at otit cr >t) hte | sare 9 . a YS 2 . Pe < PZ ¥ % i . ; > t ae . . aw i Pi OF iat a “ aS bs a\ “> X% ‘= S ‘e WH tA ~ 2 » Bes Wa os =a ot * he’s. x » Bo | i » a“ ~“ . 3 : - : : ’ : Be 7 | , : Ee , 5 > 2 e oe + Me | 7 j ~ s, j ’ ~ ia ae w aie : tis. e K “Ph4 oe Ay ric OPS S.. AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. PART I. COMPRISING THE LEADING PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES CONNECTED WITH THE PROPAGATION, CULTURE, AND IMPROVEMENT OF FRUITS, NUTS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, SHRUBS, AND. PLANTS IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA. BY ‘ J. L. BUDD, Late Professor of Horticulture in the Iowa State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, ASSISTED BY N. E. HANSEN, | 697 bo. Professor in the South Dakota Agricultural College. ite l © . 3. 2 ad . Tiustrated bp over One Hundred Figures and €rpianatorp Designs, FIRST EDITION. THIRD THOUSAND. NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. Lonpon: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limrrep 1914 Copyright, 1902, BY J. L. BIEDD. THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS ROBERT DRUMMOND AND COMPANY BROOKLYN. N. Y. PREFACE. THE meaning of Horticulture as given by Noah Webster is the ‘“‘cultivation of a garden, or the art of cultivating gardens.’? But modern advancement has given the word a much broader signification. It now includes such impor- tant divisions as pomology, or fruit-growing, ornamental and shade trees and shrubs, flowers and their Gulture, modes and methods of propagation, landscape gardening, spraying for insects and fungi, garden and orchard irrigation, sys- tematic pomology, or plant description and classification, and still other divisions and subdivisions in varied climes and on different soils. Quite as important is the modern change in the require- ments of the student or beginner in horticulture. In the days when gardening was a mere art the operator was told what to do and how to doit. At this time the student is required to know not only how to perform a given work, but to give the reasons for doing it in a certain way in order to reach given results. In agricultural college work, at institutes, and at hor- ticultural meetings the discussion of practical details is now associated with the underlying principles that often border on science. Commercial horticulture in its many classes is also a iii Iv PREFACE. modern development. ‘This is specially true of the com- mercial growing of the orange, grape, strawberry, apple, tomato, melon, and indeed all fruits and nuts that can be widely distributed in fresh or preserved form. Modern facilities for transportation have had much to do with this rapid development, together with the much- published information and literature that naturally grew up in connection with these extended systematic operations. Indeed the literature connected with growing fruits for market has advanced far more rapidly than that pertaining to home-making, home propagation, and the principles connected with the modes and methods used in the varied divisions of work. Hence in this volume the needs of the student, amateur, and beginner have been regarded in every section and every chapter. To prevent duplication and to give a clearer presentation of the union of theory and practice, the work and the rea- sons therefor are given in connection, or reference is made to other explanatory sections. The division of systematic pomology, or the description and classification of fruits and nuts, is quite distinct and separate as a study. In some respects chapters on this subject are used for reference in time of need as we use a dictionary, while the theory and practice of horticulture is acontinued study in which about all classes are interested. A number of years ago Daniel Webster said: ‘‘ Horticul- ture is one pursuit of natural science in which all sexes and degrees of education and refinement unite. It attracts, delights all. It seems to be a common field where every degree of taste and refinement may unite and find oppor- tunity for their gratification.” Hence the principles and practices of horticulture are outlined in Part I in a separate volume. Sytematic pomology, giving a description of the fruits PREFACE. v in cultivation largely planted in the various sections of the United States and Canada, together with those of special promise in local parts, is treated in Part II, which is also published as a separate volume for the benefit of those most interested in varieties that succeed most perfectly on varied soils and in different sections and districts. The figures used in Part I, when not original, are copied by permission from those used by Professor Goff, Professor Green, Professor Bailey, and others, as credited in each case, to whom special thanks are due. My able associate, Professor N. E. Hansen, has read the manuscript of Part I and assisted in various ways, and he has given much time and labor to the responsible and difficult work of describing and deciding the status of the many varieties in cultivation as given in Part II. The discussions and statements in Part I have been care- fully considered, and verified as far as possible by travel, correspondence, reading, and consultation, yet in some cases they will be questioned. But this will lead to inves- tigation. It cannot be hoped that a volume of this character can be faultless in all respects. The details of modern horticulture are so varied that no one person can cover the whole range without omissions and mistakes of judgment. J. L. Bunp. AmEs, Iowa, March 1, 1902. Py Fe. ee Si = Kan, 7 a ee oa: “ ee : gt 2 oe eae Rote es ) : > ari re kr} : Eee! ey ister oe Sy Site + Oe ee eit wd ee een ee CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. SEEDS AND SEED-GROWTH. KECTION 1. Seedling Variations............ coe cccccccesecccvoccececs 2. Seed Variation of Cultivated Plants... ......cscscccecces 8. Commercial Seeds........eee0. a5 cists o 6; olan aleletel caerse Miaialhe 4 Need -GAVIN Gs sieve sessions sategisiaciare nele 6 sien vinetes sa disie Siaveie\aie's 5. Seed-stratification........ .cesccces a7b bles ie:de%e paivioets eialaniete 6. Soaking and Scalding Seeds.......... ore 6 visas soda wraieerete 7. Fall Planting of Seeds............ sieie\e Kista, od-ale wlaeieneraste atsie 8: Seed-testin gs s/.tes-.5.. cee o's. siege e alae ae sialele Ree ana bates 9. Depth of Planting Seeds........ oe pce ec cece rsccetecereee 10. Best Time to Plant Seeds........ wlvhorcielwiate oad ate ntact 11. Seeds in Shallow Boxes or *‘ Flats’... .c.cccoccccccscccce 12. Seeds in Hot-beds............. Salele ico spied oeiate oinaieela ares . Shaded Beds for Seed-planting..... eecreeerrseeeseeeeeseeese Retained Vitality of Seeds........... ®eeerseeerseeee+sseese CHAPTER II. SEED-GERMINATION AND SEEDLING-GROWTH, 15, Seed-gerthination : .0590 co Nojccugaews nace owes beetes vest 16. Some of the Modes of Hotignewshisi: sicie St e's aelaleleeiee gee 17. How Seedling Roots Grow........ ise eisidia sidieleteleees so sree 18: The Officéiof Roots: 2.2.0 veer. beset ade Biga'eelcvete Sie charee rete 19: Root-protections oo. os eres civsesietc-daweie te oe cc ee peeeee, 90. Root-division ceca. sie e vccie sta ier cd-ke eas eee walled ease ied 21. Roots as Modified by Variety of Top......... Metis eee Apt ane vii " 5 i SANOoh WDD eS viii CONTENTS. CHAPTER IIL STEM- AND TOP-GROWTH, APPENDAGES, SECTION 92.) Siem -GrOW ty i aires sinteeie ses Da iaabelesas ois CIE at IC 28. General Classes of Stems..... aaeta Helps Wiureiavs ays bial ey 26:9 Gaisie i's 24. Heart-wood and Sap-wood...... ie eateintes Sis S168 s-osie'se 25. Proper Height of Fruit-tree Stems..... Sakata teenie ie siss'e» _ 26. Stem-protection .....-..... Nine gel oinis Sareea Baie ei e.bi ys 0 SOK 27. Proper Mode of Rritne eae Te BORS ie pet neaaes, 915, 5:6 Paiste 28. Leaf- and Fruit-buds............. SOO. SROOBE Ear 29; Adventitious and Lateral: Buds: ...5..0cccsresedessccescuce 80) Phemsea ho ocd lees cei iat an nk ART IE SLshap and ts MOVeEMents ,(c:.:5. cad ee ere nisteuvpineih eis !as 0 waeie'e,s 44, 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. CHAPTER IV. THE FLOWERS . Parts of the Flower..... seas . Inferior and Superior Flowers.........eeeecee eels a hie eines . Moneecious aud Dicecious Flowers,.......cecesecveceeees . Perfect and Imperfect Flowers....... . Cross-pollination........ parHa ovate a\siaido.e bikie Cie'g'ba sles Aiclse's 6 . Nutrition of the Fruit Blossom,.... . Long-blossoming Period....... . Possible Flower Production.... . The Fruit and its Maturation.....ccccscreccssccccceccces . Air-drainage....... Crecccoce wee coc ere eees coccereececes serait Soile.sccss sabe bet bcs ; pane as Modified by Climate. CHAPTER V. MODES AND PRINCIPLES OF PROPAGATION. AND FRUITS. eeoeeereeren eeseeeeseons Pee eee esses eeressesses @eereeeereevre Some Preliminary Considerations. .......eesssecesecesecs Root-grafting in Hurope.... seccrcesccccccccccsceces views Some European Criticism. ..,..cc.ccsecsesess $o whataheraeiats Commercial Stocks .......... See deme w sweet Grae’ erbioe S Sreibie Propagation by Seeds........ Baa aisle lari sere arin(sioa Wiaere Propagation: by Suckerssici waa ceeNeceiee'ecle cece Propagation by Root-cuttings AND CIRCULATION, 32 33 34 35 35 35 36 36 37 37 38 38 40 40 41 42 43 43 44 CONTENTS. SECTION 51. Rooting Sprouts by Mounding. .....cssececscccccesecece 52. Summer Layering........ Walltnre dows esc eu sess hers ce yes es ° 53. Spring Layering..........eeeeeee ois séen “dee vevevcescccece _ CHAPTER VI. PROPAGATION BY INARCHING AND FROM WOODY AND IMMATURE CUTTINGS. 54. Propagating by Inarching. «2.0600 sc'sccecscccececcesess ee 65. Long-scion Imarching..*. 3 .scqetie ties dgie de nwo ceints AP ICO Or 56. Propagating by Ripe Wood Ourtape:: siewlew Wane ta anes 57. When and How to Prepare Cuttings.........seesececceees 58. Fall Planting of Cuttings .......... sqin tne o's Ge meeiee éudees 59. Some Reasons for Fall Planting............-.006. aie she's ers 60. Spring-planted Cuttings...........+.... si.0.se6 Rica Swiss css 61, Cuttings Kept in the Cellar... .....ccc ccc c cece cece ccrcecs 62. Immature-growth Cuttings .......... ACEI eer Sigloleqcetets 63. Controlling Heat and Moisture..... Sle eid @ re biaieielaig Aas 0s rin's 64. Why Cuttings Need Bottom Heat. ........e.eseeseeee vows 65: The Hot-bed soe. cs «sie aisie st hers au eis Biba BN ee Qeacelere pare oa 66. Preparing and Setting Green Cuttings.........e.ceeeesees 67. Need of Buds in Plant Division® 2.) .:%0%5 dic onenes cecsee . Division of Perennials, Tubers, and Root-stalks..........+¢ CHAPTER VII. PROPAGATION BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING, 69. Propagation by Budding............... ia heiaivesters cuteladeere 70. Some of the Purposes of Budding................ aineldeeras 71. Some Native Stocks that Should be Used...........0.0e00% 72. Summer Budding............ ire ree ok Walaa isvene eves 73. How to Cut and Insert Buds... .........eeesesees ovapeees 74. Budding the Same Season that Pits are Planted..... we bee 75. After-care of Summer Buds......... dvs Vagrhsee seh akee ins 76. June Budding........ ETN Mi ORE we bbb ears ae e se 77. Ring Budding............. Seite Sas ES FR ececesics 18. Grating is: .siavs ons a4aa¥ eens eee bs Dee Aube cee eee ens 79. Limits of Grafting. Sas ly ow aie WRN Saw iateuio senate Gia aindierpi sis warty 80. Cutting and Packing Scions........... dist ioe Stale steenel aie cove 81. Taking Up and Packing Stocks,..........0eseecveccree-: PAGE 45 45 48 63 66 x CONTENTS. SECTION PAGE $2:- Short Roots:and Long Scions.\:.<..sccccetsecccccccccees's 00 83. Grafting-wax for varied Uses... ..cccesccescoccccsccccces 27 84. Root-grafting the Apple.....ccccoccccccccccccccs cnrkeoietse 78 85. Packing Away the Grafts.. dielh:Syet 6/8 GW eas wrebee’'e ae ses 79 86. Crown-grafting Pear, Pian: fend Cherry.. aleuisieaes'ere? esce 80 87. Trenching for Graft- un evoteie atest s ocicicralsTsisisleleite siciste sien Oe 88. Top-grafting.. “ coc ccccccsccccccccceseccccccescs 84 89. Top-working the: naples. alaialolstolel ecole ssisleve elele.aisia sieeioreisiersiets 85 90. Top-working Old Trees... .csceccscsccccscese Worse sinivosisis' 85 91. Top-grafting Cherry and Plam Paees nema cle seteaaes Pee 86 U2:; Top-working it the Cellar. is ci.00:c 033.0 caciescceawesesiessien 89 92. Scions)to Save Girdled Troes.<.:ccsicicecls osjcicicisieieenscins css O00 94, Bark-grafting......... Sinise bee hes oalseecue eis KOC eee A! Oe Sofs-vissue GrAalting aacyscieisteisies oc wises sorlosicis sei sisicelcsins Veaais © tle eve oth/cte erste ree 142. 148 Proper Time for Pruning in Nursery and Young Orchard.. 128 . Pruning Youny Apple and Pear Orchards......+..e.2.2++ 128 x11 CONTENTS, SECTION ; PAGE 144. Heading Back Old Apple- and Pear-trees.........0.e++e+++ 130 145. Training Dwarf Apple- and Pear-trees..... ..... oie:s bate osc kOL 146. Pruning. for Cordon-trainingeneoeenccataces cess see cscs. 131 147. Pruning to Shape Trees ........... Wield tals etipisiaiae's #9 Sia 133 148. Pruning the Cherry and Plum........ PERE Ea ve picks o's,0 sales LOO 149. Pruning the Peach and Apricot..... Pelaceioe secs apis yactat es 134 150. Pruning the Orange........ SAusieis ein Vials tary ssalee,09/h's's eal Mee kOe 151. Pruning the Quince....... Pbleiils ss ccst swatch vedwetescress LOU 152,.Praning ‘and SPAPINE SHSOUS.. sce veers co cccs sacenseceys 100 158. Pruning and Shaping Evergreens........ceccscccccsscees 139 154. Pruning Ornamental Hedges and Screens...........+s2++. 139 CHAPTER XII. SPRAYING FOR INSECTS AND FUNGI, 155. Evolution of Spraying...........s000. Soele vee Sabena bwes've AML 156. Spraying for Codling-moth...........-.006. ee TPT rae 157. Curculio of the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, and Peach.... 147 158. Spraying for the Bark and Leaf Aphis.............. csess LEO 159. Leaf Aphis of Apple, Plum, Cherry, and Peach........... 150 TOO; Spraying ior SCAale A DNISK sve eis ooa ois es Sistoaieiele ovis chicos LOO 161. Some Miscellaneons Insects....... siiainlapiniy ae bis rele dia’ wisipas (LO 162. Spraying for Fungous Diseases.........escecesssceseceee 158 168. Apple and Pear Scab............. Meeem ces tise Caveisreice.sd a he~kOd 164. Brown Rot of the Stone Fruits........ Sea RS eu Mele berecicees LOO 165. Fungi of the Grape and Small Fruits.........seeseceeeees 156 CHAPTER XIIL ' THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINCE. 166. Origin of the Cultivated Apples.......+sccccssoccccccssecs 159 261, ‘OUT Maes Crab-Ap ples so scies cee wavcsovesvecccavecesoess 162 168. Dwarf Apple-trees ..... Reiite kn oavels Dasea pales eo sieeeiesicc siete: LOS SOO GETOPAP AION OL SNO-APPlOs ise sicnwies ses ceccdiceesosescccees 164 170. Apple-planting and Management....... Weigeceigeiose.e svcieie LUO 171. Varied Seasons and Behavior of Varieties...........e006- 165 172. History and Some of the Races of the Pear.........s+-.++ 167 M5 Dorart Pear si asec tees CSuNa Ce dak enced céseners AUC 174. Propagation of the Pear.......... Preset cewesGonnascoeve Las CONTENTS. x1 SECTION . PAGE 125. Soil and its Management for the Pear.........sseeeeesee 171 176. The Fruit and its Care............66. ceeugvedes evescccss Lia 177. Origin and Races of the Quince...... ocieatee sie Jecccccese LUG 178. Propagation and Management,............. veceeece vvccers 174 CHAPTER XIV. THE CHERRY, PLUM, PRUNE, APRICOT, AND PEACH. 179. History and Classification of the Cherry....,....... a 175 180. Propagation of, the Cherry) sics3ic'svs v0 sais ~'ae cbincia bes owas . 178 181. No Market Supply of the Cherry........... aevbetd 2’.'5.c'35 evens cevecesceseeeereccsccecccsenc 5 tee The Melons........ Geis Ueeseeb cocccnssenscccececcocessce BOO CHAPTER XVII. THE AMERICAN GRAPE, Grape History and Development.........ccccccssssecsess 228 Grape Propagation ois susie ales siseies'a ee epeowecccccesce cece BOO Growing Vines from Single Buds........cscccsccseccsees BOL Grafting the Grape... io. deces cee e's piste lvis|alaeNinwinsS e665 ess GOD Some Modes of Grafting the Grape............6. er eccccce 202 Best Soil and Location for Vineyard......... osigeewaleepicsh: SOO Varieties for Varied Sections, ........cee.cccccccsccceses 280 Distances “Apart, and: Planting. .cves.c%.. 00.0’ cdsesiecseoeeae BOF Varied Modes of Training.. Meslsisain ne @eeipt sees e'cisej COU Training for Laying Down at ha Mork... sleeis bicenisie ceeisiein, SOP Diagonal Training Plan... .... oc ecvcces.cocsccccoescoee S40 The High Renewal System..... cee scccececccescccccccoces Uae The Pacific Slope System....... PECereau eVR pees ene e .. 246 Other Systems of Pruning,............. She ede esc ccccvcess Mat Cultivation and Manuring...... Su elaye $8 Sr ews Sb ewe eseuret ae Need of Humus in Cultivated Soils............ eococccccce S40 Shading Vineyard Soils........cccceccceecccecccceeesses SOU CONTENTS, XxV CHAPTER XVIII THE RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY. SECTION PAGE 240. The Raspberry: Origin of American Varieties............ 251 241. Cultivated Species............ Melaciaivine's Sokinie aes viele econ at eOu 943.- The: Blackcap:F amily, sreidsierecea eigiacis coos oleate soho a0 Greve sce" 252 248. Propagation and Transplanting........ aero epel naa 4 sceldime ore 252 244. The Purple Cane Varieties,...... opin @ '0,0 aie Sc0's oSarsiens wayeie 3 OL 245. American Red Varicties. oo... oci.ccssscevescveweecsasecs. 200 246. Propagation and Transplanting............... a beled eialene da’ eOO 247. Pruning the Raspberry. .........0.cecccvecce Ween welder 256 248. Mulching and Manuring............++. Sieg eeehenaebete (e00 249: Winter Protection: << 2...52s.09s eee ces ctsie smaeneene + nels 257 250. Staking, and Distance Apart........ecessceeeees ate aaa tis 258 251. The American Blackberries............ digo Ssdbie osama geet > 259 252. Propagation and Management... ........0.csseecseceeeees 200 SEB - The. Dewberry, o's:oc vee ceca babewecavwetesapiaces kw suse se CHAPTER XIX, ~ THE STRAWBERRY AND ITS CULTURE. 254. Some Historical Notes.............000- 165s Boies Came ee ew ee 255. Staminate and Pistillate Varieties........... sede ee Stic OD 256. Setting Out and Care of Plants ......... wseeeee Pewee ae ev ceee 257. The Two-year System of Cropping...........e-ceseeseees 268 258. The One-year System........ warviniccle’s Gis oS ielteie ole Nam etie 269 259. The Hill System of Growing........... Sea oat chews sents 269 260. The Strawberry under Glass,........... 06. Gace iaineiente a 270 261. Shelter for Small Fruits... i... ccccecses ccccccccvevessee Sth CHAPTER XxX. THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY. 262. The Red and White Currants............. dewrcasia savancceneee 263. Currant Propagation........... a viarare,eivia Wa sr ebepusiatuelareinelots . 273 264, Manuring and Mulching..........ccsewecees Wes snewe oa ie OOS 265. Pruningpiand Training, << se0c.c.n00cus Ssieese se say wie ical averesGise 2 AE 266. The Black Currant. .s:000s ecesces's a efencuel ems) sis Rigi adnyeieiase aside 275 267. The Golden Currant............ Upped bo 6 oejanla eG bic nates « 276 xvi CONTENTS. SECTION PAGE 268. The Gooseberry............eee0. SislasieVete ats oieie\sjaceicisve'esicie's 277 269. Its Propagation and Culture....... aia) aideisieie se eje'eicieiwielsa eer 278 270. Pruning and Training....... nes OUwed Sec eeerenur seebigw a See 271. Culture and Management............ Rees Cataeey cas GS oie Te CHAPTER XXI. PROMISING WILD FRUITS WORTHY OF SOME ATTENTION, 212. Lhe Dwarfed UNGDOLry 5.64. cress os so. “oles Ss tieis.e Sigpnearde 281 273. Its Propagation and Pruning... .... isle sere cise ats S40 06 500) BOR 274. The Buffalo-berry......... ale Miele sevoieltees sieisiesterere AO OSHOES ret 50s SEG: DALbOrry civic: cc Cie k a aan e sneetae ees taees bea bees ware Od 276. The Goumi....... OE ee ETS ATIC ER re ee 277. The Huckleberry....... Baiaicleleis sie sieleliuicie ae sheterott sls ce Ses set oO 918s The, sand Cherry's. civcciteises cites Apocat SOO aOOe . 289 279. The Tree Cranberry........... eenems Swans sacedne sciences: ROO Q0: = This Cranberry: ys vcs. sais k cca Cosa wee cakeewe cr cmeaeses eel CHAPTER XXII. SOME LEADING NUT-TREES, 281. Advance in Nut-growing...... Sissisie's oisis e eicisle’to’s ein esele aie ceo Oe Bec, FC AMON ss «a 6x2 sc cows sine eases toe Se ieee seccs 200 283. The English or Persian Walnut.............20s Prewtenee sneer eee, Walnut Propagation sd. sic. wate cl ceecie Saletelelseieteiars cic 298 285. Possible Increase of Hardiness......... efieclelate.s ADOC RO UG Tht 286. The Black Walnut.... ... sisiarbnssvetelrrs sasleveUeiciacrsieisc eels nen aoe 20i-vits Propagation and: Planting... .icucsessic canis etle oesccle cree cs 300 250. Lnerbutternat../..00 veecoeisle apatatetelste isis ecesig a iereisiole sielave.sie 800 289. The Hickory-nut.........00. Sl siafel Seve \erein\ereise(cirsis cievers Bele em OUL 290. Pecan Propagation........ maj sielelaittale eli esssiels teres soiieienrsiamoue 291. The Chestnut..........6. ShPO UGE DG OOOe seis clefetesteieisiercishais 303 292. Propagation and Planting..... eraloverg siaicicis evelniexeieuie oVciovelersters 304 298. The Filbert........... eave er 6isheiaidurseleiaseloceleiavstein seis eioielers eve nists ORO 204. The Hazel-nut............ Breietosieyererieieie acre eens oses SOO 295. Its Propagation and Pruning........... asleleiesieisieieisie se cots OUe 296, The Cocoanut... o.i.cce es BD evereisieieis SOTHO sisleisievsie’s Beano sal»: 297. ‘Its Propagation’ and Varieties ...5:.....00000ss0ccececees wasn OLO 298. The Brazil-nut..... Orca T TET ee Oe eeisicess cree CONTENTS. xvii CHAPTER XXIII. PLANNING AND PLANTING THE HOME GROUNDS. SECTION PAGE 299. American Rural and Suburban Homes.........0+-eeeeee++ 313 300. Starting a New Home Place........ eal vsis vce sees ooinn 09.5 O1e 301. Grading and Enriching the Lawn.......... wbbie a eiale nis a's 315 302. Where to Plant Trees and Shrubs..... 6 tuealudgic pv neww's veo: O00 303. Planning and Planting more Extended Grounds........... 319 804. Improving Old Places............+++- Clair dns gegiede habe . 321 305. Transplanting Trees and Shrubs........ Hin alee arsiota Biete- 6 sows B24 306. The Need of Hardy Trees and Shrubs.........eeceeeeee++ 320 CHAPTER XXIV. SOME OF THE LEADING LAWN AND PARK TREES. 807. Adapting Trees to Soil and Climate..............000008 «+ 327 308. Sugar or Rock Maple.......... ote cb benwiecas erseuatens cas GOO 809: Norway Maple......0. 03 cccaceiss Vdltaicosteas tattarvaete viste.ed - 328 310. The Dwarf Oriental Maples............ Deg saahesesavapeaee Oe 811. The Box Elder..... siejerneieie owe pesie keh ans Ue eegemudaa 6 ses Eee 812. The Silver Maple... ...ccsceccrcvvecdese cseuesesesste coy OOo SIS. The Red: Mapies ca xss.cavasasd cian aaiduocahetecewcsie Deh gee LOOP 314. The Elms....... eres wleieie cles deal ecole aieeiees oc Meee Nemremmeel 815. The Hackbetry, oo..sic o cee scveGanevesen sitakrswatannss ech OOO 31652 The PlaAne-trees ssc x.c’ce clatceuo aoe shee pide e. tieales ova cha ee 317 The Bass woodcs. Ss ee se Siareierere es 360 344. White Fringe..... Ms id wratsatstans'e aia'sie's ferent Sentenac sts paces ais 360 345. Purple Fringe.......ceeseeeeecee: Pte petapinet Ae Ee 360 S46. (Cal-leaved Gawain. tah ovens cao ds aceasta sane eheies 360 847. Golden Elder........ Beoipts Sie ore Solna towiare W slelea sete i eiateiecmcaiois 361 348. The Snowberry............. me ee isis efereaiter Bs i eipeelane hope 361 349. Golden Bell..... ae La Urey parte SOOIDOLOES CTS 361 B00). Péarl Bush. si eccw tive cbies's ss SOOGGEC OOOO NON OOCIOe veo BOR 351... Weigela rosea... ...ceesees Ridisi Valerie sire eiiele' sein Fisis siareteiner® 362 352. Red Dogwood ...... Pie ovaiaiens ies ere a, ctatat's 2 etajele eiges (O02 353. The Climbing Roncpemailen: aie kisiens Viele sigs s'e/e% ars savelale/aite ste 364 354. Climbing Bittersweet .......... Waid blaceiejsie'd eiaieisiarelsictels ass. OOF 895:- Virginia Creeper . 2.00). 5. eos Saat els tis einai eievb ln eharsiait +. 365 856. ‘Chinese Wistaria... aseicecce tse ss MER iaioidiere accion ss sualeisis .. 365 857. Jackman’s Clematis....... SSH a Se oota Rane Riaters ia ereenneis . 3865 BOS.-ACtiNIGis arguts.. ..5.0scceecesesees pe den eek sacd oegbes O00 CHAPTER XXVI. PERENNIALS AND BULBS. ROOD The Perennial BOGS crs cicvaisie cos <5 acepie cd Die otGaee wee oe 366 860. The Herbaceous Peonia. .......... cece eeeeee RRS sabe e SHORE CONTENTS. xix SECTION PAGE 361. Perennial Phloxs Mecesce cacuhcw eis cat's rclesns vce cess vals 367 862. The Double Hollyhock........... Bieeentie dla tank gitar orsise aiais 367 363. The Gas-plant........... ic rer a Bale dipetsisin ers pee es 367 3864. The Hardy Lilies....... wihalariereleisinlectasand aielelos cis srealavelele 67s 367 365. Golden Glow........ aE Se Pe Katee erircialecterom 73 cava OOe 366, Japan Iris... ... Rite dais ois ASA NUS Metelsiapiie Wawe tc eninelels’y e's7 368 3672: Oriental: Poppyiccrates cw cent cece sins siecle ew tselesia sislartavates 368 368. Japan Spirea........... ecapetbrni eis Woe att adie wiemerc Paar ete ae 368 369; Hardy Feverfew.. ies ess, veces odes o Ri olate Grote e diaualoras Beste ah 368 370;- Moss Pinks.)c scos.cs sine CocSpRao cence tc eeeepnce dss es 368 371. Plume Poppy....... SEG Goran Weare Sede y Biles eee es 368 83%2;. Lily-of-the-valley-.:. 20.2 cease cscs AK a Sears Sain ROE 369 373. Care of the Perennial Beds.............. EOE SC Ho: i 374.- The Tulipy Bede. cag echt es wis create ee scre oe tale Pg oie Hi 369 376. Less Hardy Holland Bualbs..32.;; cueesetaae reese «tee . 370 SIG. The Cannas. ssc sas /sccloasters SAP AHHS Saielavereieints Riess atte ocs¥ers 370 377. The Gladiolus...... bg sisieventeeaem HoOsieaninatace aioe mais 's ere 371 S78. Che Dahlidisc ces oxo vsisies abe iatcis [aia iw d'ecisia gins sia uisigtara' eve @iblcrors 371 379. Elephant’s Bar... .:. <2. «its: Bcc a Wiebe al oeaiet Cet elateuls cia 372 380. Sweet Pea....... seirvinieinio eine diveatelere sie singh: see at sig Paleaiiersls yO ur SSL. The Castor-beaii..scs500bvsssin sau tan cane ai eis SoMa ape eern OFS 382. 383. 384. 385. 386. 387. 388. 389. 390. 391. 392. 393. 394. 395. 396. CHAPTER XXVII. THE VEGETABLE AND SMALL-FRUIT GARDEN, Its Location, Shape; and Shelter, 0.0... cscoescseccescveccs S14 Rotation of Crops: 7. vi... saeetealwcteminie i spraince 2 ARIE Saitie Stee Fall Plowing of Garden:< 3.02.2 i3550% Orne wie Saseteeeioie’s 376 Garden: Culture:.%:.jdewtc acncsicts seiccuses'ss eaierese eal slesteters 377 Procaring Good: Seedis ce cics cite vice sel cwie oie preteen encase eis 380 Plant Propagation and Transplanting........... wrateiin' 6iaveieie 381 Gardén-mantiring’, <4). a4 eee sae sks wet ere egedecbers 833 Preservation of Vegetables... ......ssesseeeees Saleen 384 Garden! Insects...:: | ASPATASUS\'y5)01. 5 sissies exc ae ita es wists SPEER CEE ROL ee 387 Colety-growing: - si asian 6 sok e.ce0n riatavee sie Sy lqucetetie 8 Racks 389 Egg-plant Culture. se scacecievecce: (evcsscsigvewssde oa ees a OUe xx CONTENTS. SECTION PAGE 397. The Lima Bean................ Js 6 S49 OSA o 4060 % Funes 62 OOD 398 The Melons.......... ole wd Se eben Vat RCC aD Seb oecenecee's OOD CHAPTER XXVIII. IRRIGATION. 399. Irrigation in the Humid States........ceees-secsesees- o-. 394 400. Watering the Orchard Fruits...........cscccecccoeccsess 395 40i. Reservoirs with Puddled Bottoms..... SE Oe eee ee 397 402: Artesian-well Irrigation. « 6'505.000vecsevs ccsevececcccqces 898 408. Sub-irrigation.. . ....... Shale wals'ete isis’ ers eee 399 404. Greenhouse Irrigation.............. eer Sains vce ccens 400 405. Surface Culture Needed............ Bilge eaes age weiss anne 400 406. Remarkable Results of Irrigation .......cecesececceeeceees 401 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL, CHAPTER I. SEEDS AND SEED-GROWTH. SEEDS are embryo plants capable of growing into tiew individual plants more or less varied from the parent plant. As the first stage of plant-life it should have the first at- tention of the beginner in horticulture. | 1, Seedling Variations.—Under natural conditions the seed reproduces the species very nearly. If we plant the pits of our native plums, the species will in the main be reproduced, yet no two of the seedlings will be alike in all respects. Not only will we have slight variations in leaf -and habit of growth, but in the size, color, and season of the fruit. This variation has given us by selection such native plums as Wyant, Wolf, and Rollingstone, and some of our most valuable grapes, gooseberries, raspberries, and other fruits. ; The natural variation from the seed has also by selection given us some of our most desirable ornamental and shade trees and shrubs. As a well-known instance, the hand- some cut-leaved weeping birch is a sport or variation of the Amur-birch species (Betula Amurensis). If propagated 2 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL, from seeds, the cut-leaved variety will reproduce the species, but the variety can only be preserved by propa- gating from the buds. 2. Seed Variation of Cultivated Plants.—The cultivated varieties of the fruits and ligneous plants are far more va- riable when grown from seed than those nearer to Nature. In many cases they are crosses or hybrids and for genera- tions have been planted intermingled with other varieties. If we plant the seeds of the Grimes Golden or Jonathan apples, we get an exceedingly varied lot of seedlings in leaf, bud, habit of growth, and fruit. Some of them will pro- duce no larger nor better fruit than the Siberian crabs, and perhaps no seedling will bear fruit approaching the parents in size or quality. When propagated by budding, grafting, or cuttings of the top or roots, these choice old varieties are reproduced indefinitely with very slight individual varia- tions. While this is the rule with cultivated trees and plants, we find some partial or entire exceptions. As ex- amples, some of the Russian fruits, such as the Duchess apple and the Spate Morello cherry, come near to repro- duction from seed, and the same is true of some peaches. Among garden vegetables we have many varieties that have been so fixed by selection, and growing in isolated position, that they reproduce the variety very nearly true from seed, indefinitely, if kept apart from other varieties of the same species. 3. Commercial Seeds.—It has been said with rect show of truth that the Americans are not gatherers of the seeds of native ligneous trees and plants, while in Europe seed-growing and seed-gathering is a business in which the peasant and his children are helpers. In the United States growers of vegetable- and some flower-seeds supply the home market largely, and to some extent consignments are sent abroad. SEEDS AND SEED-GROWTH. 3 But our nurserymen and tree-growers mainly rely on foreign nurseries for tree-stocks and seeds of the conifers, bulbs, and many of the leading flower-seeds. Each year large consignments of evergreen seed are re- ceived from western Europe, while tons of the cones of such beautiful and hardy native species as Black Hills spruce, silver spruce, white spruce, Colorado fir, Black Hills pine, and red pine are allowed to go to waste. In the line of tree-stocks it is much the same. French crab-apple seed and Mazzard and Mahaleb cherry stocks and pits are imported by the carload, while native seed is neglected to large extent. In the States west of the lakes the use of native seeds of the conifers and tree-stocks is most important for climatic reasons. The seeds of hardy home-grown apples, the pits of our select native plums, the pits of our wild red cherry, the seeds of our home-grown flowers, and the seeds of the Colorado and Black Hills con- ifers should be used at the West, and they would prove more valuable than the imported ones over a large part of the union. Indeed, in all parts of the union the use of home-grown seeds should be encouraged, especially in the way of conifers and fruit-tree stocks. 4, Seed-saving.—In selecting seeds for growing fruit- tree stocks it is desirable to secure those from primitive or nearly primitive types and species. The abnormal de- velopment of the edible portion of fruits is not favorable for the development of plump and perfect seeds. In many of the highly developed fruits of the apple, pear, cherry, plum, grape, pineapple, banana, and tomato we find no per- fect seed, and the few capable of germination fail to develop strong, healthy seedlings. A well-known propagator has said that he would sooner pay twenty-five dollars for a bushel of Red Romanite apple-seed than to have the seed of Yellow Bellflower and Grimes Golden as a gift. Expe- A HORTICULTURAL MANUAL, rience has also shown that the pits of our highly-developed cherries and plums are either entirely abortive or of little value for stocks on account of feeble growth. On the other hand, the pits of the wild cherries of Europe or of our native wild red cherry develop vigorous, strong-grow- ing stocks, and the same is true of the primitive plums of Europe and America. Over all parts of Europe the seeds of the native primi- tive orchard fruits are alone used for stocks. In the States where safe from root-killing these European wild stocks are also prized on account of their uniform and vigorous growth. This has favored the use of French crab-seed, the seed of the small Perry pears of Europe, and the use of the primitive Mazzard and Mahaleb cherry stocks, as well as stocks of the Myrobalan and St. Julien plum. These im- ported primitive stocks are found to develop strong, uni- form seedlings, while those from cider-press seed or from marketable fruits of any kind are weak, uneven, and rela- tively worthless. As the years go on, more attention will be given to gathering our native seeds for propagation where possible; and if imported, let it be from the parts of Europe corresponding in climate most nearly to the differ- ent parts of our Union. For commercial use and transportation such carbonaceous - seeds as apple, pear, quince, and the small fruits require careful drying and storing in a dry room. Freezing will not harm them if kept dry. The conifer seed can also be kept dry until time for planting. The subtropical flower- seeds and fruit-seeds not only require dry storage quarters, but freedom from severe freezing. If kept dry they may germinate, but their vitality will be low if frozen. 5. Seed-stratification.—The practice known as strati- fication by gardeners is simply mixing thoroughly the seeds with sand ina box and burying outside on dry ground, with SEEDS AND SEED-GROWTH. 5 the top about four inches under the earth, where it will freeze solidly if at the north, or be kept moist if at the south. It is practised with hard, bony seeds that. are in- jured or ruined by drying, such as pits of plum, cherry, honey locust, Kentucky coffee-tree, some of the shrubs, and seeds of the small fruits and roses. If well mixed when stratified, it is usual to sow the seed and sand together in the spring. Such nuts as the hazel, filbert, chestnut, acorns, and hickory nuts, it is best to mix with sand and store in a cool cellar, protected by covering from rats and mice. But kept in this way the nuts will usually sprout early in the spring. For this reason we have practised planting when the ground has thawed out three inches deep in the spring. Such nuts as the black walnut, English walnut, and but- ternut are provided by Nature with a covering that holds moisture as it decays. It is best to cover these, as spread out in thin layers in a grove, with forest leaves for early spring planting. Seeds that require to be kept moist should be stratified very soon after gathering, and the pits of the stone fruits should be washed to free them from all traces of pulp, followed by partial drying before mixing with the sand. If not washed and partly or wholly dried, the ad- hering pulp often develops fungus growth that is destruc- tive. If the stone fruits rot in boxes or piles and the pits are washed out and dried, they rarely can be made to ger- minate on account of fungus injury. 6. Soaking and Scalding Seeds.—Dry commercial seeds of the apple and pear are soaked at the North about twelve - hours, just prior to a night of low temperature, during the latter part of winter. The water is then drained off, the seeds mixed with sand and placed outside in shallow boxes to freeze solidly. While frozen the boxes are placed on the north side of a building and covered with straw to 6 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL hold the frost as long as possible. Early in spring they are planted without separating from the sand. At the South the dry seed is soaked for a longer period, with frequent changes of water to prevent fermentation, and they are kept moist until they are planted. But the writer’s observation has favored the belief that this plan does not give as perfect a stand as the one of soaking and freezing practised at the North. The dry small-fruit seed is soaked about the time of planting until most of the seeds change color with frequent changes of water. Some garden-seeds, such as onion and parsnip, are usually soaked before planting to hasten germination, giving less trouble in weeding. But all small seeds—and indeed all seeds—when soaked must be planted in moist earth. When the surface is dry, if the seeds come in contact with dry earth they will dry up and usually fail to germinate. Hard, bony seed, such as honey locust, black locust, Kentucky coffee-tree, and canna, when dry and hard will endure soaking in scalding-hot water without injury if not placed on the stove. When ready to plant they will swell perceptibly and change to a lighter color. The swelled seeds can be sifted out and the dark ones can be re-scalded. Seeds treated in this way must be planted at once in moist earth. In place of scalding, water is often introduced beneath the dry shell of canna and moonflower by filing or boring the hard covering. 7. Fall Planting of Seeds.— Planting some of the bony- shelled seeds in autumn answers well the purpose of strati- fication if properly managed. If planted at proper depth for germination, they are apt to be thrown out by winter and early spring frosts. They are also apt to be eaten by birds, mice, or other vermin, and in spring the soil is baked over them, giving most unfavorable conditions for SEEDS AND SEED-GROWTH. % germination. The writer’s plan has been to plant at usual depth and then mounding a ridge of earth two or three inches deep over the line of each row. This defines the line of row, and in spring, with a pronged hoe, the mound- ing is raked off, leaving a mellow seed-bed. When small seeds, such as those of the grape, raspberry, blackberry, currant, gooseberry, strawberry, and Juneberry, are planted in the fall, the raking off in spring should about reach the seeds. In the relatively dry air of the prairie and arid States the line of row after raking should be covered with boards or mulch until the roots of the delicate seeds start, when the covering is removed. 8. Seed-testing.—Seed-testing indoors is not wholly sat- isfactory, as the conditions are more favorable than in the soil of the open field or garden. The best test for the amateur or commercial planter is probably in quite deep earthen dishes placed in the greenhouse or a warm living- room or kitchen. But the test should be continued until the plantlet shows the true leaves and a system of roots for taking up nutriment from the soil. The simple sprouting of seeds is no satisfactory test of their vitality, as many seeds will sprout that are not capable of forming perfect plants. What is commercially called seed-testing is simply sprouting the samples. The number of seeds that sprout are counted. ‘The experiment stations and seed-dealers have several kinds of apparatus for this use, in which the moisture and temperature are so controlled that a seed with low vitality will sprout feebly that never can develop true leaves or roots. As Bailey says: ‘pt root-cuttings. The cuttings are made four inches long late in autumn and packed away in boxes, mingled with sand, which are kept over winter in the cellar. In planting in early spring the advice is usually given to cut the roots shorter and plant horizontally in shallow trenches; but this applies to root-cuttings in cold frames, or with bottom heat. In planting in the open air long experience has shown the best results and most even stand from planting in a shallow trench with one sloping side, as shown in Fig. 15. MODES AND PRINCIPLES OF PROPAGATION. 45 In filling, the earth is pounded in tightly to firm the cuttings, covering about one inch over the upper end of the root-cutting. Planted in this way the upper buds will push upward and the lower ones will form roots sooner on account of moisture four inches below ane eases . Fie. 15.—Root or other cut- Root-cuttings will usually grow tings planted in trench. if planted wrong end up, but aie, growth is retarded and not as certain as when in natural position. With a lit’l> practice the one who places the cuttings can tell at a glance the top end by the fibres (17). In the South, root-cuttings are usually planted as soo as made, but at the North it is best to start callusing anc bud-development in the cellar. An outdoor dirt-covered cave is best for storage, as the temperature and moisture are better under control. Many of the roses not easy to grow from ripe or green wood cuttings, such as Rosa rugosa and its hybrids, can be grown from root-cuttings. | Where tree-seeds are not easily obtainable, as with the hackberry, trees can usually be grown from root-cuttings. The rose, lilac, juneberry, flowering almond, barberry, and other shrubs do not sucker, but throw out subterranean sprouts from the crown. Cuttings can be made from the subterranean sprouts, which can be treated the same as those made from surface-roots. 51. Rooting Sprouts by Mounding.—If the sprouts or side shoots of cultivated trees or shrubs are cut back quite low in early spring an additional number of succulent sprouts will spring up. If these are carefully mounded the excitable young growth will soon root and can be 46 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL detached the next spring. The Paradise apple stocks are usually propagated in this way, as shown in Fig. 16. Roses and many of the shrubs can be cut back in this way and propagated rapidly by mounding. But the mounding of the tender shoots must be gradual and with care, with fine earth that will not injure the tender growth. At the North the rooted plants must be separated in the fall and wintered in pit or cellar or by quite deep burying outside Fie. 16.—Mounding of paradise apple and shrubs to secure rooting of the shoots. on dry ground. Even rooted shoots of plants as hardy as the gooseberry, mock orange, and bush honeysuckle are apt to be injured or killed the first winter after mounding if not cared for as indicated. If mounded shoots do not form roots the first summer they will not fail to make roots the second or third year. But a large number of cultivated plants root the first season. 52. Summer Layering.—This is a method of division effected by bending down and covering shoots at about the completion of spring growth. Usually summer layering is confined to the shoots of the same season’s growth. The old plan was to slit the shoot at the point of burial in the soil, as shown in Fig. 17. _But a better method with young shoots liable to break is to twist the shoot at the point of burial. Sévere twist- MODES AND PRINCIPLES OF PROPAGATION. 47° ing does not break the shoot and the cell injury starts the process of healing sooner than by slitting. Fie. 17.—Layered branch split to favor root formation. (After Goff.) 2% ae, v4 YY ee / one Casa IO AN ee OSIM eo ne é SS SY i ONG Se ho (oats ais Ne eG Ry Fi WE, % SN ee Re la RG | he Ce SO Mnegl tf) Gi > ~~ isd had bp & = ly SE fa Sg foe a “2 oie ay b WY En 4 he “5 De sean as any VM onan? STINE om) 2 = => g —— Sern ad — Aut A 7 eats ee ee . et eae (After Bailey.) Summer layered shoots of a shrub are shown in Fig. 18. The figure does not show the pegging down. If not 48 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL fastened down before covering with earth the spring of the branch and wind are apt to draw it gradually from its position before rooting. Very many trees and shrubs can be layered in this way, but some of them, such as cherry, plum, and birch, will require two or three years. The layer being attached to the mother plant is able to retain life and growth while the covered and injured part is getting ready to emit roots. In the South the rose and other shrubs are often layered in the air in pots, as showa at Fig. 19. eee Ay Anny; ny So pe NOS ! ae sun shines by moving sash is essential and watering must not be neglected. Fig. 29 shows the frame covered with lath for shading. woe 4 _ Fie. 29.—Hot-bed frame, covered with lath frame later in the season, 66. Preparing and Setting Green Cuttings.—Cuttings of most herbaceous house and greenhouse plants are made from the soft growing tips that will snap off when bent at the point where roots are to form. While a bud at the base is no disadvantage, and may be a gain, no attention is paid to this in practice. If too much leafage, a part is cut away. They are stuck deep enough in the bench sand to hold them erect. Cuttings are also rooted of such shrubs as weigelia, roses, hardy hydrangea, and lilacs. With such plants the cut- ting is made with a bud at the base and a large part of the leafage is cut away. It is found best also to use the small side shoots that can be cut off so as to leave a little ring of half-ripened wood at the base. In preparing these slips a very sharp knife should be used and they should be prepared in shady quarters and stuck about as rapidly as prepared. Fig. 30 shows a rose and hydrangea cutting 62 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. with the leaves cut off or divided. If quite pure fresh- water stream sand is used with needed bottom drainage, there is little danger of using too much water, as such sand will only retain a certain amount. As soon as roots have pushed an inch into the sand the cuttings should be potted in good soil. Fie. 30.—A, rose cutting ; B, hardy hydrangea cutting. 67. Need of Buds in Plant Division.—The beginner in this interesting work will find some curious confirmation of the theory that leaf buds are essential to root and top growth. As an example, a leaf of some plants will root in the cutting-bench from the stem cut above the axillary bud. After rooting the leaf will increase in size and thickness and continue to live for years. A leaf of wax plant (Hoya carnosa) will throw out roots and at the end PROPAGATION BY INARCHING. 63 of six years it will be only a leaf enlarged and much thick- ened. It makes no further growth, as there isno bud from which a plant can extend upward. Butif the leaf is cut so as to include the bud in the axil we soon have roots and plant growth. ; Again, if we make a dahlia cutting without a bud at the base we can develop a flowering plant with supporting roots, but we find no tubers below. In this case we have buds for upward growth, but no bud below for tuber formation. Still again, if we root the stem of a gloxinia leaf it will continue to grow as a leaf like the Hoya carnosa, but it will develop at the lower end of the petiole a small tuber, which can be dried off, planted, and it will produce a per- fect plant. . On the same principle, if the crown buds of the tubers of dahlia, peony, or rhubarb are broken or cut off we will have root enlargement and growth below the ground, but they will perish after a longer or shorter period, as they cannot develop buds for upward growth. On the other hand, we have tubers like the potato that have eyes or buds for growth at many points, and we have leaves, like the rex begonia, that when pegged down on moist sand of the cutting-bench will develop buds and make root and top growth at every point where wounded, as shown in Fig. 31. 68. Division of Perennials, Tubers, and Rootstalks.— | About all the perennial flowers and garden plants, such as perennial phlox, hemerocallis, funkia, fraxinella, and pie-plant, may be divided by separations, including a bud at the top of each section. In some cases even biennials may be perpetuated by division. As an instance, the double hollyhock flowers the second year from the seed and the year following, when the plants die. But if the fleshy roots are divided after the second year’s flowering 64 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. with a sharp knife, so as to leave a bud at top of each piece, a new lease of life is given. The writer has retained a Mi Mag fe Uf MPG Tig: LLU TUG hy ie WM Fie. 31.—Rex Begonia leaf rooting in sand. (After Bailey.) Fia. 32.—Divided canna stool. (After Bailey.) favorite variety by division a number of years. Such tubers as the dahlia and peony are propagated by division, cutting so as to leave a bud at top of each section. This is true also of such rootstalk species as lily-of-the-valley PROPAGATION BY INARCHING. 65 and canna by making as many divisions as there are buds, or rather separate crowns, as shown in Fig. 32. Some of the scaly-bulbed lilies can also be divided and yet remain strong for flowering if separated in sections as indicated by the bulb, as shown in Fig. 33. As to the time most favorable for division, at the North the spring is the best period for separating hardy perennials, as it is the period of starting growth. But in mild climates the work is usually done in winter or very early spring. But we have many kinds of bulbous or tuberous plants that make all their growth early in spring Wi Fie. 33.—Lily bulb show- ing sectiens for divi- sion. and rest in summer, such as the narcissus, hyacinth, tulip, dicentra, and perennial poppy. In such cases the division follows the ripening of the foliage. With tubers and rootstalks, such as the dahlia and cauna, the season for division is in the dormant peniod in aucumn, or prior to time of planting in the spring. ' CHAPTER VII. PROPAGATION BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 69. Propagation by Budding.—In some cases the leaf- bud is so perfectly developed that it drops to the ground, where, if the conditions are favorable, it takes root and develops a perfect plant. At the North the tiger lily furnishes a good example, as the buds can be picked from the leaf-axils and will grow if planted like seeds. In favorable climates, or under glass, single eye or bud cuttings with a little wood attached are planted and develop perfect plants. The grape is propagated in this way, especially new varieties where it is desirable to mtilize every bud. But the fruits mainly, and the useful ligneous plants, are not so easy to propagate, as the buds must be planted under the bark of a nearly allied species or variety. 70. Some of the Purposes of Budding.—Aside from the perpetuation and multiplication of given varieties the pur- poses of budding are manifold. Not the least one in Europe is the working of highly developed fruit and flower varieties on hardy robust stocks. Another main object with commercial propagators is the more rapid propaga- tion of new and scarce varieties, as every perfect bud may make a salable plant by budding on cheap commercial stocks. In section (45) some of the evils of using a given stock for varied climates and soils are stated. In this country the almost exclusive use of imported fruit stocks 66 PROPAGATION BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 67 and stock seeds has led to much criticism of the system, especially in the use of west European apple, pear, and cherry stocks and fruit-stock seeds. 71. Some Native Stocks that Should be Used.—In all parts of Europe primitive wild fruit-tree species are found nearly allied to the cultivated varieties, and their seeds are utilized for stock-growing as found in different localities. In this country we are blessed with several species of native plum, which by selection have given us a number of valuable varieties for cultivation in orchards, and in addi- tion all develop strong vigorous stocks from their pits. It has been urged by propagators that our native plum stocks do not, when budded, develop as strong and numerous a system of roots as the imported Myrobalan and St. Julien stocks. If our plum seedlings are budded in the rows where they grew from the pits this statement is true. But if taken up and later transplanted as we handle the im- ported stocks, the natives will give the strongest system of roots to the budded trees. With the cherry we are also provided with a vigorous stock, safe from root-killing in all parts of the Union. The seedlings of our wild red cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica) are peculiarly strong and vigor- ous, and all varieties of our cultivated cherries form a good union with its wood. The pits of this native species should be utilized for budding stocks, especially in the North, where the imported stocks often are killed in open winters. In the handling of this stock it seems to be necessary to success in budding to plant the pits very thickly, so the growth will be small the first season. They should be taken up and handled like small Mahaleb stocks for spring planting. If grown thinly on fairly rich grounds the - seedlings are too large for profitable use in this way or any other. Another essential is budding later in the season than is 68 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL usual with the Mahaleb. As to the apple we have no nearly allied native species for use as stocks, as practice has shown that the cultivated varieties do not make a good union with any species of our native apple. But in the Northwest, where common seedling stocks are liable to root-killing, the use of the Siberian cherry crab is promising, as the union by budding seems to be good, especially with the hardy northern varieties. The use of Siberian stocks for budding has solved the question of root-killing in the northern apple-growing regions of Russia. We also have at the North hardy prepotent varie- ties of the apple, such as Duchess, Hibernal, and Anis, the seeds of which develop strong, hardy seedlings which may be used for stocks. Farther south, as noted in sec- tion 4, vigorous hardy seedlings can be grown from small apples, such as Gilpin, Milam, and small seedling varie- ties, while the imperfect seeds of commercial apple culls sent to the cider-press should be avoided in stock-growing. 72. Summer-budding.— What is known as summer- budding is now employed on a mammoth scale in the larger nurseries in the propagation of frnit-trees, orna- mental trees, roses, and many shrubs. The work at the North is done at the close of the spring season of growth with buds cut as used that are mature. The intention is to secure the union of the buds without growth the first season. If inserted too early on vigorous growing stocks, the buds are often overgrown, and there is danger of starting a soft growth that will perish the next winter. In waiting for the best time a brief dry period may tighten the bark. In this case the dirt is scraped aside and the buds are inserted lower down where the bark separates later in the season. At the West this very low budding is ‘most satisfactory, as when set in orchards four or five inches deeper than they stood in nursery the point of PROPAGATION BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 69 union is buried. If the stock is not entirely hardy the low setting is a great gain. A good rule for summer-budding at the North is to Fie. 34. Fie. 35. Fia. 36. Fia. 87. Fig. 34.—Shoot containing Buds. The white spaces about the buds indicate the amount of bark to be cut off with the bud. The shoot is inverted for cutting the buds. Fig. 35.—Bud partially inserted between the lips of the stock. Fig. 36.—Bud inserted and tied. Fig. 37.—Bud cut off, ready for insertion. (All after Bailey.) commence work when the terminal bud of the stocks begins to form. As this period is variable with the differ- ent species it lengthens the budding season. It is usual at the North to bud plum stocks in early July, and apple 70 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. and pear as late as the last days of August and first days of September. 73. How to Cut and Insert Buds.—What is known as the T or shield bud is used almost exclusively in the United States and Canada. The buds, as shown in Fig. 37, are cut from the new wood of the same season’s growth. The shoots cut from the variety we wish to propagate are called ‘‘ bud sticks.” As cut the leaves are clipped off, leaving a short stub, as shown in Fig. 34, to handle the bud with when inserting. If taken in the fingers the tender cut surface is injured. In using, the bud sticks are kept wrapped in a moist cloth, whence they are taken one at a time as used. In making the T cut a smooth surface is selected on the north side of the stock. The downward slit is first made. In making the cross-cut slope the knife downward, as shown in Fig. 39. This slope aids in shoving the bud quickly under the bark. To prevent moisture getting in at the top cut the bud with the longest part above. . Shove it down to place and cut ~) off the upper part so as to join the slope of the stock. The Wie, BA Cutting tho Boa mode of tying is shown at Fig. with inverted scion. 36. The material used for tying is a palm fibre from Madagascar, known commercially as ‘‘ Raffia.” For use it is slightly moistened, but not made wet. If used wet it will loosen when dry. In cutting the buds from the bud-stick, the novice usually cuts too shallow and splits the bark at each end. In cutting, invert the bud-stick as shown in Fig. 38. From start to finish keep the knife down, taking with the bark a thin shaving PROPAGATION BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING. vel of wood. A large part of the success in budding depends on the ability of the operator to keep a smooth, sharp- edged budding knife. i\ m7 ci | Fie. 39.— Downward slope in making the T cut, 74, Budding the Same Season the Pits are Planted.— The pits of our native plums are often planted very early in spring quite thinly, given good cultivation, and are budded quite late the same season. These young, excit- able seedlings continue growth late and the bark can be raised two weeks after the usual season of plum-budding The stocks, rather small above the ground, can be budded an inch below the surface where the size is larger. The seedlings of wild red cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica) can in like manner be budded late the same season the pits are planted. It is the same with the peach, and in the South it is now the usual commercial method. But it is necessary, to secure good roots on seedling stocks budded without transplanting, to cut the tap-roots with a spade or to run a side-cut tree-digger under the rows. 75. After Care of Summer Buds.—A few days after the buds are inserted the growth of the stocks above.and below 72 HORTICULTCRAL MANUAL. the ligature begins to be observed. With a sharp knife the raffia fibre is cut on the side opposite to the bud. With the stone fruits it is necessary to retie above the bud. If this is not done the bark below the cross-cut will roll outward, often causing the death of the bud before spring. j In late fall at the North it is safest to bank up the stocks above the bud with the plow for winter protection, finishing the irregulari- ties with a hoe. Quite early in spring the banking is raked down and the top cut off so as to leave a ring of bark above the cross-cut. If cut too low the upper part of the bud is apt to be dried up and often the whole bud. Some propagators cut so as to leave a stub, as shown in Fig. 40, to which the growing shoot is tied to keep it erect. Others cut four inches above the bud at first, and then, after the bud has made some growth, cut so as to leave a ring of bark as above stated. But _long experience has shown that it is best to cut by sloping the cut upward from Fie. 40. 5: Stub above the cross-cut. On well-established left for tying stocks the growth from the bud is often rae young go strong, especially with the plum, that ote staking is necessary to give an_ erect growth. Thesmall stakes if cared for can be used several years in succession. 76. June Budding.—W hat is known as June budding at the South gives salable trees of the peach and other trees the first season from three to five feet in height. The budding is done about the middle to the last of. June on stocks grown from the pits planted in very early spring. PROPAGATION BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 73 The buds are inserted somewhat higher than usual and the bract leaves are left on the stock below the bud-inser- tion. As soon as the bud is inserted a part of the top is cut back. In eight or ten days the tying is cut and the top cut back, but a stub is left, as shown in Fig. 40, to which the growing shoot is tied. In this Southern method the bud-sticks are cut as wanted, as in August-budding at the North, where growth is not wanted until the next spring. At the North, spring-budding is done on established stocks one or two years old, using dormant bud-sticks cut the previous autumn or winter. They are kept dormant until the bark peels well by covering with sawdust over ice. The buds are inserted somewhat higher than usual, leaving the bract leaves on below. In cutting the bud is left longer than usual above. After shoving to place the extra length is cut off at the cross-cut of the T. The top is cut back in part when the budding is done, and when the tying is cut still more is taken off, leaving quite a long stub with leaves, on to which the growing shoot is tied. Trees three to four feet high well branched are grown in this way the season the buds are put in. In top-working trees set the preceding year in orchard, this plan gives growth the same season. Where the citrus fruits are grown, bearing seedling trees are budded in this way by cutting back the tops early the previous season, developing new shoots in which the buds are inserted. In the propagation of species on which the young shoots are very small, the buds are cut from two-year-old wood in spring-budding. This is done usually with the cut-leaved birch, leaving a long spur clothed with leaves at first, to which the growing shoot from the bud is tied to keep it erect. 77. Ring-budding.—This old European mode of bud- 74 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL ding is coming into use in this country in changing the top of mulberry, fig, walnut, chestnut, and oak. A ring of bark two inches long is peeled from the stock and thrown away. A similar ring is peeled from the variety wanted and fitted in the opening. To get a fit, it is usual to cut the ring to be fitted from a shoot a little . larger than the stock and then paring with a sharp knife. The top is not cut back the same season. When cut back in the dor- maut period the cut surface is waxed. The buds on the inserted ring make vigorous growth the next season. Fig. 41 shows the ring when replaced on the stock. While uniting it is safest to bind moist clay over the whole surface ofthe ring. In this way the writer has known the chestnut to be budded on white oak and the lilac on green ash. 78. Grafting.—There is no essential difference in prin- ciple between budding and grafting. In both cases the bud of the variety we wish to propagate is united to the stock from which it develops growth. But in grafting we usually use more than one bud attached to the wood on which they grew. A main difference in favor of grafting is that it can be used on a greater number of species in the dormant period, while budding is confined to the season when the bark will peel. Many modes of grafting are used by amateurs, especially in Europe, but aside from those described in this chapter they have no prac- tical value except with the curious in special cases. A number of machines and appliances have been in- vented and patented for grafting, but in practice, so far as known to the writer, the hand work gives the safest and surest results. As in budding-all methods of grafting are Ring-budding. PROPAGATION BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING. re) used to perpetuate varieties which cannot be profitably grown from cuttings of new wood or roots, or by division. 79. Limits of Grafting.—As in budding, the possible limits are not yet known. Asa rule, close botanic affinity must exist betwéen stock and scion, such as apple upon apple, pear upon pear, and plum upon plum, etc. But this rule is not wholly adhered to in practice. As an instance, in order to secure a dwarfed growth and earlier bearing, certain varieties of the pear are worked on quince roots. Also to secure a dwarfed habit and earlier bearing, certain varieties of the plum are worked on sand cherry (Prunus pumila) stocks. As to the need of both budding and grafting, it happens that budding will succeed often on stocks not wholly congenial where grafting fails to secure a good union. As an instance, the uncolored juiced varieties of the cherry seem to-unite well with the wood of Mahaleb-cherry stocks. On the other hand, grafting seems to give a poor union and usually the scions fail to grow. Again, the cultivated apples. seem to make a good union with stocks of the cherry crab (Pyrus baccata) by budding, while the root grafts usually fail to grow, and when they start growth the union is far from perfect. 80. Cutting and Packing Scions.—The new wood of the preceding year’s growth is usually used in grafting. In mild climate the new wood or scions are cut as used, or at least before starting of the buds. But at the North, especially west of the lakes, scions are cut late in autumn, tied up in bundles with the bases evened, and packed away in rather dry moss or forest leaves. Packed away in a box with dry leaves and kept in the cellar they m&y show a slight shrivelling of the bark when used in late winter. But in practice the relatively dry scion is more certain to make a good union and growth than those kept so moist that they show a callusing process at their base. If kept 76 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. too wet the young wood will absorb water enough to change the cell starch to sugar water to some extent. In spring top-working in the orchard scions that seem a little dry will unite and grow, while those that show a callus at the base will fail. If designed for top-working in the spring, or for spring-budding, it is best toward spring to bury them in the sawdust on top of the ice in an ice-house. 81. Taking Up and Packing the Stocks.—If grown at home the apple, plum, cherry, and other stocks should stand in nursery as late in autumn as possible, and after taking up they should be heeled in on dry ground outside, with some straw over the tops to still more perfectly ripen the roots. As cold weather comes on at the North they are stored in the cellar without cutting back the tops, as perfectly ripened roots are essential to the most perfect success in root- or crown-grafting in the graft-room. In storing the stocks they are ranked up in a corner of the cellar with earth or sand between the layers of roots. If the seedlings or stocks are ordered, explicit instructions should be given as to the taking up and handling. If taken up too early and the tops cut back for shipment the faulty handling can be detected at once, after some experi- ence, by inspection of the roots. Imported stocks are usually well ripened, as the growers know by experience that imperfectly ripened stocks will not stand the long transportation and that they will arrive in poor condition. 82. Short Roots and Long Scions.—Much has been said and written during recent years in regard to piece roots and whole roots in apple-root grafting. As noted (47) many of the commercial stocks used are not hardy in some parts of the Union. In mild climates the use of the whoie root, or at least the upper part of the seedling root, will give stronger growth the first year the root-grafts are set in nursery. But experience has shown that when a given PROPAGATION BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING. vai variety is grown from a cutting, or a cutting grafted on a very short piece of root to favor starting growth, the trees are as thrifty and long lived as when grown by budding or grafting on a whole root. Where tender roots are liable to root-killing, as in the prairie States, there is a great gain in using a scion eight inches long on a piece of root two or three inches long. Such root-grafts set in nursery down to the top bud usually-root from the scion in the nursery rows, and if they fail to do so they will root when set fovr or five inches deeper in orchard. With the apple ordinary seedling-roots give on an average two to three sections for grafting. But with the pear, cherry, and plum, only the upper part of the seedling is used and the scion is inserted at the crown. 83. Grafting-wax for Varied Uses—The most useful grafting-wax for varied uses is known as ‘‘ French mastic” or Lefort’s liquid grafting-wax. For a long period the composition of this wax was a trade secret in Europe and America. It is made by melting one pound of white resin slowly. When hot add one ounce of beef-tallow. When melted take away from the fire and add slowly, with constant stir ing, one tablespoonful of turpentine and five ounces of alcohol. During recent years we have used wood alcohol, which seems to answer the purpose well where alcohol is not readily obtainable in the prohibition States. . The liquid wax is used for all indoor grafting and can be used for top-grafting in the open air if a strip of white cotton cloth is wrapped over it while yet soft to prevent melting or cracking. In indoor and outdoor grafting it works best by keeping it soft by the flame of a small kero- sene lamp under the dish. The dish is set over an open- ing in the top of a small iron box with a door in the side for setting in and caring for the small lamp. The finger 78 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. does the work of crowding the wax into the cavities best and does away with the danger of getting the wax too hot. In the South, a favorite grafting-wax for outdoor use is made from resin, pitch, tallow, and red ochre. ‘The pro- portions are three pounds white resin, one and one-half pounds of pitch, and eight ounces of tallow. The tallow is melted separately and poured into the hot resin and pitch slowly with constant stirring. While yet hot, add the ochre slowly by stirring. This mixture is worked by the hands before using like the old-fashioned grafting- wax. It also needs the warming stove under to keep it soft enough for use. The wax used for the winding thread in root-grafting is made by melting six parts white resin, two parts beeswax, and one part of tallow, with enough wood alcohol to make ‘the mixture about like syrup when in a warm room. The use of linseed oil in making grafting-wax is now abandoned, mainly on account of its modern adulterations or processes of manufacture. 84. Root-grafting the Apple—The now common plan of root-grafting the apple is by the method known as tongue- or whip-grafting. It is easier and simpler than other methods, and no waxing seems needed. If corre- sponding sloping cuts are made on root and scion, and the inner bark of the two are united and wound, the union will take place with common care. But this plan is troublesome, as it is difficult to hold the parts together while winding with the waxed thread. Hence as a matter of convenience a small tongue is cut on the sloping sur- faces. When shoved together the tongue holds the parts quite firmly until wound. Fig. 42 shows the sloping cuts with tongue and as joined together ready for tying. ' The essentials are a smooth cut with a sharp, thin-bladed knife, the union of the inner bark on at least one side of PROPAGATION BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 79 scion and root, and firm tying to hold the parts Seer tightly. The tying is done with waxed thread that vill stick without tying when the winding is completed. The common plan of waxing the thread is to immerse the balls of cotton yarn (No. 18 or 20) in hot wax (83) until well satu- rated. But this plan gives trouble. The wax is unevenly distributed and the end is frequently lost. A better plan is to run the thread through melted wax by winding it on an im- provised reel. To take off the sur- plus wax the thread as it leaves the wax passes through a piece of folded il sheep skin with the wool on that Fie. 42.—Whip-grafting returns the surplus to the dish. the apple. This gives evenly waxed thread and saves much time in graft-winding. 85. Packing Away the Grafts—wWhile grafting and winding keep the grafts as finished under a damp cloth. In packing set the box on end as shown in Fig. 43, A layer of sandy earth is followed by a layer of grafts until the box is full. In filling, the grafts are kept pressed down tightly. This pien is followed with all root- and crown-grafts. The storing of the packed boxes of grafts in a common cellar subjects them to changing conditions of air as to heat and moisture and often develops what is known as the graft-box fungus. The best quarters for storing the grafts is in a dirt-covered cave. During winter and early spring the cave is kept col by opening early in the eve- ning and keeping it closed during the day. If the air at 80 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. times is several degrees below freezing the earth-packed " grafts will not be harmed. To avoid disease, and to keep the grafts dormant until planting-time, the cave must be kept as cool as possible. The writer has had graft-boxes frozen up. solidly for a period of over one month and Fie. 48.—Box set on end for packing root -grafts, secured a better stand in nursery than we have ever known with grafts kept in a warm cellar. 86. Crown-grafting Pear, Plum, and Cherry.—These fruits are not as certain to unite as the apple in grafting unless additional care is taken. The common plan of indoor grafting is by wedge and side-uniting, as shown in Fig. 44. This plan gives uniting cell-surface on both sides of the scion. The grafts are inserted in the crown PROPAGATION BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 81 and only one graft is made from each seedling. They are ‘tied and waxed, as shown in the figure, with the liquid grafting-wax (83). In making the wedge it is desirable to cut both sides the same thickness. If the slope is made thickest on the outer edge the pressure at the bark and Fic. 44.—Side-grafting plum, cherry, and pear. c: 27')ium layer is not favorable to the union. In making a crue side cut in the crown of the stock it must be held iu some way firmly. ) an © eRe gee eee ae we Sea gG ees, 2B ais « “oe = Ss OS Boye odG H's 2 w gs egg Se 2 ee Be. © z foi i 2g ee a eae S mS tee ee ee Ree Oe ae 5) >) Oo BH HO 8 eh OARS SHR EE SoS 8 ae s i ee St ln a RP CR BSH By gate a) og ee a0 o or S Bow a = ero eis Pings O:o 45 ee eg ae eee ma Do Yv"o > bo s ose ae Retell iago 3 Be hog Sa Gg 2 9) OBR +S O rs) D fe ge a She 2 ® 5 Se eS ep aoe Se SS Hop & H ea: ina] S 2 me 4 So Oss ovr Ss ~aadit oa g Ham oq 2 SoS See a ae eS ae } A 2 I nm ee S . \ iy \ — > 2 “ AA ARE? f bf NY ao 2 \ SANS BAN SANE ee g 222 ANS "3 SEYRET ERR 6 BAER f= |'3 m >) AN NY: ne ‘ ‘ \ y a & Os wr. = 8 aS a -* Fy ° PROPAGATION BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 91 waxed and then the whole is covered with burlap or old cloth. After a few years such a bridged stem gives an odd appearance, as is shown by Fig. 52, as given in the Rural New Yorker by Mt. Leroy Whitford. 94. Bark-grafting.—This grafting is done after the bark begins to peel in early spring when the leaves begin to start. The stock is cut back as in cleft- , grafting, but no cleft is made. The bark is slit downward in two or three places as shown in Fig. 53. The scion is cut at lower end into a thin wedge with a notch on top that rests on the top of the stub when the wedge is shoved down to place. The scions do not need tying in our climate, if, after waxing, the surface is covered by winding with a cotton strip. If tied under the wax the string is liable | to do injury as the size of the stock and Fie. 53.—Scions in- scion’ increases. As growth is secured ‘erted under the the same season this is a certain method of working small and large stocks of several species. Where limbs have been broken on fruit and ornamental trees the writer has inserted bark grafts that soon repaired the injury. 95. Soft-tissue Grafting.— Wedge- and cleft-grafting are used in many instructive ways with tubers that have lost their crown-buds, and in grafting one species of cactus on another, and in grafting very many greenhouse- and house-plants. It is often curious, if not profitable, to see two varieties of herbaceous plants upon the same roots. It is easy to graft the finest flowering species of cactus on common stocks, as shown in Fig. 54, where the parts are held together with a pin, but we have found it best to 92 [ HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. cover the wounded parts with waxed paper. Peonia tubers Fie. 54. Cleft - grafting of cactus. in this way. that have lost the crown-buds can be grafted in the same way; also the dahlia tubers, the fleshy roots of the hollyhock, ipomea, and other fleshy roots. It is also quite possible to unite two fruits of the same species when in a growing condition and both connected with the parent tree. One-half of each is cut away and the two halves left are neatly joined and covered with a sack of oiled paper. Under glass it is easy to unite the fruits of tomatoes, cucumbers, and squashes Such work only has value in the way of illustrating the principles of grafting CHAPTER VIII. SOME LEADING PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING AND DEVELOPMENT. 96. Selection of Soil and Subsoil— Where possible the location of the home grounds, orchard, and nursery should be determined largely by the character of the soil and subsoil. Orchard trees, small fruits, ornamental trees, and shrubs thrive best and live longest on fairly rich soils with porous subsoil to a depth of at least twenty feet. In all parts of the Union we find decided variations in soil and subsoil in the same vicinity or even on the same farm. The porous subsoil permits the ascent of moisture from below in a dry time and favors the descent of surplus water in a wet period. It also favors a deeper root system less affected by the heat of summer and the cold of winter. This does not mean that fruits of some varieties and species cannot be grown for home use on almost any soil or subsoil with the help in some places of tile-draining, irrigation, fertilizing, or other aids. But fruit-growing, or fruit-tree growing for profit, gives best results with least expenditure on soils and subsoils well fitted by nature for conserving soil-moisture. 97. Air-drainage.—During recent years the word “ Air- drainage” as applied to home and orchard sites has come into general use. Even in California the ‘‘ mesa ” or hill- slope lands are now in demand for growing the citrus and 93 94 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. . most other orchard fruits. As the years go on it is found that the hill orchards in Michigan, Georgia, Missouri, Towa, and indeed about all the States, are most productive, the trees most perfect, and the fruit commands best prices in market. The superior adaptation of orchard fruits to such sites do not all arise from free air-circulation and the descent of frosts, fogs, and vapors to lower levels. The mechanical condition and color of the soil have usually something to do with it and relative exemption from frost is not the least advantage in the blossoming period. In the prairie States a ridge only ten feet above the general level usually escapes ruinous frosts when the blossoms on the general level are killed. During still nights, when frosts at this season are most to be feared, an elevation of only ten feet on the prairies will show a temperature several degrees higher than the level where the cold air settles. 98. North and South Slopes.—In our relatively sunny and hot sections where dent corn ripens, and melons can be perfected in the open air, the direction of the slope is more important than in cooler and more humid climates. The temperate-zone orchard fruits will not endure without injury such heated soil and air as the grape or melon, hence the talk about cover-crops to cool the soil and north slopes to avoid the direct rays of the sun. In the dent- corn belts of the prairie States in the early days, the north slopes of ridges and drift moraines had thrifty thickets of wild plum, crab-apple, gooseberry, wild currant, and other ligneous growth never found on the south slopes. In like manner we now find our thriftiest and best bearing orchards of apple, pear, plum, and cherry on the north slopes. This is specially true of the bluff areas near our streams where the north slopes are more decided. Yet toa large extent this is a subject for local study. PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING AND DEVELOPMENT. 95 In very many cases in mild climmtes not remote from the sea or large water areas those who wish to grow high- colored and early fruits will select a south or southeast slope and a warm soil. Very much depends on the locality and the species grown. The grape, peach, and citrus fruits love the heat and no practical grower will plant them in preference on a decided north slope, and the same is true of sub-tropical flowers and such fruits as the tomato, melon, egg-plant, and all sub-tropical fruits. 92, Orchard Protection.—-This also is a question for local study. Over large sections of the country a tree shelter on the south is desirable, as the violent winds come from that quarter at the period when orchard fruits are maturing. But on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts wind- breaks are often desirable, as a protection from ocean winds and storms. In Minnesota and the extreme northwest part of the plains east of the Rocky Mountains, the con- sensus of opinion of fruit-growers is in favor of protection on the north and west. But in south Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and parts of Missouri, a southerly tree protection is favored to protect in part from the hot winds from the southwest, and the storms from the Gulf that often cause the premature dropping of the fruit. Over this region protection on the north is a disadvantage, as it checks the free air-circulation needed in summer, and favors starting sap-circulation in winter, leading to sun- scald of the stems on the south side and in the forks. Close shelter also increases the liability to damaging frosts during the blossoming period and increases the liability to fire blight. But in all parts where large orchards are planted in rows running from north to south all the pro- tection needed is given by the extended fruit-plantation itself. The north and south circulation between the rows is needed in summer and winter. 96 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. Over the comparatively level surface of the whole Missis- sippi valley the small fruits, such as strawberry, raspberry, and blackberry, are materially benefited by tree-shelter on the south and west to lessen evaporation from the drying winds prevalent during the summer from these points. With such protection less trouble is experienced from fungus attacks of leaf and bark and more even and perfect development of the fruit is secured. 100. Retarding the Blossoming Period.—The belief is quite general that quite heavy mulching of the roots of orchard trees when the ground is deeply frozen will retard the blossoming period. Repeated trials at the experiment stations and by private orchardists have demonstrated the fact that this belief has no foundation. The flowers and leafage are started in spring by the temperature of the air. If we draw a branch of the grape or other climber through a hole into a greenhouse or warm room it will soon develop blossoms and leaves when its roots are encased in frozen earth and the temperature is that of winter outside. For this reason the retention of frost in the soil will not retard the period of flowering a single hour. This is true also of shrubs, vines, and all ligneous plants with tops exposed to the air. But straw- berry-plants, grapes, climbing roses, and, indeed, any growth laid down and covered with earth or litter, will be retarded in blossoming several days. The principle involved is that the bursting-time of flowers and leaves depends on local’ stores of nutriment stored in the cell-structure, and to some extent it is inde- pendent: of root action. But the roots usually are not frozen at the season of blossoming even when encased in frozen ground. Moisture really ascends to the top when the air-temperature is warm enough to start top-growth; that is, enough moisture to expand the flowers and start PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING AND DEVELOPMENT. 97 leafage. But it often happens where a heavy mulching is covered over the deeply frozen earth in which the feeding- roots are held that the full supply of water and. plant-food is not carried to the top in time for healthy growth. In rare cases we have known the imperfectly supplied leaves and starting shoots to be injured by sun and wind and the vitality of the trees and bushes permanently lowered. Indeed, in one case reported by G. P. Peffer, of Wisconsin, bearing apple-trees were killed in this way. 101. Washing of Orchard Soils.— As each year the selection of hill and slope land for orchard sites is becom- ing more general, the washing and gullying of such soils under cultivation becomes an important subject for con- sideration. If the slope is quite decided the finer particles of soil are soon carried to lower levels and the storms and showers run off too quickly for penetration to the tree- roots. In such older States as Virginia, Massachusetts, and New York, the hill soils under culture in many cases are already ruined by the washing process. In south France tens of thousands of acres once covered with orange-, grape-, and other fruit-plantations were ruined by washing to such extent that the lands were abandoned for many years. At this time they are mainly restored by levelling, fertilizing, and a system of planting by running the rows and cultivating at right angles with the slope of the hills. In that region the rows and culture often run around the circular hills) Hence the common name of “* zone-planting.” With the rows planted at right angles to the slope and the culture between the rows given in the same direction, a ridge is soon formed in the line of the rows that helps to hold the water. If the slope is quite steep the space between the trees in the row is planted with small fruits, and in south France usually with filberts to strengthen 98 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. the bank by root-growth. By this plan the rows may be circular and varied in direction, but it does not seriously interfere with culture or the gathering of the fruit. Where the plan has been tried in Kansas, Missouri, and other States, it has been found that it not only conserves Fig. 55.—A gully in best orchard soils. moisture by giving time for rains and melted snow to settle downward, but mainly stops the washing and gullying. As a rule, the best orchard soils are most subject to deep gullying. On the loess soils of west Iowa, Tennessee, Georgia, Missouri, and other States, old cultivated fields are now eroded and gullied, as shown in Fig. 55, as given in “*The Soils of Tennessee.” The upper slope shown was the surface of a field ten years ago. After a gully PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING AND DEVELOPMENT. 99 was started each heavy rain deepened it on account of the natural porosity of the soil and subsoil. On the start the water that centred in the gully might easily have been divided and scattered. Or had a zone system of culture been given, with fruit-trees or other crops, the whole sur- face would have been retained. The figure only shows one gully, but the visitor to the old plantation hill lands of Georgia will find a succéssion of such deep gullies on many fields once productive. 102. Variety Modifications—A common popular belief is that a given variety of the cultivated fruits does not vary in tree or fruit. But the close observer will find in every orchard-row planted with a given nursery variety that no two individual trees are exactly alike in tree and fruit. In every row of orchard or small fruits can be found one tree or plant that year after year is better in tree and fruit than the others. Those who have not made a study of the subject may conclude that the evident variation comes from the stock on which the tree or bush was grafted or budded, the soil at that point, or other natural cause. But when we propagate this superior tree or plant we find a duplica- tion to great extent of this individual variation. The truth is that our cultivated fruits vary in individual trees of a variety as much, or more, than a row of elms or maples. Some of our propagators and fruit-growers are now cutting scions and buds from selected individual trees and shrubs, and we have reason to believe that it will do much-to advance horticulture. In some cases the varia- tion of an individual tree is sufficient to class it as a dis- tinct variety. As an instance, in a row of Fameuse apple, the writer observed one tree that bore year after year distinctly striped fruit. In other respects it was in quality 100 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL and texture of flesh a true Fameuse. This is now known as the Striped Fameuse. ; 108. Crossing and Hybridizing.—The florists have not neglected the interesting and profitable work of crossing and hybridizing. Indeed, by crossing and selection a large part of our beautiful flowers and flowering shrubs have been developed. But aside from the noble work of Luther Burbank, of California, little has yet been done in this country in improving the orchard fruits by crossing. This does not come from the difficulty of performing the work, but mainly from:the fact that it requires longer time to test the value of the seedlings produced. In Nature the bees and other insects perform the work of crossing, but not in a methodic way. In artificial pollination we are able to select the parents that promise the most useful and desirable combination of hardiness on one side and best fruits on the other. 104. Advance Planning of the Work.—Professor Bailey says in his book on “‘ Plant Breeding”: «It is necessary, on account of the indefiniteness of the term ‘variety, to remember that only varieties true to seed, or races and sub-species, can bequeath their characteristics with any degree of certainty; inconstant species often designated as varieties are not considered in the theory of hybridiza- tion.” The development by crossing and selection of our native grapes, strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, and goose- berries has been quite rapid and satisfactory, but much remains yet to be done. The possibilities are shown by one test with the gooseberry. The blossoms of the wild species of Manitoba were pollinated with the pollen of Champion and Industry; over one hundred seedlings - resulted, all of which were more vigorous than the wild species, with larger, thicker leaves, and some of them bear PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING AND DEVELOPMENT, 101 fruit as large as the Champion. Other indigenous fruits are as yet neglected, such as the sand-cherry (Prunus pumila), the dwarf Juneberry, and possibly the huckle- berry. In the mild and relatively equable parts of the earth the orange, lemon, citron, banana, date, fig, guava, loquat, persimmon, and even pineapple, have been developed so far by culture and selection. So far as known no attempt has been made to improve any of them by crossing or hybridizing. Judging by advances made with other fruits -it would prove valuable work to cross the Japan persim- mons with our native species, the St. Johns River oranges with the hardy, rather dwarf types of north Japan, the common figs of the South with the best varieties from Smyrna, the common mission date palm of Arizona with the best grown in Algeria. Still other lines of profitable crossing will occur to the mind, especially in Cuba, Porto Rico, and Mexico. 105. Nearly Allied Crossing.—In crossing the orchard fruits the work has not proven as uncertain in results as most persons suspect. ‘The remarkable results achieved by Luther Burbank, of California, have by many been attributed to the favorable climate of the west coast. But a visit to Santa Rosa, in connection with a record of the results attained during the past fifteen years, will show that all the new creations of special value have come from nearly allied crosses that have been duplicated in a small way east of the mountains. As an instance, some of his best results with plums have come from crosses of our native plums with the Japan varieties. America, Gold, Juicy, and other fine varieties, we are told, came from pits of the Robinson pollinated with Japan varieties. In like manner the crosses of Japan pollen on our native varieties have given most promising results in all the States where 102 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. it has been tried. As an instance, the writer crossed the blossoms of the De Soto with Japan pollen. By accident all the plants were lost but four. One of these now called Ames is as large as Lombard, sutured and better in quality than either parent. The other three trees produce fruit superior in quality to the De Soto or any of our native varieties, especially for culinary use, and all of them retain the hardiness of the Americana species. In all other cases the hybrids of the Japan varieties with our natives have given results as striking as those realized on the west coast. The little done as yet in crossing nearly allied varieties of the apple, pear, and cherry gives equal promise of quick and valuable results. 106. Violent Crosses.—All experience favors the belief that such violent crosses as wheat with rye, raspberry with blackberry, peach with plum, or our native wild crab with the cultivated apples, will not give results of value. Without doubt some of these violent crosses can be made, but the writer’s experience has been that the seeds were either abortive or only capable of making a weak growth. It has been claimed that hybrids have been developed by crossing the blossoms of our wild crab (Pyrus coronaria) with pollen of the common apples. On the college grounds at Ames on several occasions such crosses have been made with great care by only pollinating the first blossoms that opened on the Soulard and wild crab. That @ cross was secured is evidenced by the fact that the shape, color, and cavity were changed in the crossed apples. Where the Soulard was crossed with Roman Stem pollen even the fleshy protuberance at the base of the stem of the latter variety was reproduced in the Soulard crab. But not a single perfect seed was found in over one hundred specimens. In some cases the near relation of two species can only PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING AND DEVELOPMENT. 103 be determined by trial. As an instance, the blossoms of Pyrus Toringo —which is a mere bush with fruit not much larger than a pea—were crossed with pollen of Oldenburg apple. The resulting hybrids were upright and tree-like in habit, with much enlarged leaves, and unexpectedly the fruit yielded enlarged and perfect seed. ‘The size of the fruit was not larger than a small Siberian crab. In this case repeated crossings may give winter apples of real value and of fair size for market. 107. Gathering Pollen in Advance.—Some American authors advise the use of pollen gathered as needed. In practice this is not easily possible, as the pollen is scattered about as soon as the anthers burst. A more certain plan is to stick a number of small branches loaded with newly opened flowers in moist sand in a warm room. As the anthers become about mature they are clipped off and dropped on white paper. In a dry room the ripening process will soon be completed and the liberated pollen dried. With this dry pollen thus roughly gathered, mixed with the dried anthers and pistils, the most perfect success has been often secured. Even with pollen thus gathered and sent in a letter from Oregon, the success in using has been satisfactory. ; 108. Preparing and Pollinating Flowers.— When fruit- tree flowers are fully expanded, or even one half of them have opened, it is not easy to prevent self-pollination. It is far safest to begin the work when the first flowers are nearly expanded. The petals are clippped off with small scissors, followed by carefully clipping off the anthers. At once, after emasculation, the flower or flowers left in a cluster are covered with a paper or muslin bag. The writer’s experience favors the use of muslin bags, as they can most rapidly be gathered and pinned to hold the bag in place and to exclude insects. In case high winds and 104 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL rains occur the thin muslin sacks are not torn or displaced, as often happens with the paper sacks, and they are not so much swayed by the winds, which with the paper often injure the delicate pistils and ovary. The movice who knows the parts of the flower can do this simple work as well as the expert, and those who do not know the parts will make no mistake if a minute’s study is given to Fig. 10, showing an enlarged flower of the cherry. The floral part, marked (cov), is clipped off before opening fully and the stamens around the centre, marked (8), are clipped off, taking care that the anthers do not lodge in the emasculated flower. With the fruit blossoms that grow in clusters, all should be clipped except one or two of the strongest. In Nature it is not common for more than one fruit to set in a cluster. With monecious and diccious flowers (34) and pistillate flowers (35) we have no stamens to take from the flowers supplied alone with pistils. But they should be covered before fully opening to exclude foreign pollen. ; - 109. When and How to Apply Pollen. —When partly developed flowers are emasculated the stigmas are not ready for the pollen in less than three days, as a rule, even when the weather is clear and warm. If cloudy and cool they may not be ready in less than five or six days. The usual mistake is applying pollen too soon. When ready the stigmas exude a sticky nectar that holds the pollen when applied. With the dry pollen gathered in advance a small camel’s-hair brush, slightly moistened, gives the best results in covering the stigma with pollen dust. At once, after pollination, the bag is replaced and the label is attached, giving date and record of the pollen used. This will indicate the flowers not receptive to which pollen is to be applied the next day. In all work keep a brush for each bottle of pollen used. PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING AND DEVELOPMENT. 105 In from six to ten days the sacks can be taken off, as the ovaries will then indicate success or failure.. Those with enlarged ovaries are covered with mosquito bar, which may remain until the fruit is perfectly developed as a protection from birds and insects and to distinguish the pollinated fruits. 110. Speedy Testing of the Crosses and Hybrids.—The small lots of seeds developed by crossing are usually kept in flower-pots mixed with sand (5). When the seedlings produced are one year old the tops can be cut off just above the crown late in autumn and used the next spring for top-working on young bearing-trees of the same species (88). By ringing (40) the branch after it has made two years’ growth we can usually secure fruit for testing the third year. The seedling crosses cut back will start from the stub the next spring and can be used to deter- mine the relative thrift and hardiness of the new variety on its own roots. CHAPTER IX. TRANSPLANTING FRUITS AND ORNAMENTALS. 111. Transplanting.—When trees or shrubs are trans- planted from the nursery or forest to the orchard or lawn, the feeding-roots and rootlets are largely left in the soil and those retained are more or less mutilated or bruised at the ends in digging. When moved to the new position they stand in isolated exposure, subjected to wind and sun during the quite long period prior to growth of new root- lets capable of sustaining the rapid evaporation of the first feeble growth of top. If the handling, planting, and soil conditions are not favorable, the transplanted tree or shrub may not be able to start growth in the way required for healthy after- growth if they do not wither and die. Hence the need of methodic care and management in this important work. The distance apart of orchard trees and small fruits, best size of trees to plant, when and where to plant, are topics for consideration in connection with the transporta- tion, handling, and planting of orchard fruits, lawn trees, and shrubs. , 112. Width of Spaces between Orchard Trees.—The different orchard fruits require different distances between the trees, depending on their size of top and spread of roots. It is also true that the different species and varieties attain varying size in different climates and 106 TRANSPLANTING FRUITS AND ORNAMENTALS. 107 different soils and subsoils. In southern Georgia, for instance, the writer has seen peach-trees with stems fifteen inches in diameter and a spread of branches of thirty feet. In the same way the apple, pear, cherry, and plum vary exceedingly in size of tree and spread of root in different climates. The established distances apart can best be given by separating the different species into small groups. 113. Distance Apart of Apple- and Pear-trees.—In such apple-growing belts as some portions of New York, Penn- sylvania, Missouri, and Arkansas, the apple and pear attain very large size with great spread of root. In such sections forty feet each way is close enough for planting. Where experience has shown that the trees attain less size in thirty years, thirty-three feet apart each way is pre- ferred by experienced planters. In the prairie States from thirty to forty feet apart is preferred on the loess soils of southwest Iowa, while on the northern limit of apple- and pear-growing much closer planting is permissible, as the varieties grown are much smaller in size when fully developed. Perhaps the best plan on the northern limits is to plant in rows running north and south sixteen feet apart, with a space of thirty feet between the rows. Thie plan gives air-circulation, and the thick north and south planting gives needed protection of the stems and forks . from sun-scald. Where the climate permits the growing of pyramid apple-trees on Doucin stocks the usual distance apart is fifteen feet each way, and dwarf trees on Paradise stocks are planted only eight feet apart each way. Dwarf pears on quince roots are usually planted twelve feet apart each way. The sand and snow pears are smaller in tree than the European varieties and are usually planted only twenty feet apart each way. 114. Double Planting of Orcharas.—The wide spaces— thirty to forty feet—between the small trees of apple or 108 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL pear have tempted many to plant peaches, dwarf pears, or plums and cherries between the trees both ways, with the intention of taking them out when the permanent trees nexded the whole space. But this is not satisfactory, as the double planting interferes with proper culture, the use of cover-crops, spraying, and all needed orchard care, and too often robs the permanent trees before the inter- spaces are cleared. A far better plan is to plant only one way with early bearing varieties of apple or dwarf pear, leaving open spaces north and south for air-circulation, culture, cover-crops, and spraying. At the north where the open spaces are narrowed the strawberry can be profit- - ably grown in newly planted orchards. The partial pro- tection from wind-sweep will benefit the plants, and the strawberry rows, with the winter covering of straw raked between the rows, make a good cover-crop in summer and a fair protection of the surface-roots in winter. After picking the second crop the turning under of the rows and the mulching adds needed humus to the soil and benefits the succeeding crop of strawberries as well as the orchard trees. 115. Distance Apart of Peach, Plum, and Cherry.—In peach-growing centres where the trees are properly pruned the usual distance apart is only fifteen feet each way. But farther north, where less cutting back and pruning is done, twenty feet apart is the usual distance. Where orchards of the duke and heart cherries are planted for profit in rows running north and south, twenty feet apart, with thirty-foot spaces between the rows, gives ample room. The Morello varieties are usually planted twenty feet apart both ways in relatively mild climates. In the prairie States the preferred plan is that of planting the Morello varieties and the native plums’ only twelve feet apart in rows running north and south, with spaces between the TRANSPLANTING FRUITS AND ORNAMENTALS. 109 rows of not less than twenty feet. This plan gives the needed circulation between the rows and shades the stems and main limbs from the noonday sun in summer and to a great extent in winter. The spacing of other orchard fruits and the small fruits are given in connection with their discussion on future pages. 116. Planning and Staking the Orchard Site.—A little advance work in the way of setting a small stake where each tree is to stand will save much time and give straight rows in all directions. Prepare at a leisure time as many -small stakes as there are trees to plant. ‘The small stakes or pins can be split from sections of inch-board about fifteen inches long. Also secure, by purchase or borrow- ing, a surveyor’s steel tape four rods long. With this chain set stakes that can be seen four rods apart across the orchard in a straight line by sighting. These sight-stakes can be set for all the rows at the same time. By stretch- ing the steel tape from one stake to another the small stakes where the trees are to be set are stuck at proper distances apart as indicated by figures on the tape. To make quick work it is best to tie red yarn on the tape at the figures, giving equal spacing. When all the small stakes representing the trees are stuck, what is known as the ‘* planting-board,” as rep- resented by Fig. 56, comes fe vie | into use. The centre notch in the board is placed around the little stake and wooden pins are stuck through the holes at the ends. These pins remain in place as the board is taken forward until the work is completed. The board should not be less than nine feet long and the central notch should be exactly equidistant from the holes in the ends. When the holes are dug the stakes are taken up, but the pins remain as a guide in replacing the board Fie. 56.—Planting-board. 110 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL on the same side of the tree or stake. If reversed on alternate rows it will make a crook in the rows. 117. Fall- or Spring-planting.—In all parts where severe freezing occurs in winter it isa gain to dig the holes in the fall. The dirt thrown out is fined and mellowed by frost and the sides and bottom of the holes are softened and moistened by frosts, rains, and melted snow. With the holes dug in autumn an opportune time can be selected in spring for planting the trees.. If the holes are dug in autumn it is necessary to stick the pins (116) quite firmly to prevent displacing during winter. Even in the South the digging of the holes in autumn is quite as profitable with a view to fining the soil by exposure. If dug in the spring when wet most of the southern soils will bake and become lumpy and compacted. In the Eastern and Southern States, and on the Pacific coast, the holes are dug and the trees often planted late in fall or in midwinter. The moist soil and relatively cool air of mild climates in winter are favorable for the start- ing of rootlets, and the evaporation from the top is not sufficient to injure them. But in the interior east of the Rocky Mountains to the lakes, the dry winds of winter and early spring often draw more moisture from the tops than the unestablished roots can supply. In the West the planting is usually deferred (119) until the heeled-in trees have started buds and some root-growth. If planted when trees can first be dug the dry spring winds often damage the tops before the season of growth. 118. Young Trees Best for Planting.—In all parts the _use of what T. T. Lyon, of Michigan, called ‘‘ maiden trees” for orchard pianting is now advocated by experi- enced planters. In the peach-growing districts June- budded trees attaining a height of only three or four feet are now preferred to large ones. At the North and in TRANSPLANTING FRUITS AND ORNAMENTALS. 111 California one-year-old budded cherry- and plum-trees are now preferred to older trees. Two-year-old apple- and pear-trees are now valued and taken in preference to the four-year-olds planted a few years ago by experienced planters. These thrifty young trees are more excitable, have a better root system in proportion to the top, can be shaped as wanted, are easier to handle and plant, and in practice are found to come into full bearing as soon as older trees planted at the same time. 119. Securing and Caring for Nursery Trees.—If a local nursery is near it is usually best to visit it and secure the varieties doing best in the vicinity. If they must be shipped in, take the same care in selecting varieties. In both cases it is better to have the trees dug early and heeled in near the orchard with tops to the south, as shown in Fig. 57. When the buds begin to start growth, it will Fie. 57.—Heeling in, with tops to the south. be found that the rootlets have begun to grow and the cut and broken roots that have been properly pruned with a sharp knife are beginning to callus. They are now ready to plant. ‘Trees handled in this way, and planted when the buds and rootlets are pushing, will start into rapid growth at once. But the trees planted early, that stand isolated in the dry spring winds until the time comes for starting growth, are often too much dried to start desirable growth, especially in the prairie States. In planting the heeled-in trees care must be taken not to expose the roots. The best success is attained by taking 112 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. the trees to the field with the roots in a large tub of water and planting with wet roots to which the dirt will readily adhere. | 120. Proper Depth to Plant Trees.—The proper' depth to plant fruit trees is variable, dependent upon climatic conditions. Where there is no liability to root-killing it is not desirable to plant trees and shrubs more than four inches deeper than they stood in nursery. But in the interior States and parts of Canada the winters are often snowless, with low temperature long continued, causing the injury or death of tender roots pianted at ordinary depth. During the winter of 1898-99 tens of thousands of valuable bearing fruit trees west of the lakes were root- killed without a terminal bud of the top being injured. In this instance the same varieties quite deeply planted on dry soil were not injured and the same was true of varieties with surface protected by cover-crops, weeds, leaves, and in parts of the States by snow. In such localities experi- ence has demonstrated that young trees can be planted one foot deeper than they stood in nursery. But this deep planting only is practised with trees budded or grafted on tender stocks where the conditions are favor- able for root-killing. 121. Pruning Tops and Roots Before Transplanting or Heeling In.—The young nursery tree usually needs some pruning of the top prior to planting with a view to giving proper height of stem and shape of top. It is now gen- erally believed by experienced planters that a fruit-tree stem should not exceed three feet in height. Even in . California the low-stemmed citrus and other fruit trees are preferred. If not high enough to work under, still shorter stems are desirable in the northern prairie States. The most desirable shape of top as to spacing of the limbs is shown at Fig. 58, at (A) as received from the nursery, and TRANSPLANTING FRUITS AND ORNAMENTALS. 113 at (B) one year later in orchard when cut back and properly pruned. Prior to heeling in or setting out, the. ends of bruised or broken roots should also be pruned with 9, sharp knife to favor rapid and more perfect healing. Fie. 58.—A, Tree as received from nursery; B, same tree after one year shaping in orchard. 122. Alternating Varieties in the Rows.—It is now generally conceded that nearly all varieties of the orchard fruits give increased crops of more perfect fruit when alternated in the rows with a view to securing cross pollination. The general record has been that orchards planted with mixed varieties are far more productive than blocks planted with a single variety. Indeed, many varieties of the cultivated fruits are not capable of self- pollination. While we have much yet to learn relative to this subject, enough is positively known to reach the decision that it pays to alternate all varieties of the orchard and small fruits in planting, except possibly the perfect- flowered strawberries, and this is not certain with all 114 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. varieties, as we have secured better crops and more perfect berries from the perfect-flowered Charles Downing when alternated with a good staminatec’ variety. Darwin’s great work on ‘‘ Cross- and Self-fertilization in the Vege- table Kingdom” was at first received with many doubts by fruit-growers, but during recent years his axiom, that “< Nature abhors self-fertilization,” has been quite fully verified by scientists and practical horticulturists. 123. Planting and Watering Trees.—If the soil is well firmed over the wet roots (117) and the soil is moist but not wet, it is rarely necessary to pour in water when transplanting. Even in the arid States this should not be practised, as firming very wet soil over the roots causes hardening and baking. It is poor policy, for the same reason, to transplant trees when the soil is wet and sticky. If heeled in wait until the ground is friable and works well. In orchard, with after-culture, watering is rarely needed except in the arid States, where it is applied to the . whole surface, as during a rain. On the lawn, with ever- greens and shrubs, watering may be needed. But such watering should be systematized. Dig away the surface earth around the crown and pour in water until the soil is well soaked. When settled away return the soil to prevent baking. Slight and frequent watering over a baked sur- face does more harm than good." In planting, many experienced orchardists lean the trees to the south at an angle of about twenty degrees. When trees are set in this way in the prairie States they become upright in two or three years without making a crook in the stem, while trees set erect are liable to lean to the north (26). In climates where trees set erect are not liable to lean to the north, the inclination to the south in setting is not required. 124, Transplanting Evergreens. Ey taken up TRANSPLANTING FRUITS AND ORNAMENTALS. 115 in the near vicinity and the roots kept moist should be planted at once. But experience has shown that it is safest to take them up and transplant when the buds begin to swell. At this time the rootlets will start quickly to sustain the rapid evaporation from the foliage. Plant when the soil works well and compact it firmiy on the roots spread in natural position. The spruces and firs have many fibrous roots to which earth adheres in trans- planting. Hence they need no cutting back of the top except in the way of shaping. But the pines show few fibrous roots not left in the soil when digging. Yet Nature has provided for safe planting, as the branches are provided with latent buds from which growth starts from cut-back branches. If pines are more than one foot in height they are more certain to grow if the tops are cut back quite severely. Evergreens boxed and shipped in from a distant point when opened usually show dried mud encased over the roots. Before planting it is best to dip the roots in thin mud to soften that which is dried and plant with the roots wet. If planted in only fairly moist soil with the dry mud over the roots, and dry days follow, the death of the trees from drying is quite certain. It sometimes happens at the North that evergreens and fruit trees are received in a frozen condition. In such cases it is best to place the boxes or bundles in a cellar without opening. If the roots are tightly packed in moss or other packing, it often happens that such exposure is harmless if the frost is drawn out slowly in the cellar. The handling, planting, and care of other ornamental plants and trees and small fruits will be given in connee- tion with descriptive notes on varieties and species. CHAPTER X. ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. 125. Culture After Planting.—As soon as orchard trees are planted the ground should be cultivated to conserve moisture. Even if no weeds start keep the surface earth mellow by frequent stirring. It is the best possible mulch for newly planted trees. In the arid States watering may be needed of the whole surface, but as soon as the top begins to dry the stirring should be continued, and in the rain-belt it should follow each rain to prevent soil-baking and hardening. It is specially desirable to get as much growth as possible in the growing season of the first year. If we secure growth of top we will also secure growth of feeding-roots and the extension of water-feeding roots downward. If the plough is used at first turn the furrows toward the trees and follow with small-toothed cultivator to pulverize the soil and level the surface. The well- pulverized soil the first season is more important than after the trees become well established and deeply rooted. In orchard culture the use of the rotary-disk harrow is to be recommended, but only to break up the surface for the - after use of a Thomas harrow or even a good steel-tooth harrow. The disk without the after use of the harrow leaves ridges and increases rather than retards evaporation. 126. Shading of Orchard Soils——During recent years the continued culture of orchards has been advocated in : 116 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. 117 California and in all fruit-growing centres. But a change in belief is now apparent in all sections. In section (19) the subject of shading of orcharé soils and the use of cover-crops are discussed. In this connection the com- bined system of culture and soil-shading will be noted. The orchard culture should begin early in the season. Early culture helps in saving the spring moisture and to start growth actively. The entire growth of the season of fruit trees is made early in the season. Hardy northern trees finish growth by the first of July and in the prairie States earlier. All cover- and catch-crops should be turned under in the spring as soon as the soil is in fair working condition. Some advise running the plough four or five inches deep, but a far better rule is to plough only deep enough to permit turning a flat furrow with levelling after culture. The early culture answers the purpose of advancing growth and starting the fruit crop, and the after cover- crop is an advantage in shading the soil, permitting the nitrogen-feeding root-hairs to come near to the surface as an aid to fruit ripening and the perfect maturing of the cell-structure of the tree. While the orchard is young and the supply of plant- food and humus yet ample, buckwheat answers well the conditions for keeping the soil shaded and relatively cool and moist. It covers the ground much earlier than any of the legumes, and is easier to turn under in the spring. If one half of a young orchard is sown annually to buck- wheat about the first of July and the other half is culti- vated, the owner will discover in a short time a surprising comparative thrift and vigor of growth on the buckwheat. portion and also an increase of yield and increased size and smoothness of fruit.. As the orchard attains greater age hairy vetch has proven best for a cover-crop in the 118 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL Western States and cow-peas in the South. In south California the common field-pea makes a_ surprising growth in late fall and early winter in orange orchards and so far is a favorite cover-crop to supply the soil with needed humus and nitrogen. 127. Cover-crops and Blight.—Beyond all doubt what is known as fire-blight of the apple, pear, and quince is caused by bacterial growth in the cell-structure of the leaf, blossom, and outer wood. Yet long-continued observation has demonstrated that the color of the soil, elevation, exposure, and soil-covering have much to do with its occurrence and spread in a given climate. Other things being equal, it is found that soil-shading during the heated term by a cover-crop of buckwheat, vetch, rape, cow-peas, or soy-beans, will show less blight with given varieties than the orchard with bare soil during July and August. It is also true in the prairie States that a given variety of the apple, such as Yellow Transparent, will be free from blight on light-colored ridge soil without shelter from winds, while on a lower level with darker soil and sheltered from winds it will be blackened with the disease. In the same line it is also true that in cooler moister climates like that of west Europe, from whence most of our fruits were derived, fire-blight is not known. In these cases, and others now well known, we have reason to believe that abnormal heat of soil and air have much to do with the growth and development of this bacterial disease. Professor M. Fremy, of France, is a recognized scientist and a close observer. He says that fire-blight of the apple and pear only occurs in France when the trees are trained on south walls where subjected to abnormal heat. His opinion founded on chemical inves- tigation was decided that ferment of the pectose preceded ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. 119 the introduction and growth of the bacterial spores. He says: ‘* Pectose is accompanied in the vegetable tissues in which it is found by a “erment pectose, sometimes soluble and at others insoluble, which possesses the property of transforming pectose and pectin into pectic and metapec- tic acid successively. Pectic fermentation plays an im- portant part in the conversion of ripe fruits into an over-ripe, half-rotten, or sleepy state. It also assists in the formation of vegetable jellies. In fact the transforma- tion of the natural juices of fruits into jellies is a result of the metamorphosis of pectin contained in these juices into the pectosic and pectic acids. -Pectic fermentation is effected at about 95° Fahr.” It may be that with further investigation it will be discovered that a ferment precedes the attack of bacteria. If this proves true it would not disturb the fact that blight can be extended by inocula- tion. 128. Do Cover-crops Dry the Soil?—It is urged by those who yet favor continued orchard culture to conserve moisture that cover-crops rob the fruit trees of needed moisture at the time when fruit needs it most for perfect maturation. ‘The first and even second leguminous cover- crop sown in a bearing orchard will result in diminished supply of soil moisture as compared with the plan of con- tinued culture. But this only favors the perfect ripening of relatively young trees. But the turning under of two or three leguminous crops soon gives a supply of humus and nitrogen that so changes the mechanical texture of the soil that it will hold moisture through the season far better than the cultivated ones that each year become more destitute of needed humus and nitrogen. 129. Protection from Mice and Rabbits.—In the United States and Canada field-mice are found in all parts that are liable to girdle the stems of young orchard trees. A 120 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. certain preventive is to throw a small mound of earth around the lower part of the stem late in autumn. For some reason not known to the writer the mice never ascend the mound, but run their trails under the snow around it. If the mounding has been neglected damage may later be largely prevented by tramping the snow firmly around the lower part of the stem. If there is no snow, and mice are numerous, binding the stems with woven mosquito-bar wire will prevent damage. The wire will also protect from rabbits. But washing the stems with unpalatable solutions is the usual method of protecting trees from rabbits. The best wash yet tested is made by adding to one gallon of stale urine one quart of fresh lime, and one pint of pine tar stirred in when hot. Then stir in flowers of sulphur until it makes a wash that can be applied with a stiff brush or old broom. ‘The writer has not known even the Jack- rabbit, or the European rabbits, to touch a stem covered with this wash, that sticks well to the stem over winter usually. But during rainy winters it sometimes happens that a second wash is necessary where rabbits are numer- ous. 130. Stem-borers.—The crown borer often fatally injures young apple- and quince-trees. But it is easily managed by washing the stems about the first, middle, and last of June with a strong solution of soap and water. Before applying the wash search for the castings of the borers around the lower part of the stem. If any are found they can be crushed in their burrows without cutting the bark with a flexible wire that will follow the burrow. If the larva is reached the evidence will be given on the point of the wire. With this treatment the writer with forty years’ experience has never sustained much injury by borers, while neighbors who trusted to cutting out the larva have lost hundreds of trees. ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. 121 . 181. The Tent Caterpillar.—On young apple-trees the ring or cylinder of eggs covered with waterproof varnish can easily be detected, detached, and burned during the leafless period of winter. If any escape it is far better to twist out the nests with a forked stick than to burn them out, as often practised with kerosene, which always injures the bark and leaves. The rodents and insects noticed at this time the orchardist comes first in contact with in orchard manage- ment. A few of the leading insects encountered later will be discussed in the chapter on spraying. But we now have special books on spraying copiously indexed that can be used at the nick of time when exact information is needed to guide the work of insect extermination or con- trol. 132. Orchard Fertilization.—In the Eastern and South- ern States, and on the west coast, the commercial fertil- izers have been used freely in orchards with continued culture. The result has been that the expression ‘‘ Fer- tilizer sick” has come into use. The evident trouble in such cases is lack of humus in the soil and a changed mechanical condition of the soil. What is needed is a. mingling of the humus and nitrogen of cover-crops, and a judicious application of potash and phosphoric acid. Even on the rich prairie lands of the West the soil is deficient in potash. After an orchard has borne repeated crops, and the spread of tops does not favor the sowing of catch-crops, the free use of barn-yard manure is advis- able at least once in four years. The summary that will apply to all soils and all parts of the Union is that the orchard must have humus in the soil from cover-crops or manure, with an ample supply of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid. 133. Low Hedge for Shelter-belt.—Stock should in all 122 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. cases be excluded from the orchard. The low hedge is more attractive than the fence, and near towns is not so easy to climb. Another good reason for its use is that a low wind-break lessens evaporation by breaking the con- tinuity of wind-sweep at the surface of the earth. A hedge eight feet in height of the Amur barberry at the north, or Osage or Cherokee rose at the south, does not affect the needed circulation of air, yet it will materially lessen surface wind-sweep and thus lessen evaporation. In different parts of Europe the low shelter-belts are used by seed-growers, nurserymen, and fruit-growers. An example of their value is shown in Manitoba, where many miles of, shrubby Artemesia and other hedges have been planted to protect wheat-fields. Where the surface soil and even the seed wheat was blown away prior to their use little trouble is experienced at this time. 134, Marketing Summer-ripening Fruit. — Properly managed, there is profit in most localities in growing summer-ripening apples and pears. In picking the stems should be retained, as it favors their keeping, and they should be marketed in crates holding not more than half a bushel, They should also be picked when so nearly ripe that they will ripen fully in transit. In this form the summer fruits give less loss to the dealer and increase consumption, as most buyers will not ask for a division of a crate. In the prairie States the only neatly packed summer and early fall fruits seen in the markets are packed in Colorado, Utah, and other distant States, while home-grown apples and pears are marketed in bulk at local points or go to waste. In marketing strawberries, cherries, plums, peaches, tomatoes, and currants the same care is needed in retaining the stems and also in picking when ripe and packing as neatly in crates, as is done in a few fruit centres, notably in California. Professor Bailey ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. 123 says truly: ‘‘ If one makes a study of the markets: he will soon come to feel that the package and the packing cut a most important figure in fruit sales.” 135. Picking and Handling Fall and Early Winter Apples.—Many of the fall and early winter apples will bear picking when the seeds are first browned and. before they are fully colored. The Fameuse, Wealthy, Alexander, Jonathan, Grimes Golden, and many of the Russian varieties will complete their coloring and ripen with unimpaired flavor if picked much earlier than is usual. Such early picked fruit should be barrelled when dry and stored ranked up on their sides under a hay- or straw- covered shed with free air-circulation until wanted for sale in early winter. If the cold becomes severe enough to endanger freezing, the barrels can be protected by a straw covering. Some methodic growers known to the writer keep Fameuse, Wolf River, Lubsk Queen, and other handsome fall apples worth twenty cents per bushel into winter, with profit in the way stated by waiting until the last of November before removal from the shed to the cellar. The straw- or hay-covered shed has done good service at the west, as it does not heat up in the sunshine like an enclosed building of wood or even brick. But I have had even better success in storing fall apple barrels on their side in a dirt-covered cave. This was closed during the day and opened on two sides during the night. In this way the cooler air of the night was stored for use during the day. The autumn pears can also be picked when the seeds first turn brown. If picked when the stem parts quite readily from the spur and properly stored such varieties as the Kieffer and Mongolian snow will develop dessert quality never attained when ripened on the tree. For distant shipment most fall varieties of the pear picked when hard will ripen up in the covered crates or baskets 124 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. in a cool, dry room. But it pays best to mature them before reaching the market. 136. Picking and Handling Winter Apples.—In dif- ferent sections the season for picking a given variety varies exceedingly. As instances, the Rhode Island Greening and Northern Spy will ripen on the trees in Iowa or Kansas if left until the usual time of picking in western New York. In the dent-corn sections of the west and south- west winter apples are picked when the seeds are brown and the stem parts from the spur without rupture of the bark. Over the west and southwest winter apples must be picked three weeks earlier than in the Atlantic States. Yet picking at proper time is more imperative in the southwest than in New York, as even the Ben Davis will get mellow on the trees if left until freezing weather is feared. In picking, varieties of the season of Jonathan and Fulton are picked first, and the tougher late apples, such as Willow and Stark, last of all. The essentials to good keeping are picking when the stem parts quite easily from the spur, picking when dry, handling as carefully as eggs, and getting them as soon as possible into a relatively dry, cool place. The old idea of ‘‘going through the sweat” before placing in the cellar has no foundation. Apples or other fruits will sweat at any time if when cool they are exposed to a current of warmer air loaded with moisture. 137. Earth-covered Cave for Apple Storage. anes covered caves are used often by nurserymen to store grape- vines and fruit trees and for storing grafts of the orchard fruits (85). The few who have tried it on a large scale also find it a desirable place for storing winter apples. For apple storage it should have ample ventilation. When the apples are put in from the orchard in the fall the days are usually warm and the nights cool, During ORCHARD MANAGEMENT, 125 te night keep doors and ventilators open, and during the day keep all closed, putting in each day’s picking early in the morning. Even in winter the cave is opened at night for a longer or shorter period, depending on the tempera- ture, to let in cold air, which is held during the day by keeping every aperture closed. Those who have had experience with the cave method prefer it to all others except ammonia cold storage. But it must be kept in mind that when the cellar air is near freezing in winter, if it is opened at midday, when the air outside is much warmer and loaded with moist air, it will rush in and pre- cipitate its moisture. 138. Tile-draining of Orchards.—It often happens that ridge land with good air-drainage has too stiff a soil and subsoil for best success in orcharding. If the soil seems too wet, or alternately too wet or too dry, tile-drainage will prove a great gain. The tiles should not be less than four inches in diameter and laid in the centre between the rows after the trees are set or even after they come into bearing. ‘The tiles should be laid not less than 34 feet deep. The tiling of such land soon changes the whole character of the soil and even mode of growth of the roots. Literally the air is let into the soil, the water-level changed in a wet time, and the surface-feeding roots will run deeper and be less subject to injury by the heat of summer and the cold of winter. In a dry time also a change will be observed. The surface soil will be mei- lowed, fined, and relatively much cooler than the same grade of land not tiled. As to the often-repeated query: ‘‘Will the apple-roots choke the tile?” the writer’s experience would answer, ‘‘No.” ‘Tiling laid down twenty-five years ago between apple-orchard rows is yet in good condition and working as well as ever. But willows, poplars, and most forest trees will clog tile. 126 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL 139. Fruit-growing Neighborhoods. —The amateur or commercial fruit-grower who finds that any one of the orchard or small fruits succeeds unusually well in his vicinity should encourage his neighbors to increase their plantings. Union is strength in fruit-growing to an unusual extent. The locality that becomes noted for the methodic growing and shipping of any given fruit, nut, or other horticultural product has advantages in ship- ping, selection of market, and in the way of procuring the neatest, best, and cheapest shipping crates, baskets, barrels, etc. The neighborhood also can combine in the saving of what would prove waste products in a single orchard by drying, canning, cider, vinegar, and in other ways. The best-selling fruits in any market are from neighborhood combines where the gathering, Crue, and packing ae systematized. Another special gain in neighborhood fruit centres is in the educational way. Spraying soon becomes syste- matized, and the same is true of alternating varieties to secure cross-fertilization, home propagation from the selected trees of given varieties, irrigation of small fruits, orchards, and gardens, and indeed in all lines pertaining to profitable fruit-growing on their soil and in their climate. CHAPTER XI. PRUNING OF TREES AND ORNAMENTALS. 140. Need of Pruning.—Lindley said many years ago: ‘Tf well directed, pruning is one of the most useful, and if ill directed it is among the most mischievous, that can take place on a plant.” It is too common to wait until undesirable habits of growth are apparent and then set a time for a general thinning out and shaping of trees and shrubs. The effect of this severe pruning is to secure a heavy growth of new wood in moist climates, and in dry interior climates it often starts blight, sap-stagnation, and sun-scald on the south side. The general rule for all pruning is simple: it should begin as trees or shrubs are received and heeled in (119) and be continued lightly each year until they reach, in the case of apple-trees, the ‘‘heading-back period ” (144). Always keep in mind the aphorism of Professor Bailey: ‘Trees which are alternately neglected and heavily pruned are kept in a condition which is apt to be fatal to the best productiveness.” 141i, Pruning in Nursery.— After setting grafts in nursery, if more than one bud starts from the scion rub off the surplus as soon as observed. As growth advances, clip the lower side branches, but in no case rub off the leaf- bracts or small clusters of leaves with which the stem is clothed. Budded trees on strong stocks may be permitted to form a head the first season where low-stemmed trees 127 128 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. are desired. In this case keep the side limbs clipped on the stem, but keep in mind that the stem leaves give stocky growth and the large stem a top-heavy growth. The second year the top is formed on root-grafted trees, using care to secure a central ascending stem with radiating branches (27) without forking. The second season also the leaves shou'd be left on the stem to give the required stocki- ness. The needed sprouting at the crown and cutting away the branchlets that appear on the stem, together with shaping the top, are the main essentials of pruning in nursery. 142. Proper Time for Pruning in Nursery and Young Orchard.— Where light pruning is done in nursery or young orchard the best time is when the leaves are about two thirds grown. This begins the period of active cell- growth and favors the rapid healing of the wound. While it is true that pruning in the season of growth is theoreti- cally a check on circulation and subsequent growth, yet on young, excitable trees under cultivation the light pruning at one time amounts to little in checking growth and is far more than offset by the rapid and smooth heal- ing of the wounds. But the best time for pruning varies as applied for varied purposes. . The dormant season is essential for cutting back grow- ing wood severely, removing large limbs, or where stunted trees are cut back to secure vigorous new growth, and where stunted branches are cut back to secure active growth and larger leafage. Summer pruning checks growth and tends to lower vitality. Yet it often is prac- tised to hasten the fruit-bearing period of orchard trees and to give more bearing wood on shrubs that blossom on the preceding year’s growth. 143, Pruning Young Apple and Pear Orchards.—Only a few years ago the advice given in the fruit books of PRUNING OF TREES AND ORNAMENTALS. 129 furope and America was to thin out the tops of. bearing fruit trees to let in the sun. Charles Downing was an innovator when he wrote in 1869: ‘‘ Every fruit tree grown in the open orchard or garden as a common standard should be allowed to take its natural form, the whole effort of the pruner going no further than to take out all weak and crowding branches, those that are filling uselessly the interior of the tree where their leaves cannot be fully exposed to the light and sun, or those which interfere with the growth of others.” At the present time our advanced horticultural writers say that the necessity for much pruning depends largely upon climatic peculiari- ties. As an instance, Professor Card says: ‘‘ The Eastern grower finds it necessary to thin his trees and admit light and air to produce fruit of high color and good flavor. The Western man, however, finds that under his condi- tions of intense sunlight and low humidity, fruit will de- velop color regardless of such conditions. The Eastern grower, if he neglects this, may find his fruit suffering from attacks of fungous diseases; but in general fungi are less troublesome in the drier climate of the plain, so this reason loses its force.” Sometimes reasons for varied systems of pruning are found on two sides of a mountain range. As a marked instance, Professor J. A. Balmer, of the State of Wash- ington, gives positive reasons why summer pruning, pinch- ing, and even root-pruning of orchard trees are required west of the Cascade range to check exuberant growth. On the other hand, east of the range winter pruning is ad- vised, as the trees are inclined to premature bearing and consequent stunted growth, which is corrected by the severe winter pruning or cutting back, which favors vigor- ous growth of young shoots. In the prairie States fruit trees make quite rapid growth, 130 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. and as stated by Professor Card fruit will color and develop in the interior of thick-topped trees, and it often happens that orchard fruits of all kinds exposed to the sun are scalded on the exposed side by sun heat. Young trees properly shaped when started in orchard are mainly grown on the let-alone principle, except in the way of cutting out dead twigs and such weak interior growth as cannot have exposure of leaves to the air and sun. The thick-top principle of fruit-growing is sustained by the fact that where the new growth of young orchard trees is cut back in autumn for three or four years in succession the top becomes very thick on the outside. Yet these trees bear finely colored fruit beneath the thick exterior and better average crops than thinner-topped trees of the same varieties. But in quite moist regions of the East and South where moss grows on north-exposed house-roofs, or Spanish moss hangs down from tree branches, the old plan of thinning out to let in the sun will always be practised. 144, Heading Back Old Apple- and Pear-trees.—With the thick-topped plan of the prairie States and the arid regions, or the more open-topped plan of the moister belts, the bearing wood as the trees get old becomes far removed from the center of the tree. The time has now come for severe cutting back of the top, as is practised with old peach-trees. With the apple and pear in the dent-corn belt this severe heading back is an epoch in the life of the tree, and the shock is too severe if the cutting is all done at cne time. The safest plan is to cut one half _the tree at a time, deferring the work on the other half to the next year, when the growth of new shoots is a relief from the injury liable to occur from sap-pressure. If two years are taken for the severe heading back of old orchard trees in connection with culture and manuring, new growth starts vigorously from the cut-back stubs and the PRUNING OF TREES AND ORNAMENTALS. 131 water-sprouts that start in the interior, and the trees may be said to be rejuvenated. During the period of cutting back little fruit will be gathered, but the bearing stage is soon renewed with increased size and perfection of fruit and the longevity and profit of the trees are much increased. | 145. Training Dwarf Apple- and Pear-trees.—The use of dwarf apple- and pear-trees is becoming more general in nearly all parts of the States. Apple on Paradise roots and pear on quince are now popular for amateur use, and even market, in sections where the roots are not liable to be injured by winter. In the prairie States apple-trees budded on Pyrus Toringo and plum on sand-cherry (71) stocks are coming into use, but as yet we have no dwarfing stock hardy enough for the pear. The dwarf apple- or pear-tree as received from the nursery is usually given a rounded top secured by nursery pruning. Such trees are formed by heading back the one-year-old shoot about one foot from the ground and. forming a rounded head by after-pruning. But if an approach to this form is kept up in orchard, continued attention must be given to pinching and heading back. Even the dwarf pear without the annual shortening of the new growth will soon reach undue proportions for a dwarf, even if it does not root from the scion when planted quite deeply. 146. Pruning for Cordon-training.—As the years go on apple-, pear-, cherry-, and plum-trees, trained as shown in Fig. 59, will become as common in this country as in Europe. It is known as simple cordon-training, and with dwarf apples and pears, and small growing varieties of the plum and Morello cherries, it is about as simple and easy as growing grapes on a wired trellis. At first those . unacquainted with the system will say that it is an 132 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL unnatural plan to adopt with trees. But the same may be said of the grape naturally running to the top of tall trees. With the tops all trained to the south, or indeed in any direction, along a road or walk, with the top of one tree meeting the stem of the next one, they form an unbroken growth, giving a handsome effect when loaded with fruit. In starting, the young trees are planted about ten feet apart and grow vertically at first and at proper height are bent for horizontal training along the wire. ig! See Ui, Fie. 59.—Cordon-training to the south. (After Bailey.) The few attempts made in this country by foreign setters have given special satisfaction and pleasure. The stems and branches are covered with a garland of leaves and growth is so checked by the recumbent position: of -the bearing wood that early fruiting is secured. The exposed blossoms of the stone fruits are also less liable to injury by the weather extremes of spring. The increased size and beauty of apples and cherries in interior climates when grown so near the ground is a sur- prise to all foreign visitors. The annual pruning is in the way of cutting back two thirds of the new growth. The increase in length of the PRUNING OF TREES AND ORNAMENTALS. 133 laterals is corrected by the occasional starting of new shoots from near the base, as with the grape. 147. Pruning to Shape Trees.—In the interior States young orchard trees are inclined to make most growth on the north side of the stem and top. This is corrected by summer cutting back on the north side. ‘This checks growth and lessens growth of roots on the north side. If continued lightly on projecting points of growth for two or three years we can secure the most growth on the south side. This applies to all isolated trees in the prairie States (26) and to a less extent in all parts of the country where the air is more humid. Even the evergreens and some shrubs in interior climates go out from the line of sym- metry by greater length of shoots on the north side. In such cases the balance can be sustained by pinching the points of growth of leading shoots on the north side. 148. Pruning the Cherry and Plum.— The Morello varieties of the cherry form rather open, round-headed tops that need comparatively little pruning if a well- defined stem and top are established when first set in orchard. As a rule, in all parts of the country where they thrive they will bear well without pruning except in the cutting out of dead twigs as they are noticed without regard to season. If at any time quite large limbs are cut the wounds do not heal over as readily as the apple or pear and usually form rotten spots, starting the exudation of gum. But the young growth can be shortened without injury where it is desirable to thicken up the top in interior climates, where it is often an advantage. The duke and sweet cherries are upright in habit, and many commercial growers head back the top of young trees in orchard. In two or three years the natural habit is changed from the spire-shape to that of a round-topped 134 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL apple-tree form. This plan better shades the stem and large branches, and shades the fruit more perfectly from the sun. The after-pruning consists mainly in taking out dead wood as it appears. Some of the best native plums on rich soil make so much growth during the early stages of bearing that much of the bearing wood is exposed to the sun and the fruit is spoiled by scalding. This open habit is corrected by cutting back the new growth two or three years in suc- cession. When the heavy-bearing stage is reached, the long growths no longer appear and the only pruning required is taking out the dead wood. Some of the Japan and European varieties are also thickened in the tops by cutting back half of the new growth in the dormant period for two or three years in succession, when the trees are coming into bearing, to pro- tect the fruit and broaden the tops for shading the stems and main branches. But it is now conceded by growers that cutting back the tops does not increase bearing or size of fruit. Its only value as indicated above is to shelter the fruit and better shade the stem and branches of some varieties. 149. Pruning the Peach and Apricot.—In peach- and prune-growing centres from California east to the Atlantic the commercial pruning is often excessive, literally cutting wagon-loads of brush to the acre. This severe thinning and cutting of side limbs is followed by excessive growth of new wood which forces summer cutting back to check excessive growth of new wood. Beyond all doubt this is an exhaustive and useless procedure where lighter annual pruning is possible under methodic management. The peach bears upon wood of the preceding year’s growth mainly. Hence the growers who follow the directions of Charles Downing will secure the most perfect conditions PRUNING OF TREES AND ORNAMENTALS. 135 for continued growth of firm bearing wood. He says: ‘‘Let us take a. healthy tree in the orchard or garden in its first blossoming year. It is usually about six to eight feet high, its well-shaped head branching out about three feet from the ground. It has never yet been trimmed, except to regulate any deformity in its shape, and this is so much the better. ‘‘ At the end of February, or as early in the spring as may be, we commence pruning. ‘This consists only of shortening-in, i.e., cutting off half the last year’s growth over the whole outside of the head of the tree, and also upon the inner branches. As the usual average growth is from one to two feet, we shall necessarily take off from six to twelve inches. It need not be done with precise measurement; indeed, the strongest shoots should be shortened back most, in order to bring up the others, and any long or projecting limbs that destroy the balance of the head should be cut back to a uniform length. This brings the tree into a well-rounded shape. By reducing the young wood one half, we at the same moment reduce the coming crop one half in number. The remaining half, receiving all the sustenance of the tree, are of double the size. The young shoots, which start out abundantly from every part of the tree, keep it well supplied with bearing wood for the next year, while the greater luxuri- ance and size of the foliage, as a necessary consequence, produces larger and higher-flavored fruit.” Where peach-trees are not subject to injury of top, as in southern Georgia at Tifton, or in California, the Downing plan, with such modifications as the age of the tree sug- gests, is still followed by methodic growers, with the added work of cutting out dead wood and all wood that has lost its usefulness. But in sections where the new wood is occasionally injured by winter, pruning is done on the 136 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. principle of retaining a large majority of the buds found alive regardless of the form of the tree. With more favorable years the defects in form can be righted in large part. Pruning every year to regulate the supply of healthy bearing wood is the correct plan, and in reality it involves no more work than neglect for a few years, followed by the severe cutting back so often practised. The apricot bears on the wood of the previous year’s growth and on spurs of the newer wood. In the apricot- growing centres of California under irrigation, the first two years, and the first half of the third year, are given to the development by pruning of a vigorous upright tree with good form and strong limbs, so arranged as to get the main crop of fruit near the centre of the tree. After fruit- gathering while yet the foliage is perfect, the after-pruning consists mainly in cutting back half of the new growth over the whole top. This, with water at the roots, starts new growth on which fruit-buds develop for the next year’s fruiting. The late summer pruning is continued until the time comes when the old wood must be cut out on the renewal plan for the formation of a new top. East of the mountains the tendency of all the varieties tested under culture is to make long open growth when young. Hence the young trees need cutting back in the dormant period to thicken the top and increase the number of well-grown bearing spurs and shoots. After reaching bearing size summer cutting back of one half the new growth after fruiting tends to check the naturally rampant growth and seems to favor the holding and ripen- ing of the fruit. But this cutting back is only needed in the early stages of bearing. -As the trees get older the extension of growth will be less and the main pruning will be in the way of cutting out dead wood and when the trees get old the shortening of the whole top (144).. Old PRUNING OF TREES AND ORNAMENTALS. 137 apricot-trees will bear this cutting back as well as the apple, if a few limbs are taken out each year until a new top is formed, as is done in California. 150. Pruning the Orange.—This semi-tropical fruit is included mainly to sustain the principle now so generally favored of growing thick tops in hot, relatively dry climates. Professor Wickson, of California, says: ‘‘ The best form of tree is a low-headed compact growth. When young the stem must be protected by wrapping with paper or something of the kind until the leaves do that service. The lower branches will bear the first fruit, and as the tree attains age they will stop growing and can be removed. Thus the head of the trees is raised gradually and space is given for the drooping of the higher branches.” Visitors to California, Florida, and Cuba will be sur- prised by the thick foliage, under shelter of which perfect oranges develop, just as perfect fruits of all the orchard varieties in the arid States and prairie States east of the Rocky Mountains develop under the shelter of the outer thick foliage of headed-back trees. 151. Pruning the Quince.—The blossoms and fruit of the quince appear on new shoots of the same season’s growth like the hickory, butternut, walnut, and some roses. That is, when growth commences in the spring no flowers appear; but after the terminal shoots have grown several inches the flowers appear at the top of the season’s growth. Hence in pruning the quince, any attempt at cutting back will take away all the fruit-bearing wood of that season. Thus the pruning of this class of trees and shrubs, known as. ‘¢co-terminal,” is confined to removing dead wood and the interior growth no longer bearing perfect leaves or fruit. 152. Pruning and Shaping Shrubs,—All our ornamental shrubs of the lawn and park may be divided into three general classes as to habits of flowering and pruning: 138 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. (1) Those that flower on the same season’s growth, such as the rose, hardy hydrangea, privet, mock-orange, and tamarix, should be cut back more or less severely in the dormant season. This cutting back of the new growth, and in some cases still lower, increases the number of new shoots on which the flowers appear. In the North and Northwest, where the best hybrid roses and such shrubs as Spirea callosa are not hardy in open exposure, the winter covering is easier when severely cut back to prepare for blooming the next summer. In milder climates where the natural shape can be retained the needed supply of bearing wood can be kept up by merely cutting back the growth that reaches out beyond the line of symmetry and shortening some of the inside growth. (2) Many of our best shrubs bear flowers on the points or top of new growth that starts from wood of the preced- ing year’s growth, like the grape and quince; others © develop flowers on the preceding year’s growth. With these classes it is evident that cutting back the top will remove the bearing wood, especially when cut below the new wood. Hence such shrubs are headed in as soon as the flowers fade. This light cutting back of points of growth starts an additional growth of new shoots to flower the next spring. Some well-known shrubs of this class are flowering almond, snowball, weigelia, exochorda, forsythia, Prunus triloba, lilac, tamarix, and some spireas. (3) A few well-known species, such as barberry, cara- gana, white fringe, bush honeysuckle, and kalmia, do not need pruning except when they get some age, when the pruning consists in cutting out some of the old wood, as in pruning the currant and gooseberry. As a rule, in about all shrub pruning the operator must observe from actual inspection whether the flowers grow on the ends of terminal or lateral shoots of that season’s PRUNING OF TREES AND ORNAMENTALS, 139 growth, or on the ends or sides of the preceding year’s growth. . 153. Pruning and Shaping Evergreens.—The varieties and species with upright habit of growth and upright leader, such as the spruce and fir, should have a low, quite broad base and symmetric form of top. In transplanting on the lawn from the nursery the most perfectly developed side should be turned to the south. This side, which in nursery has had the most light and air, usually needs, when planting, some shortening of the points of growth. The after care will be in the way of pinching too vigorous points of growth as observed, and if the leader is broken off by sleet or stock, provide another upright point by turning up a side shoot and tying it to the stub. Witha little continued care in merely pinching terminal buds the required form can soon be established. The species that do not form leaders, such as the hemlock, only need atten- tion in the way of equalizing growth by pinching project- ing points of extension, especially on the north side. 154. Pruning Ornamental Hedges and Screens.—The lawn hedge on the border or beside a walk must show uniformity of outline and thickness of base. The only durable forms are those with broad base and an approach to conical form, as shown in Figs. 60 and 61. The orna- Me a Sz SS——- Fie. 60. ; Fie. 61. Fia. 62. . Figures 60 and 61 give correct form of hedge. Figure 62 will not give favorable results. mental hed ge with perpendicular sides is a failure in a few years. Even in California, where privet hedges were usually trained as shown in Fig. 62 a few years ago are 140 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL now disfigured by dead patches. With plants of the habit of growth of privet, if needed strength of root is secured, they must be planted twenty inches apart, and as a start for securing a low base the plants must be cut off when planted to stubs only six inches in height. The first growth must be largely lateral as a foundation to build on. Each year thereafter the top can be raised, with sheared sides, until the required height is reached. With such evergreens as white spruce and hemlock this severe cutting back at first cannot be practised. But by using plants not more than ten inches in height the lateral growth for a base can soon be secured by pinching or slight clipping of the up-growing points. The main pruning should be done in the dormant period, but the lighter summer clipping of deciduous plants and the pinching or light clipping of the conifers, must also be kept up while the hedge is forming and after its final height and width have been reached. In planting for ornamental screens plants can be used with a natural thick base, such as lilac, caragana, and Amur barberry. With slight pruning at top and sides these can be kept in neat form, while heavy pruning would take off most of the flowering and fruiting wood. CHAPTER XII. SPRAYING FOR INSECTS AND FUNGI. 155. Evolution of Spraying.—In the sense in which the word spraying is now used we may say that it is an opera- tion of our day. In commercial fruit-growing centres of California, and indeed of all parts of the Union, spraying for the destruction of insects and lessening injury of plant, tissue by fungi has become almost as necessary as tillage- pruning, and other leading essentials of fruit management. In Europe, France took the lead in this important work. But it was not until the appearance of the downy mildew upon the grape in 1878 that any real advance was made in the way of methodic spraying. Indeed, it was not started until 1882, when Paul Oliver used the solution of water, sulphuric acid, sulphate of iron, and sulphate of copper for fungous diseases of the pear. In 1882 the writer on a visit to France found spraying with sulphate of copper on the grounds of Sir Henry Vilmorin, south of Paris, and in 1883 Millardet wrote: ‘*Recent observation makes me hope that perhaps the most satisfactory results may be obtained by the use of certain mineral solutions, such, for example, as the sulphate of iron or of copper.” But it is singular that the practical use of the discovery was not made until spraying with milk, lime, and sulphate of copper was given along road- ways and in exposed places to prevent the stealing of the 141 142 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. grapes. The writer in 1882 was surprised to see vines with leaves and fruit covered with a light-blue coloring matter. It was soon found that the vines thus *‘ poisoned ” —as the people were led to believe—were the only ones that retained their foliage in the infected districts in 1882. It was not until 1885 that Millardet gave the formula for making what is now known as Bordeaux mixture, but it was at first applied with a broom. So far as known to the writer the first perfected spraying machines used in Europe were made in the United States. In the United States the first spraying, or rather sprinkling done with a broom, was in 1860, when the currant and gooseberry worm made its first appearance. A solution of hellebore in water was then used. In 1877 the Colorado potato-beetle had extended over Iowa, and the first remedy used was spraying with Paris green, which was only partially successful on account of its varied purity. The sudden demand for the article led to adulteration to a remarkable extent. In 1877 an agent of Hemanway & Co., of London, visited Ames, Iowa, with a view to securing a trial at the Agricultural College of a waste product of their analine dye-works as an insecticide. In February, 1878, three kegs of the waste under the name of ‘‘ London purple” reached Ames and were tested in the summer of 1878 by the writer. At Ames the potato-beetle was then at its height of development and destruction. In the fall of 1878 the writer gave in the Lowa Agricultural College Quarterly the following state- ment: ‘‘ Last winter the coilege received for trial a quantity of a material called by the manufacturers London purple, and designed to be used for the Colorado potato- beetle (the potato-bug of common parlance). Upon trial it was found very valuable, killing the old as well as the young insects with great certainty. The virtue of London SPRAYING FOR INSECTS AND FUNGI. 143 purple lies in the arsenic it contains, just as in the case of the Paris green. There are, however, several advantages possessed by the new poison over the old, among which are: (1) its extreme fineness, permitting it to be mixed with water; (2) its adhesiveness: when once applied it adheres tenaciously to the leaves; this is due no doubt to its finely divided condition; (3) its purple color enables one always to detect its presence on leaves even when it exists in very small quantity; this will not only guard against accidents, but at the same time be of considerable account in enabling one to always know when it is neces- sary to make another application; (4) its cheapness as compared with Paris green.” At that time Hon. John N. Dixon, of Oskaloosa, Iowa, was a trustee of the Iowa Agricultural College and was the owner of one of the largest apple orchards in the State at that time. The canker-worm visited this orchard in 1877. In 1878 he reported as follows in the Jowa Horti- cultural Report: ‘* My success with these chaps has been so encouraging that I am very willing to talk about it. I mix a pound of arsenic in one hundred and fifty gallons of water, heated in a sort of sorghum-pan concern got up for the purpose. I dissolve the arsenic by boiling in much stronger proportion than this, but I am careful to add water when the liquid is put in the barrels for use, so as to make the proportion as above stated. The pump I use for throwing the water over the trees cost, in Chicago, sixteen dollars. I load the barrels of water in a wagon and drive on the windward side of the row to be sprinkled. I find I can thoroughly poison the foliage by showering from the one side. I first tried the Paris green, but found it expensive and liable to burn the leaves; it is also a dangerous stuff to use. The arsenic water makes a deli- cate coating of arsenic over the leaves, but the rains soon 144 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. wash it all off; long before the fruit reaches maturity the last vestige is gone. I showered three thousand trees, when the most advanced worms were about full size; one application killed every one of them, and I have not seen a worm in the orchard since. I tried a solution of con- centrated lye; the worms were soon on the ground, but they were soon on full diet in the trees again. The arsenic dodge they can’t stand; in thirty-six hours every one turns black, and their bodies break like a pipe-stem.” It so happens that the season most favorable for killing the canker-worm is the most favorable for spraying for the codling-moth. Hetce in spraying for canker-worm he met with the first great success in destroying the codling- moth. He marketed carloads of apples in Minneapolis in 1878 entirely free from worms or worm-holes. John Smith, an extensive orchardist at Des Moines, and A. R. Whitney, of Franklin Grove, Illinois, made the same dis- covery in fighting the canker-worm, and Mr. J. 8. Wood- ward, of Lockport, New York, also made the discovery in regard to the destruction of the codling-moth when spray- ing for canker-worm. The florists were far in advance of orchardists in the use of insecticides, such as whale-oil soap, potash, pyreth- rum, kerosene, buhach, tobacco infusions, and hot water for insect destruction. The use of kerosene emulsion and pure kerosene and raw petroleum in orchards is not new, especially the emulsion for the sucking and scale insects. It was first used by the florists, and for fighting the cur- rant worm in 1868 and 1870, but its commercial use began with orange-growers in Florida and California as- late as 1882. But it was not until 1886 that the formula for scale as now used was generally recommended. Kerosene and raw petroleum were used on house-plants and greenhouse- plants, and on the wounds made by cutting off plum SPRAYING FOR INSECTS AND FUNGI 145 knots, by the writer as early as 1876, and at the Exposi- tion in Philadelphia it was recommended for scale insects by European florists. On the plum-knot wounds it was used freely, but on oleander and other plants infested with scale it was used on the cloth with which the scale was wiped off. The present use of kerosene and petroleum for scale and other insects by spraying trees in the dormant period dates only from the advent east of the Rocky Mountains of the San José scale. At this time (1901) the-final effect of drenching trees with kerosene or petroleum prior to leaf expansion is not fully known. Apple and other trees well drenched by spraying two years in succession show clean. bark and general thrift not found on unsprayed trees. Since 1885 the appearance of the apple scab, grape rot, anthracnose, and other fungi in large commercial planta- tions has led to hundreds of trials at the experiment sta- tions and by private growers of various fungicides. At this time nearly all the experiment stations send out each year spraying calendars giving reliable information up to date. Those interested in a more minute statement of the recent evolution of apreying are referred to Lodeman’s reliable book on ‘‘ Spraying.” 156. Spraying for Codling-moth—Arsenite of Lime Solu- tions.—John N. Dixon in 1877 and 1878 used a weak solution of white arsenic (155). With increased experience he wrote in 1881: ‘‘I consider the arsenic solution as complete a remedy for the codling-moth as for the canker- worm. When the apples are from the size of a bird-shot to that of a pea, if the orchard is carefully sprinkled with arsenic water at the rate of one pound of white arsenic to two hundred gallons of water it will not leave a canker- worm, codling-moth, tent-caterpillar, or buculatrix in the orchard. In view of this perfect and inexpensive remedy, 146 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL we do not now consider these insects as any serious obstacle in the way of successful apple-growing, and we cannot see any reason why the remedy might not be successfully used on garden insects and on the grasshopper, cotton-worm, army-worm, Hessian-fly, and chinch-bug. One man with a driver and team can sprinkle twenty acres in a day for protection against any of these insects.” * But some entomologists yet prefer the Paris green, London purple, or other forms of the arsenites. The reasons given are that they are safer and less liable to burn the foliage than pure arsenic. But the writer can see little force in this argument, as John N. Dixon and others have found that one pound of white arsenic to four hundred gallons of water will do the work with the canker- worm, codling-moth, strawberry-worm, and tent-cater- pillar, and this will not harm the tenderest foliage. Until recently entomologists have not favored the use of pure arsenic, but the Paris green and London purple are so variable in quality as sold by druggists, and white arsenic is relatively so pure, that definite proportions can easily be secured. So a change in opinion is now evident in several States. At this time the spraying calendars give such statements as that of Professor Summers, who says: ‘* As white arsenic, as found in the market, is little liable to adulteration, this insecticide is less liable to vary in strength than Paris green. The cost of materials is also somewhat less, and when an arsenite is to be used in such large amounts that the trouble of preparing is not an important item we strongly recommend the use of this compound.” But lime or sal soda is now used in solution with the arsenic. ‘This changes the color of the stock * Premium essay by Hon. J. N. Dixon, published in Jowa Horti- sultural Report, 1882. ; ” SPRAYING FOR INSECTS AND FUNGI. 147 mixture, making it safer to store for further use, and it is claimed that it is less liable to burn the foliage. The approved formula now used is to boil in the open air one pound of white arsenic and four pounds of sal soda with one gallon of water until dissolved. This kept in a jug labelled <‘ Poison ” constitutes the ‘‘ stock mixture.” When wanted for use add the milk of three pounds of fresh lime, strained to remove sediment, to forty gallons of water. Into the lime solution pour one pint of the stock mixture and mix thoroughly by stirring. This is the formula used in spraying for codling-moth, canker-worm, and all insects that eat foliage or fruits. In spraying with Paris green the formula used is one pound of Paris green and one pound of fresh lime in two hundred gallons of water. Even where the slaked lime water is strained this mix- ture is apt to clog the sprayer and its strength is not as uniform as in the use of the arsenic and soda, and the same is true at this time of London purple. . 157. Curculio of the Apple, Pear, Plum, Apricot, Cherry, and Peach.—The species of the curculio that penetrate the fruit of the apple, pear, plum, apricot, cherry, and peach are not identical, but their methods of working and treat- ment are nearly the same. ‘The apple and pear curculio does not often do much damage at the North, but in some of the Central States it is very destructive in the way of knotting ard distorting the fruit. The plum curculio also frequently feeds on the apple and its work is about iden- tical with that of the apple curculio. The plum curculio or “ Little Turk ” is the most serious pest of the plum orchard, and it also works on the cherry. The plum, prune, apricot, and peach usually drop the fruit that is perforated by the grub when the pit is reached. But the cherry does not drop, but comes to the front 148 _ HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. in the hands of the user under the name of ‘‘ wormy cherries.” A common habit of all the curculios is, when alarmed, to draw up as if dead and drop to the ground. Advantage is taken of this habit in the way of jarring the tree, caus- ing the dropping of the insects on sheets spread beneath during the first stages of fruit development. In the larger fruit sections an inverted umbrella-like frame covered with cotton cloth, divided in the centre so as to pass the stem, is rolled on low wheels under the trees for the reception of the curculios. The morning and evening are found to be the most favorable periods for this work. In some of the largest commercial stone-fruit orchards of New York, Ohio, and Georgia this plan keeps the curculio in check with less trouble and expense, it is claimed, than can be done by spraying. But spraying is relied on by other growers of the cherry, plum, and peach. The trees are sprayed, just as the buds begin to expand, with arsenite of lime solution (156). This reaches some of the adult insects under bark scales, and many are on hand to feed on the first opening leaf and fruit buds. The second spraying with the same mixture should be given soon after the blossoms have fallen. If rains follow a third spraying may be required. In spraying with the arsenite of lime for codling-moth and curculio we are also waging a successful warfare -on the canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, bud-moth, and about all leaf- or bud-eating insects. 158. Spraying for the Bark and Leaf Aphis. Kerosene Emulsion.—The scale insects, plant-lice, and the true bugs (/eteroptera) that suck their food from the leaves or young growth of plants and trees cannot be con- trolled by spraying with the arsenites or other poisons used for the bud- and leaf-eating insects. The leading remedies SPRAYING FOR INSECTS AND FUNGI. 149 - for this numerous family are whale-oil soap, kerosene emulsion, and infusions of and powdered tobacco. But the standard solution that can be used profitably on all types of the sucking insects is kerosene emulsion. Kerosene has been used for many years in a pure state by carefully applying it to the insects or wiping them from the leaves and stems with a cloth moistened with kerosene. The next move was to mix it with water for spraying. But not until soap or oil was added to the solution could a perfect mixture of the oil and water be effected. It is said that dealers in kerosene, when it commanded a higher price than at present, first made the discovery that oil and soft water would mix when a solution of soap was added. The use of the kerosene emulsion was quite common, when the writer visited west and east Europe in 1882, for the destruction of the several species of aphis in greenhouses, and at Proskau in north Silesia it was used for the bark and leaf lice of the orchard fruits. In this country the first one to use it known to the writer was Professor Cook, then professor of entomology at the Agricultural College of Michigan. During a visit to the Michigan station in 1878 the writer was shown the beneficial effects of spraying for sucking insects with a mixture of kerosene and soapy water. The usual formula for making kerosene emulsion is to shave one half pound of ivory soap or whale-oil soap in one gallon of soft water and boil until dissolved. The kettle is removed from the stove and while boiling hot two gallons of kerosene are added that has been previously warmed in the sun or ina warm room. The mixture is then agitated by active stirring for ten minutes. If not very hot the mixing is often effected by forcing it through the sprayer back to the vessel until it is creamy in color and will flow evenly down the sides of the pail or tub. 150 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL, This stock mixture is diluted for use with from eight to fourteen parts of additional water. ‘The apple- and pear-leaves when mature will bear an admixture to the stock of twelve or thirteen parts of water. But the stone fruits require a weaker solution of fourteen parts of water. In the dormant period spraying for aphis, to reach the eggs, only enough water is used to make it possible to use the solution in the sprayer. 159. Leaf Aphis of Apple, Plum, Cherry, and Peach.— These are not identical species, but their habits are about the same. With the apple the winged lice lay their eggs around the buds of the new growth, which hatch into green lice as the buds begin to expand in the spring. It is about the same with the leaf and young-twig aphis of the plum, cherry, and peach, as the eggs are exposed at the base of the buds prior to the starting of growth in the spring. The remedy is spraying in the dormant period with | kerosene emulsion (158) made very strong, followed by spraying with the ordinary emulsion when the young lice appear. Still later the nearly mature insects can be reached that have escaped the first spraying by turning the nozzle upward to reach the under side of the leaves on the new growth. The same solution can be used in spraying for leaf lice in the greenhouse, garden, and nursery, but cases may occur, as with the cabbage aphis, where hot water or pyrethrum is to be preferred. 160. Spraying for Scale Aphis.—This is a common trouble with the apple orchards in about all parts of the Union. During the summer little can be done, as the insect is well housed under its scale. In the spring the scales cover a number of light-colored eggs that usually at the North hatch in May. When exposed the young insects may be seen in great numbers on the younger growth. SPRAYING FOR INSECTS AND FUNGI. 151 Before growth starts in the spring the eggs can be largely destroyed by spraying with kerosene emulsion made very strong. The kerosene and soap solution penetrates the scale and destroys a large proportion of the eggs. When the young insects appear in May the spraying is repeated with the emulsion of ordinary strength. This plan of spraying also destroys the woolly aphis and the scurvy scale-louse. It is not yet certain that the spraying in the dormant period with raw petroleum of good quality or a good grade of petroleum will harm the trees. The kill or cure methods of warring with the San José scale has seemed to demonstrate that petroleum and kerosene are not as harmful to the bark and buds of trees as had been suspected, and this agrees with the writer’s experience on a smaller scale. But we have had more favorable expe- rience on dormant trees in killing scale insects with kero- sene and soap emulsion made with larger proportion of kerosene than usual than with the modern pumps using a mixture of kerosene and water, and far better than with whale-oil soap. With proper care the scale-lice of the deciduous fruits can be controlled largely by spraying in the dormant season. But the different scale insects of the citrus fruits are not so easy to manage, as the persistent foliage pre- vents the use of kerosene or petroleum strong enough to penetrate the scales without injury to the leaves. Some of the least harmful species are kept in check .by spraying when the insects are exposed with kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap, or the resin solutions. But where the San José scale joins forces with other species the tent system with fumes of hydrocyanic-acid gas is the only certain method. In California parties with proper outfit make a business of clearing orchards of scale insects by this method. Nursery stock is now also fumigated with this 152 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL gas in tight boxes or houses since the advent of the San José scale east of the Rocky Mountains. 161. Some Miscellaneous Insects——The amateur and beginner in fruit-growing and home-making should keep in mind the fact that about all our injurious insects may be divided into two general classes. (1) Those that have jaws for eating, such as the strawberry-worm, canker- worm, curculio, caterpillars, and beetles can be destroyed by spraying with poisons. (2) The scale insects, plant lice, true bugs, mosquitoes, and all insects with mouths fitted for sucking their food from the inner tissue of leaf, bud, or young wood must be destroyed by some applica- tion such as kerosene applied on their bodies or by some deadly gas. Kerosene in emulsion of soap has become a leading remedy, as it is about the only spray that will penetrate the scale, and it paralyzes the young insects as soon as it touches them. In some cases it is not advisable to use poisons to destroy the gnawing insects. As an instance, the cabbage- worm cannot be attacked by poisons when the worm is most active. So gardeners use very hot water to destroy the worms and others use a repellent that the butterflies will avoid, such as water that has stood on coal tar until well scented. As the worms are slimy, others dust the worms with wheat flour that kills them by closing their pores. Hellebore powder is also used, as it kills the worms and is said to lose its strength when exposed to the air. The currant and gooseberry worm is destroyed by large growers by spraying with weak arsenite of lime when the leaves are beginning to expand and when the leaves are about fully grown. But the amateur is apt to wait until the fruit is half grown. In this case hellebore in powder, or mixed with water, can be used as above stated. If the SPRAYING FOR INSECTS AND FUNGI. 153 arsenic solution is used early it is safe, and it destroys about all other leaf-eating insects of these fruits. The strawberry worm is checked in its work by spray- ing with a very weak solution of arsenic and lime if the work is done when the first scattering holes appear in the. leaves. If neglected until the fruit is half grown it will not answer to spray with poison, but its work may be prevented the next season by mowing, and when dry, burning over the patch, which usually requires a sprinkling of straw. The strawberry-leaf roller is difficult to reach with poisons before the crop ripens. But spraying in August will kill the second brood and their career for the next season will be stopped. In applying the different classes of remedies the use of a standard work on spraying will prove an aid to the close-observing cultivators; such a work includes insects that only become numerous in localities over the Union. The flat-headed and round-headed borers of fruit trees (130) have been treated in times past with sprays and washes to keep the insects from the trees, but all have been failures in whole or in part. The sure treatment is to crush them in their burrows with a flexible wire as stated and use the soap wash as a repellent. 162. Spraying for Fungous Diseases—The Bordeaux Mixture.—It is an interesting fact pertaining to the now general use of the sulphate of copper for controlling the fungous diseases of cultivated plants that its value for such use was discovered by chance (155). In south France near the city of Bordeaux, grape-vines near the highway suffered loss by stealing of the ripe fruit. The practice soon became quite general of sprinkling the foliage near the highway with a solution of milk of lime and sulphate of copper. This colored the leaves and gave rise to the belief that the fruit was poisoned. It was soon noticed 154 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. that the vines thus treated were relatively free from mildew. Since that time the use of what became known as the Bordeaux mixture has rapidly extended to all parts of the earth occupied by civilized man, and is used for controlling nearly all fungous diseases of the orchard, vineyard, small fruits, flowers, and garden crops. The most approved formula for making the Bordeaux mixture at this time is to dissolve four pounds of copper sulphate in two gallons of hot water in a wooden pail with constant stirring. When dissolved pour the solution into the barrel or tank to be used, adding five gallons of hot water. Then slake four pounds of fresh lump lime thoroughly and strain the milk through a brass strainer—with not less than thirty meshes to an inch—and while hot pour it into the tank with hot water enough to make a total of fifty gallons. In using, the solution must be kept stirred to prevent clogging the sprayer and to secure an even distribution. Some successful users throw away what is left and clean the tank and pipes and make a fresh supply at each suc- cessive spraying. But others—including the professional sprayers—keep on hand a stock solution of the sulphate and slaked and strained lime in separate barrels. For the stock solution one pound of sulphate is dissolved in one gallon of hot water. In this proportion a barrel of the solution will keep through the season if well covered, and the same is true of the milk of lime in a separate barrel. In use the lime and sulphate are mixed in the proportions wanted for varied uses as noted in succeeding sections. 163. Apple and Pear Scab. See perhaps the codling-moth the scab is now the most destructive and widely spread drawback to apple culture and to a less extent of the pear. It is now so general in commercial SPRAYING FOR INSECTS AND FUNGI. 155 apple-growing centres that every dealer and grocer in the Union is compelled to handle scabby Baldwin and most other leading commercial varieties. The fungus is first seen on the leaves in the form of smoky-brown patches. But it soon extends, changing the color and healthy expression of the foliage. The spores live over winter on the fallen leaves and on the branchlets of the trees. Hence it is advisable to plow under or to rake up and burn the leaves. In spraying it is usually advised to use the standard Bordeaux mixture (162) for the first as well as the after treatment. But the best results have come from spraying before the trees start growth with a much stronger mixture. Our practice has been to use six pounds of the sulphate to the milk of four pounds of lime, with water to make a total of fifty gallons. After the blossoms have fallen the standard mixture may be used. In dry seasons the two treatments are sufficient with most varieties. But in neighborhoods where the scab is prevalent it is better to spray not less than four times, with intervals between of from ten to fifteen days. The spraying for scab will also answer to keep down the bitter rot, powdery mildew, and to some extent the apple rust. 164. Brown Rot of the Stone Fruits.—In the dry air of the prairie States the brown rot or fruit rot of the stone fruits is mainly confined to the foreign plums and the peach. It rarely attacks the native varieties of the plum, and the writer has never observed it on the Morello cherries. But in the moister air of the States east of the lakes it is a prevalent and serious trouble of the plum, prune, apricot, peach, and often the cherry. But for- tunately it can be largely controlled by the methodic use of the Bordeaux mixture. The first spraying is done 156 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. before the buds start, using one pound of the copper sul- phate dissolved in fifteen gallons of water without adding milk of lime. When the buds are swelling use the ordinary Bordeaux mixture. When the leaves are fully expanded it is best to use a weaker mixture on all the stone fruits to prevent burning of the leaves. ‘Two pounds of sulphate, two pounds of lime, with fifty gallons of water, has given best results. To prevent the show of lime on the fruit of the plum and peach, the last treatment is given with a solution of ammoniacal carbonate of copper (165). The treatment for the rot is equally effective in con- .trolling the leaf spot or blight which, east of the lakes, often causes the premature dropping of the leaves of the foreign plums, and winter injury to the trees. The same treatment also is mainly a preventive of what is known as ‘‘ plum pocket.” This is a disease to which some of the native plums are subject, which causes the fruits to assume the form of enlarged hollow bladders or pockets. But in addition the pockets should be picked and burned and also the swellings found on the leaves and twigs. In the rot of the stone fruits it is also a material aid to pick off and burn the dried fruits that hang on the trees after the leaves have fallen. The black knot of the plum and sour cherry is also controlled by spraying as practised for destroying the rot of the stone fruits, with the addition of shaving off the knots as they appear and applying kerosene to the cut surfaces. 165, Fungi of the Grape and Small Fruits.—The differ- ent forms of rot of the grape, especially in the South, such as black rot, brown rot, and ripe or bitter rot, are con- trolled by a similar system of spraying. The usual plan has been to begin the spraying after the diseases begin to SPRAYING FOR INSECTS AND FUNGI. 15? appear. But recent experience favors the first spraying with the double strength Bordeaux mixture before growth starts in the spring and continue with the ordinary strength at intervals of two weeks until the fruit is two thirds grown. During the seasons when the black rot is specially common the later applications, to prevent color- ing of the fruit, are made with ammoniacal carbonate of copper, which is made by dissolving one ounce of carbonate of copper in one pint of strong ammonia. “When used it is diluted with from eight to ten gallons of water. This solution is used in place of the Bordeaux mixture on ornamental plants and in all cases where the standard mixture is liable to color fruits. The powdery mildew of the grape is a surface-feeding fungus and easier to manage than the rots. If it occurs in connection with the rots the ordinary spraying will destroy it. But at the North and in the West it often occurs as a single disease. In such cases the flowers of sulphur is often used in a dry state by dusting, or by spraying with sulphured water. If it occurs when the fruit is well advanced the carbonate of copper dissolved in ammonia is used. As with the raspberry the anthracnose or bird’s-eye rot of the grape is the most difficult disease to treat success- fully. This is an old disease of the grape in the wine- producing districts of Europe. The European treatment has proven successful where tried in this country, but it must be methodically practised. In the dormant season the canes, vineyard-stakes, and wires are washed with a solution of water, iron sulphate, and sulphuric acid. The formula is one hundred parts of water, with as much iron sulphate as the water will dissolve. To this mixture one part of sulphuric acid is added. It is applied with swabs or brushes with quite long handles and it blackens every- thing it touches. It needs care, as it is caustic if it gets 158 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. on hands or clothes. In the growing season the usual sprayings for the rots are also favorable for keeping down the ravages of the anthracnose. The strawberry-leaf blight and mildew can be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture as soon as growth starts in the spring and repeating it when the blossoms are about to expand. If the diseases are well established it is best to mow and lightly burn over the plantation after picking-time. But some mow and rake the litter from the ground before burning, as they believe the burning an injury to the plants, which it isin a dry time. But when the ground is moist we have noted no injury, even where a light straw covering was given to assist in burning. The anthracnose of the raspberry is most easily attacked by spraying with very strong solution of copper sulphate before the leaves expand in spring, followed with the Bordeaux mixture every two weeks until midsummer. But the writer’s long experience favors the destruction of plantations attacked by anthracnose or red rust and to plant on fresh ground, if possible, where the plants are sheltered from the direct sweep of the westerly winds. CHAPTER XIII. THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINCE. 166. Origin of the Cultivated Apples.—From prehistoric times the apple has been a leading cultivated fruit of the temperate zones. Poets and writers have sounded its praises, and it is mingled with the mythology of about all parts of Europe and Asia. The common statement and belief as to its origin agrees with that of Professor Bailey, who says: ‘‘ The apple has come from two original stems. All the common apples are modifications of Pyrus malus, a low, round-headed tree with thick and fuzzy irregularly dentate short-stemmed leaves and fairly compact clusters of woolly-stemmed flowers. The crab-apples are derived from Pyrus baccata, commonly known as the Siberian crab. Hybrids between these species have given the race of large-fruited crab-apples of which the transcendent is an example. This race is known to botanists as Pyrus prunifolia.” This statement may need some revision and change. In east Europe the cultivated apples seem to be quite as ancient as in west Europe. The writer in connection with the late Charles Gibb investigated this question quite closely in 1882. Of the apples of that region Mr. Gibb wrote on his return: ‘‘The Volga is a very old apple- growing region. I am told that old poems written about the time when Ruric was upon the throne at Kiey—about 159 160 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. 850—alluded to this. The maiden, whose neck was like a swan and whose lips were like cherries, had cheeks like a Volga apple. The high color of the apples of this dry region is very striking. A wild, rugged race of apples has been grown here for many centuries by seedling produc- tion, until we have a number of seedlings much alike in tree and fruit and hence it is that the name Anis is but a family name with many varieties.” The Marquis Pauluci in the province of Kazan, on the 57th parallel of north latitude, was able to prove to the writer from documents in the family possession that apples similar to or identical with some varieties on his grounds were grown in that vicinity eight hundred years ago. Beyond doubt the apples of the great east plain of Europe and north central Asia were developed by culture, selec- tion, and natural crossing from the indigenous wild applies yet common in the forests. Dr. Henfrey speaks from personal observation in his geographical distribution of plants of the wild apple-trees of east Europe towering up to the height of other forest species, and Loudon, who was exceedingly careful in dividing true species, had no hesitation in placing the native apples of east Europe as a distinct species under the name of Pyrus Astrachanica. Central Asia also has the same high-colored type of cultivated apples peculiar to the Volga region. Dr. Albert Regel, who spent nine years .in Turkestan and north central Asia, speaks of ‘‘ Fiery- tinted harvest apples” and ‘‘ Large round apples of beauti- ful carmine color and with bloom like a peach or plum.” He also speaks of a winter variety in northwestern Badakshan as ‘‘ A roundish-pointed apple of beautiful color, firm flesh, and delightful flavor.” Dr. Regel also states that high-colored varieties with rich bloom seem to have been anciently cultivated as indicated by the old } THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINGE. 161 records in the city of Bokhara. Such facts indicate that -Henfrey was right in assuming two natural centres of plant distribution on the eastern continent, one in west Europe and the other in east Europe and north central Asia. The fact can be sustained that most of the apples of west Europe and the United States. and Canada are mongrels. They may in a broad sense all belong to one species, but they are a mingling of races. The close observer can find in France, Germany, and over west Europe dozens of varieties introduced from east Kurope and many dozens of varieties that show in leaf, bud, and color and bloom of fruit traces of European and Asiatic crossing with the typical west European Pyrus malus. In the United States it isa suggestive fact that what are called the iron-clad varieties in the North and Northwest all show the birth-marks of direct introduction or descent from the type or race which Loudon classed as Pyrus Astrachanica. Even such standard varieties as Ben Davis, Gano, Baldwin, and Westfield seeknofurther show in leaf, tree, and fruit an admixture with the anciently culti- vated varieties of east Europe and central Asia. In the same way it is not wholly correct to say that our Siberian crabs are all derived from the Pyrus baccata of Siberia. In 1882 we found in far east Europe varieties of crab-apple with fruit growing in clusters quite as large as the hyslop or transcendent, with large leaves as fuzzy on the under side as the wild Pyrus malus of west Europe. The well-known Virginia crab belongs to this race, and we have reason to believe that several of our large crabs that fruit in clusters are crosses of this race with the Siberian crab. It is not as easy to secure crosses between the Pyrus baccata and the common apple as is usually sup- posed. Thomas Andrew Knight, of England, carried on 162 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. experiments in this line for many years. His object was not to secure additional hardiness, but to infuse more character and sprightliness into the common varieties. The outcome was in no case a union of the two species. The seedlings all divided into two classes. Those that bore in clusters were crabs and those that had the required size and fruited on spurs were common apples, in no case of desirable quality. The only varieties yet retained are the Siberian Harvey and the Foxley. These are very small, nearly round, and grow in clusters like the crabs. A study of this subject from the Kew Gardens at London to the Volga bluffs in Russia will lead to the belief that at least some of our large crabs are crosses of the crabs of east Europe with what we call the Virginia crab and varieties of this type. 167. Our Native Crab apple.—The most valuable native species of the United States is Pyruws coronaria. As found in the prairie States it differs some in habit of tree and flower and fruit, and Professor Bailey has given it as a dis- tinct species under the name of Pyrus Joensis. This race’ as found in the early days of prairie settlement in the hazel-thicket borders of native timber belts varied in habit of growth, leaf, and size of fruit fully as much as our native plums. Some of the selected varieties attain fair apple size under cultivation. On the college grounds at Ames, Iowa, can be seen a tree loaded every year with fruit over two and one half inches in diameter and of nearly the shape of a medium-sized Rhode Island greening. This ' variety is known as the Fluke crab. Mr. B. A. Mathews, of Knoxville, lowa, grows for market a variety fully as large as the Fluke. In fact, in about every neighborhood of the prairie States—especially in Iowa—can be found isolated trees and sometimes several trees together of these large-fruited varieties. Professor Bailey expresses the be. THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINCE. 163 lief that these varieties, with leaves approaching in size and structure those of the common apples, are hybrids with the latter class. But this cannot be true, as in the early days (1856) on the writer’s farm in Benton County, Iowa, several trees on a thicket border bore bright yellow crabs larger in size than any Soulard we have since grown, but not quite as large as the Fluke. At that early date there was not a bearing apple-tree in that vicinity, and the trees bearing the large yellow apples dated back to the years when the buffalo ranged over Iowa prairie. ~ These select varieties attain quite large size under culti- vation. On the college farm at Ames may be seen two trecs of Soulard that are larger in stem and have greater spread of top than any Duchess apple-tree of their age in this region. But the quality of fruit of these large-fruited varieties is not as varied as has been claimed. All of them have the smell and flavor of the wild crabs of our thickets. As to improvement in size and quality by crossing with cultivated varieties our long experience is given in section (106). In all cases we were able to secure crossed fruits, as was evidenced by change of form, but without a single exception the fruits were destitute of perfect seeds. All attempts to bud or graft it with scions of our cultivated apple have resulted in poor union of the woods, soon broken off by storms. The Bethlehemite for a time seemed an exception. 'Top-worked on the native crab this variety soon came into bearing and at first the fruit was of the usual size and flavor. But the size in four years became smaller and the flavor was decidedly disagreeable, resulting, as afterwards ascertained, from poor union of the wood of the two species. By culture and selection it is now evident we can increase the size of our best varieties, but the peculiar per- fume and a stringency of flesh will be apt to be retained in 164 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL, large part for many years. Yet in the quite-distant future we may develop from this hardy species a race of apples that will become favorites for many purposes and possibly for dessert use. At this time Mr. B. A. Mathews, of Knox- ville, Iowa, grows the Mathews crab for market, and reports that he sells it for one dollar per bushel when orchard varieties are selling for from fifty to seventy-five cents. But the use made of them by purchasers is to mix with common apples for culinary use to impart a quince flavor. 168. Dwarf Apple-trees.—In the growing of handsome and good summer and fall apples in private gardens dwarfing on paradise or other dwarf stocks is often an advantage, as they can be grown along drives or even walks. Section (145) gives hints on shaping and the selection of stocks for different parts of the country. Such varieties as Longfield, Anisovka, Red Astrachan, Jersey sweet, Porter, Baldwin, Dyer, Benoni, and sweet Bough form fine rounded tops without much attention to pruning. If not wanted along roads or paths they can be given a small plot of ground where they can be planted about as closely together as the grape and closer than sour cherries and the plums. They come into bearing as soon as the grape and when six years old usually bear a bushel each season. At the West we have known the Longfield on Pyrus toringo stocks to bear one bushel of fruit four years after planting in garden. ‘The needed pruning is given in section (145). 169. Propagation of the Apple.—Within recent years the growing of apple-seedlings has become a_ business carried on by specialists. In the prairie States for many years they have been grown as a leading crop for sale to propagators in all parts of the Union. This extended business has grown out of the fact that the strongest roots and most numerous nitrogen-feeding fibres are found on THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINCE. 165 seedlings grown on the virgin soils of the prairies. As this class of land has become scarcer in Illinois and Iowa, the business has mainly receded westward, and now the main supply is grown in Kansas and Nebraska. Where grown on older land, the best grade of seedlings is developed on newly broken sod-land, or following a rotation of clover or other legumes. -When grown on old land with a short supply of humus the seedlings do not attain the needed size for root-grafting when one year old, and the cell-structure of the roots does not develop as perfectly as when grown on new land. The seed ised commercially is largely washed from the pomace thrown out from the cider-presses in apple-grow- ing centres. As the apples used includes the bruised specimens and windfalls of the large-sized commercial varieties that develop weak seeds (4) this plan of saying seed cannot be commended for reasons given in section (71). The handling of the seedlings for winter-grafting is given in section (81) and propagation by budding and grafting are given in the same chapter. 170. Apple-planting and Management.—The planting and management of the orchard fruits have many common modes, methods, and principles in all climates. In Chapters VIII, IX, and X the leading essentials and principles of orchard management are given, and spraying is discussed in Chapter XII. The Tablo of Contents on the first pages refers to the varied sections. As examples: Selection of soil and slope, 96 and 97; orchard shelter, 99; washing of hill soils, 101; spacing and transplanting, . 113; alternating varieties in the rows, 122; culture, 125; cover-crops, 127; pruning, 143; and spraying (Chapter XII). 171. Varied Season and Behavior of Varieties.—As grown on varied soils, altitudes, and with varied heat and 166 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. ength of summer, varieties vary exceedingly in season of ripening, coloring, and distinctive form and markings. As to season, many varieties that keep through winter east of the lakes become fail apples when grown on the darker and richer soils and in the drier and hotter summer air of the prairie States in the same latitude. The drier and hotter air also gives richer coloring to all varieties, as shown at the expositions in competition with the same varieties grown in cooler, moister climates. Varieties that prove good keepers on their northern limits of growth also become late-summer or fall varieties when grown in the Southern States. This is specially true in the Mississippi valley. Many hardy varieties that keep well, if picked at proper time (136) on the 45th parallel, become late-summer varieties even in southern Iowa. Many varieties of the apple also have proven local in their adaptation to a given soil and climate. The Esopus Spitzenburg, as an instance, was originated at Esopus on the Hudson, where it has been grown commercially for fifty years and the fruit exported to Europe on a large scale. It is still the favorite variety at Esopus, but is only double-starred by the American Pomological Society in four of the pomological districts of the Union, three of which are west of the Rocky Mountains. The Belmont heads the list near Cleveland, Ohio, and fails at Cincin- nati. The Baldwin is a leading commercial variety, yet it is only double-starred in one pomological district east of the Rocky Mountains, running from the Atlantic west to Michigan. The Ben Davis reaches its highest development in the dry, hot summer air of the southwest prairie States and in some of the arid States. But at present, on account of its hardiness, heavy bearing, and size and beauty, it is the THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINCE. 167 one cosmopolitan winter variety grown more or less across the continent. A close study of the American pomological list will show that most varieties are relatively local in exact adaptation to soil and climate. In many cases varieties that fail to prove profitable in a given locality are materially benefited by top-working (89) on stocks adapted to the soil and climate. In Europe this plan is understood and practised to an extent not yet reached in this country. Different stocks are used often in one vicinity, on account of the varied soils, exposures, and elevations. Professor Bailey says: ‘‘It must follow that the promiscuous and wholesale dissemination of a few varieties over the country must eventually cease and that local and special sorts must constantly tend to drive out the cosmopolitan and general varieties. In this country it is only in the strawberry that the peculiarities of adaptation of varieties to soils have begun to be well understood; and this is rather because the subject is forced upon the attention by the short generations and constantly shifting plantations of the plant than from any investiga- tional motive.” Section (139) discusses the desirability of fruit-growing centres. In apple-growing for market, there is special gain in extended plantings in sections specially adapted to the development of some of the lead- ing commercial varieties, as it leads to systematic orchard management and the handling and sale of the crop to the best advantage. It aiso gives an opportunity for saving apples that would go to waste by drying, canning, and_ cider- and vinegar-making. The Pear, 172. History and Some of the Races.—High-grade pears for dessert- use may be said to be a modern development 168 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. in west Europe and the United States. Pears were culti- vated in the early days of the Roman Empire, but Pliny says of them: ‘‘ All pears whatever are but heavy meat unless they are well boiled or baked.” The real develop- ment of the pear for dessert use began in the seventeenth century. Belgium has the credit for the first remarkable advances of which Van Mons was the noted leader in the early part of the nineteenth century. The pears of west Europe were introduced into this country at an early day and at this time a large part of our best dessert and culi- nary varieties have been developed from the seed of the best European varieties and of the sand pear of China. All'modern writers make the statement that the modern dessert and culinary vafieties have come from these two sources together with their American-born seedlings. They also include the Russian varieties introduced by the writer as a race of the Pyrus communis of west Europe. In reaching this conclusion a third distinct race or species that seems to have been anciently developed in central Asia has been overlooked. Dr. A. Regel, after living in Sungaria and Turkestan nine years, wrote: ‘‘ The pear is more extensively cultivated in the Amu-Daria River dis- trict than in other parts of central Asia. The firm-fleshed pears of Suidum are famed for their rich aroma, and the large yellow pears of Sharsause are equally popular. The pears mainly grown in Darwas are a large green variety and a smaller sugary-sweet variety. In Shugnan there is a yellow pear which, on some trees in the garden of the Shah, develops singular forms like birds, and another variety with rarely rich juicy flesh and which attains con- siderable size.” He speaks of varieties of large size and good quality that seemed to have been anciently cultivated. As Dr. Regel was educated in Germany, he was acquainted with the pears originated by Van Mons and urged that the THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINCE. 169 ancient pears of Oriental origin were superior to any he had tested in Germany. These ancient good pears of central Asia seem to have been extended east of the Ural range, as the late Charles Gibb of Abbottsford, Canada, a month prior to his death in Cairo, Egypt, spent a few days in Mongolia. He wrote from thence to the writer, stating that he was surprised to find pears of large size and excellent melting, juicy quality grown on very large and old trees. All of the varieties had snow-white flesh, and it was claimed that they very nearly came true from seed. He enclosed a few seeds from which we have grown trees now in bearing. They differ some in season and size of fruit, but all have tender, melting, white flesh as good in quality as the Mongolian snow. The variety we have named Gibb bore quite a full crop last year in Ames, and at this writing it is laden with young fruit, when the tree has a diameter of stem of only two inches, four years after the planting of a one- year-old tree. It is of the size of Bartlett, pyriform in shape, and nearly equal to the Bartlett in quality. Without doubt this snow-pear race of north central Asia has had much to do with the development of the Russian pears, extensively grown on the bluffs of the Volga in Russia, by crossing with the indigenous species. Several of the Russian pears now growing in the Western States have the close-textured, shining, sharply serrated leaves of the Oriental snow-pears and also their white flesh. But. not one of them yet tested is as good in quality for dessert use as the snow-pears of Mongolia. The largest tree of any kind seen by the writer on the Volga, from the 57th parallel south to the Caspian Sea, was a pear-tree of this Oriental type on the bluffs of the Volga on the 56th parallel of north latitude. What is known to botanists as snow-pear (Pyrus nivalis), 170 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. as grown in Europe for perry making, is a small tree with small, roundish fruit, becoming sweet when over-ripe. But the Peli or snow-pear we have growing from Mongolia, makes a large tree, and the smallest fruit we have seen is pyriform and as large as Flemish beauty. The pears with silvery leaves and white-colored flesh of central Asia also attain very large size of tree and some of them bear white- fleshed fruits of. large size. As the orchard fruits of north central Asia, the valley of the Amur, Mongolia, and Manchuria become better known, the fact will be recog- nized that they are distinct races and possibly distinct species, and also that they were the most anciently culti- vated good fruits. Henry Lansdell, D.D., in his “ Rus- sian Asia” says on page 375 of volume I, that good fruits seem to grow wild in the Province of Zarafshan, of cherry, plum, apples, pears, and apricots that seem to have escaped from cultivation as planted by birds and animals or from deserted plantations that have run wild. . 173. Dwarf Pears——When dwarfed by budding on the Angers quince, given varieties of the pear bear earlier and the small trees can be admitted on smaller grounds, as with the dwarf apple, and it is easier to thin the fruit and attend to spraying, pruning, and other needed care. But amateurs are apt to neglect the heading back needed to keep the trees in dwarf form. If not headed back in the top they soon reach the size of some of the Oriental varieties. The needed heading back soon gives a broad spreading top, hence they should be planted not less than one rod apart. The buds are usually set low enough to permit covering the point of union from four to six inches. Some varieties unite well with the wood of the quince, while others make a poor union or fail altogether. Hence with some popular varieties, double working is practised. That is, the growth of varieties that make a good union THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINCE. pe wi are again budded or grafted with Seckel, Bartlett, and other sorts that fail on the quince. The main commercial variety worked on the quince for marketing is Duchess d’Angouléme. The first part of the name is now dropped. This large, irregularly shaped pear is shipped to the West in barrels and half barrels and is mainly used for culinary-purposes. Other commercial sorts are Louise Bonne, Anjou, Clairgeau, and Manning’s Elizabeth. 174. Propagation of the Pear.—Nearly all the pear- seedlings used in this country for propagation are imported or grown from imported seed. In either case the seed used is mainly saved in the perry-producing sections of west Europe. The variety used for perry in France, Germany, Italy, and Austria is almost exclusively the snow-pear (Pyrus nivalis). The fruit is small and near to Nature. . Hence it has plump seeds that produce vigorous stocks. Where the snow-pear is not used for perry-making, the writer found small austere varieties used of the Pyrus communis type that gave equally plump seed. Pear-seed- lings have been quite extensively grown on the virgin soils of the West, where they reach in one season a size suitable for budding or grafting. The plan of crown-grafting (86) and deep-setting in orchard is mainly practised in the West and budding (72) in the Eastern States. The pear seems to have a wider range than most fruits in the way of uniting with stocks not nearly allied botanically. Some varieties make a fairly good union with the quince, some with the apple, and others with the thorn, Juneberry, and even the bearberry (Pyrus arbutifolia). 175. Soil and Management.—In all parts of the world visited by the writer, Downing’s statement, that ‘the best soil for this fruit-tree is a strong loam of moderate depth with a dry subsoil,” holds good. Even in Belgium, 172 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. which is claimed to be the most congenial home of our best pears, the famous old trees of our day are on such soil, and in addition they have good air-drainage (97) to lower levels. Also in east and west Europe the wild pears that reach the size and height of their neighboring forest- trees are on relatively high land with dry porous subsoil. Yet we have some varieties, such as Besi de la Motte, Mongolian snow, and Gibb, that do well on ordinary drift soils of the West and on all soils where the apple thrives. In high, airy positions, with light-colored soil, the fire- blight (127) is also less damaging than on lower levels in protected situations, and the same is true of all bacterial diseases. The spacing, culture, spraying, and general management are discussed in the chapters on orchard management and spraying. 176. The Fruit and its Care.—To an extent not equalled by any orchard fruit of the temperate zones, the pear is grown mainly by specialists for marketing. In its com- mercial growing the most favorable soils and climates are selected and the management is under the care of skilled growers. Near the Atlantic sea-coast and in the great inland-lake region the pear is largely grown for market, while over a large part of the Union its cultivation is on a limited scale, mostly by amateurs who are willing to grow varieties that have proven adapted to their locality. The fruit of most varieties needs careful hand-picking while yet hard, and to be ripened under cover. If spread upon shelves, or on the floor of a dry, cool room, and not exposed to air-draughts, the fruit will slowly complete the ripening process with an added tenderness and melting quality not reached in open-air ripening on the tree. This is true of the summer pears, but to a still greater extent of the autumn and winter varieties. THE APPLE, PEAR, AND QUINCE. 173 The winter pears for culinary use also need care to pre- vent shrivelling. They are usually barrelled or boxed and kept in storage not too dry, such as would be suitable for storing the russet apples. The Quince. 177. Origin and Races.—The quince is an ancient fruit that has been changed in size and quality less than any one of our orchard fruits by modern selection, crossing, and culture. Regel says that the quince has been widely planted as far north as Tashkend and Koran in Asia, and De Candolle in his ‘‘ Origin of Cultivated Plants ” says it is found ‘‘ wild in the woods in the north of Persia,” which indicates its native origin in the far East. But it is also found wild in the Crimea and in the north of Greece. The varieties we grow are from west Europe, Japan, and China. It is more than probable that the varieties from as far north as Tashkend in Asia would extend its culture considerably to the north in the prairie States. Ten years ago it was difficult, if not impossible, to investigate, select, or send out seeds, scions, or trees from Bokhara, Tashkend, or other fruit-growing sections of north central Asia. But the recent control of this region by the Russian govern- ment and the extension of railroads across the great north plain to the west boundary of China, makes such work now possible, hence the historic notes given in these sec- tions on hardy orchard fruits and their origin. Downing says: ‘*The quince is a well-known hardy, deciduous tree of small size, crooked branches, and spread- ing bushy head.” This is true as to its being common and . hardy in New York and westward to Michigan. But in the great prairie region west of the lakes, few of our young people ever saw a quince-tree and most of them never saw 174 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL or tasted the fruit, unless obtained from a grocery, where it is sometimes found for sale as shipped in as are the citrus fruits. Commercially, the fruit is mainly grown east of the lakes, in some of the southeast States, and in Utah. 178. Propagation and Management.— The quince is easily propagated by cuttings of the new wood planted in the fall (58) and also from cuttings of the surface-roots (50). It is also propagated by mound-layering (51), and by root-grafting and budding of best varieties on the free- growing Angers quince. It is also often propagated by root-grafting on apple-roots. In this case the grafts are set down to the top bud of the scion to favor rooting above the point of union: The pruning of the quince is peculiar (151) and should be mainly in the way of thinning out the inner branches. If the growth is shortened the best bear- ing wood is taken away. It may be said that the fruit of the quince will never have the widespread consumption and uses of such orchard fruits as the apple, plum, cherry, peach, and orange. Its commercial status has not changed materially in modern times. It is not and never can be a dessert fruit, but it has been esteemed for the making of sweet preserves and marmalade for centuries. In time the marmalade may become commercial. If so, the growing of the quince will be more general in sections adapted | to its culture. CHAPTER XIV. THE CHERRY, PLUM, PRUNE, APRICOT, AND PEACH. The Cherry. 179. History and Classification This refreshing and wholesome fruit is by no means a modern development. In the fourteenth century we are told by Marco Polo and others, that good cherries were grown in the kingdom of Timur the Great in Asia. Koch in his ‘‘ Dendrologie ” speaks of wild and cultivated cherries—both sweet and sour —over the parts of Asia Minor he visited, and Dr. E. Regel, who lived in Turkestan nine years, says: ‘‘ Stately trees of the sweet cherry stand near Karatag in the Hisser district. The original district for cultivation of the sour cherries in central Asia embraces all of west Turkestan from Tashkend and Kokham to the upper Amudaria and Afghanistan. Well-flavored, clear, red kinds are found in Baldshuan. In Shugnan the cherry juice is used as a cooling drink, but cherry brandy is unknown.” At the great commer- cial fair at’ Nishni Novgorod in 1883 the writer and | Mr. Charles Gibb were told by Asiatic merchants and traders that tall-growing sweet cherries and nearly sweet cherries of the Vladimir type were grown up to the 56th parallel of north latitude and eastward to the Ural Moun- tains, where water was obtainable. Botanically it is true that all cultivated cherries have originated, as stated by De Candolle, from two species which are yet found wild: 175 176 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. *«<(1) Prunus avium is tall, with no suckers from the roots, leaves downy on the under side, and the fruit sweet. (2) Prunus cerasus, shorter in growth, with suckers from the roots, leaves glabrous, and fruit more or less sour or bitter.” But in the centuries of evolution in Asia and east Europe, as well as west Europe, varieties originating from the two original species have been crossed and recrossed until any attempt to classify them botanically must prove unsatisfactory. On this subject Dr. Hooker says: ‘As with most plants which have been long cultivated it is a matter of difficulty, if not an impossibility, to identify the parent stock of the numerous cultivated varieties of the cherry.” Robert Hogg, the celebrated English pomolo- © gist, gave many years of study to a horticultural classifica- tion of the European varieties, and in his ‘‘ Fruit Manual,” he gives eight classes which are divided into eight races, as follows: Crass I. GEANS. Branches rigid and spreading, forming round-headed trees. Leaves long, waved on the margin, thin and flaccid, and feebly supported on the foot-stalks. Flowers large and opening loosely, with thin, flimsy obovate or round- ish ovate petals. Fruit heart-shaped, or nearly so. Juice sweet. ; Race 1. Black Geans.—F¥ruit obtuse, heart-shaped; flesh tender and melting; dark; juice uncolored. Black Eagle and early purple gean are examples of this class. Race 2. Red Geans.— Flesh pale; juice uncolored. Such as Downer’s Late and Early Amber. Race 3. Black Hearts.—Fruit heart-shaped; flesh half firm; dark; juice colored. Examples are Black Heart and Black Tartarian. THE CHERRY, PLUM, PRUNE, APRICOT, AND PEACH. 177 Race 4. Red Hearts or Bigarreaus.—Flesh pale; juice uncolored. Examples, Governor Wood and Elton. Crass II. GRIoTrsEs. Branches spreading at upright, or more or less long, slender, and drooping; leaves flat, dark green, glabrous beneath and borne stiffly on the leaf-stalks, large and broad in Class I and narrow in Class II; flowers in pedunculate umbels, cup-shaped, with firm and crumpled orbicular petals;. fruit round or oblate and sometimes in the Morello heart-shaped; juice subacid or acid. — Race 1. Black Dukes. —Branches upright, occasionally spreading; leaves large and broad; flesh dark; juice colored. Examples, Empress Eugenia and May Duke. Race 2. Red Dukes.— Flesh pale; juice uncolored. Examples, Belle de Choise, Carnation, and Late Duke. Race 8. Black Morellos.—Branches long, slender, and drooping; leaves small and narrow; flesh dark; juice colored. Examples, Double Natte, Cerise de Ostheim, and English Morello. . Race 4. Red Morello or Kentish.—Flesh pale; juice un- colored. Examples, Early Richmond, Early Red, Late Kentish, and Montmorency. With this system in our vest-pockets, the writer and Mr. Charles Gibb in 1882 were able to classify all cherries in their season of fruitage in going eastward from France through Germany, Austria, Poland, and Russia to the Volga. The names of the sour and sometimes the duke varieties were often misleading, but the Bunt Amarelle was plainly a Red Duke, as was also the Lutovka and the Black Amarelles, and the Weichsels with colored juice were plainly Morellos and those with uncolored juice and red color were as plainly Red Morellos or Kentish. It is true that such east European varieties as Brusseler Braune and 178 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. Viladimer with colored skin and juice differ in tree habit and texture of fruit from the English Morello, yet they do not differ as much as the apples or oranges that are classed together, and the same is true of all the Red Morellos of all parts of Europe with red skin and uncolored flesh and juice. After separating into two groups the main after differences in the Morellos is in hardiness of tree as grown in various parts of the Union and difference in quality for varied uses. 180. Propagation of the Cherry.—The selection of stocks and propagation by budding and grafting are given in Chapter VII and the transplanting, spacing, and after care in Chapters IX and X. The most important con- sideration in prairie propagation of the cherrry is that of selection of a hardy stock on which to bud or graft the hardiest known varieties. This is specially true north of the 42d parallel. As stated on prior page all varieties of the cherry take well by budding on our native bird-cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica) (71). At the experimental farm at Ottawa, Canada, during recent years, about the only cherry-trees that escaped root-killing were those on bird cherry-roots, and the same has been true in the prairie States. As Professor Bailey says, the bird cherry is quite a sprouter in its native localities. But when budded with the cultivated cherry we have seen but few sprouts on trees set twelve years in orchard. The draw on food-supply of the larger top and crops of larger fruit varieties seem to leave no reserve supply of nutriment for throwing up sprouts. But this only applies to the sections of our broad country where root-killing is frequent in open winters. Where the mazzard and mahaleb stocks are hardy they will continue to be the commercial stocks. 181. No Market Supply of the Cherry.— As we now have varieties of good quality for dessert use or canning in THE CHERRY, PLUM, PRUNE, APRICOT, AND PEACH. 179° about all parts of the Union it is a peculiar fact that our markets are not supplied except at a few local points, and in a small way in crates put up on the west coast for dessert use at prices beyond the reach of the masses. As Professor Bailey says: ‘‘The cherry is not cultivated as a leading industry east of the Rocky Mountains except in western New York, where the sour varieties are grown for canning. The sweet cherry is confined mostly to door- yard and fence-corner plantings. Sour kinds are found in orchard blocks in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, and Nebraska.” It is true that relatively small orchards are found in all these States. Yet itis also true that such orchards are far apart as a rule and the cherry is rarely found in market for family use, as is the case with all other orchard fruits. There is no reason for this, except that as yet the com- mercial planting of the cherry is neglected, especially west of the Great Lakes. Even in the small city of Ames, Towa, fifty varieties of fine cherries were picked from healthy trees for exhibit at the Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition at Omaha. Yet the local demand for family canning is so poorly supplied that cherries are engaged a year in advance by many families. But this was true of the blackberry supply five years ago, while at this time every grocery in the Northwest has its blackberry supply following that of the strawberry. On hardy roots the identical varieties of the cherry used for roadside trees in Germany, north Silesia, Switzerland, and south Russia will mainly thrive as well in this country, and the writer repeats the desire of Charles Downing, who said nearly forty years ago: ‘‘ We wish we could induce the planting of avenues of this fine-growing fruit tree in our country neighborhoods, as is the beautiful custom in 180 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. Germany, affording ornament and a grateful shade and refreshment to the traveller at the same moment.” The Plum. 182. Its History and ClassificationThe plum is also one of the anciently cultivated fruits of central Asia. Regel says in the Gartenflora, published in Berlin: «‘The common plum of the district of Tashkend and of the more elevated settlements of the southern territory is the beautiful Bokharan variety. It is particularly abundant in Karaegin, and may be found also in the middle district of the Paendsh valley.” Henry Lansdell, D.D., also spent much time investigat- ing the fruits of central Asia. He reports finding an apricot-tree five feet and three inches in diameter of stem, and plums that were red, yellow, and black, << particularly well flavored,” on October 11th. De Candolle says: ‘‘It is very doubtful if Prunus domestica is indigenous in Europe. Authors who have seen the species in the east do not hesitate to say that it is ‘ subspontaneous.’ ” Some of the Asiatic plums seem to have been first introduced in Europe and planted on the Volga bluffs, as their culture there we were told goes back to the early history of that region. But varieties of the Prunus domestica type have been so long cultivated in west Europe that the race has changed in leaf, bud, and fruit materially from that found at this time in central Asia, which we know more nearly resembles the Chinese and Japanese plums (Prunus triflora). Several of the Russian plums we met with on the Volga had the triple bud, leaf, and pasty flesh of the Japan varieties, and we met with plums at the great fair at Nishni Novgorod, in 1882, that exhibited all the characteristics of the ¢riflora and domestica THE CHERRY, PLUM, PRUNE, APRICOT, AND PEACH. 181 species. Hence it can easily be believed that central Asia had two species or races of the plum or that one original species differentiated as it spread east and west from one centre. But the writer personally believes from varied evidences that central Asia had, in prehistoric times, two species. Not the least reason for the belief is that we have found it easy to cross the Japan varieties with our native plum (105), but we have not been able to cross the Americana varieties with any variety tried of the domestica race. [rete The domestica varieties of west Europe and their American seedlings are mainly grown commercially on the west coast. It is estimated by Stubenrauch that the acreage of the plum and prune reaches a total of 55,000 acres, of which seven-eighths is in prunes in California. The domestica varieties are also grown quite extensively in the Eastern States and in Michigan. In fact, in the Southern States, the arid States, and the prairie States, certain varieties are starred or double-starred locally by the American Pomological Society. In the northern part of the prairie States the advent of the Russian plums has extended the culture of the domestica race farther north without loss in size or quality. The Japan plums (Prunus triflora) have only been introduced within recent years, but their culture has been extended very rapidly in the lake region, in the South, and indeed in all the States where they have proven hardy. These Oriental varieties come into bearing earlier than the European sorts and, as a rule, mature their fruit earlier in the season. Usually they are rounder in form and the colors run to red and yellow. They sell well in market, but for dessert use at home and culinary purposes they are not equal to the best European or Russian varieties, as they lack in sprightliness and richness of flavor. 182 . HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. Selécted varieties of the native species of the North (Prunus Americana) and of the Chickasaw races of the South, have rapidly come to the front for general culture in the prairie States and to a large extent over the Southern and Eastern States. In estimating the quality of our best native plums under culture, we need some new rules for judging. They have ‘a juiciness and sprightliness peculiar to the race, and an invalid can eat, when fully ripe, several of them with satisfaction and without affecting a weak stomach, as do all the foreign varieties. Professor Goff also says truly: ‘*The choicest varieties, peeled and served fresh, are equal to the finest peaches.” Served on the table in this way they can be eaten freely by those who are obliged to use ripe foreign plums and prunes with care and in less quantity. For culinary use, if peeled and the pits rejected, such varieties as Wyant, Hart’s De Soto, Surprise, and Brittle- wood are superior in some respects to the domestica or Japan varieties for daily use. At first the decision of all educated palates will be in favor of the sweeter and richer foreign fruits. But the pleasant fruit-acid of the native soon wins favor, and it can be eaten as freely as the straw- berry or grape without the after effects of the free use of the foreign sorts. Another class of American plums is beginning to attract attention. As noted in section (105) the Americana varie- ties cross readily with those of Japan and produce a desirable union of the good points of each. The pasty flesh of the Japans is given more juice and character in the hybrids and the thick skin of the natives, with more or less acridity, is changed in texture and materially thinned, yet not enough to prevent safe transportation. To an extent not usual in hybridizing, about all the THE CHERRY, PLUM, PRUNE, APRICOT, AND PEACH. 183 hybrids yet produced have crisp, tender, juicy flesh with a perceptible flavor of the Japan varieties. The prepotency of the native species seems in every case to determine the hardiness of the hybrids produced, while the Japan species modifies and improves the fruit. The Chicasa or angustifolia and hortulana species of the South have given us by selection and crossing some valu- able varieties, such as Forest Rose, Maquoketa, and Golden Beauty, and some fine crosses with the Americana and trijlora species. : 183. The Prune.—Commercially, all the domestica varie- ties of the plum that can be. cured without removing the stone, and that will keep well after drying, are classed as prunes in the dried form. But the popular classification in prune-drying districts of Europe and America is to include in the prune list only the varieties of the long oval form, swollen on one side, and drawn out toward the stem with distinct and often deep suture and firm flesh, such as German prune, Italian prune, Ungarish prune, - and Prune de Agen. In France, parts of Germany and Austria, and in California, prune-growing and drying are carried on to an extent realized by few. It is said that from 1895 to 1900 the total of dried prunes produced in California reached an annual average of eighty-five million pounds. ‘The industry is still on the increase in sections favorable for drying. As the years go on the prune-pro- ducing areas will be mainly in districts favorable for drying in the open air, as is the case with the raisin-grapes. Partial cooking and drying in evaporation has been prac- tised in Europe and California, but it is more expensive and the product does not equal that produced by drying in such a climate as that of Arizona, or Fresno, Califor- nia. The light-colored, pitted prunes, sold as prunelles, are bleached with sulphur fumes so far as known to the 184 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. writer. The process is an injury to the quality, and experience warrants the belief that they are not as health- ful as properly dried commercial prunes with natural color. 184. Apricot.—The apricot seems closely related to the plum, as it buds and grafts readily and makes a good union of wood on stocks of some of the plum species, especially the Americana. But it also unites well with the wood of the peach and the domestica plums, but it fails to unite with the wood of the myrobalan stocks. In California it is propagated mainly on apricot and peach-seedlings by budding seedlings of the same season’s growth (74). It is one of the most beautiful of the stone fruits, with handsome heart-shaped shining leaves and large white or pinkish-white blossoms. The tree runs into variations as to hardiness. Some good varieties, such as the Shense and the best Russian varieties, are as hardy as most of the domestica plums, but all varieties have the fault of blossom- ing very early. Hence it can only be grown profitably where there is little danger from spring frosts. In its ancient home in central Asia, it has run into many varieties, varying, we are told, in season of blossom- ing and ripening of the fruit. Edward Regel gave it much study in the far East, and says: ‘‘ The earliest apricots of Tashkend ripen in May, and toward the upper Amudaria, however, the apricots hang on the trees until August. The beautiful and delicately flavored varieties of Badach- shan before being dried are stoned and then pressed into a long shape like dates.” It is more than probable that later blossoming hardy varieties can be secured from north Turkestan and Bokhara. Henry Lansdell, D.D., in his interesting work on central Asia says that at Samarkand he measured the stem of an apricot-tree, loaded with large and beautiful THE CHERRY, PLUM, PRUNE, APRICOT, AND PEACH. 185 fruit, that was five feet and three inches in circumference of trunk. Samarkand is about on the 40th parallel, at an eleva- tion of about two thousand feet above the sea. But it is in a river valley, near the centre of the broad continent, where the summers are hotter and drier than in Iowa and the winters will average much colder and drier. As this region is now accessible, the apricots of central Asia should be tested, especially the varieties latest to bloom in spring. 185. The Peach.—To an extent not realized with any of the stone fruits, the peach is now a commercial fruit in every village, city, and mining and lumber camp of the Union. Yet the immense supply comes mainly from a few peach-growing centres. Prominent among these are the Michigan fruit-belt, the Long Island and Chesapeake peninsular belt, the ridge lands of part of Georgia and Alabama, and the Pacific coast. Yet the peach is grown across the continent by home-growers and locally in a commercial way. As stated of other stone fruits we may, in the near future, secure hardier varieties of equal size and quality of fruit from the original home of the species in central Asia and northwestern China. Our commercial varieties are derived from the original introductions from southern Persia, and they do not differ materially in hardiness of tree or fruit buds. But equally good varieties we now know are found far north of Persia in central Asia. Albert Regel says: ‘‘In Darvas the peach forms tops thirty feet high, with broad spread of branches. The rough-skinned giant peaches of the garden of Kalaichumb are of unsurpassed lusciousness and aroma and most invit- ing bloom. They attain the size of an average apple. The number of rough-skinned varieties is considerable. The yellow peaches are especially sweet.” As the points here named are the original home of such 186 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL, hardy trees and shrubs as the Zleagnus angustifolia and Lonicera tartarica, with hot dry summers and cold winters, it suggests a possibility of extending the American peach- belt farther north. In support of this belief the writer obtained a few peach pits in 1883 from south Bokhara, from which have come such varieties as Bokhara No. 3 and No. 10, which have proven fully thirty per cent hardier than any of the old varieties. 186. Propagation of Plum, Prune, Apricot, and Peach. —These fruits are so nearly allied that they can be all budded or grafted on the same stock. And commercially the peach is often worked on Chicasa-plum stocks and the plum on peach. The apricot is sometimes grown on apricot-seedling stocks, but far more generally on domestica plum-seedlings. Commercially, the domestica and Japan plums are mainly budded on myrobalan stocks imported or home grown. The apricot is usually budded on its own seedlings or on seedlings of the domestica plums, and it also makes a good union with Americana stocks. In the prairie States, for reasons given in section (47), Americana stocks are largely used in propagating all plums, prunes, and apricots. In budding on this stock the buds are often inserted the same season the pits are planted (74). The summer budding (72) and winter grafting (86) of the plum, prune, and apricot are given in Chapter VII. The peach is usually budded on peach-seedlings at the North. The stratified pits (5) are planted early in spring, given good culture, and budded in August. The tops are cut back the next spring (75) to start growth, which makes a well-branched tree for orchard-planting the first season. In California and the South the long seasons permit the early planting of the pits and budding in June. The leaf- THE CHERRY, PLUM, PRUNE, APRICOT, AND PEACH. 187 bracts are left below the point of insertion and the top is only cut back partially until the bud is well started. These buds start late, yet they make sufficient growth to please nearly all planters the same season the pits are planted. The same plan is taken with the apricot in California as in summer budding; with growth the next season, the trees attain an unhandy size for orchard- planting. , In the prairie States the plum, prune, and apricot are crown-grafted (86) more generally than in other parts. By using a long scion and setting in nursery down to the top bud of the scion, and later setting in orchard four inches deeper, roots are secured from the scion, giving practically trees on their own roots. ‘These varieties, and also the cherry, are often grown from root-cuttings (50) in the West and North. 187. The Nectarine.—This fine fruit was once supposed to be a good species, as it seems to have been an anciently cultivated fruit. At the great commercial fair at Nishni Novgorod we saw tons of the fruit in fresh and dried form brought in by merchants from central Asia, and we were told that this had been a commercial product since the Fair was started, four hundred years ago. Regel says of the nectarines of central Asia: ‘*The smooth-skinned nectarines of this region, among which are the smaller yellow varieties, and very large red-cheeked ones, are of unusually fine flavor and melting flesh; but they are equalled by the nectarines of Samarcand. There are also small, sweet, yellow kinds which stand half-way between the rough-coated and smooth-coated peaches. These grow in the exposed region of Vaendsh.” It is now known that nectarines can be developed from the peach by bud variation and peaches have been pro- duced in the same way from the nectarine. 188 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. The nectarine is grown on the west coast for drying and canning, and in peach centres and most neighborhoods of the South it is grown ina small way. But it is nowhere a commercial product, except in east Europe and central Asia. In all respects it is propagated and managed the same as the peach. 188. Laying down Peach and Apricot.—In the cold North, even in the trying climate of Minnesota, the peach is grown by laying down for winter protection. In north Iowa many have secured good crops by dividing the roots - in planting so as to spread at right angles to the direction the trees are to be laid down. By digging down on the Fig. 63.—Peach trained for laying down. side’ the tree is to be bent over, the stem is crowded over when young, and when it gets larger the previous crowd- ing and bending and breaking of the roots favors the continuance of the operation. But a better plan is shown in Fig. 63. The trees are encouraged to make an upright growth the first year. A strong one-year-old tree should be about six feet high THE CHERRY, PLUM, PRUNE, APRICOT, AND PEACH. 189 when planted, and by pinching the lower limbs it may be made to grow two feet more in height when ready for lay- ing down in the fall. Late in autumn trim off all the side limbs and dig away the earth on the side it is to be turned over. By pressing at the crown and gently crowding the tree downward, the cane can be laid flat on the ground and pinned fast. Then cover with straw, with dirt enough on top to hold it in place.” The next spring the cane is left prostrate, but the point is turned upward and tied o a stake. The next fall the top attached to the stake is cut loose and turned to the right or left. The spring of the prostrate stem will permit a child to bend the top to the ground at this stage of growth. Later, as the stem attains greater size, it will need more strength, but if always turned in the same direction the top can be turned over after the tree has produced several crops. The prostrate stem and the crown must be covered as well as the tops. Before covering the top, cut back fully one-half of the new growth and take out also the weak inner shoots and the unripe twigs. For this plan of growing, select such varieties as Bokhara No. 3 or No. 10, that will ripen up the wood well in autumn. Farther south, where the wood is relatively unharmed in winter, but where the fruit-buds or blossoms are liable to be killed by frosts, spraying with milk of lime towards spring has proven an advantage, as the white color is less affected by heat-rays and the blossoming period is slightly retarded. But in north Silesia the writer observed a far better plan for retarding the blossoming period. In frosty localities amateur growers adopted the cordon system of training (146) of the cherry, plum, apricot, and peach, and after pruning in the fall the tops were covered with gunny sacking whitened with lime. The light-colored cloth prevented. the swelling of the fruit-buds during warm spells in winter 190 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL, and very much retarded the opening of the flowers in spring. | 189. Orchard Management.— The stone fruits are superior (33) and more liable to injury of blossoms by late frosts than the apple or pear. Hence the most profitable and regular bearing orchards of cherry, plum, prune, apricot, and peach are found where proximity to water lessens liability to damaging frosts in the blossoming period, or on relatively high land with good air-drainage (97). But it often happens that relatively low land has still lower levels of large extent in the near vicinity and may prove as free from frost as decided ridges. Budded trees on strong stocks usually are large enough for orchard-planting when one year old. But crown- grafted trees should remain in nursery until two years old. The distance apart and plan of planting are discussed in sections (115) and (117), and the alternating of varieties -in the row to secure proper pollination in section (122). Pruning (147 and 148) varies much in different climates and with different varieties. The native plums usually require but little pruning, and that in the way of shorten- ing rampant-growing shoots prior to the trees coming into _ bearing. When fruiting heavily the main essential in pruning is the cutting out of dead wood in the interior as it appears. The select native varieties are rapidly taking a place in the leading markets, but their habit of overbear- ing requires thinning if the best prices are to be realized. In California, and on rich soils in the South and East, the domestica varieties make too rapid growth when young. To secure the needed thickness of top to prevent the sun- burning of the wood and fruit they are headed back (148), causing a subdivision of the growing wood. As the trees get older less pruning is done, confining it mainly to the removal of dead wood and shortening the young shoots THE CHERRY, PLUM, PRUNE, APRICOT, AND PEACH. 191 making greatest length, to prevent unequal growth and to lessen the amount of bearing wood. The domestica plums and the apricot seem to bear exces- sive cutting back of the top. In California and the South the low stem is now the rule, and when first set out the stems are protected by burlap or whitewashing. But on very rich lands a kind of renewal system is adopted with the tops. As an instance, in the San Joaquin valley on the west coast the tops of young plum-trees and even apricots are not cut back. The long shoots formed are thinned to some extent and encouraged to bend over. These when loaded with fruit rest their points on the ground. When these long canes droop too low they are cut back to the main stem and others take their place for the succeeding crop. But trees worked in this way are not as long lived as those on higher land pruned in a sensible way. ‘The pruning of the peach and apricot in the commercial centres is often excessive (149), but ama- teurs in the Middle States usually go to the other extreme by mainly leaving Nature to have her own way. With few exceptions, growing out of soil conditions and climate, Downing’s instructions as given in (149) will apply well to-day in amateur peach- and apricot-growing, but not in commercial centres, as the shortening of all new growth gives more trouble and expense after the trees are in bearing than the rougher plan of thinning by cut- ting out superfluous branches. Where winter-killing of the new wood is liable to occur, the pruning is deferred until the buds start in spring, and the thinning is confined in the unfavorable seasons to the injured wood, being careful not to injure the live buds. 190. Thinning the Fruit.—As a general rule amateurs and home-growers of the domestica plums and _ peaches never think of thinning the fruit, even in seasons when 192 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. the trees are carrying double loads. The commercial growers also are more apt to neglect fruit-thinning than any other part of the work. Yet no work of the orchard pays in dollars and cents better than fruit-thinning, especially of the foreign plums and the peach. The thinning should be deferred until after the usual drop of the fruit in June, when it is as large as marbles. ‘The peach and domestica plums should be thinned so that no two will touch each other when of full size, and experienced growers thin so closely that those left are from four to six inches apart, depending on the strength and leafage of the branch. Some of the gains of thinning are that it favors annual bearing, the fruit is less liable to the attack of rot, and if methodically jacked the fruit sells at a much higher price. CHAPTER XV. SOME SUBTROPICAL ORCHARD FRUITS. 191. The Orange.—This is one of the most ancient fruits and one that has been most modified by culture, selection, and natural crossing. De Candolle says: ‘* Thanks to the discoveries of travellers in British India, they are able to distinguish the wild and therefore true and natural species.’? Those who have tasted the fair- looking ripe fruit of the bitter-orange seedlings, yet quite common from New Orleans south to the gulf, will have a feeble conception of the wild, bitter oranges from which the luscious, sweet varieties are supposed to have been developed during the ages in southern China. As a com- mercial fruit, found over the civilized world in every grocery, and even mining and lumber camps, it is a product of recent years. It first became commercial in parts of Europe and Asia. West Europe was first supplied commercially from the Azores. In 1878, C. P. Johnson says that 410,101 boxes of St. Michael oranges were received. in Great Britain, which at that time were all produced in the Azores. Great quantities of the orange, less esteemed as to quality, were received in west Europe from Sicily, Portugal, and Spain. At that time the supply of the United States was mainly from Jamaica ané the Bahamas, with a partial supply from Florida. Later orange-growing on a large scale was developed in Florida, 193 194 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL mainly near the St. Johns River, that gave us the cheapest and best oranges known at that time to history. The orange to reach its highest perfection must, like Indian-corn, have warm nights as well as days. Hence the great supply from that source from 1880 to 1894 mainly shut out competition during late fall and early winter over a large part of the Union east of the Rocky Mountains. But the great freeze of 1894-95 cut off this supply suddenly, as most of the bearing trees were killed down to the latitude of Tampa. The very conditions of air that favor the development of the best quality of the orange, and favor early ripening, brought about the great destruction of trees in 1894-95. The writer was in Florida at the time of the February freeze which caught the trees with young foliage and tender shoots in a condition of growth. Peach-, mulberry-, and even black wild cherry- trees were killed at the same time, and wistaria vines of many years’ growth that are hardy far north where the foliage is dormant in winter. The writer has experienced a greater degree of cold in the Salt River valley in Arizona that failed to injure the wood of orange-trees, except at the points of growth, and to cause the leaves to drop, as the trees in winter are in a relatively dormant and ripened condition. At present extensive orange-planting in Florida is con- fined to the parts south of the latitute of Tampa. Without doubt the denudation of the timber-belt of pine, sixty miles wide in southern Georgia, by the lumbermen, turpentine and rosin operators, and fire, has had much to do with the destruction of orange-trees in central Florida since 1886. Orange-growing on the higher table-lands of Cuba at this time is making rapid advances with many favoring condi- tions. During the winter of 1894-95, the writer left the frozen orange orchards of Flordia to investigate orange- SOME SUBTROPICAL ORCHARD FRUITS. 195 growing in west Cuba. Isolated trees and very smal] groves were found everywhere and without systematic cult- ure or care, and without irrigation or soil fertilizing, the trees were thrifty, healthy, and loaded with fruit of high quality. In the near future it is probable that early ripening oranges of high quality will be grown on the rich soils of Cuba that can be furnished at prices within the reach of the laboring classes: The early maturing of the oranges of south Florida and Cuba will not interfere to any great extent with the profits of orange-growing on the west coast, as the navel variety, and most others grown, should not be shipped before midwinter to secure best prices, as the cool nights much retard the ripening period. In California, orange-growing has made rapid advances within the past twenty years. The great commercial orchards on the mesa lands of south California have no equal in extent or methodic culture and care on this con- tinent, and few if any equals on the Mediterranean. Indeed, orange-growing on the foot-hills and mesa ridges, with air-drainage (97) to lower levels, has extended north in California to Placer County and to a less extent to the north part of the Sacramento valley. The enormous extent of the business in recent years can be gathered from the statement of Leonard Coates, who says that in 1897-98 and 1898-99, the orange crop of the west coast reached an annual shipment of four million boxes, filling 14,000 cars. It is not probable that this vast interest will decline for the reason stated above, that the cool nights favor late ripening. The use of this luscious and healthful fruit is on the increase. Cuba, Porto Rico, and south Florida will control the early market, but California will control — the market from midwinter to duty and will adapt ship- ments to this period. 196 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. 192. Orange Propagation.— The writer has had no experience in propagation except in the way of propagating the Otaheite variety as a house plant. But the results obtained by varied plans of propagation have been studied in the orange-growing centres of Europe, California, Florida, and Cuba, and the decisions of experts and growers have been compared. As with other orchard fruits the best results have been obtained in growing uniform, vigorous, and healthy trees by using stocks for budding grown from seeds of fruits near to Nature. In California, strong, vigorous stocks have come from seeds of the primitive oranges of Tahiti, and also from the sour oranges yet found around the old missions. In north California, hardy dwarf stocks have been used grown from the varieties imported by Gen- eral Chabot from north Japan. And also the relatively hardy and primitive Citrus trifoliata has been used quite extensively. The rough lemon also seems to give addi- tional hardiness and inherent vitality to varieties worked upon it. Since the freeze of 1894-95 in Florida and the Gulf States, the main stocks used have been the rough lemon and Citrus trifoliata. But farther south the sour-orange seedlings are mainly used. ‘Those who have had a long experience in propagating the northern orchard fruits are surprised to find the citrus fruits so tenacious of life and easy to propagate in so many ways. Aside from liability to fatal injury by severe cold, we have no northern fruit tree so tenacious of life. Even where the top is wholly killed by fire or freezing and the roots show no sign of life or growth for a year or more, vigorous sprouts will finally appear. It is even said that trunks of quite old orange- trees that have lain as ballast in the holds of vessels for a month or more have grown into fine trees when planted SOME SUBTROPICAL ORCHARD FRUITS. 197 as pollards. By cutting back the tops quite severely, large trees are planted successfully with roots cut so short that northern men are certain they will fail to grow. It also layers as easily as the grape, and often shoots resting on the ground will take root. When on own roots it is also propagated from root-cuttings (50). Summer layering (52) is also practised successfully, and this is a principal method of propagation by the natives of Cuba. — Where the Otaheite orange is used for stocks it is mainly * propagated by mounding (51). It also grows well from cuttings of the young wood with a heel of the two-year-old wood planted in the dormant period. But in propagating by mounding, layering, or cuttings, it must be remembered that the orange must have water. If neglected in a dry time they will fail. Skilful propagators even insert buds in the top of a long cutting which is planted with the bud just above the surface in boxes of earth kept well watered. In this case the buds remain nearly dormant until the cuttings take root. But all these methods are confined to home-growers. The commercial method is to grow seedlings in beds in well-prepared and rich soil. From the beds they are transplanted to nursery rows and budded when the bark peels well, as we manage the stone fruits at the North. The transplanting of the seedlings from the bed requires care, as the stocks have a full supply of leaves for rapid evaporation. A moist soil and cloudy weather are requisite for success in planting. Some growers familiar with northern methods plant the seeds in well-prepared rich soil in the nursery rows early and bud the same season, as practised at the North with the peach and plum (74). This plan gives trees large enough for orchard planting in less time than the common plan, but the root system is not so good if the tap-roots 198 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. are not cut, as noted in section (74). In budding, the old plan was to shove the bud upward, as practised sometimes in spring-budding at the North (76). But those who practise the usual plan of shield-budding have quite as good success and the bud can be inserted lower down. 193. Top-working the Orange.—In orange-growing cen- tres in this country the first plantings of the gulf region and west coast were mainly seedlings, and seedlings are yet set in orchard with view to top-working. In top- working old seedling orchards the usual plan is to cut back one half of the top at one time and insert buds in the young shoots that start from the stubs. This is repeated the next season on the other half. The top-working of young seedlings set in orchard for stocks is done by budding on the side limbs and at top the season after setting, as practised in top-working young apple-trees (89). Grafting is not often practised with the orange, for the evident reason that the leaves, even if cut back in part, are apt to dry the scion before it has time to unite with the stock. But under glass it is nearly as easy to graft as to bud the citrus fruits. 194, Cultivation.—During thé early period of American orange-growing in a commercial way the advice was given to keep up clean cultivation through the season and to rely mainly on commercial fertilizers. The natural out- come of this system has been the same as when practised with the deciduous fruits (125). With increased experi- ence it was found that humus as well as fertilizers must be given to the soil. Growers now recognize the need of adding barn-yard manure, straw, or other refuse, or to grow leguminous cover-crops (126), to give the needed fresh humus and nitrogen to the soil. The orange is a gross feeder that throws out wide- spreading roots with an unusual supply of root-hairs and SOME SUBTROPICAL ORCHARD FRUITS. 199 feeding-fibres. It must have water and a regular supply of vegetable humus to give the needed green color to the foliage and to carry a full crop of fruit to maturity. Experience has shown also that continued culture and the use of commercial fertilizers soon change the mechanical condition of the soil, and that a given supply of water is sooner evaporated than on soils well supplied with vege- table matter. In the fine orange orchards of Redlands, Riverside, Colton, and other orange centres of south California, many growers are now cultivating and watering in the usual way during the season of growth, but follow it with a cover- crop of the field-pea, cow-pea, or other legume to shade the ground during the period of fruit maturation and to add humus and nitrogen to the soil when plowed under the next spring. In the winter of 1897-98 the writer travelled many miles to observe the effect of this treatment on the color of the foliage and the perfection of the fruit. In all cases the orchards given the cover-crop treatment in connection with fifty pounds of potash and twenty-five pounds of phosphoric acid to the acre annually, were indi- cated afar off by the dark green of the foliage alone. On the foot-hill slopes of the Salt River valley in Arizona the observed benefit of this system was still more apparent, | as the cover-crop seemed to bring about a ripening of the wood prior to danger from frost that prevented much damage to leaves or points of growth when cultivated orchards were defoliated. 195. Pruning the Orange.—The most approved plan of pruning in European and American — orange-growing centres is to form a low head and compact top when the tree is young and up to the first stages of bearing. In sransplanting the tree is trimmed to a straight shoot, as practised with the peach in Georgia, and tying to a stake. 200 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. All shoots that start above the bud are allowed to grow at first. This gives shade and favors the growth of the lower part of the stem. Asa rule, the young tree is also shaded at first by stakes stuck on the south side. With a thick top the lower branches always give the first fruit. But as the top spreads the lower branches cease to bear or to increase in length and are gradually cut away so as to give a well-defined stem two to three feet in height. The after pruning is mainly in the way of taking out dead or sickly inner wood to let in the air and to favor getting into the tree. The best time for pruning is when growth starts in the spring. At this time the vital forces are most active and the wounds heal over soonest. The greatest need of prun- ing is in the nursery, where care is needed to bring the tree into shape, as with the deciduous fruits (150). 196. The Lemon.—This is closely related to the orange, as is Indicated in horticultural practice in the choice of stocks. The lemon is often budded on the orange and the orange on the lemon on an extensive commercial scale. In the great lemon-growing centres on the Mediterranean the rough lemon is the favorite stock for the orange. - Lemon and orange hybrids are also frequently produced, but they have no commercial status, as they do not answer the purposes for which either oranges or lemons are grown. The lemons of the old California missions were of large size, the juice was low in acidity, and the rinds were more or less bitter. It was not until varieties were brought from the Mediterranean lemon-growing centres with fruit of proper size, percentage of acids, thinness of skin, and freedom from bitter rinds, that growers were able to compete successfully with those shipped from Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain. During the past fifteen years the output from the west coast of lemons has been a surprise SOME SUBTROPICAL ORCHARD FRUITS. 201 to the Mediterranean growers, as over 1200 car-loads annually have recently reached the markets east of the mountain ranges. The lemon is not as hardy as the orange. Its fruit, foliage, and wood will be seriously injured by a freeze that the orange will endure without serious injury. But this is not surprising, as the varieties from Sicily and extreme south France are the outgrowth of ages of selection in the soft mild climate of the great inland sea, where frost is unknown and where soil and air are never dry on the 10th parallel of latitude. It is not probable that it would require a long period for a skilled expert, such as Burbank, of Santa Rosa, Califor- nia, to develop, by crossing and selection, yarieties of the lemon such as the market now requires from the varieties of the mountains of north India at a height of four thousand feet. If this can be accomplished, we might secure varieties hardier than the orange, with a more com- pact form, that would be less troublesome to keep in shape by perpetual pruning. 197. Propagation, Pruning, and Curing.—In south Florida the lemon is budded almost exclusively on seed- lings of the sour orange, and the same is true in California, as common experience has shown that on this stock the lemon-trees have a better habit of growth, the fruit averages less in size, and the tree seems to be some healthier and hardier. Where the Citrus trifoliata has been used, it has seemed to increase hardiness and the growth is less riotous than when on sour-orange or rough- lemon roots. The pruning of this rampant-growing tree seems as yet to be an unsettled problem, and growers differ materially as to methods. Many growers annually shorten the long leaders and rampant points of growth in the partially 202 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. dormant season. Later in the season a large part of the shoots that start as an effect of the winter cutting back are cut out. Others are content with more moderate shortening and pinching points of growth, which results in an equal quantity of sizable fruit, but a less symmetric and compact form of tree. Upon the whole, it is a troublesome tree to manage, but to the methodic grower in a nearly frostless region it is one of the most profitable of the orchard fruits. The fruit is gathered, when it attains proper size for shipping, when wholly green and not more than half grown. ‘The crop for summer use is mainly gathered in the winter and stored in what is known as a curing-house, built in such way as to be dark and free from sudden changes in temperature, yet with such an admission of air as will carry off the evaporation from the fresh green fruit. In these houses the lemons slowly mature and while taking on the golden color the rind is toughened, which favors long keeping. The proper curing requires the same methodic care and skill as does the pruning and manage- ment of the tree. 198. The Pomelo or Grape-fruit.—This species (Citrus decumana) is quite closely allied to the orange, and it is the most ornamental tree of the genus when laden with its large golden fruit. Its flowers are large, white, and very fragrant. Its fruit runs into a great number of varieties of all shapes, such as oblate, oval, pyriform, and flattened, and the quality varies quite as much. In Cuba we found the fruit quite as popular as the orange, and even more so with the well-to-do classes, as it has an acid mingled with a slight bitter taste that is peculiarly refreshing in hot climates. It is prepared by taking out the bitter mem- branes and sprinkling the tender pulp with sugar. What is known as the pomelo commercially are round, often six SOME SUBTROPICAL ORCHARD FRUITS. 203 to seven inches in diameter, weigh from eight to ten pounds, and the fruits grow singly. The type called grape-fruit is not larger than an overgrown orange and it grows in clusters. This is shipped North more generally than the large pomelos. The commercial varieties are usually propagated by budding on the rough-lemon:stocks and on the sour orange. The trees are not as hardy as the orange, but in nearly frostless regions it is a clean, healthy tree, not liable to disease or troubled with scale or other insects. In south Florida the culture of the best varieties is being rapidly extended, and the same is true in Cuba and Porto Rico. 199. The Kumquat.—This is a dwarf species of the citrus family. As grown on Citrus trifoliata in Florida it makes a small, handsome bush. It is a heavy bearer of golden yellow fruit not often more than one inch in diameter. The rind is sweet, and unlike most fruits it is eaten entire, only rejecting the seeds. It is used also for marmalades and preserves. It is found at every home place on the gulf coast and in California, but so far as known it is not grown anywhere in a commercial way. At the North it is often found in sitting-rooms in large pots worked on the ¢rifoliata, loaded with fruit. It is by no means a delicate shrub, as it will thrive in a living-room where a geranium can be grown. In frosty climates it seems much hardier than the orange. 200. The Lime.—The sour lime (Citrus medica, variety acida) is much grown in a home way, as its acid fruits are used to the almost total exclusion of the lemon in frostless climes for cooling drinks and for all culinary uses. It is also shipped in quantity from south Florida and the West Indies to New York, Boston, and other Atlantic cities, but rarely reaches the Western States. Budded on Citrus trifoliata it has proven about as hardy as the orange, and 204 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. some of the East Indian varieties have proven hardier in Florida. This fruit will grow on poorer, thinner soil than any of the other citrus fruits. 201. The Mandarin (Citrus nobilis)—This peculiar member of the citrus family seems to be a distinct species. It is a large shrub or small tree with dense foliage and small lanceolate leaves. The fruit is small, bright yellow, with quite thin skin that peels off freely and easily. It is known to the trade as ‘‘kid-glove orange.” It is grown and shipped in a small way for the fancy markets on the Atlantic coast, in south Florida and the West Indies. Budded on Citrus trifoliata some varieties are as hardy as the navel orange. CHAPTER XVI. SOME OTHER TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS. 202. The Olive—Naturally the olive is a dry-climate fruit; that is, it needs a dry air as well as a relatively dry soil. Dr. Henry Lansdell says in his ‘‘ Russian Central Asia:” ‘In the Zarafshan province there are whole forests of olive-trees.”” Dr. Albert Regel says in (artenflora, of Berlin: ‘‘In the dry climate of eastern Bokhara, olives are gathered from the wild growth of the foot- hills and brought to market for dessert and confection. The olive-tree is cultivated largely in Tashkend and in the Kokan country.” We have much evidence favoring the truth of the statement that in the dry air of the far East the insects and fungi attacking the olive in the moister climates of the Mediterranean and California are not known. In California hundreds of thousands of olive-trees have been planted where, from the configuration of the country, too much moist air reached them from the coast. Experi- ence has finally established the fact that it only reaches a profitable perfection of fruit in a dry atmosphere and on a quite rich dry soil, yet it will grow and bear crops in a greater variety of soils and air than almost any subtropical fruit tree. As the years go on it will be demonstrated that the highest quality of olives for oil and pickling will be reached in hot interior valleys of California, and in such 205 206 HORTICULTURAL MANUAI. warm interior valleys as those of the Salt and Gila rivers in Arizona. The best system of management will be that of early culture during the season of growth, followed by a cover-crop (127) and irrigation at the time of sowing the cow-peas or vetch. While the olive will grow on thin land and will endure drought well, the fruit will suffer. It needs some water during the period of fruit development naturally or by irrigation, and it needs the humus and nitrogen following the use of a leguminous cover-crop. 203. Propagation of the Olive.—The most experienced growers prefer trees for planting propagated by the slower way of growing seedlings and budding them as we grow hardy deciduous trees. Such trees, as might be expected, are more robust, long lived, and productive than those grown from ‘‘ tips” under glass, which is the commercial plan. The seeds are slow to germinate. But this amounts to little, as growers who will plant no trees from ‘‘tip” cuttings (62) stratify the seeds (5) months in advance of planting and keep stratified seeds on hand for use when wanted for planting. 204. Commercial Olive Products.—The ancient use of the olive fruit was mainly for oil-producing. The oil in Canaan, Syria, and central Asia was considered an essen- tial to health in the dry, hot Oriental climate and was regarded as a symbol of peace and good-will. In the land of the East it was the substitute for butter and animal fats and an emblem not only of peace but of domestic plenty and prosperity. But the use of pure olive oil in our day has been lessened in all countries, except central Asia, by the immense production of sunflower oil in Russia, which is mainly sold for pure olive oil, and about all the oil of commerce is now either adulterated with cotton-seed oil or sunflower oil, and in many cases the ‘‘ sweet olive oil” and the ‘‘ Lucca oil” have not a trace of olive oil in the mixture. ~——~ - . SOME OTHER TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS. 207 Under such circumstances little olive oil is produced in _ California or in the United States. The main crop as yet grown in California is used for pickling when green for shipment to the States east of the mountains. Ripe-pickled olives are also prepared in large quantity for use on the west coast. In this form they are a healthy and nutritious food, as well as a luxury. Tcurists who will not touch the green-pickled olives use the ripe ones freely. But as yet the ripe ones are rarely obtainable in the Eastern States, as they are not put up in shape for distant shipment, except in expensive bottles for those who can afford to use them. The olive-pickling and oil-producing for market are special processes that require practical instruction not easily given on the printed page. 205. The Fig.—This ancient fruit, now found in about all subtropical climates, also seems to have originated in central Asia, and to this day a large part of the commer- cial dried figs found in every civilized market come from Syria, Turkey in Asia, and Algeria, mainly. In Asia Minor, Turkestan, Persia, and in fact over a large part of Asia, it is a staple food-plant of the people and has been for centuries. Yet the varieties grown in the Gulf States, and mainly as yet in California, were introduced from Spain or south Europe or are seedlings from this race known to botanists as Vicus carica, variety Hortensis. These varieties are grown as home fruits, but they have never attained a commercial status in a fresh state or dried, except for local use and shipment at a price less than is obtained for the Oriental varieties. At present the White Adriatic variety is capable of self- pollination and has proven most profitable for drying on account of its color and quality. The California black is also widely planted and has proven hardy and productive. It is a popular table fig and excellent when dried, but the 208 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL popular demand does not favor a dark-colored variety. Yet this Hortensis class includes the finest dessert and pre- serving varieties grown in this country. What is known to scientists as Ficus carica Smyrniana has been, and still is, the leading commercial type of figs known to commerce over the civilized world. The typical white varieties of this class come largely from Smyrna on the Mediterranean. The locality of this region is peculiar, giving it a soft, moist, and very mild climate. The southerly winds are tempered by the great inland sea and the northerly winds are tempered by the Black Sea and mountain ranges. In this soft, warm climate a race of the fig has been developed in time that will not develop perfect fruit without pollination by the Capri or wild fig. The pollinating process has long been called ‘‘ caprification.” The fig-wasp of that climate breeds on the wild fig. Branches of the wild fig in flower are placed in the tops of the fig-bushes and the insects puncture the receptacle and in the act pollinate the fruit. The researches of Dr. Eisen, of California, and others have fully established the fact that the old idea of caprification only means a process of pol- lination. In Fresno, California, the Smyrna figs have been hand-pollinated, thus proving conclusively that full crops can be secured without the aid of the fig-wasp. But hand pollination is too expensive for commercial work, and the fig-wasp has been introduced for trial in the orchards of Smyrna figs that have been planted. The growing of this class of figs is yet experimental. If pollination can be secured a new industry will soon be started, resulting in home-grown dried figs, dried and packed more systemati- cally than ever has been done on the Mediterranean. 206. Possible Fig Improvement.—It is not probable that there is to be found a better class of figs on earth for dry- ing than those from Smyrna. But the uncertainty of SOME OTHER TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS. 209 pollination by insects leads to the query: Are there not varieties that do not require pollen from the wild fig for pollination in central Asia that are as large and good in quality as the White Smyrna? While attending the great commerical fair at Nishni Novgorod in 1882, this subject was discussed with my associate, Mr. Charles Gibb. Mr. Gibb had previously spent one season in Asiatic Turkey, and had become interested in the fig question. At the great fair we found tons of dried figs from Smyrna, Turkestan, Persia, and Syria. After careful testing our decision was that white varieties from west Turkestan were superior to those from Smyrna. Upon inquiry we found that the fig-wasp was not known in that region, and they had known no need of its services. If perfect varieties of size and quality can be secured from Turkestan the trees would prove much hardier than those from Smyrna and give less trouble in every way. The query also arises whether the seeds of the White Smyrna pollinated by the White Adriatic might not give varieties profitable for drying. This is possible and is worthy of trial. 207. Fig-growing at the North.—Fig-growing at the North is interesting if not profitable. Of course the trees are not hardy enough to stand the winters without protec- tion. A chief interest comes from its wonderful tenacity of life. On its borderland of growth, if it freezes down in winter it starts again from any unfrozen part and often bears fruit the next season. In the prairie States it is often grown by laying down and covering quite deeply in winter. When raised in the spring close observation will show the forming fruit. It will also start fruit in the cellar when taken in for winter protection. As a curiosity it is grown often by taking it up in the fall and burying the roots in a corner of the cellar. When replanted in the 210 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL, spring it again takes up growth and fruitage in a way that no Northern tree can equal. If desirable, the culture of the fig without winter protection can be extended farther north by importing the varieties grown on the 40th parallel in Turkestan. Dr. Albert Regel says: ‘, 4 > a a Fie. 86.—Beaverwyck, the seat of Wm. P. Van Rensselaer, Esq. In Fig. 86 the planting is all back of the lawn, but in Fig. 87 a single old tree is retained in the front with a high stem, showing it to be a relic of the primitive forest. In laying out a large place, the expert will prove an 320 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL essential helper, but the owner must decide, as a rule, on the healthfulness of the location, its accessibility, its ‘capacity for improvement at a given cost, the fitness of the soil for tree-, shrub-, and grass-growing, the character of the water, and the social and other advantages. The pre- liminary chapters of this book will give hints on trans- planting, pruning, and even the propagating, pruning, and management of shrubs, small fruits, and orchard Fie. 87.—The Manor of Livingston. fruits. Aid will also be given by consulting books devoted to landscape gardening, such as those of Maynard, Kemp, Long, Bailey, and others. A few general principles cover the leading essentials in such improvements, aside from the artistic blending of the landscape gardener. His services are often needed in the varied grouping adapted to varied elevations and slopes, the locating of the grass-plots, the preservation of vistas or outlooks in the direction of inviting views, the PLANNING AND PLANTING THE HOME GROUNDS, 321 planning of roads and walks, securing natural effects at group borders by under growth, hiding undesirable views, and above all, giving his aid in selecting species that will give needed size and effects in all leading positions and prove absolutely hardy in the given climate. In this work of deciding on exact adaptation, a study of the oldest plantings in the near vicinity will often prove valuable in the selection of varieties and species. 304. Improving Old Places.—It often happens that large and small places have trees, shrubs, and hedges when purchased, or when the decision is reached to attempt a change for the better. In planning for a change in the landscape expression, it usually happens that many of the old plantings can be utilized. With systematic cutting back and shaping they can be changed into shapely trees and shrubs (147, 152). If the cutting back is done in the 322 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. dormant season, unshapely trees will soon develop fine tops, if headed back as shown in Fig. 88. In some cases a single tree of a large-growing species may be made the centre of a tree group by planting rapid- growing species around it, with undergrowth at the boundaries. In other cases where a shade is needed, a single tree may be given room to shade a corner of the grassy lawn. The single spreading white elm or other fine shade tree may also have place in a grassy dell, or hollow of the grounds, where it has ample room to spread in natural form. Second-growth timber of varied species is often found on suburban tracts and lots standing too thick for forest or park. On lots some of the trees may be permitted to stand properly thinned and cut back at proper places, but not to interfere with the open lawn or the garden and small fruits in the rear. In larger places, where groups are wanted, better effects can often be produced for a few years by permitting the greater part of the thriftiest trees to stand thinning gradually as the tops begin to crowd, or as the primal plan of the grounds require. In starting groups the selection of species should be given attention. Evergreens and deciduous trees should not be mixed in'the same group, and such trees as cotton-’ wood and Lombardy poplar should not be mingled with hard maple and hackberry. The trees and shrub groups should have a harmonious expression. Where not guided by an experienced gardener, the beginner in such work will form tree clumps rather than artistic groups. Many years ago Price wrote: ‘‘ Natural groups are full of open- ings and hollows, of trees advancing before or retiring behind each other, all productive of intricacy, of variety, of deep shadows, and brilliant lights. In walking about PLANNING AND PLANTING THE HOME GROUNDS. 323 them the form changes at every step, new combinations, new lights and shades, new inlets present themselves in succession. But clumps of trees, like compact bodies of soldiers, resist attacks from all sides. Examine them in every point of view, walk around them—no openings, no vacancy, no stragglers.” SAY, ELA CE tae? aT SSS — Fie. 89.—Large-growing trees arranged in centre of groups. (After Maynard.) Where trees of the same species are planted in a group, or species similar in size and form, the expression when grown is that of a clump. To avoid this, the skilled planter sets the taller species at a group corner or in the centre, with the smaller and handsomer trees and even 324 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. large shrubs at the outer irregular edges. Fig. 89, from Maynard’s excellent work, gives an idea of this irregular yet natural system of grouping. 305. Transplanting Trees and Shrubs.—Chapter IX of this volume gives some of the essentials of transplanting of fruits and ornamentals in connection with nursery-grown trees. It also discusses the relative success of fall and spring planting (117). In lawn and park planting, as well as in pianting street trees for shade, it is quite general in most localities to procure them from the timber. Nursery-grown ornamental and shade trees are given a better root system by transplanting in nursery when young or by cutting the tap-roots with a spade or tree-digger, run under them. The young forest trees have deep, extending roots, with relatively few fibrous surface roots that are obtainable in digging. But with needed care in digging, with proper depth and spread of roots, trees of medium size can be safely planted in the spring when the buds are beginning to swell. If larger trees are wanted for certain positions it will prove most profitable to move them in the winter. A trench not less than three feet deep is dug around the trees, extending under at the base and including a ball of earth not less than three feet in diameter, late in the fall. Before the ground freezes the holes are also dug for the reception of the trees and filled with straw or coarse manure. When the balls in which the roots are encased are frozen hard, the use of a lever loosens them, when they are lifted with block and tackle on, trucks or sleds and drawn to their new position. The usual belief seems to be that the transplanting of trees with stems two to, three inches in diameter is very expensive work. But the digging is not skilled labor, and an improvised derrick, block and tackle, and a sliding PLANNING AND PLANTING THE HOME GROUNDS. 325 platform to run on snow were all the appliances used three years ago in moving about one hundred trees, deciduous and evergreen, on a part of the Iowa Agricul- tural College campus, that had been for years in vineyard. In planting, moist dirt from ground covered with strawy manure was used for filling tightly around the frozen ball, and the tops were prevented from swaying in the wind by wires attached to stakes driven in the ground. No prun- ing of the tops was done, except on the large pines, which were cut back quite severely at the points of growth (153). Only two trees were lost out of near one hundred planted. 306. The Need of Hardy Trees and Shrubs.—The main purpose of these brief notes on home surroundings has been to give some practical hints on the location of trees and shrubs on the home grounds of the farmer and suburban residents of moderate means. The large places and parks are usually cared for by those who make it a business. The importance of impressing the need of planting the hardiest known shrubs and trees, on home grounds, school grounds, and cemeteries specially, cannot be overrated. Even as far south as Atlanta, Georgia, Jacksonville, Florida, and Hot Springs, Arkansas, the visitor in the summer of 1895 saw more crippled or dead fruit trees, ornamental trees, and shrubs than ever has been seen in the Northern States. The cemeteries over the whole South showed a few perfect varieties and species that seemed to be more beautiful than ever standing amid the desolation wrought by the cold on the more tender species of the south and west Europe. After what are known as the ‘‘ test winters,” this loss of trees on private grounds and in cemeteries and parks is found not only in the prairie States, but east of the lakes and in the South. Hence the writer’s respect for such trees and shrubs as Cut-leaved birch, Silver spruce (Picea pungens), Duchess 326 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL apple, Concord grape, Spirwa Van Houttei, and Rosa rugosa, that are safe to plant on varied soils in nearly all parts of the Union. In the succeeding chapter some of the ornamental and shade trees and shrubs are noted in connection with their relative hardiness, as observed during the past forty years by the writer. CHAPTER XXIV. SOME OF THE LEADING SHADE, LAWN,-AND PARK TREES. 307. Adapting Trees to Soil and Climate.—The nursery catalogues of the Eastern, Southern, and West coast States give lists of the leading trees, shrubs, and flowers, with brief descriptions, but the planter is given no instruction, as a rule, in the important work of adapting varieties and species to a given soil and climate. To a great extent this is true also of our works on landscape gardening. Planters in the prairie States have had no guide except in the horticultural reports and the fugitive notes in the agricultural press. In this chapter only the leading varieties and species will be noted that do well over large areas of the country and on varied soils, adding a few specially desirable ones that are less cosmopolitan. In many cases the same species differs in hardiness as obtained in different parts of the Union. As well-known examples, Picea pungens from the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains will not survive the climate found east of that range; the box elder and sugar maple of the Eastern States will not live long west of the Great Lakes, Indeed this varied hardiness of given species applies so 827 328 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL, generally, that it is always safest to plant local types of all species, or those from similar climates. 308. Sugar or Rock Maple.—This is a popular shade, park, and lawn tree over a large part of the Union, with proper selection of varieties. The sugar maple (Acer saccharinum, Waugh; A. saccharum, Marsh) does well east of the lakes and over a large part of the Southeastern States, with some local variety variations in the South. in the prairie States the trees from Eastern and Southern nurseries do not thrive. On the other hand, the native type known as Acer nigrum thrives on varied soil over a large part of the West. But as grown from Missouri seed the trees do not prove hardy in north Iowa and Minnesota. Hence in improving home places, the trees should be grown from locally grown seed or be obtained from as nearly local timber growth as possible. 309. Norway Maple (Acer platanoides).—This, as repre- sented by its many varicties, is also variable in hardiness and adaptation to our varied soils and climates. The nursery varieties are all desirable for ornament in the East and Southeast, and the typical species is fully as hardy in the prairie States as the native sugar maple. ‘This is also true of its handsome variety, Acer Schwedleri. 310. The Dwarf Oriental Maples.—The Japan maples (Acer palmatum) listed in catalogues are peculiarly beau- tiful as represented by a dozen or more varieties grown in Eastern nurseries. They do well in deep, warm soil, sheltered from drying winds, in the Eastern and Southern States. But all of them fail in the prairie States. But their near relatives of the Oriental type, Acer Tataricum and Acer ginnala, are graceful, small trees, with handsome foliage, coloring finely in autumn, and are hardy in all parts of the West and the cold North. SHADE, LAWN, AND PARK TREES. 329 311. Box Elder (Acer negundo).—This tree is discarded by Maynard, who says: ‘‘ It soon takes an irregular form, is easily broken by wind and ice, and is rather short-lived.” As found native in the Northwest this is not correct. If properly grown in nursery with straight stem, it makes a handsome round-topped tree, is not as liable to injury from wind or ice as most other trees, and has proven a long-lived species. No shade tree yet planted in the prairie States makes a denser shade. 312. The Silver: and Red Maples.—The -soft or silver maple (Acer dasycarpum, Erhr; A. saccharinum, Linn) is much used in the East and Southeast. The Western type is a clean, thrifty tree when planted, but has lost in popular favor, as it is liable to be broken by storms and sleet. But this can be avoided by giving the upright form shown in Fig. 90. It runs into varying varieties as grown from seed. Among those propagated, Wier’s cut- leaved is most valuable perhaps for giving variety to group-planting. 313. The Red Maple (Acer rubrum) is*used to some extent at the East and Southeast for ornamental planting, on account of its bright-red flowers and fruit and its varied-colored leaves in autumn. As found native in Wis- consin, the species varies in form, Fie. 90.—Properly : shaped shade tree. becoming more compact and more closely resembling the native sugar maple. 314. The Elms.—The white elm (Ulmus Americana) is one of the grandest trees of the temperate zones for street and avenue planting, and it should have a place in parks 330 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. and on large lawns. Like all our widely distributed native trees the species varies in hardiness and even in habit as grown in widely separated localities. Varieties from the South or East will not thrive on the prairie, but our native variety makes as fine trees as can be found in New England. Some specimens that have had plenty of room, planted in open prairie exposure forty years ago, have now a spread of top of ninety feet or more. Ulmus effusa, from east Europe, is also a grand tree for ornamental planting or shade over the prairie States, but as yet it has not been propagated to any great extent. The cork-barked white elm (Ulmus racemosa) has been thus far a neglected tree. It has not been propagated or recommended for ornamental planting. But as found native in north Iowa, it is one of the most desirable of the elms, where rather compact, round-topped trees are desirable. : The red elm (Ulmus fulva) is used to some extent in ornamental planting at the East and Southeast. At the West the native trees make a fine appearance in groups, but isolated trees in open exposure are liable to fungus growths on the branches and leaves. The European elm (Ulmus campestris) is more upright and compact than our white elm and is used to some extent in Eastern planting, but it is not hardy in the prairie States. 315. The Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis). —This also has been a neglected tree by propagators and planters. As found native in the prairie States, it forms a round-topped tree of rapid growth, with exceedingly varied shade of foliage on different trees. In fact by propagating special yariations in one lot of seedlings we may have a large number of distinct varieties. It is easily propagated from the crushed berries stratified for spring planting. SHADE, LAWN, AND PARK TREES. 331 316. The Plane-tree (Platanus occidentalis).—This has for many years been a popular shade and park tree over the north temperate zone of both continents. As an avenue tree in large parks and private places, it has been -used with happy effect in giving variety of expression. Downing says truly: ‘‘For the purposes of shade and shelter the American species-is the finest, as its foliage is longest and broadest.” In the Eastern States a fungus trouble of the leaves causes the foliage often to drop, followed hy a new crop later in the season. This weakens the tree, and it is less planted than formerly. With the native species of the West this leaf disease has not appeared. 317. The Basswood or Linden.—Over west and east Europe the linden (Tilia Europea) is a favorite tree for avenues, streets, shade, and in park grouping. But this. European species in the States has been troubled with borers, leaf-blight, and other diseases. But the American species (Tilia Americana) is a clean, healthy tree much used for avenue and street trees and also for park groups. Downing says of it: <‘ One of the most beautiful trees. Its head forms a fine pyramid of verdure.” In the park system of Minneapolis, Minnesota, it has been much used for avenues, streets, and in park groups. When transplanted with high stem the south side is apt to be sun-scalded before the spreading of the top can shade it. Hence it is usually wrapped with gunny sacking’ or hay ropes when set out to protect the stem. In western New York several varieties of the European linden are used in ornamental planting with good effect, such as. the white-leaved, weeping, golden-barked, and cut-leaved, but they only succeed locally and are not hardy in the West. 332 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. 318. The Honey Locust.— . SOIL, 5 in. MANURE 30 in. PATH k—_—2 ft —__+J ye es SCALE INFEET | OY 3 2 1% 0 Fie. 104.—Permanent, lean-to hot-bed. (After Green.) houses. Still others use manure, as in the common hot-bed (65). The advantage of such a structure is that the person in charge can go inside to do all the work of watering and caring for the plants and attending to ventilation. Quite frequently the permanent hot-bed for home use is made as a lean-to on the south side of a building, as shown in Fig. 104. With steps leading down to the path and door opening inward, a bed twelve feet long, using four 382 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. ordinary hot-bed sash, gives a handy, permanent, yet very cheap structure that will prove very useful for the starting of the tender vegetables and flowers. ‘The hot-bed repre- sented has the space below the soil filled with manure. The only change needed for hot-water or steam heating is putting in boards or slate to support the soil, which in the figure rests on the manure. The management is given in section (65) with manure heating. In growing tomato, egg-plant, or other plants in hot- beds they should be transplanted in *‘ flats,” Fig. 105, or, Fia. 105.—A ‘flat ” planted with lettuce to be held in the cold- frame for early family use. (After Green.) better yet, in pots. A main element of success is a supply of stocky, well-rooted plants, and a potted plant with roots encased in a ball of earth can be transplanted safely at any time. But the most favorable time for all vegetable or flower transplanting is on cloudy days, or after four o’clock p.m. in clear weather, as after that time the air is not so dry and the plants have the benefit of the cool night to become established. The novice usually fails in properly firming the soil about the roots and crown so well that the plant cannot readily be pulled. The drier the soil the more firmly plants should be set. THE VEGETABLE AND SMALL-FRUIT GARDEN. 383 After planting the soil should be at once stirred on the surface, drawing some loose earth around the plant to lessen evaporation from the firmed soil below. Where pots are not at hand, many amateur gardeners use fruit-cans, unsoldered and without bottoms, in their place. The tins are held together by a wire around them. In planting they are carried to the field in boxes, taking care to keep the dirt from falling out, and in setting the ball of earth is loosened by taking off the wire. With the wire replaced the tins are set around the plants to protect them from sun and wind. A cold-frame, in addition to the hot-bed is a great con- venience. In the cold-frame the plants set out in ‘ flats” and in pots can be kept to better advantage for hardening off, and the cold-frame is essential for such cold-blooded plants as cabbage, cauliflower, and lettuce until it will do to set them out in open air. In the South the cold-frame is used for starting all plants, as the heat from the sun passing through the glass warms the soil to such extent that ventilation is necessary. The cold-frame is also the proper place to hold flats of transplanted lettuce, as shown in Fig. 105. The cold-frame is identical with the hot-bed frame (65), with the exception of a pit beneath for the heating manure. 388. Manuring the Garden.—Few owners of private gardens have any conception of the large quantity of manure used to produce the great crops in the market- gardens. Henderson says: ‘‘It is a grave blunder to attempt to grow vegetable crops without the use of manures of the various kinds. I never yet saw soil of any kind that had borne a crop of vegetables that would pro- duce as good a crop the next season without the use of manure, no matter how ‘rich’ the soil might be.” Horse- manure is best for garden use, and it should be prepared 384 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL, at least six months in advance by turning and breaking up to prevent heating. Hogs will do this work if given an opportunity. The manure-pile with a continued supply of well-rotted manure is an essential part of satisfactory gardening. ‘The pile may be made a kind of compost-heap where sods, rotten vegetables, and fruits, weeds, soapsuds, and even water are thrown; watering at times of turning the pile if the top appears to be dry. The commercial manures extensively applied east of the Lakes and on the Western coast are not much used in the prairie States. Aside from the application of well-rotted manure, the use of wood-ashes or one of the potash combinations of the trade seems to give the best results with a system of rotation (383) in which a clover or other legume sod is turned under once in two or three years to give the needed supply of nitrogen and the bacterial action that seems to enliven the soil in a way not fully understood. Slaughter- house tankage is also useful in the prairie States, as it is rich in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, which are in ayail- able form to be taken up by plant-roots. In the West it is the cheapest form in which nitrogen and phosphoric acid can be obtained. In private gardens, however, in all parts of the Union, stable manure properly composted, with occasional rotation of clover or cow-peas, will give the most satisfactory results on a small scale. But in addition, in the humid belt, it is always in order to use wood-ashes, kainite, or other form of potash, not too expensive, at least once in three years. 389. Preservation of Vegetables.—It is usual with most home owners to store vegetables in the cellar under the house. This plan has many objections, not the least of which are the smells, the possible effect on health from THE VEGETABLE AND SMALL-FRUIT GARDEN. 385 decay, and the well-established fact that the cellar air is not favorable for keeping any kind of vegetables in good condition. For amateur use no plan is superior to the dirt-covered cave for this purpose. In section 85 this is recommended for storing orchard-fruit root-grafts, and in section 137 the dirt-covered cave is recommended for keeping early and late winter apples. For the same reasons potatoes, turnips, beets, carrots, parsnips, salsify, and indeed about all vegetables except sweet potatoes will keep without wilting or sprouting in the dirt-covered cave, kept cool by occasional brief opening when the air outside is colder than that in the cave. Vegetables will keep as well in pits, but for home use it is not as easy at the North to get to them for family use as when in the cave. Cabbage is best kept outside for late. use. The heads are set together on level soil with the root sticking up in a shallow trench, and then lightly covered with earth until the cold is severe at the North, when the earth is increased in depth to eight inches, and still later mulch is covered over the pit to prevent hard freezing. But if frozen and left until they thaw out under cover, they will rarely be injured. But for early winter use some heads can be kept in the cave by burying the roots in a box of sand. 390. Garden Insects.—With a methodic system of rota- tion of crops, fall plowing, and a general cleaning up prior to the plowing, but little trouble with garden insects will be experienced. In many cases insect-eggs are carried over on the stalks of plants. As instances, the cabbage- louse lays eggs on old cabbage-leaves and stalks left in the garden, and it is about the same with the cucumber-beetle, leaf-louse, parsley-worm, and squash-bug. The fall plowing also mainly destroys the cutworms in winter quarters, the root-maggots, and wire-worms. 386 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. 391. Spraying Garden Plants.—The leaf-eating insects are mostly confined to the fruit-trees, small fruits, and shrubs. Hence in the garden the arsenical sprays (156) are mostly used for the destruction of the Colorado potato- beetle, the cabbage flea-beetle, and the striped cucumber- beetle. The kerosene emulsion (158) is used in the garden for the leaf-lice mainly. In lessening the work of the cabbage-louse, and indeed all the aphides, the cleaning up of the garden is a great help, as the eggs live over winter attached to the old leaves and stems if left on the ground. Chinch-bugs, when not too numerous, can be headed off in the garden by spraying with kerosene emulsion applied to corn and crops they attack. Keeping the headlands, corners, and fence sides clean is also a great help. 392. Miscellaneous Garden Insects.—The cabbage-worm can readily be eradicated by using the arsenical poisons (156), and extensivo growers of cabbage use them without hesitation before the plants begin to head. But amateurs usually prefer to use less dangerous remedies. The most desirable and successful plan adopted by the writer has been to sprinkle the plants before heading with water that has stood over gas-tar in open exposure to the sun. This seems to act as a repellent, as the butterflies very rarely deposit eggs on the leaves scented with tar. If the worms are found in the heads, they can be killed by dusting with flour just at nightfall. This kills by closing the pores of the slimy worms, The cabbage-plusia also develops worms from eggs deposited by a winged moth. The tar-water is a repellent also of this moth, and the flour mixed with one sixth its weight of pyrethrum powder will kill the worms if any are hatched from deposited eggs. As stated, the cutworm is mostly destroyed by fall plowing. Yet enough may be left to cut off valuable ye tet ni Wt THE VEGETABLE AND SMALL-FRUIT GARDEN. 387% transplanted plants. The writer’s plan has been to wrap the crown of every plant set out with horse-radish leaves, If a plant is cut above the leaf, it is readily observed and > hunt is made for the culprit. In most cases the plant will start from the wrapped portion when cut so high. These brief notes on the common insects of the gar- den are only suggestive. The amateur desiring minute insect descriptions and habits of insects of the garden should consult some one of the works on economic ento- mology. 393. Some Neglected Garden Crops. re all American landholders who attempt gardening for home use are acquainted with such common vegetables as sweet corn, potato, pea, cabbage, radish, lettuce, beans, etc., and kv.ow something about their planting and care. With the ‘iints given in this chapter a detailed description of each, with modes and methods of planting and managing, would be superfluous in most cases, and the few who need such instruction can look it up in special works on gardening for profit. At this time mention will only be made of some vegetables which as yet are too rarely found in private gardens. ; - 394, Asparagus.—This earliest, most healthful, and delicious vegetable is rarely found in home gardens in well-kept rows, as grown by market-gardeners. Almost invariably the asparagus-patch is found in a sod-bound corner, where the crop is neither plentiful nor palatable. No plant responds so promptly to manuring and such culture in rows as is given to corn and potatoes, A main essential, in addition to heavy manuring and early spring culture, is to expose the rows to the open sunshine. In the shade, during the middle of the day, its growth with the best of care is by no means satisfactory. It likewise 388 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL, fails to do well on wet land, and on clay it is not as early as on sandy loam soils. In starting rows it is usually best for the amateur to purchase one-year-old plants of nurserymen or dealers in seeds. Plant in spring, when the soil works well, in rows four feet apart, with the plants three feet apart in the rows. It is best to plant with the crowns of the roots two or three inches below the surface, but it is not best to fill up the channels until after the plants start.. Where the plants are not readily obtainable, rows are often started by taking up the seedling plants that spring up in old beds. In July these are about six inches high and trans- plant about as safely as weeds. These will be well rooted by autumn and come forward about as rapidly as when one-year-old plants are set in early spring. In new sections, if plants are not available, they are easily grown from seed. The berries are crushed and mixed with sand (5) and buried outside for spring plant- ing, or they can be planted in the fall half an inch deep in drills with a ridge of earth two inches deep drawn over the rows. In the spring the ridge is raked off, leaving a _ mellow seed-bed in which the plants will make rapid growth. If desirable they can be transplanted in July in the permanent rows, or they can be left for planting the next spring in a dormant condition. As to after-care when the plants are dead in the fall, they may be mowed off and burned, and the surface should be treated with a coat of well-rotted manure. In the spring cultivate well the surface, without regard to the position of the plants, prior to the starting of the succulent shoots. It is also best, when the season of picking closes, to cultivate the whole surface. Some cutting can be done in private gardens the second year, but it is preferable to wait until the third season. THE VEGETABLE AND SMALL-FRUIT GARDEN. 389 In gathering the shoots for home use it is best to cut them at the surface of the ground. Market-gardeners usually cut the shoots with at least two inches of the white part that grew below the surface. But this lower part is usually tough and slightly bitter, hence for home use it is discarded. If manure is put on in the fall, it must be cultivated in before the shoots start in spring, or it will delay the starting of the shoots often for a period of ten days. Some prefer manuring at the close of the picking season, cultivating in at once. The writer has not found any great difference in varieties. More depends on culture and manuring. Yet Conover’s Colossal, Moore’s, and Palmetto are slightly larger than the common variety that has become a weed in some sections. 395. Celery Growing.— This delicious and healthful vegetable is not grown in private gardens to any great extent. Many seem to entertain the opinion that it is a special crop that can only be raised on special soils, such as drained swamps by trenching. But it can be grown in any good garden soil with level culture. Henderson truly says: ‘“‘ Almost all private cultivators still think it necessary to dig out trenches from six to twelve inches deep, involving great labor and expense, and giving a very inferior crop to that planted on the level surface, in the manner practised by market-gardeners.” Celery is an autumn crop, and in our dry summer climate it is fortunate that the main demand is in late autumn and winter. It loves the cooler and moister air of the autumn months, and is usually planted as a second crop, following peas, early corn, and other early crops. The seed is sown in the open ground in early May on rich mellow ground, rather thinly, in rows eight to ten inches apart. At the West the seeds are merely pressed into the 390 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. soil and the bed is covered with a mulching of prairie hay until they begin to germinate, when it is removed and tha soil between the rows is raked and weeds kept down. In cooler climates, like that of Long Island, the seeds will germinate when planted an inch deep without mulch- ing, but even there the soil is usually covered with burlap while the seed is sprouting, to conserve moisture and to keep the soil cooler. As growth progresses the tops are clipped or pinched back to develop stocky plants, and when small they are thinned so as not to crowd each other. Usually the plants are set out for cropping at the West about the middle of July for late fall and winter use, in moist soil six inches apart in the rows, which are usually laid out about four feet apart, where the crop is bleached in the field. But the dwarf kinds, merely bleached by slight mounding, are planted in rows three feet apart. The first growth is inclined to spread out over the ground. ‘To correct this habit, what is known as “ hand- ling” is practised. This is merely drawing up earth with the hands under the drooping stalks and pressing it firmly to them as a support. In after-hoeing, earth is drawn up until they are banked so as to hold the stalks upright. This handling and banking is all the bleaching given to the dwarf self-bleaching varieties, such as the White Plume. For family use there is not much gain in planting the large-growing varieties that require bleaching by high banking with earth or boards. Such varieties as White Plume and Golden Dwarf give the least trouble and are not excelled in quality. In storing for late use the plants can be packed close together in boxes, with the lower part of the stems and roots covered with moist sand. These boxes are best kept in a root-cave, but will do nearly as well in a cold, moist THE VEGETABLE AND SMALL-FRUIT GARDEN. 391 cellar. The temperature should be kept low, and for late use it should be left out as late as possible. The plants are not injured by ordinary autumn frosts, and with some straw covering they can usually be left out until the last of November in the prairie States. 396. Egg-plant.—This is supposed to be a native of South America, but its origin seems uncertain. It is used as a vegetable in all the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, and is grown in all climates where dent corn will ripen, and the New York Purple is grown in the North where the eight-rowed early corns do not always mature. But to reach proper size of fruit at the North it must be started early in hot-bed, and by potting the plants should nearly reach the stage of blossoming prior to Fra. 106.—New York improved Fie. 107. — Black Pekin egg- egg-plant. plant. setting out the first of June, when the ground becomes warm. ‘The writer has set out plants in six-inch pots on which fruit had already set. In private gardens for home use it may be set in a warm corner in beds rather than rows at the North. The plants in rich soil may be planted two feet each 4 392 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. way. The gain in bedding is that the cross-fertilization of the flowers favors the setting of the fruits and increases . the size. If set in single rows, it often happens that the _ blossoms are not properly pollinated, and it seems inca- pable of self-pollination. If not pollinated, the fruits will develop partially, but never attain proper size, and very many of the blossoms will not develop fruits. When of full size the fruits are as large as small squashes (Figs. 106 and 107), but they can be used to about as good advantage when half grown. It is a standard vegetable over a large portion of Europe and Asia and in the South, and as shipped in over the Northern States. But outside of cities it is not as yet commonly grown in gardens. 397. The Lima Bean.— The Lima, pole, and dwarf beans have properly been called the king of the table beans in all countries. But over the Northern States, even at the West, where the Lima beans succeed most perfectly, the dried commercial Limas grown at Santa Barbara, California, and at other points, are mainly used. But those who enjoy the home-grown beans fresh from the garden will fully agree with the writer that it is one of the most delicious vegetables of the garden and one of the most healthful of the nitrogenous “sods. As not a very large number of hills will supply an average family with the large Lima variety, it pays to plant the beans in pieces of sods with the eye downward, starting them in the hot-bed quite late. By transplanting the sods with beans attached when the ground gets warm, the crop will be advanced fully two weeks. In place of poles we have used woven wire five feet wide, supported by stakes along the line of row. The beans spread out on this support, and if the wire is grounded at the ends it appears to increase the thrift and yield of the plants. At —— THE VEGETABLE AND SMALL-FRUIT GARDEN. 393 the close of the season the wire is rolled up and kept under cover until wanted the next season. There is much modern support to the belief that grounding wire trellis at the ends benefits vines of all kinds by supplying an electrical current. The bush Lima varieties are smaller in size, but such varieties as Henderson’s Dwarf and Burpee’s Dwarf are nearly as good in quality as the large white Lima, and they do not require poling. 398. The Melons.—These are included among desirable fruits (222), and are here noted as a rare crop in home gardens. If started on sods in the hot-bed, the crop will be advanced fully two weeks. A main drawback to grow- ing them in the home garden, especially in the suburbs of our cities, is the pilfering by melon-loving boys. But where the surroundings are favorable the home-grown melons are specially desirable, as when brought from a distance they are usually picked when not fully ripe. CHAPTER XXVIII. IRRIGATION. 399. Irrigation in the Humid States.—In the truly arid States the work of irrigating crops and fruits is imperatively required. Hence the land brought under cultivation depends on the amount of water available from streams, wells, reservoirs, and other possible sources, and crops often suffer in the critical period when the usual supply falls short. In such extended districts the need of water is fully understood, and there is little soe of arguments in favor of irrigation. The present purpose is to urge the great promise of utilizing, at least in part, the immense volume of water that runs to the sea in the so-called humid States, where the midsummer rainfall is too often scanty for full crops of vegetables, farm crops, and fruits. In the arid or nearly arid States and Territories a vast amount of water is required to carry crops through the season, as the period is long, the evaporation excessive on account of the dry air, the loss by seepage in open ditch is great, and quite generally the subsoil is sandy, involving great loss of water in running it across the orchard, small fruit plantation, or field. But in the humid States the rainfall of spring and early summer is usually abundant and only a brief period of watering is required as a rule. 394 IRRIGATION. 395 400. Watering the Orchard Fruits.—A large part of the . watering in the arid States is from mountain streams or from reservoirs filled from such streams or from melted snows. But in the States east of the mountains the streams usually run in deep channels and orchards are usually on much higher land. In the prairie States they could rarely be used for direct irrigation, as the channels are low and they usually run dry except in wet seasons in August, when most needed. But in the more uneven or hilly sections of the States east of the lakes a combination of neighbors will often permit taking the water from some point higher up on the stream into irrigating channels for watering fruits on a lower level. But the rule that water must be pumped from streams, stream-beds, or wells on lower levels to reservoirs on the highest side of the orchard or small fruit plantation has few exceptions. Perhaps no ‘plan for general uses is more practical and profitable than the one extensively used in east Europe and over a large part of central Asia, where they usually have rains in the early part of the season. During the spring months water is pumped by windmills from a lower level to reservoirs on the highest side of the fruit planta- tions. These reservoirs are excavated in the soil and the bottom and sides are puddled with clay as now practised in Kansas and Nebraska. When made an iron pipe is laid from the bottom to a distributing pipe across the high side of the plantations, with a hydrant for every two rows of trees or for a space of about forty feet for small fruits and gardens. The water is led by a hose to wooden troughs made V-shaped for running it over the ground. In orchard-watering some work is doe in advance. The earth is drawn away to a depth of four or five inches around the crown of every tree, forming a basin six to eight feet in diameter, with the lewse dirt compacted at . 396 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. the edges. About four inches of sand is covered over the bottom of the cavity to prevent baking when water is applied and to lessen the evaporation. The V-shaped troughs are made long enough to reach from one tree to another and are set one at a time on small iron supports made for the purpose. The water runs into a cavity until it is filled, when another is added to reach the next tree. Enough of the troughs are needed for one row. In water- ing the next row the troughs are brought over one at a time as wanted. In the East the spaces between the excavations are covered with some leguminous cover-crop, usually the sandy vetch. In a very dry time the water is permitted to run after the excavations are filled for a few minutes at each tree. After the inexpensive plant is established, the cost of watering each tree twice during the season—when the fruit is less than half grown and again when two thirds grown—was estimated by a number of orchardists at eight cents. In the arid States this kind of watering would do little good. But to bridge over a dry period in the humid States, it secures a good crop of perfect fruit, when the unwatered trees prove nearly a failure. Even in Florida, with an average rainfall of over sixty inches, irrigation has been largely practised in orange orchards, to bridge over the dry periods and also to save the garden crops and tobacco. In this case the water is pumped from wells by gasoline pumps into large cypress tanks, from which it is distributed over the comparatively level surface by iron pipes to which hose is attached. In Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, and other drift-soil States of the West, the subsoil favors the economical use of water with after culture to prevent the soil from baking. Another consideration in the prairie States, and indeed east to the Atlantic and south to the Gulf, is that no dis- IRRIGATION. 397 puted rights are to be considered or feared, such as con- tinually harass users of water in the arid States. As an illustration of the possibilities of reservoir irri- gation, the plant of Mueller Brothers, near St. Joseph, Missouri, may be mentioned. The water is pumped from a well on a lower level by a gasoline-engine to a large reservoir on the bluff, nearly one hundred feet above the land to be irrigated. This gives a force to the water con- venient for washing vegetables, and certain home uses at the house and barn, whence it is carried to quite an exten- sive vegetable garden and small fruit plantations. During the dry season of 1901 grocers and hotel-keepers sought the Mueller vegetables and fruits at advanced prices. The cost of running the pump at this quite extensive plant averages about thirty-five cents per day, but the water is elevated to an unusual height. An elevation of the bottom of the reservoir of ten feet above the land to be irrigated answers the purpose about as well, as the water will run freely to all parts below that level. In the arid States the surfaces to be watered are levelled often at great expense, but this is usually quite impracticable in the prairie States or east or south of the lakes, and it is not needed, as the water is taken from point to point in wooden troughs or in iron pipes and is distributed by hose. 401. Reservoirs with Puddled Bottoms.— Many conclude that wooden or iron reservoirs, or those that are walled and cemented, can alone be depended upon. But over the world the fact has been long known that on quite firm soil the banks and bottom, if well puddled, will hold water quite as well as the cemented reservoirs and give less trouble, as the frosts of winter do not injure the earth banks, but often do much damage to cement-work. In Kansas and Nebraska they have had the most favorable 398 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL experience with reservoirs excavated even in rather light soils. Mr. A. 8. Perry, of Frisco, Oklahoma, after long experi- ence says: ‘‘ These ponds are made to hold like jugs— except from evaporation—by puddling one hour a day for two weeks. This is done by using a drag to stir the mud made by some water pumped in. Stirring the mud keeps it muddy and the sediment stops the pores of the soil, which soon becomes impervious to water and seepage. This will work on any clay soil or on a clay loam with some sand.” 402. Artesian-well Irrigation.—In South Dakota, parts of Iowa, and in many other parts of the humid States, artesian wells lifting water to the surface in great volume are quite common. They are utilized for irrigation of fruits and crops, but the gain is not as great as is usually suspected. It is not often that the position of the well is favorable for irrigating as large an area as the volume of water would indicate. If water is raised a few feet to a reservoir on the highest ground in the near vicinity it can be utilized at time of greatest need over a large area by troughs or pipes. But it seldom happens that an artesian well can be made to run the water into large reservoirs high enough to be used over as much surface as the water will cover in a humid State. But in the relatively few localities where artesian wells can be obtained at the highest points they will prove very valuable if the surplus water can be stored in late winter and spring for use in the dry season. In relatively flat countries with some undulation arte- sian water is distributed to good advantage when the pressure of water will lift it to a height of fifteen feet or more. In the Libyan desert of north Africa are now found hundreds of such wells furnishing water for im- IRRIGATION. 399 mense plantations of date-palms and other tropical fruits. But where water comes within twenty feet of the sur- face and the supply is plentiful, the modern gasoline pumps raise and carry the water to elevated reservoirs at a cost so moderate that it is trifling when compared with the usual cost of water in the arid districts. Indeed, the reservoir system has been the main one used in ancient and modern times. In the arid regions the water of the wet season is stored in immense ponds or lakes for use in the dry period, usually in mountains, or by damming mountain streams. In the dry season this stored water is used on large tracts during a long period. In the humid States the dry period is short. Hence our friends from the arid States need not make sport of the smaller ponds filled by pumping from stream-beds or wells. 403. Sub-irrigation.—The best practical illustration of what is known as sub-irrigation is found in the raisin- producing district near Fresno, California. No water is applied to the surface. Six feet below the surface is found a nearly water-tight clay deposit with-a porous soil above. The water runs in ditches down to the clay and seeps under the vineyard, rising to the roots by capillary attrac- tion. Another kind of sub-irrigation is found in California, on the bottom lands, on which sugar-beets are grown, in China, and at other points. These lands are in the stream valleys and are sub-irrigated by the seepage water from orange and other irrigation on the higher elevations. The Chinese gardeners also seek such land for vegetable- growing in California, near Phoenix, Arizona, in Colorado, and at other points where the seepage water from higher land sub-irrigates lower-lying land without making swamps or ponds, which often happens. In Wisconsin, near Sparta, and at other points, sandy 400 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. lands with clay subsoil are sub-irrigated for cranberry- growing. Ditches surround the planted tracts, in which water is introduced from running’streams or from reser- voirs. Close observation will disclose hundreds and even thou- sands of these naturally sub-irrigated tracts in about every State of the Union which have not as yet been utilized for gardening or fruit-growing. 404. Green-house Sub-irrigation.—This has become far more general than outdoor sub-irrigation. The trenches are made water-tight by spreading cement over the slate bottoms and sides. In the bottom drain-tile are laid in which water circulates and slowly escapes at the joints and through the pores of the tiles. Some lay the tiles two feet apart and others much prefer laying them quite close to- gether. Where the tiles do not fit well some cement is used to tighten the joints to prevent too much water escaping at one point. The water is raised by capillary attraction through the soil covering over the tiles. The benefits of the system arise from the regularity of moisture supply, and the surface does not harden or bake as in surface- watering. | Practical growers often start plants in shallow boxes and secure irrigation from below by setting the boxes in a shallow pan or vat with water in the bottom until moisture appears on. the surface. 405. Surface Culture Needed.—In all kinds of watering, whether on the surface or from below, the surface must be stirred soon after the wetting to prevent baking and to conserve the moisture. If this is neglected with surface- watering the outcome will prove doubtful as to benefit. Thorough culture and the exclusion of weeds tends to hold the moisture in the soil. All systematic gardeners cultivate soon after rains, but the need of it after surface ‘iuied- te Wilke ite ee Bk om IRRIGATION. 401 irrigation is much greater, as artificial watering seems to harden the surface soil and the process is local, with dry air around it, favoring rapid evaporation from impacted soils. With sub-irrigation the need of culture or stirring the surface soil is quite as essential, as it favors the ascent of moisture from below and the-admission of air from above, both in outdoor and indoor work. 406. Remarkable Results of Irrigation.—The story of the transformation of desert land into producing fields giving several crops of alfalfa in a season, and other crops in proportion, is often told by visitors to the arid States. But as yet little has been said or written about the increased yield of fruits and crops, as the result of water- ing in the humid States, mainly for the reason that little has yet been done. But at St. Joseph, Missouri (400), at the insane asylum, Joliet, UJinois, and here and there in several States, the increased crops as a result of watering have more than equalled the results in the arid States and at much less labor and cost,‘as the period when water is needed is short. In Wisconsin, Professor King, after trial and much observation, has stated: ‘‘ The value of a crop, such as the strawberry, in a season when crops generally are injured by drought, may pay all the expenses of the original cost of the irrigation plant.” Even in New Jersey, with moister air and more rainfall than in the States west of the lakes, the experiment station reports for 1898 and 1899 an average gain of 1637 quarts per acre on the irrigated plots of blackberries over those that are not watered, and the size and selling value was much increased. The Bulletin record reads: ‘*Plot No. 1, 1898.—Early Harvest, 1001; J. Wilson, Jr., 2256; Erie, 39; Agawam, 1280; Taylor, 2970; Eldorado, 3395 402 HORTICULTURAL MANUAL. «Plot No. 2, 1898.—Early Harvest, 295; Wilson, Jr., 1618; Erie, 2164; Agawam, 318; Taylor, 2535; Eldorado, 2330. ‘¢Plot No. 1, 1899.—Early Harvest, 913; Wilson, Jr., 1875; Erie, 809; Agawam, 2106; Taylor, 1092; Eldorado, 2408. | ‘¢Plot No. 2, 1899.—Early Harvest, 1833; Wilson, Jr., 1735; Erie, 2535; Agawam, 1618; Taylor, 1209; Eldorado, 4109.” The above figures represent the gain in quarts per acre of the plots irrigated over those watered by nature. In Plot No. 1 it will be noted that the gain of the Eldorado in 1898 was 3395 and in Plot No. 2 it reached 2330. In 1899 the gain on Plot No. 1 of the Eldorado was 2408 and on Plot No. 2 it reached the surprising gain of 4109 quarts over and above the Eldorado plot without irrigation. INDEX. PAGE Actinidia arguta for porches.,.........+. sececesccrvecsecoss so OOO Air-drainage in fruit-growing.......cc000. secccsccuce esceees edl—-94 Almond—its history and culture...... .. Sdia's, 3,006 RPE Rye soece 290 hardy varieties of the.....ceccsse seoee cccccecceece SOG Apple—root-grafting the........e.ccesceccccsecs aiaipaede wens 78 LOPs SPE IN G. orsicg ori a icici a iseins hase ayo sib ecatees tee PA eI eo? distance apart.in) planting. 5. siwe.séeeeie8.s.o2ip'e Ke we vive ole 107 marketing summer ... ....seeecees socccescccecocecee 122 autumn and winter varieties.......... 8:0. s¥ip o/s eta ecoe keep storage of winter......... Anco e ehh es vaccse endothe d vas, aee -origin of the cultivated. ....0.-sccccoccccevcccccccccee 109 the native crab....... PS eC Cshovacneetensse ey JOM dwarf trees of the........... SoG ois aslo eeielecae.e oa vleipion iartt Oe propagation of the..........cesecs cccevceccscccsee. 10-104 varied season of given varieties.......sesseecesseceees 160 ornamental species...... peaatets sia aislo.e aie \ocase-aieiobalepra oie 7 Onset Apricot—its pruning........ oaishe ae Weuen ous ccceeetcoeasvess s 4am history of the...... Of AP CeerIaG Sowecsesrevecccesese LOE Arsenate of lime for spraying.......s.cececccveccsccreccesess 146 ALbor- Viti ssa bavactpineip sino Abas 00s eee's'ses ecg aude) cab ee Oe Asparagus in vegetable garden......seccccscercccccccecccves . 387 Banana—tta BIMGOr Fi. os cies obs's ce sincdccaccesswh sveacebaeuas ale PIOPAPOTION Vssiccie acs celeet coho ca ge reece ce eles bere hie ers 214 Barberry—as a fruit eeeeerer eee eee eeereeeter ee resee see eereeeseoe 285 as an ornamental bush............sseerecceeezeeees BOO OHA eGOe DIRG LS crane seb ssi edhe evese occec tun ea COm 403 404 INDEX. PAGE Bark-PTATtING .. sae 54s 0 oss So silo wes ceerisieee sissies eeheoaee cress. 1OL Birch for ornamental planting....... sieienaree'=s's cisie a oie e's piss 0.6» OOP Bittersweet as a climber,.........2..00. aisiaicte's w/e ani atererehs atsiea.oscn O4 IRC SWAINUG. ©. 5.63% 00's siecle ca eae sxe PROC AI ree eaiae'e ROO PLOPAC AION 5. o'o;010h cose wvie/siseisis aa esecsvesecsees 300 Blackberry —American SpeCieS.....+.0+ceceeseeeeees Wile sin 3 bee 259 propagation Of ......cccceseces do ceemnsise sevccts 260 Bordeaux mixture for spraying......... dio sigiee o\cupste Sv se Molsie's a3 153 Bottom heat for seeds and cuttingS........-..cceceeeeeeeeeee 59, 60 PPSRMAY ICG oie vpis'os ci c'a'o, -.s-01 6 vie eicisiosibisicjaiale sigiald¥ies siapinelerteisiais'oe is 311 Budding—purposes of... .....ccesccccsvcccscoes Bair enivclote s sims 66 some native stocks used....... sig Be wie Wiewiernwens stare sinie, O00 At) BUMMIMNET = «.c o'civisioie's ocisloienieln|e ¥ ole siala aieiiertia orele< siete 100 how the work is done....... Rae tiere Givisisieisteileeescits. 30 the season the seeds are planted........... Prelees siete val PN JUNG 5:09.15: c's sale pialoeatsters eiaieiohrn iw elaine eaaisiesietes 6a DY FINGINGs 60's 56 tec San eevee cues tes sepaneuwdiiees . 04 MeOse—leal ANG Cribs .357.;25's «cra. slorrisiovein olerersseisis oie asta Cietelsiarelsis oyehe 24 adventitious and lateral..... Riaterwieia a asvisaistem tare Giaisies o16/s 27 need of, in. plant division. «2.00 sess one sateesine < Ralere sc cenmrOr essential in some tuberS........c.eeceeecees Sraeuisie tele sem, O00 how to cut and insert ....... Paealee sea Wnkwn (Jpeadecenees 20 VAIL ALO DOTTY 5 clercis 2.5) oro'e clase oe ekieine ote ais lie esi o oa cee reeis alateta/a’s sis’ ais 283 pruning ofthe... 2.0 Sis one suie ose sees Pp Deleisesteiees COL as an ornamental bush......... ws Mielaisio ovens Gie'ee sas (BOC Bulbs for bedding.......... Pelvelieleie Wola iatalelere aie" SIavere rile aie aielsiseicleSaesU BuIBE NONE YSUCKIC: s/s: (2/s:s) pewesks slave eR canaeb rte Sorues eae jelly now commercial. .......0.ccccccsscccoreccvecosecs ork Hackberry O' Or OOO. S'S O16 @ OLS OOS esreevaevee eee eeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeoeee eee 330 Pett ni-propagation and proning:,.<< 0. «oss wa eedes eo. O00-O00 Hedges and screens—care Of... 22... cecccccccccconcccescccccs 159 PERMIGOU ort sc cine os. sits cals 8 ae Sabisle tavsicced o\siaisereipeiaieselsiclas SCOLE Hickory-nut—culture of ........cccesscvece Pa eer ere i) Hollyhock—double....... ...... es de nacive tieecansedsaeesens COE Homes—Awme rican, rural, and suburban....... ceccesecscseces S14 BEATEN G TOW vain snk 56i saci seis o0\cans eeiel¥eansals agence OLS lawns for the........ a cactievevastsceurecmeeekceses LO its trees and shrubsS..........0-seeeccsccsecccces+d10, 316 need of hardy trees and Shrubs.......ceccsccccsescses O20 Honey locust... 2.5 ccs c sec cee eas avin ec ccccccccccvcccsees Bae Honeysuckle—bush species. ..........+. occ cccccecccessocscese GOO CCMNDING. 6.50.06 oneness ee sssces ceccccccccccceees OOO Horse-chestnut........ 0025 ..eseeeesees PIT err cosccecs Oe ‘Hydrangea—hardy species of the........... o06cspwelees beens es GUO INDEX. 409 PAGE Inarching.......0sccceccee Cee ere cence enn cece ce peseenessocce. 50 long-scion or eee @eeereetreree ee eeeeee eee eg eeee es Reeser 52 Iris—Japan species Of... ...ccccscdisecaccccceccresescceesscye, SOG Irrigation—in the humid States.....ccsscccsccccccsssccsecces B94 Of. fruit, orchards, «<6 ¢s%s Sa ed ccbeiscenecccsec p's sens OOo reservoirs for..... a as og ene Be ch I artesian wells for...... PE ICE Ces, i beneath: the saklatesc. ceeds siceeosee po dames edecs 00800 inthe greanhonse, §.-<.c's0¢ each ane obs Konsee oes S00 remarkable rasnlia Of) scspccuccsechaseeswtee tesees 40: Juneberry—the dwarf........ hit yen Faken ee ae beer 281 propagation and pruning.......sececcssee secereee cor Kerosene emulsion for BPUNP Nigel's Lacsehk Peuw'seudiamantiaeees 149 Kumquat as @ fruit.......-seeeeeeeeees pc ccccccesssocesenyse BUS as an ornamental plant......0..sse-eeeeees OUD Eandscape horticulture... s..... vcuiveseveprnse cVGeus apap ees cee GLO laying out home place.......ccseecssees O14 where to plant trees....... sek e webouyee BLO laying out large grounds.......... ng +o) DL improving old places.......... ie Shas ohne OE planting trees and shrubs.......... ona ne Oot need of hardy trees and shrubs,......... 825 Labok for ornamental planting.......... siee 4 plcisteleibelenre Sierauye -.. 341 Lawn—grading and manuring..... a seep apie ieeie'ep we'd arate esvee 815 where to plant trees and shrubsS,......sseeeseeeees 310, 316 Layering—SUMMEFP.... secyccccccee-cocccnccscesccedeccegee 40, 47 SPTINGi ve ivciee cas we Oe EEA ERTL OE CMe Laat and trite: badd. SS ea NG eas oie Aik boa Sin esc vale ete fe Sa ee Geris.3 ee Leaf—period of Tipeming. ss ss-ceic-cce'a'ctedaccce sepaktagnend ostG ee Climatic: Variation: OF ENG. vc str ¢d.e'c,64.o.6 vise ee dips eeieiaweiee te 28 Lemon—history of the......,... at bee OEE PET ea Mr UN 200 propagation and pruning.....cccsscesseccecreccceees DOL DROS, sp okie ee ‘sty Pa aave bicne NOAEN EES CRG Fee E ech ewes sek shaved J OEe Lily—hardy species of the.......ecccscsccsscsseee Gite apie ersiete sf 367 -of-the-valley... eeaies diel snide sigiois ee 4 hate eine *\oh8 His Gbgxes 369 Lima bean—in home aster Paitcaidiutiorsts cjsrquesisrare ee cls elbca'n eS Bek cae eS Lime—its uses and propagation. .......ccssecsesscsecesscssese QS 410 INDEX, ; : PAGE BAO OF BOMNWOOK. 56 o0. vais. oe vo dend cesaeceecseceeas tneveaee s ed London purple as an insecticide........00 ss sceccesevesecceces 142 Loquat—its uses and propagation... .....cceecesccccccescesrhd, 218 Magnolias for ornamental planting........ccsecccescccssserees G40 Maiden-hair or Salisburia.......-.0.cccccccccsccevccescesbocs O41 Mandarin orange........... REGU ce cevncccsocteseseceescesecs GOS Maples for ornamental planting........ccescccoccsesccces due, B29 Melons—history and ase; ....cccsccescccectsctarecessccssese 220 in home garden... ..cccccccscsscsvccecesccsscccsescs OVO Mice and rabbits in orchard......secccssccsscscceserescccesccs 11D Mock-orange for ornamental use........0scecccccsseccccsseeee BOR BMOBS SPH s::4.5 o:s-010'0.0/0r sei 8 Uabiness dee cge Ssic'c PUAG ateMebe 6 ef ais 2. -OOO Mounding—for propagation........cceces-ccccccesccsscccseee 40 to protect from MICO... sccceccccceccecscgecebescees FAM Mountain ash, ....ce.cccccccccccccccccccvcccces sesccccsceos Obb Nectarine—its history......00- scccusesesseccescevsecnvoveses LOt propagation and protection ........seceeeeeeee 0187, 188 NGrNery-pruning,... os ccccsocrvetocsvcesserpscccetesdscvesses 1es Nut-trees....... oie d.G.e s'e sie bla eoleia's ose piavdd Gale eae Teg ee cate meses cae AMON... cccecseccccovesccsvreccecseseesectpectvens SUU WAlDDE 060.05 060.0.0 -04.cgen nea seeyee uber cbeepens carne ae black walnut....ccccsscocnisvecevaasseeneastesegees Dee Duttornwt, ise sos vcdededes cieesien ss ecase Ueaererae kas mee PHOKOLY-NOC sic sssccevadscrpevceceue case dleseauees cé 301 POCA 6305 kc cccecceedscnesenesenseaet Chadasksceesat Me CHEStHUE, . .<:c'0'c ccc sick ee beeccec elclsnebineinee er weechk ar oe Ue AMON, cs ws 6 05.06 0Nns 600)6b0006 oes anv elMacan ends ee cocoanut,...... nie: b,6 oieie’b Give UreinietrclelsiMuisieetiettaniesiavcls cree BPOMU NUS... o'c oiieic ees cececlosiiess oolceeeus eens sien aTeme Oaks for lawns and parks......seseccscccccece cecsseeccceces Ok Old Srteaniop- working the;..cscccscsccesccccss wisnpsensicens 87 Oleaster or wild olive....... Cia bbe peenes ot 60 REN TIMERC OE r se eee RITOSLE DMRBEY BOG BROM 50. c56c's occ ccm ove chang daewiss ep ae propagation..... Leis pea pe seesvces ts ed UeneweVeneh es ee its commercial products..........csececcccseccsccesees 206 Orange—pruning the...... pnalatscre ie see, e086 aus hoelg uae SRA EE history of the.. ereee e@eeseeeececve eeeereeeseerteeeesete 193 ae INDEX. 411 PAGE Orange—propagation ceee. SOOO See E HHS HERE HE SEH OSH EEE RESO ES 196 LOP-WOTKING, . ose ccc ccevcs seccsecccccccceseceecsoes 198 culture see etreeree e@ereeeeeeteeeeeeeeeneteeeeeeeaeee rete 198 QOrchard—-of the larger frultsy. sco oc os ces eeeeee accuceeseeyece 98 protection of, from winds,.......... eo eveeerevceee 95-122 Soil, arid: subsoil! fOr Seciisi ots os.sie wie"ele PeeeR eae eens: GO air-drainage.,....... SPE neigh bie Volsigsiorcablacelsiele sista a one north and south slope of the.....sescscccececce cere 94 washing of soil......... BPR CL oe POPE EA ey eT Te ee | double planting of the, ... ..ccscsseccesccscccsececs 107 distance apart of trees.......... (ae kserehets nkes sal, 200 securing trees for the......... ERT TS CET Cee oe proper depth of planting trees... .....ccececeesceee 112 alternating varieties in the. ........eccsscsceseseess 118 how to plant the trees .....cccscccccccccccccecescce 114 cover-crops for thé.... ...ceeereee Sitehewnpeaedsoc LEO protection of, from rodents........cecce:cessceceess 119 stem-borers and caterpillars in...........eeee000+120, 121 manuring the..... eVulde Saiha's sets Wek inks eh Guwp-cecbie kee tile-draining of the, .....ccccsccces cvccevcvcccscces 100 managing stone fruit... ..ccsccsececccsccecccecccce 190 Peeonia—herbaceous and tree,.....seecsccccsccssccccccccecess B00 Pea—sweet, for garden planting........ssccceccccsesccscesees SID Peach—orchard culture Of... ...cccccccccocccccccccesccscseses 108 distance apart Of trees... .cicccesccccccccacedsosevcces 108 Pruning the... .c.cccccersdccecevecsenccscceasvecceess 104 history: Of thes. cs scvs vee ween sete cenee WepecdeS oe k00 propagation of the, ....-.scccscccees cocccecccescescce 106 laying down for protection......ccccsccresccccccece-+- 188 Pear—distance apart in planting....... SASS CEReA USES EOS Va ee WL SOF origin of the cultivated varieties.........ceeeeeseee- coos 167 dwarf trees ‘of thos. seis. i cde isha seaV eam dives eces sw htO propagation Of the. cc ciec ses i vacaedesWosceasecuouseds UL Dest Sotle: fOr The i ciwkacecccccaveccéeceebevesvoteve Lei CANO OL TUG EPUIG, scion sede ce es pews ie ctadeccdvicccsceges Ale Pearl buslicind sews cevnes's os Pewenic es discal aie LEON Wha wereiae Ve ee Oe Pecan—its value and management,.........ecccscccsseesscees BUR Perennials for home planting........sccccessseccescesccersces O00 Persimmon 48 JADA iiiy sccsiw snce'ccc seescctocscvedéwessees 219 412 INDEX, PAGE Persimmon—native species...... sels Soke weeawaReeriag bree tiey eens 220 propagation of the............ eipeweesedveseess es Oe Phellodendron for ornamental use... .......00. gis wh hel cess oes O41 Phlox—perennial, for bedding...........+. Osis belt 640 ee vie'vee eo 367 Pineapple—its history and useS .....see.eesees ese che ie een e- 214 i nereased uses of the ....... 000. Berets ue cipiere-< 216 Pines for ornamental planting. «5 osc ss:< vow cc we sisa eleielsseNinalels «v0.0 346 Plane or. button wood tree vo .-ciweccie dese sisceeweevieveceeesececes OGL Pilants—division’ Of.2. (a''s..6 ovek yacss on wees Ceabavatts sees. OS Plum—top-working the. .....seceeseeseee. serccccvecccccccces 86 CLOWN-QTALtING. .. vesescecceres Cotctocsdebeseresoccee 81 stocks for oe ee eereaeee e@eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeesene 88 distance apart in planting... 2.3. i vseecsceccecseestesses 108 pruning.......-+s.6. ce ev cccececeeccevceseeserscesecs 130 history and classes Of. .).30.5 ivabececcevscedceveseessss 180 propagation of the........ cocoons id edeweseebwes s coos 186 omamental-spécies Of. cusiics tes cose sce bveS ei eb ese06 BOO Pollen—how gathered for CroSSiING.....cccccsscceccccccccesecs 103 when and, how: US0d.i 3 cisecb e's bss cinciesnes see sbenece (104 Pomegranate ser eeoreeeoee eee eeereeeoereerereeseesesesree® eeerseece 218 Pomelo or grape-fruit. eeresee LS S280 GSS: 2 200 .S8E 2 HWS Fe CD's 00 66 202 propagation of the......... dsosecvvcecdacvosenssctees CUS Poplar—best apecies of, for parks... .essccscccecevcenrswcceess. BOD Poppy—oriental ....... sees eee. oh soe esectcceecvewecescccne BOG Propagation— in HRUTOPC. co vie eo nesrobc's secede becwleihie'e bgle ee, 0a:6 41 FTOM SOCKS Ss: fo. 6s sacs deved vovedvuaseewcsioongece 40 by TOot-cuttingS....ccccoeccccsscecseccesccccess 44 Dy Mounding -.. .ccccccccccccsvsescvscsscnesese 46 summer IAVSTINEs 02.0. sksssrccseetgabavecssees 46 Spring layering... sveseveccccosrsagecevvecsseses 48 SNATCHING Gis vie sis ole cigeie sdecess SRR e Re AS RO Ric's SOU long-scion inarching. ....csscccccsccscccsscesess OL ripe wood cuttings. ......cccccccccccecesevces Om00 green wood cuttingS........+4. covccccsevescoces G1 by division)... 002.005 cde sccedseseeedbevveee cs. 68 budding and grafting.......cccocsscesecsceses 00-74 COP-QTALtIN... 0. .s6snccecvccsccvccconessvevesess! OF bark-grafting......... ésnigies + 0eN rn dakah tend sp awk grafting the apple........ Meisels oo eee ea FH fee OT LOS QUINCey ais 5:06 odeecesevcedeccoeces ss 100 INDEX. 413 Propagation—grafting the pear ...cseccsecseccceesceececseeee LL GHOITY coe 65500 s sess aljgth Sewer se LIS peach, plum, and apricot............ 186 OFAD ZO <5. eee ce i ose ase dimh wajalelag's(ss AO Pruning—need Of ........seccccccsccssceccreces tn ew aloes oéewket in nuTsery7stveees ces oid Sela Seiee Sees vis eb ee eceivee sc Aes proper time for........-+- Sidiatl dines’ Siepielelasicwlesceves LRG in young orchards..... Pei te ee Ee stiveseercess 120 for cordon-training........ ... seitt ee tsiieiss wees an tol to shape trees... oe ciao Sach a slaligt siete etelenatwce eee (gaieiers 183 of the cherry, plum, peach, and apricot..........188, 134 the orange....... Sa sisisalp oe Sialeveerave ware erent Lae rae it the QUINCE, .seicccccccsesccccvccecsvecctcesesccces 100 shrubs, ,.. 050 etvecoeues TeresT ee cceccecccecseses 1838 OVEFZTEENS, ... cecceess eecvedecveerecccoccessetoss 139 ornamental hedges........ Pascla tasers Pis'ele'Parsibafeaecices LOD Parple fringe... 6s coi saivee sias'c BW cence teeewenscetevsceseese BOO Quince—pruning the........ (Wed iegnaeeseiedeee Clee spev sp ees LOe origin and races of the, ....,cceveccecccccccvsccscens 193 propagation and Care Of... ..scccccsccccccccescccecs 104 Japan Species Of. icicscocsicccicedevccsoecedesesece SOU Raspberry—origin of American varieties,......... er sldtedciaite.e.0 62 ODL cultivated species of the... 2.2. scccescvce eccesece BOL black-cap family..........0. eadbew cxes eececesoes Be e6-<. 84+ BOP AP AOR ca. ieee oe a6 sisicaGeeeeaciebesa Or Purple-Cand.PHCe dis sases cs acedescuvlusseeeras «ODA IAMEFICAN TED Variety. oi. cc-0'c0 oc ves'c ced veces cee cic ROO pruning the........ eeeeseess cece ec eeeeeveeeesaee DOO mulching and manuring....... eels ea dis Peeieie e's's bes 200 winter protection of plants ........cccseccccseseces 200 distance apart and staking... .....scccescccecccsces 208 Retarding fruit blossoms.........+++ YE chau swe ee uaae orsle cera ee Roses—hardy varieties of the ...sseccecsercccccccccescccccsss B00 Roothow-it QTOWS. b3.605 cscsesccessrcecgedsescoveceseuessedt, 15 office of the ..... eS kane Pelev eied 6 bos oWe.Osaeinlbardnchvacda FO protection Of the-:-.5. occupy ssi vo.wesccveccscetoccteoue Ld GIVIEION Of. 2. See aROs thee bis chen Weee bebe bloc dereecwee sc cAt “as modified by top se eereeeese ses esses eeseetereeveseeseee 18 414 INDEX. PAGE Root—how used for propagation....ccccccscecesesscccsccerers 44 winter killing of the......cccscccccccvcssecccccceerees 43 use of, in grafting.........+. oe WSs seteceseeceesccncee. 09 Root-grafting—how regarded in Europe......eccccsesseeceeeee 40 of the apple... ...ccrcecsccvccesccesccscccccce 38 how grafts are kept. ..cccccocccceccsccsccccscee 19 Sand cherry—its useS.... .scccccccccccssceses sevecscccssecs Loo Sap—its Movements... ...ceccces coccccescescesesesesss cess seo-a0 Saving girdled trees......ccceccccccccvccccccsececccescesesss 89 Scions—imperfect union Of. .....cccccecccccscccserccsscccsees 30 Cutting and SAVING....cercccesee cece. eece: seereserecs root-grafting with long... ...cececcseseesecese eecccees Seeds—variation of seedlings from.......cscccsececccsecscsece variation of plants from seeds of cultivated varieties.... BAVING Of... 6.200 coccvevccccvcccrecccccesccevesccece stratification Of... ....cccocccccnescccccceesecccceceece soaking and scalding SUE ERT PU ee OEP Tame ole fall planting Of... .....cs.sescccccceccccscccccocessece Pesting. 5... cccseccsee’s eevee ee cece erccccrccececccece Bopthi of planting’