exact figures are not yet available, but doubtless spent $100,000. Fire at St. Joe, Idaho, from It is impossible to give any reliable estimate of the total loss at present, par- ticularly in Idaho, for reports are con- stantly being changed by more careful investigation. First estimates seldom include possibilities of salvage where timber is not destroyed. Two impor- tant facts may, however, be stated with conviction: First, that the losses were few and insignificant when the area in- volved is considered; and, second, that had it not been for the timber owners’ effort the contrary would have been true and the Pacific Northwest would have suffered a calamity past conceiv- 3 a Distance of Four Miles ing of. The really bad fires can be counted on the fingers, while those ex- tinguished, which under the conditions that prevailed would otherwise have been as bad or worse, number by thou- sands. It is sometimes believed that the lum- berman is the enemy of forest preserva- tion and should be compelled to greater duty to the public. Whether or not this is true elsewhere, in the Pacific North- west he is doing more for the cause than any one else, and the problem, if the cause is to succeed, is to get the public to perform its own duty. 643 FOREST FIRES IN WASHINGTON AND OREGON By C, S. CHAPMAN District Forester, District 5, U. S. Forest Service HE summer of 1910 was conspic- uous by lack of rainfall. Early in the spring the snow left the mountains of eastern Oregon and Washington, where it usually lies until much later, and those who could read the signs predicted a dry summer. From the middle of June until the mid- dle of September, a period of nearly ninety days, there was practically no rain. The result of this drought was that in early August the woods were as dry as they usually are in late Sep- tember, with no immediate prospects of rain. East of the mountains the grass was dry and parched, and a match or cigar- ette stub thrown into it easily started a serious fire. On the west side slash- ings became tinder-like and+a spark from a donkey or locomotive was all that was needed to start a fire which in an hour would require twenty men to extinguish. The dense forest of the West Slope does not ordinarily burn easily. The dense shade protecting the underbrush from the direct rays of the sun causes it to stay green and sO serve, in no small measure, to pre- vent the starting of fires in the ordi- nary way. But a fire starting in a dry slashing, with an enormous amount of fuel in tops, limbs, and defective and broken trees strewn over the ground to feed upon, will sweep into a stand of green timber, kill and dry out the dense green underbrush beneath the stand, and thus make more fuel for fires which often go into the tops and are then beyond control. The great- est menace to standing timber on the West Coast is the old slashings. Sec- ond to this is the campers and hunters, 644 who not infrequently build fires against defective logs and then fail to put them out. Such fires can gather sufficient energy to dry out the green underbrush and start dangerous conflagrations. The patrols of the Forest Service and private owners kept the fires well in hand until the middle of July. On the Oregon National Forest a fire started in the Santian country on July 19. >Ehis, wassthe® first*ofe the sapad. fires, for although it destroyed little government timber and was soon un- der control, it caused loss of life. Three men in the employ of the Hoover Lumber Company in trying to recover their tools which were in the path of the fire were overtaken by it and killed. Later the Hoover Mill burned and set fire to surrounding timber. During the latter part of June and during July the forests were getting in serious con- dition and both the government and private timber owners were taking ex- tra precautions to prevent the possi- bility of disastrous fires, starting. In spite of this, however, Supervisor Reid of the Colville National Forest early in July reported fires on his forests. By July 29 he reported thirteen fires burn- ing and more starting every day. All available help was secured and the Na- tional Forest officers were tireless in their endeavor to handle the situation. Fires threatened on the north across the Canadian border and on the south from the Colville Indian Reservation. On August It the Forester was wired for troops as the situation was growing more serious and not enough experi- enced men could be had to handle the crews of green men, the only men avail- able, brought in to fight the fire. Two Forest Ranger R. M. Debitt and Crew, near Avery, Idaho companies of troops left American Lake, August 13, for the Colville. Be- fore their arrival, however, the rains set in and they were only required to assist in patrolling the fire lines to be absolutely sure that no fires started up again. In all, twenty-nine fires started on the Colville Forest this summer, burning over an area of approximately 100,000 acres of merchantile timber and causing a loss of 50,000,000 feet of timber valued at not less than $150,000. Before the fires on the Colville For- est were fairly under control, the situa- tion on the Crater in southern Oregon became serious and those on the Wall- owa and Whitman forests assumed serious proportions. But the condition on the Crater was by far the most serious in the two States, for not only did the fires burn in heavy stands of valuable timber, but the lives and property of settlers were seriously threatened, and even a city was men- aced. As on the Colville, fires on the Crater were scattered over the entire area and National Forest timber was threatened by fires burning on private lands outside the boundaries of the Forest. The surrounding country was drawn on to the fullest extent for help, but enough could not be secured. On August 19, 110 soldiers arrived at Med- ford, and on August 2I, 250 more. These men greatly strengthened the force. Through the willingness of the men and the hearty cooperation of their officers they became at once an effi- cient fire fighting crew, which stayed with the situation until the fires were under control, September 9. It was estimated roughly, for the timber has not yet been carefully cruised, that on the Crater alone tim- ber to the amount of 140,000,000 feet, valued at $150,000 was burned, while, if the value of young growth killed is counted, the loss aggregated not less that $450,000. In all, over 110,000 acres were burned over. The loss on private lands adjoining the Forest was also great. It is not possible to say what this was, but it is certain that it also can be counted in hundreds of thousands. On the Crater alone over 645 Seventy-two Horses Were Packed Here for the Fire Camps seventy-five small fires were extin- guished by the rangers before they gathered headway. At one period of the fire danger Ashland, a city of 4,000 inhabitants, closed all of its business houses and the men assembled on the fire line to save the city. It is appal- ling to think what the situation might have been, and the great work done with an insufficient force, emphasizes how much more effective the protection might be made. The conditions on the Wallowa, Whitman, Wenaha, Cascade and Ump- qua were serious. In each of these for- ests valuable resources were destroyed and, but for the prompt action on the part of Forest officers, not only tim- ber but other property valued at many hundreds of thousands of dollars would have been lost. This is the most disastrous fire sea- son the Northwest has ever known. It is estimated that in the two States of Oregon and Washington, one billion feet of National Forest timber has been killed by fire. Most of this, because of inaccessibility, will never be marketed. 646 It is probably true, that the fires in the early 60’s, which destroyed an enor- mous belt of timber along the Oregon Coast, were more destructive than those of this year. But in those days, while the timber was in reality valuable, it meant little to the citizens of that State. The loss would have been placed at a low figure as compared with that of this year. In 1902, Washington and Oregon suffered severely from forest fires, but they were relatively local. This year’s fires have been general. No section has escaped and the total loss, if it is ever accurately ascertained, for both the government and private lands, will be staggering. Fires in Washing- ton and Oregon have cost the Forest Service, for extra labor alone, $150,000, besides the patrols regularly main- tained. In addition to this, private owners in both States have expended large sums both for fire fighting and in patrols. The moral to be drawn is plain. We must always be ready for the unusual year. hes lossesof 1a “year dike the present would pay for protection for many years. Absolute safety must be FIRES IN WASHINGTON AND OREGON aimed at. It is better to spend money in preventing fires from getting under headway than in fighting large fires. During the dangerous season no fire guard should have a district to patrol which he can not cover easily in one day. The average area covered by each National Forest ranger in Wash- ington and Oregon exceeds 50,000 acres. Not infrequently it 1s more than this. In many instances the value of stand- ing timber guarded by a single ranger exceeds $3,000,000, and when it is con- sidered that these same men are also responsible for the prompt and efficient conduct of other National Forest busi- ness, the inadequacy of such a force needs no further demonstration. It is sufficient to say that good insurance on three million dollars’ worth of prop- erty could hardly be had for $1,100 or $1,200, the salary of a ranger. 647 The National Forests of Washing- ton and Oregon contain over one-third of all the standing timber in such For- ests throughout the United States. Its value, conservatively estimated, is not less than $400,000,000. To properly guard this great national wealth re- quires adequate means of communica- tion, trails, roads and telephone lines, and a sufficient number of men during the summer months to patrol the area properly. Trail and road building is here more expensive than in any other section of the United States, but the value of the timber warrants large ex- penditures, for it is the finest timber in the world. - Provision for its proper protection should be made at once. The people oie te: Wnited “States: cannot afford to wait until disaster forces the necessity for such protection upon them. Here is a case where the door may be locked before the horse is stolen. HOW TELEPHONES SAVED LIVES By Crile BUGIS Assistant District Forester, U. S, Forest Service, Portland (From the Pittsheld (Mass.) Journal of October 5.) (The following account of the fight against the destructive fires in southern Oregon demonstrates by experimental proof what the value of prompt communication is in emergen- cies such as are likely to arise at any time during the danger season in the rugged country of the West Mr. Buck, who tells the story, is at present assigned as chief of the Office of Lands in his district, but assumed charge of the fire-fighting force, as described, when the need of good generalship became great—Ed.) OW telephones saved settlers from H death in forest fires,” is the at- tractive title of a story told by Assistant District Forester C. J. Buck in the Oregon Sunday Journal of Sep- tember 25, when he returned from suc- cessful generalship of the southern Oregon fire situation. The timber loss in southern Oregon was 800,000,000 feet on Government and private holdings, yet not a life was lost. It was the worst fire in north- west history, but telephones carrying warnings with electric speed warned the settlers and the hunters and the campers so that they got safely each time from the path of the devouring destruction. There were fires that raced faster than a man could run and burned with such tremendous ferocity that green forests were completely burned. Where great trees had towered to magnificent heights, only smoking stumps were left! The breath? of the: flanre: smatiae canyon like a furnace heated seven times laughed derisively at the puny efforts of puny men to stay its course and reached out a menace of death, to enfold them. Here, and there were the isolated homes of lonely settlers; out in the woods were hunters; along the streams were fishermen. Over the country hung the smoke pall. The great area with its clustering towns and its scat- 648 tered people had never known such a drought. It was as dry as the sands Of> Sahara— where) 2rains never. ciall The sun had been shining down day after day its heat unbearable and the forests were like tinder, ready to blaze from a spark. The hot winds raged, too, day after day, ready to fan the spark into a roaring torrent of madly spreading fire. This was the condition found by Forester Buck when he stepped off the train at Medford, going from Port- land to respond to urgent calls for as- sistance. The people were almost scared to death. The country was so dry, the winds so high and so unceas- ing, and the smoke cloud so dense that no one knew just when the flame would reach out hungrily in his direc- tion. FIRES ALL AROUND “Fires were buring at Mount Pitts, Anderson Creek, Wagner Creek near Ashland, near Butte Falls, on Clover Creek, Elk Creek, and’ at Cat Creek,” said Mr. Buck. “There had been no preparation for so many fires. They were all unexpected. There were not by any manner of means enough of a fire-fighting force on the ground to handle the blazes, even had they been of the ordinary controllable sort. Con- fusion was added to apprehension by Company G, 25th Regiment from Fort George Wright, Washington reports constantly being received of new fires. I’m going to say frankly, now that the danger is over, that for a time we thought the whole country would go. “To get an organization under such conditions was as imperative as it seemed impossible. Never at the best of the time could we get enough men to fight the fires and get the kind of a continued patrol we needed. “Right here is where the telephones saved the day. In the Crater National forest the government has spent $3,500 in constructing 60 miles of telephone lines between the various outposts of the patrol rangers. We also had free use of such private telephones as there were. The fire situation was constantly changing. When a few hours before it might have been clear, a carelessly dropped cigar might have been fanned into a raging fire. Ata point a little distant, where the fire had been serious, control of the situation might have been obtained. So by a constant system of telephone reports we were enabled to know where the need for fire fighters was greatest and to keep them moving accordingly. “The fire at Deadwood, a small but serious blaze, will serve as an instance. Dead Indian, a few miles to the north, had been pretty well burned over, when in the middle of the night, news of the fire at Deadwood came. 1 found it possible to move men from Dead Indian and from Ashland at the same time by using the telephone. In 24 hours the situation was under con- trol. Had messengers been trusted to bring the news, and other messengers been necessary to gather up the men and send them to the fire front, the blaze might have spread beyond all control. At Deadwood the settlers came near losing their property. Fire burned clear up to the back yards and the fire-fighting that was done, before the blaze could be controlled, was of the heroic kind. THE WORST FIRE “The worst of all the fires was on the South Fork of Rogue river. A for- 649 650 est officer told me that at a distance of a mile the rear of the flames sounded like an express train crossing a trestle near at hand. I do not believe another fire in this district destroyed so much timber. The total loss* was not less than 350,000,000 feet, worth on the stump about a million dollars. Here the flames, racing through the tree tops when the wind blew at all, spread- ing along the ground when the air was calm, burned down the green timber, absolutely destroying its merchantable value. “The pick of Jackson county timber, to be brief, was destroyed. Much of it was in private ownership. “Two companies of soldiers were sent to help the local fire fighters. They spent a good deal of their time pro- tecting the settlers’ houses, but they did splendid work. Unorganized work on the Rogue river fire would have done little good. The thing that puz- zled them most was the way the fires spreadey Dhey arrived direst; ak, the northwest corner of the burning area then began the work toward the east, trenching and_ back-firing. “Occasionally they sent ahead to learn how the fire was spreading. In the morning it was about a mile ahead of them. This gave confidence. They thought by night they would surely have caught up. Night came, and im- agine the chagrin of the fighters when they found that the blaze was five miles ahead of them. It was burning around them and coming back toward them. It was then found necessary to immediately move camp a distance of 12 miles before they could get at the fire front. But there is no doubt that the soldiers saved in this locality 300,- 000,000 feet of timber. They certainly earned their transportation and their wages many times over. “As much could be said for all the soldiers sent to fight fire in the Crater forest. They worked as hard as men could work, unmindful of the danger or the exposure. Some of them plead- ed that they might be allowed to work extra hours in order that there might be a greater certainty of bringing the flames under control. AMERICAN FORESTRY PRAISE FOR THE SOLDIERS “Particular credit is due their com- mander, Major Martin, for the master- ly way in which he handled his men. He inaugurated a system of keeping in close touch with all points of danger that was well nigh perfect. He co- operated closely with the Forest Ser- vice. He kept in constant communi- cation with me, so that he might know where to send his men to work the most effectively. It would take a long time to tell how they worked eagerly and uncomplainingly, with perfect sys- tem and discipline and with organiza- tion impossible to the volunteer fire fighters or to the laborers that we has- tily employed. “To say that no lives were lost does not imply that there was no danger. Ashland was in serious danger. It was a wild and dramatic time when the fire bells rang and the people assem- bled on the public square. No wonder the faces of the men grew pale as they heard Ranger Gribble tell them that if the wind kept blowing, their homes and the city might go. “Ashland, understand, is a fine little city of between eight and ten thous- and population. But from the edge of the town to dense timber is not more thansa mile and a) halts. lheresised great area on other sides of the town that is overgrown with brush tremen- dously inflammable in such a season as this. The business men closed their stores and went out to fight fire in the forest. They did good work, for they were fighting for their families and their property. A foggy day came, when in other places it rained, and the fires subsided. Fear was relieved, the tension relaxed. Then the wind came again, and again the town was in dan- ger. So the people fought their battles against the fire fiend all over, and they won. “Tn the office there was press of bus- iness and dramatic scenes. It was like headquarters in war time. I talked on the telephone on an average of six hours a day. When I got away from that job I had scarcely any voice left. HOW TREE PHONES SAVED-LIVES 651 “Telegrams poured in from every part of the United States. They were inquiries from people who had friends Gute ine the toesests.. bhtese had . to: 4be answered. A local paper printed a story about settlers being endangered. A man stumbled into the office, his face blanched. He could not speak. In his hand he held a copy of that paper. ‘My family is there,’ he finally gasped. It took a lot of work to reas- sure that man and send him on his way again. “Up at Mosquito Ranger’s Post, Mrs. Holts, the ranger’s wife with her children were hemmed in by the flames. For a while we thought them burned. 3ut finally they got out alive. But it would be hard to picture the grief and the worry that attended all these things. “There were so many reports of lives endangered, lives lost, settlers, fire-fighters and hunters hemmed in by the flames, that we never knew what to believe. It was such a time as a man never forgets. THE FIRES LESSON “Now that the danger is past, we who fought the fires are left with cer- tain conclusions concerning the way in which the situation must be handled another time. “There must, in the first place, be better fire protection. More rangers are needed. This not alone for the southern Oregon country. No one can tell where the fire will be worst next year. “Crater national forest has an area of over 1,000,000 acres. At the time the fires broke out there were between 25 and 30 rangers for the whole vast should at area. There least be a ranger for each township of 36 sec- tions. There should be more complete provisions for the reporting of fires. The telephone service, such as we had, undoubtedly was the agent of preser- vation from double the destruction re- corded. But there should be at least 250 miles more of telephone lines. This costs $60 a mile—cheap compared to the value of the service. “The most essential thing in forest fire fighting is getting men on the ground. Ten men to handle the blaze in its incipiency are worth more than 200 after the flames gain headway. “And, of course, the great thing in preventing destruction of forests by fires is precaution. Campers and hunters set most of the blazes. There seem to be indications in southern Oregon that some of the forest fires were purposely set. Some of them or- iginated in slashings. But the people tell me that when they have learned of a hunter or a camper moving from their vicinity they go to look at the site of his camp, and, ten chances to one, they will find embers, which it caught up by the wind constitute the beginning of an uncontrollable fire.” Assistant District Forester Buck is accredited by the people on the ground who watched his work and by others who know of the menace of the fires with having given an almost super- human service in preventing greater destruction. It was a time when a man needed to keep his head cool and his mind working rapidly. Order needed to be worked out of confusion. This the assistant district forester did. Had it not been for his work un- doubtedly the timber loss, great as it is, would have been doubled. FOREST FIRES IN WASHINGTON By JOEL SHOMAKER Chairman, Washington Conservation Commission The State of Washington has passed through another ordeal of forest fires. Thousands of acres of standing timber have been burned over and the country left in ashy desolation. Large areas of young forest growth have been wasted, and soil fertility consumed, by the un- natural burning process. ‘The loss to life and personal property has not been so great as in adjacent States, but the total waste resulting from fires will reach almost the highest point in the records of State history. My own experience will give an illus- tration of what has taken place in other sections. On July 3 a fire was noticed in an isolated spot on my Nature Nur- sery. It had been started in the débris left from loggers, several hours before I discovered the smoke, as I live on the waterfront of Hood Canal and the fire was set far back on the upland. It had made such a start, when fighters ar- rived, that nothing could be done but watch the marching path of destruc- tion. That fire continued its trail of annihi- lation for about two months. I worked day and night to save my own property, and many others labored to prevent conflagrations in both private and pub- lic property. I place the loss to my nursery, in timber, young forest growth, plants and shrubs, waste in soil fertility and destruction of scenery, at $10,000. It burned over nearly 200 acres of my land and extended far out into the neighboring country. The season was favorable for fires, as it is said to have been the driest sum- mer in twenty years. I patrolled the borders of the fire approaching my dwelling, and, with shovel in hand, checked the flames for a time: -But nothing but water did any good. When 052 the family had been aroused to take the boat, and trees were falling all around the house, we put a stop to the flames by using water, carried by hand from the bay, and cutting trenches to prevent burning leaves from crossing. Other fires in my vicinity did much damage to the forest and soil and threatened homes and settled communi- ties. In some districts the fires extended into towns and the danger became so great that Governor M. E. Hay issued a proclamation calling on all loggers to cease operations for twenty days and set their employes to work in trying to put out the flames. Appeals were made to the War Department for assistance in bringing rain, by firing guns, at dif- ferent ports on the shores of Puget Sound. It was feared that a repetition of the “Black Friday’ of 1992 would be wit- nessed, and the President of the United States was asked to help in bringing rain. Troops were called out from the annual encampment and sent to differ- ent sections of the Northwest to-aid the forest rangers in saving timber and valuable properties. Smoke covered the land and waters, and navigation was impeded in the same manner as during the raging fires of 1902. August was a critical month, and but for showers at the close of the month would have been a time of wonderful waste and destruc- tion of timber, watersheds, and native resources. What caused the forest fires? That question is always uppermost after the country has been laid waste. As I see it, forest fires are synonymous with ig- norant and malicious mischief. It was the custom of Indians and some pio- neers of Puget Sound to set fire to dead brush in order to clear deer trails, burn FOREST FIRES IN WASHINGTON over patches for wild blackberries, or open places where grass could be grown for pastures. In some instances, it is asserted, parties took the fire plan for getting even with land owners and oth- ers. Again, it is stated that men set fire to timber in order to obtain work, at 30 cents an hour, fighting the fires. The wasteful methods of logging may be held responsible for the origin of many fires. Loggers take out market- able timber in the easiest and cheapest way possible. They fell trees in all di- rections and leave the limbs and branches where they fall. They knock down enormous quantities of young timber and thereby leave slashings for fire, whether it comes as an accident or for other purposes. No efforts are put forth by the average loggers to guard the property of the land owner or the surrounding citizens. They simply skim off the cream and kick over the bucket to prevent others from securing benefits from the remnants. Clearing land by burning slashings 1s one prolific source of fires. That method appears to me to be an obsolete, dan- gerous, and slovenly way to clear logged-off land. I would not slash and burn any portion of my land, nor permit others to do so. It destroys the soil fer- tility that every farmer needs and must replace at much expense. There is no time gained by resorting to such meth- ods. The slashing burner endangers his own property and that of his neighbors unnecessarily. The only way to prop- erly clear land is to cut the brush and logs, pile in the right condition, and burn under safe restrictions. Our fore- fathers cleared land that way, and they lived and prospered and did not menace others. Many valuable lessons may be gleaned from the forest fires of t910. One of the first is the wise, efficient, and capa- ble system of the United States Forest Service, exemplified in the national for- ests. The plan adopted by that branch of our government for protecting the forests and conserving their resources for use now and in the future, is most commendable. And the men engaged in that department are entitled to all the praise the people of Washington can be- 653 stow for their heroic efforts in behalf of the government and the people compris- ing the nation. They make it possible for mature timber to be removed with- out damage to the growing forest, and encourage the spirit of national conser- vation. A system of patrol for national, state and private forests, similar to that in- troduced on the reserves, should be adopted everywhere that trees are grown for use, now or hereafter. It is too late to lock the stable door after the horse is stolen. And it 1s generally too late to stop a forest fire after it is once under good headway. The remedy lies in preventing the blaze in its incipiency. Some men will set forest fires, in un- guarded places, so long as the world stands. Some men will get drunk so long as liquors are manufactured, re- gardless of the wants of their families. We need laws that will curtail the de- structive forces in depraved manhood, in the forest and saloon. In Japan the man who plants a tree for posterity is considered a philanthro- pist, while in the United States the man who destroys the native forest, in quest of present money, and is successful, is held up as a capitalist. It is just as sensible for the orchardist to cut down his trees to harvest the fruit as for the logger to waste the young forest in re- moving the marketable timber. The Forest Service is trying to remedy this evil. It should be upheld by every loyal American citizen, and its plans should be adopted everywhere that timber is a commodity. The Washington Forest Fire Associ- ation is an important factor in saving the timber of this State. It works in harmony with the warden system, pro- vided for by the state legislature. They cooperate with the timberland owners, and assist materially in preventing fires and stopping the course of those which get from under control of private par- ties. But both organized forces need more assistance from the state and na- tion. They cannot perform impossibili- ties. A fire warden cannot be in many places at the same time. Their powers Big Creek Fire, Where Thirty Lives Were Lost should be enlarged and their duties ex- tended to cover broader educationai fields of labor. Conservation of natural and national resources is a national question of more importance than any issue before the American people. It forms the foun- dation of present and future agricul- tural and commercial prosperity. If handled correctly it will make of the State of Washington one of the great- est commercial divisions in the world. If neglected, or corrupted through po- litical manipulation, it will result disas- trously to the entire people. It is a question in which the homeseekers and investors of the entire nation should have a common interest. 654 The forests should be held sacred for use, now and in coming years, and not wasted or destroyed by any forces, either private or national. They con- tain the sources of power for develop- ing the country, and that should not pass from the control of the whole peo- ple. They hold the reservoirs for sup- plying water for irrigation and domes- tic purposes, in the valleys of industry, and should be guarded by all the peo- ple, for the benefit of all the people, and not for the enriching of corporate inter- ests in furnishing the necessities of the people, in order to make money from monopolies in things the people must have to insure continued prosperity. Spr aa A TWO MILLION DOLLARS WORTH BURNED IN ONE DAY By GEN, C, C. ANDREWS State Forestry Commissioner of Minnesota (lf yet another proof is needed to show the necessity of full patrol against forest fires, here it is. tinued for lack of funds. September 1, General Andrews tells us, the ranger service in Minnesota was discon. ‘On that very date a Minneapolis newspaper stated editorially that the fires in Minnesota forests had already destroyed property this year whose money value would have sufficed to cover the cost of the proposed extension of the state r And as early as July 22 press reports from Bemidji- tell of: the dangerously dry 50. years. ranger service for condition of the forests in the region devastated on October 7.--Ed. ) estry, Gen. C..C. Andrews, state forestry commissioner of Minne- sota, made the following statement, under date of October 13: The disastrous forest fire in Minne- sota on the 7th instant in the vicinity of the Lake of the Woods and Rainy River was driven by a tornado, and destroyed the villages of Baudette and Spooner. The loss of life probably will not exceed fifty; the number now known to have perished is twenty-nine. I am unable now to estimate the loss of property, but am convinced it will ex- ceed $2,000,0co. The area of the fire probably did not exceed 300,000 acres. The country swept by the fire is generally level, covered principally with Norway and jack pine, spruce, balsam, white birch, and tamarack. It is traversed by the Canadian-Northern railway and is mostly destitute of wagon roads. While quite a number of new settlers are scattered through the country, there are as yet only about six organized townships in what ap- pears to have been in the track of the fire. Considerable timber had been cut in the region and much brush and refuse left unburned. The whole season from April 1st has been remarkably dry. Numerous fires occurred which were fought by the settlers; some of A T THE request of American For- the fires burned into bogs and proba- bly all of them were not wholly exting- uished. Just where and how this fire origi- nated I am unable to say, but the latest eliable information I now have is that it came from south of the Canadian- Northern railroad. In some cases the land of a new settler in such a region may be partly covered with refuse from logging or windfalls, which he is strongly tempt- ed to burn in dry weather. The country is also more or less frequented by other persons who are liable to cause fire. How shall we prevent the negligent use of fire in the forest? By our pres- ent system in organized townships the three supervisors and clerk are fire wardens; they are paid 25 cents an hour for the time they are employed; they are expressly required to take en- ergetic precautions to prevent fires and may call help to control them, and every person called upon to help must do so unless he has a justifiable excuse. Wardens can be specially ap- pointed for unorganized territory, but it sometimes occurs that in such ter- ritory there is not a suitable resident for the position. Tire fighters are paid 20 cents an hour for their time. Wardens, in a dry season, may pa- trol their districts or employ patrols. The minimum penalty for setting fires 655 A Fire Victim on an Indian Travoy, Avery, Idaho which endanger the property of an- other in the vicinity of forest land, is now $50. Offenders have to be be tried by local magistrates, who are often too lenient. The plan followed in in this state has been to enforce the law severely, and prosecutions have been instituted whenever sufficient evidence has been found. The employment of rangers to go through their respective districts to assist, inspect or compel the activity of fire wardens is authorized, but the ap- propriation for such service at present does not admit of the employment of a sufficient number of rangers nor for a sufficient period of time. For lack of money, ranger service had to be disccn- tinued the first of September. Whether if they could have been employed 656 longer this recent calamity would not have occurred, no one can _ positively say. I think it would be an improvement to our system of preventing forest fires if we require that in logging the branches of at least the coniferous trees be lopped and burned at the time of cutting, when logging is done be- tween the rst of November and the Ist of April; also that we have adequate means for the employment of compe- tent patrol or rangers; and further, that we copy the New York law re- quiring railroad companies to maintain efficient patrols between April and November, and in case of their failure to do so, that the state do it, at the ex- pense of the railroad companies. FELLA SS DIED FIRES ON THE FLATHEAD FOREST IN MONTANA By H. H. CHAPMAN Assistant Professor of Forestry, Yale Forest School The fact that many of the fires in the west this summer were set by lightning is often questioned by those unfamiliar with western conditions. But there are very few rangers who have not had practical demonstration of fires from this source. The writer was employed in_ the Swan Valley east of Flathead Lake during July and August, and can tes- tify to the truth of this fact. On July 3, at 4 p. m., after several weeks of dry weather, we had a thunder storm of half an hour’s duration, with a heavy down-pour of rain. A few min- utes after the storm passed, the ranger called our attention to a smoke about a mile off. This was located in the heavy timber, and was found to be a dead larch tree which had been struck an] was blazing from top to bottom. It could not be cut down, so was allowed to burn off and was then ditched around for its whole length. No water was available to put it out, and dirt thrown on it did not quench it. The tree burned for over two weeks, during which time it was a constant menace. The fire followed the roots for dis- tances of 8 or 10 feet and would reach the surface outside of the trench. The place where this occurred was 75 miles from the nearest town and only its prompt discovery and constant watch by the ranger prevented it from devel- oping into a fire that would have swept the whole valley. It had two months in which to spread before any rain came. And the fourth day after this storm a heavy smoke was seen on a moun- tain spur twelve miles distant. There was no trail and we _ started the following morning with pack horses through the timber and reached the fire late that afternoon. Fortunately there had been no wind that day and the fire was smouldering. It covered nearly two acres in a long strip where the wind of the day before had blown it up the shoulder of the ridge. At the lower end of the burn was a dead larch tree with a fresh lightning scar. The location of the fire made it im- possible that any person could have been there for any purpose whatever, and the position of the lightning-scarred tree coincided exactly with the prob- able center from which the fire had had traveled to spread up and down hill. So that while no one saw this fire start from lightning as in the case of the first fire, the evidence is just as con- vincing. The bolt had not set this tree on fire, but had ignited the dry duff at its base. This had smouldered for three days, and had been finally fanned into life on the fourth day after the storm. Owing to the inexperience of a fire euard employed to watch this fire, it broke out three times after it had been completely subdued and surrounded by trenches and was still burning when rains came in September. It had been confined to less than two hundred acres in area. If allowed to run it could have burned over from 20 to 100 square miles. No other fires occurred in the valley all summer except those set by lightning. Fires of this character usually start in some remote spot that cannot be reached promptly by the ranger because there is no trail and it is absolutely nec- 657 658 AMERICAN essary to take horses in to carry food, bedding, and tools for fire fighting. A trail must either be cut out to a point near enough to reach the fire from camp or the horses taken slowly and painfully trough country covered with tangles of dow n timber and dense thickets, with the risk that in case the fire got well started there might be some difficulty in getting out again. Meanwhile the fire is gaining headway, and the ranger fins on reaching it that he can make no impression on it and needs 26 to 50 men tovcontrol it; {He proceeds to the nearest telephone sta- tion and the men are sent in from some town, or in rare circumstances they may be recruited from settlers nearby. Their beds, provisions and cooking outfit are packed in 20 to 75 miles on animals hired for the purpose, and after a delay of from 3 to 7 days they 1each the fire. By this time it is so large that they cannot entirely subdue it, but can only check its progress, head it off, eradu- ally surround it, and, if rains come or the wind does not blow too hard, hold it within narrow limits. Then, sooner or later, a high wind is sure to occur, and these smouldering fires leap up and across the trenches and sweep over wide areas in a single day. In the South Fork valley, east of Swan Valley, an area of 110 miles long had “tobe -protected by, ay. forces Os guards so small that it was impossible for them to at once reach and put out fires starting from such causes. One fire which resulted from the careless- ness of a half-witted youth who was hunting in the mountains, got such a start that a crew was necessary. This crew was sent in accompanied by fifty pack horses, but had to stop on the way to control three other fires, and the first fire before they could get to it, had burned over a township. The ranger in the Swan Valley had in- structions to look up this youth and es- BORE S TRY cort him out of the forest, and would have done so had it not been for the fires set by lightning in the Swan Val- ley, which prevented him. On the west side of the range a similar situation developed. A fire got away from the ranger through the impossibility of his reaching it in time. This fire was burning during the week preceeding the great fire in Idaho. The same wind that caused such destruc- tion there, blew this fire across the timbered summit of the range and swept it down into the valley with a fury that made all attempts to stem it hopeless for the time. Burning brands and bark were blown across the Swan River and fires started for three miles along the further bank. By great good fortune this wind was followed by rain which enabled us to attack the fire, and by ten days’ work with 20 men who were already on the ground its further progress was prevented. This in a small way illustrates the conditions which caused the larger con- flagrations in Idaho. Wherever fires were set in low ground, along railroads and trails, in inhabited districts, they were controlled promptly, But, largely through lightning, many fires were started that could not be reached. These fires, on the day of the great wind, swept down on the protected areas in solid fronts miles in extent and de- stroyed the work of weeks of fighting. When the national forests are provid- ed with complete systems of trails, when enough men are employed to reach and control fires as soon as they start, and when, by the operation of the Forest Homestead Act and the de- velopment of transportation, vast stretches of wilderness become popu- lated as far as their resources will per- mit, the conditions that proceeded the great fires of 1910 will have been brought fully under control, and a repetition made impossible. eS ee THE PROTECTION OF FORESTS FROM FIRE By HENRY S, GRAVES Forester, U. S. Department of Agriculture Part [[[—Continued from October number Burning Brush Piles An excellent time for burning brush is after the first snow of winter. (PI. IV.)* This is usually a light fall, and the snow does not penetrate the com- pact piles of brush sufficiently to prevent burning. There is no danger of the fire running on the ground, and the branches of the standing trees are so damp as to prevent injury by the rising flames. If the brush is burned before winter, it should be only during damp weather, when the ground is so wet that fire will not run easily. When large areas of piled brush are to be burned the work should be organ- ized with care. It should never be undertaken when there is a strong wind, and the best time is in calm weather. If there is any wind, the burning should begin with the piles on the lee side. Several piles may be fired at one time, but they should be some distance apart, with one or more unburnt piles between them. When the first fires have been burned down to coals, the intermediate piles may be ignited. This alternating method of burning the piles prevents the injury to trees and young growth between the piles that might result from the collective volume of heat of adja- cent fires. Just as the brush on level ground is burned against the wind, so, on a hillside, the piles near the top are buraed first, and the work progresses down the slope. Whenever large areas of piled brush are to be burned, a sufficient force of *Plate IV appeared in the October num- ber of AMERICAN ForESTRY. 4 men, equipped with fire fighting imple- ments, should always be present to in- sure that the fire will not get beyond control. In some instances, when brush is piled in the winter during logging and left for later burning, the piles become very wet from the snow and rain and do not dry out till late spring or summer, a time when burning on a large scale is dangerous. If the brush of winter lumbering can not be burned as the logging proceeds, the piles must ordinarily remain unburned till the first snow of the following winter, or till especially wet weather comes in late summer or fall. The devices used in different local- ities for starting fires in piled brush are many. Some loggers use a torch of burning wood, as resinous pine; others cary live coals from one pile to another ; others use a long-handled torch; others, again, pour a little oil on the brush and start it with a match. The most satis- factory seems to be an ordinary tubu- lar torch with wicking and a ferrule into which a rake handle can be in- serted. A good substitute, though a crude one, for the last is a piece of bag- ging or burlap wound around an iron rod or stick of wood and occasionally saturated with oil. The cost of burning piled brush in the coniferous forests may vary from one to thirty cents per thousand, ac- cording to the manner in which the brush is piled, the condition of the brush, the size of the crew needed to prevent the running of fire, etc. Com- monly, it ranges from five to fifteen cents per thousand feet. Where the 650 Plate VII, Fig. 1—A Mountain Trail Built for Fire Patrol cost has been higher than this, it has been attributed either to poor work in piling or to inefficient management in the work of burning. The average cost of both piling and burning should range in coniferous forests between ten and fifty cents, and as the lumbermen be- come more experienced in performing the work the cost will be correspond- ingly reduced. In the logging operation shown in Plate IV, where the brush was burned just after a slight snowfall under par- ticularly favorable conditions, the actual cost of burning was only a fraction of one cent per thousand feet. No watch- ing of the piles to see that fire did not run was necessary ; it was simply a case of walking from one pile to another and starting the fire. In some coniferous forests careful records were kept of the area actually burned over. Where the stand per acre ran from 10,000 to 50,000 feet per acre, the aggregate area burned over by the brush fires was found to be approx- imately seven per cent of the total area cut over in the logging operations. Where the brush is burned as the log- ging proceeds, the percentage of -the area burned over is less. 660 Disposal of Hardwood Brush Most of the work of piling and burn- ing brush has been in coniferous for- ests. Of late, however, there has been considerable discussion of burning the slash after logging in hardwood forests. So far as the author is informed, sys- tematic brush burning after hardwood logging has not been conducted any- where on a large scale or in a manner to justify a judgment as to its prac- ticability. Hardwood tops are neces- sarily large, heavy, and awkward to handle. The cost would be much greater than in coniferous forests. It is probable that lopping and scattering will be used rather than piling and burning. The author has conducted some ex- periments in the burning of hardwood brush in the second-growth forests of New England, where the wood was util- ized to about three or four inches, so that the amount of brush to be disposed of was much less than would have remainea from logging old timber in the ordinary manner. The results of these experi- ments showed the average cost of pil- ing and burning to be between ten and twenty-five cents per cord. In this class of material with good organization the cost would probably not exceed ten to Plate VII, Fig. 2—A Plowed Furrow that Stopped a Surface Fire fifteen cents per cord, though these fig- ures furnish but scant basis upon which to make calculation of the cost of piling and burning the brush and débris from an ordinary hardwood logging oper- ation, where the size and number of the limbs would be very much greater. Lopping of Tops In some forests the burning of the brush may be unnecessary or actually undesirable. A method of brush dis- posal applicable in many forests is to lop off the branches from the tops and leave the material on the ground. The purpose is to bring all the brush in close contact with the ground, so that it will absorb moisture more readily, dry out less in summer, and decay more rapidly than when propped high above the ground. So far as the author is informed this method was first used on an ex- tensive scale in the Adirondack Moun- tains in lumbering spruce and pine. At first the plan was to cut off only the upper branches of the top as it lay on the ground. This left the stem still propped above the ground. (Pl. VI, Hie ai) +e the’ mext-stepe was -to- cut off the under branches and lower the whole mass to the ground. The heavy snows during the first winter after cut- ting flattened down all the branches. (Pl. VI, fig. 2.) In this condition the brush absorbs moisture so rapidly that after three years there is little risk of fire. This method was first used in private shooting preserves, mainly to prevent the tops from obstructing the hunter’s view. It also enables a freer movement over the ground and _ facilitates the fighting of fires. A later development of the method is to cut up and scatter the branches about over the ground. This has been used in the cuttings on second-growth woodlands when the amount of mate- rial left after cutting the cordwood in the tops was small. It has also been extensively used in certain National Forests in the dry districts of the West. where the scattered branches serve as protection to the soil and aid reproduc- tion. *Plate VI appeared in the October num- ber of AMERICAN FORESTRY. 661 63333 . Plate VIII, Fig. I-A Fully Cleared Fire Line in the San Gabriel Mountains The cost of lopping the tops of spruce in the Adirondacks was twelve cents per thousand feet of lumber cut. Lopping is the most advisable method of brush disposal under the following conditions : (1) Where there is very little danger of fires starting. (2) Where the region is moist and the branches will absorb moisture quickly. (3) When the forest is so dense that piling and burning is impractical. (4) Where the custom of logging and of utilizing the crown is such that the greater part of the tree is utilized and but little crown is left, while what is left will not be especially dangerous if thoroughly lopped and scattered. (5) Where the scattering of the branches is necessary or desirable to protect the soil and small seedlings from drought or frost. Broadcast Burning For a number of years it has been the custom of certain Iumbermen to burn their slashings, in order to pro- tect valuable standing timber on neigh- boring areas. There is usually no at- tempt to regulate the fire within the 662 area burned, and all living trees and young growth upon it are destroyed along with the brush and débris. From the standpoint of forest production such fires are very destructive. The principle of broadcast burning may, however, be used to advantage in making clear cuttings, provided the fire can be confined to small areas and fully controlled. Thus, in making clearings in patches and strips in certain of the National Forests, the slashings are burned on the ground without piling. This method is now under trial in some of the clear cuttings in the northwestern National Forests, where, in addition to the slash from the cuttings, there is a ereat accumulation of débris and the litter and humus is very heavy. In some instances this débris and litter is a hind- rance to reproduction, as well as an in- vitation to fire, and its destruction is beneficial. The heavy loss of humus which must accompany so hot a fire may be more than counterbalanced for the forester by the improved conditions for reproduction of the species desired. The expense of piling all the slash and débris would under these conditions be very large, probably not less than Plate VIII, Fig. 2—Location of Fire Lines in the Angeles National Forest, Cal. from $1 to $2 per thousand feet of timber cut. In order to control the fire in burn- ing over the ground broadcast, ample fire lines should be constructed around the outside of the areas to be burned. These sshould- usually be» not... less than one rod wide and should be en- tirely cleared of inflammable material. The material in the lines may often be thrown on the side of the cut-over area and burned with the other débris, but if this would make a dangerously large pile near the line it is better to burn it in piles on the cleared space. The burning should be done with great caution. A time should be select- ed when the slash is dry enough to burn well, but not so dry that it will be impossible to confine the fire within the fire lines. The best time is usually when the slash in the open, cut-over area has just dried out sufficiently to burn, and while the contiguous forest 1s still too damp to burn freely. In the case of wide, cleared strips it may be advis- able to construct a fire line through the middle, as well as along the edges. Very often the logging trails can be used for intermediate fire lines for the con- trol of the burning, and in this way the expense of making special lines may be partly saved. In the work of burning it is usually advisable to have a crew of at least ten men, properly equipped with fire- fighting implements, in order to con- trol the fire. So far as possible only small portions of the area should be under fire at one time, especially when there is any possible danger of the fire spreading to the adjoining woods. There is no question that this method is much more dangerous than burning brush in piles, and for this reason the latter method should be used whenever possible. A great objection to broad- cast burning is that any remaining trees, reproduction, or young growth, already started on the cut-over area, are almost inevitably destroyed. Annual or Periodic Burning of Litter In many places, notably in the pine districts of the South, it has been the custom to let surface fires run through the woods every year, usually in order to improve the range. This is defended on the theory that if the litter is allowed to accumulate for a number of years, 663 Plate IX, Fig. 1—Fire Line Cleared near Railway a fire would be so severe as to kill all the timber, whereas an annual fire burns only the year’s fall of leaves or needles, and does little damage to the standing trees. Where the trees are tapped for turpentine the litter is raked away from the boxed trees so that the fire will not reach them. There is no question that in the un. protected yellow-pine forests this cus- tom has resulted in saving a large amount of old timber, but it has also retarded the reproduction of the forest by killing off young growth and seed- lings in their tender stage. Deliberate burning of the litter as a protective measure is justified only under special conditions and only on selected areas. The considerations bearing on the use of fire in this way are: (1) It should never be used except where absolute fire prevention can not be assured and there is real danger resulting from heavy leaf litter. (2) It should be used only in stands in which there is no reproduction that it is desired to conserve. (3) It should be used only where the benefit in fire protection more than off- sets the injury to the soil resulting from repeated burnings. (4) It should be used only with very fire-resistant species. 664 (5) It should be used only when the trees are old and large enough to have developed the corky bark necessary for resistance to the heat of the fires (6) It should be used only when the fire can be controlled. The burning is done best in early spring, when the loose litter is dry but the ground below is damp, the purpose being to burn only the upper litter. In many places it is very difficult to control the burning without the use of fire lines. A tract divided by roads and paths into small blocks presents a simple problem, for each block may be burned separately, and there is no dan- ger of the development of a fire too large to control. On large tracts with- out roads, ground-cleared fire lines may be used to protect areas of young erowth, or they may be developed at certain points to aid in the control of broadcast burning. Annual burning for fire protection 1s never justified where it can not be sys- tematically controlled. The practice in many parts of the South and West, of setting out fires to burn off the litter and brush, usually for the sake of a better range, can not be justified, for the fires are uncontrolled; and they de- stroy an immense amount of young erowth and otherwise damage the for- PROTECTION OF est. Merely setting fire to the woods without control is nothing less than for- est destruction. FIRE LINES 3roadly speaking, a fire line is a cleared strip in the forest used as an aid in the protection from fire. It may be a road, a trail, a river or stream, a line cleared especially for a fire break, or a plowed furrow. The purpose of fire lines is to check or stop fires and to facilitate fighting them. A small sur- face fire may be stopped entirely by a road or even a path. Some surface fires are easily checked in their progress by narrow fire lines; others can be stopped only by very wide lines. Crown fires and surface fires of unusual severity will readily leap across even very wide fire lines. Fire lines, therefore, should not be built with the idea that they will always stop fires. They are intended to serve primarily as an aid, and often are an indispensable aid, in controlling fires and preventing their spread. Even when they do not actually stop or check a fire they serve as vantage points from which the fighting crew may work. Their establishment usually makes the woods accessible, so that a crew can get to a fire or near it quickly with appli- ances for fighting it. If back-firing is necessary it can often be done best from the fire line. Fire lines differ very greatly in con- struction and width, according to local conditions of fire danger and of special forest organization. They will be dis- cussed under the following heads: (1) Roads; (2) trails; (3) special fire lines. Roads An ordinary dirt road ranks as one of the best of all fire lines. The wider the road the more effective it is. A for- est well cut up with roads is, therefore, much more easily protected than one with few or no roads. In Europe every well-organized forest has a thoroughly planned network of roads. These are located primarily with reference to the FORESTS BROMePIRE 605 problem of logging, but they serve also as a network of fire lines, and special lines are cleared to supplement them where necessary. Every part of the for- est is readily accessible not only for patrolling for fire during the danger season, but for the quick transportation of fire-fighting appliances. In case a fire should start in this forest and be discovered within a reasonable time it would be easy to confine it to a small area. We can not expect to have such a well-organized system of roads and fire lines in our forests for a long time, but much can be done in the way of utiliz- ing the more or less temporary roads that are used in logging and afterwards abandoned. This is ; particularly true in the second-growth woodlots. In most woodlots there are a great number of old wood roads, often badly overgrown with weeds, brush, or trees. If these are kept clear they are of great value in fire protection. They make the different parts of the woods accessible and offer points from which the fighting crews may work. The author has in mind a tract in Pennsylvania which was burned over in 1909 with great loss, but which might easily have been saved had the old roads been clear. It is usually impracticable, on account of the expense entailed, to keep all the roads iree. of | leaves, -erass, -€tc...but they may be kept brushed out with very little cost. The author recently had some work of this sort done on a Penn- sylvania tract, eight years after aban- donment of the road, for less than $3 per mile. It may not always pay to repair bridges and restore badly washed roads, but in almost every second- growth woodlot most of the overgrown roads may be reestablished sufficiently for fire lines with very little cost. Trails The first object of trails is to open up a forest and make it accessible for pa- trol and for fighting fires. In the Na- tional Forests this work of trail con- struction constitutes the first step in Plate IX, Fig. 2—A Fire Line in the Adirondacks organizing for fire protection. In un- developed mountain regions it is im- possible without good trails to get to a fire in a reasonable time and with means for fighting it. The trails in the National Forests are permanently con- structed and are designed for saddle and pack horse travel. (PI. VII, fig. 1.) While their first purpose is to fa- cilitate patrol and access to a fire, they may be used as starting points for back- firing, and will often check or actually stop a small surface fire. Special Fire Lines When there are no roads or trails which will answer the purpose, it may be advisable to construct special fire lines CPi leo. 22") Speciaienike lines are necessarily expensive, and are used where the property to be protected is very valuable. They are most used in woodlands in the better settled por- tions of the country, where land values are relatively high. In many cases it is advisable in a valuable woodlot to con- struct here and there a special fire line at points where it is not worth while or practicable to build a road or trail. 666 Thus, special lines are frequently run along the boundaries or at strategic points connecting roads. It is a sound principle, however, that special fire lines should never be built where a road or trail can be used for the same purpose. In the less intensive forest conditions, suchas occur in the lumber woods, spe- cial fire lines have so far been con- structed only under exceptional condi- tions. In a large forest, the first work is to open up the area for communica- tion by the construction of trails, and, where possible, of roads. Like all other work in forestry involving an invest- ment, the use of fire lines must be based on sound business principles. They should be used only where necessary and where their expense is justified by the returns. Special fire lines may be classed un- der the following heads: (a) Fully cleared lines; (b) tree-cleared lines; (c) ground-cleared lines. Fully Cleared Lines The ideal fire line is a completely cleared strip, from which are removed RANDOM TALK ON FOREST FIRES not only the trees and brush but also all ground débris down to the mineral soil. Fully cleared lines are advisable when the risk of fire is very great, and adequate protection can be secured only by having a clear break which will either stop or check possible fires. Such lines are necessarily expensive to con- struct and maintain. They are, there- fore, used only when the property is valuable and the damage from a fire would be very great, as, for example, to protect nurseries, plantations, or valuable blocks of timber. They are especially necessary’ wher- ever fire will run swiftly and it may not be possible to reach the fire promptly with fighting appliances. A conspicu- ous example of the necessity of such 667 fire lines and of the service rendered by them is found in the chaparral zone of the mountains in southern Califor- nia. (Pl. VIII, fig. 1.) The preserva- tion of the chaparral cover is of great importance in protecting the local watersheds. The area is large, the mountains are rough and difficult to travel, and fire runs with great rapid- ity. Fire lines are very necessary in such localities to control any fires that may start, and they must be of a char- acter to stop fires, or to check them to such an extent that they can be con- trolled. The Government is, therefore, building extensive trails for patrol to prevent fires, and supplementing them by wide, cleared fire lines to stop any fires that may start. (To be continued) RANDOM TALK ON FOREST FIRES NE of the telling points made () by Gifford Pinchot in his ad- dress at the recent congress at St. Paul was this: “When any great movement has es- tablished itself so firmly in the public mind that a direct attack on it will not pay, the regular method is to approve it in general terms and then condemn its methods and its men.” In the State of California, for in- stance, this is. precisely the way in which certain interests that would like to discredit the national forest policy as a whole, but despair of doing so because it has the solid endorsement of the people, are at present seeking to discredit its methods, particularly its methods of fire protection. These in- terests are of two classes; the great combinations of capital which are fight- ing against any control of national re- sources, and certain private and cor- porate owners of timberlands within the state. It is the latter class which has recently worked up an organized attack upon the whole principle of pro- tection against forest fires as practiced by the national and state governments. This attack is well illustrated by an article in the Sunset Magazine for August, signed by George: L. Hoxie, who had as collaborators, the editor states, S. O. Johnson and G. X. Wendling. All of these men have ex- ceedingly widespread interests in Cali- fornia timberlands. Mr. Hoxie’s ar- ticle attacked the Forest Service for trying to keep fires out of the national forests, and advocated what the author terms employing fire as “a servant’’ to burn over the forest floor so as to do away with inflammable material. As the deputy state forester of Cali- fornia, Wm. C. Hodge, points out in a communication to the Timberman for September, Mr. Hoxie’s misunder- standing of the Government timber- sale policy is shown in the Sunset ar- ticle to be almost perfect. Mr. Hoxie says that “The ‘practical’ invites the aid of fire as a servant, not as a mas- 008 ter.’ “One of the conditions inserted in every Government timber-sale con- tract,” replies Mr. Hodge, “‘is_ to» the effect that the brush, limbs and other débris caused by lumbering operations shall be piled in such a way that it can be burned when the logs have been re- moved from the area.” Mr. Hoxie further says: “Milling operations in practical forestry, would consist of simply a harvest of the ripe and ma- ture timber and cleaning thereafter by the use of the servant fire.” “It would be difficult,’ returns Mr. Hodge, “to summarize the Government policy more accurately’’* With regard to Mr. Hoxie’s state- ment that practical men do not approve of the protective methods employed by the Government, Mr. Hodge writes as follows: “This is very far from being the case. The most important lumbermen of the state are in complete accord with the Government pol- icy (which is also the policy of this office), and some of them whose holdings are inter- mingled with those of the Government turn over the matter of fire protection to the Gov- ernment, simply paying the cost of patrol aud fire fighting according to their acreage. Fractically all of the big lumbermen have some of their employes appointed state fire wardens. These men have power to arrest for violations of the state fire laws, to sum- mon assistance in fire fighting, and to issue permits to burn dangerous areas under such restrictions as will prevent the escape of the Are.s Frank H. Short, of Fresno, the well- known attorney for power companies in California, and the confessed oppo- nent of Federal control over natural resources, has recently come forward as one representative of the extensive interests which are attacking the spe- cific methods of conservation while commending it in general terms. Ina communication addressed to the Presi- dent of the California Board of Fores- try, and printed in the San Francisco Chronicle for October 2, Judge Short even goes so far as to recommend, among other things, “intelligent back- *Further details of this policy may be found in the current installment of Mr. Henry Graves’ discussion of ‘*‘The Protec- tion of Forests from Fire.’’—Ed. AMERICAN FORESTRY firing and other methods of removing inflammable material.” Does Judge Short know what back-firing is, or is he simply helping out his allies by bor- rowing their method of talking at ran- dom? Another active participant in the or- ganized assault is T. B. Walker, of Minneapolis, whose holdings in Cali- fornia embrace some 2,000,000 acres, with a stand of not less than 40,000,- 000,000 feet valued at $80,000,000, and who is not cutting his timber, but keep- ing it locked up most effiectively. Mr. Walker’s holdings are equal to one- half of the total stand of timber owned by the Federal Government in_ the State of California. The San Francisco Chronicle pub- lished on August 17 a further install- ment of the propaganda devoted to the spread of this advanced doctrine that the way to conserve forests is to protect the standing timber for speculative advances by burning up the young growth, and leave the future of the forest, after the profits have been pocketed, to the care of any agency, public or private, that may like the looks of the investment. The absurdity and mischievousness of this doctrine apparently did not prevent its gaining the endorsement of Secretary Ballinger, who is quoted in the Washington Evening Star of Aug- ust 25 as having said: “We may find it necessary to revert to the old Indian method of burning over the forests an- nually at seasonable periods.” If this sort of thing were the alter- native of public protection of forests from fire, the life of the forests in private lands would be brief indeed. But the state forester of California, G. M. Homans, knew very well what was going on, and he was watchful. In the Sacramento Union of August 22 he entered prompt and vigorous pro- test against the theory put forward by these foresters of the counting-house. His communication is as follows: In one of the San Francisco dailies of August 17, an editorial appeared attacking the practice of patroling and preventing forest fires from raging through the for- ested lands of the country. The article RANDOM TALK ON FOREST FIRES advances the theory that the débris of the forest should be burned at frequent inter- vals, referring to the example set by the “untutored Indians,” as a measure of pro- tection. Another writer expounds the same theory in the August number of Sunset. It seems that these writers have become slightly tangled in the meaning of forestry, and have lost sight of what it is endeavoring to accomplish. They have evidently mis- construed its meaning and aim to be the protection of standing, full grown saw tim- ber alone. The term is much broader than this. Those who are practicing forestry are bending their efforts, with marked success, toward the protection of the young, growing trees which are developing into valuable saw timber, as well as the protection of the matured timber from destruction and waste bv fire. If the present stand of matured timber were the only thing to be considered and protected the problem would be an exception- ally easy one, and the theory devised by the above-mentioned writers could be used from a practical standpoint. However, the prob- lem confronting the lumbermen and the for- esters of this country is more than the pro- tection of standing mature timber. The problem is to prevent the now standing merchantable timber from destruction until it can be converted into lumber and also to prevent the land on which these valuable forests are now standing from becoming a barren waste, a sea of brush, after the ma- ture timber has been utilized. When one stops to realize that a yearling pine or fir tree is no larger than a match and is so tender and sensitive to external conditions that the heat from a fire, even though that fire is no larger than that made by a burning pine needle, will kill it, and when it is considered that a three-year-old tree will be killed by the heat thrown out by three pine needles burning at its base, the advisability of burning over the forest floor takes on a different aspect. How are we going to burn over the forest areas of the country at frequent intervals and at the same time provide for the devel- opment and growth of the new stand of young trees which should take the place of the saw timber which our mills are con- suming, thus preventing the land from be- coming absolutely worthless ? Through the methods used by the “un- tutored Indians,” and through the careless- ness and mismanagement of the old-time lumbermen throughout the United States, there are thousands of acres of land which “4 A Ditty , ——3 669 once produced valuable forests but are now absolutely worthless, producing nothing but brush. There are other vast areas where only the old mature timber is standing—where suc- cessive fires have destroyed all the young growth. The foresters of the country are now en- deavoring to reclaim these barren wastes, through natural and by artificial means, to young forests and to assist the young trees to get a start on the areas where only scattered mature timber is now standing. _ The only practical method of accomplish- ing this aim is to keep fire out until after the young forest is past the stage of ex- treme sensitiveness to heat, at which time the forest policy will, no doubt, be so es- tablished that sums of money can be appro- priated for the purpose of going through certain sections of forest land, small areas at a time, piling the fallen logs, branches and débris, and burning these pilesiin ea practical, systematic manner at the right season of the year, just as the United States Forest Service is doing to-day in timber sales after the logging operation has been completed. It is certain that from a business stand- point and from every other point of view, the forest lands should not be left a worth. less, fruitless desert after they have been stripped of their present valuable product. What are our mismanaged cut-over lands of to-day producing? What will the lands which now bear only the mature trees pro- duce after they have been logged over? How can we increase the value and produc- tiveness of both these classes of lands? Sim- ply hy protecting them from fire. In two hundred years from now lumber will be just as much in demand, if not more so, by the citizens of this country, as at the present time. There are no new forests to discover and to utilize, and so why should we as the present occupants manage our lands and forests for the selfish aims of to- day alone, when by a little care and with a comparatively slight expense we could leave the country still producing and our forest lands in such shape that our mills can return to these selfsame lands for a second, a third, and innumerable cuts in the future, after we have completed our span? Such a thing is possible, but not through the agency of fire, even as a servant, applied in the manner recommended by a few, because the growing stock and the nucleus of the future stand has not been considered in the protective measures. MSP 494 . 3 RNS PIS S) Ik ‘i EDITORIAL The Growth of a Great Policy pone gs Forestry has from time to time during the last few months reported to its readers the changes made, both by addition and subtraction, in the area of the national forests. These changes, as has been explained, are the result of the careful studies and surveys that began some time ago under Mr. Pinchot and have been car- ried out to their results since. Because of the prejudice and mis- representation that has been so care- fully cultivated by some elements in the national forest states it needs to be borne clearly in mind that the boundary changes indicate no change in the na- tional forest policy but carry out what was a part of the plan from the begin- ning—a rectification of boundaries in accordance with the results of careful surveys, a perfecting of a vast system. Necessarily .these extensive and un- mapped areas in a wild and mainly mountainous country had to be roughly blocked out in the first instance. Later, as an administrative force was devel- oped, came the opportunity to carefully determine the character of the country and the desirability of including addi- tional forest lands or watersheds, or ex- cluding certain lands not so useful for forestry as for other purposes. Thus far about half as much land has been added to the national forests as has been taken from them. Many of the plans for the changes were made prior to the change of administration of the Forest Service, and these and ad- ditional modifications along the same line have been and are being carried out by the present Forester, Mr. Graves, in full sympathy and accord with the policy of his predecessor, Mr. Pinchot. The areas involved in the changes are considerable, taken by themselves, but 670 very small in comparison to the whole area of the forests. If we were to judge from some of the complaints that have come out of the West and from some of the oratorical efforts of certain western senators and represen- tatives we might suppose that a great amount of fertile agricultural land was being kept from settlement and the pros- perity of the West largely hampered thereby. Frankly, we do not believe this to be the case. If all of the national forests were to-day thrown open to settlement on the most liberal terms, we doubt if many hundred actual settlers would avail themselves of the opportunity. The mountain sides of the Rockies, the Cascades, the Olympics and the Sierras, where the forests chiefly lie, are not of great agricultural value, and the oppor- tunity so offered would be mainly availed of by large operators intent upon gleaning some immediate profit from the national heritage. Against this the whole principle of est conservation is directed. The idea of a national forest rests upon the great- est good of the greatest number, the right of all the people to share in the common property of all, and the per- manent need of forests, especially in mountain regions, as one of the chief foundations of lasting national pros- perity. That these principles are sound no unprejudiced student of the world’s economic history will deny, no real pa- triot, no true American, will wish to deny. The development of our na- tional forest system by Hough, Fer- now, Roth and Pinchot, under the wise counsel of Secretaries like Noble, Hitch- cock, Morton and Wilson, through the administrations of Harrison, Cleveland, McKinley and Roosevelt, has been in the direction of laying these founda- tions broad and deep. The present ad- EDITORIAL ministration is building, as its succes- sors will continue to do, upon these foundations, and no responsible public official will ever undertake to undo this great and statesmanlike work. When later history is written there will be found no record of more sagac- ious administration than this steady up- building of the national forest policy. YE We WS The Southern Conservation Congress HE Southern Conservation Congress at Atlanta was not great in point of numbers or in accomplishment, but as an indication of the general awakening of the country on the great questions that lie at the root of American pros- perity it was significant and will sow good seed. It was worth holding for the excellent declaration of principles it produced if for nothing else. In many ways this statement is one of the most clear, well-balanced, and dignified documents that has come from any of these gatherings. From the opening sentences in which we find emphasis laid on the fact that “such conservation of our natural re- sources as is consistent with their proper and wise utilization is a deep moral obligation,” this declaration abounds in telling phrases and clear- cut definitions. Another statement worth noting, in which we shall find a text for later comment, is the affirm- ation that “the federal government has the constitutional right amounting to a national duty to acquire lands for for- est purposes in the interest of a future timber supply, watershed protection, navigation, power, and the general wel- fare of the people.” Incidentally in this connection the question may be raised whether this business of holding big congresses is not being somewhat overdone. They have come too closely together in the last few weeks for any one of them to leave a clear impression. They are so fre- quent that it is becoming difficult to secure the attendance of delegates, for busy men cannot devote themselves 671 wholly to conventions, and a few who are favorably situated to bear the cost in time and money really form the moy- ing force of all of them. They are productive of immense good, but they ought to be spaced a little farther apart and so planned that each could nave its full weight and effect. If the present tendency continues we shall need a central bureau to plan our annual program of congresses, so that conflict may be avoided and a reason- able attendance and effective activity be assured for each one. ww A Recognized Public Need THE Second Conservation Con- gres at St. Paul there was general recognition of the Southern Appala- chain-White Mountain forest bill as the most pressing and immediate conserva- tion measure. It was not looked upon as a question for argument. It was an assumed fact. The same was practic- ally true in the Eighteenth National [Irrigation Congress. These two bodies were truly representative of the people of the United States. The second is distinctly western, but it stands for the national spirit and not for the narrow sectionalism voiced by some of the northwestern governors at St. Paul. Some persons like the junior senator from Ohio may still see opportunity for satisfying vanity by holding up this measure, or regard themselves as hav- ing a special mandate to be the better judgment of the people against all comers, but the only result will be to increase the ultimate cost of the project, for the intelligence of the country has long ago given its decision in the affirm- ative and will not be permanently cheated of its will. The present measure, the Weeks bill, is not perfect. Bills that have been through the fires of legislative strife and the chill of legislative compromise seldom are, but it has many merits from the legislative point of view. It repre- sents the best form of legislation prac- ticable at this time and it should be passed by the Senate without alteration 072 AMERICAN FORESTRY or amendment. It points the way to a policy that we believe to be good and should be given a full and fair trial. Its errors can be corrected when they have been found by actual test; its good points can be strengthened and de- veloped to the nation’s great profit. The states directly concerned are stirring into action. The co-operation of the United States through the estab- lishment and management of national forests as the center of a system of national, state and _ private forests throughout the eastern mountains will be. of the highest value. The Weeks bill makes this possible. The people of the country ask the Senate not to de- lay an unnecessary hour in putting this bill upon the statute books. The ‘Ultimate Consumer" HE New York Times recently ex- horted its readers editorially to dwell less. upon those, ironically called ‘villains,’ who develop natural re- sources for profit, and more upon the consumer and his troubles. ‘‘The friends of conservation,” it said, “need to think more about the ultimate consumer,” and added that “if conservation is ever to be truly popular, it must in some manner operate toward cheapness.” But, if anything is clear, in both his- tory and economics, it is that nothing whatever will “operate toward cheap- ness” with natural resources, except national retrogression. As long as sup- ples are abundant, national advance, of population with increase ANaal 2 rise in the level of efficiency, neces- sarily means a generally higher stand- ard of living and a larger absolute and per capita demand for commodities ; and these, in turn, bring a heavier drain on resources and powers of all sorts. In response to the law of supply and demand, prices rise accordingly. Nor is the tendency reversed by increased production, because production is al- ways costlier than exploitation. With natural resources which cannot be pro- duced, the inevitable outcome is a shortage, while history shows that in prosperous countries even the forests, the chief renewable resource, steadily in- crease in value under the most conserv- ative and scientific methods of produc- tion, as, for example, in Germany. The conclusion is obvious enough. Higher prices for all raw materials are an in- variable concomitant of economic and industrial progress. More than that, prices must sooner or later be raised deliberately in order to defray produc- tion cost and conservation charges, or else they will be cruelly forced up- ward by a famine of resources. In other words, unless the consumer contributes his share toward supplying his necessities by investing in the pro- cess of producing and maintaining them, he must consume without pro- ducing, at constantly greater expense, and in the long run the store of re- sources must certainly be devoured. Then the ultimate consumer, ultimate indeed, will pass permanently from the scene with the exhaustion of the resources he has consumed. It is a case of productive and conservative out- lay now, or eventually going without. THE SOUTHERN CONSERVATION CONGRESS While disappointing in the matter of at- tendance, and showing the lack of thorough preparation and of concentrated purpose, the Southern Conservation Congress held at At- lanta, October 7 and 8, produced some use- ful addresses, framed an important state- ment of principles and policies, and regis- tered the convictions of the South on the fundamentals of conservation. At the opening session, acting mayor E. E. Pomeroy, of Atlanta, welcomed the con- gress in the name of the city. Response was made-by J._B. White, of Kansas City. The chairman, E. L. Worsham, then briefly stated the object of conservation and of the con- gress, and thereupon introduced Gifford Pinchot, who dwelt in his address upon the practical workings of the conservation idea where it has been tried, pointing out the need of extending it, particularly in the South, and showing the opportunities for individ- ual service. With reference to the opening for the practice of forestry in the South, Mr. Pinchot said: The South has to-day the best of chances for the application of practical forestry to her great timber tracts. What the results will be have been amply proven at Biltmore, where magniflcent forest preserves have been brought out on some of the poorest lands in the Piedmont region. The first step to take in the preservation of your forests is to make it easy for the man who wishes to put it into practice on his own lands. Give him something adequate in the shape of fire protection and, if necessary, exempt him from taxation at least to a cer- tain extent. There are thousands of men who would take up the work if encouraged as they might so easily be. In the second place, every southern citi- zen should make it his duty to demand of his senator that he vote for the Appalachian and White Mountain preserve bill, which comes up before the United States Senate the middle of next March. Far-sighted southerners have been fighting for this bill for the past twenty years, and they have a better opportunity of having it passed now than ever before. The House has already passed the measure, and with the pressure that the South can bring to bear, it will pass the Senate without the shadow of a doubt. Addresses by Governor A, E. Willson of Kentucky, B. N. Baker of Baltimore, and H. L. Whitefield of Columbus, Miss., followed. Charles S. Barrett, president of the Farmers’ Union, contributed a paper to the proceed- ings. At this session E. L. Worsham was elected president of the congress and Dr. N. P. Pratt of Atlanta was elected Secretary. Conspicuous in the afternoon session of this day was the address by Dr. C. W. Hayes, chief geologist of the United States. Be- sides giving a number of striking examples of waste in the utilization of Southern min- eral resources, Dr. Hayes came out boldly for the view that a full share of the burden of conservation must be borne by the con- sumer. He insisted that the conservation of natural resources means higher present cost of raw materials and hence of the fin ished product. At this session important addresses were delivered also by A. L. Ponder, attorney for, and Henry E. Hardtner, Chairman of the Louisiana state conservation commission, and F. M. Miller, member of the Louisiana legislature, outlining the progressive meth- ods by which Louisiana has recently secured the passage of thirty conservation bills. Other speakers were Dr. A. M. Soule, presi- dent of the Georgia Agricultural College, whose subject was “Conservation in Agri- culture,” and the presiding officer, Charles J. Haden, a member of the executive com- mittee of the Greater Georgia Association. At the morning session on the second day of the congress, President K. G. Matheson of the Georgia School of Technology presided, and the first address was by J. Girvan Peters, of the U. S. Forest Service, who had for his subject “The Work of the Forest Serv- ice in the South.’ Mr. Peters outlined the history and present status of the lum- ber and turpentine industries in the South. explained the methods. by which the Govern- ment co-operates with states and with private timberland owners in working out concrete problems in policy and forest management, indicated the desirable legislation which has been passed by Southern states as a result of information obtained as to their respective needs and opportunities for forestry, and described briefly the principles by which the Government manages the national forests in the South, the Ocala and the Chostaw- hatchee in Florida. Fnally, he made refer ence to the proposed establishment of na- tional forests in the Appalachians in these words: Before concluding I desire to say a few words about the Appalachian bill. I want 673 Ga AMERICAN to remind you that if this bill becomes a law the sum of $200,000 will be appropriated by the Federal Government to enable the Secretary of Agriculture to co-opertae with the states, when requested to do so, m organ- izing and maintainmg a system of fire pro- tection on private or state forest lands sit- uated upon the watersheds of navigable rivers. The amount expended m any state will not exceed the amount appropriated by that state for the same purpose m the same fiscal year. No agreement will be made, however, with any state that has not pro- vided by law for a system of forest fire pro- tection. In order, therefore, that the South- ern states may take advantage of this pro- vision in the proposed law I can not urge too strongly the organization of such pro- tective systems. The next speaker was Dr. W J McGee, soil-water expert of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, whose subject was the con- servation of the soil. Dr. McGee pointed out that the soil products of the south are three times as valuable as the mine products, and contended that whatever threatened the productivity of the soil should not be suf- fered to go unchecked. “The water supply of the United States,” he said, “is only one- half enough to make all our territory pro- ductive, as it is, and this shows how impera- tive is the need to save every drop of this supply.” In conclusion, he added: To this end we must begin immediately the conservation of the forests at the head of our streams. In the state of nature in this section, the streams were clear as crys- tal, while now they are red with the blood of the land which is being washed away to some day build up an empire in the Gulf of Mexico. Freshets, such as we now have as a result of deforestation are ruinous to both hills and valleys alike and must be checked if we would save our one most valuable asset—our soil. J. B. White of Kansas City followed with an address on “The Lumberman’s In- terest in Conservation.” The most impor- tant point made by Captain White was that lumber is now, and always has been, sold for less than its true value. In discussing this he followed closely the lines taken the day before by Dr. Hayes. He contended that “If forest conservation is ever to be a suc- cess, lumber has got to be worth more money than it is now. It must bring what it will cost to produce it. It is our duty to educate the people to this fact, and that if conservation comes the people will have to pay the bill. There is no way of saddling this cost upon the lumbermen. It has got to come fairly upon all classes.” The remaining speakers at the morning session were Mrs. J. K. Ottley; Dr. J. Hyde Pratt, president of the Appalachian Good Roads Association; J. H. Finney, Secretary of the Southern Appalachian Association, and Dr. Thomas D. Coleman of Augusta. President Worsham presided at the clos- ing session, the first part of which was FORESTRY taken up by the address of Philip Werlein, president of the New Orleans Progressive Union and short speeches by a number of the more prominent persons present. The clos- ing address was by Theodore Roosevelt, who touched upon the need of forest conser- vation im the South, as follows: The South has the last hardwood forests of great industrial value on the North Ameri- can continent. There are coniferous for- ests placed elsewhere that are not ex-- hausted. I hope the South will use those hardwood forests in such fashion as to get the very utmost business value out of them of which they are capable, provided that the use is always conditioned upon keeping the forests so that our children and children’s children shall have their portion of the benefit from them. Cut every big tree that is worth cutting, cut all the timber that can now be used, but cut it in such fashion and use such safeguards that the forests will still remain, that the young trees will remain to grow up in their turn into trees that can be used by your children and your children’s children in their turn. Treat each forest as an asset of the country as a whole, as the wise farmer treats his land as, not a merely personal asset for himself, but as an asset for his family. I hope that Congress will pass the bill for the creation of the great Appalachian for- est. Those forests lie in several different states. The waters which rise in them go through more than one state, and it should be peculiarly the work of the national gov- ernment to see to their preservation. I hope that every one of your representatives in Congress will bestir himself in this matter. Before adjourning, the Congress adopted the following: STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES This Southern Conservation Congress in session assembled in the City of Atlanta, State of Georgia, on this 8th day of October, 1910, after full deliberation on matters of vital moment to the people of the South, and through them, to the people of the entire Nation, does hereby adopt and de- clare the following statement of principles and policies. We hold firmly and unalterably that such conservation of our natural resources as is consistent with their proper and wise utilization is a deep moral obligation, and that only through recognition and observance of this obligation can the perpetuity of our people be assured. Pleading for posterity whose rights we hold to be a sacred trust, we enjoin our generation against all needless waste of those abounding resources with which our country is blessed. Holding it within the legal power of the state as fixed in the Constitution and es- tablished by a decision of the Supreme AMERICAN FORESTRY 675 Court of the United States to protect the common interests of the whole people against individual encroachment, we urge upon our states a fuller realization of their responsibility for guarding the interests and tights of their citizens in the natural source: of prosperity. é Recognizing the running waters of the country as a great natural resource, we hold that they should be administered by the Federal Government and the State Govern- ments within their respective jurisdictions in the interest of all the people; and we urge that the waters be utilized and conserved in accordance with the principle of the great- est good to the greatest number for the longest time. Viewing purity of water supply as es- sential to the public and general welfare, we urge upon all municipal, state and fed- eral authorities and upon individuals and corporations requisite action toward puri- fying and preventing contamination of the waters. We urge the enactment of the Weeks Bill now pending before the Senate of the United States providing for protective for- ests, and we affirm that the Federal Gov- ernment has the constitutional right amount- ing to a National duty to acquire lands for forest purposes in the interests of a future timber supply, water-shed protection, navi- gation, power and the general welfare of the people. ~ Approving the Federal forest policy and the endorsing of service whereby this pol- icy is carried out, we urge upon our states the establishment of state forests and the en- actment. of laws insuring the conservation of forests in private possession; such laws to provide for more equitable taxation, pre- vention of forest fires and re-forestation of lands less valuable for other purposes. We favor co-operative action on the part of states and the Federal Government look- ing to the »reservation and better utilization of the soils by approved scientific methods. We urge appropriate legislation by the states and Federal Government for the 5 Ps protection of migratory birds, wild game, food fishes and fur-bearing animals. Appreciating the scenic beauty of our land as a source of patriotism and as 2 means of promoting the happiness of our people, we urge on communities, municipalities, States and the Federal Government a higher appreciation of this cement of public wel- fare and appropriate action looking towards its maintenance. We recommend that the public and priv- ate schools instruct the youth of the land in the fundamental doctrines of conser- vation. We realize that the fullest enjoyment of our natural resources depends on the Khife and development of the people physically, intellectually and morally, and in order to promote this purpose we recommend that the training and protection of the people and whatever pertains to their uealth and general efficiency be encouraged by all meth- ods and legislation suitable to this end Child Labor should be discouraged and child life protected and developed. Realizing the appalling waste of human Itfe in mining, transportation and other indus- trial operations, we recommend legislation increasing the use of proper safeguards for the conservation of lives especially of m- dustrial employees. Holding that the people of the country have a common interest in the mineral resources. we approve the establishment of a Federal Bureau of Mines to further the conservation of these resources and urge upon our states proper ligislation to the same end, im order that current wastes amounting to an econo- Mic crime may be prevented. Profoundly appreciating the splendid work of state conservation commissions and asso- ciations in awakening our people to the Conser- vation Issue, we urge upon our state legis latures the enactment of laws providing for the maintenance of such commissions with adequate funds for their work; and we call on all Governors of Siates which have not yet acted to promptly create State Con- servation Commissions and clothe them with necessary Powers. : EIGHTEENTH IRRIGATION CONGRESS The Eighteenth Irrigation Congress, held at Pueblo, Colo., September 26 to 30, wit- nessed a revival of the controversy between Federal and state control of water resources which had given zest to the proceedings of the Second National Conservation Congress. Considerable bitterness of feeling was dis- played by the advocates of exclusive state control, and a good deal of time was wasted in declamation and manipulation which might better have been devoted to constructive work. The advocates of Federal control repeated the victory which they achieved at St. Paul. The platform adopted is a strong conservation document. B. A. Fowler of Phonix, Ariz., was elected president of the congress, and Arthur Hooker of Spokane, Wash., was elected secretary. Following are the RESOLUTIONS This eighteenth convention of the Na- tional Irrigation Congress now drawing to a close, made up of duly appointed delegates from all the states west of the one hundredth meridian, and several east of that line, has been notable for the fullness and freedom of discussion concerning every aspect of irrigation. Much of the discussion has reached planes both high and practical and well worthy of preservation in permanent form for guidance in the future. Accord- ingly, we, the delegates here in session as- sembled, in the City of Pueblo, State of Colorado, on this 30th day of September, 1910, do hereby adopt the following declar- ation of principles and affirmation of policies and opinions. Recognizing the waters of the country as the source of life and the basis of the habit- ability and productivity of the land, we hold that the waters belong to the people of the country, and that this right of the people in and to the waters is natural, inherent, in- alienable and indefeasible. Recognizing the necessity for administer- this invaluable possession of the people tate and federal agencies, we deny the of state or federal governments, or ipal authorities, to alienate or convey by granting franchises for the use a" TP) oO | 7] a ri _ 3 m i nS f BY i) fy ry © y : in the imterest of the people Recognizing the interdependence of the va- ous uses of the waters of the country, we Mary uses are for drink- for agriculture ipol supph itt i or otherwise, in which sumed, and that the use for nayi- i for power. in which water is not consumed, are secondary; and we hold that use of the water should be made with refer- ence to all other uses for the public wel- fare in accordance with the principle of the greatest good to the greatest number for the longest time. Accepting the fact that all parts of each drainage area are related and interdepen- dent, we hold that each stream should be viewed and treated as a unit from its source to its mouth; and since the waters are es- sentially mobile and transitory, we hold that federal control is essential to the equitable distribution and utilization of the waters of interstate streams. Since the better utilization of our waters for water supply, irrigation, navigation and power requires unification of the various ad- ministrative agencies of the Government hav- ing charge of the federal regulation nad control of water and waterways into a single agency, we request our representatives in the Federal Congress to take early action looking to the creation of an appropriate agency for this purpose; such agency to be empowered to co-operate with states. Viewing purity of water supply as essen- tial to the public health and general wel- fare, we urge on all municipal, state and federal authorities, and on individuals and corporations, constant vigilance and requisite action looking towards purifying and prevent- ing contamination of the waters. Recognizing the establishment of the United States Reclamation Service, largely through the efforts of this organization, as one of the important steps in the develop- ment of this country as a home for a great and growing people, we heartily favor the continuation and extension of the service; and we re-affirm our full confidence in the integrity and capability of the officers of this branch of the public service. Re-affirming the conviction of the last Congress as to the importance of irrigation by private enterprise, we note with gratifi- cation the response by the Federal Congress and the Census Bureau to our demand for complete statistics concerning irrigation, and we commend this subject to the considera- tion of future sessions of this Congress. Adhering to the principle of local self- government, we urge co-operation and organ- ization for mutual benefit among irrigators, and- advocate provision for irrigation dis- tricts by the legislatures of all states in which irrigation is practiced. Recognizing the economic waste and men- ace to the public health connected with our vast areas of swamp and overflow lands, we request our representatives in the Federal FIGHTEENTH IRRIGATION CON through co-operstion between ands videal owners, Staics, and the Federal Gor- a, mi ieciar Loree es Ge ee es eC a ee zitery of oor toland waterway sysiem, and exientme ip ofher oat! waterways mm the order of dhe megutnde and commer cil 3 ¢hronghont the avaiable reps commend the Fede Forest policy, and favor ais couimmance and extension; ani we SGeeud fercsi, we tell thot sch witieico ais shecid be made im the Get of expert m_ aon | Sho Goat the apricniel waine of sock lends is pecamomm to ther walme both for forest production and jor siteam protection. We setiemic ghe detector of the Ib gaison Gonercss of aoo7, 908 and 3999 m@ fawor @f eSiibksims mationel forest ™m the Southem Appalachian and White Monn- deans, and d@everct fhe steno ot om repre geniaiwes mm fhe Federal Gonersss ip fhe Bill gor fms pepese mow awaits imal argon =i fhe mext sesion @ fe SQ Gonersss. We fewor fe enacement of Jews by Se Sms ip resuiate dhe cong of Gober on State and povaic lends, and lews reine tzzcGon on fember Tends, cot ove $Ieads gn@ teSoresied ends. ip fhe end that the popeaiy ef fhe forssis may be 2ssmred and the Gow of dhe streams be preservetl 1k 3s fhe seme of Gs Coneress that 2m the federel comizol sesenGal ip the eoutable GHhasen and dixiiboion of Tesi Siteams, fen ast be swen ip the i Tersmnon mghis of all citizens who eve cfeced o"s39tT oa cma Tecommend Ghat mere Gere] appropmatons be amade by the Fete Congress ani ce Lepsiamores of dhe States for co open m the prosecunan of ihe work pa the Topo a ap elgg oe a ape Sead Sea ee recall Mutctdioan of Ge axipents ani filieons secoriimg Gem operamons ani sesuits. Holding that dhe incinsion of of pribhr Hams an mnie: siete the opeTahons of such cistrarts ant mately al a fhe serlamaion of aan leeds, we terommend i fe Goose @ fhe United States the emartment of 2 ew amtherizing the moheaon om surn Janis wat m such @simris, with dal the mies, ike inh and exempnons of Tanfis am goawaie sights of the Dantted States sms pail Hamre omdke anmpsssile tp the poss Ge beet eee aE ee pees a eek TvTelops, 2D to the end Ghat che people may be a formed iis PEELE — 2 possi on fhese amporiant subj= We recommend ak fhe President of Go Comersss appomt 2 commssion of ive i ake 2 systematr stuty of the eget ews of fhe wesious sizes an@ io secommend 4 fit legisiatures fherent umiemm Jerxion ralaing ip Sigahon. Store Gee Dey Facmme Gonersss = work Bega fic of sciemihe soil Glas and comsenasion of moshoe an aries: ap r- team all possiiie aad lend by savme and adicine ill the availsiille water, f= Comersss extends thearty wishes jor the success of Ghat ogpenmaon, with ghe assmmamne Ghat we appremate the wilme of every si=p Ghat will ™ any wey sesuk on glacme 2 Sreier area of Gand under coi=vason, Simee dhe expert Enowleige of aftwes af the 2 eee Semane ines am dhe past been Geyeimable dp foe Conetress at Loe, sa coperseliy te Sx conti Commence we cecal em test that he mei Lehi ak tik: pee SEINE Was moi mT filly tepresenied at the Garitesnth Gonersss. CURRENT LITERATURE MONTHLY LIST FOR OCT,., 1910 (Books and periodicals indexed in the Li- brary of the United States Forest Ser- vice). Forestry As a Whole Proceedings of associations Forstverein fiir das grossherzogtum Hessen. Bericht uber die 16. versammlung zu Bad-Nauheim am _ 16.-19. September, 1908. 102 p. Wimpfen, Germany, C. Elser, 1908. Forest Education Forest schools University of Minnesota—College of for- estry. Announcement, IQIO-I9II. 50 p. Minneapolis, Minn., 1910. University of Nebraska-Forest club. Pro- gram, Ist semester, IQIO-IOII. 4 Pp. Lincoln, Nebr., 1910. Forest Legislation West Virginia—Legislature. West Virginia forest, game and fish laws, and the Lacy bird law. 62 p. [Charleston, W. Va.], State printers, 1909. Forest Description Elolmes Wess, and sHosters of forest conditions of southwestern Mississippi. 50 p. map. Jackson, Miss., 1909. ( Mississippi—Geological survey. Bulletin 5). Lewin, D. The eucalypti hardwood timbers of Tasmania, and the Tasmanian orna- mental and softwood timbers. I40 p. illus. Hobart, Tasmania, Gray Brothers, 1900. H. A study Forestry Botany Trees: classification and description Elwes, H. J,, and Henry A. The trees of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 5. 333 p. plates. Edinburgh, Scotland, Pri- vately printed, 1910. Schaffner, John H. Trees of Ohio and sur- rounding territory. I19 p. Columbus. Ohio, 1909. (Ohio state academy of science. Proceedings, vol. 5, pt. 3. Special paper, no. 15). 678 Woods: classification and structure Hough, Romeyn B. American woods, ex- hibited by actual specimens and with copious explanatory text. pt. II. 25 sections. Lowville, N. Y., The author, IQIO. Silvics Forest influences Whipple, James S. The forests. Y., Editorial Review Co., Igto Are INE Ecology Wallenb6ck, R. Bodenphysikalische unter- suchungen in mischbestanden' von eiche und buche. 8 p. Wien, W. Frick, 1910. Studies of species Schiffel, A. Beitrag zur begritndung der lehre uber die erziehung der fichte. 21 p. illus. Wien, W. Frick, 1910. Silviculture Schlich, Wm. Manual of forestry, vol. 2: Silviculture. 4th edition. 424 p. illus. London, Bradbury, Agnew & Co., 1910. Planting Plummer, F. G. The growing of eucalypts. 28 p. New Haven, Conn., Yale pub- lishing association, I9I0. Zederbauer, E. Versuche itiber aufbewah- rung von waldsdmereien. 8 p. Wien, W. Frick, 1910. Forest Protection Diseases Great Britain—Agriculture and fisheries, Board of Leaf-shedding in coinfers, due to Botrytis cinerea. 3. p._ illus. London, Eng., 1910. (Leaflet no. 234). Fire California—Forestry, State board of. A handbook of forest protection; forest laws, rules for the prevention of fires, instructions to fire fighters, list of fire- wardens, 1910. 34 p. Sacramento, Cal., IQIO. CURRENT LITERATURE Smokes and vapors Rusnov, Peter v. Uber die feststellung von rauchschaden im nadelwald. 13 p. Wien, W. Frick, 1910. Forest Administration Bavaria—K. staatsministerium der finanzen— Ministerial-forstabteilung. Mitteilun- gen aus der staatsforstverwaltung Ba- yerns, 10. heft. 157 p. plates. Miinchen, I9IO. India—Burma—Forest department. Report on forest administration for the year _ 1907-08. 206 p. Rangoon, India, Supt. government printing, 1909. India—Central Provinces—Forest depart- ment. Report on forest administration for the year 1908-09. 155 p. Nagpur, India, Government press, 1909. National and state forests Ammons, E. M. Forest reservations; ad- dress delivered before the joint session of the Colorado legislature, March, 1909, relative to the rights in and uses of forest reservations. 18 p. Wash,, 1910. (U. S. 61st congress; 2d session. Senate document 650). Forest Utilization Pierson, Albert H. Consumption of fire- wood in the United States. D. €., 1910: (U.S. Agriculture; -dept. of Forest service. Circular 181). Wood preservation Berlin mills co. The selection of structural wood and its preservation from decay. 25 p., illus. Portland, Me., Igro. Auxiliary Subjects Conservation of natural resources Finley, W. W. Address before the 2d Na- tional Conservation Congress, St. Paul, Winn. Sepie YA TOM TS Gy sss wee nall Minn., r9to. Periodical Articles General Atlantic monthly, September, 1910.—Econo- mics of waste and conservation, by J. B: Clark, p. 325-31. Blackwood’s Edinburgh magazine, August, 1910.—Old English forestry, by J. Nes- bit, p. 181-9. : Country gentlemen, July 21, 1910—The miracle tree; eucalyptus craze in Cali- fornia, by J. T. Bramhall, p: 684-5. Garden magazine, October, 1910—An expe- rience in transplanting a tree, by F. H. Moore, p. 148. 7p. Wash., 679 Gardener’s chronicle, August 13, 1910.—The natural history of Conifere, by P. Groom, p. 115-16. Gardener’s chronicle, August 20, 1910.—The royal school of forestry at Eberswalde, bq G, W., .p. 134-5. Gardener’s chronicle, September 10, 1910.— Mortality of transplanted Coinfere, by J: Clarky paeeoss Munsey’s magazine, October, I910.—The forest ranger at work, by R. R. Howard, Pp. 53-63. Pennsylvania-German, Sept. 1910—Penn- sylvania German plant names, by C. D. Mell. Pennsylvania-German, October, 1910.—The use of willow rods by the ancient Ger- mans, by C. D. Mell. Philippine agricultural review, Aug., 1910.— The Philippine school of forestry; a new profession for Filipinos, p. 480-1. Philippine journal of science, series A, May, 1910.—The study of Manila copal, by P. C. Freer, p. 171-2; The almaciga tree, Agathis alba, by F. W. Foxworthy, p. 173-5; Manila copal, by G. F. Richmond, p. 177-201; The destructive distillation of Manila copal, by B. T. Brooks, p. 203-7; The oxidation of Manila copal by the air, by B: UL. Brooks, p. 2190-27; The oleoresins of Pinus insularis, by B. T. Brooks, p. 229-31. Popular science monthly, Oct., 1910—Ad- dress before the National conservation congress. iby) Wo Eilat 2ne=o2-) dhe role of hybridization in plant breeding, by E. M. East, p. 342-55. Scientific American supplement, Aug. 27, 1910.—Preservative treatment of farm emamlovernsy,- lone (Cy IE NAVaulibigs, “ieaoy=ie. Sunset magazine, Oct., 19o10.—Sheep without a shepherd, by Wm. C. Barnes, p. 452-5. Technical world magazine, Oct., 1910.— Policing the national forests, by Henry M. Hyde, p. 157-65. Twentieth century magazine, Sept., 1910.— A brief history of the conservation movement; conclusion, by M. F. Abbott, Pp. 5II-15. Trade journals and consular reports American lumberman, Oct. I, 1910.—Fores- try observations in Europe, by F. Roth, ip, “AAC. Hardwood record, Sept. 25, 1o10—Life at Biltmore, a school of technical lumber- ing, p. 28-30. Hardwood record, Oct. Io, pound wagon axles, p. 44-5. Lumber review, Sept. 15, t910.—Hard woods and hardwood flooring in Hamburg, by Reba Skinner pate: Lumberman’s review, Sept., 1910.—Wood preservation; kyanizing applied to spruce greatly prolongs its life and wear, p. 17. Pacific lumber trade journal, Sept., 1910.— Treated wood block paving is the rec- ognized standard, by G. Winslow, p. 49. 1910.—Com- 680 AMERICAN Paper mill, Aug. 27, 1910.—Russia’s_ for- ests; their extent as reported by the American consul-general at Moscow, D. 40. . Paper mill, Sept. 24, 1910.—Paper fibres, by C. R. Dodge, p. 12, 34, 36. Paper trade journal, Aug. 25, 1910.—Swed- en’s growing wood pulp trade, p. 4. Paper trade journal, Sept. 15, 1910.— New way of making wood pulp, p. BO) 425 Encouraging conservation; report pre- sented by the delegate of the American paper and pulp association to the Na- tional conservation congress at St. Paul, Minn., by E. W. Backus, p. 48. Pioneer western lumberman, Oct. I, 1910.— Timber in the inland empire, by Shrabtwe kam pam27- Railway journal, Oct., t910.—Treated tim- ber for railroad ties, by J. L. Single, p. 7. Louis limberman, Sept., 1, 1910—Ta- basco mahogany, by T. F. Lee, p. 69-713 Increasing popularity of wood paved streets, p. 76. St. Louis lumberman, Oct. 1, 1910.—Chicago and. creosoted wood block paving, p. 72. Southern lumberman, Sept. 10, 1910.—New Sh process; company in North Carolina to extract turpentine and rosin from light- wood, p. 34. Timberman, Sept., 1910—Practical utiliza- tion of dynamite in fighting forest fires of northwest, by EF. C. Young, and others, p. 32M; Tongass national forest of southeastern Alaska has 15,490,086 acres, by W. A. Langille, p. 27; For- estry and the fire problem of northwest, by A. H. Hodgson, p. 45; How to ob- tain the highest practical efficiency in woods operation, by J. P.. Van Orsdel, p. 48-51. : United States daily consular report, Sept. 16, 1910—Wood alcohol in Germany, by F. W. Cauldwell, p. 832. United States daily consular report, Sept. 29, 1910——Wood-working machinery in Russia, by J. H. Snodgrass, p. 961-4. United States daily consular report, Sept. — 30, 1910.—Prevention of forest fires in Saxony, by C. B. Hurst, p. 986-7. United States daily consular report, Oct7; 1910—Wood-block paving in Europe, by A. M. Thackara, p. 81-2. United. States daily consular report, Oct. 11, to1o.—Lumber and _ tie industry of Hokkaido, by T. Sammons, p. 134-5. United States daily consular report, Oct 13: 1910.—Shoe-last industry in England, by S. S. Partridge, p. 160. United States daily consular report, Oct. 14, 1910.—Wood and lumber trade; British Columbia, England, Spain, by G. N. West and others, p. 177-80; Woods and forests: Sweden, United Kingdom, by E. D. Winslow and others, p. 180-1. Woodworker, Sept., toro—Circassian wal- nut; where it grows, by W. Widdicomb, FORESTRY p. 43-4; Preparation of core stock and cross banding, p. 47-8. Forest journals Allegemeine forst- und jadg-zeitung, Aug., 1910. — Studien und wahrnehmungen uber das entstehen neuer, praktisch wichtiger formen von pflanzen auf dem gebiete der land- und forstwirtschraft, by O. V. Anderlind, p. 273-9; Aus dem forstlichen versuchswesen, by Heck, p. 279-93. Allegemeine frost- und jadg-zietung, Sept., 1910.—Ertragstafeln fur kiefern im lich- tungsbetrieb, by Wimmenauer, p. 321-33. American forestry, Oct., 1910—The secon conservation congress, by E. A. Start, p. 569-88, 597-600; The forest and the na- tion, by H. S. Graves, p. 607-10. Centralblatt fiir das gesamte frostwesen, Aug.-Sept. 1910.—Einiges iiber den urwald von waldbaulichen gesichtspunk- ten, by L. Cermak, p. 340-70; Die jahr- lichen temperaturextreme auf den hohen warte zu Wien im Wienerwalde in den 25 jahren 1879 bis 1903, by R. Wallen- bock, p. 370-6. Forest leaves, Oct., 1910.—Influence of for- ests upon the climate of the surrounding country, by C. L. Kirk, p. 164-6; Re- foresting our denuded white pine and hemlock lands, by W. Dague, Pp. 166-8; Prostrate juniper, by Bern, Treichler, p. 168; The forest nursery, by W. H. Kraft, p. 168-9; The import- ant timber trees of Pennsylvania, and where they should be planted, by P. H. Mulford, p. 170-74. Minnesota forester, Sept., 1910—What a forest fire really is, p. 85-7; What they are doing in the West, p. 87-90. Oesterreichische vierteljahresschrift, 1910.— Ueber umtriebszeit und hiebssatzermitt- lung, by A. Schiffel and A. von Gutten- berg, p. 1-28; Betrachtungen zur boden- wertformel, by A. von Guttenberg, p. 28-36; Ueber die methoden der forst- lichen rentabilitatsrechnung, by A. Hof- mann, p. 198-217; Die buchene eisen- bahnschwelle, by D. Schneidt, p._157-83; Die verbauung des Lamm- und Schwan- denbaches bei Brienz in der Schweiz, by A. Blaschek, p. 183-98. Revue des eaux et foréts, Sept. I, 1910.— Sur le pin d’Auvergne, by A. d’Alverny, p. 513-25; Les foréts de la baronnie de Lafauche, by M. Rothéa, p. 526-31. Revue des eaux et foréts, Sept. 16, 1910. - Le débardage des longs bois en mon- tagne au moyen de cables de retenue, by P. Bauby, p. 545-54. Schweizerische zeitschrift fir forstwesen, Aug., 1910.—Ueber die kiinstliche ver- anlassung des abganges von lawinen, by F. W. Sprecher, p. 236-42. Zeitschrift fur forst- und jadgwesen, Sept., 1910.—Zur klassifikation der waldbéden, p. 568-72; Der hausschwamm in der natur, by K. Havelik, p. 573-7. WHAT FOREST FIRES COST IN 1910 HILE an accurate estimate of the total fire damage of the past season will never be made, enough is known to place the damage to standing timber in round figures at from $175,000,000 to $200,000,000. The timber consumed, or damaged beyond hope of utilization before it becomes a total loss by decay, was roughly equivalent to the entire lumber cut of two years, assuming 40,000,000,000 feet as the average annual cut. Since not more than one-third as much timber is grown as it takes to meet the yearly demand, it would take six years’ growth of all the forests of the country to replace the supply wiped out by this year’s fires. = The cost of fighting these fires was not less than $1,500,000, and probably exceeded this sum. Since the production of every thousand feet of lumber represents $10 in wages, $8,000,000 was lost to industry in wages. This is equally true whether or not an equivalent amount is spent for labor in salvage or in converting other forests into manufactured products; for in the long run, the reduction of the forest stock below the minimum required to meet the current demand means the depression of the lumber industry, curtailment of the cut, and consequently a diminished outlay for labor, with corresponding loss in wages. Before the severe fires of August were more than a probability, this magazine placed the loss to property from the fires in the United States and Canada at about $100,000,000. Since then the fires of the Northwest have caused losses of probably not less than $25,000,000 in the national forests, and those of the Northwest and the Lake States together have destroyed not less than $50,000,000 worth of timber owned by states and private persons. Details are most complete for the losses to Government timber, and it is probable that state and private owners of timber suffered more nearly three times than twice as heavily as the Nation by these fires. A comparison of the public losses with the private losses for the whole country indicates that the private losses were seven times greater than the public losses, in spite of the fact that privately owned forests are not more than five times greater in extent and are more accessible than those publicly owned. To replace forests by planting on the 4,000,000 acres burned over would cost not less than $40,000,000. It is likely however that over much of the area natural seeding from live trees left standing will furnish the beginnings of new growth. No attempt has been made by AMERICAN Forestry to estimate the damage to young growth or to the soil, For much of the burned-over land this damage would increase the estimated losses two or three fold. 681 STATE WORK New York Commissioner Whipple Resigns The commissioners appointed by Gov- ernor Hughes to investigate the Forest, Fish and Game Commission of New York have made their report. While recognizing the value of much of the work done by Com- missioner Whipple, they criticize severely some of the methods of the office, particularly of the legal department. As a result of this, Commissioner Whipple submitted his resignation to the Governor. This, and the reply of the Governor, follow: It is unfortunate that any questions of this kind have arisen in connection with the forestry work-of New York, which has been so creditable in many respects. Mr. Whip- ple’s service has been valuable not only in his own state but through the example which he has furnished for the forest work of other states. October 3, I9I0. Hon. CuHartes E. HucHes, Governor, Executive Chamber, Albany, N. Y. My dear Governor: I have read the report of the Commis- sion appointed by you to investigate the administration of the Forest, Fish and Game Department. As a result of the criticisms made of my department, I desire to tender my resignation to take effect at once. This is not the time to discuss either the facts or the conclusions set up in the report, but I do emphatically deny the truth of the facts stated and disagree from the conclusions reached. I recognize, however, that, as a result of this report, my useful- ness to the State in this department has been destroyed. I have held this position for six years. I was not an applicant for the position. IT have come to appreciate the great impor- tance of the work of this Department to the people of the State. I have heard New York State cited as an example in the con- servation of its forests in many states of the Union. The work of my Department has increased many fold during my admin- istration. It extends to all parts of the State. The work of this Department has extended along new lines,—some of it ex- perimental. The field covered is so large that much of it must be intrusted to sub- ordinates. That a critical examination cov- 682 ering the six years of my administration would disclose errors of judgment and mis- takes made should be expected. I think a similar examination would show errors and mistakes in the management of any great business organization of the country. I will not attempt to offset these with the good that has been accomplished during the same time. I will only say that my conscience acquits me on any intentional neglect or dereliction of duty. I have given to the work my entire time and my heart has been in it. I have kept in touch with the friends of conservation in the State. It is a thou- sand times more important’ that this great work should go on and that it should not become a subject of political contention than that I should retain the office. For these reasons, to relieve you of any embarrassment, and without solicitation on the part of anyone, I respectfully tender my resignation. Very truly yours, (Signed) J. S. WuHIppLe. State of New York Executive Chamber, Albany October 3, I9I0. Hon. JAmes S. WHIPPLE, Albany, N. Y. Dea asin. Your letter of this date resigning your office as Forest, Fish and Game Commis- sioner has been received. It is imposible for me adequately to express the regret that I feel at the conditions which the investi- gation of your department has shown to exist. Your work has been strongly commended to me by those who are interested in the protection of the forests and in the conserv- ation of the State’s interest in those im- portant resources. You should have full credit with respect to those matters in which there has been increased efficiency; and I desire to believe, and I accept your state- ment, that you have not been guilty of wrong intention. But the conditions which have been shown to exist cannot be ignored and must be immediately rectified. Your resignation is accepted and under the statute took effect when it was received and filed in this office. Very truly yours, (Signed) CHartes E. HuGHeEs. NEWS AND NOTES Indiana Forestry Association Formed The Indiana Forestry Association is the name adopted for the new organization which is being promoted in Indiana by Charles W. Fairbanks and others to assist in the work of protecting trees and planting new trees in the waste places of the state. The following will be the twelve directors and incorporators: Thomas R. Marshall, Governor of Indiana; Charles W. Fairbanks, former vice-president of the United States; Addison C. Harris, attorney, Indianapolis; William Lowe Bryan, president of Indiana University; Dr. John N. Hurty, secretary of the state board of health; Winthrop E. Stone, president of Purdue university; John B. Connor, editor of the Indiana Farmer; Mason B. Thomas, of Wabash College; Edgar A. Perkins, the newly elected president of the Indiana State Federation of Labor; George B. Lockwood, of Marion; Hugh J. McGow- an, president of the Indianapolis Traction and Terminal Company; and Oscar Hadley, state treasurer. We YE ME Needed Forest Laws for Washington The Washington commission on forest legislation, appointed by Lieutenant Governor Hay, has recommended to the executive and to the legislature the enactment of a law creating a state forestry department; another law providing state means for the reclama- tion of logged off lands on the ten-year bond issue improvement plan; a law providing for the submission of a constitutional amend- ment providing for reforestration of non- agricultural logged off lands, with exemp- tion from taxation for a stated period, and, finally, a law enlarging the scope of the forestry department in the protection of the forests of the state from destruction by fire. we We The Proposed Nebraska State Forest A member of the Forest service has, at the request of the Nebraska Conservation Commission examined the tract of wooded land between Bellevue and South Omaha, Nebraska, which the commission desires to have the state purchase for forest purposes. In his report the forester favors the proposed plan. It is expected that the land would cost between $100,000 and $150,000. $5,000,000 from a Town Forest A remarkable example of modern forestry is furnished by the little town of Orson in Sweden. The town, says the Lumber- men’s Review, is probably the only munici- pality in the world which has ordinary city expenses, but which imposes no taxes upon its citizens. Moreover, the local railway is free to every citizen, and there is no charge for telephone service, schools, libraries and the like. This happy state of affairs is due to the wisdom of a former generation of citizens and rulers of Orson, who planted | trees on all available ground. During the last . thirty years the town authorities have sold no less than $5,000,000 worth of young trees and timber, and judicious replantings have provided for a similar income in the future. ye pe pe Biltmore Winter Term The members of the Biltmore Forest School sailed October 4 for Germany, where they will make their winter quarters at Darm- stadt. ye ye ye China May Send Us Students of Forestry A dispatch to the New York Herald from Pekin says that Major Ahearn, chief of the Philippine Bureau of Forestry, who is now touring in China, conferred with a number of government and provincial officials recent- ly concerning the needs of China for affor- estation. The interest which he aroused in- dicated that in all probability a number of students will soon be sent to American forest schools. Resolutions of Minnesota Citizens A mass meeting of citizens at Hibbing, Minn., adopted on October 14 the follow- ing resolutions on the forest fire situation: “Whereas, the timbered portions of the state of Minnesota have at intervals for the past several years been visited by disastrous forest fires, the most extensive being the fire in 1893, which destroyed the village of Hinck- ley and devastated the surrounding country, resulting in the loss of 416 human lives and property of untold value; the fire which destroyed the village of Virginia, in this county, in the same year, resulting in a great loss of property, but fortunately no loss of life; the fire which destroyed the village of Chisholm in this county in 1908, 683 684 and laid waste a territory that was almost an empire in extent, entailing a property loss of several millions of dollars; and the recent deplorable fires in the northern counties of the state, which have resulted in the loss of so many lives and property of almost stupendous value and left a multitude of people homeless and penniless, all of which occurred directly at a result of forest fires, not mentioning the numerous small fires which were not sufficiently disastrous to attract public attention, and “Whereas, said fires have almost withotit exception originated upon cut-over lands, from which the timber had been removed six or seven years previously thereto, and such fires destroyed not only the farm build- ings of the thrifty homesteader and the homes of the artisan and toiler, which rep- resented a life-time of honest toil, and also destroyed marketable timber, the value of which was so great that it cannot even be estimated, but in addition thereto they de- stroyed the young growing timber, which in a few years would be of sufficient size to be marketable, and which should have been conserved for future generations as their legitimate heritage, and “Whereas, we believe that the recurrence of such fires may be prevented and the danger to life and property therefrom be almost wholly removed, and “Whereas, the state of Minnesota in the largest single owner of timber holdings within its borders and has through such fires lost property of such value that the actual cost of an intelligent and effective system for the prevention of such fires ap- pe infinitesimal in comparison therewith, an “Whereas, in the Scandinavian peninsula, Germany and numerous other foreign coun- tries, systems are in vogue and working ad- mirably for the prevention of such fires, and we have enough confidence and pride in the people of our own state to believe that what foreign nations have done successfully we can do successfully, in view of the foregoing. “Be it resolved, that we urgently request the legislative and executive departments of the state to take such steps at their earliest convenience as will, so far as possible, pre- vent the further needless loss of life and property from that source in the timbered portions of our state, and to that end we humbly suggest that a sufficient and effective patrol system be inaugurated by the state, say of one patrolman to every six square miles of territory, whose duty it shall be LOMAS Bhat was possible, prevent forest fires and to discover and extinguish them at their outset, without waiting until they have de- veioped into a raging conflagration.” ye We ye American Shippers Criticized In an editorial entitled “American Meth- ods,” the Timber News, of London, England, AMERICAN FORESTRY has stirred up something of ‘a hornets’ nest among the lumber journals of the United States. The burden of the article is the statement that “British timber agents and importers have on many occasions good cause to declare that they have been swindled out _of their money by certain lumber shippers in various American ports, timber often being sent (and for which shippers have drawn the money before it has been received on this side) which on arrival has turned out to be of a very low grade, and far from what the shipper, according to his contract, ought to have supplied.’ An instance is quoted of a Hamburg firm which has taken civil and criminal proceedings against two New Orleans lumber companies, and already been awarded £5,000 damages in the civil case. It looks as though the Timber News had been a little hasty in taking up arms, but from the result of this particular case, and from the haste and energy with which several of the United States journals have criticized the London journal for its article, it would also appear that the shoe pinches in spots. Whatever the facts may be, the result will be beneficial, as too much publicity cannot be given to the few unscrupulous members of the trade whose methods may have far- reaching evil effects. The fact that the de fendants in the civil suit had to pay $25,000 for the liberties they took with their cus- tomers in Hamburg, is a strong indication that the laws and customs of the United States, if rigidly enforced, are quite sufh- cient to protect foreign purchasers.—E-xr- change. ye owe oe Idaho Understands Conservation The Potlatch Lumber Company recently applied to the state of Idaho to purchase outright 24,000 acres of state lands, on which the company already owns the timber under a twenty-year contract. Their application has been approved by the state. The attitude of the state of Idaho is to be commended for the position it has taken on this question. From every standpoint, their reasoning is sound. To compel the Pot- latch Lumber Company to strip the timber from the land, irrespective of market con- ditions, would have been simply preposterous and invited criminal waste. The lumber com- pany had prepared itself to denude the land within the time specified in its twenty-year contract with the state, so it was fortified to meet its obligations. Slowly the idea is gain- ing ground that true conservation means the most complete utilization of any product. For every foot of lumber cut a profit should be realized to help develop other industries after the timber is denuded. To merely slaughter the timber, irrespective of the needs of trade, is essentially wrong. Lumbermen everywhere were deeply interested in the out- come of this question, as it means the market will not be glutted and gorged with a tre- NEWS AND NOTES mendous output, which would weaken and disturb trade generally, without accomplish- ing any good to any one, and least of all to the state of Idaho.—Timberman. Mew \ Farm Forests of Virginia One of the results of a recent study of forest conditions in Virginia, made by the state in cooperation with the Forest Service is the publication of a report on “The Farm Forests of Virginia,’ by W. W. Ashe, of the Forest Service. This report is printed by the state of Virginia. After reviewing the general forest situation in Virginia, and showing that the state must ultimately face the problem of producing wood for home consumption, since her neigh- bors are not prepared to raise surplus tim- ber, Mr. Ashe takes up the possibilities of- fered in the state for successful woodlot management on the farms. In many re- spects, he points out, the farmer is in a better position to make his forests profitable than is the owner of large tracts. “Low-grade timber in many sections has only a nominal value, on account of the lack of extensive nearby markets. In this respect, the farmer is advantageously situated, since he has a constant though limited demand on his farm for low-grade wood for fuel and for ordinary buildings, and can save his best timber for the market. “Forest fires endanger young growth, and fire protection is costly to the individual and difficult to put into effect. In the case of the farm forests, most of the forest land is isolated in bodies separated by fields, and this danger is much reduced. In the western counties, however, where the forest lands of many owners who have their farms in the 685 valleys lie together on the mountains, pro- tection from fire becomes the most in.portant problem, on account of the great difficulty of preventing and extinguishing the fires and the enormous damage done by them to young timber. This difficulty can be met by coop- eration among landowners to secure wardens and patrols, and by obtaining more effective forest fire legislation. * * * * * “While the farmer cannot become a for- ester, he can acquire the general principles of managing timberlands. On account of his own need for fuel and for low-grade tim- ber, and in addition frequently a nearby town market as well, he can use the tops of trees and small and defective trees. He can in- crease the yield and improve the quality of timber in a stand by thinnings; he can carry on improvement cuttings to remove dead, de- fective, and low-grade trees; he can cut so as to determine or affect the character of the young growth; he can plant small openings with seedlings of desirable species.” The report then describes the character of the three types of forests that are found in the Tidewater region, the Piedmont region, and the’ Mountain region, respectively, and takes up the ways and means of increasing the value of the farm forests. “The most important problem in connec- tion with the conservation of the present farm forests and the maintenance of an abundant and cheap supply of timber for fu- ture domestic use are: “tT, Protection of the forests, especially of the second growth, from fire. “2. Development and maintenance of farm forests. “3. The use of idle and waste lands by forest planting. “a. Education in forestry for farmers.” STATE FORESTRY ORGANIZATIONS A list of state forestry associations and their secretaries is printed below. Corrections in this list will be carefully recorded by AMERICAN Forestry. Name of organization Secretary Address Appalachian Mountain) Clab)i. 22ers 2 <>. et Re Be lawtentcews.;. ce Tremont Bldg., Boston. Arizona—Salt River Valley Water Users’ Charles A. van der Veer. . Phoenix. Association. California—Water and Forest Association...I. C. Friedlander....... 1405 The Merchants Ex- change Bldg., San . Francisco. Forestry Educational Association.......... Ba. Damion. 4 cner e - San Diego. Stenra Clb: so iiccc1. PRR ee es 6 Sees ic Wilham =i Colbypi se. San Francisco. Pacific Coast Forest, Fish and Game Wm. Greer Harrison... San Francisco. Association. Tri-counties Reforestation Committee..... Mass i tA. Hinchecne Riverside. Colorado Korestry, Association.....2.-..--.. Ellsworth Bethel....... Denver. Connecticut Forestry Association............ Pe Stadimullen ar. e 3 Elmwood. Georgia Horestry, Associations..--.ce- =. Alfred Akerman... .:... Athens. IbiheiniayIRoresning ANSCSRIsOIMls .5c6sdebdosuososbauuuuonmaer (organization not yet complete). Iowa Park and Forestry Association........ Welsey. Greene......... Des Moines. owisiana Forestry, Associations s.s-5 5s o Mis At. Avety:. 1. sce. Augusta, 254 Stoner Avenue, Sheveport. Maine borestry, Associationassernercrcecriae: Edgar vhaRuinos see Augusta. Massachusetts Forestry Association.......... Irving T. Guild. ....:.... 4 Joy St, Boston. MichivanyHorest Associationereee sce. see ce EaG. Steyéns..a.. see 25 Band Chambers, De- troit. Minnesota State Forest Association......... BiG-iCheyney:.4-42 see St. Anthony Park. Nebraska Park and Forestry Association....Miss Leila B. Craig.... York. New England Forest, Fish and Game As- Arthur T. Harris....... 16 State St., Boston. sociation. New Hampshire—Society for the Protec- Allen Hollis............ Concord, N. H. tion of New Hampshire Forests. Nees Forest Preservation Geo. Milroy Bailey..... Corti Newye ociety. Forestry, Water Storage and Manufactur- Chester W. Lyman...... 1 Broadway, New York. ing Association of the State of New York. Northern New York Forestry Association..O. B. Trappan, Director. Potsdam, N. Y. State of New York Fish, Game and L. C. Andrews.......... Elmira. Forest League. The Association for the Protection of Edward Hagaman Hall. Tribune Bldg, New the Adirondacks. York City. North Dakota State Sylvaton Society....... Miss Ella J. Mitchell... Penn. Ohio—Cincinnati Furest and Improvement Adolph Leue........... 127 West Twelfth St., Association. Cincinnati. Ohio: State Forestny Society. <2). neon Prof. J. J. Crumley.... Wooster. Oregon Conservation Association........... (AGED aVVaStell en eer 904 Lewis Bldg., Port- land. Pennsylvania—Franklin Forestry Society....W. G. Bowers........:. Chambersburg. Pennsylvania Forest Association.:........ Balla Bitlersacc icc ro12 Walnut St., Phila- delphia. Vermont Forestry Association)... ...s..2- 02 Ernest Hitchcock....... Pittsford. Washington Conservation Association....... Clarence H. Bailey..... P. O. Box 236, Seattle. West Virginia Forestry Association........./ AC Wi Nolan. geese see Morgantown. 686 The American Forestry Association OFFICERS FOR 1910 PRESIDENT CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts VICE-PRESIDENTS JOSHUA L. BAILY, Pennsylvania RUTHERFORD P. HAYES, North Carolina CHARLES W. ELIOT, Massachusetts GEORGE FOSTER PEABODY, New York Rn. E. FERNOW, Ontario, Canada J. EH. RANSDELL, Louisiana W. W. FINLEY, District of Columbia J. T. ROTHROCK, Pennsylvania DAVID R. FRANCIS, Missouri ALBERT SHAW, New York EXECUTIVE SECRETARY EDWIN A. START, 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. TREASURER OTTO LUEBKERT, Washington, D. C. DIRECTORS PHILIP W. AYRES, New Hampshire CHARLES I. NESBIT, District of Columbia ROBERT P. BASS, New Hampshire CITARLES L. PACK, New Jersey CURTIS GUILD, Jr., Massachusetts M. V. RICIZTARDS. District of Columbia WILLIAM S. ITARVEY, Pennsylvania CUNO II. RUDOLIPII, District of Columbia JOIN bE. A. HUSSEY, Massachusetts FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Pennsylvania OTTO LUERBKERT, District ef Columbia JAMES S. WHIPPLE. New York GEORGE H, MAXWELL, Illinois GEORGE Vv. WIITTLESEY, District of Columbia Advisory Board, Representing Affiliated Organizations YELLOW PINE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION JOHN L. KAUL, Birmingham, Ala. N. W. McLEOD, St. Louis, Mo. H. H. WHELESS, Shreveport, La. NATIONAL WHOLESALE LUMBER DEALERS’ ASSOCIATION ROBT. C. LIPPINCOTT, Philadelphia, Pa. LEWIS DILL, Baltimore, Md. R. M. CARRIER, Sardis, Miss. NORTHERN PINE MANUFACTURERS? ASSOCIATION C. A. SMITIi, Minneapolis, Minn. WILLIAM IRVINE, Chippewa Falls, Ws. F. BE. WEYERHAEUSER, St. Paul, Minn. MASSACHUSETTS FORESTRY ASSOCIATION NATHANIEL T. KIDDIER, Milton, Mass. FREDERIC J. CAULKINS, Boston IRVING T. GUILD, Arlington, Mass. LUMBERMEN’S EXCHANGE WILLIAM L. RICE, [hiladelphia, Pa. ' FREDERICK S. UNDERHILL, Philadelphia, Pa. SAMUEL B. VROOMAN, Philadelphia, Pa. NATIONAL SLACK COOPERAGE MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION J. T. WYLIE, Saginaw, Mich. JAMES INNES, Chatham, Ontarlo A. H. WELLES, Standish, Mich. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BOX MANUFACTURERS B. W. PORTER, Greenfield, Mass. S. B. ANDERSON, Memphis, Tenn ROBT. A. JOHNSON, Minneapolis, Minn. CARRIAGE BUILDERS’ NATIONAL ASSOCIATION Hk. C. MeLEAR, Wilmington, Del. DD? Es - WILSON, New) York C. DD, FIRESTONE, Columbus, Ohio BOSTON PAPER TRADE ASSOCIATION N. M. JONES, Lincoln, Maine JOHN B. A. IIUSSEY, Boston, Mass. ARTHUR L. HOBSON, Boston, Mass. PHILADELPHIA WHOLESALE LUMBER DEALERS’ ASSOCIATION ; R. G. KAY, Philadelphia, Pa. J. RANDALL WILLIAMS, Philadelphia, Va. B. FRANKLIN BETTS, Philadelphia, Pa. Application for Membership To EDWIN A. START Secretary American Forestry Association 1410 H Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become a member of the American Forestry Asso- ciation. One dollar ($1.00) for annual dues is enclosed herewith. Very truly yours, Name__ P. O. Address CONSERVATIVE LOGGING IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS ing surrounding small growth injur A large oak at Biltmore cut and made into cord wood without American Forestry | Vol SoVil DECEMBER, Igio No. 12 LOGGING FOR PULP WOOD IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS By GUY CARLETON HAWKINS came from which is before you? Of course, it came from Wash- ineton; Ds... But that*is: neither the beginning nor the end of its life story. The publisher received the paper from the paper mill; the paper mill received its pulp and fiber from the pulp mill, and the pulp mill took the wood from the forest to make the pulp. From what forest? It came, perhaps, from the forests of the Southern Appalachians, those beau- tiful hills and valleys which are fast becoming treeless wastes. Are you interested to know how the forest is made into AMERICAN For- ESTRY ? Let us fly by means of a mental air- ship to the top of one of those long, broken crests of the Blue Ridge Moun- tains known as the ‘“Balsams.”” Look- ing down the mountain-side, we see that denuded tract described to us again and again by those who would protect the forest. At our back is the magnificent stand of balsams and spruce towering high into the air, while here and there in an open space is a a twisted, gnarly hardwood. The axmen with their saw and ax are at work near by, and at their warn- ing cry of “Timber!” a gigantic balsam cracks, sways, and then sweeps to the es YOU know where the paper ground with a mighty crash and is still again, among the tangle of rhododen- drons and fallen tree-tops. Soon the tree is stripped of branches, dissected into twenty-five-foot lengths, and our “paper” is on its way to the mill. Even now we see the slow-moving bodies of the oxen come crawling up the trail. With some difficulty, the driver gets the team beside a log; the chain is hooked on and down they go along the winding trail until they come to the so-called log-string. Let us follow and watch the string of ten logs, averaging twelve inches in diameter, “dogged -and- chained” to- gether. We must now wait a few min- utes for the four-ox team which is to snake” or “skid’’ the string of logs out, so let us look about us. It is the end of June, and everywhere the huge clusters of pink, red, and white rhododendron blossoms are to be seen. But that is not all. On every side is the unsightly path which the axmen leave behind them. Brush, dry tops, and slash of every description is strewn or piled about the rhododendrons, wait- ing for that fatal day when the forest fire in a cloud of smoke comes sweep- ing up the mountain. Then, here and there we see the crooked or leaning yel- low birch or silver bell waiting to be blackened on that same day. “ce 680 LOGGING FOR PULP WOOD IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS Bringing in a string of logs Crack! Like a pistol shot, the driver’s whip brings us back with a snap to the ox-team coming for the logs. A few minutes—another crack of the whip, at which every beast leans into the yoke, and our “paper” is on its way again. The trail down which we follow the logs is a gully three or four feet deep, partly dug and partly worn into the ground ; and in the bottom of it is a little stream of water which makes a slippery mud over which the logs glide easily. A walk of three-quarters of a mile brings us to the log yard, where the logs are cut up into billets. Two at a time, the string is finally brought to the pile and the cattle amble off after an- other load. The logs are now ready to be sawn and split up into five-foot billets pre- paratory to being shot down the pole- chute to the creek below. On a rainy day, when the chute is wet, a hundred- pound billet will shoot down a forty- per-cent grade at the rate of a mile a minute, leaping from the end of the chute far out into space and striking the stony creek-bed only three or four 6900 times before it comes to rest a thou- sand feet below. A stirring scene it is to watch these billets jump from the chute, crash on the ledge below, and leap again, until finally they lie quiet in the pile, just above the so-called “wet- chute,” far below. But come! the splash dam 1s about to be opened, and we must be on hand. Away up on the side of the mountain man has constructed a dam, behind which he holds a little pond of water. For a day and a night the water from a tiny brook has been collecting. 1s ithe same with the hardwoods which are being cut for lumber. If we would have them conserved we must pay the lumberman for conserving them. We could easily pay a few cents more per thousand feet to- day to prevent an increase amounting to dollars in the future. And so if we wish to have conservative for- estry practiced we must pay for it, as we must pay for all things which are good. Having learned our lesson for the day, we stroll up to the knob on the ridge once more and there, as the sun drops slowly behind the distant Smoky Mountain, we watch night fall over the Hetch-Hetchy Valley of the Appalach- ians. THE FOREST PARKS OF NEW YORK By JOHN S. KENNEDY Secretary, Public Service Commission, Second District, Albany, N, Y. all the world with more beauti- ful forests than the populous State of New York. To the thought- less observer it may seem strange that, with its great and apparently closely settled population, it takes the lead of all the States in acreage of state-owned forest preserves, but such is the fact; and it is now the established policy of the State to constantly increase its acreage. In the early days there was no sec- tion of the United States that contain- ed a more dense, evenly distributed, or valuable forest than that within what is now the State of New York. In fact, New York State was the home of the lumberman, and saw the beginning of actual lumbering in the United States. Like all the States in the Union, like all countries where civilized man has dwelt for any length of time, the de- struction of the forests by lumbering and other means has gone too far, and evil results therefrom begin to appear and make themselves felt. As New York was the first State where lumbering was done on a large scale, so it was the first State to take positive and active means to stop the timber waste; to manage, control, and replenish the forest growth. The question was discussed during the time of Governor DeWitt Clinton, but the first move was in 1872, when Governor Horatio Seymour secured an appro- priation from the legislature for mak- ing a forest survey. The Adirondacks at that time were an unbroken wilderness, and the bear, the elk, the moose, and the wolf roamed about with little fear of interruption. The real beginning, however, was made by the enactment of a law. in 1865, : | ‘HERE is no section of country in providing for a commission to super- vise the forest regions. | From that time much reclaiming work was done, many experiments in tree garden work made, and a considerable amount of wild forest land acquired by the State in the Adirondack and Catskill Moun- tain regions for a State Forest Pre- serve and some of the waste land planted to trees. By statute, in 1892, confirmed by the Constitution in 1895, a park was es- tablished in both regions, composed of certain lands in sixteen counties. In the Constitution the State has laid down its established policy providing that “The lands of the State, now own- ed or hereafter acquired, constituting the Forest Preserves as now fixed by law, shall be forever kept as wild forest lands. They shall not be leased, sold, or exchanged, or be taken by any cor- poration, public or private, nor shall the timber thereon be sold, removed, or destroyed.” The first years of State regulation were -not very effective. - True; -great tracts of land were acquired, but no intelligent effort was made to bring the importance of the forest in all its bearings to the attention of the general public or to induce lumbermen when cutting to leave some reasonable for- est covering on the hillsides and moun- tain tops, or to leave seed trees of the corn-bearing species at short intervals to promote natural re-seeding. No consideration was given to the dimin- ishing water supply or to the cause of its diminution. Little care was used to protect the forests from ravages by fire. It is true that a firewarden system was established and fairly good work done, yet year after year many thous- 605 696 dollars’ worth of valuable timber, even the more valuable soil itself, was destroyed. Lumbermen, specula- tors, and dishonest men robbed the State of its timber, and through any and many pretenses wantonly took and used much of the State’s forests with little or no thought except to get as many dollars out of it for today as they could. They left the unused parts of trees, logs, limbs, and tops where they fell, forming a dangerous fire trap, which thus created additional danger to all the forest growth left uncut. Great fires raged through the cuttings and swept the débris up in mighty conflagration destroying everything in its path, standing trees as well as down timber. = The railroads; “by -careless management of their locomotive en- gines and rights of way, added to the danger and destruction. During the administration of the late Governor Higgins, in 1905-6, and con- tinued under Governor Hughes, the matter of the preservation of the For- est Preserve was taken hold of with a firm hand and the mandates of the Con- stitution strictly carried out. Tres- passers and timber thieves were prose- cuted and punished, tree planting has been carried on and encouraged among the people. Concededly the greatest agency of destruction to the forest was the coal burning locomotive, which in its ever onward rush through the country, scat- ters destructive coals and sparks along and upon, and even outside, the rail- road right of way. Acting on the petition of the Forest, Fish, and Game Commission the pow- erful Public Service Commission this year ordered the installation of oil burning engines on the lines of the New York Central and the Delaware and Hudson, operating through the Forest “Preserve; sand “the> onder shas been obeyed. The success of this move is best attested by the statement that while in other parts of the country, this year has been one of the worst for forest fires, there has not been one fire of any great consequence in New York State. and and AMERICAN FORESTRY This extreme action on the part of New York State followed the great devastation of the season of 1908, when 308,072 acres of wooded land in the Forest Preserve were burned over, vil- leges destroyed, and the property loss and suffering of inhabitants of the district affected most serious. The lesson of 1903, when 465,000 acres were burned over and a loss of $3,500,000 incurred, had not proved a warning and was so soon forgotten that in 1908 the railroads, as well as the State, found themselves practical- ly unprepared for the prevention of fre damage. The 1908 fires in the Adirondacks destroyed lumber and logs to the amount of $126,539, and buildings, the value of which was $44,- 395, besides the loss to State lands amounting to $644,000. On thousands of acres which were first burred in 1903, the 1908 fires consumed the vegetable matter, or ditt,” = which forms, the floor os the - forest, and the. or no- underbrush, and when the trees are cut there ‘is no doubt but what the tops should be limbed, piled in openings and burned, leaving the ground clear to reproduce timber, or grass, or both. West of the mountains all is different, and it is re- specting west of the mountains I write. Here choppings divide into those where the ground is suited to agriculture and those where it is valuable only for tim- ber. It is to choppings on land valu- able only for timber that I wish to con- fine your attention. The greater por- tion of our choppings come under this head—a much larger portion than is commonly thought It has been the custom of the Ameri- can people to burn their choppings. Beginning with the landing of the Pil- grims the fires have never been out when the weather permitted the chop- pings to burn. In all things Americans have looked for quick returns, always ready to discard or destroy all that could not be turned immediately to their use, or sold at a profit. It is said, by those who know, that more natural gas is going to waste than would furnish fuel for all purposes if utilized, gas that has been tapped when drilling for oil and discarded when not oil; that more coal is destroyed by mining the lower high grade strata, and allowing all above to fall and mix with dirt, than is at present used. Cat- tle were once killed for hides, buffalo for robes, elks for horns and teeth, deer for pelts, and forests were burned for hunting ground, but in nothing has this waste been more marked than in the use of our soil. As a nation we have cropped with little attempt to conserve or replace that which we have taken from the farm. The result is shown in the older parts of our country. Farms are aban- doned because exhausted; their values have steadily declined and their owners have drifted to apply the same methods to new lands and on these new lands they return nothing to the soil, and soon are reduced to twelve bushels of wheat where they once raised twice that amount, and where countries tilled a thousand years, by careful methods, harvest three times that much. All timber lands have accumulated leaf mold that if saved and mixed with the subsoil would render it productive, but this mold is combustible when dry, and from Maine to the Pacific it has been) tburned!: ‘because. of “the easy method of reaching the ground—the old process of killing for hides, horns and teeth. If our settlers could care fully save the forest soil they now burn, or clear their lands without destroying it, they would make a great stride in conservation. It is so easy to burn a chopping and see that which is not wanted drift away in smoke; so handy after the heads are removed from the grain to have the fire clear the stubble for the plow; so nice when one wants a new home to burn up the old one, instead of 609 700 the slow process of pulling it down and saving the material. Here in the west the ground where our timber grows is covered to the depth of several feet with mold and moss, decayed timber and fallen tree trunks that have lost out in their strug- gle to reach sunlight. Over all and be- neath our big trees the brush is thick and many little trees are struggling for life. Then comes the timber faller, and the tops and limbs of our big fir, cedar and spruce are piled on the cover and help protect the ground, in the chopping, from the sun. Many low grade and young trees and hemlock are left standing. An old chopping has a timber land appearance in some parts, for what we do is not to cut all but only that adapted to our present market. Our process is the selection of the fittest—the keynote of American forestry. Now keep out fire and we become true conservationists, for some day we will again return for the fittest and later for the best of the new crop and thus perpetuate our for- ests. Those long familiar lumber conditions with western will remember the time when we had only a coastwise market, with an occasional foreign order, and no thought of ever shipping by rail. They will remember all coast- wise cargoes were tallied and graded at destination and the grades were mer- chantable, refuse and firewood. Firewood returned freight only; re- fuse returned freight and cost to saw: merchantable, which included all we now call select and most of the clear, brought freight, cost to saw and cost of the log. Any profit had to come from the little flooring we made or some special order. When lumber could be had for such prices customers wanted only the best, so the dealers wanted only the best, and the mills wanted only the best logs, and the loggers could use only the best of the best trees. For such logs the mill paid four dollars to four dollars and fifty cents a thousand feet. Any- thing falling below their standard re- ceived four notches, which meant “Not AMERICAN FORESTRY scaled but taken by the mill for full measure.” To repeat, the buyer de- manded the best and that the dealer must furnish or go to the wall. The logger must furnish what the mill wanted or go to the wall. Up to 1897 fir logs had seldom sold for more than $4.50 and stumpage had seldom been higher than 50 cents a thousand. The best quarter section of timber, under those conditions, cut less than 6,000,000 feet. Six million was the limit, as 12,000,000 to 14,000,000 is the limit to-day. We must then have left the other 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 in the old choppings ; part in trees not up to grade, part in the hemlock and cedar not then wanted, part in high stumps, but mostly in long tops. Those days we took two logs out of many a tree which we would take four or five logs to-day, and those 4o feet long. Had it occurred to you to ask what has become of the 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 feet we left behind on each quarter section? You all know of many old choppings where fire has followed fire, and where there is no living shrub, and hundreds of branchless stubs, telling by their unsightly skeletons what might have been had no fires reached them. You also can recall, or find, if you will, old choppings where no fire has ever run. These you will have perhaps passed by as original forests, for such they look to be. But examine them more closely—hundreds of tall trees are standing, hemlocks perhaps in part, but none the less valuable twenty years from now. And beneath and between these taller trees is a thick growth of young fir, spruce, cedar and hemlock, of all ages, rank, thrifty, giving prom- ise of more timber to each acre, thirty or forty years hence, than was produced by the original crop. Now look again. Crawl through that jungle and you will find many a moss covered top of the fathers of this young forest, and that top will often be 40 or 50 inches in diameter and 150 feet long, for its father was cut when timber was cheap, and that condition means waste; that timber was cut when 6,000,000 was a large yield. The other 6,000,000 left MANAGEMENT OF on the ground are in among that new growth. We all know that many a fine fir or cedar log is taken from down timber that has lain in the woods for fifty years; so if sheltered, that is, kept moist, as in the forest, that 6,000,000 to 8,000,000, or most of it, is still in ex- istence. With brush, ferns, tops and vines to protect the ground until the new tim- ber springs up we know the forest con- ditions of dampness and shade have been maintained, except for a year while nature has rearranged her cos- tume, and then maintained in good part. ; Go then to your cutover lands, when prices are high, for then low grades are in demand, and you will find that which you cut and left twenty years ago na- ture has placed in cold storage and trees you left standing will have increased in size and will look good, and you will say, “Great head! to leave those trees.” You will also find a thick stand of young timber, the largest of which can be cut for lumber before another twenty years. I will give you an illustration in ap- proximate figures actually realized. Eighty acres of timber on tide water, cut in 1886 and logged with cattle, yielded less than 3,000,000 feet of $4.50 logs, on which the stumpage returns totaled less than $1,500. In 1906, just after the San Franscisco disaster, the land was sold to a logger for a home, and one of the considerations was that he should hold all merchantable timber, for which he was to receive $4.50 a thousand for logging. The land had never been burned and there was about 500,000 feet of standing timber not up to grade required twenty years ago. He hauled and delivered over 2,000,000 feet of logs, worth that year $10 a thousand. No. 1 logs were selling for $12. This left a stumpage of $5.50, or net returns of $11,000, against $1,500 returns on first cutting. And still there were logs left in the woods that some day will be hauled, and there was a forest half grown. CUT-OVER LANDS 701 Nature stands ready to repair the damage to her forests by tornado, flood or ax. She has on hand seed already sown, young plants already started, shade in reserve to keep moist the ground while her pets are growing, nu- triment for their tender roots, birds and bees to fertilize, animals to dig among them and plant seeds, seeds on the tops of her fallen giants ready to perpetuate their species, and if allowed she places all, in the least time possible, in a condition of greatest safety from her old enemy, the fire. But thwart her efforts and apply the torch, and as a man disheartened takes to drink so nature turns to destroy that she sought to protect. It is her wish to hide away the tops and broken logs and down tim- ber left, and if trusted she shades them and keeps them always moist, and even fifty years hence fir and cedar will be found but little the worse for their years. But thwarted in her efforts and fought by fire and man, she exposes all to wet and dry and most rapid de- cays. She also prepares all for more fire, and fire again, as the drunkard de- stroys his body and mind. But suppose, when you go back for the 6,000, 000 feet of logs you left on the “quarter” you logged tw enty years ago, you find that it has been burned. If burned but once nature may have managed to save you something, but if burned once the chances are many to one that it has burned twice, and most likely many times, for when the first fire destroys nature’s shade of leaves and ferns and fallen tops and young trees she leaves all naked to blister in the sun. Then all things dry to pow- der, and the second fire destroys seed and soil. So if your claim proves to be one of the many burned, instead of a timber crop half grown and half a crop left in storage, you will find dead, topless, rotten stubs where you left standing trees —charred, burned and_ rotten brands where you left logs, and worth- less land and baked clay where you left soil. Did you burn that chopping, and if so, why? Did you think the trees 702 you left would never be wanted? Were you so thoughtless as to think worthless to-day always worthless? You could not have hoped to make pas- ture, for you must have known the soil would burn before those tops. You could not have thought it would pro- tect you from fire in the dry season, for you know the second, not the first, is the fierce and dangerous fire—the one that comes after the leaves are gone and the sun has had a chance. If you burned that claim the truth is you burned it because your father and grandfather did so, for the fire on our western slope has crossed the conti- nent — never out when weather per- mitted. It has come to be a tradition among loggers that they must “burn or be burned,” and beyond that they have not given the question thought. They fight. brush and tops while log- ging the land, and it is with a quiet chuckle they apply a match and get even when the logs are off. The first fire burns only the leaves and a few twigs that would have been food for the new forest; that and the young trees waiting for sunlight; that and some seeds on the fallen tops. But the second fire, often springing from smoldering roots, takes seed and _ soil and leaves all a desolate waste. I gave you an illustration of a cutting where no fire had run. Two miles from that location there are four sections cut about the same time, and burned ‘‘when safe,” as the loggers say. Purposely burned, think of it! Deliberately burned! A clear case of grand larceny, lacking only the law. An example of the lumberman’s crime of the age. And to-day there is no living thing there and no soil. Fires deliberately set on those lands have destroyed what to-day would have been worth hundreds of thousands of dollars. Had the first fire been kept out of all our chopping s all fir and cedar timber left in the woods would still be pre- served, and from this on, if the first fires are kept out of our choppings, What is not now wanted can be saved for future use, and the growth of our AMERICAN PORESTERY young timber will yet furnish a large percent of future needs. To those who say the first fires can’t be kept out (and there are many) we answer the word “can’t” and the phrase “can not’ are obsolete and no longer admissible among Americans. — Instead we substitute the phrase “Will it pay?” And again I answer, a man by night and a man by day on each corner of every section of old choppings for six months each year would leave a fine margin of profit and a new crop to spare. Cut trails, increase the number of our fire wardens, give them motor- cycles, build them watch towers, con- nect them by telephones, set mathemat- ical instruments with which to define the location of the first whiff of smoke. Inspire the people with as healthy a dread of setting a fire in the country as they have of setting a fire in the city. Take the idea out of the lumbermen’s heads that “it is only an old chopping.” Many a lumberman has remarked this fall, “the fires did no great damage, they burned mostly in old choppings.” Of the two never mind the green tim- ber... Ti that “burns ite cane be “cuteand sawed, but guard and protect the old choppings, nature’s cold storage and na- ture’s new nursery, where she is trying to replace man’s depredations. And, first of all, stop railroad locomotives from emitting sparks. Nothing can be done that will save our timber until the railroads are prevented from burning their greatest source of future revenue. They are responsible for nearly all the forest fires to-day. Along their routes, go where you will, except oil is burned. you will find on each side only ashes and brands, and if there is anything left to burn and conditions are right you will see it spring into flames as you pass. The object of this paper is to show the crime, not the remedy. Study the work New York is doing in the Adiron- dacks, and the results obtained by Eu- ropean methods, and the methods adopt- ed by some of our other states, and take a fearful lesson from the shocking re- sults of our methods as they show for themselves in Minnesota, Michigan and MANAGEMENT OF CUT-OVER LANDS Wisconsin, where hundreds of thous- ands of stubs that would to-day have been worth $20 a thousand if standing, are all that is left of vegetation or of soil which once was fertile land and should to-day have a second crop ready for harvest, and that crop worth ten times the price received for the first. The old argument of the western logger is “burn when safe for it will burn anyway and perhaps burn you.” This, if applied to your house, would read, burn your house when it rains so it won't burn your neighbor, but burn it for it will burn anyway and perhaps you. But the logger’s argument is not as good as the parallel, for the one burning of the chopping only prepares all for. the second burning, which is more likely to occur than the first, and far more fierce. Your home once burned is removed from further danger of fire. To repeat, that which the first fire takes would all have been nutriment for the new timber crop in a year; that, and the young trees that were waiting for the sun; that, and the trees left standing ready to push ahead for early cutting: that, and the brush which would have in another year replaced its broken parts and held a sunshade over all; that, and the vines and ferns that would have helped keep all moist; that, and preparation for fires to burn the soil and all seed and bake the ground into a condition of utter impotence from which it can not recover in a genera- tion. These things are all that the first fire does, nor does the second fire clear any land. I have known seven fires to 3 793 run over the same ground and to-day there is no living thing there except a growth of fire weed, ready to carry fire to the material still left, which is ample for more fierce flames. Of all these forest fires the first is easiest to prevent. Brush, moss and the shade of the fallen tree tops keep the ground still moist. The dead soil and sun are ready to grow a shelter while the new forest springs up to give its perfect shade. Nature helps to keep out the first fire and in a few years places the old chopping in a condition as safe as her older forest areas. The fest fire is. but. the loss: of the nail, in the old proverb, that caused the loss of the shoe, that caused the loss of the horse, that caused the loss of the rider. The moral is, replace the nail and, in forestry, keep out the first fire. If the first fire had been kept out of the state of Washington the annual growth of the new timber crop would be fully the equal of the annual timber cut, and the land cut over in the 50’s would to-day be ready to yield more feet an acre than did the original cutting. When, therefore, we have found a practical method of preventing the first fire in our choppings, where the land is principally valuable for the timber crop, we shall have solved the great problem of timber conservation on the slope from the Cascades to the ocean. All else is detail. He who would leave to our children that which is theirs must keep out the first fire. Veteran Sitka spruce in creek bottom near Ketchikan, Alaska THE FORESTS OF ALASKA By R, S. KELLOGG (Abstract of United States Forest Service Bulletin, No. 81.) ORE than one-third of Alaska’s M immense territory is yet but little explored. The permanent pop- ulation at the present time is estimated at some 40,000 white and 25,000 na- tives; about half of the latter are Es- kimo in the region adjacent to Bering Sea and: thevsrctic Ocean: The most important product is gold, of which the output in 1908 was valued at more than $19,000,000. Fisheries rank sec- ond, and the salmon packed in 1908 had a value in excess of $10,000,000. Most of the internal improvements of Alaska have been made by the War Department. The telegraph system is constructed and operated by the Signal Corps, with offices at all important points. Transmission depends not only upon cable and land lines, but on high- power wireless stations as well. Roads are built chiefly by the corps of engi- neers of the War Department. Rail- 704 roads, except for short lines running out to a few mining camps, are utterly lacking, and the total railway mileage does not exceed 350. Alaska has 4,000 miles of navigable rivers; without them most of the present development would have been impossible. On the coast of southeastern Alaska trees grow to large size; in the inte- rior the timber is much smaller. The higher mountain areas are completely above the timber line. The coast forests of southeastern and southern Alaska are nearly all included in the Tongass and Chugach national forests, which comprise 26,761,626 acres, and a large proportion of this area is forested. In the coast region the stand is gen- erally dense, and as much as 25,000 feet per acre has been estimated for con- siderable tracts. Sitka spruce probably Looking across an Alaskan tundra towards Nome and Norton Sound. Small lakes and mining operations in middle distance averages twenty per cent of the stand and western hemlock about seventy-five per cent he spruce reaches a large size, and occasionally attains diameters of more than six feet and a height of 150 fect Diameters, or three to four: feet are attained by western red cedar. While by far the most abundant species, west- ern hemlock does not produce as large individual trees as the spruce or the cedar. The heavy rainfall causes an undergrowth of moss and brush which completely covers the surface except where it is too rocky or too steep. Practically the entire forest of the coast region is over-mature. It has been accumulating for ages, uninjured by fire or cutting. Shallow, rocky soil, steep mountain slopes, or poor drainage often prevent thrifty growth, and on such sites “stag-headedness” and decay are common. In favorable situations the rate of growth of the coast trees is fairly rapid. The forests of interior Alaska are practically all included within the drain- age basins of the Yukon and Kusko- wit tmvers. «lhey are chiefly of the woodland type, and are estimated to cover approximately 80,000,000 acres, but probably not more than 40,000,000 acres bear timber of sufficient size and density to make it especially valuable for either cordwood or saw logs. The white spruce is the most impor- tant, since it furnishes the only saw timber of the region, and is also much used for fuel. White birch is extremely abundant, as are also poplar and aspen, in many localities. Black spruce is of general occurrence and abundant. Mixed forests of all species are common, though there are occasional pure stands of each species.” Obviously, all the forests of Alaska, whether on the coast or in the inte- rior, should be protected and made of the utmost permanent use. The coast forests, which include most of the saw timber of the territory, and by far the heaviest stands, are nearly all pro- tected by inclusion in national forests. They have not been damaged by fires -and are but sliehtly - reduced by cutting. They are over-mature. Carefully planned cutting should take —place’--as\- soon as. possible: Every effort should be made _ to have them utilized for lumber, and es- pecially for pulp. They should be so managed as to increase the stand of spruce and decrease that of hemlock. In the interior forests, situated entirely upon public lands, unregulated cutting and devastating fires are going on. The coast forests were reserved before they were impaired. Those of the interior have already been seriously damaged. Their protection cannot begin too soon. While the products of the coast forests need a foreign market, the interior forests with the best of treatment are not likely to supply more than a part of the home demand. If protected, they will continue to furnish logs for cabins, low-grade lumber, and fuel indefinitely. Higher grade lumber required by the interior must always be imported. 705 Upper limitjof forest, Cleary, Alaska, Smail blocks spruce, shrubbery, birch and willow, with grass above Typical Yukon River flat, Alaska. Forest of small white spruce with some balsam, poplar and willow, within the Arctic Circle } i | ae Me i Typical aspen, with scattering birch and spruce at left. Buildings are at Fort Egbert. Eagle, Alaska ec ae on Birch grove on the Fox-Fairbanks road, Fairbanks District, Alaska, cut over and then swept by fire Raft of spruce logs, containing 190,000 feet log scale, in an inlet on Eastern Passage, near Point Madan, Wrangell, Alaska Another view of raft and inlet on Eastern Passage, near Point Madan, Spruce, cedar, and hemlock timber on shore View across Nome Hills, from top of King Mountain, Elevation of hill in the background 1,700 feet. Vegetation of the tundra type. Nome, Alaska, Harbor and town of St. Michael, Alaska, the shipping point for Yukon River traffic THE PROTECTION OF FORESTS FROM FIRE By HENRY S, GRAVES Forester, United States Department of Agriculture Part [—Continued from November Number Cleared fire lines are also used in ex- tensive pine forests on dry, sandy land. Fires start easily and run swiftly under such conditions, and fire lines are easy to construct and comparatively cheap to maintain. ‘Thus, in the pine forests of northern Germany and_ southern France, wide cleared lines are used to supplement the road systems. The danger from fire is always very great in the regions of the Tropics that have a pronounced dry season. In In- dia, for example, fire protection con- stitutes one of the greatest problems of management. The forest becomes very dry in the hot season, and there is a great abundance of grass, which ignites readily and carries fire swiftly. Under these conditions cleared fire lines are absolutely necessary for efficient protec- tion. The width of fire lines varies greatly under different conditions. In general the following classes from the stand- point of width may be recognized: Nor- mal, from 6 to 15 feet; wide, from 15 to 30 feet; very wide, from 30 to 60 feet. In Europe fire lines are usually about 10 to 15 feet wide, but in the pine plains they are often as wide as 50 feet. In this country such fire lines as have been constructed are usually less than one rod in width. In the chaparral of California, however, broad lines from 40 to 60 feet wide have given the best results in stopping fires. It is seldom necessary or practicable to make fire lines over 60 feet wide. Usually it is more economical to make a number of narrow lines rather than a few very broad ones. In constructing a fully cleared fire line the timber and brush should all be 710 removed or disposed of to the desired width. Where it is impossible to util- ize the timber, the logs may be lett along the side of the lines. The brush and other débris should be burned. Piling the brush along the edge of the line is a dangerous practice. Asa rule, the best plan is to burn the brush in piles in the cleared area, and then burn the ground litter by a broadcast fire. In the best permanent lines the stumps are all grubbed out and the soil is occasionally stirred by grubbing or harrowing. Sometimes only a part of the line is cleared to the soil. Thus, for example, the timber and brush may be cleared from a strip from Io to 15 feet wide, and a narrow strip or trace about four feet wile ground-cleared. This cleared trace may be located in the middle of the line, or on one side. A gcod plan is to make two traces, one on each side of the fire line. The advan- tage of the last plan is that it affords a very good protection when burning the debris on the line. The method of constructing a nar- row, ground-cleared trace, covering only a part of the fire line, is very com- monly used where there is a deep duff on the ground. It is then a question of protection against ground fires. Un- der such circumstances the trace is usually a trench. In the north woods the duff is frequently two feet deep. A narrow trench, from one to three feet wide to the mineral soil, suffices to stop or check a ground fire. The trees an‘ brush are cleared for a width of from Six=tO. 15 feet, £0. facilitate: workem fighting fire and in constructing and maintaining the trench. PROTECTION OF FORESTS FROM FIRE Fully cleared fire lines should be cleaned. off every year or two. The leaves and other débris accumulating upon them should be removed by burn- ing or otherwise, and in the case of erubbed lines the soil should be stirred over by raking or harrowing. The work of burning over the fire line can best be done in early spring. The leaves and other débris will become dry on the open fire line sooner than in the adjoining forest or chaparral. The aim should be to do the burning at exactly the time when there will be the least danger of the fire spreading to the woods. It is, however, not always pos- sible to organize the crew so as to have the work done at the most favorable period. In the case of an extensive tract the work may be begun exactly on time, but the whole woods may be- come dangerously dry before it can be finished. It is especially difficult to carry out this work of burning over the fire line in open pine woods on dry, sandy soil. When the burning has to be deferred until the woods as well as the fire line are dry, great care should be exercised in the work. If the ground cover con- sists of leaves or needles, the procedure is as follows: Narrow, cleared traces are made on each side of the fire line proper by rak- ing or brushing aside the leaves, or needles, and débris. Sometimes, in flat, level areas it is possible to make the trace by plowing one or two furrows. Usually these traces need be no more than a foot wide. A fire is set along the side of the fire-line. One or more men follow this up, constantly brush- ing the burning or smoldering embers toward the center of the fire line, the idea being to keep the fires confined be- tween the traces. Other men follow behind and watch the burning area to prevent a possible spread of fire. If there is a strong wind, no burning should be done. If there is a slight wind across the line, one trace may suffice on the lee side, and the burning should proceed against the wind. Under ordinary circumstances a crew of from four to six men suffices for burning 7A over fire lines, but if the weather is very dry a much larger crew may be re- quired. In very dry weather the burning is best done early in the morning or in the late afternoon and evening. The air is moister and there is usually less wind at those times. In California several interesting ex- periments in keeping down the brush on the broad lines are being tried. One is to pasture on the line a flock of goats, which eat down the new weeds and sprouts, and trample the ground. An- other is to establish on the line a dense growth of succulent herbaceous plants, which would tend to keep out ordinary weeds and obviate annual or periodic erubbing. The cost of constructing fully cleared fire lines varies enormously, just as does the construction of a road or trail. The cost of clearing the line depends upon the width, character, and quantity of timber and brush to be cut, the quantity of tops to be disposed of, and the character and quantity of ground debris, as well as the labor, the difficul- ties of work, the efficiency of organiza- tion, etc. If the ground is grubbed, the cost is affected by the character of the work done, the difficulties of working the ground, and the topography. In gen- eral, the fire construction of an 8-foot fully cleared line costs anywhere from $10 to $100 per mile. An average fora second-growth woodlot would be from $30 to $50. If there is a good market for cord-wood and other material, the timber might return 50 or 60 per cent. of the whole cost. The wide fire lines in southern California cost from $1oo to $200 per mile. They are now cleared every two years at a cost of from $50 to $75 a mile, and the cost of mainte- nance will be progressively smaller from year to year. Tree-cleared Lines By a tree-cleared line is meant one from which the trees and brush are re- moved, but from which no effort is made to clear the leaves or other small Wi2 litter. The object of such lines is not to stop a fire, but to furnish a vantage ground for patrol and for fighting fires. The brushing out of all wood roads, already mentioned, makes the best kind of tree-cleared lines. Very frequently special tree-cleared lines are made where there are no roads or trails, as, for example, along the boundary of a tract, about a_ recent clearing around a body of young tim- ber setce - In -Burope “Such limes vare often made between two compartments where there is no road or other perma- nent boundary. The width of tree-cleared lines is usually from 6 to 15 feet. The Euro- pean tree-cleared lines between com- partments are usually about 6 to 8 feet. @iten? ai line toni 16 foers, Teet1s sent, especially where a road may later be located. In a number of instances in this country very wide lines have been Clit; 475-0r *tOoO. feet ain width: | Such great width is ordinarily unnecessary. Strips a rod wide are usually of fully as great value as the very ile lines, except in conifers, where there is dan- ger of crown fires. The maintenance of these lines consists in brushing them out every year or two Ground-cleared Lines By ground-cleared lines are meant strips on which the small brush and ground deébris are destroyed, and the larger trees are left standing. Ground- cleared lines may be made in open woods, where there is little or no under- growth to be injured or to interfere with the work of clearing the ground. The usual procedure is to burn a strip through the woods from To to 20 feet wide. ‘This can be done only where the conditions are such that a surface fire may be controlled and restricted to the desired strip. The open pine woods of the South present an ideal condition for the use of ground-cleared lines. In burning the lines practically the same methods as those described for burning over regular fire lines should be used. AMERICAN FORESTRY Location of Fire Lines The existing roads usually constitute the base or framework of a system of fire lines. Ordinary roads, old wood roads, skidding trails, and other open strips are used first, and special lines are constructed only when necessary. Special lines should always be located at the strategic points. In any given forest the boundaries should first be protected.” There nase be protection from fires that may start on a neighboring tract. Often roads running along or near the boundary will give adequate protection. If not, and there is danger of fire entering from the outside, a fire line is desirable, even if it is only a tree-cleared strip. Fire. lines--are often coustructed around recent cuttings, where there is young growth established or on areas W here there i is still considerable slash. One of the places where fire lines are most needed is along railroads. It is the custom of certain railroads to keep their rights of way clear, usually by annual burning. In some states this is required by law. In spite of this precaution, innumerable fires are set on the right of way, and very commonly by sparks thrown into the woods beyond. Many special fire lines have been tried. In general, these are based on the principle that the right of way should be cleared, then a strip of woods left standing, and then a second cleared fire line constructed back of this strip of timber. The theory is that the trees on the timbered strip will catch the sparks thrown beyond the right of way. Any fire set by these sparks on the timbered strip will be stopped by the second fire line. This principle has been used in a number of instances in this country. One good example is found in a hard- wood forest in southern New York. A railroad runs through the tract, along a stream valley. The stream acts as a fire line on the low side of the railroad, but the opposite side is exposed to fre- quent fires resulting from the sparks PROTECTION OF FORESTS FROM FIRE escaping from locomotives. A stretch of several miles is on a steep grade, and the locomotives under forced draft, throw out great showers of burning cinders, and no spark arresters what- ever are used. As a protection, a fire line varying in width from 8 to 15 feet has been constructed on a bench at a distance of from 50 to 150 feet from the RAnoOAt Cre fie. -1.). Phe strip between the line and the railroad is left untouched. A patrolman rides over the strip about the time the trains going up grade pass by. Ordinarily the small fires are extinguished by beating. In case, however, a number of fires are started by a train, as often happens, one or two of them burn over the strip to the fire line before the patrolman can reach them. The strip is so nar- row, however, that they gain little headway, and are absolutely stopped by the fire line. In mountainous country, fire lines are located with reference to the topo- graphy. Where roads are used, or fire lines are made that are intended to be used later as roads, the location is goy- erned largely by the principles of road construction. Special fire lines, how- ever, constructed for protection alone, are built mainly on the crest of ridges. GE AVAL ties 2°) Thus, the wide lines in southern California, already mentioned, are on the various ridges. A fire runs up a slope very rapidly and works over a ridge slowly. If there is a wide, cleared fire line on the ridge the fire may be stopped entirely by it alone. In the southern Appalachians and other mountains, the old mountain trails on the ridges may be developed into admir- able fire lines. The question of when and where to construct special fire lines depends on local conditions, the danger from fire. the value of the forest, the organiza- tion of patrol and force available for fighting fire, the object of the owner in protecting the forest, and many other factors. As with other operations of management, the expense must be jus- tified by the results which their con- struction is intended to accomplish. 713 Artificial Fire Obstructions It is well known that a small, creep- ing surface fire is stopped or checked by a stone wall or other similar obstruc- tion. This principle may be used in fire protection, and other types of fire lines may often be dispensed with where there are such obstructions. A well- known railroad has been experimenting with a specially constructed fire wall. SUPERVISION AND CONTROL A careful supervision or patrol dur- ing the dry season is one of the most important measures in organized fire protection. Its purposes are: (1) To prevent fires from starting; (2) to de- tect fires as soon as possible after they start; (3) to fight fires. The mere fact that a tract is carefully watched makes it safer, because camp- ers, hunters, and others crossing it are less careless on that acount. By an efficient supervision most of the unnec- essary fires can be prevented, such as those arising from carelessness in clear- ing land, leaving camp fires, and smok- ing; from improperly equipped saw- mills, locomotives, donkey engines, etc. One of the fundamental principles in fire protection is to detect and attack fires in their incipiency. In an un- watched forest a fire may burn for a long time and gain great headway be- fore being discovered. In a forest under proper protection there is some one man or corps of men responsible for detecting fires and for attacking them before they have time to do much damage or to develop beyond control. Aids to Supervision and Control Under the head of aids to supervis- ion and patrol are included: (1) The posting of fire warnings; (2) lookout stations; (3) telephone systems; (4) signal systems. Posting of Fire Notices One of the first steps in organizing protection in a forest is to post it with fire warnings. These notices emphati- 714 cally warn against carelessness in the use of fire, and often give instructions how to construct camp fires and how to extinguish them when breaking camp. They usually contain also the prescribed penalties for infringement of the fire laws. Notices are posted at frequent intervals along roads and trails, at camping grounds, near perma- nent camps and settlements, and in many cases along the boundaries of tracts. On private tracts the fire warn- ing is combined with the trespass notice. In the National Forests fire-warning notices are printed in English, Italian, French, and Spanish. Notices printed in Italian are posted where Italians are employed in the railroad con- struction or section work. Spanish notices are used in New Mexico, south- ern Arizona, or other localities where there are many Spanish-speaking peo- ple. Near the Northern boundary French notices are sometimes used, Beyond question many forest fires have been prevented by these warnings. In the case of a forest owned by a nonresident it is a good plan to have on the notice the name of the responsible local agent, as well as the owner’s name. This lends emphasis to the fact that there is a local man who is looking after the property. Lookout Stations Lookout stations include watch towers, mountain lookouts, and other elevated stations used for overlooking tracts and watching for fires. On small tracts they consist usually of some sim- ple structure which enables the person responsible for the property to over- look the forest to see if there are any fires, and, in case he sees smoke, to locate the fire. Sometimes an arrange- ment on the roof of the house or barn serves as a watch tower, or a lookout may be built in a tall tree, or it may be necessary to build a rough tower to see over the tree tops. In a rugged country it is usually possible to find some con- venient peak from which a large area can be looked over. (See PI. I.) AMERICAN FORESTRY In the organization of large tracts in mountain regions special lookout stations are sometimes provided. These are located at high points from which a large area of the forest can be seen. A man is kept constantly at each sta- tion during the dry season. The va- rious stations should be in communica- tion by telephone or telegraph, or by some system of signals. Each is pro- vided with range-finders or other equip- ment, by means of which any fires that may occur can be precisely located. They are also in communication with the forest ranger or superintendent at headquarters, so that a force of men may be called at once to the fire and put it out. In extensive mountain re- gions these lookout stations constitute an important part of organized fire su- pervision. They have been success- fully operated in the National Forests. Telephone System One of the great difficulties in exten- sive forest districts is to secure the nec- essary help in fighting fires. The tele- phone is the greatest aid in fire patrol. it enables the man who discovers a tire to call for help and to give directions as to the number of men and the equip- ment needed. By the use of the tele- phone in the National Forests millions of dollars have doubtless already been saved. The Forest Service has since 1900 built 4,850 miles of telephone line, and it is extending the lines as rapidly as Congress furnishes the funds for the work. Signal Systems When there is no telephone system and a regular lookout station is not feasible, a special system is used for signaling for help in fighting fire. Some prominent peak is selected, from which, in case of fire, the location and size of the fire and the required help are sig- naled by a prearranged code. There are various systems of signals in use. The fire signal is one of the oldest methods. At a time when the signals are not needed small piles of wood, brush, or other inflammable material PROPDECHON- OF FORESTS FROM FIRE are gathered and placed in position at about equal distances, usually about 50 to 100 feet apart, ready for firing on short notice. The number of fires burn- ing at the same time conveys the infor- mation required. Thus, one fire might mean that a forest fire is burning in a certain locality on one side on the mountain; two, in another locality ; three, in another; and so on. Another system that is sometimes employed is the smoke signal. This was once very commonly used by the In- dians in communicating with each other from one distant peak to another. A small fire is built, and after it gets un- der headway, damp moss or earth is used to deaden it and develop a heavy smoke. A blanket or other covering is thrown over the top of it to smother the smoke down for a few moments. The blanket is then raised, and a dense puff of smoke is released. The blanket is again thrown over the fire to check the smoke for a moment, then it is again removed, and another puff of smoke ascends. This system also re- quires a prearranged code. The smoke signal may be used in the same manner as the fire signal, by causing two or three separated columns of smoke from dampened fires to be steadily rising at the same time. This system of signal- ine mav be used to good advantage on a still day for communicating long dis- tances. The separated fire signal on top of prominent peaks can be used in the night as well as in the day. The heliograph is an_ instrument which mav be used for flashing signals from the lookout stations. The Forest Service has recently conducted success- ful experiments with this instrument. Another system sometimes used when the wind is blowing and the sun is shin- ing is a windmill signal. A small wind- mill is set up on some conspicuous ele- vation. This is provided with a small belt and pulley connecting with a re- volving ball or wheel in which small mirrors are set at different angles. In case a fire starts and the wind is blow- ing, the watchman simply connects up his windmill with the ball in which the mirrors are set, and goes on to the fire, 715 leaving his automatic signal to flash to the settlement the news of the fire and the fact that assistance is wanted. In some cases it might be possible to use flags and the code of the Army Signal Corps. Near settlements the fire bell, gong, or whistle is commonly used to bring together the men for fighting fires. The organization of an_ efficient patrol varies under the following con- ditions; (1) Size of tract; (2) charac ter of the forest; (3) condition of the forest with reference to the amount of inflammable material; (4) difficulties of communication; (5) difficulties of securing help in fighting fires; (6) the topography with reference to the amount of territory which can be over- looked ; (7) special sources of fire, such as the presence of a railroad; (8) local sentiment. Supervision of Small Tracts The supervision of a woodlot at- tached to a farm is exceedingly simpre. If a farmer himself uses proper care in starting fires, in clearing out his roads, in disposing of brush, and in keeping a careful watch for fires, his woodlot is comparatively safe. Many woodlot fires are caused by the owner’s own careless- ness in clearing land, destroying brush, burning meadows, ete. The fact that the owner is careful in the matter of fires becomes known very quickly in the neighborhood, and that fact in itself is a great protection. It is not neces- sary for a farmer to patrol his woodlot at regular intervals, as would be neces- sary in the case of a large tract. Many fires start on the property of nonresident owners, who themselves are unable to supervise it on the ground. Nonresidents may secure protection by an arrangement with some farmer liv- ing near the forest. The usual course is to pay a small retaining fee for gen- eral supervision, with the understanding that the farmer goes over the tract every few days, thus giving the impres- sion of constant patrol. In case fire starts, the agent has the responsibility of repairing to the fire and putting it 716 out and employing such help as is nec- essary. There is no reason why this plan should not provide adequate pro- tection for tracts of from 100 to 500 acres at an annual cost of from three to five cents an acre. One of the most essential measures in the protection of small tracts is to secure the cooperation of the owners of all the neighboring tracts in watch- ing for fires ‘and in “mutual assistance in extinguishing fires, no matter on whose land they may start. Supervision of Large Tracts In the protection of large tracts from fire a special organization for patrol is necessary. This organization can best be combined with that required for the management of the tract. In every forest that is being developed there is necesary a certain force to supervise any work such as logging, the contruc- tion of roads, the protection of game, the prevention of trespass, etc. This organization is best illustrated in the National Forests. There is a permanent corps of trained rangers who live on the Forest, each in charge of a specified area. There men have executive charge of all the work in the woods. During the dry season this force may be sup- plemented by temporary forest guards for special fire patrol. Each guard is assigned to a specified part of the Forest, which he is required to patrol regularly ; he prevents the start of fires as far as possible and watches for any fires which may start within his range. It has already been explained that one of the purposes of the construction of trails through the Forests is to enable constant patrol and access to fires which may be started. The guards ride or walk over these trails under a system- atic plan. There is usually a regular beat over which the guard travels at regular intervals. In some tracts it is possible to go over the beat once a day; in others it requires a much longer period. When not on patrol the euards are engaged in the general work on the Forest. AMERICAN FORESTRY In the plan of control the guards keep in close touch with each other and with the ranger in charge of the whole work in order that they may communicate in case of fire by signal from outlook stations, by telephone, or any other method of communication that may be established in the Forest. Most of the National Forests of the West are in rugged mountain regions, with comparatively few roads and trails. The guards usually travel on horseback over certain roads or trails, keeping track of the people who enter the For- est, and giving them special warning regarding carelessness with fire. In this way each person entering the For- est is impressed with the fact that his movements are watched, and the result is that he is more careful with camp fires, smoking, etc. On large tracts patrol is concentrated at critical points. The guards spend most of the time where there is the greatest travel, frequently inspecting camp grounds, sawmills, and other points where fires are most likely to Start. In some instances the actual patrol over trails is more or less dispensed with, and men are kept continuously at lookout stations, from which a large area can be overlooked. In case of fire, signals are sent to other lookout stations and to headquarters, with the necessary instruction regarding the location of the fire, the number of men needed to fight it, etc. It is impossible to give a_ specific rule regarding the number of men re- quired to protect tracts of different sizes. There is no question that the National Forests are very much under- manned. In some cases a single man has the responsibility of protecting more than 100,000 acres. This area is much too large even under the most favorable conditions, and it is only through the most efficient work that the damage by fires has been kept down to 1.86 per cent. of the forest area. Even with the proper facilities for communi- cation, the fire protection force on the National Forests should be quadrupled. Very good results would be obtained if PROLECTION OF FORESTS FROM FIRE 717 there were, during the dry season, one guard for each 20,000 or 25,000 acres. This will follow naturally as the in- creased receipts from the Forests jus- tify a more intensive management. In flat regions more men are required for patrol than in rugged country, where large areas may be overlooked from prominent elevations. It has been the general view that in flat regions like the Lake States and the plateau portions of Maine and the Adirondacks there should be at least one guard for each 10,000 acres. The required force of guards is gov- erned by the risk of fire and the value of the property to be protected. In the case of a forest of very great value there is necessarily a correspondingly greater justification for expenditure in fire protection, just as one takes out fire insurance in proportion to the value of his property. As the value of our forests increases, there will be a cor- respondingly greater amount of money spent on protection. This principle is illustrated in Europe, where the forests are very valuable and where frequently there is one forest guard for each 1,000 degeEss. CE Tussia, One OF .1,700: Acres ; Baden, one for 750 acres.) Patrol Along Railroads Railroads in many cases are the most prolific source of fires. In some sec- tions over 50 per cent. of the fires are from the sparks from locomotives. While most of these fires could be pre- vented if the railroads used proper ap- plances on the locomotives for arrest- ing the sparks, nevertheless, in many cases, It is probably impossible to pre- vent sparks which will start fires in very dry weather. It is, therefore, necessary to supplement the use of spark arresters by patrolling the right of way. The most effective method of patrol is to follow every train with a speeder equipped with mattocks, shovels, pails, and .other necessary equipment for fighting fires. A fire started by a spark from a locomotive may be put out be- fore it has an opportunity to gain any considerable headway or to do much damage. It is not always practicable to follow every train a long distance, and it may happen that there is danger from the sparks only at steep grades. In that event the patrol is concentrated at the dangerous points. The plan of following every train by patrolmen may be practical where the distance traversed by the road is not great, but it would not be feasible for a great mileage. Thus, for example, the problem of patrol is being consid- ered by certain large railroads with the view of applying it over the entire sys- tem, wherever there is danger from fires. The purpose is to save the an- nual expense of fire damages. Thus, one system in the northeast, covering not over 2,000 miles, is said to have an annual expense of $50,000 for for- est-fire claims. It is probable that the most practicable method of supervision of the right of way would be through the organization of section men, with a special patrol at certain grades where the danger from fires is particularly great. There is no reason why the section men, if provided with proper speeders and other equipment, should not be trained to repair at once to fires which may start along the right of way and put them out, with comparatively small loss of time. In Minnesota the law requires that railroad companies must put on patrol- men to patrol their tracks. The forest commissioner may compel the compan- ies to put on as many as one man to each mile of track. (To be concluded in January.) ROBERT PERKINS BASS Governor-elect of New Hampshire By PHILIP W. AYRES, Forester of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests OBERT PERKINS BASS, who R has just been elected triumph- antly Governor of New Hamp- shire, deserves the honor. While serv- ing two terms in the State legislature as representative and one as senator, he secured the passage of a number of important bills, including the forestry bill that has transformed the forest service of the State. His most import- ant legislative achievement is the pas- sage of the new primary law, by which the State has rid itself of political con- ventions and of the domination, through them, that corporate interests, particu- larly the railroads, had obtained. Pop- ular approval of the primary system was clearly expressed in the primary elections held a month ago, and the final elections on November 8 gave Mr. Bass a larger support than has been given to any governor in recent years. He led the movement that abolished the granting of free passes by the railroad companies. He secured also a bill equal- izing the taxes of the State, by which the corporations paid last year an in- creased tax of more than $300,000. Prior to these successful efforts in reform, Mr. Bass accomplished a heroic task in changing the old forestry com- mission, a political body, into one of the most progressive and useful commis- sions to be found in the country. It is his work in the cause of forestry that chiefly concers this article. Mr. Bass was born in Chicago, Sep- tember 1, 1873, and is a graduate of Harvard College and Law School. His family came to New Hampshire from Chicago some years ago, as summer residents, and acquired a large tract of 718 land near Peterboro. In managing his own woodlands, thinning the old stands and planting new ones, he soon became a permanent resident. Mr. Gifford Pinchot and Mr. Henry S. Graves, then director of the Yale Forest School, are his personal friends. Through their suggestion a government experiment station was established on his property, by which thinnings of various kinds were made and recorded on definite areas for observation during a period of years. It may be said that Mr. Edward N. Pierson, secretary of State /in New: Hampshire, discovered Mr. Bass in the state, because it was he who invited Mr. Bass to become a member of the State Forestry Commission, which was Mr. Bass’ first public office. As a member of this body, he was for a long time in a hopeless minority, but wisely abided his time. Later, with the appointment of Mr. Robert E. Faulkner, ‘of Keene, upon the commission, the two were able to secure control of the body. They promptly brought a bill into the legis- lature abolishing the old bi-partisan board. A new commission was created of which Mr. Bass was naturally ap- pointed chairman. The same hill reor- ganized the forest fire service of the State and provided for a State Forester. The new forestry commission having other able members and a trained man as State Forester, has made a distinct record in New Hampshire. Fire war- dens have been appointed throughout the State. Private contributions have been secured by which thirteen stations have been located on the tops of moun- tains, connected by telephone with the CONSERVATION fire wardens, for the discovery and con- trol of incipient fires before they become conflagrations. The beginnings of a state nursery have been privately estab- lished, by which seedling forest trees will be distributed at cost for experi- mental purposes to the owners of waste lands. It is confidently hoped that the forthcoming state legislature will adopt both the fire stations and the nursery. Mr. Bass has been keenly interested in 719 the success of the Society for Protec- tion of New Hampshire Forests and for two years has served upon its executive committee. Last January he accepted membership in the board of directors of the American Forestry Association. With Mr. Bass as governor, and with the present favorable sentiment throughout the State in favor of fores- try, a wide opportunity is now open for progressive work in the State. CONSERVATION By C. S. HARRISON President of the Nebraska Park and Forestry Association (An address delivered at the summer meeting of the Nebraska Horticultural Society.) HEN the Creator turned this great land over to us it was a region of surpassing beauty. For long millenniums He was at work, employing the highest art and skill for its adornment. The whole country was landscaped on a most magnificent scale and with a far-reaching forethought for the future. Everything was provided for.. It was the patient work of ages to spread a thin layer of soil over the rocks and on the hills and mountain sides, and then fasten it there with trees, shrubs, and grasses. Mighty rivers flowed to the sea, fed by thou- sands of streams which sang merrily on ‘their way. These streams were carefully protected. Forests, bushes, and rank vegetation prevented. the washing of the soil, while at the sources of all these rivulets there was the most careful planning to retain the waters. Dead leaves, decaying trees, mosses and the accumulated deposits of the ages all were like vast sponges to retain the waters so that the streams would have an even flow. Mighty forests were planted. They grew and decayed. And so, as the centuries passed, the land grew richer and richer. How artistically all was arranged! There were often delightful parks in the forests, and when the woods edged upon the prairies there were tall trees 4 in the background, shrubs to the front, then the flower-sprinkled carpet of green. Go into the forests, the great temples of God. What massive columns upheld the dark green canopy. Look where you would, in woodland, plain, and mountain, the ages of the past had made preparations for the ages to come. Then came the two brothers, Graft and Greed, with no thought or care for the future, with no appreciation what- ever of the plans of the Creator. And a careless government, which to-day, from its own natural resources, could have had income enough for current expenses, allowed billions to be taken and destroyed. One of the most beau- tiful sights on earth is a splendid forest. One of the saddest spectacles is to see that same forest the prey of the de- structive ax and fire—blackened stumps, like the gravestones of departed grand- eur. If the lumberman had planned for the most speedy and utter ruin, he could not have prepared a more com- plete system. He took only half of the tree and left the rest to dry for the great tinder box. The fires came. All that dead rubbish was ready for them. Not only was the dead brush burned, but the age-long deposit of dead leaves, rotten logs, and rich mould needed to feed the soil for the coming eons; all were destroyed, and a garden of Eden 720 became a blackened wilderness. How the ruin has spread! Within the mem- ory of man the mighty forests of In- diana and Ohio were chopped down and burned. ‘If left till to-day, they would be worth more than all the crops grown there since their destruction. Take Arizona, for instance. The forests have been cut from the mountains. The rubbish invites the fires, and the fires never miss an invitation. Great flocks and herds of sheep and cattle were driven in, and they have destroyed the herbage which fastened the thin layer of earth to the rocks. The floods canie and ripped the earth from the moun- tain sides and whirled avalanches of mud into the fertile valleys, often plow- ing out great gullies twenty and thirty feet deep through the rich soil, and all hurried on to fill the river beds. Now, when the floods come, there is nothing to detain them, and the people of Texas must suffer from the vandalism of Ari- zona. There are no richer lands on earth than the great prairies of the west, and here in God’s richest garden there have been two sources of disaster. The first is cropping lands without remuneration ; raising wheat year after year with no manure, till some of the richest farms of Minnesota are now so reduced they will hardly raise chicken feed. This system of waste applies to rich, level lands. There is a double system applied to hillside lands—robbing the soil and allowing it to wash. I have known the richest soil to be swept away by a single heavy rain, so the whole furrow would be gone, and you could see the plow marks. Stand by any of our streams after a heavy rain and you will see the very cream of our fields going to the Gulf of Mexico. It is waste, waste, everywhere. Most feeders will have their feed lots perched on some steep hillside, if they can find such a place, so that the richest fer- tilizer the world produces can be ut- terly swept away without any trouble on their part, and they keep on growing twenty-five bushels of corn to the acre, when, by saving the manure and plow- ing their land deep, they might have 100 bushels. AMERICAN FORESTRY Our coal lands with their marvelous deposits, have been well-nigh given. away. I have seen veins of coal eleven feet deep which the wise United States government sold for $10 per acre. Streams with waterfalls that were gold mines have been parted with for a song. Go into Colorado, and vandalism is there. The mountains are robbed of their beauty. The upland pastures are over-grazed, and you have desolation instead of beautys:, A pioneect-an “the ‘Rockies once said to me: “I think we early settlers should have great credit for coming in here and starting things.” I replied: “If you never had seen this country, and had left it to-day as God made it, it would be worth five times as much as it is now.” Our railroads are great civilizers, but the fires set by the engines leave a track of barbarism behind them. See how it is in Washington and Oregon. The lumber barons who have wrought such ruin at the north are now at work among the grandest forests ever grown. They seem to concentrate all their en- ergies there to complete the work of ruin. In some instances, every device is resorted to to get possession of lands which belong to the people. Take the Appalachian Mountains. The forests are being cut down; the beautiful rivers are filled with rubbish; sand and stones are carried onto fertile valley farms. In a short time, eighteen millions of dam- age was inflicted, and yet Congress looks on in indifference while the horror grows. When you come to the farm, you see also a terrific waste there. In the east the soil is washed away and the rocks and stones are left; no thought or care is taken to save the soil. Many beauti- ful regions where heavy crops were grown are now deserted, and you can buy farms for half what the buildings would cost. - What wonder, in the midst of all this ruin, that a “Great Heart” should arise ? He looks on the past, and then on the present, and then into the future, and he asks himself what will become of CONSERVATION 721 this nation 200 years from now. In the ordering of Providence, when a tre- mendous crisis comes there is always a man to meet it. This time it was Gifford Pinchot, by education one of the best foresters the world has produced. A man of means, he is not hampered in his work. He is ready to sacrifice thou- sands for the future. He might have made judicious investments in the great west he knew so well, so he could have become a billionaire. He might have taken his chances in an unguarded moment and captured forests, water powers, and coal lands. No man since the days of Robert Morris, who fur- nished the sinews of war for Washing- ton and then died in a debtors’ prison, has done more or made greater sacri- fices than Mr. Pinchot. Though for the present he has lost his position, he is yet a king, independent of throne or crown. Few men have shown such a fearless, persistence in the-face of the most determined opposition. There were thousands of men who had pet plans for the future. They wished to put their hands on the nation’s wealth. Little cared they for the future. Cat- tle men and sheep men, who for years had been allowed to ruin young forests and destroy pastures by over-grazing, rose in arms. And what a clamor they raised ! There were no ways of fighting fires. The cattle men wanted fires. Some of the cowboys had it worked down to a fine art. Here was a tract they wanted burned. They might be caught. One takes a magnifying glass and sets it so the focused rays next day would light on dry leaves and other combustibles. The sun does its work, and the innocent cowboy proves an alibi, for he is fifty miles away. I met a range rider in the Rockies and had a long talk with him. He would say to stock owners: “You can put only so many head on_ this range, and you must pay for it.” “Not much,” was the answer. “We have had this range, and we are going to have ite, He would tell them: “I represent the United States government. You cannot afford to have a war with 9o,- 000,000 people.” Often his life was threatened. All manner of trumped-up charges were sent on to Washington, and sometimes he had to face fire both front and rear. But those heroic men, like the mounted police of Canada, have convinced the ranchmen there is a law in the land, and it must be obeyed. In a terrible time like this, when most of our northwestern forests are tinder- boxes, what could be done without our range riders and their system of fight- ing “fires? Sometimes they are at it for forty- eight hours without a let-up. One man found two of them lying on the ground in the deep sleep of utter ex- haustion. They lay as they had fallen, and the ants were running over them. Perhaps these men take a little relaxa- tion, and then the cry goes up: “See those lazy fellows, and the waste in the Forest Service.” No figuring, you un- derstand, of the waste of the fires and the ax. All manner of abuse was heaped on the chief forester, but there was a vision before him, a vision of ruin and desolation, and he wrote, talked, and pleaded, till the tide turned and a great victory was won. A crisis came, and issues involving hundreds of millions. The forester broke a piece of red tape, and he must go. No matter that he, stands for a great principle. No mat- ter that he has given his means and his life tora, oteatycause:. just look. at that piece of red tape! Can’t you see it is broken?” But, thank God, the na- tion is fully aroused and our forestry system is established. You can readily see the clashing of interests. Leading men in our Pacific coast cities want the bars thrown down. Pheytukunesmay case for itseliy..hhey: want the coal to be dug, and the water powers to be exploited, and flocks and herds to have free range. It all makes business, and they want business now. There never yet was a national park laid out or a national forest made but what there was a tremendous protest from this source. When the govern- ment made a national forest near Cass Lake, Minn., a howl long and deep went up. When we tried to have a park in the Wet Mountain Valley, and could have got a bill through Congress for 722 one of the sublimest resorts, Colorado congressmen sat down on it. But slowly and surely, the people are going to rule. This country is going to be saved. Not only conserved, but made more beautiful and attractive. The rich soil of Nebraska is hungry for trees. In ’72 there was not a shrub or tree on the townsite of York. Now it is called the forest city. We have single trees that would make over 1,000 feet of lumber. Timber pays. In scores of instances men have cut $300 worth of cottonwood lumber per acre, besides the firewood which was enough to cover the cost. The land was left all the better because it was subsoiled by those vigorous roots. The side hills must and will be de- fended from erosion and washing. You see farms with deep gullies ploughed through the cornfield; too deep, almost, to get a team across. Sometimes a erain of sense will come to the owner and he will dump in a load of straw, and so stop the wash. One year ago we had a fearful dust storm in the spring, and in some cases entire furrows on the hills were blown away. In one in- stance the rich soil of a neighbor drifted three feet deep on one of my hedges. I told him I wished he would lariat his farm and keep it at home. Groves and windbreaks are needed to stop the fierce gales which for ages have swept over our prairies. Buffer-crops can be sown on the long, sloping side hills. I once saw in the Republican Valley a large field of alfalfa which was catching the wash from the long slopes above it. The time will come when instead of the man moving his barn to get it away from the manure pile, he will get a spreader and put it on his farm. The man who feeds cattle will learn sooner or later that corn that is fed manure is worth a small gold mine, and that it will pay to save. People are waking up to their possi- bilities. The boys of the future are AMERICAN FORESTRY going to show their fathers how things will be done and that farming will pay. Two boys in North Carolina raised 125 bushels of corn per acre, where their neighbors were raising twelve.- A boy near West Point, last year, raised 114 bushels, where the neighboring men were getting forty. Never yet has an acre of rich land west of the Missouri River been put to its best. The possi- bilities of our state are astounding. The time will come sooner or later when more will be raised on forty acres than the present system gets from 100. The roots of corn have been known to go down six feet where they had a chance, yet you see men ploughing three inches deep for corn. ‘The side hills will not always be planted to corn, which gives such a chance for wash- ing. They will be planted to trees, which will be mulched with straw, or else sown to grass, which will be well manured. The strangest thing is that men will not plant trees. There are millions of acres that are sometimes subject to overflow which for thirty years have raised nothing but weeds and which might be put to raising houses, barns, and wood-piles. Better restore the old woodshed, and raise your own fuel, and give the coal barons the go-by. A farm is an empire in itself. If the farmer raises everything he needs he will grow rich. The nation whose imports ex- ceed the exports is growing poor. For the last few years the balance of trade has been in our favor. The past year we were about $150,000,000 short, and if this keeps up we shall have trouble. The farmer who buys more than he sells will soon raise a big crop of mort- gages. True conservation makes us work the land to advantage and save it as one of God’s best gifts to man. So stand up for Nebraska and make it one of the most brilliant stars in our na- tional constellation. Se ee THE CABINET WOODS OF THE FUTURE By C. D, MELL, Assistant Dendrologist, Forest Service HERE shall we look for new V/ \/ cabinet woods? This is an in- quiry very frequently made by those concerned in wood using in- dustries. Comparatively few of the foreign woods now in common use are of recent introduction. A number of the important and well-known cabinet timbers have been so extensively ex- ploited that they are becoming scarce or are difficult of access. The cost of felling, transporting, and other handling is so high that it greatly militates against their use. Among such woods are ma- hogany, cedar, rosewood, ebony, pa- douk, sabicu, jarrah of West Australia, and scores of others which are less fa- miliar. These woods are so closely as- sociated with certain special uses that manufacturers are exceedingly reluc- tant to substitute other woods for fear that customers would regard them as inferior. Importers are attempting to bring into prominence some of the ex- cellent cabinet timbers of India, Africa, Australia, Philippine Islands, and Cen- tral and South America, for there are many in these countries that are equal both in beauty and in quality to the best now in use. For example, a great many “South American trees yield timbers with remarkable firmness of texture, exquisite coloration, durability, and good weight. The same can be said oi many West Indian and Central American woods not yet exploited to any great extent. Among the several hundred timber trees of Costa Rica, San Sal- vador, and Panama, there are at least forty that yield high-class cabinet woods. A few of the well-known and highly esteemed sorts, like the sabicu of the West Indies and sapodilla and Spanish cedar of Mexico and Central America, are now becoming rapidly exhausted, and the prices are consequently high. In certain parts of these countries, there are trees yielding timber that can be substituted and utilized to equal ad- vantage. Lower priced woods are often equally well suited for certain special purposes for which some of the higher priced sorts are now almost exclusively used. It is hoped that this fact, to which further attention will be called later in this article, will aid in remov- ing the prevailing notion that certain woods are the only ones suitable for the manufacture of certain articles of fur- niture, and may help toward the intro- duction of new woods with substantially similar or even superior properties. One of the best known woods in the world is mahogany, Swietenia mahogan Jacq. It is naturally confined to the Western Hemisphere, where its range is comparatively small, though by plant- ing its distribution has been extended to southern Asia and tropical Africa. This timber has been cut down for sev- eral hundred years with a recklessness that is as prodigal and wasteful as that which has characterized the lumbering of some of our own timbers. There is a constantly increasing demand for ma- hogany, and the exhaustion of this no- ble tree is not far distant. Within a comparatively few years the mahogany trade with Central and South America will be a thing of the past. In asking, now, what the possibilities are for the introduction of woods suit- able as substitutes for mahogany we enter into a many-sided inquiry. There is, of course, an enormous dispropor- tion between the total number of woods that will be offered as substitutes for mahogany by importers and the number 723 724 actually suitable as substitutes. At one time the American birch was often palmed off upon the unsuspecting pur- chaser. This wood, however, is only likely to be mistaken for mahogany after it has been carefully stained and polished. Other native woods occa- sionally substituted are cherry, moun- tain mahogany, Cercocarpus ledifolius Nutt., and loblolly bay, Gordonia lasi- anthus (Linn.) Ellis. Importers have tried to palm off a great many other woods from all over the world. Among them are several species of Cedrela, to which belongs Spanish cedar, more commonly known as cigar box cedar, so easily recognized by its characteristic odor. Although cedars are as a rule somewhat lighter in weight than ma- hogany, it is often difficult to tell them apart, even for experts. Cedrela fissilis Vell., and Cedrela guianensis A. Juss., from Central and South America, are high-class woods. Cedrela toona Roxb., from the Philippine Islands, Sumatra, and southern Asia, is highly esteemed as a wood suitable for furniture and interior finish, and could be used in place of mahogany with very little cause for complaint on the part of purchasers. There are other woods belonging to the same family (Meliacez) as the true ma- hogany, that resemble it even more than those of the genus Cedrela. Three African species generally known among lumber dealers as African mahoganies are Khaya senegalensis A. Juss., K. grandiflora Stapf,and K. purchu Stapf, which resemble the true mahogany so closely that it often requires an expert to tell them apart. Other genera of this family, such as Trichilia, Guarea, Soymida, Entandrophragma, and Car- apa, yield timbers that are difficult to distinguish from the true mahogany. These genera have _ representatives growing in the tropics and a number of them have been but little exploited. The timbers of several African spe- cies of Trichilia and Guarea are now extensively exported under the com- prehensive trade names of African ce- dar or African mahogany. There are several species of Guarea in Central AMERICAN FORESTRY America which yield timber locally es- teemed for purposes similar to that for which mahogany is used. The wood of a number of species a Euralyptus has been used in place of mahogany, especially in the form of veneer, for it can be handled most ad- vantageously in this condition when it is to be used for furniture. When the woods of certain species of Eucalyptus ‘are carefully stained and highly pol- ished they present a very pleasing ap- pearance and resemble mahogany very closely. From India, Burma, and the Philip- pine Islands are imported the woods of several species of Pterocarpus, which are often called mahogany, and fre- quently sold as such. These woods are darker red, heavier, and coarser grained than mahogany, and are less likely to furnish suitable substitutes. Probably the most recent attempt on the part of an importer was to place on the market a so-called Colombian mahog- any, botanically known as Carimiania tyriformis Miers, a member of the or- der Lecythidacee. Although this wood possesses characters almost exactly like those of true mahogany, the two spe- cies are not closely related, but belong to two entirely different families. The wood known as Coccobola, com- monly used for making knife handles, is obtained from one or more species of the genus Lecythis imported from Central America. The wood is now be- coming scarce, but manufacturers have become so accustomed to a wood of this description that they are looking for another kind with similar properties, namely, a hard, dark red wood that may be given a beautiful polish. There are a number that would serve the purpose equally as well as Coccobola.. Chief among such substitutes may be men- tioned several varieties of Eucalyptus, Diospyros (ebony), Dalbergia (rose- wood), Jacaranda, and Machertum (known also as rosewoods), Ce@salpina (Brazil), Pterocarpus (variously known as barwood, camwood, ot santalwood), CABINET WOODS OF THE FUTURE and woods of numerous other genera. The choice of these depends upon the natural color of wood desired. It is true that certain articles require wood of varied characteristics, but the requisites of the woods used for furni- ture need not be so defined and re- stricted that only a few on the market can come within the scope of require- ments. This is quite different, how- ever, when it comes to woods used for the production of dyes, odors, flavors, tannins, resins, oils, and medicinal sub- stances. What new cabinet material can be confidently sought for? In his new work entitled “Wood,” pp. 85-86 (2d edition), G. S. Boulger enumerates about fifty kinds of foreign timbers that are now used ‘for making furniture. Twelve or more of these come from India, eight from South Africa, ten from Australia, five from New Zealand, eight from tropical America, and still others come from the islands of the Pa- cific and Indian oceans. In all, more than one hundred. spe- cies of Brazilian trees yield high-class cabinet woods that have been but very little exploited. Among the most de- sirable kinds are as follows: Acapa-rana, known also as Quina, Ticorea longiflora D. C. (Order Ruta- ce@). Tree, large. Wood, dark col- ored, hard, and moderately heavy, firm, and highly valued for interior and ex- terior work, as well as for civil and naval construction. Accende candeira, Cassia biflora Linn. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, average size. Wood, dark colored, hard, heavy, fine grained, and highly valued for cab- inet work; also used for small articles, such as walking canes, mallets, and parquetry work. Amarellinho da serra, Galipea sim- plicifolia Engl. (Order Rutacee.) Tree, average size. Wood, pale yellow, very hard, heavy, exceedingly fine and close grained, and very smooth when polished. Used for cabinet work and for building. Amoreira amarela, Chlorophora tinc- toria Gaud. (Order Moracee.) Tree, about fifty feet high and from one to two feet in diameter. Wood, yellow, hard, moderately heavy, and takes a good polish. Used for cabinet work and for spokes of carriages and wagon wheels and wherever strength and re-— sistance are required. Logs are ex- ported to England, where a yellow dye is extracted. | Andiroba, known also as Crabwood, Caraba, and Carapo, Carapa guianensis Aubl. (Order Meliacee.) Tree, from sixty to 120 feet high, and often six feet in diameter. Wood, reddish brown, resembles mahogany, straight grained, moderately heavy, hard, taking a good polish. Used for building and for fur- niture. Angelim, known also as Cabbage tree, Andira inermis Kunth. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, usually dwarfed, thirty to forty feet high, and sometimes six feet in diameter. Wood, reddish brown, hard, very durable, and takes a very beautiful polish. Found in the northern and central parts of Brazil. Under the name Angelina several other species are recognized by reason of their firm and hard woods. They are used for building and for naval construction, as well as for furniture, parquetry, and turnery. Angico, known also as Angica ver- melho, Piptadema rigida Benth. (Or- der Leguminose.) Tree, forty to fifty feet high, and sometimes two feet in diameter. Wood, reddish brown, hard, moderately heavy, fine grained, and tak- ing a beautiful polish. Used for build- ing, and especially for cabinet work. Anhauina, Aiouea densiflora Nees. (Order Lauracee.) Tree, average size. Wood, fragrant, usually light brown, hard, close grained, and taking a beau- tiful polish, especially that of the dark colored varieties. Used for building, naval construction, and cabinet work. Araroba, Centrolobium robustum Mart. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, forty to fifty feet high, and from one to three feet in diameter. Wood, red- dish brown, moderately light in weight, fine and straight grained, soft for cut- 720 ting, and has closed pores. Used for cabinet and inlaid work. A _ beautiful red coloring matter is extracted from the wood. Balsamo or Catholico, Myrospermum sp. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, dark brown, resembling mahogany, very hard, heavy, and very close grained. Used for ornamental objects, cabinet work, turnery, and parquetry. One of the species of Myrospermum yields the Balsam of Peru. Barbatimao, Stryphnodendron _ bar- batimam Mart. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, small, rare, but occurs in all the provinces situated north of the Rio de Janiero. Wood, grayish brown, mod- erately hard, very durable and beauti- ful. Used for cabinet work and turnery. S. guianense Benth., native to the Gui- anas, yields the Hoobooballi wood, also suitable for cabinet work. Bicuhyba, or Bicoiba, Myristica bicuhyba Schott. (Order Myristicace@.) Tree, tall. Wood, light brown, with darker streaks, moderately hard, tough, rather light in weight, and very durable. This wood remotely resembles ma- hogany. Used for coffins, building, and cabinet work. Brazil-wood or Brazilletto, Cesalpina brasiliensis Sw. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, average size. Wood, light red, very hard, heavy, and close grained. It contains bright red coloring matter, which is often extracted for commercial purposes. Used for violin bows and for small articles of furniture, turnery, and parquetry. The available supply of this wood is now almost exhausted, and consequently it is high priced. Brazil, Cesalpina echinata Laur. (Or- der Leguminosae.) Tree, forty to fifty feet high, and from one to two feet in diameter. Wood, well known for its use in making dyes; also used for inlaid work and for making small articles of furniture. It is now becoming very rare. Other dye woods are now being substituted, and the remaining trees are often cut down for use as fence posts and other purposes requiring strength and durability. It is also known as Peach wood, Lima, Nicaraqua, and Pernambuco wood. In British Guiana AMERICAN FORESTRY it is called Bresil de St. Martha. The wood of this species is inferior to Brazil-wood, Cesalpina brasiliensis Sw. - Cabui vinhatico, Enterolobium lates- cens Mart. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, from sixty to eighty feet high, and from two to four feet in diameter. Wood, light brown, soft, with large open pores and not strong. Used for building, naval construction, and cabinet work. The wood is very durable and light in weight, and therefore very valuable for making small boats. Cajueiro bravo, Curatella americana Linn. (Order Dilleniacee.) Tree, or- dinary dimensions. Wood, hard, mod- erately heavy, and usually curly, which renders it very desirable for cabinet work. It is also used for general con- struction purposes. The rough leaves of this tree are used extensively for pol- ishing. Cumussin, Carapa grandifolia Mart. (Order Meliacee.) Tree, sixty to sev- enty feet high, and one to three feet in diameter. Wood, reddish brown, with lighter colored veins, moderately heavy, hard, and straight grained, resembling mahogany. Used for building and naval construction, and especially suitable for cabinet work. Candeia, Lychnophora ericoides Mart. (Order Composite.) Tree, usually small. Wood, white, rather hard, close and straight grained, taking a beauti- ful polish. Used for cabinet work and turnery. Carnatiba, known also as the Wax palm of Brazil, Copernicia certfera Mart. (Order Palme.) Palm noted for the uses made of it. Besides the wood, used in cabinet work and eboniz- ing, it furnishes gum used for wax, oil, vinegar, salts (still little known), and starch. The wax yielded by this tree is used on graphophone cylinders. The fibers are used for making cords, nets, and baskets. Cedro, Cedrela fissilis Vell. (Order Meliacee.) Beautiful tree of remark- able size; the trunk is sometimes ten feet or more in diameter. Found in all the provinces north of the Rio de Janeiro and especially ‘in the valley of the Amazon, where it attains great di- CABINET WOODS OF THE FUTURE mensions. Large, fine planks are ob- tained from it. The wood, which re- sembles Spanish cedar, is also used for making cigar boxes, turned articles, - images, and furniture. It is becoming so depleted that it is used now only for boxes for the very best cigars. Cumuru, known also as Tonga bean, Gaiac, Cuamara, and Tonquin bean, Dipterix odorata Aubl. (Order Legu- minos@.) ‘Tree, thirty to forty feet high, and about three feet in diameter. Wood, dark brown, with a greenish- yellow coloring matter in the pores; very heavy, hard, rough, and exceed- ingly cross-grained. It is durable and employed for purposes requiring strength and stiffness. Used for build- ing purposes and, in the form of veneer, for cabinet work. Cumary or Cuyumary, Aydendron cujumary Nees. (Order Lauraceae.) Tree, tall. Wood, brown, light in weight, rather soft, not very durable, and easily worked. Used for building, naval construction, and cabinet work. Gitahy, Hymenea sp. (Order Legu- minose.) ‘Tree, tall. Wood, yellowish, fine grained, beautiful, very tough and firm. Used for building, wheel-felloes, cabinet work and parquetry. Grama ruiva, Macherium brasiliense Vog. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, me- dium height. Wood, dark, sometimes tinged with red; compact, heavy, and resembles the wood of some species of Jacaranda. It has a very fine and even grain, rendering it very desirable for ornamental cabinet work, especially pianoforte cases, turnery, and inlaid work. Guarabu, Peltogyne guarubu Fr., and Guarabu amarello or Pao Roxo, Pel- togyne confertifora Bth. (Order Le- guminose.) ‘Tree, tall. Wood, dark purple, hard, heavy, and fine grained. Used for building, naval construction, and cabinet work. The wood imported into the United States under the name of Amaranth is obtained from a spe- cies of this genus. Guarabu preto, Astronium concin- num Schott. (Order Anacardiacee.) Tree, tall. Wood, dark brown, very hard, heavy, close and fine grained, tak- 727 ing a beautiful polish. Used for build- ing, naval construction, and cabinet work. Guarajubeira, Terminalia acuminata Mart. (Order Combretacee.) Tree, average size. Wood, light brown, very hard, heavy, and very close grained. Used for cabinet work. Jacaranda preto, Macherium legale Benth. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, seventy to eighty feet high, and two to three feet in diameter. Wood, usually with dark reddish tinge; one of the most compact and hardest woods known and much in demand for building, cabi- net work, inlaid work, and turned ar- ticles. This name is applied to sev- eral entirely different woods, chief of which is Dalbergia nigra Allem., a tree belonging to the same section of legu- minous plants. Jacaranda is a general term that applies to the following spe- cies: Macherium firmum Benth., M. legale Benth., and M. incorruptible Al- lem., which are all large, useful trees. On account of this confusion of names, the wood of these trees is often palmed Git On the: market fonetne) thie. rese- wood of British Guiana. One other species of this genus from British Guiana is M. schomburgkii Benth., and produces the beautiful mottled wood called Itaka, Itiki, or Tiger wood, used extensively for furniture. Jacare-catinga, Myrica leucadendron D. C.. (Order Myricacee.) ” Tree, rather small. Wood, grayish-brown, hard, heavy, and easily worked. Used for building and cabinet work. Jacariuba, Calophyllum brastliense Camb. (Order Guttifere.) Tree, ninety to 120 feet high, and trunk sometimes nine feet in diameter. Wood, usually reddish brown, soft, rather light, fine grained, and taking a good polish. Used for building, naval construction, and cabinet work. Louro abacate or aquacate, Persea gratissima Gaertn. (Order Laurace@. ) Tree, tall. Wood, dark brown or red- dish, very handsome, resembling ma- hogany, moderately hard, heavy, and easily worked. Used for building, naval 728 construction, and cabinet work. The tree produces a savory fruit known in commerce under the name of vegetable marrow. Louro amarello, Louro vermelho, or Louro commun, Persea splendens Meissn. (Order Lauracee). Tree, tall. Wood, somewhat similar to the preced- ing. Used for building, naval construc- tion, interior and exterior decoration, according to the qualities of the differ- ent varieties. Excellent planks and fine furniture are also made from it. Grows throughout the greater portion of the northern provinces, but especially in the dry districts of the Amazon Valley. Louro cheirosa, Louro cheirosa ca- nella, Louro cheirosa cravo, or Louro cheirosa pimenta, Dicypelliwm caryo- phyllatum Nees. (Order Lauracee.) Tree, large, with straight, clear bole. Wood, pale yellow, hard, compact, and straight grained, durable, and _ easily worked. It is also known as Sassafras, Pepper-wood, Licari,and Cayenne rose- wood. It is an excellent wood. Used for building, naval construction, cabi- net work, and also for industrial pur- poses. Woods of this genus are fra- grant, and yield on distillation the es- sential oil known as “essence de roses.” Macucu, Macoubea guianensis Aubl. (Inc. Sed.) Tree, about sixty feet high and nearly three feet in diameter. Wood, light brown, hard, heavy, and fine grained. Used for building, interior decoration, and cabinet work. Mairapinima, Centrolobium parense Jul. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, me- dium height. Wood, probably the most beautiful in Brazil. It is light brown, moderately heavy and dense, and is used for carpentry, inlaid work, and furniture. It grows in the upper dis- tricts of the Amazon region. Marupa, known also as Simarouba and Acajou blanc, Simaruba amara Aubl. (Order Sitmarubacee.) Tree, very large. Wood, almost white, re- sembling white pine, moderately hard and heavy. Used for building, exte- rior decoration, and cabinet work. Massaranduba, Mimusops elata Fr. All. (Order Sapotacee.) Tree, eighty to ninety feet high, and from six to ~aium height. AMERICAN FORESTRY ten feet in diameter. Wood, very dark brown or nearly black, and one of the hardest known. Used in buildings and carpentry. It is one of the most valu- able ot ‘all trees. Pao amarello, Vochysia obscura Warm. (Order Vochysiacee.) Tree, fifty to sixty feet high, and about three feet in diameter. Wood, sometimes nearly white, hard, moderately heavy, and close grained. Used for building, naval construction, and carpentry. The useful timber copai-ye-wood of Guiana is derived from Vochysia gwianensis Aubl. Pao d’arco, known also as white ce- dar, Cogwood, and Roble blanco, Te- coma pentaphylla Juss. (Order Bignon- iacee.) Tree, sixty to 100 feet high, and from eight to ten feet in diameter. Wood, yellowish or sometimes very light brown, hard, compact, even grained,and elastic. Used for building, naval con- struction, and cabinet work. Pao santo or Pao preto, Kielmeyera Nees. (Order Lauracee.) Tree, me- Wood, dark brown, com- pact, hard, moderately heavy, fragrant, and beautiful in grain. Used for build- ing and valuable for cabinet work; also used in perfumery. Pao santo or Pao preto, Kielmeyera excelsa Camb. (Order Ternstrami- ace@.) Tree, large dimensions, the bole being more than three feet in diam- eter. Wood, dark, very hard, and very dense. It is considered one of the best in Northern Brazil on account of its numerous uses for interior decorations, cabinet work, and hydraulic construc- tion. Pao violeta, Macherium violaceum Vog. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, tall, and two to three feet in diameter. Wood, hard, compact, and of a beauti- ful light violet color. Used for fine cabinet and inlaid work. Pao de tanho branco, Aspidosperma eburneum Allem. (Order Apocynacee. ) Tree, tall. Wood, moderately hard, heavy, very smooth, and fine grained, somewhat resembling mahogany. Used for building, interior decoration, and furniture. CABINET WOODS OF THE FUTURE Paparauba, Simaruba versicolor A. St. Hil. (Order Simarubacee.) Tree, sixty to eighty feet high, and about three feet in diameter. Wood, white, rather soft, and works very easily. Used in civil and naval construction and for cabinet work. Paracauba, or Angelim vermelho, Andira fraximfolia Benth. (Order Leguminose.) ‘Tree, forty to sixty feet high, and three feet in diameter. Wood, reddish, hard, heavy, usually cross grained, and takes a beautiful polish. Used for civil and naval construction and for cabinet work. Peroba do campo, Sweetia elegans Benth. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, large, eighty to 100 feet in height, and sometimes four feet in diameter. Wood, varies from a light yellowish to a pinkish hue; the heartwood is some- times quite red, pinkish, or flesh colored. It is hard, moderately heavy, exceed- ingly fine grained, and takes a beautiful polish. Used for interior finish, con- struction timber, and also for furniture, for which it is highly esteemed. Rabugem or Roble, Platymiscium blancheti Benth. (Order Legumuinose.) Tree, sometimes 100 feet high and three to four feet in diameter. Wood, hard, heavy, tough, and beautiful in grain. Used for building and cabinet work. Tambor, Macrolobium vaupa F. Gmel. (Order Leguminose.) Tree, tall. Wood, hard, heavy, and tough, taking a very good polish. Used for manufacturing wheels and cylinders for sugar ma- chines, and for cabinet work. Tamboril, known as Corotu in Pan- ama, Enterolobium timbouva var. Ca- 729 nescens Engl. (Order Leguminos@. ) Tree, among the most gigantic, attain- ing a height of ninety to 130 feet, and a diameter of nearly ten feet. Wood, light brown, rather soft, and quite porous, not strong, but durable, and re- motely resembling mahogany. Used for building, interior decoration, furni- ture, and boat building. Small vessels of twelve tons burden have been made out of a single log of this tree. Tinguaciba, Xanthoxylon spinosum Sw. (Order Rutacee.) Tree, average size. Wood, yellow, hard, heavy, and fine grained, taking a good polish. Used for building and cabinet work. Uxi, Couepia myrtifolia Benth. (Or- der Rosacee.) Tree, about fifty feet high and more than three feet in diam- eter. _Wood, hard, heavy, and fine grained, taking a beautiful polish. Used for construction timber and cabinet work. These names, of but little significance when pronounced in passing, are given merely to emphasize the fact that the kinds of woods useful for making fur- niture are exceedingly diverse. Con- stant effort is put forth by importers of foreign woods not only to select the best kinds, but also to search for and discover new woods of which little or nothing is known. South American countries will probably supply the bulk of our cabinet woods in the very near future. Transportation facilities are being speedily developed there, and cap- ital from the United States is pouring in, thus developing natural with amazing rapidity. resources WHERE FORESTRY CAN BE STUDIED FEW years ago the prospective A American student of forestry had little choice in his own country of the place where he would study. The first forestry school was opened at Biltmore, North Caro- lina, thirteen years ago; a little later the Yale Forest School was established, and for a while they stool almost alone. Now there are several schools well manned and equipped to give in- struction in forestry of the highest grade, and numerous others are giving a course or courses in this subject. Two colleges, Tufts College in Massachu- setts, and the University of California, announce special forestry preparatory courses, made up in great measure of the fundamental sciences on which for- estry rests. The subject is too new in our curri- cula to be fully standardized and the efforts of many institutions to meet the need are somewhat experimental, but it is nevertheless clear that forestry has won its place in the consideration of our educational authorities. For the information of those inter- ested a list is published of universities, colleges, and schools in the United States where forestry is taught. Brief statements of the nature and scope of the work done are added to each case. This information has been gotten from the published announcements of the in- stitutions themselves and an effort has been made to make it as accurate and complete as possible. AMERICAN For- ESTRY will be grateful for any correc- tion or additions, now or in the future, so that accurate information may be available at all times to its readers and friends. GRADUATE SCHOOLS There are three graduate. schools offering to college graduates the high- est grade of professional training and 730 fitting their students for the best places in the profession. They are depart- ments of three of our oldest universities. Each of these schools is thoroughly equipped and has demonstration forests and access for practice work to private or state-owned forest lands. Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, Yale Forest School (founded in 1900). A graduate department requiring for admission a college training. A two years course lead- ing to the degree of Master of Forestry. An undergraduate preparatory course is given in the Sheffield Scientific School. University of Michigan. Ann Arbor, Course in Forestry (founded in t901). A graduate course leading to the degree of Master of Science in Forestry. Under- graduates in the University who pursue a course leading to forestry may take the degree of Bachelor of Arts at the end of the fourth year and the degree of Master of Science in Forestry at the end of the fifth year. For those who besin the study of forestry after graduation the course is’ two years. Work in forestry for the doctorate of science or of philosophy is also open. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa- chusetts, Division of Forestry, School of Applied Science. Open to graduates of a college or scientific school of good standing. A two years course leading to the degree of Master in Forestry. Two universities have recently or- ‘ganized colleges of forestry on coordi- nate lines with the other departments, providing for undergraduate as well as graduate work. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. College of Forestry. A four years under- graduate course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry; entrance requirements, those of the university. Also a graduate course of not less than one year leading to the degree of Master of Forestry. The degree of Doctor of Science may also be obtained by bachelors of this or anv other forestry college of equal grade within not less than three years after graduation under conditions prescribed by the faculty of the graduate school. University of Washington, Seattle. School of Forestry (established 10907). A four years’ course leading to the degree*of Bache- lor of Science in Forestry. Also a two years graduate course leading to the de- WHERE FORESTRY CAN BE STUDIED gree of master of Science in Forestry. This school has a good equipment, the nucleus of a forest museum, and is in the heart of a great timber country near extensive national forests. UNDERGRADUATE COLLEGE COURSES A number of colleges, especially the land grant institutions, have instituted undergraduate forestry courses of four years. The facilities of these institu- tions vary considerably and the courses are not standardized as yet, but they represent useful beginnings and provide opportunities for forestry study for many who cannot meet the require- ments of the higher schools. Some of them are well equipped and have com- petent instructors. Colorado. College, Colorado Springs. School of Forestry (established 1905). A four years course leading-to the degree of Forest Engineer, and a graduate course of one year leading to the degree of Master of Forestry. Has a demonstration forest of 13,- ooo acres and is near the natural forests. There is a summer course and a special twelve weeks’ course for forest rangers and guards. Colorado Agricultural College, Fort Col- lins. The four years courses in the division of agriculture differentiate in the junior year, and for the course in forestry the junior and senior years are given to tech- nical subjects. The degree is Bachelor of - Science. University of Georgia, Athens, College of Agriculture. School of Forestry. A four years degree course and a summer course. University of Idaho, Moscow. A four years course leading to the degree of Bache- lor of Science in Forestry. Has good equipment and demonstration forest of 640 acres. Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana. Arranged as one of the four years courses in science leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science. The forestry course are classi- fied under the department of biology. Iowa State College, Ames. Department of Horticulture and Forestry. Special at- tention is given to farm forestry under Iowa conditions. A mixed course, not to be regarded as a technical course in forestry. University of Maine, Orono. A complete undergraduate course in forestry is ar- ranged, which may serve as the basis not only of practical work in forestry, but also of a liberal education. A knowledge of the principles of forestry in its different branches is given to the student, and some practical 73% work is done in the forest. Degree of Bache- lor of Science. Michigan Agricultural College, East Lan- sing. Forestry course (established 1902). leur years course, the work of the fresh- man and sophomore years practically the same as for agricultural students; strictly technical work begins, in junior year. De- gree of Bachelor of Science. University of Montana, Missoula. Four years course leading to degree of Bachelor of Science. “The courses of study as at present outlined are designed to prepare stu- dents in the fundamental subjects of fores- try. From one to two years of graduate work will be necessary for those desiring to become professional foresters.” There is a short course for forest rangers in January, February and March. The location in Mis- soula of the headquarters of District No. 1 of the United States Forest Service is noted as one of the advantages of this institution. University of Nebraska, College of Agri- culture. A four years course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science. For a fifth year of approved work the degree of Master of Forestry may be obtained. Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis. “To meet the needs of the State in conser- vation and development of its forest re- sources, the College has provided a regular course of four years, which will be supple- mented with a winter short course.” De- eree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry. Pennsylvania State College. State College. “The course in forestry is planned to give students a thorough and practical training, so that upon graduation they may take up professional forest work.” Degree of Bache- lor of Science for four years course. State College of Washington, Pullman This college announces a four years course in forestry leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science. In a class by itself because of its or- ganization, methods, and purposes, 1s the unattached Biltmore Forest School. This is a school of “purely technical forestry,’ now in its thirteenth year. The course of one year, supplemented by six months of practical work, leads to the degree of Bachelor of Forestry. After two years experience and the presentation of a thesis a Bachelor of Forestry may receive the degree of Forest Engineer. The school holds a winter session in Germany, a spring session in Adirondacks and southern Appalachians, and during the autumn months in the Lake States. FORESTRY ONE SUBJECT IN COURSE The following colleges and universi- ties give one or more courses in fores- 732 AMERICAN FORESTRY try. It should be noted that these can in no case be considered training for the profession of forestry. They are at best partial and elementary, giving such knowledge as may be considered properly a part of a general education, and particularly of agricultural educa- tion. In most cases they are designed for the latter purpose. Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. A-one term course in the senior year in the department of agricultural sciences on forest conditions of Alabama and care of wood- lots. Connecticut Agricultural College, Storrs. A course in the spring term “to give students an idea of practical forestry in Connecti- Chit Delaware College, Newark. A course dealing with the elements of forestry in the agricultural course, second term, senior year. Kansas State Agricultural College, Man- hattan. Two junior courses—one in farm forestry and one in silviculture. University of Illinois, Urbana.