Shiai karatts “. ’ arte eerie: ro ak a aha 5 eee » eT Sedhie-saeaiieaee Belsdided nes titeds i504. Fs \adadpienydbtided Sar vre wnete ey 3 were PECL EEH TEP Pe ev ewrety 1 dete dhdh dda thd Tew Pirie E gia Lab aed Ieee * peer rrr as Weivves ee Owmeee ee ve were ‘ = fr erihemetn = 4 i Sopi ved \ Vii! g nee BREE) « wid r Woy ee! , nape Phen Pi 2 ae ane : A Se war Piyyaes carmen ea) Oe iid heen ronnie TEEPE TT | “t Neen aa! ATCC TENT Te tteeataaginteed tthe ety ve Mey i (My, wt hey? bey rey «iva yt HATH Fee! ca ena Arig ft me ‘w\ ‘ rere ¥ d 4 LA we, x y ‘ ; , 1 ee b a ee? ~ . wd : by’ j Bees : fe ; ; ‘ea ,- Tes -. he ; Tea, Nyy WR en | SENS ™ td A () '] / wwe re whe (Na gat tee P Le ey = we 3 Mio sai NA Na aed Ort uGhe” PEE EE TH Slalet te : : As TRS ANAK. we / tag Ph a thin a y Nate trs ‘Wa le T cle [or irt 7% } aii yyy ry r Ngteteue At we IIAAANNARN 5 "haba 7 AS nnd iit. vy os NAY aA J = wwe % ; a! hy yanane a SATIN a. = st | | Sih ri tis ae $ Beek Bee Pre Mv \ pe) vy, v F, a Aes p a - Ee nae bal = “1 ba aw Lena a ach4 an ooo an ‘a 10M, ale | | Z td ‘ bt 4 aa wea. é atv ty og Moo ae Bene \ mh vp iA. t Lay ey Wy | aN sso SSeUee We Gyeee Be | t ) Vv :f pron , Mang ‘ offs Wyn tiy ; saa OO NON Watt atraiya aod yy Te Main eset 2 Tk g = est pee’ S jAraAs ~~ = a VeSrennanens eect ar uf aT A ba oa S(O : rea i Lp sk e Zs | & ee, Urs & PRR oka sek 4 Pe AN A | ‘es ven E * Oo memes Cake aft pcsu meh ec x waa: HEP | ‘\ra Sh cae ah Me Lady WA isn. A Prise ace Pe ‘tee Cn ALD Phied Shay, & 6 y Vu, , Lie | cape Cae “Mone, Mi pL | Nersenreatctk oll ee cam Coca OUT Dee aw oer at | bee ih] - SON lag) Sere Ane Canad (xo a is 2 Ef? Ul 4) wey Io r Mal | See TS ae 7 lhe g dn \v allay LE LAMP Tj tala Seat er Senet prays, _Aftin progie Mei ct Pes oe ae Stew cate Uf eB, ty | Ss be ' =? Drresoe seem yl . - e Nosetee a atts, ANIA nage du PQ SNe. ANA aay OO ty vf it 4 ot Then tatite. (be. phnhs, 4 Vy <1. + i OD PAA ttt CUTE i LAR i AAG 4 Sib ’ { BS te be | ie ti ‘ght Y “ “ ryt Lon S ha ceneet oof ‘¢ ; +. Podge be a “ l OSG ites WITH SIX PLATKES. \ } NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. 8. DANA. 1885. . a8 a is a o g a) ° 2 g - =) IS) New Haven, Conn CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXX. NUMBER CLXXV. Page Art. I.—Contributions to Meteorology ; by Exias Loomis. Mwenty-irst paper. 7 VWaith plated ous’ cas eae 1 II.—Note on some Paleozoic Pter opods; by C. D. Watcorr, 17 IiI.—Determination of the B. A. Unit in Terms of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat; by L. B. FuercnEr,._ 22 TV.—Cause of Irregularities in the Action of Galvanic Bat- teries; by H. V. Hayes and J. TRowsringr,.-..--.-- 34 V.—Sensitiveness of the Eye to Colors of a Low Degree of Satmrationis bye Mowe (a NICHOUS, (a2) 2a ial ena 37 Vi.—Study of Thermometers intended to measure Tempera- tures from 100°-300° C.; by O. T. SHERMAN,_--------- 42 VIl.—Notice of a new Limuloid Crustacean from the Devo- ALATA ST) 1D Vos eda Secu WVATTAUT AMS. os S28 Sl Uaioe ashe ea haa ae 45 VILI.—Gerhardtite and Artificial Basic Cupric Nitrates; by Joly [ee Nyaa mech ey oye) te Wi Deed eq mica ai gion caD yy en ei ey 50 IX.—Occurrence of Fayalite in the lithophyses of obsidian and srhyolites: bygds is ppINGs,. oii ay leah ia 58 X.—Genealogy and Age of the Species in the Southern Old- tertiary ;by Onno Minvrsc \s yell Bai c os ae a iu aUlae 60 XI.—Probable occurrence of the Great Welsh Paradoxides, P. Davidis, in America; by Guo. F. Matrurw,..----- 72 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Simplified Method of Liquefying Oxygen, CAILLETET, 73. —Preparation of Cyanogen in the Wet way, JacQqureMin, 74.—Two new Alikali- metric Indicators, VILLE and EN@eL: Separation of Nickel and Cobalt, In1insK1 and v. KNorRRE, 75.—Ready Method of Preparing Tartronic Acid, PINNER, 76. —Pocket Book of Mechanics and Engineering, J. W. Nystrom, 77. Geology and Mineralogy.—-Coals and Lignites of the Northwest Territory, G. C. HorrMann, 77.—Why there are no Fossils in the Strata preceding the Cam- brian: Bone-in-Cone Structure, J. Youne: Aerial Formations: Irish and Ca- nadian Rocks compared, G. H. KINAHAN, 78.—Cambrian or Primordial Rocks of Br. Columbia, H. H. Winwoop: The Folds in the Alps, M. Hrim: Disintegra- tion in the Alps, M. A, Brun: The Amblypoda, HE. D. Copr: The Lenape Stone, or the Indian and the Mammoth, H. C. Mercer: United Statas Geological Survey, 79.—Physikalische Krystallographie und Hinleitung in die krystallographische Kenntniss der wichrigeren Substanzen, P. GrorH: Occurrence of Native Silver in New Jersey, 80.—Vanadates and Jodyrite from Lake Valley, Sierra County, New Mexico, F. A GreNnTH and vom RatTH: Hardness of the Diamond, G. F. Kwwz, 81.—Microlite, W. HE. Hipp—N: Emeralds from North Carolina, J. A. D. STEPHENSON: Uranium minerals, L. W. STILLWELL, 82. 1vV CONTENTS. Botany and Zoology.—The Woods of the United States, C. 8. SarGEnt?, 82.—Euca- lyptographia, VON MuELLER: Les Organismes Problématiques des Anciennes Mers. Saporta: The Lythraceze of the United States, E. KorHNeE, 83.—Mono- graphic der Gattung Clematis, O. KNurzE: Recherches Anatomiques sur les Organes V egetatifs de l’Urtica dioica, A. GRAVIS, 84.—List of the Plants of New Brunswick, J. Fowrer: North American Gamopetale, H. N. PATTERSON: North American Mosses and Hepatice, C. E. CumMines: Phzenogamous Plants of North America, J. H. OystER: Eggs of Echidna hystrix, HAACKE, 85. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence— American Philosophical Society of Philadel- phia, 86.—American Association: Meteorological Circular Letter, 87.—Diges- tion Experiments, H. P. ARMsBy: Chemical Periodicals, H. C. Bourton: When did Life begin, G. H. ScRIBNER: Paradise Found, W. F. WarRgEv, 88. NUMBER CLXXVI. Page Arr. XI.—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands; by J. D. DAWA, 2 5. 2 2UL oo al oe ee 89 XIIL.—Meteorite of Fomatlan, Jalisco, Mexico; by C. U. SHEPARD, 2000.0 202" Vel a oe ee ee 105 XIV.—Occurrence of Allanite as an accessory constituent of many rocks; by J. P. Ipprnes and W. Cross,_-------- 108 XV.—Crystals of Analcite from Phcenix Mine, Lake Superior Copper, Region; by S. L. REnniuLp,-2 22 =e i XVI.—Differential Resistance Thermometer; by T. C. Mzn- DENRALLS 2) 25. Soe ee ee eee 114 XVII.—Impact Friction and Faulting; by G. F. BecgEr,__ 116 XVIII.—A Standard of Light; by J. TRowpripas, ___. __- 128 XIX.—On Hanksite; by W. E. HippEN,.._-.----------=- 133 XX.—Mineralogical Notes; by E.S. Dana and 8. L. PEy- 10) 6 27 69 Oe ee eee Se Paes tae eS pee 2 a ain 5 Soe XXI—Amount of moisture which Sulphurie Acid leaves in aiGass’ by H.W. MorLEY,..-. 202/33 ee 140 XXI.—Local Deflections of the Drift Scratches in Maine ; by Gals Sione, 0s fo a See ee ee 146 XXIi.—Successional relations of the species in the French Old-Tertiany ; by O..Mmyver,. 30s. 5526s ee 151 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Method for the Determination of Nitrogen, ARNOLD, 153.—Heat of combustion of Carbon and of Organic compounds, BERTHELOT and VIEILLE, 154.—Absorbing agent for Oxygen, VON DER PFORDTEN, 155.— Method of separating Selenium and Tellurium, Divers and Saimoss; [lluminat- ing power of Ethane and Propane, P. F. FRANKLAND; [Illuminating power of Methane, Wricut, 156.—Toughened Filter-papers, Francis; Crystallized Tricupric sulphate, SHENSTONE, 157.—Molecular Weight of liquid Water, THom- SEN, 158. Geology and Mineralogy.—V olcanic nature of a Pacific island not an argument for little or no subsidence, J. D. Dana, 158.—Physical Features of Scotland, J. GEIKIE, 159.— Pennsylvania Geological Survey, Reports recently issued, 160.—Geologicai Survey of New Jersey, G. H. Cook, 161.—Contributions to the knowledge of the Older Mesozoic Flora of Virginia, W. M. FONTAINE, 162.— Syenite and Gabbro, M. E. WapswortH: Thermal effect of the action of aqueous vapor on feldspathic rock, C. Barus: New localities of Erythrite, W. P. BLAKE, 163. CONTENTS. AY Botany.—Course of practical instruction in Botany, F. O. BoweEr and S. H. VINES: Text-Book of Structural and Physiological Botany, O. W. THomé and A. W. BENNETT: Le Potager d’un Curieux: Histoire, Culture, et Usages de 100 Plantes comestibles peu connues ou inconnues, A. PAILLEUX et D. Bots, 164,— Contributions to American Botany. S. Watson, 166.—Talks afield about Plants and the Science of Plants, L. H. BaiLey, JR., 167. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, SPENCER F. Barrp, 167.—American Association for the Advance- ment of Science: Report on the Museums of America and Canada, V. BALL, 168. Obituary.—T. R. PEALE, 168: NUMBER CLXXVILI. Page Art. XXIV.—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands; by J. D. BIB ASIAN gays UREN LOMA GMA OMA Me EOE A Se Oe eg 169 XXV.—Quartz-twin from Albemarle County, Virginia; by Bs Gr ESR OWEN eda Re ae Nas tai esc top er 191 XXVI. —Impact Friction and Faulting; by G. F. Broker, 194 XXVII.—Transmission of Light by “Wire Gauze Screens : LON SF 8 od DV aha Dp Gey phe eaieee a eines aN aA idl fs al Bh ah, 210 XKVUl_-Geclogical Relations of the Gypsum Deposits in Cayuga County, N. Y.; by 8S. G. Witttams, --___---_- 212 ~ “iTX.—Variation of the Magnetic permeability of Nickel at different temperatures; by C. A. PERKINS, -------- 218 XXX.—Enlargements of Hornblende fragments; by C. R. IN PaCNG METIS Ss A eae 6 Na ca Te Ca ie se Sane ee 231 XXXI.—Three Masses of Metcoric Tron from Glorieta Moun- tain, near Canoncito, Santa Fe County, New Mexico; by,Gea: Kunz. (With four plates), -*a) sa) e ee snieas 235 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Physics.—“ Transfer-resistance ”” in Electrolytic and Voltaic Cells, G. GORE, 238. —Hlectrical Resistance of the new alloy Platinoid, Borromuey: Annual change of the Aurora Borealis, 240.—Note on a preliminary Comparison between the Dates of Cyclonic Storms in Great Britain and those of Magnetie Disturbances at the Kew Observatory, B. Stewart and W. L. CARPENTER: Properties of Matter, P. G. Tait: Mathematical theory of Electricity and Magnetism, H. W. Watson and S. H. Burpury, 241. Geology and Natural History.—Report of Progress of the Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada during the years 1882-83-84, A. R. C. SELWyn, 241. —Aralo-Caspian and Mediterranean Basins, T. P. JAMIESON, 243.—Union Group, Pacific Ocean.—Spiraxis major and Sp. Randalli of Newberry, large Screw-like fossils from the Chemung group of Northern Pennsylvania and Southern New York, J. 8. NewBerry: Geological Map of the United States, W. J. McGreE: Macfarlane’s Geological Railway Guide, 244.—Impact Friction and Faulting, G. F. Becker: Plantes 4 Fourmis, 245.—Lloyd’s Drugs and Medicines of North America: Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute for 1884: Revision of the North American Species of the Genus Scleria, N. L. Britton, 246.—Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Sarraceniacecn, P. ZIPPERER: CHARLES WRIGHT, 247. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences: Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Periodicals (1665 to 1882) together with Chronological Tables and a Library Check-List, H. C. Bouton, 247.—Contributions to North American Ethnology, J. W. PowsLu: Microscope in Botany, a Guide for the Microscopic Investigation of Vegetable Substances, J. W. BEHRENS, 248. Obituary. HENRI FRESCA: HENRI MILNE Epwarps: W. C. Kerr, 248. ae . i Rt Vee Se Ree a cia ian NAW TIE SN ci 2 PR CONTENTS. NUMBER CLXXVIILI. Page ~ Art. XXXII.—Crumpling of the Earth’s Crust; by W. B. BIPASV ROR eels ee eas 2k ee ee 249 XXXUI.—The Old Tertiary of the Southwest; by EW. GARD too. Se oe Se er 266 XXXIV.—Remarks on a paper of Dr. Otto Meyer on “Species in the Southern Old-Tertiary;” by E. A. SINAA1): A ay gee eee pole C TREN, CUiys a NEUE a 270 XXXV.—Native Antimony and its Associations at Prince - William, York County, New Brunswick; by G. F. TSSTEN Za SE AT SE A os cae ie ee a 275 XXXVI.—Crystalline Rocks of Alabama; by C. H. Hiren- COCR ge Be GI ay SLU i a SR (Oa er 278 XXXVITI.—Geometrical Form of Voleanic Cones and the Hlastie Limit of Lava; by G. F. Browne, _2_+-__-__-= 283 XXXVIIT.—Notice of a new genus of Pteropods from the Saint John Group (Cambrian) ; by G. F. MatruEw, _-. 293 XX XIX.—Cope’s Tertiary Vertebrata ; by J. L. Worrman, 295 XL.—Observations upon the Tertiary of Alabama; by T. H. IAT DRICH MMe Spa ay EIT Can oa SUN) ee eo 300 XLI.—Electrical Furnace and the reduction of the Oxides of Boron, Silicon, Aluminum and other metals by Carbon ; by E. H. CowLrs, A. H. Cowrzs and C. F. Manery,___ 308 XLII. arti Grand Rapids Meteorite; by R. B. Riggs, _--2 3812 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics —Sensitiveness of Selenium and Sulphur to Light, S. . BIDWELL, 313.—Molecular Shadows in Incandescent Lamps, J. A. FLEMING: Disintegration of the carbon filament in an incandescent Electric lamp, BUCHANAN, 314.—Changes produced by magnetization in the length of rods of Iron and Steel, 8. BIpWEUL, 315. Geology and Mineralogy.—Notes on some of the Geological Papers presented at the Meeting of the American Association at Ann Arbor, 315.—Can underground heat be utilized?, J. S. GARDNER, 317.—A gigantic bird of the Lower Hocene of Croydon, Gastornis Klaassenii, HE. T. Newron: Comstock Mining and Miners, K. Lord: Materialien zur Mineralogie Russlands von N. vy. KoKscHarow, 318. Botany.—The Microscope in Botany: a Guide to the Microscopical Investigation of Vegetable Substances, A. B. Hprvny and R. H. Warp: Bulletin of the California Academy of Sciences, 319.—Systematic Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns in Ceylon, H. TRIMEN, 321.—Hon. GEORGE W. CLINTON, 322. Astronomy.—Identity of Denning’s and Biela’s comets, 322 Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Ann Arbor, Michigan, 322.—U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 328. CONTENTS. vill NUMBER CLXXIX. : : Pa Art. XLIII—Quantitative determination of Niobium; by ie Mela OSBORN Baws 2 2 00 hari ve eS Bn ei PLE ea Rte 329 XLIV.—Notes on the Surface Geology of the country border- ing the Northern Pacific Railroad; by J.S. Newperry, 337 XLV.—Rainband Spectroscopy; by L. Brui,._-----.----- 347 XLVI.—A new Genus of Chazy Sponges, Strephochetus; Loyd G EVN Lars OS Dp gs eit tie slic aaa ae ee RS CLARE Ie coe 355 XLVIL—William B. Rogers’s Geology of the Virginias. A Review; by J. L. and H. D. Camppett, __--____-_--- 357 XLVII.—Displacement through intrusion; by J. D. Dana, 374 XLIX.—An Endoparasite of Noteus; by Sara G. Foutks,_’ 377 L.—Spectrum of Nova Andromede ; by O. T. SHerman,_-- 378 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Determination of the Specific Density of Liquids at high temperatures, R. Scutrr, 380.—Direct union of Bromine with Chlorides, forming a new class of Perbromides, BERTHELOT: Reduction of Carbon dioxide to monoxide by Carbon, NAUMANN and Pistor, 381.—Decomposition of Carbon dioxide by the Hlectric Spark, Dixon and Lowe, 383.—Direct Synthesis of Benzene Derivatives by the action of Potassium on Carbon monoxide, NIETZKI and BENCKISER, 384.—Composition of Ocean water, W. Dirrmar, 385. Geology and Mineralogy.—Development of Crystallization in Igneous rocks of Washoe, Nevada, A. HacurE and J. P. Ipprinas, 388.—Crystallographic Study of the Thinolite from Jake Lahontan, EH. S. Dana, 390.—Geology of the Scottish Highlands, Jupp, 392.—Results of the fusion of pyroxene and horn- blende minerals, 395.—An effect near Merak, on western Java, of the Krakatoa Eruption: Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota for 1884, N. H. WInNcHELL, 396.—-Underground Temperatures, J. PRESTWICH, 397.— Notes on the Stratigraphy of California, G. F. Becker, 399.—New American Limuloid species from the Carboniferous, A. 8. PackarD: Embryology of Limulus, A. S. Packarp: Town Geology, the Lesson of the Philadelphia Rocks. A. Heitprin, 401.—EHinfithrung in die Gesteinslehre, Hin Leitfaden fiir den akademischen Unterricht und zum Selbststudium von A. v. LASAULX: Pyrargyrite and Proustite, H. RETHwiscH: Marble Border of Western New . England: Die Meteoriten-Sammlung des k. k. mineralogischen Hof-Kabinetes in Wien am 1. Mai 1885, von A. BRezina: Botany of the Challenger Expedi- tion, 402.—Methods of Research in Microscopical Anatomy and Embryology, C. O. WHITMAN, 403. Astronomy.—The Star System 40, o? Hridani, A. Hatt, 403.—Report No. 8 of the Cincinnati Observatory, H. C. WILson, 404. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Washington Co., Penn., Meteorite, G. F. Kunz, 404.—British Association at Aberdeen, 405.—Louis Agassiz, his Life and Character, EH. C. AGaAssiz: Hawaian or Sandwich Island Survey, W. D. ALEXANDER, 406.— Obituary.—JAS. MACFARLANE: THOS. BLAND, 407.—E. H. VON BAUMHAUER, 408. vill CONTENTS. NUMBER CLXXX. P Art. LI.—Effect upon the earth’s velocity produced by small ia. bodies passing near the earth; by H. A. Newron.----- 409 LIi.—tTrend and Crustal Surplusage in Mountain Structures ; by AS WINCHELL 2+. 52 2)/feS 2c) ee ee 417 LIII.—The Genealogy and the Age of the Species in the Southern Old-tertiary; by O. Mreyver__--__--..------- 421 LIV.—The Condensing Hygrometer and the Psychrometer ; bya A. ELAgEN. 2 oo oo 435 LV.—A new form of Absorption Cell; by A. E. Bosrwick__ 452 LVI.—Fossils in the Hudson River Slates of the southern part of Orange County, N. Y., and elsewhere; by N. H. IDARTON i826 220 Lh Ue S22 See ee 452 LVII.—Report of the American Committee-delegates to the Berlin International Geological Congress; by P. Frazmr, 454 LVIII.—Bright Lines in Stellar Spectra; by O. T. SHeRMAN, 475 LIX.—Optical Properties of Rock-salt; by 8. P. Lanetuy_- 477 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Reaction of Barium sulphate on Sodium carbonate, under pressure, SPRING: Sulphocyanuric acid, Hormann, 481.—Synthesis of Cocaine, Merck: Hydrogen Persulphide, SABATIER, 482.—Valence of Phosphorus, M1- CHAELIS and LA Costr, 483.—Measurement of the Resistance of Liquids, Bouty and FOUSSEREAU, 484.—Method of measuring the vibratory periods of tuning- forks, A. M. MAYER, 485. Geology and Natural History.—Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, J. W. Pow- ELL, 486.—Precious Metal deposits of the Western United States, 8. F. Emmons and G. F. BEcKER: Malesia, Plante Ospitatrici: Illustrationes Flore Atlantice, 487.—Physiological Botany, G. L. GooDALE: Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz, von K. G. Limpricut: Structure and Dehiscence of Anthers, LECLERC DU SABLON, 488.—Influence of strong sun- light on the vitality of Micrococcus, M. Ductaux: Histology of Ascidia, HECKEL and J. CHAREYRE: Reserve Carbohydrates in Fungi, L. ERRARA, 489. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Elements of Projective Geometry, L. CREMONA and C. LEuDESDORF, 489.—National Academy of Sciences, 490.— Obituary—DR. W. B. CARPENTER, 490. INDEX TO VOLUME XXX, 491. Charles UD. Wale ae Office Geol al Survey. No..175, Vou. XxX, JULY, 1885. Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818 THE ANETTA N JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. EDITORS JAMES D. ayn EDWARD 8S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Proressors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, ann JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or CamBrivcE Proressors H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven, Prorrssorn GEORGE F. BARKER , OF PHILADELPHIA. THIRD SERIES. VOL. XXX.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXXX.] Woo UE, UB8a. WITH PLATE I. NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & HE, 8. DANA : 1885. TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by money orders, registered letters, or bank checks. $6.40 to foreign subscribers of countries in ae. BEOKER BROTHERS, No. 6 Murray Street, New York, Manufacturers of Balances and Weights of Precision for Chem- ists, Assayers, Jewelers, Druggists, and in general for every use where accuracy is required. April, 1871.—[tf.] PSPVUBIICATIONS OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS: UNIVERSE I. American Journal of Mathematics, S. Newcoms, Editor, and T. Craie, Associate Editor. Quarterly. 4to. Volume VII in progress. $5 per volume. Il. American Chemical Journal.—I. Remsen, Editor. Bi-monthly. 8vo. Volume VI in progress. $3 per volume. Til. American Journal of Philology.—B. L. GILDERSLEEVE, Hditor. Quar- terly. 8vo. Volume V in progress. $3 per volume. IV. Studies from the Biological Laboratory.—Including the Chesapeake _Zodlogical Laboratory. H. N. Martin, Hditor, and W. K. Brooxs, Asso- ciate Editor. S8vo. Volume III in progress. $5 per volume. V. Studies in Historical and Political Science.—H. B. ADAms, Hditor. Monthly. 8yvo. Volume III in progress. $3 per volume. VI. Johns Hopkins University Circulars.—Containing reports of scientific and literary work in progress in Baltimore. 4to. Vol. I, $5; Vol. II, $3; Vol. III, $2; Vol. IV in progress. $1 per year. VII. Annual Report.—Presented to the President by the Board of Trustees, reviewing the operations of the University during the past academic year. VII. Annual Register.—Giving the list of officers and students, and stating the regulations, etc., of the University. Published at the close of the Aca- demic year. Communications in respect to exchanges and remittances may be sent to the Johns Hopkins University (Publication Agency), Baltimore, Maryland. DANA’S WORKS. Ivison, BLAKEMAN, Taytor & Co., New York.—Manual of Geology, by J. D. Dana. Third Edition, 1880. 912 pp. 8vo. $5.00.—Text-book of Geology, by the same. 4th ed. 1883. 412 pp.12mo. $2.00.—The Geological Story Briefly Told, by the same. 264 pp.12mo. 1875. J. WitEY & Sons, New York.—Treatise on Mineralogy, by J. D. Dana. 5th edit. xlviii and 828 pp. 8vo., 1868. $10.00. The 5th “subedition” was issued by Wiley & Son in April, 1874. (Hach ‘‘subedition” (or issue from the stereotype plates), contains corrections of all errors discovered in the work up to the date of its publication). Also, Appendix I, by G. J. Brush, 1872. Ap- pendix II, by E. S. Dana, 1875.—IMfanual of Mineralogy & Lithology, by J: D. Dawa. 3d edition. 474 pp. 12mo., 1878.—Text-book of Mineralogy, by E. S. Dana. Revised edition. 512 pp..8vo., 1883.—Text-book of Elementary Mechanics, by E.S..Dana. 300 pp. with numerous cuts, 12mo., 1881.—Manual of Determinative Mineralogy, with an Introduction on Blow-pipe Analysis, by Gror@r J. BrusH. S8vo. 2d ed. 1877. Third Appendix to Dana’s Mineralogy, by HE. 8. Dana. 136 pp. 8vo. 1882. Dopp & Meap, New York.—Corals and Coral Islands, by J.D. DANA. 398 pp. 8vo, with 100 Mlustrations and several maps. 2d ed., 1874. bl? ile THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES] Art. I.—Contributions to Meteorology; by EKu1aAs Loomis, Pro- fessor of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Twenty-first paper. With plate I. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April 21, 1885.] Direction and velocity of movement of areas of low pressure. In several former papers I have examined the direction and velocity of movement of areas of low pressure. Since those papers were written, the materials for these investigations have been greatly multiplied, and I now present a summary of the results which I have obtained after an extended examination of the Signal Service observations, and of the observations made in other parts of the world. The monthly maps of storm tracks, which are issued by the Signal Service in connection with the International Bulletin, give a distinct idea of the general direction of movement of areas of low pressure for all parts of the Northern hemisphere. Plate I was formed by a combination of these monthly maps for several years. It represents only a small part of the storm tracks delineated on the monthly maps, and does not attempt to represent the storm tracks of different regions in their relative frequency, but it is designed to afford a specimen of all the im- portant storm tracks delineated on the monthly maps for all parts of the Northern hemisphere. Am. Jour. Sci1.—TuHirRD SERIES, VoL. XXX, No. 175.—Juty, 1885. L 2 £. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. From this chart we see, that north of the parallel of 380 degrees, storm tracks in all longitudes almost invariably pursue an easterly course, but generally they show an inclination toward the north of east ; while within the tropics, storm tracks almost invariably tend westerly, with an inclination toward the north of west. We also notice that none of the storm tracks reach down to the equator. The lowest latitude of any centre of low pressure which has been distinctly traced is 6°1° N., and there are eight cases of cyclonic storms whose paths have been traced to points south of lat. 10° N. Hard gales and violent squalls of wind sometimes occur directly under the equator, accompanied by sudden oscillations of the barometer ; but within six degrees of the equator, the depression of the barometer has never been found sufficiently great, and the de- pression has not been maintained with sufficient steadiness, to enable us to identify an area of low pressure in its progress from day to day. The tropical cyclones which have been found to pursue a westerly course are limited to two districts. 1. The Atlantic Ocean, and chiefly its western part near the West India Islands; and 2. the region south of the continent of Asia. Tropical cyclones have never been observed in any part of the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of its western portion near the continent of Asia and the neighboring islands. In my fifth paper I gave a table showing the leading particulars respecting the most violent cyclones originating near the West India Islands, whose paths had been investigated previous to 1875; and in my fourteenth paper I gave a similar table based on the observations contained in the International Bulletin. The average course of the cyclones enumerated in my fifth paper, while they were moving westward, was 26 degrees north of west; and the average course of those enumerated in my fourteenth paper, during the same part of their course, was 26$ degrees north of west. According to Maury’s Pilot charts of the North Atlantic, the average direction of the wind for that part of the Atlantic Ocean in which these cyclones most frequently occurred during the three months, August, September and October (which months include nearly all the cyclones referred to), is two de- grees north of east. According to the charts of the United States Hydrographic Office, which include all the observations collected by Maury and also those collected by the British Meteorological Office, the average direction of the wind is 43 degrees north of east. The average course of West India cyclones, while moving westward, differs therefore from 28 to 30 degrees from the average course of the wind. But if we make a comparison of the winds immediately succeeding each FE. Loomis—Areas of low pressure. 3 of the cyclones and continuing for at least 24 hours, we find that the direction of a cyclone’s progress accords more nearly with the direction of the principal wind which prevails at the time of the cyclone. The average course of the cyclones originating near the China Sea and Bay of Bengal, as enumerated in my fourteenth paper, was 38 degrees north of west, as long as they were moving westerly. The average course of the Asiatic cyclones indicated by the maps accompanying the International Bulletin (nearly all of which originated in the China Sea), was 274 degrees north of west. Since the average direction of the wind in this region changes nearly 180 degrees from summer to winter, in order 1o make a satisfactory comparison between the average direction of the wind and that of the progress of storms, we must make a separate comparison for the different seasons of the year. Since nearly all the cyclones, whose tracks are shown on the International charts, originated in the China Sea, I will make the comparison for this region; and since nearly all of these storms occurred from July to November, I will make the comparison for these months. According to Maury’s Pilot Chart of the China Sea, the - average direction of the winds in this sea for the month of July is south 22° west; for August it is south 39° west, and for September it is south 39° west. The average for these three months is south 33° west. The average direction of the wind for October is north 53° east, and for November it is north 41° east. The average for these two months is north 47° east. For the first three months, the average direction of progress of storms, is 35° north of west, and for the last two months it is 253° north of west; that is during the first period the average course of storms differs 88 degrees from the average direction of the wind, and during the last period the difference is 684 degrees. We also perceive that a change of 166 degrees in the average direction of the wind is accompanied by a change of only 94 degrees in the average direction of the progress of storms. This fact clearly indicates that the direc- tion in which storms advance is mainly determined by some other cause than the mean direction of the wind. If, however, we make a comparison with the winds immediately succeeding each of the cyclones, and continuing for at least 24 hours, we shall find that the direction of progress of a cyclone corresponds more nearly to that of the principal wind prevailing at the time of the cyclone. It is not, however, claimed that there is an exact agreement between these two directions. An examination of the accompanying plate shows that in the middle latitudes of the Northern hemisphere there is a re- markable correspondence between the average direction of the 4 E.. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. progress of storm centers, and the average direction of the wind as shown by Coffin’s wind charts. I have endeavored to ascertain whether this correspondence is exact, or whether there is a constant difference between these two directions. I first made a comparison of these two directions for the Atlantic Ocean. ; In order to determine the average direction of progress of storm centers across the Atlantic Ocean, I measured with a protractor the bearing of the storm tracks delineated on the U. S. International charts. These bearings were measured for six points, viz: at the intersection of the storm tracks with the meridians of 10°, 20°, 30°, 40°, 50° and 60° west of Green- wich, and the measurements included the observations of four years, viz: 1878-1881. The following table shows the average results of these measurements for each month of the year, and for each of the six points above mentioned. The latitudes named at the top of the table are the average latitudes corre- sponding to the given directions. Average direction of Storm tracks. | Lateisse, | Latas'9°. | Latesrse. | Latcsse- | Larges, | Laresorse Janay eee ee iN. 66° B.|N. 61° E.|N. 64° E.IN. 74° E.|N. 86° B.|N. 96° BE. Hebruanyeee ea 66 67 60 60 74 - 82 Mane ni ae sere ee \emenat ccd 69 68 65 Mey 'g@ April yeeiecem tay aad ares 68 72 79 91) asi Maya ne ne hie 62 67 68 71 16 16 eum 25s se lees Se Pee ane 62 64 67 71 71 Sully ss es ree Sa Cah 72 , 62 59 68 Ge | 80 FAN OTISt eee eee ea 69 74 74 77 CAN) Tl September _.--._.--- 67 72 78 (LSS YS 73 October ee eee 67 64 72 68 tek 72 November eae seeeee = 70 67 62 69 Os | &F Decembersmee seats | 65 66 62 67 73 80 Viear Wie ssa ee eee N. 68 EIN. 67 HIN. 67 EIN. 70 EIN. 75 EIN. 79 H. I have determined the average direction of the wind at several points on the Atlantic Ocean, as near as possible to the points corresponding to the preceding measurements. I have deter- mined the directions according to Maury’s Pilot Charts, and also according to the charts of the U. S. Hydrographic Office. Since the latter charts are based on the greatest number of observations, I have used them in the comparisons exhibited in the following table. ‘The wind directions here given are deduced from the observations for January, April, July and October. Along the line of the storm tracks, the number of wind observations on the charts is very small, and I have therefore deduced the wind directions from the observations in the five degree squares a little south of the average storm tracks. FE. Loomis—Areas of low pressure. 5 Comparison of Storm tracks with Wind directions, over the Atlantic Ocean. rouge | slate | Besmign | tguage | Deagion | Dice [99 men tude. tracks. tracks. directions. wind. latitude. northerly. 60° 46:9° |N. 67:0° B. 42°5° N.79°3° W 4:;° —33°7° 50 438-9 63°7 42°5 S. 85:2 W. 6°4 —21°5 40 B33 66-7 475 8S. 61:6 W. 3°8 + 5:1 30 53°9 | 22: 47°5 S. 73°5. W. 6°4 — 13 20 54:9 81°5 50:0 S. 65:2 W. 4:9 +16°3 10 DOO 86:2 52°5 8. 58°6 W 3°0 +27°6 Column Ist shows the longitudes for which the comparisons are made; column 2d shows the latitude of the points to which the direction of the storm tracks corresponds; column 3d shows the average direction of the storm tracks for the months of January, April, July, and October; column 4th shows the latitudes corresponding to the wind directions; column 5th shows the direction of the wind for the given latitudes and longitudes; column 6th shows the differences of latitude be- tween the points to which the storm tracks correspond, and those to which the wind directions correspond; column 7th shows the difference between the average direction of the wind, and the average direction of the storm paths for the points of comparison. It will be seen that there is an average difference of nearly five degrees between the latitudes of the points for which the wind directions are given, and those tv which the storm tracks correspond. Ihaveendeavored to determine the proper correc- tion of the wind directions for this difference of latitude, but the corrections appear so questionable that I have made no use of them. We see that for the middle of the Atlantic Ocean near the parallel of 50° the average direction of storm paths corresponds very closely with that of the average progress of the wind; but in the western part of the Atlantic, the average course of storms is 30 degrees more northerly than that of the wind, while in the eastern part it is nearly 30 degrees more southerly. I next made a similar comparison for twelve of the Signal Service stations in the northwestern part of the United States, between the Rocky Mountains and the meridian of 90° from Greenwich, for the three winter months for the ten years from 1875 to 1882. The wind directions were deduced from the sum of the observations for each of the eight principal points of the compass and the direction of the storm paths on the Signal Service maps was measured with a protractor. The following table shows the result of this comparison. Column 2d shows for each of the stations the mean direction of the wind; column 3d shows the average direction of the storm paths; and 6 E. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. eolumn 4th shows the difference between these two directions. The directions are all measured from the north point toward the east. Comparison of storm paths with wind directions, United States. Wind blows Storms move Storms most | towards towards northerly. BISMAD KG (oo salam tare ae opel Oz pee ren BN CE +55°0° Mt Sullyijoe sehen 154°2 106°7 47°5 Breckenridgels cass seeeos = Waa) 105°5 20-7 Northwelatieve=sseemee eee 121:0 1041 169 Keokukris sss sen ere aed 88°3 16°4 Wanktonyeanae soe ee eee | 121°6 106°3 15°3 Omahae. see eee 1147 100°8 13°9 Daven portesesee= eee ee 96°8 87:0 9-8 IDM DUG WS) Meco sd doeese boos | 92°7 88°3 + 4:4 Sir aule ea eee ere cia | 78:0 9953 —21:3 LaCrosse 2a 3.hiee se eee | 67'1 90°5 —23°4 Pembina ae ee eres | 85:7 109°4 —23°7 We see that at all of the stations, except the last three, the average wind of winter blows toward a point somewhat south of east, and for four of the more western stations, the average direction is 51° south of east. We also see that at the more western stations, the average movement of storm centers is toward a point considerably south of east, but at the more eastern stations the direction is a little north of east. At Bis- mark and Fort Sully, the average course of the winds is 50° more southerly than that of storm paths, while at St. Paul, Lia Crosse and Pembina it is 22° more northerly. The facts here stated afford a basis for some general con- clusions respecting the movement of storm centers. Some meteorologists have claimed that the progressive movement of storm areas is satisfactorily explained by saying that they are carried forward by the general movement of the mass of the atmosphere within which they are formed; that is, they d7i/t in a sense similar to that in which waves, eddies, etc., formed on the surface of a river, drift with the current. They advance as the water of the river advances, and in the same direction. But we have found that the average direction of movement of areas of low barometer does not generally coincide with the average direction of the wind for thesame region. ‘This is seen not only in the case of tropical storms, but also in storms of the middle latitudes. But it may be claimed that the progress of storm areas is not determined entirely by the average movement of the atmosphere, but by that movement which is taking place at the date of the storm. ‘There is some reason to think that in the case of trop- ical cyclones, particularly in the China Sea, the wind which generally prevails at the time of the cyclone accords more E. Loomis—Areas of low pressure. i nearly with the direction of the storm’s progress, than does the average wind for the same season of the year; but there is no evidence that there is an exact agreement between these two directions. If we claim that the progressive movement of a storm area is due to the progressive movement of the general mass of the atmosphere in which it is formed, it seems necessary to admit that a mass of the atmosphere, of considerably greater extent than the storm area, is advancing in the same direction and at the same rate as the storm advances. In order to decide whether such is the fact, we need only to consult a well-con- structed weather map, of sufficient dimensions to include not merely a storm area, but a considerable margin beyond it. The storm maps which have accompanied my former papers are too limited to furnish the required information in a form which is entirely satisfactory, and it is desirable to have similar maps for several successive days. The Signal Service maps afford abundant materials for this purpose, and Hoffmeyer’s maps are still better, since they include a much larger portion of the earth’s surface. If we open a volume of these maps anywhere at random, we shall not find the general mass of the atmosphere surrounding a great storm moving forward in the same direc- tion as that in which the storm advances. If we follow the progressive movement of a great storm from day to day, by means of maps representing the phenomena at intervals not greater than eight hours, we shall find that in front of the storm the air appears to be drawn in toward the center, by which means the pressure on the front side of the storm is diminished. ‘The air, thus drawn in toward the center, rises to a considerable elevation above the surface of the earth and its vapor is condensed. In the rear of the storm, the ex- terior air rushes in and restores the pressure on that side; and as the result of this double process, the point of least baromet- ric pressure is carried forward. ‘This movement of the exterior air in the rear of a storm, is not necessarily in the same direc- tion as that in which the storm center advances. In the United States, storms almost invariably advance eastward, and generally toward a point a little north of east; but the wind which presses upon the rear generally comes from the north or northwest, which direction is often at right angles, or nearly at right angles, with the direction in which the storm center ad- vances. This movement of the air, by which the center of least pressure is carried forward, bears some analogy to the movements which cause the advance of a wave upon the sur- face of the ocean, and hence we may with propriety say that the progressive movement of a storm area, is the movement of a great atmospheric wave. Besides these general considerations, there are various special 8 E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. phenomena which indicate that the movement of areas of low pressure cannot be fully explained by the theory of a general drift of the atmosphere. We frequently find two neighboring low areas advancing in directions inclined to each other at an angle of 45 degrees, or even a greater angle. In the United States, while a low center is advancing from Florida along the Atlantic coast toward the northeast, another low center may be advancing eastward over the region of the Great Lakes, and the two low centers may coalesce somewhere in the neighbor- hood of Nova Scotia or Newfoundland. It will be seen from the accompanying plate, that the storms which proceed from the Gulf of Mexico and from the neighborhood of the West India Islands, generally advance toward Newfoundland; and the storms which come from the northwestern part of the United States, also tend toward the same region. Newfound- Jand becomes thus a point of convergence of storm tracks pro- ceeding from regions quite remote from each other. In the vicinity of Newfoundland, there exists some influence which ap- pears to act as an attractive force upon storm centers. This influence probably results from the great amount of precipita- tion near that island, arising from the proximity of the warm water of the Gulf Stream, to the colder air from the land. ‘The accompanying plate shows other points toward which storm tracks seem to converge, particularly the Asiatic coast near Japan, and this fact probably results from a cause similar to the one just named. If the accompanying plate exhibited the storm tracks of different regions according to the relative fre- quency of their occurrence, other points of convergence of storm tracks would be exhibited. Along these converging storm paths, two storms often travel simultaneously and coalesce in a single storm area. Such a movement appears inconsistent with the drift theory. For the convenience of those persons who may wish to inves- tigate cases of this kind for themselves, I present the following list which shows some of the most decided cases in which two Hxamples in which two centers of low pressure approach each other and coalesce. 1873. March 29.1-29.2 ; 1875. Nov. 10.1-10.2 ; 1879. Jan. 1.3= 2.2 Oct. 4.3— 5.1 | 1876. March 25.3-26.1 Feb. 4.1-— 4.2 Oct. 11.1-11.3 | 1877. Dec. 29.3-30.1 | Oct. 16.1-17.1 1874. April 19.2-19.3 | 1878. Feb. 14.3-15.1 | Oct. 28.2—28.3 April 25.2-25.3 March 13.3-14.1 | Nov. 20.1—20.2 Aug. 30,2-31.1 May 2.1— 2.2 | 1880. Feb. 13.1—13.2 Sept. 25.1-25.3 June 18.1-18.2 March 1.2— 8.1 W875i Jani) +7 222-2963 Nov. 22.1-22.2 Oct. 29.2—29.3 centers of low pressure in the United States have coalesced. They are taken from the Signal Service Weather Maps for the E. Loomis—Areas of low pressure. 9 years 1873-1880. These maps show a considerable number of other cases of like kind, some of which have been omitted be- cause the depression of the barometer was small; and others because the position of the low center was not very sharply de- fined, or was situated near the margin of the weather map. Among these twenty-four cases, there are only three in which the paths of the two low centers were not inclined to each other at an angle as great as 45°; in half of the cases the two paths were inclined at an angle considerably greater than 45° ; in eight or nine of the cases the angle was nearly as great as 90° ; and in three of the eases the angle was greater than 90°. It sometimes happens that within an area of low pressure, having but a single center, a second low center is developed. The following list shows twenty-four such cases, selected from the Signal Service maps for 1873-1880. The maps show a large number of other similar cases, but in the cases here cited the depression of the barometer was generally considerable, and the position of the low centers was distinctly indicated. Cases in which a second low center is developed within an area of low pressure. 1873. Feb. 18.1-18.2 | 1875. Jan. 30.3-31.2 | 1878. Jan. 13.2-13.3 Feb. 20.1—20.2 May 4.2—- 4.3 Jan. 30.2-31.1 March 28.2—29.1 Noy. 3.1- 3.2 March 12.3-13.1 1874, April 25.1-25.2 | 1876. March 5.3- 6.1 Nov. 23.3--24.1 Aug. 29.1—29.2 March 25.2-25.3 | 1879. March 29.1-29.2 Aug. 30.1-30.2 May 7.1— 7.2 | 1880. Jan. 21.3-22.1 Noy. 23.1—23.3 May 7.2— 7.3 Feb. 12.2-12.3 1875. Jan. 24.2-24.3 | 1877. Dec. 29.2—29.3 April 17.1-17.2 In a majority of these cases, the two low centers appear to have subsequently coalesced; but in several of them, the two low centers moved off in directions inclined to each other at an angle ot 90° or more, and with unequal velocities. Over the Atlantic Ocean and Hurope, cases similar to the preceding are of much more frequent occurrence than in the United States; the depression of the barometer is generally much greater; and the low areas have a much greater geographi- cal extent. By consulting Hoffmeyer’s Weather Maps, we may easily find examples in which two low centers move toward each other from nearly opposite directions and coalesce; and we may also find frequent cases in which a great area of low pressure, with but one center, undergoes a change by which two low centers are developed, and these new low centers recede from each other. Sometimes there is a further change by which three or four or even more low centers are formed, and these low centers have a progressive movement in different directions, and with unequal velocities. On the contrary, within a large area of low pressure, showing 10 E. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. several low centers, a low center may disappear from simple changes of pressure. In like manner a second low center may disappear and soon. In many cases the changes in the posi- tion and magnitude of the low centers are so rapid, that in com- paring two weather maps for successive days, we frequently find it impossible to identify a low center on one of the maps, with its corresponding low center on the other map. Examples may be easily found to illustrate all of these different cases, so that it seems to be unneccessary to present a selected list. In cases like these, it surely will not be claimed that the move- ment of the low centers can be ascribed to a simple drifting of the genera] mass of the atmosphere in which the low areas were formed. If we reject the drift theory, it will doubtless be asked how can we explain the fact that in the middle latitudes, storms almost invariably advance toward the east, and the opposite movement only occurs occasionally, and seldom continues longer than one or two days. This fact seems to result from the pre- valent movement of the wind towards the east. The result however is not due to a general drifting of the mass of the atmosphere within which the low area is formed; but to the fact that the pressure on the west side of the low area is more steady and persistent than that on the east side. The character- istic features of a great storm movement are a motion of the air from all sides spirally inward, together with an upward movement resulting in the condensation of vapor at various places within the low area. Now if the air pressed in with equal force on all sides of the low center, and if there was an equal precipitation of vapor on all sides, there does not appear to be any reason why the low center should advance at all. It sometimes happens that the pressure on the west side is very small, while there is considerable pressure on the east side, and in such cases the low center moves toward the west. Many examples of this kind are shown by the Signal Service maps, and also by Hoffmeyer’s charts. But this movement toward the west cannot be long maintained. In the middle latitudes, the east winds are exceptional, and result mainly from disturb- ances caused by storms. On the contrary, the west winds result from general causes which are permanent in their character, and are independent of storms; and if there were no storms the west winds would rarely be interrupted. During the prevalence of an east wind, the causes which produce west winds are not destroyed ; their influence is only temporarily suspended; and they soon return with a force, not impaired, but rather aug- mented by their temporary suspension. The pressure on the west side of storm areas is thus a strong and persistent one, while that on the east side results from temporary causes, and E. Loomis—Areas of low pressure. 11 cannot be long maintained. It occasionally happens, during a violent storm, that the east winds are stronger than the west winds. In such a case the low center may be pushed westward ; but such a result does not necessarily follow, for a large part of the air which pushes in on the east side rises from the earth’s surface, while the air which pushes in on the west side does not rise at all, or not to an equal extent. Thus the low area is filled up on the west side, and were it not for the continued precipitation of vapor, the low area would soon become oblit- erated. Rate of progress of areas of low pressure. In order to exhibit the average velocity with which centers of low pressure advance over the United States, I have pre- pared the following table which shows, in miles per hour, the average velocity of storm centers for each month during a period of thirteen years, according to the observations of the United States Signal Service. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.,; May. June. July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. USMS AAD OAM SASH Sahel Aa QS 24Gullelsss) | Derails 20sd 12326) | 28%8 STS ZdsS ese le2seale |) 2Aes Zona ZOLA lis | 2oelle asd Die O Wee 1874 23:0 | SOOO eo eA Aen ec eAOsOMeLO:Oe hea Seiwa Seon ls Osis US ToS 32280 SOsO 26245) 2922) (30k 2523 aed Oso 232 SOsOni Site UST NE Sole Sled) Zora 23°6ul 2427 |) 193 2Os4y 23°20 23-8 Diet 22c6r [kaos 1877} 37-7 | 26°5 | 32-6 | 25:2) 27-3 | 25:2) 24:2] 20:0) 17-4) 20:2] 25°5 | 24:7 1878 AGesalAGatalarcs AAs eG Sei ae eI: Sul 2 S-Ni Os Onl gle 2: 340 USUI ESOL |W Soro OOeLe Akon Na OSoih Pas AGs4ulaleOsureQan oOesnly 4Omis owe 1880 | 37-6 | 39-6 | 35°8 | 27°2 | 25:1 | 24:5] 25:7) 25:9] 23:5] 22°31 34°11 38-8 SSI 322303545) 2678hle3iely | 32:6) san8) |) 26761) 25:4: (3 0:6i sited) |e 3028), 3336 1882 | ADAG VAN Gu S428 412 9nDy | 2lcOn| 2GL8i | OL Sn LOO A Sco neil Dtiedeleo One 1883 | 39°8 | 36-4 | 38:0 | 28:4 | 30°0| 24:2] 25°8] 28:0] 25:0] 37°3| 39:4] 33-0 1884 | DOOM CA ScOnOonou alco aOxSil econ 244s Oullinoae Onli a 4:41 EA sie Mean | 33:8 | 3452) | 31:5 |, 24-5 | 25:5.) Wad | 2466 | 29°61 24.7 |.27°6| 29-9 | 33.4 We see from this table that the average velocity of progress of storms for the entire year is 28°4 miles; also that the veloci- ty is greatest in February and least in August, and that the former velocity is 50 per cent greater than the latter. We also see that the velocity varies very much for the same month in different years, the greatest mean velocity for the months of April and October being more than double the least mean velocity for the same months. In order to study the movement of areas of low pressure under the greatest possible variety of circumstances, I have en- deavored to obtain information from European observations. In the Uebersicht der Witterung for 1881, published by the Deutsche Seewarte, is given a table showing the mean velocity of movement of the barometric minima for the five years 1876-80, as deduced from the monthly-charts of storm traeks. a 12 EB. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology. The following table shows the average results deduced from the observations of these five years. Rate of progress of Storm Centers in Europe. Ror eee mos. BSED: evi eae mus. ae January _.| 673 | 17-4 | 33°8 | 1°94 ||July ____- 549 | 14:2 | 246 | 1:63 February _| 694 18:0 | 34:2 | 1°90 eneuse S4)| oneal 14:0 | 22°6 | 1°41 March .. --| 676 iL(Gay,,)/) Sil 1°80 ||September | 667 IB PAE |) ileetiy ASO di ae 58 | 626 16°2 | 27°5 ! 1°70 ||October_._| 732 1970 | 2%°6 | 1°53 Mayee- see | 569 V4:% ||) 25:5 | 1:73 | November | 720 | 186 | 29°9 | 1-60 June = -—=- 609 15°8 | 244 | 1:54 | Decembec_| 693 || 17-9) | 33:45) 18% Year__-! 646 Gui 28s ale bo Column 2nd shows the velocity of movement for each month expressed in kilometers for 24 hours; column 38d shows the velocity expressed in English miles per hour: column 4th shows the velocity of movement of storm centers for the United States; and column 5th shows the ratio of the numbers in columns 38 and 4. : We see that in the United States the average velocity of movement for the entire year is about two-thirds greater than it is in Kurope. This ratio is greatest in winter when it amounts to 1°9; and least in the autumn when it amounts to Ia The following table shows, in miles per hour, the average rate of progress of storm centers over the Atlantic Ocean, as de- duced from the monthly charts of storm tracks published with the International Bulletin for a period of four years from 1879 to 1882. Jan. | Feb. 17-4 | 19°5 March.}| April. | May. Novy. 20°0 July. | Aug. Oct. 18°7 NOs, 194 | 16°6 17-2 18°3 The average velocity for the entire year is 18 miles per hour. If now we compare the preceding results with those hereto- fore found for the West India cyclones while pursuing a wester- ly course, and for the cyclones of the Bay of Bengal and China Sea for the same part of their course, we shall have a view of the movement of storm areas under a great variety of condi- tions. If we compare the average results for these five districts for the entire year, the numbers are as follows: (Winitedy States a yj 2/e ie Wee ae 28:4 miles per hour. Middle latitudes of Atlantic Ocean ____---.- IE). a WUTOpe Ze. eee 2 Egat Niro! WOT ieeeae Nea Deneaeee eA 16°7 . * Wiestulimdial cyclones avis mente eer I ey e Bay of Bengal and China Sea______....--.- She Gee tt tf Thus we see that the average rate of progress of storm cen- ters over the Atlantic Ocean is about the same as over Hurope, E. Loomis—Areas of low pressure. 13 and is double the rate of progress for the China Sea; and the rate of progress for the United States is more than three times the rate for the China Sea. These results are derived from so large a number of observations, that they must be accepted as substantially correct, and they demand a clear explanation. I have endeavored to determine how far these differences may result froma difference in the mean velocity of the wind for these several districts. For this purpose I determined the average velocity of the wind for that portion of the United States within which the storm centers are most frequently found, viz: that portion north of the parallel of 40°, and east of the meri- dian of 100° from Greenwich. A slight examination of the observations shows that at stations near the Atlantic Ocean, or near one of the Great Lakes, the velocity of the wind is greater than at stations in the interior of the country. I have there- fore divided the observations into two groups, one including the stations near the ocean, or one of the Great Lakes, and called coast stations (twenty-five in number), the other group including the remaining stations, which are called inland sta- tions (twenty in number); the second and third columns of the following table show, for each month of the vear, the mean velocity of the wind in miles per hour for these two classes of stations, according to the Signal Service observations : | | i] ' Fj | poset F seatk Mean. | Svoaie: all woeet Bae Mean. Seo Ratio. Jan. — 10-98, 8°40} 9:69) 33°8 3°5 ||July—__| 7°70) 6°87] 7-28) 24:6 374 Feb. _| 11°33] 8°94! 10°13) 34:2 3-4 |/Aug. _| 7°42) 6°40] 6°91) 22-6 | 3:3 Mar. _| 11°76] 10°18) 10:97) 31°5 2-9 ||\Sept. -| 8-98) 6°96| 797] 24°7 371 April 10°67) 9°59 HOZNSee2ebe lac Ost aa 9°96) 7:84) 8°90) 276 371 May 9°22| 8°55, 8-88) 25-5 | 2-9 |[Nov. _ 11°16, 8°50 9°83/ 29:9 | 3-0 June 8°34! 7:56) 7°95) 24:4 371 ||Dec.__| 11°30] 8°20) 9:75| 33:4 BL The 4th column gives the mean between the numbers in the two preceding columns; the 5th column shows for each month the rate of progress of storm centers ; and the 6th column shows the ratio of the velocity of storm centers to the mean velocity of the wind. We see that this ratio is not the same for all months; but for that month in which the rate of progress of storms is great- est, the ratio is sensibly the same as for that month in which the rate is the least. This coincidence seems to indicate that the rate of progress of storms is in some degree dependent upon the mean velocity of the wind; but the considerable inequalities in the value of this ratio show that the rate of progress of storms cannot depend solely on the average velocity of the wind. I next determined, as well as I was able with the means at my command, the average velocity of the wind for that part of 14 E. Loomis—Contributions to Meteorology Europe within which storm centers are most frequently found, viz: between the parallels of 50 and 60 degrees. The follow- ing table shows the results which I have obtained, and the observations are divided into two groups as in the preceding table; the coast stations being twelve in number, and the inland stations being fourteen in number. The velocities are all ex- pressed in miles per hour. Goan: Tuyana Mean. SE Bue) | es "Bt | Mean. | Storms. Ratio. Jan. _| 13°86 8-61) 11°23) 17-4 | 1:5 |i\July__| 11°52) ..6°53) 9:02) 14:9 | 1°6 Feb. _| 13:98] 9°13) 11°55; 18:0 | 1°6 ||Aug. _| 11:97) 6:42) 9:19) 14:0 | 1-5 Mar._| 13°60} 9°31) 11°45) 17°5 | 1°5 ||Sept. -| 11:32) 6°78) 9:05) 17:3 | 1:9 April | 12:28} 8:05) 10°16} 16-2 | 1:6 ||Oct. __| 13°33] 7-87) 10-60} 19:0 1°8 May _| 11°86} 7:83) 9°84; 14-7 | 1:5 ||Nov. _| 14°43) 8°63) 11°53) 18°6 16 June | 11:07] 6:93} 8:99] 15°8 | 1°8 ||Dec.--| 13°80} 8°63] 11-21) 17-9 | 1-6 The ratios of the velocities of storm centers to the mean veloci- ties of the wind, are quite different from those found for the United States, and the correspondence between the rate of storm movements and the movement of the wind is not as dis- tinctly marked. Nevertheless some degree of correspondence can be detected, and it is noticeable that in Europe the change in the wind’s mean velocity for the different months of the year is only about half as great as in the United States. The inequalities in the value of the ratio for the different months are considerable, and indicate the operation of some other cause than the mean velocity of the wind. I next determined the average velocity of the wind in the -neighborhood of the Bay of Bengal and China Sea. The fol- lowing table shows the results which Ihave obtained, the obser- vations being mostly derived from the Report on the Meteorol- ogy of India for 1882. Ihave employed only stations south of lat. 20° and I have rejected all stations having an elevation creater than 38000 feet. | | | Coast intang Mean. secures Ratio. | Coast |Inland Mean.| Storms.) Ratio. Sta. | Sta. | Sta. Jan. | 6:00) 3°79] 4:89] 228)" 14 July © |)" 9:121) 7-6) 8:38) 08-36) /aneo Feb:_| 5:46) 4°13) 4°79] _..-.)) --- |jAug. -|) 8:29) 6:58) 7-43).10:30 1°4 Maria) (5:33 64:54) 40931) Seas eal Sept alh4 Giorno) 6-48) Seti 15 April| 5:71 500) 5°35) 7°54 1:4 ||Oct. .-| 5°79) 3°46 4°63 9°26 2°0 May _| 7:17 6°21) 6°69} 8:54 | 1:3 ||Nov. - 5°25, 3°50 4:37 7°38 i197) June | 9:12) 7-83) 8-47| 5:62 | 0-7 |[Dee-_| 5°71! 3°75] 4-73) _._. | ___ The number of coast stations is 17, and the number of inland stations is also 17. The velocities are all expressed in miles per hour. The ratios of the velocities of storm centers to the mean velocities of the wind differ sensibly from those found for Europe, and differ very greatly from those found in E. Loomis—Areas of low pressure. 15 the United States. Moreover we find no correspondence be- tween the average rate of progress of storm centers for the different months of the year, and the average velocity of the wind. The inequality in the values of the ratio for the differ- ent months of the year is quite noticeable, but this may be partly due to the small number of the observations, I next endeavored to determine the mean velocity of the wind in the neighborhood of the West India Islands, but found observations for only seven stations south of lat. 27°. The following table shows the results for August, September and October, which are the only months for which there is an ob- servation of more than one cyclone, with the exception of June, for which month there are three observations. Velocity. Z Ratio Wind. Storms. VNTONOA DIS ies See eS ee SS 5°79 14°44 2°5 NEWtembenne saese tee ner means Halas 5:98 14:00 23 October ss ae sae syn eS 6:70 12°81 1:9 I next determined the mean velocity of the wind for that part of the Atlantic Ocean in the neighborhood of the usual tracks of storm centers, and have adopted the results contained in No. 3 of the Mittheilungen aus der Norddeutsche Seewarte. The first line of the following table presents a summary of these results for the four seasons of the year, the force of the wind being estimated in units of Beaufort’s scale (1-12). | Winter. Spring. Summer. Autumn. Beaufort’s numbers_________-.- 5:9 55 45 5:3 Milessperiouns. Sass) eee 33°0 30°8 25°5 29°7 S LONI Sree ee eye hae og teh Ea 18°4 18°6 16°5 18°6 TRG (ator S04 Seen ce erent Ae hernias 0:5 06 0°6 0°6 The second line shows the velocities denoted by Beaufort’s numbers, reduced to miles per hour according to the table pre- pared by the British Meteorological committee; the third line shows the average rate of progress of storms, and the fourth line shows the ratio of the numbers in the two preceding lines. If we group together the results now obtained, we shall have the following summary for the average rate of progress of storm centers, the average velocity of the winds, and the ratio of these two velocities: Storms. Winds. Ratio. Wmiteds States a. eae eae 28°4 9°5 3:0 North Atlantic Ocean ________- 18:0 29°8 06 LEN 0 Yeo eres eee a ee eae 16°7 10°3 16 WIESE an dies) neers Pa ee Letom 13°7 6:2 2D) SouthenvAsia oo ese ee ee 8:4 6°5 1:3 16 E.. Loomis— Contributions to Meteorology. This table appears at first view to present a discouraging medley of anomalies, but some of the anomalies may appear less formidable after a careful examination. It seems highly pro- bable that the slow progress of storm areas in southern Asia is partly due to the small velocity of the winds of that region. It is not obvious why storms should travel more rapidly near the West India Islands than in the China Sea. It is possible that this anomaly may disappear when the mean velocity of the wind has been determined by a more extended series of observations. It seems to be established that over the Atlantic Ocean the mean velocity of the wind is considerably greater than the rate of progress of storms. This inequality is strikingly exhibited in numerous cases. Over this Ocean, we frequently find an area of low pressure, 2000 miles or more in diameter, with a pres- sure of about 28 inches at the center, attended by winds blow- ing with hurricane violence, while from day to day the center of the low area makes little or no progress eastward, showing that the movement of the atmosphere which corresponds to the average system of circulation, is almost entirely interrupted over this ocean. The mest noticeable anomaly shown in the preceding table is however presented by the United States, where the mean velocity of the wind is only one-third as great as over the Atlantic Ocean, but storms travel with nearly double velocity. This anomaly may be partly explained if we admit that the progress of storms is determined, not by the wind which pre- vails in close contact with the earth’s surface, but by that which prevails at an elevation of several hundred feet, where the velocity is probably much greater than at the earth’s surface. The same anomaly however is found when we compare the storms of the United States with those of Europe. In northern Europe the surface winds have a velocity greater than those of the United States, and we may infer that the same is true for elevations of 1000 or 2000 feet above the surface; yet storms in Europe advance with but little more than half the velocity of those in the United States. There must then be a powerful cause which accelerates the movement of storm areas in the United States, and which does not operate in Europe or over the Atlantic Ocean; and apparently the same cause does not operate in southern Asia, or in the West Indies, at least in an equal degree. This cause (or one of these causes) is probably the precipitation in the form of rain or snow which, in the United States, usually takes place on the east side of a storm area, greatly in excess of that on the west side, as I have shown in my seventeenth paper; but for the interior of Hurope the same does not appear to be true, or certainly not in an equal degree, as | have shown in my twelfth paper. C. D. Walcott— Paleozoic Pteropods. iki Art. I1.—Wole on some Paleozoic Pleropods; by CHARLES D. Watcortt, of the U. S. Geological Survey. Ir is with considerable reservation that I place the genera Conularia, Hyolithes, Hyolithellus, Coleoprion, Coleolus, Hemi- ceras, Salterella, Pterotheca, Phragmotheca, Matthevia and per- haps Paleenigma under the Pteropoda. They form a group that, although representative, in a measure, of the recent Ptero- poda, differ in other respects so much that it appears as though a division of the Gasteropoda, equivalent to the Pteropoda, might be consistently made to receive them. I have had in my possession for two years past the speci- mens on which the genera Matthevia is founded, and it is of such interest that I take the opportunity of publishing it before bringing out the illustrations of the fauna with which it is associated. Genus MatrHevia, n. gen. Shell conical, aperture sinuous, transverse section ovate, elliptical or rounded subquadrate; interior with two elongate chambers diverging from the apex and opening into a large, single, terminal chamber; both of the interior chambers are crossed by a single imperforate septum; calcareous; surface papillose. Operculum calcareous, nucleus excentric, lines of growth concentric. Type Matthevia variabilis. The generic name is proposed in honor of Mr. G. F. Matthew, who is doing so much good work on the St. John fauna. This peculiar shell is so distinct from all described forms referred to the Pteropoda, that a new family, Matthevide, is instituted to receive the one genus now known. In form and surface markings it approaches the genus Conu- laria; the operculum may be compared to that of Hyolithes, and the imperforate transverse septum allies it to both Hyolithes and Conularia. Its thick shell is observed in the genera Conu- laria, C. fecunda Barr. (Syst. Sil. Boheme, vol. iti, pl. viii, fig. 8), and Hemiceras, H. cylindricus Kichwald (Leth. Ross., vol. i, Atlas, pl. xl, fig. 17; pl. xlii, fig. 29). When we come to trace a relationship to the two inner chambers, we are, at once, at a loss for comparisons. There is a curious form described as Tetradium* Wrangeli Schmidt (Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbourgh, VII. Ser., * The genus Tetradium being preoccupied (Dana, 1846; Safford, 1856), I pro- pose Palzenigma in place of Schmidt’s Tetradium, 1874, for the species under con- sideration—P. Wrangeli. AM, Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp Spries, VoL. XXX, No. 175.—Ju.y, 1885. 2 18 C. D. Walcott—Paleozoic Pteropods. vol. xxi, No. 11, p. 42, figs. 83-8, 1874), which Lindstrém sug- gests is, by the thick-shelled Conularia fecunda Barrande, linked to Conulariz and made to stand in affinity to them. (Sil. Gas- teropoda and Pteropoda of Gotland, p. 41, 1884.) From our comparisons Matthevia appears still more to serve as a connect- ing link between Palzenigma and the genera Conularia and Hyolithes. If P. Wrangelé had chambers running up into the shell, as is suggested by the cross-sections, and a septum that caused the upper portion of the shell to be decollated, as we are led to believe by the natural section, and the fact that each specimen figured has lost its apex, the relations between Pale- nigma and Matthevia are quite close and Palenigma may be provisionally grouped with the genera Matthevia and Conularia. MATTHEVIA VARIABILIS, n. Sp. On a side view, the outline of the shell varies from broad to narrow conical, and the end view shows an elongate conical to a broad conical outline ; the cross-section varies from elliptical to oval or rounded quadrangular; aperture varies in outline with the proportions of the shell; a sinus, varying in depth and curvature, extends across the ends of the shell; in the more elliptical apertures the sides are nearly straight and par- allel, while, in those with a subquadrangular outline, they are strongly curved, and the sinus at the ends is very profound. The shell thins out at the edges and is not thick over the exte- rior of the interior chambers, but between them a connecting mass of shell unites the sides and gives strength and solidity ; a section, crossing the center of the shell at right angles to the preceding, shows a solid shell to the outer chamber where it gradually thins out to the margin. The position of the two inner chambers vary in relation to each other, from subparallel to widely divergent; the chamber that is more at right angles to the aperture than the other, is usually larger, and is always prominent, while the oblique chamber is sometimes filled up by shelly matter and only the outer portion remains; both chambers are usually flattened on the inner side, and more or less expanded where they enter the large outer chamber. The septum crossing the inner chamber is thin, and varies in shape with the form of the chambers; it is usually slightly concavo-convex, concave towards the outer chamber, and marked, usually, by a raised scar of varying character; the septum is usually a short distance from the outer chamber— [eto 4mm, _ The substance of the shell is calcareous. - Surface marked by undulating lines of growth parallel to the margin of the aperture, a few radiating lines usually on the C. D. Walcott— Paleozove Pteropods. 19 sides, and fine papille, arranged in lines that cross each other at right angles, on some shells; on others, the papille are arranged in lines parallel to the lines of growth and without reference to the order of those in the adjoining lines; the inte- ricr surface is covered with a fretted work brought out by de- pressed, irregular, inosculating lines; this surface varies in force and character, and some shells are almost smooth inside ; a narrow, smooth space extends all around the margin of the inside of the aperture. The associated operculee vary in form and outline; the shell is calcareous, concavo-convex, rising to a blunt point more towards one end than the other; from this point long, narrow, radiating undulations extend to the margin, and it is the center of the concentric undulations of growth. Surface with concen- tric and radiating undulations, fine, inosculating lines, sub- parallel to the concentric undulations, and fine papille on the spaces between the inosculating lines; interior surface convex, smooth or showing the undulations of the outer surface; at the center, corresponding to the apex of the outer surface, a small, round scar appears to be indicated on some specimens. The only form known to me that corresponds in any way to this, is that figured by Hichwald (Leth. Ross., pl. xl, fig. 19, a, b, c), as Hyolhithes paradoxus, which appears to be the cast of a portion of the outer chamber and one of the conical inner chambers; it may be only a superficial resemblance. Formation and locality.—Cambrian. Limestone resting on Potsdam sandstone, one mile northwest of Saratoga Springs, INE OG The species is associated with Cryptozoan proliferum Hall (Thirty-sixth Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist., despt. of pl. vi, 1884), Platyceras minutissina W., Ptychoparia (L.) cal- cifera W., Dicellocephalus Hartti W., and Ptychaspis speciosus W. (Thirty-second Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist.) Note on Hyolithes (Camarotheca) Hmmonsi Ford.— When study- ing the species of Hyolithes from the Georgian Group, I found that the shell of H. Hmmonsi, of Ford, was formed of three or more distinct layers: first, a thin outer layer with rather strong even strice that cross the flattened ventral face nearly direct, and arch forward on the dorsal face, the flattened side, in this spe- cies, being the ventral face and not the dorsal, as in most spe- cies; the second layer appears to be of a smooth, even charac- ter, much like a filling between the outer and inner shell; the inner shell is thin and concentrically striated in a slightly dif- ferent manner from the outer shell; a fourth layer appears to exist in one example, but it is too obscure for study. Another character observed is one that, as far as I know, has 20 C. D. Watcotti— Paleozoic Pteropods. not yet been noticed in any American species of the genus, although observed in some species of the genera Conularia and Matthevia. It is the presence of a transverse diaphragm in the tube towards the apex. This appears to have caused the shell MATTHEVIA. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES. 1, Side view of a small but characteristic form of the shell. la, End view of same. 10, Outline, from the apex. 2, End view of one of the more circular shells enlarged to show the surface. The shell is broken away near the summit, and shows the cast of one of the inner chambers. 3, Operculum associated, in the same hand specimen of rock, with Jf variabilis. 4, Longitudinal section of conical shell. A, B, inner chambers. C, chamber of © habitation. S, thick shell between the inner chambers. ss’, s’, position of the septa separating the chamber of habitation and the inner chambers. 4a, cross- section taken a little above the septa. 5, Enlargement of the surface of a septum. 6, Cast of the chamber of habitation and the inner chamber within the septa (s, s’) of the most common form of the shell. C. D. Walcott—Paleozoie Pteropods. 21 to become deciduous in many instances, and we now find nu- merous examples showing the blunt terminal portion. Some shells show the rounded, smooth end without any constric- tion; others have a narrow concentric constriction just within the termination. The cast of the surface of the septum shows a slight central cicatrix or scar, but no evidence of a perforation in the septum could be observed. ‘The average size of the tube, at the point of decollation, is 1™™. The largest seen is 1-5™™ and the smallest -75™™. When studying the septum, the close similarity between it and that of the first septum of the species of Orthoceras and Cytoceras, as figured by Barrande (Cephalopodes, Ktudes gene- rales, 1877, pls. 487, 488), were, at once, brought to mind, and also the interesting question of the relations of these shells to the cephalopoda. Since the above was written I have received a paper from Mr. G. F. Matthew, in which he states that several of the Pteropod shells, from the base of the St. John group, have several distinct septa at the base of the tube. The genus and species is not mentioned (Nat. Hist. Soc. N. B. Bull., 10, p. 102, 1885). Mr. Matthew quotes, in the same paper, from a letter written by Mr. Alpheus Hyatt, where the latter says: ‘“ These fossils with their distinct septa are startlingly similar to certain forms of Nautiloidea, but there is no siphon. They, however, confirm Von Jhernig’s and my opinion that Orthoceratites and Ptero- pods have had a common, but as yet undiscovered, ancestor in ancient times.” - In a letter dated April 9, 1885, Mr. Matthew states that he has several species of the Hyolithellidz from the St. John Group that have several septa toward the apex of the tube for which he has proposed two generic divisions, one of which he calls Camarotheca; this will probably include H. Hmmonsi, and I have used the name in a subgeneric sense, until I can learn more of the character of the septa of H. Hmmonsz. A single specimen of H. primordialis, from the Potsdam sandstone of Wisconsin, also shows evidence of a transverse septum. Note oF CorRECTION.—In describing the figures accompanying the article on Linnarssonia (this Journal, vol. xxix, February, 1885, p. 117), figs. 1 and 2 are given as those of Obolella chromatica, and credited to Mr. Billings. The artist, in * preparing the figures, copied, by mistake, those of Obolella crassa Ford. The fact escaped my notice at the time, and I unintentionally credited Mr. Billings wit figures that had been published by Mr. S. W. Ford. CoD AW. 22 L. B. Fletcher—A Determination of the B, A. Unit Art. III.—A Determination of the B. A. Unit in Terms of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ; by LAWRENCE B. FLETCHER, ie sWiD) THE experimental work of the following investigation was completed in 1881, and forms the subject of a thesis submitted to the Johns Hopkins University in that year. In the present paper a more accurate method of calculating the currents from the deflection-curves is used, and some of the other calculations have been revised. The results of the two papers are sub- stantially the same. The experiment consisted of simultaneous thermal and elec- trical measurement of the energy expended by a current ina coil of wire immersed in a calorimeter. The result depends upon the values of the mechanical equivalent and the unit of resist- ance, and gives a determination of either in terms of an assumed value of the other. The old determinations of Quintus Icilius and Lenz have no value, as the resistance is uncertain as pointed out by Rowland and H. F. Weber. Joule,* in 1867, made a determination of the mechanical equivalent by this method, assuming the B. A. unit as deter- mined by the committee in 1863-4 to be equal to 10° C. G.S. units. The value of the mechanical equivalent thus obtained is more than one per cent greater than Joule’s water-friction value. H. F. Weber,t in 1878, used a similar method, employ- ing the Siemens unit, the value of which he also measured in C.G.S. units. Weber's value of the mechanical equivalent is about one part in two hundred greater than Joule’s water-fric- tion value and one part in four hundred greater than Rowland’s water-friction value. In both Joule’s and Weber's experiments a possible source of error seems to have been ignored. ‘The wire was assumed to be at the temperature of the water in which it was immersed, and its resistance was calculated on this assumption. It is evident, however, that the wire was hotter than the water, inas- much as it was giving heat to the water. The error due to this cause is of uncertain amount. If corrected for this error the value of the equivalent would be increased and their excess over the water-friction values would become greater than before. To avoid this source of error, the research described below was planned. The suggestion and general plan of the research I owe to Professor Rowland. The theory of the method is as follows: A current c, flow- * Report of B. A. committee on electrical standards, 1873. + Phil. Mag., Series 5, vol. xxx. om Terms of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. 23 ing through a wire of resistance R, for a time ¢, generates an J ; cal equivalent of heat. The wire being immersed in a calori- meter and put ina circuit with a galvanometer, hf, c and ¢ can be measured. Then if Ris measured in B. A. units the experi- ment will give a relation between the value of that unit and the mechanical equivalent. In this research R was measured during the actual experiment by connecting its terminals with those of a large resistance R’ and measuring the current c’, which flowed through the latter. With this arrangement ! eki— Gs OW — -RY. Hence J =~ Be appear, and the uncertainty attaching to its temperature has no effect. The calorimeter was a cylindrical cup of sheet copper hold- ing about 800° On the bottom of the cup lay a sheet cop- per frame which supported three vertical glass rods. Around these the wire, R, was coiled, forming ahelix. The ends of the wire were soldered to stout copper wires which, insulated by short vuleanite tubes, passed through the wall of the calori- meter and turned down so that they could be placed in mer- cury cups. The cover of the calorimeter rested in contact with the water to secure uniformity of temperature. The cover had an expansion tube and a smaller central tube which formed one bearing for the stirring apparatus, another bearing being given by a brass socket on the bottom of the calorimeter. The stirrer consisted of a spiral blade of sheet copper supported on a brass frame, the upper part of which was tubular, and passed through the central tube of the cover. The stirrer was kept in motion during the experiment by asilk thread, which passed over a vulcanite wheel at the top of the stirrer and ran to a driving clock. The stirrer formed the escapement of the clock, which ran very uniformly with this arrangement. I estimated the heat generated by the stirrer as two-thirds of the whole work of the weights. Thisis about one thousandth part of the heat generated by the current and only a rough determination of the correction is needed. ‘The thermometer passed through the tubular upper part of the stirrer, and was clamped to a shelf above in such a manner that its bulb was in the centre of the calorimeter and surrounded by the stirring blade which, in turn, was surrounded by the wire which carried the current. The wire was composed of an alloy of platinum and iridium, and was varnished to prevent conduction to the water. Its resistance was about 1‘8ohm. The calorimeter was supported on legs of vulcanite within a copper vessel with double walls, the space between which was filled with water. This water- where J is the mechani- amount: of heat represented by h= i > in which R does not 24 L. B. Fletcher—A Deternination of the B. A. Unit jacket was provided with a hollow cover, also filled with water, and its inner surface and the outer surface of the calorimeter were nickel-plated and polished. Thus the calorimeter was nearly surrounded by an envelope of fairly constant temper- ature, the thermometer, stirrer-thread and connecting wires passing through openings in the jacket. From the mereury cups in which the electrodes of the calori- meter dipped, the wires of the main circuit ran to the battery and galvanometer. ‘These wires were 2'5™™ in diameter, cotton- covered, carefully paraffined and twisted together to eliminate direct action on the needle. The battery consisted usually of 24 one-gallon bichromate cells arranged 4 in series and 6 abreast, and gave a very steady current. In one experiment only 20 cells were used, 4 in series and 5 abreast. he galvanometer coil for the main current was a single turn of stout wire laid in a groove on a wooden circle of about 80°" diameter. A sine galvanometer was so placed that its needle was in the axis of the single wire coil and about 1 distant from its plane. This excentricity was rendered necessary by the length of the suspending fibre. The coil of the sine galvanometer was con- nected with the calorimeter electrodes by a second circuit, in which a resistance coil of 80,000 ohms was included. The wires of this circuit were kept apart, as the current was too small to exert an appreciable direct action, and as great irregu- larity in some preliminary experiments in which the wires were twisted together was finally traced to leakage, although the wires had a double covering of silk. Both circuits were pro- vided with commutators. The sine galvanometer had a hori- zontal bar parallel to the axis of the coil. To one end of this was attached a telescope, beneath which was a short scale which was seen by reflection in the mirror of the needle, and allowed a very accurate setting to be made without bringing the needle to rest. The needle consisted of two thin strips of steel 12°" in length separated by a piece of wood °6™ in thick- ness. The circle of the galvanometer was graduated to half- degrees and read by verniers to one minute. The needle was acted upon by both currents simultaneouly, and by means of the commutators the actions were caused to be in the same and in opposite directions alternately. The current through the sine galvanometer is c’ in the formula ec'R't. J= h is c--c’, and was assumed equal to c as c’ was less than ‘00007e. Let G denote the constant of the fixed coil, G’ that of the sine galvanometer, H the horizontal magnetic force, 0 and 6’ the deflections when the actions are in the same and in opposite directions respectively. Then The current through the coil on the wooden circle in Terms of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. 25 Gecos6+G’c’= Hsin d Ge cos ’—G'e= Hsin @’ “ial Realy eiiat en (5) Hence c=q tan 4(0+0’), = G cos $040") Let 7 denote the length of the wire in the fixed coil and 6 the 4x’ (1 + 6x6") dint distance of the needle from its plane. Then G= Hence the equation for J becomes ; He) (B anh i H*t tan $(6+6’) sin 3(0—0’) oraz G? h cos $(0+0’) I shall discuss in order the quantities contained in this expres- sion. R’, the resistance of the secondary circuit, is the sum of the resistances of the 30,000 ohm coil, the sine galvanometer and connecting wires. The whole was measured by connecting the terminals of the circuit with a Jenkin bridge and comparing with other coils, using a high resistance Thomson galvanometer. The provisional standard was a 10 ohm coil, A, made by Warden, Muirhead and Clarke. From this coil the resistance of a 100 ohm standard, B, was obtained by means of a com- parator, C, of 10 coils, each nearly equal to A, each coil of C being compared with A, and C in series then compared with B. Then A, B and C were arranged to form a bridge with D, a 1,000 ohm standard, whose resistance was thus fixed. E and F, two 1,000 ohm coils of a resistance box, were then com- pared with D. Finally a bridge was formed with A, B, D+ E+F, and R’, the secondary circuit, giving R’ in terms of A. Elhott’s coils were used in making the adjustments, which were always very small, and the temperatures were carefully observed. The result is R’=80012'4 at 19°°3 C. R’ consisted principally of the 30,000 ohm coil and the vari- ation of this only need to be considered. Its temperature varied from 19° to 24° when in use, the mean temperature being 22°°3 C. At this temperature, R’=80052, which value was used throughout. The length of the wire in the fixed coil was determined by measuring with a steel tape the distance between two threads fastened on the wire before it was placed on the circle. When the wire was in position, the interval of a few centimeters between the threads was measured. The tape had been com- pared with standards. Care was taken to avoid difference of tension in the two positions of the wire. The result is (=264°49™. 26 L. B. Fletcher—A Determination of the B. A. Unit The quantity b, the excentricity of the needle, was estimated by holding the tape horizontally over the top of the circle and reading the positions of the center of the wire and the galvan- ometer fiber. For most experiments 6=1:2™. It was fre- quently re-measured and a correction applied when it varied. The method of measurement is not very accurate, but an error of 10 per cent in 0, which could hardly occur, would only involve an error of 1 part in 3,000 in J. G’ had been determined by Professor Rowland* by measure- ment during the construction of the coil, and also by com- parison with another coil. The values are 1832-24 by measure- ment and 1835°67 by comparison. The mean, giving the second value twice the weight of the first, is 1833-19. Hence the constant term = 10996+10’. G’ has recently been re-measured and found to be 1832°58. My final result is corrected to this value. H was measured in the following manner: The circle bear: ing the fixed coil carried four smaller wires which could be connected with the battery and an electrodynamometer of the form described in Maxwell’s treatise. These four wires with the needle formed a tangent galvanometer, the other coils being open. Hight pairs of simultaneous readings of the galvan- ometer and electro-dynamometer were taken comprising all possible combinations of signs of the currents in the galvan- ometer and the two electro-dynamometer coils. JI am greatly indebted to Professor 8S. H. Freeman, then Feilow of the Uni- versity, for assistance in these readings. The expression for His ee wb” . i T tan ¢ where C is a function of the dimensions of the electrodyna- mometer coils, | the moment of inertia of the suspended coil, n the number of turns of wire in the galvanometer, J’ the mean length of one turn, 0’ the mean distance of their planes from the needle, T the time of vibration of the small coil, aand @ the mean deflections of electrodynamometer and gal- vanometer. C was known from measurements during the construction of the instrument, and J had been determined by observing times of vibration with and without the addition to the sus- pended coil of bars of known moment of inertia. These values of C and I had been verified by Dr. E. H. Hall and myself in connection with a previous research by comparing the values of H obtained by this method and by the magnetic method, the arrangement of the experiment being such as to make the * This Journal, xv, 337, 1878. in Terms of the Mechanical Hquivalent of Heat. 27 two results obtain for the same point and time. The value of Cv is 018567. The measurements of /’ and b’ were made in the same man- ner as those of / and 0. The results are J’ = 263-91 cm, b’ = 2-07 cm, for most experi- ments. A correction was applied when 0’ varied. Hence 2 ‘| 27/2 se at vl (167, )= 11069. Each of the angles, a and g, is the mean of eight readings taken to 1’. The former was about 18°, the latter 6°. T was obtained by observing ten transits with a seconds clock, allow- ing the coil to vibrate for several minutes and then taking ten more transits. The difference between the mean times of the two series divided by the number of vibrations gives T' very exactly. The difference between the values before and after the experiment never exceeded 1 part in 3000. The mean value is about 2°42 seconds. H was determined before and after the main experiment. The quantities in the formula for J remaining to be dis- cussed are ¢, and the deflections. To treat these intelligibly I proceed to describe the method of experiment exactly. First, a determination of H was made. The calorimeter was then weighed, filled with distilled water at a temperature usually 2° or 3° below that of the air, carefully wiped with a towel to remove moisture, again weighed and placed in the water- jacket. Its amalgamated electrodes were placed in the mercury cups with the terminals of the two circuits, the main circuit being broken at the commutator. The water-jacket was kept permanently filled and stood in a room of fairly constant tem- perature so that its temperature changed little during the experi- ment. The thermometer was placed in position and the stirrer started. During a few minutes readings were taken of the thermometer and of three auxiliary thermometers, giving the temperstures of the jacket, the 30,000 ohm coil and the air near the stem of the principal thermometer, the time of each reading being noted by a seconds clock. The circuit was then closed and a galvanometer reading taken, one of the commuta- tors was reversed and another reading taken, the time of each reading being noted. The time of passage of the mercury of the thermometer over several successive scale-divisions was then taken, also readings of the other thermometers. Two more commutator reversals and galvanometer readings followed, then another set of thermometer readings, and this alternation was continued for about 40 minutes, during which time the ther- mometer rose about 12° C. Usually sixteen galvanometer readings were taken and seven groups of thermometer read- ings comprising 35 or 40 readings of the principal thermome- 28 L. B. Fletcher—A Determination of the B. A. Unit ter. Then the circuit was broken and the calorimeter allowed to cool for two or three hours, during which time groups of readings were taken as before, the stirrer being kept in motion. While this radiation experiment was in progress another determination of H was made. Finally the thermom- eter was removed and the calorimeter taken out and weighed. The mean of each group of thermometer readings, corrected for stem error, gives very exactly the temperature of the ther- mometer for the mean time of that group. The difference between any two of these mean temperatures, corrected for radiation, gives by multiplication into the capacity of the calorimeter and contents the heat generated in the interval. Hence any two groups give a determination of J when com- bined with the proper values of @ and 0’. I have combined groups taken 18 to 25 minutes apart, the rise of temperature being 6° to 8°. In this calculation the differences of temperature of coil, water and thermometer are assumed to be constant for this interval. The water is cooler than the coil and the thermome- ter cooler than the water. Both differences depend upon the rate of generation of heat, and may be put approximately proportional to the square of the current. The rise of the ther- mometer after breaking the circuit is due to these differences and was found to be less than 0°°05. The variation of this quantity during the interval in question would be about 3 per cent, as the current changed 1°5 per cent. Hence the variation is 0°:0015, and as the rise of the thermometer is 6° or 8°, the error is negligible. Two thermometers were used, designated as Baudin 6165, and Baudin 7820. The former is graduated in millimeters, of which about 12 equal 1°C. It had been used by Professor Rowland in his determination of the mechanical equivalent and compared several times with the air thermometer. Baudin 7820 is graduated to 0°-1 C. one degree occupying about a centi- meter. It had been compared with standard thermometers, its errors plotted and the error for each degree obtained from the curve. The following tables give the reduction to the absolute scale. The table for 6165 is condensed from Professor Rowland’s paper* on the mechanical equivalent. Change in the zero point has no effect on the differences of temperature used, but the zero points were determined occasionally in order to get the mean absolute temperature. The correction for radiation was made in the following man- ner: The groups of thermometer readings taken after break- ing the circuit were reduced to mean readings at mean times. Any two of these mean readings gave the radiation for the * Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1880. in Ferms of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. 29 intervening time. If ¢’ and?’ are the temperatures at the begin- ning and end of an interval of IT’ minutes, and 7c is the BAUDIN 6165. BAvUDIN 7320, f | fe | & | Sse Eee See = | #46 a | ese eee Beg aie SS) ~ ade | ane Shy SoS oils oleae Su? Sos leleeh aes Sues. | & | eos a=} mn joa} RD aa} n 2 Rn 35 0°:0 320| 24°°547 Os0 122 ose 982 108 50| 1°°368) 330] 25°°365 5°| 5°-092) 24°] 24°-199 100! 5°:839) 340| 26°:174 10°] 10°:110] 25°) 25°-137 150) 10°-183) 350] 26°°981 15°} 15°-090|] 26°) 26°-152 200) 14°-450| 360] 27°°782 16°] 16°-093| 27°) 27°-166 250} 18°-709| 370] 28°°584 Li iia O9A 28 on 2Sli9 260 197-557) 380] 29°°376 18°} 18°:091| 29°} 29°-192 270| 20°-401} 390) 30°-170 19°} 19°:086| 30°} 30°-205 280 21°-242 | 400) 30°:965 QF P20 ec081 Silesia Og 290 22°-076| 410| 31°:786 21°] 21°-:085| 32°) 32°-230 300| 22°:907| 420] 32°°581 22°) 22°-095 310] 23°°731| mean temperature of the jacket during the interval, then —t’=cT[4(t' +t’)—z], where c is the coefficient of radiation. In the calculation of c, stem-corrections were applied and a correction made for the heat generated by the stirrer. Hence in the main experiment the temperature correction for an interval T’ is d=cT’[4(s'+s”)—t']+K, where s’ and s’’ are the observed temperatures corrected for stem-error, t’ is the mean temperature of the jacket and Kis the stirrer-correction. The sum of the corrections 4 from the beginning of the experi- ment added to the stem-corrected observed temperature at any point gives the temperature which would have been reached in the absence of radiation. The difference between any two of these theoretical temperatures multiplied by the heat capacity, gives the heat generated in the interval. The coefficients of radiation were found to decrease with decreasing difference of temperature between calorimeter and jacket. When this decrease was regular the corresponding value of ¢ was used for each small interval of the main experi- ment. When the decrease was small and irregular, the mean value of c for that day was used throughout. In the revision of the calculations, stem and stirrer corrections were nevlected in the calculation of both c and J, it being obvious that, both being small and quite regular, they are eliminated in this way, and the value of c corresponding to the difference between calorimeter and jacket for each small interval of the main experiment was used in all cases. The mean results of the two methods differ about 1 part in 1,000, and the figures in the table of results below are the means of both calculations 30 L. B. Fletcher—A Determination of the B. A. Unit The mean values of c for the different experiments vary between 0°:0035 and 0°-0046, the general mean being 0°:0040. The mean radiation correction is about 5 per cent, and is the most important source of variable error in the experiment, as the temperature differences are small and errors of reading have a large effect. But a ten per cent error in the radiation would only involve an error of 1 part in 200 in J, and as the errors are irregular they are in a great measure eliminated from the final result. The calorimeter was composed of 246 gr. copper, 45 gr. brass, and 6 gr. solder. The specific heat of a mixture of these pro- portions was measured with Regnault’s apparatus. Six deter- minations gave the value -0899+:0005 for the mean specific heat between 24° and 100°. Reduced by Beéde’s law for cop- per to the mean temperature of my experiments, it becomes ‘0877. The capacities of the coil and glass rods were calcu- lated from published tables. The whole capacity is as follows: Calorimeter sess sees eee 302°1 KX °0877=26°49 GO eae eee aes Rae a 32°5 K°0324=> 1:05 Glass rods 2322 ee eee HI < OUT 119558) Thermometermestimated cave seer eee eae 1°25 Total capacity, 2 oases ere a eee 30°4 The values of the deflections were obtained by a graphical method. The galvanometer readings fell into 4 groups, lying about 26° and 3°45’ on each side of the zero point. The readings of each group were plotted separately as functions of the time. From each curve the theoretical mean readings for each interval between two temperatures used in the calculation of J were obtained by measuring a large number of equidistant ordinates, calculating the area of the curve and dividing by the base line. If a,b, c and d are the mean readings thus ob- tained, 20=a—6 and 20’=c—d as the galvanometer was grad- uated from 0° to 860°. Thus the zero point was not used, though observed before and after each experiment. Below are the results of one experiment in detail. Hach value of J iscalculated from the two temperatures found in the same horizontal line. Series of December 9th. gr. Weight of calorimeter and water before experiment.. 1157°2 Weight of calorimeter and water after experiment... 1157-0 1157.1 Weight of calorimeter 2222 5-22 920 eee eee 343°7 813.4 Capacity, of calorimeten(2=22= 2 s5) = pees Seed 30°4 843°8 Capacity reduced to weight in vacuo __--.--------- 844°8 in Terms of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. 31 Horizontal magnetic force before experiment. --.---- "1960 Horizontal magnetic force after experiment-.----- &- 4 1963 WWI a el MR a aa Se are ee ees "19615 Temperature of jacket .-....-..--.-- 21°°5 to 21°°6 Temperature of air near stem-_-..--- 22°°8 to 23°°4 Temperature of 30,000 ohm coil--.-- 21°°5 to 22°°3 Thermometer in calorimeter --- ---- Baudin 7320 Time. | 400") Stem. | SA, || Time.|*%3u0-8| Stem. | Za, || 29°. | 267 I. m. § mays | 8 40) 19°-45| —-010 0 {|25 14) 25°40] +:009| +-056)|51° 874/7° 3576 41810000 13 16) 21°-15| —-007) —:018)|31 9] 27°-40) -021) +167)/50° 577-5)7° 287-5)|41640000 20 38] 23°-80) -000} +-005||35 58] 28°-98| -029| -299|/50° 487-5|7° 247-4|\41640000 25 14] 25°-40| +.009] -056)|42 54] 31°-15| -039); -565)|/50° 4074)/7° 21/-4|/41840000 Time. | Galyanometer. || Time. | Galvanometer.|| Time. | Galvanometer. || Time. | Galyanometer. m. Ss. m. Ss. m. §.| m. Ss. 7 50 3a AZ 15 40 BBO TUNG 28555 eso) xe Be) i) Rete | We nO) WSO WD Waly 5) 258% 1564 29 15| 258° 467 4) 0 25927 4.04 10 20 D2 34 2270) 29a OF 32 45) 229 eA 2/4 44 15 229° 447 11 30 207° 427 23 25 AOS tis BYE OS POS 20% 45 25 208° 4! Following is the general table of results: Date. Nov. 24. Dec. 9. Dec. 14. Dec. 20. Dec. 22. Jan. 26. Feb. 16. Thermometer __| 17320 7320 6165 6165 6165 6165 6165 Temp. of water) 24°3 25°°4 27°°0 26°°6 265°3 27°-2 26°°2 Temp: of BR’ .__| 23°:0 227-1 23°°8 2122" 23°°4 Oa 20°°6 $$ Co Meansi= Ss). 4230 4173 4206 4199 4216 4196 4200 The greater number of results on Nov. 24 is due to the fact that single thermometer readings were taken instead of groups. The two experiments with 7320 show the greatest variation from the mean, but the mean of these two agrees 32 L. B. Fletcher—A Determination of the B. A. Unit closely with the general mean. Experiments made on Noy. 29 and Dec. 6 were rejected on account of leakage of 3 and 6 grams respectively. The results, however, are 4220 and 4227, falling within the limits of the series. The duration of the experiment was less than one-fifth of the interval between the two weighings of the calorimeter, and probably the loss during the experiment was the same fraction of the whole loss. Furthermore, the leakage during the radiation experiment would affect the radiation coefficient in such a manner as to approximately compensate for the effect of leakage during the main. experiment. For these reasons I have retained the experiments of Jan. 26 and Feb. 16, which showed a leakage of 1 gr. and 1°5 gr. respectively, but have given the results half the weight of the others. The remaining experiments are satisfactory in this respect, the loss being a few tenths of a gram, due principally to the removal of the thermometer. The result of the experiment is J =42,039,000 O, where O is the value of one-tenth of the 10 ohm coil in earth-quadrants per second. Reduced to the new value for the constant of the sine galvanometer, it becomes J = 42,055,000 O. I have also calculated the experiment from the formula = a where R is the resistance of the calorimeter coil as measured in the ordinary manner, corrected to the mean tem- perature of the water and further corrected for superheating. -I estimated the superheating from observations of the main and derived currents when the strength of the former was varied. /TQ/ The expression © should give the true resistance of the coil at any instant. When the currents are smaller the superheat- ’R’ “= for a zero ing is less and the comparison of the value of current, obtained by graphical extrapolation, with its value for the full current, should give the superheating, The method is not very accurate, as the observations with the smaller currents are uncertain. I find the increase of resistance due to super- heating to be about 1 part in 700, corresponding to a difference of temperature of 2°C. When this correction is applied the second method of calculation gives J= 42,156,000 O. This result depends upon the square of the main current, and as the temperature of the coil changed 6° or 8° during the experiment, its mean resistance is somewhat uncertain. Hence this result has not the weight of the former. The discovery of this discrepancy has greatly delayed the publication of this paper. It may be due to conduction to the water, which was guarded against by varnishing the wire and using distilled water, but was not proved not to exist. in Terms of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. 33 For, let E be the difference of potential of the ends of the coil, e the H. M. F. of polarization, R and 7 the resistances of coil and water respectively. Then the current in the coil is 4) H-e. EK C¢— B and the current in the water 1s c= Taney: The energy converted into heat is OR+er = f1+= Be 25 +.) In the first method of calculation Hae the energy is com- puted as Ki’ R é BO esa Pera In the second method it is computed as (C+c)’R= = [1 + 2B (1- a) + smaller terms, E was over 6 yolts, eis about 1°5 volts. Hence the second result is larger than the first, which agrees with the facts, and the error of the first is less than one-fourth of the difference between the two. The discussion shows that the first method of calculation is to be preferred, and I therefore take J = 42,055,000 O as the result. Since the completion of my experiments, a 10 ohm Elliott standard in the possession of the University has been compared with the Cambridge standards and found correct at 20°:9 C. My standard has been compared with this with the following result : SE EE EN COIET Gayest 1a 76 Ellictt’s coil, 6c 6 lOO S82 u « = 1:00173 * 1883 In these comparisons the Elliott coil was taken at 16°°3 C., as marked. Also we have Elliott coil at 20°:9 Elliott coil at 16°3 _ 10014 H o— = 1:0003 B.A. units and J = 42,068,000 ence rn 10014 arn J Was 5 J= ; sc value of B. A. unit in earth-quadrants per second. Rowland* has discussed Joule’s values and reduced them to the air thermometer and the latitude of Baltimore. The mean of the best results from the friction of water, in 1850 and 1878, thus becomes 426°55 kilogram-meters or 41,805,000 C.G.S. at 14:1° C. This, according to Rowland’s results for the tem- * Proceedings of American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1880. Am. Jour. Sct.—THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXX, No. 175.—Juy, 1885. 3 34 Hayes and Trowbridge—Irregularities in perature variation, corresponds to 41,608,000 at 26°, the mean temperature of my experiments. Rowland’s value at 26° is 41,720,000. Combining the mean of these, 41,664,000, with ms ’ ., 41,664,000_ . my result, I find 1B. A. unit=75 068,000 9904 earth-quad- rants per second. This research cannot compare in weight with the elaborate determinations of the ohm by direct methods, which have been made in England and this country since the conclusion of my experiments, but as few results by this method are at hand, I publish it as a slight contribution to the history of this vexed subject. Marlborough, N. Y., April 15, 1885. ArT. IV.—Cause of Irregularities in the Action of Galvanic Battertes; by HAMMOND VINTON Haykss and JoHn Trow- BRIDGE. In the May No. of this Journal, 1885, is described an apparatus devised by Prof. John Trowbridge, for photographing the de- flections of a galvanometer needle. A spot of light is reflected from the mirror of a galvanometer, and from a fixed mirror, on to a sheet of sensitive paper. When no current passes, the two spots of light coincide; when the mirror is deflected, one spot marks the zero of the scale; the distance between the two spots shows the amount the mirror has been deflected. In this way all variations of current are accurately registered. We have tested a number of batteries in this way, and have found that in some cases the current was comparatively constant, or if any variation occurred, it was of the nature of a gradual and regu- lar fall. Examples of this action are to be seen in figures 1, 2 and 8. In other cases the action was exceedingly irregular; not only were there many marked variations in the strength of the current, but these variations were made up of a multitude of minor fluctuations. Both of these actions can be observed in figures 4and 5. ‘The variations in some cases are as great as twenty or thirty per cent of the total strength of the current. It seems, therefore, of interest to find to what causes these changes may be assigned, especially as such variations would seriously affect delicate experiments. Moreover, in batteries used for incandescent lighting it is absolutely necessary to ob- viate this difficulty. It was observed that batteries without a porous partition were not subject to these fluctuations. Such batteries as the Leclanché exhibit smooth unserrated curves, whereas all bat- the Action of Galvanic Batteries. 35 teries employing porous cups show irregularities more or less marked. It will be noticed that the variations may be divided into two classes, one a general undulation, the other a series of rapid fluctuations which make up the undulations. ‘There are, likewise, two separate actions which cause these irregularities: first a diminution in the current strength, caused by the pores of the partition becoming filled with the base, and thus pre- venting action until it has been dissolved and fresh acid can attack the zinc; second, a diminution of the acid at the posi- tive pole, and a consequent decrease in current. This action is due to electrical endosmose. The undulations are due to the first of these causes; the fluctuations to endosmose. It will be observed that the fluctuations in all cases begin as soon as the current is made, and before it is possible that the partition can have become so impregnated as to cause an interruption to the current. This can be well seen in figures 4 and 5. This shows that the fluctuations and undulations must be due to different eauses. In figure 4 the undulation is very marked. This figure is the photograph of the action of a battery using a very dense porous cup. Figure 3 shows the action with a cup, the same size as that used in figure 4, made of ordinary unglazed paper. We find here no action whatever. We should suppose from the above experiments that the more dense the partition the more liable would it be to become clogged, whereas with a very porous cell there should be very little resistance offered. To prove this, a cup of very porous earthenware was compared with one much denser; figures 7 and 8 show the results. In the case of the porous cup the action is without undulations, while with the other the undulations are quite marked. To investigate the action of endosmose, a very irregular open circuit battery was employed, consisting of a solution of bichro- mate of potassium and sulphuric acid, into which were plunged a piece of carbon and a porous cup containing zine surrounded by mercury. In the action of a galvanic battery there are three separate actions which take place : 1st. A decomposition of the electro-positive ion at the posi- tive electrode. 2d. A decomposition of the electro-negative ion at the nega- tive electrode. : 3d. The electric current carries whatever comes in its way from the positive to the negative electrode. It is this last which is called endosmose, and which we wish to investigate. It was discovered by Breda and Logeman that in a continu- ous liquid this third action disappeared, and only when a porous partition was introduced was this phenomenon observed. This agrees with the above stated theory; for no such fluctuations 36 Hayes and Trowbridge—Irreqularities, ete. are observed in single fluid batteries. The laws which govern this action were very carefully studied by Wiedemann. Owing to this transporting force the heights of the liquid on the two sides of the porous jar are different, being higher on the side which is nearest the positive electrode. When a strong current acts, more liquid is driven through the partition than with a weak current; moreover, the greater the resistance of the liquid, the more is driven through. From this we find that the 1 2 ee 3 4 een arth porous jar increases the base or metal transported to the nega- tive pole, and diminishes the quantity of acid at the positive pole in the case of sulphuric or nitric acids. Again, if we in- crease the surface of the jar, the force tending to transport the liquid is diminished, but it is increased if we increase the thick- ness or density of the partition. If now we have a strong current, and a small, thick cup, there will be a maximum force tending to drive the liquid and base from the positive pole, and a consequent decrease in the strength of the current. The first case is well exemplified in E. L. Nichols—Sensitiveness of the Hye to Colors. 87 figure 4, in which the fluctuations are very marked. The cup used was very small and dense. Figure 3 shows the action of a cell of ordinary unglazed paper of large dimensions. The current, which was as nearly as possible of the same strength as in figure 4, is perfectly uniform. Figure 1 is a photograph of the action of a cell made of a paper known as parchment paper. We again find a regular action. Wishing to make a slightly more dense cell, one was constructed of parchment of the same size as those employed above. The action of the battery with this cell is shown in fig. 6. It will be noticed that very slight fluctuations occur at the beginning, and in parts of the line. Figure 7 shows the action of a cell presenting a large surface, but made of very dense earthenware. In this way great advantage is gained, for if the cell had been of the ordinary size, its fluctuations would have resembled those in figure 4. We can, therefore, say that there are two causes of irregu- larity in the action of galvanic batteries, and that both difficul- ties are overcome by making a partition of as large surface dimensions as possible, and by using very porous material. Jefferson Physical Laboratory. Art. V.—On the Sensitiveness of the Hye to Colors of a Low Degree of Saturation ;* by Epwarp L. NicHots, Ph.D. [Read at the Philadelphia meeting of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science. | HvERY one who has. had occasion to mix colors has noticed that an exceedingly small amount of any pigment will impart its hue to avery large quantity of white. One part of red lead, for instance, will color a million parts of a white powder lke the carbonate of magnesium, and even a smaller proportion than that is distinguishable by the average observer, as will appear from the experiments to be described in this paper. This observation is strikingly at variance with the results obtained by other methods of mixing colors. It has been shown, for example, by Aubert} that a disk, less than 4, of which is painted (radially) with any pigment, the remainder being white, cannot when in rotation be distinguished from an entirely white disk. We have attempted to measure the sensitiveness of the eye in this respect, by determining the smallest proportion of various coloring matters which, when mixed with a white powder, will * This is one of a series of researches on the special senses by EH. H. S. Bailey and EH. L. Nichols. + Rood: Modern Chromatics, p. 39. 388s E. L. Nichols—Sensitiveness of the Eye to Colors. give it a perceptible tint. The pigments selected were red lead, chromate of lead, chromic oxide and ultramarine blue. These were in the form of powder, the red and blue being the red lead and artificial ultra-marine of commerce, whereas the chromium compounds were freshly prepared by precipita- tion. Each of these pigments was mixed with white in the following manner. About ten cubic centimeters of the powder was mixed in the dry state with an equal volume of magne- sium carbonate, the mixture was divided into two equal parts, half of it was again mixed with its own volume of the white powder, the product was again subdivided and the process of mixing with white by equal parts was repeated until all traces of color had disappeared. Since at each stage of the process only half the material was used for further dilution, there remained a series of colored powders of which the pure pig- ment formed the first, while the succeeding numbers were of less and less saturated hue, and finally could not be distin- guished from white. These mixtures were put into small vials of white glass and labelled in such a manner as to ensure their recognition by persons acquainted with the code and at the same time to preclude the detection of the nature of their con- tents from the label, without such knowledge. For the purpose of ascertaining the degree of saturation at which the presence of these pigments becomes perceptible to the eye, the four sets of bottles, containing mixtures of red and white, yellow and white, green and white, and blue and white, were mingled indiscriminately, and the observer whose eye was to be tested was requested to arrange those in which he could detect any trace of color, according to hue and degree of saturation. The bottles were afterwards inspected by some one acquainted with the code of labels, who threw out those not in the proper set and recorded the number of bottles remaining in each set and the number of each color which had been properly placed as to shade. From the former record the sensitiveness of the eye to colors of low saturation was determined; the latter data served to indicate the ability of the observer to detect small differences of shade. Fifty four persons, all of them with two or three exceptions between the ages of fifteen and thirty, were examined in this way. The Holmgren worsteds had shown one of them to be completely green blind, three partially so and one partially red blind. Color-blindness was not found to affect in any marked way their ability to classify the colors. This method of measuring the sensitiveness of the eye is not in all respects satisfactory. A method in which pure spectral tints mixed with white light could be compared with a field illuminated by white light alone and the amount of monochro- E. L. Nichols—Sensitiveness of the Hye to Colors. 89 matic light lessened until its effect was lost to the eye, would certainly be better; but ease and rapidity of execution were essential where so many individuals were to be tested and where the time of those who kindly presented themselves for the purpose was limited. Moreover, the study of spectral tints would not give results directly applicable to pigments, and it is the latter with which we have to do in many practical problems in the science of chromatics. An exhaustive study of this subject would involve the use of both methods. Table I gives the general results of the fifty-four tests. The averages for males and for females are given separately for purpose of comparison. The numbers indicate in each case the amount of coloring matter present in one hundred million volumes of white, in the most dilute mixture which can be distinguished from a pure white by the average observer. TABLE I. Number of parts of coloring matter that must be mixed with 100,000,000 parts of white in order to affect the tint of the compound. Chromate Chromic Red lead. ot lead. oxide. Ultramarine Average for 31 males__-_-_-- 15°9 Mies 8177 148°5 Average for 23 females .-.. 59:8 33-2 913°6 108°1 Average for both sexes._.. 25:2 23°9 864:2 126°5 The popular impression that in woman the special senses are more finely organized and delicate than in man,* a view con- siderably strengthened so far as color-perception is concerned by her well authenticated exemption from color-blindness, finds no support from these experiments. As will be seen from the above table the average male observer is measurably more sensitive to red, yellow and green, while the female shows superiority in the blue alone. Quite as interesting, perhaps, is the manner in which the relative sensitiveness of the eye varies with the wave-length. If the corresponding data for mixtures of white and monochromatic light were obtainable it would be possible to indicate by curves the vari- ations of the sensitiveness of the eye in this particular. The light reflected by pigments, however, is so far from being monochromatict that it is out of the question to attempt to assign them any place in a pure spectrum, and curves con- structed upon the assumption that pigments are representative of definite wave-lengths would be of interest only as illustrat- ing in a very imperfect way the general character of the curves which might be obtained by a more precise method. * Some experiments upon the sense of smell, carried on at the same time as and partly in connection with the tests described in the present paper, indicate that in the case of many common odors also, delicacy of perception is much more marked among men than among women. (H. H.S. Bailey: Proceedings of the Kansas Acad. of Sciences, 1884.) + See “A spectro-photometric study of pigments,” American Journal of Science, vol. xxviii, Noy., 1884. 40 £. L. Nichols—Sensitiveness of the Eye to Colors. The variation from these averages, in the case of individual observers, was very marked. Of the fifty-four persons tested, eight (five males and three females), could distinguish tie presence of yellow in a mixture of three parts of that pigment in one hundred millions, while two individuals, both of them females, failed to detect it in mixtures containing less than one hundred and ninety parts in one hundred millions. Like differences were met with in the sensitiveness of the eye to other colors, and the relative sensitiveness to different colors was not the same for all observers. The lack of delicacy in respect to green was a very general trait. Only three observers were as sensitive to green as to blue, and in the case of but one individual was the power of detecting the former color equal to the sensitiveness to yellow. The thought suggests itself that the failure to detect green may be due to a blunting of the nerves which respond to that color by continual exposure to green foliage. An investigation of the relation between the sensitiveness of the eye to colors mixed with white and the form of the three primary color- curves of the eye would add to our knowledge of this subject. The striking discrepancy between these results and those obtained by the method of rotating disks, the eye recognizing with ease and certainty one part of coloring matter in many millions when mechanically mixed with white, and failing to detect one part in a few hundred parts (i. e., 360 parts) when mixed by rotation, shows, in our opinion, that the eye while . watching a revolving disk is in an abnormal! condition, and that quantitative results obtained by this favorite method of combining colors are not always comparable with those which we get by the actual mixture of white and colored light, or by the mechanical mixture of pigments. In view of the large number of researches upon Chromatics and Physiological Optics in which the revolving disk has been used, a special study of the condition of the eye during the observation of the disk, and a comparison of the results of this method with those obtained in other ways is greatly to be desired. In this manner alone can the limits of usefulness of this exceeding simple and convenient method be determined. The tests of the power of recognition of small differences of shade were undertaken chiefly as a further means of compar- ing the attainments of the sexes in delicacy of color percepti-n. The method was not adapted to the direct determination of the smallest difference of saturation which can be perceived, but our experience with the series of colors already described showed that the neighboring members were quite as closely allied in shade as was compatible with their recognition. Indeed, of fifty-four observers not one succeeded in placing all E. L. Nichols—Sensitiveness of the Hye to Colors. 41 the vials, the colors of which were perceptible to him, in their proper places in the series. The two nearest approaches to complete accuracy consisted in the correct arrangement of ninety bottles out of ninety-two in the one case and of ninety out of ninety-three in the other. Although these records were made by male observers, the average for the other sex was noticeably higher than that of the males. It was found that of all the mixtures possessing appreciable color the average observer of each sex placed the following proportions correctly : TABLE II. Average accuracy of male and female observers in detecting the degree of saturation of mixtures of pigments with white. (Complete accuracy would be indicated by 100-00.) Red lead. Chromate of lead. Chromic oxide. Ultramarine. Malesss 5 ks 86°86 87°16 92°81 78°13 Females ....--. 90°81 93°24 98°28 82°92 A comparison of tables I and II shows that the color (green) to which the eye is ieast sensitive, so far as the ability to detect small amounts of color is concerned, is the one in which the least difficulty is met with in noticing differences of shade. Possibly the circumstance already suggested as the cause of the deliciency in the one respect, 1. e., continued exposure and consequent loss of sensitiveness to green, may be looked to as the cause of the increased facility in the other. If the detec- tion of colors of low saturation depends upon the delicacy of the eye and the recognition of differences of shade upon prac- tice, it would account equally well for both peculiarities. An examination of some of the mixtures used in the fore- going tests under a half-inch objective magnifying about two hundred diameters, showed that the pigments consisted of well- formed, glistening crystals about ;4,™™ in diameter. ‘These crystals were mingled with the magnesium carbonate without imparting any trace of their own color to the latter. Under the microscope the separation was perfect and the contrast of color a striking one. In the more dilute mixtures it was often necessary to search for some time before 4 single crystal of the pigment could be found, and the portion placed upon the slide did not contain, in some cases, more than five or six crystals altogether. ‘To the naked eye, nevertheless, the mass appeared perfectly homogeneous, and unmistakably colored. Doubtless the power of a few isolated points of color, too small to be rec- ognized individually by the eye, to impart their own hue to the entire colorless field in which they he, is due to the persist- ence of the color-impression they produce upon the retina; this impression being fused with the impression of white from the remainder of the field of view by the continual movement of the eye in the process of observation. University of Kansas, July, 1884. 42 O. T. Sherman—A Study of Thermometers. Art. VI.—A Study of Thermometers intended to measure Temperatures from 100°-800°C. ; by O. T. SHERMAN. Ir is well known that when a thermometer is heated above a certain point, the mercury column is permanently displaced with regard to the scale.* The position of the point depends upon the constitution of the glass forming the bulb and upon the previous use of the thermometer. For certain glasses des- ignated by the maker as German or American soda and Cor- nish the elevation upon a new thermometer begins at 111°. For a flint or crystal tube the point is nearer 200°. Mills records 256° as his highest observed limit, 48° as his lowest. Our experience presents nothing lower than 110°, nor higher than 255°. The latter point is obtained with English flint or French crystal. By much use or long heating the displacement frequently amounts to ten degrees Centigrade, and may amount to 26°.+ To assign corrections to points so easily displaced is evidently nugatory. The Observatory has therefore hitherto confined its corrections to points below that at which the ascent began. If now the thermometer be exposed to a high temperature for some hours, the successive positions of the ice-point will be found to arrange themselves in a curve similar to that in the adjoining figure. Thus, for the first eighteen hours dur- — od lor} co So ° ) ° ° Elevation of the Zero. (Centigrade.) OS 0 12 24 36 48 60 i) 84 96 Hours of heating at 300°. ing which the thermometer Y. O. 80 was held at 300° Centi- grade, the zero point was elevated 3°; for the second eighteen hours the elevation was 2°°2; for the succeeding periods 1°°7, 1°-1, 0°°8, 0°°3 respectively.{ The elevation evidently becomes less and less, and the curve becomes more nearly parallel to the axis of abscissas. This same thermometer placed in a bath at 200° immediately after the last observation rose two-tenths of * Mills, Transactions Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xxix, part II. + Crafts, Comptes Rendus, 1881 and 1882. t+ Weber, Metronomische Beitrag, No. 111, pp. 126, 127. O. T. Sherman—A Study of Thermometers. 43 a degree in the first twelve hours, but no change was detected in the following hundred and eight. The question presents itself, What is the state of the ther- mometer after such treatment? First, as regards the action of the zero. In the adjoining cut we have compared the motion of the zeros of four thermometers before and after treatment. 2. 100° 200° 300° 0° 100° 200° 300° (Cent.) o rs IN ~~ aks ee SNe Depression of the Zero by heating. (Cent.) SS ve (Fahyr.) 0° C. 100° 200° 300° 0° 100° 200° 300° (Centigrade.) Before heating. After heating. Movement of the Zero. In the first series the influence of the rise is evident. The second series is free therefrom. The movement of the zero for the higher temperatures is similar to that for lower; or the mere fact of heating the thermometer now produces no dis- tortion from which the instrument will not sensibly recover. Does the instrument after treatment repeat its readings when exposed to similar conditions? Do its indications vary with 44 O. T. Sherman—A Study of Thermometers. time? We have observed the corrections to the following treated thermometers on Feb. 16th, March 9th and 22d, and April 15th. The record is given in the adjoining table: Y. O. 81 (Cent.). Feb. 16- Feb. 16. March 9. March 22, April 15. April 15. 0° —6°°6 —6°°6 —6°'5 —6°°5 100° — 5°85 —5'78 —5d76 —5'68 —0'16 200° —6'3 Lee mele —6'1 Y. O. 89 (Cent.). 0° —5°°5 —5°'5 —5°'5 —5°°5 100° —41 —40 —41 —4:0 —O'1 200° —5'3 eee SASS —5'1 Y. 0. 90 (Cent.). 0° —8°'9 —8°'9 —8°6 —8°'5 100° —6'8 —T70 —70 —6°9 —0°'06 200° —6:3 ae ae eee —6'4 Y. O. 20967 (Fahr.). 0° —16°'8 —16°:9 —16°:9 —17°:0) 2 —18°6 —18°4 —18°6 —18°5 { 387° —25°2 —25°2 Soe eS +0°17 420° —27°8 aa watete —28°2 On all of these instruments the closeness of the graduation renders an error of observation of a tenth not improbable, so that, with one exception, there is no difference which seems worthy of remark. These observations indicate that after treatment the ther- mometer is as serviceable as a measure of temperature ranging from 0° to 800° C. as the standard to which we are accustomed is for the range 0° to 100°. In the curves representing the movement of the zero, the record of April 15th is represented by a dotted line, that of Feb. 16th by the full line. The former are slightly more curved than the latter. Again, in the final column of the preceding table are given the mean differences between the corrections due to Feb. 16th and April 15th. Both of these differences we would interpret as small effects still oc- curring in the bulb, such as occur in every new thermometer, rather than as evidence that the instrument does not repeat itself. It is of interest to ask what is the nature of the change which has been effected in the glass. If we compare the errors before and after treatment, we obtain the following differences: WesONSI: EOF S89. NEO IO 0° 4°-0 4°-9 005) 100° 2°8 2°9 6°6 200° 46 4:0 4-4 The differences for Y. O. 20967, upon which the points of com- parison are more frequent, are given in the adjoining curve. These differences indicate a change in the coefficient of ex- H. §. Williams—Crustacean from the Devonian. 45 pansion of the glass. The amount for the interval 0°-100° is readily calculated, and presents us with the following values: We ©; Bil pase 100. d8 = — 0:000046 NWELOSS Se = — 0:000022 We ©, 80 scsa5 = — 0°000003 We OF 2096N=2 = + 0:000026 Values similar to the first two have been previously ob- served by Weber and by Crafts. The latter two are, as far as my knowledge goes, without precedent. Again, if the thermometer be preserved at ordinary tempera- tures, similar changes occur. We may instance the elevation of the zero with time. Its law is similar to that of the eleva- tion produced by heating; or, analogies occur in the change in the fundamental length and the indicated change in the coefficient of expansion. OF 100° 200° 300° 400° 500° (Fahrenheit,) Difference in the correction before and after treatment. All of these facts—the condensing of the material forming the bulb, the consequent increase of its intermolecular attraction, the dependence of the point of rising upon its chemical consti- tution, the similarity of the changes produced by time, the regularity of these changes—seem to indicate the cause for the one as was long since suggested for the other, in a partial sepa- ration of the crystalline from the amorphous bulb-constituents. lf the view is correct, it argues well for the stability of the treated instrument. The change will have been produced at the expense of its natural life. But then, few thermometers are permitted to die of old age. The correctness of the view is the subject of a separate research. Yale College Observatory, April, 1885. Arr. VIL. — Notice of a new Limuloid Crustacean from the Devonian; by HENRY SHALER WILLIAMS. AmonG the fossils collected last summer for a comparative study of the Devonian faunas, an interesting form was dis- covered in Erie County, Pennsylvania, worthy of special notice. The specimen was found in the bluish sandstone (which in places is a fine pebbly conglomerate) at Le Boeuf, called the . “3d oil sand” by Mr. I. C. White in the Report Q* of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania (p. 239), and re- 46 HS. Williams—Crustacean from the Devonian. garded by him as the equivalent of the third oil sand of the Venango oil district of that State. In the same stratum and above it are typical Chemung fossils. It occurs just at the junction between the sandstone and a stratum of soft, fine argillaceous shale, and, in the process of weathering, the fine shale has been washed away, leaving a sharply defined cast of the fossil in hard sandstone, though no portion of the original crust is preserved. The associated species are Spirifera Vernewilii Murch. (=Sp. disjuncta Sow.), and &hynchonella contracta Hall; and in the shales just above the sandstone occur Chonetes scitula Hall, ‘“ Chonetes” muricata Hall, an Ambocoelia umbonata Hall, a small Productus of the type of Hall’s Productella Boydii, the coarse ribbed Orthis Leonensis Hall, and a Rhynchonella agree- ing with some of the wider forms of #. sappho Hall. The fauna is the characteristic Upper Chemung fauna of western New York and adjacent area. In this area some of the species occur among the earliest Chemung species; no characteristic Carboniferous types have been detected. The fauna may be considered, therefore, as a pure Devonian fauna. The general form and structure of the specimen place it among the Merostomata with anchylosed thoracico-abdominal seoments, but as only the under side is exhibited, its identifi- cation with Prestwichia must be regarded as provisional, since we are ignorant of the structure of the under surface of authen- tic members of that genus. ; I propose as a name for it, Prestwichia Eriensis, sp. n. The following characters exhibited by the specimen are regarded as generic and as locating it in the genus Prestwichia of Woodward: (1), the elliptical head shield; (2), the genal spines which proceed backward more directly than in any described species of the genus; (8), the thoracico-abdominal segments anchylosed to form a buckler, to which is attached (4) a long telson. The general outline of the whole animal resembles that of the modern Limulus. The evidence of a solid thoracico-abdominal buckler is found in the continuous surface across the body, from which proceed four (visib!e) short marginal spines each side the telson, and upon which are seen at least eight narrow ridges running lon- gitudinally to near the margin. The remaining characters may be, in part, of generic value, but they constitute the distinctive characters of the species, as far as these can be made out from the specimen. The under side of the body presents three well defined tracts, viz: (A B), the cephalic shield which is evenly rounded in front and is laterally prolonged backward into two genal H. §. Williams—Crustacean from the Devonian. 47 spines (C), which are nearly parallel with the axis of the body and reach nearly to a point opposite the posterior margin of the buckler. The cephalic shield along the median line is about a third the length of the body ; (M K) the space between the posterior margin of the cephalic shield and the anterior margin of the buckler containing the region of the mouth (M) and the gnathopods (K), and (f' DH) the thoracico-abdominal buckler, marked over the surface by longitudinal ridges and by marginal spines, and terminating in a long stout telson (KH). Traces of the gnathopods are seen, as also traces of the folia- ceous appendages of the posterior pair (L), but in too imperfect condition for exact delineation. Just anterior to the position of the mouth is seen a shield-like elevation (B), upon the edge of the cephalic shield, which has the appearance of an hypos- toma. The condition of the specimen is not such as to give absolute certainty to this interpretation, though the symmetry of its form is strongly in favor of it. It is possible that it is merely outlines upon the surface produced by crushing during fossilization. There are faint indications of joints on each of the anterior set of gnathopods (K K). Along the center of the thoracic region (H), there is a flat- tened depression, traversing longitudinally from the anterior edge of the plate F, backward to the middle of the telson E. The terminal portion of the telson is evenly rounded. Each side of the median line of the buckler there are visible four clearly defined marginal spines (gg): there were probably more of them—six I have supposed, as in fig. 3, but concealed in the specimen by the filling between the buckler and genal spines. There are also four rounded, longitudinal ridges on the buckler each side of the flattened depression H; these (77) begin abruptly near the anterior margin of the buckler and run almost directly backward, tapering to a slender point near the margin of the buckler. At the anterior margin of the buckler there is a narrow plate, divided into a median and two lateral parts (F), which appears to be separated from the buckler itself by a distinct furrow. Laterally this plate appears to curve inward and lies below (within) the surface of the buckler, and the median por- tion extends forward to a blunt point. I have interpreted this as probably representing the consolidated lamellar appendages of the “first and second” thoracic segments of Hurypterus, as defined by Hall in Paleontology of New York, vol. iii, p. 398. The telson H, is nearly two-thirds the length of the body, is flattened at the base, but nearly cylindrical and tapering to a blunt point at the extremity. There is no indication of its articulation, but there is no reason, from the condition of the specimen, to presume that it was not articulated. 7an e Devon ‘om th fi an USTACE A. S. Williams—C 48 ‘SNVITITM “S “H—sisuanugy pryounsasy H. §. Williams—Crustacean from the Devonian. 49 Above are given all the characters of which the specimen presents any reasonable suggestion. I have ventured to put an interpretation upon some of the characters for which the evidence is slight in the hope that those possessing specimens of any kindred forms may throw light upon this one by con- firming the interpretation here given or suggesting a better one. Fig. 1 represents very fairly the actual appearance of the specimen in size and details. It is a photo-engraving from a drawing of the original and photographs of it made by Pro- fessor K. C. Cleves of Cornell University. Wimensvons— otal length 2.3.25 2) se coe. oe Lone Greatests width tee. wale aa Se Eee ee seri Length of telson (about)---.---:-_--- 4: Length of buckler (about)_------...-- 2: Greatest thickness of telson.--....--- 0-7 Horizon—Chemung Group, Upper Devonian; the “third oil sand ” of I. C. White, 2d Pa. Survey. é Locality —LeBeuf, Erie County, Pennsylvania. The original specimen is among the collections of the U.S. Geological Survey, and will be deposited ultimately in the National Museum. Comments.—This specimen throws back the known range of Prestwichia, or at least the type to which this genus belongs, to an earlier stage than heretofore reported. ‘The earliest pre- viously known Prestwichia occurs in the Carboniferous. If my interpretation of its characters be correct, Prestwichia bears closer relations to Limulus than is suggested by other known specimens, and also it possesses features linking it with Trilobites and Eurypterids. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. Fig. 1. Prestwichia Eriensis Williams, sp.n. A sandstone cast representing the under surface; natural size. Fig. 2. Diagram of the same. A. Cephalic shield. B. ? Hypostoma. C. Genal spines of the cephalic shield. D. Thoracico-abdominal. buckler. H. Telson. F. First (and second?) segments of thorax (? anchylosed). Gg. Marginal spines of the buckler. H. Flat median depression extending across the buckler and upon the telson. vi. Longitudinal ridges of the buckler. KK. Portions of the gnathopods. L. ? Foliaceous terminations of the last gnathopods, M. Position of the mouth. N. Probable place of articulation of the telson. Fig. 3. Theoretical diagram of upper side. Cornell University, April, 1885. Am. Jour. Scl.—THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXX, No. 175, Juny, 1885. : aa 50 =A. L. Wells and S. L. Penfield—Gerhardtite, ete. Art. VIIl.—Gerhardtite and Artificial Basic Cupric Nitrates , by H. L. WELLS and §, L. PENFIELD.* WE shall describe in the present article a natural, crystallized basic cupric nitrate and a crystallized artificial salt of the same chemical composition but of different crystalline form. We also give an account of a re-investigation of two basic cupric nitrates to which have been ascribed different compositions, but which, as we shall show, have the same composition as the basic nitrates described by us and by other investigators, whose results will be briefly summarized. GERHARDTITE, a new mineral. This mineral was first identified as a new species by Prof. Geo. J. Brush, who found it among a lot of copper minerals from the United Verde Copper Mines, Jerome, Arizona, which were left at the Sheffield Scientific School by Mr. G. W. Stewart, assayer, from that place. The single specimen in our possession consists of a small piece of very pure massive cuprite, along a crack in which the crystals of the nitrate occur, together with acicular crystals of malachite. The crystals, 4-6" in diameter, were few in number and were almost wholly sacrificed to obtain mate- rial for investigation. An attempt has been made to obtain more of the material, but as yet no other specimens have been received, although we are in hopes that more may be found at the locality. From the abundance of crystals on the specimen in our possession, it would seem that there must have been a quantity of it found. It was probably regarded as malachite by the miners. Another specimen contains crystals of atacamite on the cuprite. The crystals, which were carefully separated from the cuprite, were subjected first to crystallographic, then to chemical exam- ination. About 0°8 of a gram was obtained almost perfectly pure, the only impurity being a few acicular crystals of mala- chite which sometimes penetrated the nitrate but were visible only under the microscope. The hardness of the mineral is 2. Specific gravity 3°426. Color dark green. Streak light green. ‘Transparent. The crystals after being detached were only fragmentary. All those suitable for measurement were reserved. ‘They were very fragile and had to be separated and handled with very great eare. The crystals are orthorhombic, having the habit shown * The chemical work is by the former, the crystallographic by the latter. H. L. Wells and S. L. Penfield—Gerhardtite, ete. 51 in fig. 1. There are two cleavages, which serve for orientation, one basal, parallel to c, as perfect as the most perfect cleavage of gypsum, a second, less perfect, par- allel to the macropinacoid. The crys- tals can be readily bent, in which case they crack and separate along the lat- ter direction. The most prominent forms on the crystals, besides the basal plane, are a series of pyramids occur- ring in oscillatory combination, which makes their indentification somewhat difficult. The best meas- urements were obtained from a small but very perfect macro- dome which was found on two crystals. Owing to the frag- mentary nature of the crystals and the difficulty of identifying the pyramidal planes, their orthorhombic form might be doubted were it not for their optical properties. The axial ratio was obtained from the following measure- ments: caz 001,201 = 68° 167 zap 201a111 = 39° 3730" giving &:b:¢ = 0°92175: 1: 11562 The following forms were observed : c, 001, O Ee aeltine eee z, 201, 2-% uy, 334, & 0p” WINGO ede Oy UH ALOS © 4G i OOM lo W, 223,. Sipe 22) 2 #; 13°13°20, £3 DLE el OD, UNDE Tet The following is the table of measured and calculated angles, the measurements being made on eight crystals, the number of times each form was measured being given. Calculated. Measured. No. of times. mam 110 4 110 85° 20/ ane 201 ~ 201 aU ORS 43° 34! 1 eam 001 «110 90° 90° 157-90° 257 2 CLP 001 4 551 83° 197 832 14 iL CxrAS 001 . 221 UBs, BOY om DoG 1] Cap 001.4111 59° 3177 Hee 23 c= Oat Ke 6 Cat 001A TT8 ioe I 55° 577—56° 197 3 Cau . 001 4 334 Bills 59" Bl S95 27—b 277 204 2 CAV OUOL A TT1LO 507234 49° 467-50° 387 3 CAW 001 4 223 48° 407 48° 8'-49° 12/ 8 CAL OOL A 1321320 47> 517 AN? 117-47> 567 5 CAY 001 2.112 40° 287 AN 34 Ones 4 2 in) WB AO 7 WRIA GOP Ae GOmnoe it Only distinct reflections were recorded, though other forms seemed to be present but were not definite enough to be deter- mined, The variation in the measurements is large and may be due in part to an accidental bending of the crystals. he 52 #. L. Wells and 8. L. Penfield—Gerhardtite, ete. forms x and v with improbable indices would have been re- garded as accidental had they not occurred repeatedly giving very distinct reflections. Tabular fragments, parallel to the basal cleavage, show under the polarizing microscope an ex- tinction parallel to the macro-diagonal cleavage lines and in convergent light a bisectrix normal toc,001. The optic axes lie in the brachypinacoid, the axial angle is large and could not be measured in air. Measured in the heavy solution of Hgl, in KI (n=1°708 for yellow, 1°722 for green). 2H = 76° 20’ for yellow. 2H=80° 4’ for green. Dispersion p: Say, ex Oneata S,, ies,

— 773. find an expression for the distribution of potentialized energy throughout the passive mass, or to state w in terms of a, for the moment of maximum compression. Between any two successive sections w will be diminished by two quantities, one representing the kinetic energy imparted to the mass between these sections, and the other the energy potentialized. Indeed these quantities may be thought of separately as if a certain amount of kinetic energy were first distributed uniformly over the passive mass and afterward a certain quantity of internal work were done in it. If the length of the entire system is unity, the diminution of w betwen x and x+dzx due to the uniform distribution of kinetic energy Mr bes ee oe yy Dera limits is of course wde, but this quantity does not bear a simple relation to dw unless none of the energy assumes the kinetic The problem proposed is to The energy potentialized between these 120 G. F. Becker—Impact Friction and Faulting. form, or in other words, unless the passive mass is infinite. Were this the case w would be diminished by and could be diminished only by wda; and dw=wdz, the differential equation of the simple logarithmic curve. But when a portion of the energy imparted to the section at « reappears as kinetic energy, -dw must have a greater negative value. The equation might be written dw=— wdx—Qdz, but here Q must be some function of w. Now it isan elementary condition of equilibrium in the case under discussion that for a given displacement at any section, say the one at a, the energy potentialized between this section and the free end of the rod shall be a minimum, so that if a is the value of «x for this end of the rod a uf wdz = min. z This minimum must have its maximum value when the entire energy is potentialized or when a=o. But if dw=—wdz and « (or 7) is infinite ah dw wdez=——, : di so that the infinite rod being merely an extreme case of a finite one, the integral for finite a@ must be less than —dw/dx by a value which disappears when the kinetic energy of the system at the moment of maximum compression is zero. The effect of the uniform distribution of kinetic energy upon the value of dw has already been traced and the equation a T 52 ye Rie eae : : . da 2 n+l therefore fully accounts for both the kinetic and the potential- ized energy. For =a, w must disappear, and this definite integral may therefore be written C—/wdzx. Introducing this value and differentiating aw dac* Tf an arbitrary unit of measurement, c, is adopted in this equa- . tion and w and z are each divided by it, == Oy). which leads without difficulty to w= Ae */° 4 Bet 2/% where A and B are arbitrary constants to be determined both in sign and value by the conditions. Determination of constants for general case.—For the free extremity of the passive mass =O and therefore B=—Ae—2Y/*, G. F. Becker Impact Friction and Faulting. 121 or in general, W=A(e— Hee ON Here ¢—22/c is independent of A, and the latter retains the same value even when a=, or when the passive mass is infinite. In this case of course the entire energy of the system is poten- tialized (or expended if the material is inelastic). If mis the mass which the unit volume would possess were it compressed to the density which the impact produces at the face of the infinite rod and if c is so chosen that cm=M INV*E ee) ee -? 0 w mv* or = 2 It will be convenient to retain for c the signification which it assumes when the passive mass is infinite because of the simple relations which it then bears to the energy of the impinging body. The unit chosen in any case is of course entirely arbitrary, but the results are much simplified by establishing some rational relation between the units adopted for different eases. Let the product of the entire energy potentialized in any case into the corresponding unit be a constant; then if V is the energy potentialized in an infinite rod, and V, the energy potehtialized in a finite rod, Ve=V,¢,, or m+ =e 1 n +} so that the equation for a finite rod may be written w=A(e—*/% me g7 20/ 1 5/01, Now for n=, c,=c, and therefore the value of A already found is valid for the new equation. From 2 wa (e/g 24/e1@2/). it follows that a mote, je, *_me" cn Ne agree ieee = ee Reintroducing the value of ¢ in terms of ¢,, it will readily be seen that ef/C1 == Ih a value which can also be otherwise obtained. This also gives : é(1— ge 4/) —o, The equation of the distribution of energy in a finite rod, Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp SERIES, VOL. XXX, No. 176.—AvGusT, 1885. 8 122 G. EF. Becker—Impact Friction and Faulting. the contact being taken as origin, may therefore be written =o (ve 2/1 ) 9 Ge 3 oF Toe . (n--1)’ If the origin is transferred to the free extremity of the rod by substituting «+a for a, this becomes mo? g— 2/01 g/s = —— cor m+) Ww, Le = is taken as the unit of energy and ¢, as the unit distance, jp ene Si ectale a form of very satisfactory simplicity. If n=1 c,=2c, or the length which the entire impinging mass would assume were it uniformly compressed to the density at the contact when the passive mass is infinite. Vis In the following diagram the area marked — is} the energy potentialized in the passive mass, or half the entire, energy potentialized in the system. a Zz When the mass 2M strikes the mass 2nM the kinetic energy of the entire system at the moment of maximum compression is, say OM ny? 2 9 2 peice fo T PN OR i a Qmv pO) bie OO, a/es| 9 eee 2 n+l 2 hee and this is manifestly twice the integral of the area marked oe zy im the diagram. If Tis the kinetic energy of the passive mass alone at this moment, it is readily seen that ere: If V is the energy potentialized in the entire system and H the total energy, the fundamental energy equation V=E-T, 0 * 0 5 0 mv mv 2 f wde=-—— E—%/Cign — 6% /C1 hep, becomes fv an ani VE dx i Te -—a —a —-@ 2 mv? Base Wray MV f ine /*) ie n+1+! LRT Nil ya aL anno lees nt G. F. Becker—Impact Friction and Faulting. — 128 Case of the atmosphere.—A peculiar case arising under the general equation is that in which the passive body, though of finite mass is of infinite volume, and therefore, in its uncom- pressed state, of infinite tenuity. Here the value of a being infinite, the coefficient B disappears and the equation assumes the simple logarithmic form. The value of the energy at the contact, however, cannot be affected by the fact that there is no limit to the expansion of the material. A therefore assumes the value : mv" m,v 1 a="(0-aaay)= aay and the base of the equation diminishes in such proportion as to give the correct integral. If ¢, is the exponential constant for this case OO RO —_—C. = Deve 2. ta: ine 7 n+2 ares WO? ny? n(n-2) (mtde pane 2/1 % Cate ie 2 2 (n+1) For a perfect gas under the compression produced by the impact of a body of its own weight n=1. The value m, is the actual mass of the unit volume at the contact of the masses, and c,is one-half the length which the volume of gas would have if uniformly compressed to m,. The average stress, due to the elasticity of a solid, when strained from its natural condition to that of a given strain, is just half the stress required to keep it in this state of strain.* If the energy potentialized in the passive mass by an impact 2 Ste Mig at the moment of maximum compression is —-— the effect of a constant force of corresponding intensity would be to potentialize 2 My, an energy —> gas possessing the mass of a column of the atmosphere of the same section, were to strike the earth at a velocity g, the average Mg’ v : where Do If a column of uncompressed potentialized would be This is four times of the energy actually potentialized in the atmospheric column. In general if the energy diagram for the impact of a mass 2M moving at a velocity v and impinging upon a mass 2nM is reduced to half its dimensions, or if it is interpreted in terms of a unit twice that used in plotting it, the result is the distribution of energy * Thomson & Tait, Nat. Phil., § 674. 124 G. F. Becker—Impact Friction and Faulting. due to the action of a constant force Mv on the mass 2nM. If p is the pressure at any point and s the strain, we have in general dw=pds. If the stress and strain are in a constant ratio, say k, ds=kdp and : wn If p, is the value of p for the contact plane of the masses, and w, the value of the energy for the same surface, WR Vii 0 B/D: For the atmosphere therefore —2/2Cs p=pP,é Here c,, as already pointed out, is half the height which the atmosphere would have were it uniformly compressed to the density at the bottom of the column; 2c, is therefore the familiar “height of the homogeneous atmosphere,” and the equation is the barometric formula, introduced here merely as a check upon the reasoning. Case of a rivet.—If the coefficient B is positive instead of negative the entire energy will be potentialized within finite limits. This is possible only when the passive mass is sub- jected to two impacts in opposite directions, or when it rests against an infinite mass which may be regarded as rigid. In this case one-half of the entire energy will be potentialized in the finite passive mass. ‘The general equation shows that the energy is to be considered as imparted to the passive mass from opposite directions, and it is evident that the result is the same as it would be if the energy were first distributed over an infinite mass, and the energy potentialized beyond x=a were then restored to the finite cylinder from the opposite direction. The equation may therefore at once be written for the contact as origin wa (ewe au Bei) 2 This curve must be horizontal at some point, say =a, and if dw/dax is made equal to zero B=e—?7/¢ . preceding According to the a cs fel aaa fel ae. 0 a 8 2a/c me 31) which gives Now in a former paragraph it was shown that A/C. na/e(n + jae ah G. F. Becker—Impact Friction and Faulting. 125 and this gives an expression for e“/° which makes n+l nl gee =(n+1)* (+1) i =) If the origin is removed to the base of the ordinate of the hori- zontal point of the curve the equation may be written pe mo? e— 4/6 4 @%/¢ me e0/¢ 4 gue 2 ec/e 2 gt/20( g/¢_y)? mov* Emin Gesee/ De irl ica lane (n+1)® ((n+1)* —1) the equation of a “projected catenary.” If the strain is pro- portional to the stress, this corresponds to the form assumed by a cold rivet, and it is under this law that the head of a drill spreads in ase. For n=1 the equation assumes the simple form w = mv? ge 7/4 A/C 2 24/3 Application to incompressible masses.—The problem of the dis- tribution of energy in a finite or infinite cylinder, compressible in the direction of its axis only and subjected to an impact ora constant force, thus appears capable of entirely satisfactory solution on the supposition that the transmission of energy is instantaneous. ‘The conditions as to compressibility answer to those of a gas confined in a rigid cylinder and are not those of solids. But since solid masses act as though concentrated at their centers of inertia, the formulas deduced are applicable to the positions of the centers of inertia of incompressible elastic or inelastic bodies. They therefore also represent completely the distribution of energy in incompressible rods capable of lateral deformation for infinitely small strains produced by impact, and approximately for small but finite strains. For constant forces acting in parallel lines or from a center at an infinite distance, in short when the equipotential surfaces are planes, the equations appear to represent the distribution of energy even for finite strains. The character of the divergence when the equipotentials are not planes, or for central forces, is best seen by taking the extreme case of an impact acting at a point in the center of a thin sheet of elastic or inelastic material. Here the energy , will be distributed at right angles to the direction of the impact, and the mass of. matter over which it is distributed instead of increasing with x will increase with zr*. If this area is denoted by z, and if the sheet is supposed infinitely thin or of finite 126 G. F. Becker—Impact Friction and Faulting. thickness and infinitely little strained, the distribution of energy will be represented by a eT e/t1 ste o/c Cian n+} The resulting depression will be a figure of revolution, and if the strain and stress are simply proportional, the curve gener- ating this figure will be of the form y eT e/2e1 __ ./2e Che nv+1 ; This result can be at least qualitatively tested by experiment. For this purpose I clamped a thin sheet of elastic rubber to a block of wood by a metal ring, and inserted a pointed instru- ment from beneath the block through a vertical hole at the center of the ring. The rubber was of course strained to conoidal shape, which was more or less sharply pointed accord- ing to the pressure. It was found that the generating curves for various pressures sensibly coincided with curves plotted from the above equation for various values of n. A form of the same character must be produced when a pointed instru- ment is being driven through a metallic sheet, just before pen- etration. It is now easy to see the general character of the deformation which takes place when two spheres strike one another. If the sphere is supposed divided into segments of equal mass by planes at right angles to the direction of the impact, and each mass is considered as concentrated at its center of inertia the energy potentialized will be distributed among these centers as in a compressible finite cylinder. The plane section however, will not remain plane but will be indented in the direction of the force. At the point opposite that at which impact takes place, the surface will remain spherical while the contact of the two spheres will bea plane. An exact analysis of this case would probably be somewhat complex. Liffect of imperfect restitution.—Certain comparisons may easily be made between the behavior of totally inelastic or totally elastic bodies as hitherto treated and actual matter which is neither absolutely elastic nor perfectly plastic. Except under conditions which cannot be realized in practice, a portion of the energy received by any one of a series of bodies from an impact is always expended in internal work. Newton found that when the impact is not violent enough to produce sensible permanent deformation, the relative velocity of impinging bodies, after impact bears a proportion to their relative velocity before impact which is constant for the same two bodies. It is well known that at least a part of the G. F. Becker—Impact Friction and Faulting. 127 energy mot returned must be employed in producing elastic vibrations of the body struck. Messrs. Thomson and Tait therefore call the coefficient representing the relation of the velocities the coefficient of restitution instead of the coefficient of elasticity as it has commonly been designated. If this coefficient is e, the coefficient of energy potentialized is express- ed by 1-e’. If an infinite series of bodies, say spheres, not wholly inelastic, receive an impact they will be compressed as if totally without elasticity, a portion of the energy received by each will be expended in permanent deformation and in vibration and each will recoil with less force than that with which it was compressed. Now if e is constant for the system, the same proportion of the energy received by each member of the system (viz: 1—e’) will be expended in it; and as the quantities of energy received stand as has been shown in a geometrical ratio, so also will the quantities of energy ex- pended. The coefficient ¢ is not constant for partially elastic bodies and so far as I know it has been but little studied. There is reason to suppose, however, that it varies slowly with the velocity and that it is therefore approximately the same for similar bodies within considerable ranges of velocity. Passage to frictional sheets—Baving discussed the distribution of energy in a finite or infinite system when the centers of inertia are rectilinearly arranged in the direction of the active force and endeavored to check the results by reference to ex- perience, I now pass to the application of these results to friction. Impinging bodies may be given any desired form under proper restrictions. Suppose for example a series of inelastic plates like the following : eee] ee eee] let them be restricted to motion in horizontal planes and pass over one another without friction. If the first of this series is started in the direction of its neighbor and the system is left to itself, the momentum will remain constant, the energy intro- duced into the system will be distributed over the whole infi- nite series and, in short, the distribution of energy in a direc: tion vertical to the line of motion will be exactly the same as it has been found to be for a rod in the line of force. Instead of a single lug at the extremity of a sheet an indefinite number of small teeth may be supposed to be distributed over the sur- faces of the sheets, and if these teeth are very minute in size and very numerous, a frictional surface as I understand it is the result. It might for an instant seem an objection to this supposition that as such sheets pass over one another the teeth will be ground off and the frictional resistance will diminish. This fact however affords an argument in favor of the truth 128 J. Trowbridge—A Standard of Light. of the conception, for it is well known that machines, however well finished, tend to heat until the bearings have adjusted themselves to one another. The friction cannot be indefinitely reduced by this mutual action because the dust produced by the abrasion is sufficient to cause constant fresh inequalities in the surfaces.* The character here attributed to a frictional surface is substantially that which various writers have assigned to it; some of the logical results however seem to me to have escaped attention. [To be continued. ] Art. XVIIL—A Standard of Light ;+ by JoHN TROWBRIDGE. THE discussions in the Paris Conference of 1881-84 upon the subject of a standard of light, which resulted in the adoption of the light emitted by a surface of platinum at the point of solidification, seemed to assort ill with the discussions which . led to a reaffirmation of the value of the C. G. S. system of absolute physical units, and a recognition of the relations between work and heat, and electrical energy. The solidification point of platinum may be a fixed point in nature; but it has not been shown how this fixed point can be connected with the great web of physical measurements which has been woven by Weber, Helmholtz, Thomson, Maxwell, and other physicists. It is true that during the discussions of the Conference reference was made to a proposition of Schwendler, that the hght emitted by a strip of platinum rendered incandescent by. a known electrical current should be taken asa standard. This proposition, however, received little support; and the Conference finally adopted the light emitted by solidifying platinum as a standard. It seems highly desirable that any standard of light which may be adopted should be connected with the present system of absolute measurements. The suggestion of Schwendler, therefore, seems to merit more attention than it has received. The suggestion of employing the light from a strip of platinum rendered incandescent by an electrical current is really due to Dr. John W. Draper, of New York, who in 1847 enunciated it as follows: ‘“‘A surface of platinum of standard dimensions raised to a standard temperature by a voltaic current will always emit a constant light. A strip of that metal one inch * As I pointed out in my former paper, page 158, the friction of ideally lubri- cated surfaces, in which the solid surfaces do not come in contact, is a very different matter. The statement as there given has since been amply confirmed by the report of a committee of the British Association. + Read before the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, May 26, 1885. J. Trowbridge—A Standard of Light. 129 long and one-twentieth of an inch wide, connected with a lever by which its expansion might be measured, would yield at 2000° a light suitable for most purposes.’’* It has been urged against this standard that different speci- mens of platinum will emit different amounts of light with the same difference of potential; and that it would be difficult to carry out a measurement of the light and the strength of the current all at the same instant. With a view to obtaining a knowledge of the practical difficulties in this measurement, I interposed a fine platinum wire between the poles of a battery, and endeavored to measure the light emitted, together with the difference of potential at the extremities of the wire and the amount of current which passed through a tangent galvano- meter. The difficulties, however, in using a fine platinum wire with a moderate battery power were great. The wire would fuse before the measurements could be satisfactorily made. I then employed a strip of platinum foil 5™™ wide, about 5°™ long, and about °02™™ in thickness. ‘This was placed - in a shunt circuit of a small Gramme machine in order that if the strip should fuse the dynamo machine might not race. With the proper speed and a suitable adjustment of resistances, the light from this platinum strip could be maintained very constant. The strip was placed in a long Ritchie photometer box, which was provided with two mirrors inclined according to the plan of Ritchie. One half of the photometer disk was illum- inated by the incandescent strip, and the other half by a sperm candle. The electrical current was measured by a tangent galvano- meter of which the reduction factor was 44 in the C.G.S. system. The difference of potential at the ends of the strip was measured by a Thomson quadrant electrometer, the deflections of which were compared with that of a Daniell cell, the electro- motive force of which was approximately 1:09. A Thomson voltmeter was also used. The indications of this instrument agreed with those of the electrometer. The following table gives the deflections of the instrument: Deflection of Tangent Galya- Deflection of the Electro- nometer in Degrees. meter in Centimeters. 63 5°3 Light the color of a candle. 61 4°9 ' 59 4°6 57 4°3 54°5 3.8 53°75 3-4 Light very dull red. One Daniell cell gave a deflection with the electrometer of * Scientific Memoirs, p. 45. 130 J. Trowbridge—A Standard of Light. 1:3. The resistance of the platinum strip when cold was ‘2 of an ohm. It will be seen from the above results that the current varied approximately from 8 to 6 webers, with an elec- tromotive force of from 3°8 to 2°6 volts, while the resistance varied from ‘47 to -44 of an ohm, the resistance when cold being ‘2 of anohm. ‘The range of the indications of the elec- trical instruments was comparatively small, while the light varied enormously. It is evident that the chief difficulty of this method is in measuring a strong current with accuracy: for an increase in the current represented by a fraction of a degree of the tangent galvanometer will result in a very large increase in the light from the incandescent strip. I next endeavored to ascertain if a thermal junction enclosed in an Edison incandescent lamp, at the center of the carbon loop, would be sensitive to changes in the heat radiation of the lamp. It is evident that, if this were the case, the carbon loop might be raised to the same point of incandescence in succes- sive times, assuming that the thermal junction at this point of incandescence receives the same amount of radiant energy. Mr. Edison kindly provided me with a lamp in which one thermal junction of an alloy of iridium-platinum and platinum was inserted at the center of carbon loops. The other junction was placed in ice and water. The thermo-electric force of this combination, however, was extremely feeble. The difficulty of inserting wires of other metals into glass prevented me from carrying this idea further. Instead of the thermal junction a small loop of extremely fine platinum wire was placed at the center of a carbon loop in an Edison lamp. This fine wire constituted a bolometer strip and made one branch of a Wheat- stone’s bridge, it being my intention to place a similar strip in another branch of the bridge, thus making a bolometer. The lamp was placed in a photometer box, and its light was com- pared with that of a candle as it was raised from a red glow to a light of fifteen-candle power. At the same time the resist- ance of the fine platinum wire was measured by a Wheatstone’s bridge. The following table gives the results: Resistance of the Distance of Carbon Lamp Distance of Candle from Strip in Ohms. from Photometer Disk. Photometer Disk. 14°42 Ors 4ocem 14°45 85 40 14°55 98 40 14°62 108 40 This method seems to be quite sensitive. The change in resistance is large when estimated by the number of ohms nec- essary to restore a balance to the bridge. It was noticed that at a certain point a comparatively small increase in heat radia- tions was accompanied by a large change in the amount of J. Trowbridge—A Standard of Light. 131 light emitted. This phenomenon had been noticed early by Dr. J. W. Draper. One Leclanché cell with five ohms in the circuit beside the resistance of the strip was sufficient to raise the latter to a red heat, and precautions were then necessary to prevent a change of resistance from the heating effect of the battery employed with the Wheatstone’s bridge. Being desir- ous of ascertaining whether the resistance of the platinum wire changed after it had been heated toa red heat and had been allowed to cool, I arranged the resistance of the battery circuit outside the bridge, so that the wire could be raised to a red heat, and then, having quickly weakened the battery circuit, remeasured the resistance of the strip. No difference could be perceived in the resistance of the strip. This illustrated the fact discovered by Professor Langley, that thin strips of metal arranged as bolometer strips give up heat very quickly. The results of this experiment led me to think that a bolo- meter strip of definite surface could be placed at a fixed distance from a carbon loop of definite dimensions inside an exhausted glass vessel. The amount of radiation which the bolometer strip receives could be calculated; and we might base our standard of light upon the point of incandescence which would give a definite radiation at a fixed distance. We could not distinguish by this method the energy produced by rays of different refrangibility. It seems desirable, however, to substitute for the uncertain estimation of colored lights by the eye an instrument which will measure the energy produced by the radiating source at a certain distance. Within certain limits I found that the bolometer strip would indicate an increase or decrease of the amount of radiant energy received while the difference in color of the incandescent lamp made the observer at the photometer entirely uncertain of his meas- urements. Owing to the difficulty of obtaining the proper apparatus for the prosecution of the study of this method, I then studied the question of the practicability of employing a thermopile to measure the amount of radiation from an incandescent strip of platinum ata fixed distance. Within a long photometer box was placed a thin brass vessel containing water. Steam was passed by means of a rubber hose into the water of this vessel which was thus maintained at a constant temperature of about 94° C. The outside of the vessel was about 92° C. This was ascertained by making the side of the vessel constitute one metal of a thermal junction. Between this vessel and the pla- tinum strip, which was made incandescent by a current of from 8 to 9 webers, was placed a thermopile. The face of the thermopile was thus exposed to the radiation from a given amount of heated surface at a constant temperature, while the 132 J. Trowbridge—A Standard of Light. other was exposed to the radiation of a given surface of plati- num. The faces of the thermopile were provided with the customary cones, and a series of diaphragms of thick ceard-board extended between the radiating surface of the vessel containing the heated water and the platinum strip. The thermopile was connected with a short coil galvanometer, and was moved until the galvanometer needle came to zero. This arrangement was extremely sensitive—a movement of a centimeter in the posi- tion of the faces of the pile being sufficient to drive the spot of light from the galvanometer mirror off the scale, corresponding to a movement of nearly fifty centimeter scale divisions. There is no difficulty in effecting a balance as quickly as an ordinary photometric measurement is made. While one ob- server compares a candle or other source of light with the light from an incandescent strip of platinum, another could make the measurements with the thermopile, and could obtain the amount of energy radiated by the incandescent strip in terms of the constant source of heat. It is necessary to reverse the faces of the thermopile, or to place a second constant source of heat on the same side upon which the incandescent strip is placed. The following table indicates the character of the results : Deflection of Tempera- Distance of Distance of the Tangent ture of Face of Pile Face of Pile Remarks. Galvanometer. Water. from Water. from Strip. 7 ca: em. em. a7°d 95 26°5 49°5 Dull red. 56°5 95 28:0 48 61 96 255 50°5 Bright yellow. 62°5 96°5 24°5 51°5 i e 62°5 95 23°0 53 3 < 60°5 97 SET 50°3 es s 58°5 97°5 26°7 49°3 ie et 60 95 24°2 51°8 - re 62°2 94 23°7 52°3 cf $6 The reduction factor of the galvanometer was 44 in the C. G. S. system. When the photometric indications were the same, the thermopile indicated a large change in the amount of heat received. Thus the heat indications within the range in which the experiments were taken were far more sensitive than the photometric indications. It seems possible, therefore, to assume as a standard of light an incandescent strip which radiates a definite amount of energy, this energy being measured at a fixed distance which will best agree numerically with the absolute system of meas- ures now universally adopted in heat and electricity. The method of Draper and Schwendler could be combined with the methods I have described above. For a practical standard, a W. &. Hidden—On Hanksite. 133 carbon loop in an exhausted vessel raised to such a point of incandescence that it will radiate a definite amount of energy— this energy being measured by a bolometer strip or the ther- mopile at a definite distance from the carbon loop, and also being measured by the formula JH =C’*R#, would have a greater range than an incandescent strip of platinum placed in free air. The latter method, however, for the incandescence which pro- duces a light similar in color to that of a sperm candle, is extremely sensitive, and can be made, I think, more exact than present photometric tests. Both methods have the great advantage of substituting a measure of energy fora relative indication by the eye, which is not connected with any absolute measurement. These remarks apply to the question of a standard of light for practical purposes, which shall also be scientific in so far that more refined scientific investigation can connect this standard at any time with more precise methods of measuring the exact amount of heat given by radiations of definite wave- length. By means of a Rowland concave grating and with a bolometer strip, one can at present measure the energy of definite radiations. We can say that our scientific standards for light of different colors shall be based upon the energy received upon a definite surface at definite points in the diffrac- tion spectrum. Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Harvard College. Art. XIX.—On Hanksite, a new anhydrous sulphato-carbonate of sodium, from San Bernardino County, California ;* by WM. Harb HIDDEN. In the very complete and attractive exhibit of California minerals brought to the World’s Industrial and Cotton Centen- nial Hxposition at New Orleans, by Professor Henry G. Hanks, State Mineralogist of California, were several species of unusual interest. Among these was the new borate, colemanite, in large and brilliant crystals, much resembling the finest of the Bergen Hill datolites; also the new vanadium mica, roscoelite, mixed mechanically with much native gold between the folia; borax crystals, clear and bright, of unusual size; stibnite in fine crystals almost equalling the late discoveries in this species in Japan, and many others equally noteworthy. Of particular interest to the writer was a small lot of appar- ently hexagonal crystals to which had been given the name of thenardite. Now as thenardite crystallizes in the orthorhom- bic system, I was prompted to question the correctness of this * Read before the New York Academy of Sciences, May 25, 1885. 134 W. EF. Hidden—On Hanksite. determination. The results of measurements confirmed my first suspicions of their true hexagonal character, though only approximate, being made with a hand goniometer. Since, however, the hexagonal aspect of the mineral might possibly be due to complex twinning of orthorhombic individuals, it seemed advisable to have this question decided on the basis of an optical examination. For this purpose three of the best crystals were kindly given by Professor Hanks, and these were sent by me to Dr. Edward S. Dana; the erystals being quite clear. In a few days he reported them to be normally uniaxial with negative dovble refraction, and thus they were positively proved to be different from thenardite. An analysis being now necessary to settle the composition of the mineral, I placed sufficient material in the hands of Mr. James B. Mack- intosh, EH. M., for that purpose, and he has very kindly done the work, with the following results: Corresponding to SO, 45°89. Na2S0. 81:45 CO. 5°42 Na.CO; 13°06 Cl 2°36 NaCl 3:89 Na2,0* 46°34 Na.O (excess) 1:08 99°48 These results give the following molecular ratios for Na2SO4 DiS. 3:95 Na2COs 14°5 \ or 1:00 NaCl 6°65 “46 Na.O 1-75 12 Or closely in the ratio of 4:1:4$:%. This points to the formula, 4(Na2SO,) + Na2CO; +4(NaCl) as representing the composition of the crystals under examina- tion. Neglecting the sodium chloride as non-essential, the formula becomes: 4Na2S80,+ Na.CO; which is probably the true one. The observed excess of soda is either due to errors of anal- ysis, as only a small quantity was used, or it may have been combined with boracie acid, as borax is very abundant at the locality. The interesting anomaly of a sulphate and carbonate being in chemical combination reminds us of the rare sulphato-car- bonate of lead, leadhillite, to which this alone bears relation as a natural species. The angles obtained were as follows: Oxon = S907 O on 1=130° 30’. 1 on J=120°. Oon 2=1137 30%. Accordingly, the value of the vertical axis is 1014. Cleay- age parallel to O nearly perfect, but difficult to obtain. * All bases calculated as soda. Lime and magnesia were not present. W. EF. Hidden—On Hanksite. 135 Crystals striated horizontally. They are commonly termin- ated at both ends of the prism and are very symmetrical in shape. They average, as thus far seen, about one centimeter in length and thickness, with O and Jas predominating planes fig. 1). ee nes the crystals are confusedly grouped (fig. 2), as from a common center, much like the aragonite from a noted European locality. For some late years mineralogists have received from several localities in the far West groups of tabular crystals that were hexagonal in appearance, very impure in composition, and to which the name of aragonite has been attached. For the most part they are simply calcium carbonate mixed with sand and mud, and are without cleav- age. It is very probable that they are pseudomorphs after the sodium sulphato-carbonate here described. In particular I refer to crystals which I have seen credited to Colorado and to Nevada. The crystals here analysed were found with salt, thenardite, tineal, etc., at the works of the San Bernardino Borax Co., in San Bernardino County, California. The density of this new California mineral is 2°562. Its hardness, 3-3°5. It is readily soluble in water. Hffervesces with acids. It affords, when dissolved in water, an abundant precipitate of barium sulphate when barium chloride is added to the solution. On addition of silver nitrate to a fresh solu- tion chloride of silver is precipitated, showing that chlorine is also present. Gentle ignition develops no appreciable loss in the weight of the mineral. The crystals are transparent to semi-opaque, with a white waxy color inclining to yellow. Surfaces never highly pol- ished nor very smooth. The definite formula deduced from Mr. Mackintosh’s analysis, taken together with the form, warrants me in announcing this as a new mineral species. I therefore propose for it the name of Hanksite, after Professor Henry G. Hanks, of California, to whom we are so largely indebted for our knowledge of the minerals of the Pacific coast. Newark, N. J., May 23, 1885. 136 Dana and Penfield—Mineralogical Notes. ArT. XX.—Jhineralogical Notes; by EDWARD S. DANA and SAMUEL L. PENFIELD. 1. A large crystal of Hanksite. SOME two years since Professor G. J. Brush placed in our hands for examination a large crystal, or rather group of crys- tals, of an anhydrous sulphate related to thenardite. The specimen had been received by him from Professor J. 8. New- berry, who stated that he had purchased it in California but was unable to learn the exact locality from which it came. The examination proved it to be probably hexagonal in erys- talline form, and in composition to consist of sodium sulphate and carbonate in the ratio of 4:1. Feeling reluctant to attach a new name to a mineral of which only one specimen was in hand, and that from an unknown locality, we postponed the publication of our results until some further facts should come to light. The same mineral has now been re-discovered and in specimens so satisfactory as to justify their receiving the name Hanksite, given by Mr. Hidden. The specimen examined by us consisted of a low hexagonal prism, measuring transversely 75™, and in a vertical direction 20™"; this prism is penetrated by several other similar tabular crystals but in varying positions, so that no general law of twinning can be given. The basal edges were irregularly replaced by pyramidal planes. Apparently the form is hex- agonal, the prism and pyramid both being present, and the measured angles of the former showing very little variation from the required 60°. The analogy of the artificial sulphates of sodium and potassium suggested, however, that the form might be really orthorhombic, and the hexagonal aspect due to twinning. The optical examination made to settle the question was not satisfactory because the crystal contained so much mud as impurity as to be transparent only in spots. Some points were found, however, which gave an obscure uniaxial figure with negative double refraction; but this question might not be regarded as satisfactorily settled were it not for the excellent results which Mr. Hidden’s crystals have afforded. The pyramidal plane spoken of was rough and rounded and was only distinctly seen on part of the edges. The approxi- mate angle (supplement) measured on the basal plane is 48°, which, referred to the vertical axis assumed by Mr. Hidden, gives a symbol 4(4045); required 43° 8’. An analysis of the mineral gave (Penfield) the following results, which are almost identical with those of Mr. Mack- intosh : Dana and Penfild—Mineralogical Notes. 1387 Ratio. SOW S222 43°59 45 and 345 = 435980, Es Me ue 536 33-23 Na,O Na,O _. ..40°86 659 ios 7°63 Na20 } Oe 123 123 SADC OD eee 007) OSS "060 2°33 K Che 28 2°13 060 2°13 Cl inisol: 3... 4:4] Heme 2582) 1532 100°06 This corresponds then to Na SORE cairn nis 2 i 76°82 INCOR remit a 13°05 CT ee ehteatia) eae 4:46 Tnsoleety ate. Moe utah aed Tons, eters Sole vibe ee ONS 2, 100°06 The insoluble portion is apparently clay; a section exam- ined in the microscope showed the impurity densely distributed in bands parallel to the prismatic faces. The fact that in the -analysis the potassium and chlorine are present in exactly the amounts required to form potassium chloride may be only a coincidence, and the chlorine may in fact be combined with sodium, and the potassium may in part replace the sodium in the sulphate. It is immaterial which explanation is adopted, but in any case it is quite certain that the potassium (or sodium) chloride is present as an impurity, for in the thin sec- tion numerous rectangular crystals, some of them apparently cubes, were visible. It seems proper, therefore, to deduct these elements from the analysis, leaving only the sodium sul- phate and sodium carbonate. The result, calculated to 100 per cent, is Nias SO ee ate sitet 85°48 INGA COMA ese cyan? 14°52 This corresponds, though approximately only, to the formula 4Na,SO,+Na,CO, which requires Nae SO eye ye Lyle yt 84:27 INA OOR en oEL wile 15°73 100°00 Am. Jour. Sct.—THIRD SERIES, Vou. XXX, No. 176.—Aveust, 1885. 9 138 Dana and Penfidd—Mineralogical Notes. 2.—An artificial crystallized Lead Silicate. We are indebted to the late Professor Silliman for a speci- men of an artificial crystallized lead silicate, which had been obtained by him from the Desloge Lead Company, Bonne- terre, St. Francois County, Missouri. The specimen consists chiefly of a brownish-red substance with resinous luster some- what resembling sphalerite, associated with octahedral crystals of magnetite and cleavable galena. In small eavities in the mass and over the surface are numerous crystals, mostly stout hexagonal prisms, which, as is proved later, consist of the same material as the mass of the specimen. These crystals in color and form very closely resemble much of the vanadinite of Arizona, and, before the history of the specimen was known, they were referred to that species almost without question. Later, however, it was léarned that the specimen was artificial in origin, and according to the chemist of the company was a lead silicate. A preliminary chemical examination proved that to be true, and a complete analysis was accordingly made of the hexagonal crystals and also of the massive substance. The crystals spoken of vary in length and thickness from 1 to 38™™. They show ordinarily only the planes of the unit prism J (1010) and the basal pinacoid O (0001); rarely, how- ever, the basal edges of the prism are rounded and in a few instances distinct planes were observed. The best detined of these gave an approximate angle of 50° on the basal pinacoid Ow p, 000141011, =50°. This gives as the length of the vertical axis c= 10332. A second pyramidal plane (g) gave an angle on the base of 25°, which corresponds tolerably to the symbol ? (2025), required 25° 29’. Apparently these pyramidal planes are holohedrally developed, so that the crystals would then be referred to the hex- agonal system proper, but the material was too scanty absolutely to prove this point. There is some reason to doubt it, however, for on the other side of the same specimen, distant from them hardly an inch, are a few crystals apparently of the same ma- terial, but of quite different form. These are thin tabular crystals showing only the basal pinacoid and a rhombohedron ; the measured angle for this is 67°, which, referring it to the above axis, would give ita symbol 2A, or z (2021). The cal- culated angle is OA2R, 0001 A 2021, =67° 12’. Dana and Penfield—Mineralogical Notes. 139 The quantity of these tabular crystals was too small to admit of its being proved that they have the same composition as the hexagonal prisms, but everything points to that conclusion. The substance was readily soluble in even very dilute, cold nitric acid: the solution upon evaporation yielded gelatinous silica. Before the blowpipe readily fusible. Specific gravity of crystals 5°92. For analysis the compound was dissolved in cold, dilute nitric acid and the insoluble magnetite filtered off. . Two analyses were made (Penfield); for the first (I) only distinct crystals were taken, of which ‘7073 grams were selected ; the result after deducting 0-44 per cent of magnetite is given below. The second analysis (II) was of the crystalline part of the slag. The result is given after deducting ‘207 per cent of magnetite. The presence of a trace of carbonic acid, and a very minute trace of phosphoric acid was distinctly proved. I. Crystals. Ratio. II. Massive portion. Ratio. — SiO, pelial7 9286) SiO, 16:00 267 bOe 72:39.) 92325) )) PbO 2 75:26) 338%) FeO Os5jly 007, | He@ ena Ory CaO TAB 4 Ring MOT ON 002 ie MgO 056 -014 CaW 6:15 110" NaS O28 073511006) | MISONO OF Olan - Na, 0:24 004 | 98°46 CO, trace 99:06 The ratio in I for SiO,: RO=:286 :-486=1:1°70=4:7 nearly. For II the ratio is Si0,: RO= 267: -476=1:1-78=4:7 nearly. The agreement between these shows that the formula, R,Si,0,,, must express very closely at least the true composition of this artificial lead silicate. The occurrence of so rare a compound is especially interesting in connection with the recent discovery of native lead silicates, notably at Langban, Sweden. These natural lead silicates include the three following from Langban: ganomalite, a silicate of lead and manganese with small quantities of lime and magnesia; hyalotekite, a silicate of lead, barium and calcium; melanotekite, a silicate of lead and iron. ‘T'’o these should be added kentrolite, from southern Chili, a silicate of lead and manganese. All of the minerals named are crystalline in structure, but kentrolite alone has been found in distinct crystals. We do not know that any artificial crystallized lead silicate has been described hitherto. 140 E. W. Morley—A mount of Moisture in a Gas. Art. XXI.— The amount of moisture which Sulphurie Acid leaves ina Gas; by Epwarp W. MORLEY. BERZELIUS and Dulong,* about 1820, and Erdmann and Marchand,+ about 1842, employed calcium chloride in deter- mining the atomic weight of oxygen, and were probably not aware that it leaves unremoved a comparatively large amount of water. Dumas,t in 1842, and Pettenkofer,$ in 1862, men- tioned as well known, the fact that calcium chloride will not dry a gas as completely as sulphuric acid. Favre,| in 1844, proved that sulphuric acid at ordinary temperatures dries a gas so completely that neither sulphuric acid at —17° C. nor phos- phorus pentoxide will absorb a sensible quantity of moisture from 40 liters of gas, nor even from volumes “bien plus con- sidérables.”” He also attempted{ in a most ingenious way to determine whether a gas dried by either of these agents was ab- solutely dry. He passed air dried as perfectly as possible over red-hot copper, and then again through a drying tube. In one experiment, 148 liters of air were reduced to 117 liters of nitrogen, and deposited -0025 gram of water; in the other, 110 liters of air were reduced to 87 liters of nitrogen, and de- posited ‘0015 gram of water. Hence he concluded that a liter of gas dried by sulphuric acid or phosphoric oxide contained not more than ‘00006 or -00008 gram of water. He also proved** that no other force than the tension of the vapor of water causes it to be retained in certain gases. Favre further proved,tf as did Regnault in 1845,¢¢ that drying tubes of no large dimensions are required to utilize the whole drying power of the drying agent with which they are filled. In 1864 and again in 1865, Fresenius$$ published experiments, which, if they were affected by no source of error at that time unsus- pected, would show that sulphuric acid leaves one or two decimilligrams of moisture in a liter of gas. But in 1876, Dibbits|| published experiments in which precautions were taken against the leakage of moist air through caoutchouce con- nectors, which showed that 308 liters of air dried by sulphuric acid at ordinary temperatures gave up but 7 decimilligrams of moisture to phosphorus pentoxide. Dibbits also proposed a method for solving the remaining * Ann. Chim. Phys., 2d Series, vol. xv, p. 388. + Journ. Prakt. Chemie, vol. xxvi, p. 464. + Ann. Chim. Phys., 3d Series, vol. viii. pp. 193, 210. § Lieb. Ann. Supp., vol. ii, p. 29. Ann. Chim. Phys., 3d Series, vol. xii, p. 223. {| Ibid., vol. xii, p. 225. ** Tbid., vol. xii, p 227. $§ Zeitschr. Anal. Chem., vol. iv, p. 180. ++ Ibid., vol. xii, 228. ||| Zeitschr. Anal. Chem., vol. xv, p. 160. tt Ibid., vol. xv, p. 152. FE. W. Morley—Amount of Moisture in a Gas. 141 question: How much moisture is left in a gas dried by phos- phorus pentoxide? He proposed to evolve a gas of which we might be certain that it contained no water, to pass it into water, and then to dry it with phosphorus pentoxide. He sug- gested the evolution of dry oxygen by heating fused potassium chlorate. Whether perfectly dry oxygen could be thus obtained remains to be seen; the task of keeping up a suitable current of oxygen till a few hundred liters shall pass the absorption tubes would involve a good deal of labor. Desiring to know the amount of water which sulphuric acid or phosphorus pentoxide fails to remove from a gas, I succeed- ed in devising a method which has made the solution of the problem easy. It permits the determination of the absolute amount of moisture left in a gas by any drying agent; the maintaining a slow current of air for days or weeks demands attention for only some five minutes each day, so that very large volumes of air may be used, at small velocities, and even if the residual moisture is as little as a hundredth or a thou- sandth of a milligram in a liter, it may be determined with any needed accuracy. I devised the method with the intention of applying it first to phosphorus pentoxide. But in the third number of the Zeitschrift fiir analytische Chemie for 1884, Mathesius made certain statements about the use of sulphuric acid in drying tubes, in consequence of which I first undertook the study of the absolute amount of moisture left in a gas by this drying agent. The paper of Mathesius raised a preliminary question which had to be answered. He found that certain drying tubes filled with sulphuric acid, of specific gravity 1°34, when used to ab- sorb moisture as in organic analysis, lost weight at the rate of five or more decimilligrams an hour. This statement must be taken as referring to sulphuric acid supposed to be pure; be- cause a statement that impure sulphuric acid contained some volatile impurity would hardly be worth publication; and also because, in order to lessen the loss of weight in his drying tubes, Mathesius diluted the acid somewhat, probably suppos- ing that the vapor of sulphur trioxide escaped and occasioned the loss of weight. It is difficult to believe that either water or sulphur trioxide can be given up by pure sulphuric acid to a current of gas in any such quantity as Mathesius observed. Regnault* deter- mined the tension of the vapor of water given off at 20° C. by sulphuric acid of the formula SO,+2H,0. This is °15 milli- m«ter, so that a liter of absolutely. dry air passing through such acid would take up at this temperature ‘16 milligrams of water. * Ann. Chim. Phys., 3d Series, vol. xv, p. 179. 142 EW. Morley—Amount of Moisture in a Gas. He gives no results for acid more concentrated than this; but from a comparison of the results for more dilute acids, it is difficult to believe that an acid containing half a molecule of water and one molecule of the monohydrated acid would give up to a liter of absolutely dry air as much as the twentieth of a milligram of water at ordinary temperatures. And as to the evaporation of sulphur trioxide from sulphuric acid: Dumas* passed 20 liters of air through pure sulphuric acid, and into solution of barium chloride, which preserved ‘une limpidité absolue.” But if the loss of weight observed by Mathesius was due to the escape of sulphur trioxide, Dumas should have obtained not only a visible but a weighable pre- cipitate. But while we may dismiss the idea that sulphur trioxide escapes from sulphuric acid in drying tubes in ordinary condi- tions in any such quantities as several decimilligrams an hour, it was necessary for the determination of the absolute amount of moisture left unabsorbed by sulphuric acid that the amount of sulphur trioxide volatilized should be accurately determined. For this purpose I made several experiments. In one of them, a wash bottle and a Winkler’s absorption tube were filled with pure sulphuric acid. This acid I distilled from a pure acid, re- jecting the first and the last fifth. Its specific gravity at 22° and at 16°8° C., compared with water at 4°, weights being re- duced to a vacuum, and the thermometer being corrected for error of zero point, was found to be 1°83844 and 1:8394. A current of air was aspirated through a gas-meter, through the wash bottle of acid, through the absorption tube with acid, through an empty tube two meters long, through a plug of glass wool, and through an absorption tube with pure water. The acid in the absorption tube occupied about two meters and a half; the water in the other absorption tube occupied about a meter. The parts of the apparatus were fused together. When 6800 liters had passed, not too rapidly, the sulphuric acid in the water was determined as barium sulphate, and found to be 31 milligrams. In a second experiment at a somewhat lower temperature, ‘7900 liters were passed and 2°5 milligrams of acid were found in the second absorption tube. Several ex- periments were made in which air passed, at the rate of two liters an hour, into a solution of barium chloride; in which ex- periments neither myself nor Dr. Spenzer, my assistant, could detect any trace of a precipitate till the third day. With the degree of approximation thus far obtained, there- fore, we may conclude that a liter of air passed through sul- phurie acid of the specific gravity of 1:84 will take up some- thing like the two thousandth or three thousandth part of a milligram of sulphur trioxide at ordinary temperatures. * Ann. Chim. Phys., 3d Series, vol. viii, p. 204. oes E. W. Morley—Amount of Morsture in a Gas. 148 This being determined, the way was clear to determine the absolute amount of moisture left in a gas by sulphuric acid. To Liebig’s potash bulbs I fused a sixth bulb, connected with the others by a eapillary tube of so small bore that when a vacuum was maintained at one end, one or two cubic centi- meters of air would pass through it ina minute. In this sixth bulb I placed sulphuric acid so diluted with water that air pass- ing through it would take up a certain small amount of water. In the bulbs which belonged to the original apparatus was placed sulphuric acid’ of specific oravity 1-8381 at 18° C., compared with water at 4° C., weights and thermometer being corrected. In use, a partial vacuum was maintained in the five bulbs containing strong acid, while the dilute acid was in contact with air at ordinary pressure. Air in passing from the dilute acid through the constriction towards the strong acid would there- fore expand a number of times depending on the pressure in the partial vacuum. he air before entering the dilute acid was made as dry as sulphuric acid can render a gas; it took up water from the dilute acid; it was expanded ; the increased volume was made as dry as sulphuric acid can render a gas. Let us imagine, for the sake of clearness, that the expansion in passing the constriction was ten times, that five liters of air entered the dilute acid, and that therefore fifty liters passed out of the strong acid. Let us also make two alternative supposi- tions in order; first, that sulphuric acid makes a gas perfectly dry, and second, that it leaves a hundredth part of a milligram of water in a liter of gas. Tf, according to the first supposition, sulphuric acid makes a gas perfectly dry, the five liters of dry air which enter the six- bulb apparatus carry into it no water. In the sixth bulb they take up a small quantity of water. Passing the constriction, they become fifty liters. The sulphuric acid makes the fifty liters perfectly dry, and no water is carried out of the apparatus. Therefore the only effect changing the weight of the apparatus is the escape of sulphur trioxide, the amount of which is ap- proximately known. . But, secondly, if sulphuric acid leaves a hundredth of a milligram of water in a liter of gas, the five liters of air enter- ing the apparatus carry into it one-twentieth of a milligram of water. In the sixth bulb, more water is taken up. The five liters expand to fifty. Now the drying such a gas as air is simply a process of reducing the vapor tension of the accom- panying vapor of water. One liter of air dried by sulphuric acid will contain water possessing a certain tension, whatever be the pressure of the air. At least Regnault proved this to be true within one percent. The fifty liters of air will therefore 144. EL W. Morley—Amount of Moisture in a Gas. carry out ten times as much moisture as the five liters brought in. Neglecting fora moment the evaporation of sulphur trioxide, the apparatus rill lose nine twentieths of a milligram in weight. Conversely, if we knew the expansion to be ten times, and “the entering air to be five liters, and the loss of weight to be “45 milligram, we could compute the water remaining in each liter to be 0°01 milligram. In applying this principle, it was necessary to avoid errors due to leakage of moist air into the apparatus during the long time through which an experiment lasted, and to provide for weighing the six-bulb apparatus so accurately as to make cer- tain the detection of a total effect of a few tenths of a milli- gram. I secured sufficient accuracy in weighing by using as a counterpoise an apparatus of the same shape and same kind of glass, filled with the same acid, and interposed in the same cur- rent of air, To these I fitted ground glass caps as accurately as I could, so that I could leave the two apparatus on the balance for several days without any change in their relative weights; of course after applying corrections for the state of the barometer and thermometer. I also fitted to the two apparatus just named, a third, which prevented the diffusion of moist air backward from the vacuum, and a fourth which dried the air before it entered the first and second apparatus, all, to each other, by glass tubes with joints carefully ground which were made tight with a fat from which all matter volatile at common temperatures had been removed. In this way, I could leave the apparatus for weeks with the certainty that moist air could not enter the ap- paratus. The measure of the volume of air which enters the apparatus and of the expanded volume which leaves it is easy. The third drying tube which prevents the diffusion of moist air backward was fused, together with a barometer gauge, to a tube jieading to an air-tight reservoir of 54:1 liters capacity. When all the drying tubes were in place, the pressure in the reservoir was reduced to such a fraction of an atmosphere that the air passed through the last five bulbs of the six-bulb ap- paratus at the rate of about two liters an hour. This pressure was observed on the barometer gauge. Call the pressure a. On the next day, or sometimes in twelve hours, the pressure was again observed. Call the second pressure 0. The pressure in the reservoir was then again reduced, and the apparatus was ready for another day of action. Now, disregarding variations of temperature and supposing the barometer constant, remembering that the expansion of the air takes place so slowly that no cooling effect is sensible, we can easily compute the volume of rarefied air which has passed > HW. Morley—Amount of Moisture in a Gas. 145 out of the six-bulb apparatus while the pressure has increased from ato 6. For this purpose put w=the weight of the air which would pass through the con- striction in the unit of time, if a perfect vacuum were maintained on one side, and the barometric pressure on the other. a =the pressure in the reservoir. h =the height of the barometer, assumed constant. ~ =the time. wu =the weight of air in the reservoir at the pressure 2. ¢ =the capacity of the reservoir. Z =the weight of a liter of air at the temperature and pressure of the air during the experiment. V=the volume of rarefied air passing out of the apparatus while the pressure rises from a to 0. The weight of air passing out of the six-bulb apparatus in the unit of time, when the pressure in the vacuum is not zero, but x, may be written wffx). At normal pressure, its volume would be fe), but under the pressure a, its volume would be 8 fia), and we therefore have v=" - flv)dt. Also it is ob- vious that r=5 so that du= Cie ; and obviously du=w/(x)dt. From the last two equations, we find fp ay and substi- hwf\x) tuting this value we get avo. Therefore Vnof hot ee aa a This is the volume of rarefied air which passes the constriction while the pressure rises in the reservoir from a to 6, Its vol- ume on entering is computed in an obvious manner. I have so far made three experiments, as follows: ] 2 3 Ai entering apparatus’ Sos. Ve aan 27 1. Zan. 58 1. Mean? temperatures — ites.) ote eal 16° C. sy: Of, 19S Cs Air leaving apparatus...1___._- NES oie 286 1. 228 1. Wowele EXCESS MCA vim ony apnea ae eaten ee aay Lea cells 259” 205" 699" IGTLET Sea OUIy es eee enn ee ode BEEP 1:6" 1-4" NE Dilute acid, specific gravity ____...._._... 1707 1:707 1566 Vapor tension of water from such acid at Prep CMperaturen( ae — oes ere oe 4gmm sAgmim ies 5mm See lee ee t computed -...--- Bm) 10™s 106™s Specific gravity strong acid at = eee seb 1°8381 1°8381 1°8388 Hoss qdecimillicorams) shes sae eae 5h 44 18 146 G. H. Stone—Drift Scratches in Maine. : Experiments 1 and 2 were parts of the same experiment which was interrupted to see if the loss of weight were propor- tional to the amounts of air in the line marked “ excess leay- ing.” In all three experiments, 1163 liters more passed out than entered the apparatus, the sum of the losses in weight is 2°8 miligrams. The amount of sulphur trioxide which escaped may be computed at ‘4 milligram. The remaining 2-4 milli- grams is the weight of aqueous vapor carried out of the ap- paratus. by 1168 liters of air. The quantity subtracted is affected with some uncertainty, since the air used in the experi- ment on the evaporation of sulphur trioxide was not purified from organic matter, and there may have been reduction of the acid to the dioxide, and reoxidation to sulphuric acid. But with the approximation so far obtained, the water which strong sulphuric acid fails to remove from a slow current of air is about the four hundred and fiftieth or five hundredth part of a milligram in a liter of air. Dibbits* showed that 308 liters of air dried by sulphuric acid gave up “¢ milligram to phosphorus pentoxide. It is curious that this is the quantity which my experiments show to be left by sulphuric acid in that quantity of air. The obvious in- ference may be true, but is not safe. I shall hope to repeat these experiments on the evaporation of sulphur trioxide from’ sulphuric acid with purified air, and those on residual moisture left in a gas by theacid with some form of apparatus permitting more accurate weighing than Liebig’s bulbs. 749 Republic Street, Cleveland, Ohio, May 25th, 1885. Art. XXII.—Local Deflections of the Drift Scratches in Maine ; by G. H. Srone. ON almost every glaciated surface in Maine may be found isolated drift scratches aberrant both in direction and outline. Often these are semewhat curved and may grow deeper toward their south ends where they usually terminate abruptly. In a few cases I have found reversed curves making the scratch resemble the mathematical sign of integration. They some- times vary 10° or even 20° from the average direction of the glaciation and hence they often intersect other scratches near them. Indeed it is the exception to find the glacial scratches exactly parallel even when adjacent, and it is often by no means an easy task to decide which of a given series of scratches most nearly represents the true direction of the gla- cial movement at that point. The writer is persuaded that the time has come for glacialists to unite in adopting some more * Zeitschr. Anal. Chem., vol. xv, p. 160. G. H. Stone—Drift Scratches in Maine. 147 accurate system of measurements than has heretofore prevailed. A full discussion of this subject is reserved for another occasion. For our present purpose it is assumed that in order to prove by means of glacial scratches, that the ice at a given place moved in different directions at different times, it is needful to prove that there are intersecting series of scratches at that point. The following instances of local changes in the direction of the ice-flow in Maine have been reported. In the Maine Geo- logical Report for 1861 (p. 262), Professor C. H. Hitchcock reports intersecting drift strize at Chamberlain Lake in northern Maine, and perhaps his observations on the drift of the upper Saint John Valley may indicate local glaciation. Professor Hitchcock has also described a roche moutonneé in York County, Me., on the stoss side of which the drift scratches bear south- eastward, while on the lee side they bear southwestward. Professor G. L. Vose was the first (American Naturalist, vol. ll, p. 28) to report the signs of a local glacier in the Andros- cogein Valley. This glacier extended from the White Moun- tains eastward to near West Bethel, Me., as is proved by the moraines and by the glacial scratches which, near the bottom of the valley, are nearly parallel with the course of the valley, while the glaciation of the higher hills and the surrounding region is nearly at right angles to this direction. These ob- servations regarding the local Androscoggin glacier, the writer has carefully verified. The other localities named have not been visited by me. Professor F. C. Robinson of Bowdoin College, has also informed me that he has found intersecting drift scratches on the bank of the Penobscot River, a few miles west of Chesuncook Lake. During the past summer the writer has discovered three other localities showing intersecting drift strie. That the secondary glaciation was not sooner discovered is due to the fact that the slates east of Waterville weather quite readily. The later scratches are shallow, and long after they have been obscured by weathering, the earlier and deeper ones remain quite distinct. This gives an appearance of freshness to rock exposures, which is very deceptive. 1. The Sebasticook Valley Locality. The Sebasticook River flows from the east into the Kennebec River at Waterville. Numerous observations of the drift strize on both sides of the Sebasticook show that there is an area several miles long in the towns of Winslow, Benton and Clin- ton, where there are two and in a few places three superposed systems of scratches. In a few places very near the Sebasticook, the later scratches are very confused, pointing in many direc- tions, whether from berg drift or ice gorges of the river is yet 148 G. H. Stone—Drift Scratches in Maine. uncertain. The intersecting systems of scratches were traced to within one-half a mile of the Kennebec River, and if any fresh exposures could have been found, they might perhaps have been traced quite to that river. No opportunity has yet offered for excavation, which will be necessary for determining the limits of the area showing deflections in the direction of the ice-flow. The facts will be sufficiently indicated by a few typical examples. All the angles given in this paper are cor- rected for the magnetic variation, and are therefore azimuths, not bearings. North Vassalboro, S. 11° W. S.E. part of Winslow, older strize 8. 4° E.; newer, S. 24° H. S. part of Benton, older S. 6° W.; newer S. 26° W. Three miles S. of Clinton village, 8. 24° W. Benton, N. side of Sebasticook, oldest series S. 14° W.; next later S. 24° W.; and a very faint series comes last, S. 34° EH. Winslow, one-half mile EK. of Kennebec, older S. 24° W.; later, S. 69° W. These observations plainly show movements of the ice in more than two directions. ‘The eastward flow in the S.E: part of Winslow probably indicates a local movement down the Sheepscot Valley. The valleys of the Kennebec, the Sheeps- cot and the Penobscot are more favorably situated for local movement than any other of the larger river valleys of Maine, though perhaps the valley of the St. Croix should be added to this list. The shorter valleys of the St. George, the Union, the Narraguagus, the Machias, and the rest of the small coast streams are equally favorably situated in the matter of direc- tion, as they le nearly north and south, but they do not pene- trate the high ranges of hills which formed a barrier to farther ice-flow southward after the ice became less than about 500 feet thick. Near the Sebasticook, the latest scratches are quite shallow, and have not effaced the earlier ones as they have done in the track of the local Androscoggin glacier. A fair inference is that at the time when these latest scratches were made, the ice was becoming thin and that the flow was not long continued in the direction of the latest glaciation. Further exploration will be needed in order to bring out all the facts; thus far we are justified in regarding these local deflections as an incident of the decay of the great ice-sheet, at a time when the local topography affected the ice-movements much more than during the time of maximum glaciation. 2 and 3. The Belfast and the St. George River Localities. These localities are so closely connected that they may best be described together. For about ten miles north of Union Village, the St. George River (St. George on the maps but tam G. H. Stone—Drift Scratches in Maine. 149 locally known as George’s River) flows in a narrow valley between steep ranges of hills. The ridge on the west side of the valley rises from 200 to 500 feet above the river, that on the east from 600 to 1100 feet above it. The last named range chiefly lies in the towns of Hope and Union, and rises to an elevation of 1240 feet above the sea. Hast of it is an irregular clump of high peaks and ridges in Camden and Lincolnville. Near Union Village the observed direction of the drift scratches is S. 15° W. Near the St. George River from the north line of Union to the north line of Appleton, S. 25° to 30° W., approximately parallel with the valley. Near North Appleton the valley series of scratches is crossed by a later series at an angle of about 75°. These later scratches were found on the east side of the valley, about 100 feet above the river, and run obliquely down the hill toward the bottom of the valley and almost due west. The limits of this area of local ice-movement have not been determined. © If we leave the valley of the St. George at Searsmont and pass eastward, our course will lie two or three miles north of the high hills of Hope and Lincolnville before referred to. The westward deflection of the glaciation increases as we pro- ceed. in the south part of Belmont, about five miles east of Searsmont, the direction of drift strize is S. 35° to 37° W. Yet this place is in the broad valley of a stream which flows southeastward to Lincolnville Village, while to the south lies a narrower low pass through Hope and West Camden. Here then, although a natural drainage slope lay off to the southeast, and a favorable pass to the south, yet the ice bore off over a rolling plain to the southwest into the narrow valley of the St. George. Three miles farther east in Belfast, the scratches fol- low the valley of Little River, S. 10° to 20° HK. Numerous exposures of the rock in Belfast and Morrill show uniformly an eastward trend of the drift-scratches, sometimes as much as s. 40° H. About three miles N.W. of Belfast City there are several places where are preserved portions of a system of drift- scratches which has been nearly effaced by a later glaciation. The local rock is a hard quartzitic slate, well adapted both for resisting glacial corrasion and for preserving the scratches under atmospheric exposure. Usually, when traceable, the earlier scratches have been intersected and nearly obliterated by the later, but at one place the earlier ones were perfectly preserved in a depression of the rock at the southeastern base of a little ledge or steep escarpment barely from half an inch to two inches in height. The line or front of the little precipice happened to lie parallel with the earlier ice-movement and hence offered no resistance to it. The gentle depression was 150 G. H. Stone—Drift Scratches in Maine. glaciated S. 10° E. to the very base of the scarp. But when the direction of the ice-flow changed to 8. 30° to 35° E., then the steep scarp protected a portion of the depression, and a strip trom two to eight inches wide was left in its lee wholly untouched by the later glaciation. Over all the rest of a rock exposure fifteen feet in diameter, the later glaciation had wholly effaced the earlier. , It thus appears, that at one time, the high hills of Hope, Lincolnville and Camden (the ‘‘Camden Hills” of the mariners) formed a great barrier and forced the ice to flow around them both to the east and the west. In doing this they were aided by the topographical features of the country lying to the north of them, where is a great gently rolling plain. During Cham- plain time, an arm of the sea extended up the St. George Val- ley to Searsmont and thence eastward through Belmont and Morrill to Belfast. The average elevation of the country lying between the St. George Valley at Searsmont and the head of Belfast Bay is rather less than 200 feet. Megunticook and its associated peaks rise from 600 to 1000 feet above this plain. When the ice was thickest the flow was directly over these hills, but when the thickness was 1000 feet or less, this would manifestly be impossible. My exploration reached only the northern and western bases of these hills, and a thorough ex- ploration wil] be needed in order to trace all the deflections of ice-movement which would naturally take place in so uneven a country. A single item of detail will be referred to in clos- ing. As has been stated above, in the southern part of Belmont the flow was southwestward down the St. George Valley, rather than south or southeastward, though the latter route presents a more favorable slope through a somewhat level valley from one to two miles wide. No lateral moraines are found near the north ends of the valleys which lie between the high hills of Hope, Camden, etc. Apparently, then, these valleys were filled with embayed ice. That is, instead of a series of local glaciers penetrating the hilly region, the valleys were filled with stationary ice, at least it was stationary enough to unite with the hills to form a great barrier which caused the main ice-flow to take place around the eastern and western bases of this sys- tem of hills. It will be proper to add that the direction of the drift-scratches in the vicinity of Belfast bears a significant rela- tion to the glacial gravels of the region. Five systems of these gravels converge to Belfast Bay, all roughly parallel with the glaciation. These deposits are in several respects different trom the other Kame or Osar gravels of Maine which I have heretofore described, at least from those of the interior of the State where no evident signs of local ice-movements have been discovered. Colorado College, Oct. 29, 1884. O. Meyer—Species in the French Old-Tertiary. 151 Art. XXIII.—Successional relations of the species in the French 3 Old-Tertiary ; by OrtTo Meyer, Ph.D. In a former article* I have shown that in the American Old- Tertiary formation many species can be traced along through the succeeding strata, and that the similar succeeding forms are apparently connected by descent. In the second part of this article + I said that the same phenomenon is manifest also in the French Old-Tertiary formation. The following table may illustrate this. For the principles which have guided me in making out this genealogy, I refer to this Journal, vol. xxix, p- 458. In preparing it I have used only the material in my own collection, and for this reason the table is very incomplete. Naturalists with more material from French localities than I have may complete it and perhaps correct it in some points. In comparisons like these I think it best to avoid the use of descriptions and figures. The determinations of the species enumerated in the table were made by Mr. Cossmann, in Paris; and I have adhered to his determinations, even where I am of different opinion; in many cases I would not make specific differences where they are made by Deshayes. My purpose here is only to call atten- tion to the fact that evolution is illustrated also by the species of the French Old-Tertiary. Mr. Cossmann is now occupied with a revision of the species of Deshayes. | LOWER EOCENE. | MIDDLE EOCENE. UPPER EOCENE. OLIGOCENE. | Lamellitranchiata. 1) Ostrea flabellula Lam. |Ostrea cubitus Desh. 2 Ostrea angusta Desh. Ostrea cyathula Lum. |Ostrea cucullaris Lam. 3 Anomia primzeva Desh. Anomia tenuistriata Desh. 4 Arca modioliformis Desh. Arca modioliformis Desh.| Arca Rigaultiana Desh. 5) Arca condita Desh Arca planicosta Desh, 6 Pectunculus polymorph- Pectunculus pulvinatus | us Desh. | Lam. 7 Pectunculus terebratu-. Pectunculus obo- | laris Lam. | vatus Lam. 8 Limopsis lentiformis Limopsis granulata Lam. | Desh. li7aisp: 2 ‘Trigonocelia deltoidea|Trigonoccelia media Desh. | | Lam. 10 ‘Nucula Parisiensis Desh.|Nucula lunulata Nyst. 11 Cardita planicosta Lam. Cardita planicosta Lam. 12 Cardita Prevosti Desh. |Cardita asperula Desh. 13 Cardita imbricata Lam. |Cardita imbricata Lam. |Cardita propinqua Desh. 14 Crassatella compressa|Crassatella rostralis Desh. Desh. * This Journal, xxix, 457-468, 1885. { Ibid. xxx, 66. 15 16 17 18 152 LOWER EOCENE. MIDDLE EOCENE. t Lucina discors Desh. ! ! Lucina proxima Desh. Diplodonta duplicata Desh. Cardium hybridum Desh. \Cytherea proxima Desh. Cytherea fastidiosa Desh. Tellina @ Orb. pseudorostralis Tellina decorata Watel. Mactra Levesquei d@’ Orb. Corbula gallicula Desh. ‘Corbula striatina Desh. Corbula muricina Lévesgq. Corbulomya seminulum Desh. Delphinula turbinata Desh. Bifrontia Desh. ‘Turritella Dixoni Desh. \Calyptreea Suessoniensis Desh. Natica semipatula Desh. Natica intermedia Desh. \Natica separata Desh. ‘Diastoma variculosum Desh. Odostomia turbonilloides Desh. Turbonilla Desh. polygyrata * Compare the specimens /Cytherea analoga Desh. Laudunensis| |Turritella carinifera Desh. Lucina Saxorum Lam. Lucina elegans /efr. Cardium obliquum Lam. Cardium porulosum Lam. Cardium granulosum Lam. Cytherea semisulecata Lam. Tellina rostralis Lam. Tellina donacialis Zam. Mactra semisuleata Lam. Corbula gallica Desh. Corbula Lamarecki Desh. Corbula minuta Desh. Bifrontia serrata Desh. Calyptreea lamellosa Desh. Hipponix elegans Desh. Natica patula Desh. |Natica depressa Desh. Natica abscondita Desh. Natica epiglottina Lam. Natica semiclausa Desh. Natica acuta Desh. Odostomia turbonilloides Desh. ‘Turbonilla fragilis Desh. Lam. sp. Pseudomelania lactea Lam. of the Mayence Basin. Tellina parilis Desh. Tellina symmetrica Desh. Glossophora. Delphinula turbinoides|Delphinula turbinoides Lam. Lam. ‘Diastoma costellatum|Diastoma interruptum Lam. Desh. Pyramidella terebellata)Pyramidella inaspecta Fér. Desh. Pseudomelania hordana|Pseudomelania hordana O. Meyer—Species in the French Old-Tertiary. UPPER EOCENE. Lucina Ermenonvillensis @ Orb. Lucina elegans Defr. Diplodonta elliptica Desh. Cardium Bouei Desh. Cytherea striatula Desh. Cytherea polita Lam. Cytherea cuneata Desh. Corbulomya complanata) Sow. Turritella copiosa Desh. Hipponyx _ patelloides Desh. Natica abscondita Desh. Natica Nose @ Orb. Natica ponderosa Desh. Lam. sp. | Cytherea OLIGOCENE, Cardium scobinu- la* Mer. incras- sata Sow. \Calyptreea label- lata Desh. Odostomia obe- sula Desh. Pseudomelania semidecussata Lam. + If these two species occur near each other, they must have a very near common ancestor. Chemistry and Physics. 153 51|Cerithium 52 53 54 55, 56 57 58 59 60 él 62 63 64 65 66 67 ‘Cerithium plicatulum LOWER EOCENE. breviculum| Desh. Cerithium subacutum a’ Orb. | Cerithium involutum Lam. Desh. Cerithium deceptor Desh. Cerithium turbinatum) Desh. Ringicula minor Desh. MIDDLE EOCENE. UPPER EOCENE. OLIGOCENE. Cerithium — echidnoides| Lam. Cerithium conoideum Lam. Cerithium — perforatum, Lam. | Cerithium interruptum Lam. Rostellaria fissurella Lam. Marginella crassula Desh. Marginella ovulata Lam.| Mitra cancellina Lam. Voluta spinosa Lam. Oliva nitidula Desh. Ancillaria Lam. Ringicula ringens \Cerithium mixtum Desh. Lam. sp. — Cerithium Boblayi Desh. Cerithium pleurotomoi- des Lam. Cerithium Bouei Desh. Cerithium Cordieri Desh. Cerithium limula Desh. Cerithium con- junctum Desh, Rostellaria lubrosa Sow. Buccinum sabrandei|Buccinum Gottar- @ Orb, di Nyst. Marginella Edwardsi Desh. Marginella Stam- pinensis S¢.-I7. Mitra perminuta Braun. Voluta depauperata Desh. \Oliva Baumontiana Lam. . . | buccinoides| Ancillaria obesula Desh. Ringicula ringens Lam. (var. Meyer.) SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. 1. On a new general Method for the Determination of Nitro- gen.—The determination of nitrogen in nitro- and azo-compounds is effected by the addition of some reducing material to the soda- lime, by which the nitrogen is yielded as ammonia. Tamm- Guyard proposed sodium acetate, Ruffler, sodium thiosulphate, and Goldberg, stannous sulphide and sulphur. All these are somewhat unsatisfactory as general methods, and ARNOLD has experimented with a view to improve them. He first used a mix- ture of acetate and thiosulphate, and afterward two or three per cent of amorphous phosphorus; but without advantage. He then substituted sodium formate for the acetate, using it in con- nection with sodium thiosulpbate and soda lime, and obtained excellent results. The combustion tubes used were from 10-12 AM. JouR. Scl.—THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXX, No. 176, AuGuST, 1885. 10 : 154 Scientific Intelligence. . mm. diameter. The ammonia was determined by means of @ normal hydrochloric acid, standardized by analysis and by pure sodium carbonate. For titering back, one-third normal ammonia solution was used, controlled by oxalic acid. Fluorescein was employed as an indicator, since it can be used in daylight and with artificial light as well. The results of the mixture used in four different proportions, are given. In A, equal parts soda- lime, sodium thiosulphate and sodium formate were employed. In B, two parts soda-lime, one part sodium formate and 10 per cent of sulphur. In C, equal parts soda-lime and formate, with ten per cent sulphur. And in D, two parts thiosulphate, mixed with one part of soda-lime and sodium formate mixed. The latter mixture is preferred by the author who suggests the fol- lowing points to be observed : (1) A canal in the mass in the front of the tube should be avoided. In filling the tube, the finely pulverized mixture containing the substance is first intro- duced, the tube held vertically and jarred to compact the mass. Then a mixture (either A or D) is placed in it, and then coarsely pulverized soda-lime. (2) The mass in front must have a definite length. In the analyses given this length was 15 cm., but 20 cm. would be better. (3) The combustion in a 45 cm. tube requires. about one hour, a bubble of gas per second passing through the receiver. (4) The process is a failure if the acid becomes turbid or acquires more than a yellow color. (5) Not more than 05 gram, or, if the substance contains over 20 per cent nitrogen, not more than 0°3 gram is to be used. (6) The mixture containing the substance should occupy 12 to 15 cm., the mass in front of this 15 to 20 cm. and the soda-lime 5 to 10 cm. of the tube. By this method potassium nitrate gave 13°85, 13°77 per cent N, in- stead of 18°86; sodium nitroprusside 28°20 and 28°15, instead of 28°13; trinitromethyl-toluidine 21:90, cal. 21°87; ethyl nitrocin- namate 6°01, cal. 6°33; nitrosalicylic acid 7:56, cal. 7°65; strych- nine nitrate, 10°60, cal. 10°60; morphine 4°50, cal. 4°62; m-nitro- cinnamic aldehyde 7°89, cal. 7°91.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Gres., xviii, 806, April, 1885. G. F. B. 2. On a new method of determining the Heat of combustion of Carbon and of Organic compounds. —Two difficulties attend the determination of the heat of combustion of carbon and its com- pounds: one arises from the length of time required, the other from the incompleteness of the oxidation. BrErTHELor and ViEILLE have obviated these difficulties by effecting the combus- tion in oxygen compressed to about seven atmospheres, in a calorimetric bomb; using a weight of combustible such that the oxygen consumed by it does not exceed 30 to 40 per cent of the whole quantity. The ignition is accomplished by a platinum wire heated to redness by electricity and is completed ina few seconds, sometimes with the characteristic noise given by an ex- plosion in a closed vessel. The entire operation does not require more than three or four minutes and is applicable to all sub- stances whose vapor tension at the ordinary temperature is incon- Chemistry and Physics. 155 siderable. The completeness of the combustion was verified by an examination of the products. The heat of combustion thus obtained is of course the heat at constant volume. For carbon this is the same value as that at constant pressure, since the car- bon dioxide formed replaces the oxygen volume for volume. For hydrogen compounds, however, the usual corrections are neces- sary for the condensation of the water vapor. When cellulose in the form of cotton was burned in this way, the ash being de- ducted, one gram gave 4:2 calories; or one equivalent (162 grams) 680°4 calories. The heat of combustion calculated at constant pressure, the water being in the liquid state, is 681°8 calories. Comparing this value with that of the carbon con- tained in the cellulose (referred to diamond) 564 calories, it ap- pears that that of the cellulose is in excess 117°8 calories, or about one-fifth. It follows from this that the hydrates of carbon, so-called, contain an excess of energy above that given by the carbon and water which their decomposition would furnish. The authors call attention to the fact that this is also true of incom- pletely burned charcoal, as for example the charbon rows used in making gunpowder; and hence that the energy of a sample of - gunpowder due to the carbon it contains cannot be accurately calculated from its percentage composition.— Bll, Soc. Ch., I, xliii, 262, March, 1885. G. F. B 3. On anew absorbing agent for Oxygen.—VoN DER Prorp- TEN has suggested the use of chromous chloride as an absorbing substance for oxygen. To prepare it, chromic acid is heated with hydrogen chloride until the liquid is perfectly free from chlorine. The green solution of chromic chloride is then reduced by means of zinc, to the blue solution of chromous chloride. This is then poured, in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, into a saturated solution of sodium acetate, whereby a red precipitate of chromous acetate is produced, which is washed by decanta- tion with carbonic acid water. The precipitate is quite perma- nent and may be preserved for some time without change in closed vessels filled with carbon dioxide. For use it is converted into chromous chloride by placing it in a test-glass closed by a rubber stopper bored with three holes. Through one of these a funnel passes, furnished with a cock. ‘The others have entrance and exit tubes as usual. When the air is displaced by carbon dioxide, the acetate is placed in the glass in excess, the gas stream continued and hydrochloric acid allowed to flow in and convert it into a blue solution of chromous chloride. When a gas containing oxygen is passed through it the color changes from blue to green. Experiments have shown that an alkaline solution of pyrogallol is entirely unaffected by gas which has passed through the solution of chromous chloride. Hence, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and the like may be freed from oxygen in this manner.—Liebig Ann., ceviii, 112, March, 1885. G. F, B. 156 Scientific Intelligence. 4. On a Simple Quantitative method of separating Selenium and Tellurium.—Divers and Surmosk& have proposed a method of separating selenium and tellurium founded on their behavior toward sulphurous oxide in presence of sulphuric acid, no hydro- chloric acid being present. A mixture of the two substances in the free state is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid in a cov- ered beaker until it is entirely oxidized and converted into a colorless solution, with a deposit perhaps, of tellurium sulphate. A moderately strong solution of sulphurous oxide is then grad- ually added until the volume is increased at least five-fold, and the solution is heated on the sand bath for some time. The pre- cipitated selenium soon darkens in color and becomes dense with- out aggregating into masses difficult to wash as it does when heated with hydrochloric acid. After dilution, the solution is fil- tered through a tared filter, and the precipitate washed, dried and weighed. The tellurium is precipitated from the filtrate by heating with hydrochloric acid and adding sulphurous oxide in the usual way. ‘To test the process, 0°3115 gram Te and 0°3867 gram Se were mixed, dissolved and separated. The tellurium weighed 0°3107 and the selenium 0°3865 gram. In asecond experi- ment the quantities taken were 0°2515 gram Te and 0°3395 gram Se; the quantities recovered were 0°2513 gram Te and 0°3395 _ rram Se.—/J. Chem. Soc., xlvii, 439, June, 1885. G. F. B. 5. On the Illuminating power of Ethane and Propane.—P. F. FRANKLAND has been engaged for some time in determining the illuminating power of the hydrocarbons supposed to be present in coal gas. He had previously shown that the illuminating power of ethylene calculated for a consumption of five cubic feet per hour from a referee’s burner, is 68°5 candles; and that of ben- zene was estimated to be six times as great. He has now experi- mented with ethane and propane, the second and third terms of the paraffin series. The ethane was prepared by the action of the copper-zine couple upon ethyl iodide in presence of alcohol, and was made to pass slowly, first through bromine and water and then through a solution of sodium hydrate and finally over slaked lime. The product showed on analysis 97°88 per cent of ethane. Burned from a referee’s burner and comparison being made with the Methoen standard and with standard candles, the mean result (corrected for five cu. ft. of gas) was 34°99 candles. The propane was prepared by the action of zine on isopropyl iodide, being passed first through a scrubber containing zince- copper, then through alcoholic soda, bromine and water, sodium hydrate and slaked lime. The gas contained 95 per cent of pro- pane, and, burned in the same way as ethane, gave 53°91 candles as its illuminating power. Hence this value appears to be pro- portional to the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.—QJ. Chem. Soc., xlvii, 235, April, 1885. G. F. B. 6. On the Illuminating power of Methane.—Wricut has made a séries of experiments to determine the illuminating power of pure methane. The gas was prepared by Gladstone & Tribe’s Chemistry and Physics. 157 method, by the action of the copper-zine couple on methyl iodide, and was passed through three copper tubes 12 inches long, 1:5 inches in diameter, placed horizontally, fitted with corks and_ connecting glass tubes and filled with copper-zine and as much aleohol as they would contain in this position, to remove the vapor of the iodide; and then through a glass tube containing beads moistened with sulphuric acid to absorb the alcohol vapor. The methane was collected in a small gas-holder 5 liters in capac- ity graduated to 5¢.c¢. and passed thence to the photometer, which was furnished with a Methoen standard giving a light of two candles when supplied with eighteen candle gas. The methane was burned in a London argand with a six-inch chim- ney, provided at top with a metal cap capable of vertical adjust- ment by a screw. This cap is to limit the air supply and is necessary at low rates of consumption. Two specimens of marsh gas were tested. In the first 2°78 cubic feet (corrected) were con- sumed per hour and gave a light of 2-9 candles; or 5:2 candles per cubic foot per hour. In the second 4°56 cubic feet were con- sumed per hour, giving 4°6 candles; or 5°15 candles per cubic foot per hour.—J. Chem. Soc., xlvii, 200, April, 1885. GF. B. 7. On Toughened Filter-papers.—FRancis has observed that filter paper is remarkably toughened by the action of nitric acid, the product being pervious to liquids and quite different from parchment paper made with sulphuric acid. By immersing the paper in, or even by moistening it with, nitric acid of density 1:42 and subsequent washing, the result is attained. The tough- ened paper can be used like ordinary paper, filtration being but little retarded. It may be rubbed without injury, like a piece of cloth. To compare its strength with that of ordinary paper, a strip of Swedish paper 25mm. wide was made into a loop and the ends held in a vertical clamp. A glass rod was passed through the loop and from its ends a scale pan was suspended. The paper after wetting broke with a weight of 100 to 150 grams, while the same paper after the above toughening treat- ment supported 1°5 kilograms. Filters of this paper are very useful with the filter pump, the apex only being toughened. When treated the paper contracts slightly, filters 11°5 cm. in diameter being diminished to 10-4 cm. ‘The ash was reduced from 0:0026 to 0:0011 gram. ‘The treated paper contains no nitrogen, and it suffers only a slight decrease of weight.—2/. Chem. Soc., xvii, 183, April, 1885. G. F. B. 8. On a Crystallized Tricupric sulphate-—The basic copper sulphates hitherto known have been in general amorphous pow- ders of doubtful purity. Suensrone has now prepared a crystal- line basic copper sulphate artificially. In the course of experiments on the solubility of salts in water at high temperatures, he ob- served in the tubes in which copper sulphate and water had been heated deposits of bright green crystals. By heating the crys- tals of ordinary copper sulphate CuSO,(H,O), at about 200° for a few hours in tubes containing a few grams of the salt, he was 158 Scientific Intelligence. able to prepare the new salt in larger quantity. By draining off the mother liquor while still hot, and washing the solid part of the contents of the tubes with water, a green product consisting of crystalline fragments was obtained, about 0°25 gram being yielded for each tube. On analysis, the salt afforded 26:98 per cent of SO, and 54:49 of Cu; giving the formula of a tricupric sulphate CuSO, (CuO),(H,O), or Cu,SO(H,O),, which requires 53°75 per cent Cu and 27:07 SO,. The salt is permanent when heated in the air to 190°, is insoluble in water, soluble in dilute sulphuric acid. The crystalline form was determined by Miers to be orthorhombic.—J. Chem. Soc., xlvii, 375, June, 1885. G. F. B. 9. On the Molecular Weight of liquid Water.—THomsEN has called attention to the fact that the conclusion reached by Raoult in his researches on the freezing point of saline solutions, that water possesses, in the condition of liquid, twice the molecular weight which it has in the condition of vapor, coincides with the conclusion to which he himself had come from his investigations on the constitution of hydrated salts. In his thermochemical researches, Thomsen says: A glance at the table of heat of hy- dration of hydrated salts shows that the water molecules enter often in pairs with the same heat-change; a fact explicable either by supposing that the molecules of water are symmetrically placed in the molecule of the salt, or, and perhaps more probably, that the molecular weight of liquid water is twice that of water vapor. The similarity of these conclusions, from widely different fields of investigation, is noteworthy.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xviii, 1088, April, 1885. G. F. B. Il. GroLocy AND MINERALOGY. 1. The volcanic nature of a Pucific island not an argument for little or no subsidence.—In the remarks on this point in §13 (p. 100) of my paper on the Origin of coral reefs and islands, I reter to the great depths found in the ocean by soundings in the vicin- ity of Hawaii, and speak of the facts as favoring the idea of more subsidence about that southeastern end of the group than along the northwestern, although the latter is the coral island end. Another example of similar character, but more striking, is af- forded by the region of the Ladrones. This north-and-south range of islands has its largest volcanic islands in the southern part, and dwindles in the opposite direction to islands which are little more than tufa cones; and 200 miles south of Guam, the largest island, the Challenger found a depth of 4,475 fathoms (26,850 feet), one of the deepest regions of the ocean. It hence may be that Guam, like Hawaii, is a large island, not because of small subsidence, but because of continued eruptions that made it large in spite of the sinking that was in progress. The ques- tion arises how far the depths in these particular cases are due to the undermining effects of volcanic eruption. There are coral Geology and Mineralogy. 159 islands both northeast of the deep region, near Guam, and also of large size, to the southwest and southeast, not three degrees off ; the for mer, those of an extension of the Pelew range, and the latter, islands of the Caroline Archipelago. J. D. DANA. 2, The Physical Features of Scotland, by Professor Jamrs Geiktze.—This excellent paper is illustrated by an orographic map of Scotland which is necessary to its full appreciation. The author condemns the “‘ statement so frequently repeated in class- books and manuals of geography, that the mountains of Scotland consist of three (some say five) ranges.” He observes that it is divided into three parts “ the Highlands,” the Central Lowlands and the Southern Uplands; and defines the Lowlands (which are the southern limits of the Highlands and northern of the Southern Uplands) as extending from Stoneham in.a nearly straight south- west direction along the northern outskirts of Strathmore to Glen Artney, and thence through the lower reaches of Loch Lomond to the Firth of Clyde at Kilcreggan. The mountains “are merely monuments of denudation,” “relics of elevated plateaus which have been deeply furrowed and trenched by running water and other agents of erosion.” The straightness of the southern boundary of the Highlands “is due to the fact that 1t coincides with a great line ‘of fracture of the earth’s crust; on the north side are hard and tough slates and schists, on the south sand- stone strata prevail.” Looking across Strathmore from the Sidlaws or the Ocbils, the mountains seem to spring suddenly from the low grounds at their base, and to extend northeast and southwest as a great wall-like rampart. “The mean height of the Highlands above the sea is probably not less than 1500 feet ;” peaks rise to a height of nearly 3500 feet. Any wide tract of this Highland region “ viewed from a commanding position looks like a tumbled ocean in which the waves appear to be moving in all directions. But the masses are broad, generally round- shouldered, often somewhat flat-topped, with no great disparity of height among the dominant points. The relationship and the forms are the result of denudation; the mountains are “ monu- ments of erosion,”—they are the wreck of an old table land—the upper surface and original inclination of which are approximately indicated by the summits of the various mountain masses and the directions of the principal water-flows. A similar general conclusion is drawn from the Southern Up- lands; that “the area is simply an old table-land furrowed into ravine and valley by the operation of the various agents of erosion.” In view of such facts it is not surprising that Scotch valleys and mountains should have given to Hutton right ideas on moun- tain sculpturing, and have led him to the opinion he brings out in his memoir on the Theory of the Earth (R. Soe. Edinb. 1778, and 8vo, 1795), that mountain forms are due to subaerial denuda- tion after an elevation of a region by the earth’s central heat. Professor Geikie illustrates the subject with much interesting 160 Scientific Intelligence. detail, and discusses also other points connected with the phys- ical history of the region. He speaks also of the shaded sheets (maps) issued by the Ordnance Survey as reproducing with mar- velous skill the surface features of the country even to minor points of glacial origin; and asks in conclusion: ‘“ With such admirable cartographical work before them, how long will intelligent teach- ers continue to tolerate those antiquated monstrosities which so often do duty as wall-maps in their school-rooms.” 3. Pennsylvania Geological Survey. — This Survey has re- cently issued the following reports: Report on the Coal Mines of the Monongahela River Region, from the West Virginia State-line to Pittsburgh, including the mines on the Lower Youghiogheny River (No. K4), by J. Surron Watt. Part I. Description of the Mines, 232 pp., 8vo, with maps and plates. Harrisburg, 1884. Report on Perry County (No. F2), by E. W. Crayro3s. 438 pp., 8vo, with many plates, maps and sections—a geological report preliminary to an account of the Paleontology. Harris- burg, 1885. Atlas of the Northern Anthracite field, Part I (No. A A). Maps and charts of the Report on Cameron, Elk and Forest. Counties (No. RR). Grand Atlas, Division III. Petroleum and Bituminous Coal Fields, No. 1.—The first part issued of this ‘‘Grand Atlas” of the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania was noticed on page 340 of the last volume of this Journal. The Atlas is to appear in five Divisions. Division I is to contain the geological maps of the counties constructed on a scale of two miles to the inch, and will consist of 49 sheets, covering fifty-six counties; Division II, the sheets of the Anthracite Survey, including mine sheets on a scale of 800 feet to the inch, topographical sheets on a scale of 1600 feet to the inch, cross-section sheets and columnar-section. sheets, besides miscellaneous sheets; Division III, of which Part I has recently been issued under the above-mentioned title; Division IV, topographical maps from the surveys of A. E. Leh- man, of the South Mountain, in Adams, Franklin and Cumberland Counties, and others of the Great Valley, between Easton and Reading, from the surveys of Messrs. d’Invilliers, Berlin and Clarke, on a scale of 1600 feet to the inch, with the contour lines: 10 or 20 feet apart ; Division V, the geological maps and sec- tions relating principally to the Silurian and Devonian formations in Central Pennsylvania, and cross-sections of the Philadelphia rocks. The maps on the Petroleum and Bituminous coal fields, making the first part of Division III, contain topographical maps, plans, cross-sections, and others, illustrating the geological structure of the oil region, the distribution of the areas, the underlying rocks down to the oil-producing sand beds in a large number of sec- tions obtained in boring for wells, and are thus full of instruction. The general map of the oil-region, prepared by C. A. Ashburner, Geology and Mineralogy. 161 which comprises Western Pennsylvania, shows that the many areas lie in a belt of country 20 to 25 miles broad, extending in a northeast and southwest direction from Allegheny County, New York, to Beaver County, Pa. The belt to the northward bends to west-northwest, and thus exhibits its parallelism to the mountain system lying to the southeastward. An announcement accompanies the recent reports stating that they may be obtained by purchase of Mr. J. S. Africa, Secretary of Internal affairs, Harrisburg, Pa. The State has directed that they shall “ be furnished at cost to all applicants.” The legislature of Pennsylvania at its late session appropriated $50,000 to continue the State Geological Survey for the years 1885 and 1886, and the Governor has signed the bill. The survey was begun in 1874, and the work remaining to be done is chiefly in the anthracite coal regions. A summary of the whole in a tinal report of one or two volumes by Professor J. P. Lesley, the chief State Geologist, a most important work is intended to comet the set of reports, 4. Geological Survey of New Jersey: Report for 1884 ; G. H. Coox, State Geologist.—Fine views of the remarkable local- ity of columnar trap in O?Rourke’s Quarry, on Mount Pleasant Avenue, Orange, make a frontispiece to this year’s Report. The most singular feature is the obliquity of the columns in divergent directions about the center of the quarry while nearly vertical elsewhere. The nearly vertical columns are large, some 6 or 7 feet in diameter while the oblique are small. The columnar surface exposed has a length of about 700 feet and a height of 20 to 100 feet; and underneath it, 6 to 8 feet below the exposed surface, there lies the red sandstone. The outer surface of the columns is horizontally banded, but there is no regular cross- fracturing. Professor Cook suggests that after the main extru- sion of trap, there may have been a later outflow along the cen- tral part where the small divergent columns occur. The locality may be reached by going out on Pleasant Avenue in Orange about a mile from the railroad station, and then following the quarry wagon road on the left for 400 or 500 feet. An interesting exhibition of a buried forest is reported as re- cently opened at the EKarnst Clay pits in South Amboy. The burial must have taken place since the settlement of the country, not more than 280 years ago; the place until recently has been under a swamp and a forest of cedars. ‘‘The ground which was formerly enough above the sea-level to sustain a growth of up- land timber, is now so low that every high tide could cover it with salt water.” Artesian wells have proved to be a success along the low coast region of Southern New Jersey. Abundant pure ‘wwater has been thus obtained at Ocean Grove, Asbury Park, Red Bank, Ocean Beach, Lakewood, Marlton and other points. Each passes down to the sandy stratum under the Lower Marl bed of the Cretace- ous. The wells at Red Bank and Marlton have a depth between 162 Scientific Intelligence. 80 and 90 feet. That at Ocean Beach, Monmouth County, about 400 feet from the ocean, is 485 feet deep, is 3 inches in diameter inside of the wrought iron casing pipe, and soon after completion yielded 36,000 gallons a day; that at Lakewood is 475 feet deep. The Lakewood water contains but 6} grains of solid matter to the gallon. An artesian well at Newark went down through 110 feet of earth and 505 feet of red sandstone; the bore was 8 inches in diameter and the daily yield 800,000 gallons; the temperature 553° F. The amount of mineral matter is about 150 grains to the gallon, over two-thirds of which is calcium sulphate (gypsum). An analysis, made in 1879, afforded sodium sulphate 15°94, mag- nesium sulphate 25°87, calcium sulphate 106°98, magnesium car- bonate 1°55, sodium chioride 2°47 = 152°81. In a trial in 1882 the amount of solid matter was found to be 151°79 grains per gallon, and in 1884 148-83 grains. The above are a few of the facts to be found in the Report. 5. Contributions to the Knowledge of the Older Mesozoic Flora of Virginia, by W.M. Fonvarne. 144 pp. 4to, with 54 plates. Washington, 1883. U.S. Geological Survey. (Received in June, 1885.)—Professor Fontaine, after a brief review of the beds in Virginia, describes the fossil plants in detail. His specimens were obtained from different openings on the Richmond belt, and from the Cumberland belt, about 30 miles west of the former. The plants were found in the layers of shale and sandstone adjoining the coal beds,—not far from the middle of the sandstone formation. In the Richmond belt there appear to be 500 to 600 feet of sandstone above and below the coal beds. Forty-two species are described and figured. Half of them have no distinct relations to European species. Of the rest, twelve are decidedly Rhetic in their relations, and four identical with Rheetic species, while only four are Triassic in character and three of these are as closely Rheetic. Besides, eight have Jurassic rela- tions. Professor Fontaine concludes, therefore, that the beds are probably of Rheetic age rather than Triassic, that is, of the epoch between the Triassic and the Lias. The descriptions and figures of the plants of the North Carolina Mesozoic described by Pro- fessor Emmons are reproduced in the volume and compared with those from Virginia. Professor Emmons’s specimens were sought for without success. Of the thirty-nine species identified, fifteen are also Virginia species, and they point to the same age for the beds. The Cycad genus Ctenophyllum, of which there are four species, is highly characteristic of the Rhetic Lias. The genera Acrosticides, Laccopteris, Cycadites, Podozamites also are Rhetic, or Rhetic and Jurassic. The North Carolina fauna is much richer than the Virginian in Conifers; but this is attributed to drier conditions of growth and not to actual difference in flora. This new volume from the U. 8. Geological Survey is a worthy successor to the excellent Reports which have preceded it. Geology and Mimeratogy. 163 6. Syenite and Gabbro in Essex County, Massachusetts.— Dr. M. E. Wapsworth has an article on this subject in the Geolog- ical Magazine for May last. It describes the coast from Salem to a point beyond West Manchester as occupied by a typical reddish or grayish syenite. The granite of the same region, according “‘to the preponderance of evidence, is the younger rock, unless it is cotemporaneous with the syenite.” A gneissoid schist on Woodbury’s Point contains “ gabbro” in masses—called “irregu- lar dikes ’—approximately parallel to the foliation of the schist. The “gabbro” varies from a whitish rock consisting of feldspar with “a few grains of diallage ” to one in which the “feldspar and diallage are in nearly equal proportions, and in some of it the latter ingredient is in individuals two or three inches long. Zir- con-syenite similar to that of Marblehead occurs also on Salem Neck, containing sodalite and elzolite. 7. Thermal effect of the action of aqueous vapor on feld- spathic rock (kaolinization).—Dr. Cart Barus discusses this ques- tion mathematically, after some careful experiments, in a paper published in the School of Mines Quarterly, November, 1884. A definite result was not reached; yet the discussion is one of much interest, as the author states in conclusion, ‘‘ showing in how far very small increments of temperature, increasing continuously, through infinite time, are accurately measurable ; ” and “ contain- ing the first direct attack upon physical problems of this charac- ter, many of which have an important bearing on geological and metallurgical subjects.” 8. New localities of Erythrite; by Wu. P. Burak, (Communi- cated.)—There are two localities of erythrite in the West which deserve mention. One of these, lately opened near Lovelock’s station on the Union Pacific Railway in Nevada, has yielded con- siderable quantities of nickel and cobalt ore. The cobalt bloom occurs in crusts and aggregations of very small crystals in the seams of a calcareous rock, containing also brilliant brass yellow acicular crystals of millerite. The ore as mined and shipped con- tains an unusually high percentage of both nickel and cobalt. There are also masses of a black earthy aggregate consisting largely of black oxide of cobalt. These masses do not appear to carry manganese oxide in any appreciable quantity and can not properly be referred to the ores of manganese, as with asbolite, but are rather entitled to a separate place as black oxide of cobalt, for which the name “ asbolite ” may be retained if the description is amended so as to make the presence of manganese unessential. The other locality is in Los Angeles County, California, at the Kelsey Mine, Compton, where the “erythrite is associated with an ore of silver and of cobalt in dark-colored earthy masses ina gangue of heavy spar. This occurrence was noted in 1881 and is described in the Report of the State Mineralogist of California for 1882, p. 207, and in the fourth report, p. 179. 164 Scientific Intelligence. Ill. Borany. 1. A Course of practical instruction in Botany, by F.O. BowEr and 8. H. Vines, Part 1 (Macmillan & Co,, London, 1885.)— This handy book of only 226 pages, is the best introduction in English to the practical investigation of flowering plants and ferns. After giving a chapter on the preparation and effects of reagents for microscopic use, the authors deal with the micro- chemistry and microphysics of the vegetable cell. The student is led along slowly and safely over the least attractive part of the field, and is there shown sound methods for the examination of organs of the higher plants. Nearly all of the methods are de- scribed concisely, yet so as to leave no important point untouched. Theoretically it would be better to show a student how to examine any object, and then demand of him direct answers as to what he sees, rather than to tell him what he ought to see. But this plan consumes more time than most beginners have at their command; therefore the “personally conducted ” plan is generally most in vogue. The present work tells the student all that he can be rea- sonably expected to see under the microscope, 7f he is successful in making his sections, etc. Therefore, the student who follows out faithfully all the exercises laid down in this work may be sure of acquiring the essentials of histology, so far as the higher plants are concerned. A second volume, devoted to the plants lower than the ferns and their allies is promised. With Strasburger’s German treatise, “ Das botanische Practicum,” or with this excel- lent English work as a guide, the student can have no excuse for lack of practical acquaintance with histological manipulation. Ge EG 2. Text-book of Structural and Physiological Botany, by OTto W. THomé and Atrrep W. Bennerr. (Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1885.)—This is the fifth edition of a useful book. The revision brings portions of the treatise fairly down to the eve of publication, and makes it a well proportioned treatise. It is, however, a text-book, in the strictest sense of the term, and in no way supplies the help in practical manipulation which is afforded by the work noticed above. The student preparing for an ex- amination finds that Thomé gives in small compass exactly the information required by the question-papers set in. the earlier examinations for the degrees of M.B. and B.Sc. To the general student, the chapters on the geographical distribution of plants and on fossil plants are especially useful. Gp LeavG: 8. Le Potager Mun Curieux: Histoire, Culture, et Usages de 100 Plantes comestibles peu connues ow inconnues. Par A. Parttevx et D. Bors. Paris, Libraire Agricole de la Maison Rustique; pp. 294, 8vo. 1885.—This volume is a reprint from the Bulletin de la Société Nationale @ Acclimatation. One of the authors is a councillor in that society, the other is an assistant in the Museum at the Garden of Plants. The now classical volume of Alphonse de Candolle treats of the esculent plants of large Botany. : 165 cultivation and investigates their history and origin. This book treats of a hundred less known or only locally known alimentary plants, records the results of trials in cultivating a considerable number of them, indicates those which promise well, and tells us how they may best be cooked. It aims to extend the domain of Vhorticulture “potagére in Europe by introductions from foreign parts of plants which various people regularly use for food, trust- ing that some of them may prove to be valuable acquisitions. Let us note, as having for us a certain interest, the North Ameri- ean plants which our authors take into consideration. They are Apios tuberosa, which was vaunted as a most hopeful substitute for the potato in the days of potato-rot in France, but which, naturally came to nothing, which, indeed, would never have been thought of except for the tradition of its use by the aborigines of New England. Camassia esculenta, the Quamash, upon -the bulbs of which the Indians of Oregon were largely nourished. Introduced into France, these bulbs were pronounced to be a dainty dish; but our author’s attempts to cultivate them on a large scale completely failed. Claytonia perfoliata, which, as a succedaneum for spinach in summer, is said to furnish ‘“ un aliment acceptable.” Melothria penduld, the berries of which have been highly recommended for pickles! Naturally our authors do not recommend them. Phytolacca decandra, the spring shoots just pushing from the ground, used in the manner of asparagus, so used indeed in some parts of the United States. It seems that of late they have been largely supplied to the Paris market. M. Paillieux reports that some people seem to like them, that he finds them rather tasteless, and that he has eaten them, in small quantity indeed, without any ill effects. Probably the largest use of our Poke in France is for the rich coloring matter of the berries in wine-making. Psoralea esculenta, of the Upper Missouri region, the tuberous roots of which, being very farinaceous, were introduced into France, forty years ago, to be a substitute for the failing potato, but which, as might have been expected, proved an utter failure. In fact the contributions of North America to the kitchen-garden (deduction made of Helianthus tuberosus) amount to nothing. The authors of this work evince a wonderful hopefulness by asking (in a private communication) to be sup- plied with the means for making trial of some other Indian food plants, such as Lewista, the tuberous-rooted species of Callirhoé, Balsamorrhiza and Peucedanum, Valeriana edulis, etc. They even ask for Asclepias tuberosa. ‘This reminds us that—judging from the recollections of boyhood—the verual shoots of Asclepias Cornuti, our common milk-weed, make the best of substitutes for asparagus. More important plants than these, mainly from tropical or sub- tropical regions, are reported on in this book, some of them, such as the various kinds of Yam, at full length. The volume is rather a series of reports, than a treatise. The practical and also truly scientific work is Vilmorin’s Plantes Potagéres. A. G 166 Scientific Intelligence. 4. Contributions to American Botany, XII; by SrrRENo War- son. Extr. Proc. Am. Acad., xx. Feb. 21, 1885, pp. 324-374, with a full index.—This last particular is one of the good points of Dr. Watson’s papers, an extra finish which botanists are thank- ful for, none the less because they cannot generally expect it. A most important “ contribution” indeed, one in which the essential results of very prolonged study and critical toil are condensed into less than thirty pages, is the History and Revision of the Roses of North America. The “ History” any one can read with interest; the “Synopsis of Species” (18 in number, which European treatment might have quadrupled, and which “the extreme of possible reduction” might condense into nine) presents the botan- ist with a convenient view of the leading differential characters ; then we have, under proper divisions, sufficiently detailed deserip- tions, habitat, and a particular mention of localities and col- lectors. Thanks to our botanists and curators, nearly all the principal herbarium-material in the country was in the mono- grapher’s hands, and a part of that in the Gray herbarium had previously been examined by Crépin in Belgium. Let us hope that our Roses may now be fairly well and readily understood by our botanists, that the attention which, with such help, they will generally receive may lessen rather than increase the remaining doubts and ambiguities, and that this judicious monograph may do its part in preserving our American rhodology from the fearful state which that of the Old World presents. The other article of the present contribution consists of “De- scriptions of some New Species of Plants, chiefly from our Western Territories,” which have recently been brought to light by our various zealous collectors, and which are examined in the course of preparation of the Flora of North America. A few already published plants are mentioned. Among them is Atamis- quea emarginata of Miers, a rare Capparideous shrub of a pecu- liar genus, which Miers discovered in the province of Mendoza, in about the same latitude in the southern hemisphere that Mr. Pringle found it in the northern, namely in the northwestern borders of the Mexican State of Sonora. As far as we can see there is no difference between the specimens from these widely disjoined stations, the only two known. Dr. Kellogg’s Ginothera arborea, which he long ago figured in the Hesperian is taken up and described aright as Hawya Californica. It would have been better to follow the general rule of retaining the original specific name, and also to have avoided ‘“Californica.” For, although the country which this shrub inhabits was the original California, it is not our California. Tetracoccus, the only new genus described in this paper is inter- esting as being the last plant studied and named by Engelmann. It was discovered by Dr. Parry in Lower California, in the winter of 1883, but male flowers and mature fruit were obtained by his young friend, Charles R. Orcutt, a year and a half later. Both sent materials to the Gray Herbarium, and it was supposed that Miscellaneous Intelligence. 167 it was left to be published from here. But meanwhile Dr. Parry, the discoverer, thought best to bring out the genus in Southern California, in Oreutt’s ‘“‘ Western Scientist;” and so TZetracoccus monoicus, Engelm. and Parry, was published while the Tetracoc- cus (Engelmann) Hngelmanni, Watson, was here in press. It should perhaps be here noted that there is a somewhat earlier paper in the same (twentieth) volume of the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, by the present writer (pp. 257-310), comprising A Revision of some Borragineous Genera (Omphalodes, Krynitzkia, Plagiobotrys), Notes on some American Species of Utricularia, New Genera of Arizona, Cali- fornia, ete., and Gamopetale Miscellanee. A large share of the latter, as also of Dr. Watson’s Miscellanez, are from the inter- esting collections made last year by Mr. Pringle, with no small hardship and suffering, along the frontiers between Arizona and Sonora. This year Mr. Pringle, with his usual zeal and with excellent prospects, undertook the exploration of the State of Chi- huahua; but when about to enter into the most alluring yet hazardous field, that of the Sierra Madre Mountains, he was pros- trated by a return of last year’s fever, and has been obliged to return home for recuperation. Let us hope that the air of his native Vermont will soon restore him to wonted health, and to the botanical explorations for which he is remarkably fitted, and in which he bears the palm. A. G. 5. Talks Afield about Plants and the Science of Plants, by L. H. Batrey, Jr. (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1885, pp. 173, 12mo), are pleasant talks, well adapted to inspire an interest in plants and botany, sensible and instructive in what is said, equally sensible in the omission of the technical and recondite matters which are too commonly crowded into books of this sort. a. &. TV. MIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. ? 1. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Professor SpENcER F. Bairp, for the year 1884. 98 pp., 8vo.— The Smithsonian Institution has become a great center for the collection and diffusion of knowledge. Considering the amount of labor and investigation carried forward, the expenditure for 1884 appears very small—43,613.36 dollars out of the total in- come, which was 68,994.20 dollars. The explorations promoted by the institution, which have in past time done more for “ in- creasing our knowledge of the physical condition and natural history of various parts of the globe, especially on the continent of America,” than any other single agency in the land, were car- ried on in 1884 partly in codperation with the U. 8S. Signal Service, the Geological Survey and the Fish Commission, in Green- land, Labrador, Alaska, British Columbia and Washington Ter- ritory, Arizona, New Mexico, Mexico, Central America, and other regions. ‘The quarto volume of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, published during the year, is that of Dr. C. Rau on 168 Miscellaneous Intelligence. “Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and North America,” a work already noticed in this Journal. Not the least of the benefits conferred by the Smithson gift is the free system of international exchanges of scientific publications carried on by it. During 1884 over 65,000 packages were thus distributed, of an aggregate weight of nearly 154,000 pounds. The institution has also been a chief reliance in State and International Exhibitions and has brought great credit to the country and done it great service by its labors in this direction. Further, the care and enlargement of the National Museum, although ‘supported by appropriations from Congress, have become a prominent object with the institution. “The. grand museum is an expression of the efficiency of the present secretary, pee Baird. 2. American Association for the Advancement of Science.— The arrangements made by the local committee for the coming meeting are noticed on page 87. For all matters pertaining to membership, papers, and business of the Association the perma- nent Secretary, F. W. Putnam, should be addressed, at Salem to August 20, and at Ann Arbor, Michigan, from August 20 to Sep- tember 2. The President of the session is H. A. Newton of New Haven, Ct.; the Vice Presidents, J. H. Van Vleck of Middletown, Ct., in Mathematics and Astronomy; C. F. Brackett of Princeton, N. J., in Physics; W. R. Nichols of Boston, Mass.; J. B. Webb of Ithaca, in Mechanical Science; B. G. Wilder of Ithaca, in Biology; S. H. Gager of Ithaca, in Histology and Microscopy ; W. H. Dall of Washington, in Anthropology ; and E. Atkinson of Boston in Economic Science and Statistics. 3. Report on the Museums of America and Canada; by V. Batu. 34 pp. 8vo.—Mr. Ball, formerly connected with the geoleg- wal Survey of India, is now Director of the Science and Art Gaccat Dublin. His observations on American Museums were made during his visit to the country last summer, and with special reference to the improvement of the arrangements in the museum under his charge, and not without some profit, as he states in his report. The Sun: A familiar description of his phenomena, by the Rev. Thomas W. Webb. 80 pp. 12mo. New York, 1885. (Industrial Publication Company.) An Introduction to Practical Chemistry, including Analysis, by John E. Bow- man; edited by Charles L. Bloxam. Eighth edition. 248 pp. 12mo. Philadel- phia, 1885. (P. Blakiston, Son & Co.) An Introduction to Practical Organic Analysis, adapted to the requirements of the first M. B. Kxamination, by George E. R. Ellis. 72 pp. 12mo. London, 1885. (Longmans, Green & Co.) OBITUARY. Titian R. Pearse, of Philadelphia, died on the 13th of March, 1885, in his 86th year. Mr. Peale was one of the Naturalists of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition. He was for twenty-four years connected with the Patent Office at Washington. Fifteenth Year of Publication. Post Free on application. ATURAL HISTORY AND SCIENTIFIC BOOK CIRCULAR, No. 65, CONTAINING RECENT PURCHASES AND NEw Works: BOTANY, CONCHOLOGY, ENTOMOLOGY, FISHES, MAM- MALIA, ORNITHOLOGY.—ASTRONOMY, ELECTRICITY, GEOLOGY, MATHEMATICS, METEOROLOGY. WILLIAM WESLEY & SON, Natural History and Scientific Booksellers, 28, Essex Street, Strand, London. Agency of the Smithsonian Institution, U. S. A. es ee eS Ee eS ee © EE eo eS No. 6 Murray Street, New York, Manufacturers of Balances and Weights of Precision for Chem- ists, Assayers, Jewelers, Druggists, and in general for every use where accuracy is required. April, 1871.—[tf.] J. H. EMERTON, New Haven, Conn. Takes charge of the Zoological Collections of Schools, Colleges and Scientific Societies. Superintends the building and furnishing of Museums and all work relating to Museums and their uses. Sept., 1884.—tf. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, FOUNDED BY PROFESSOR SILLIMAN IN 1818. Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physical Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History, Astronomy, and Meteorology, and giving the latest discoveries in these departments. EDITORS: JAMES D. DANA and HpwaRD S. DANA. Associate Editors: Professors ASA GRAY, J. P. CooKs, JR., and JoHN TRoW- BRIDGE, of Cambridge, H. A. NEwTon and A. EH. VERRILL, of Yale, and G. F, BARKER, of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Two volumes of 480 pages each, published annually in MONTHLY NUMBERS. This Journal ended its jirst series of 50 volumes as a quarterly in 1845, and its second series of 50 volumes as a two-monthly in 1870. The monthly series com- menced in 1871. Twenty copies of each original communication are, if requested, struck off for the author without charge; and more at the author’s expense, provided the num- ber of copies desired is stated on the manuscript or communicated to the printers of the Journal. The title of communications and the names of authors must be fully given. Articles should be sent in two months before the time of issuing the number for which they are intended. Notice is always to be given when communications offered, have been, or are to be, published also in other Journals. Subscription price $6; 50 cents a number. A few complete sets on sale of the first and second series. Address the PROPRIETORS, J. D. and E. 8. DANA, New Haven, Conn. CONTENTS. Page Arr. XIJ.—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands; by J. D. : DAN AS 25 ea ema a er aie hh ye a 89 XUI.—Meteorite of Fomatlan, Jalisco, Mexico; by C. U. SHEPARD! 2 28 )02 SANE aie ee por e/a Waa 105 XIV.—Occurrence of Allanite as an accessory constituent of many rocks; by J. P. Inpines and W. Cross,._..-.--- 108 XV.—Crystals of Analcite from Phenix Mine, Lake Superior Copper Region; by.S, L. PENFiexp, ---~22002-_S 2 eee 112 XVI.— Differential Resistance Thermometer; by T. C. Mzn- DEN BAD 12 Se eee a0 a 2 ae 2 Shek ee ee 114 XVII.—Impact Friction and Faulting; by G. F. Beckur,__ 116 XVIII.—A Standard of Light; by J. TRowpripes, -__. __- 128 XIX.—On Hanksite; by W. EH. Hipprn,..... 2-2. 222228 133 XX.—Mineralogical Notes; by E. 8. Dana and 8. L. Pxn- POU HOIG DS Hepes SE od sg A 8 Ss 136 XXI.—Amount of moisture which Sulphuric Acid leaves in a Gass: Diy: Bi Wi.) Monin, : 1 Seal see ak eee | eer 140 XXII.—Loeal Defiections of the Drift Scratches in Maine; bye Gili? Songs sk i ae ers eee oes ee 2 146 XXITI.—Successional relations of the species in the French Old-Tertiary ; -by (0. Mryer, - 222 332. 5 ee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Method for the Determination of Nitrogen, ARNOLD, 153.—Heat of combustion of Carbon and of Organic compounds, BERTHELOT and VIEILLE, 154.—Absorbing agent for Oxygen, VON DER PFORDTEN, 155.— Method of separating Selenium and Tellurium, Divers and Saimosé; Iluminat- ing power of Ethane and Propane, P. F. FRANKLAND; Illuminating power of Methane, Wricut, 156.—Toughened Filter-papers, Francis; Crystallized Tricupric sulphate, SHENSTONE, 157.—Molecular Weight of liquid Water, THom- SEN, 158. Geology and Mineralogy.—V olcanic nature of a Pacific island not an argument for little or no subsidence, J. D. Dana, 158.—Physical Features of Scotland, J. GEIKIE, 159.— Pennsylvania Geological Survey, Reports recently issued, 160.—Geological Survey of New Jersey, G. H. CooK, 161.—Contributions to the knowledge of the Older Mesozoic Flora of Virginia, W.-M. FoNTAINE, 162.— Syenite and Gabbro, M. KE. WapswortH: Thermal effect of the action of aqueous vapor on feldspathic rock, C. Barus: New localities of Erythrite, W. P. BLAKn, 163. - Botany.—Course of practical instruction in Botany, F. O. Bow»rR and 8. H. VINES: Text-Book of Structural and Physiological Botany, O. W. THomé and A. W.. BENNETT: Le Potager d’un Curieux: Histoire, Culture, et Usages de 100 Plantes comestibles peu connues ou inconnues, A. PAlnLEUX et D. Bois, 164.— Contributions to American Botany. S. Watson, 166.—Talks afield about Plants and the Science of Plants, L. H. Barry, JR., 167. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, SPENCER F. Barrp, 167.—American Association for the Advance- ment of Science: Report on the Museums of America and Canada, V. BALL, 168. Obituary.—T. R. PEALE, 168. eS kT faries D. Walcott, Office Geological Survoy. SEPTEMBER, 1885. Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. EDITORS JAMES D. ann EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Prorrssors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, anp JOHN TROWBRIDGH, or Camsrinee, Proressors H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven, Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuitapELputa. THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXX.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXXX.] No: 177—SEPTEMBER, 1885. WITH PLATES Ill, IV, V, VI. 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H. EMERTON, New Haven, Conn. Takes charge of the Zoological Collections of Schools, Colleges and Scientific Societies. Superintends the building and furnishing of Museums and all work relating to Museums and their uses. Sept., 1884.—tf. baie lees, THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] Art, XXIV.— Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands ; by JAMEs D. DANA. [Continued from page 105.] Part II. Tart OssEcrions CONSIDERED. THE objections to the Darwinian theory may be considered in the following order: I. Darwin’s insufficient knowledge of the facts bearing on the subject. II. Subsidence not ordinarily a fact because methods of produc- ing barrier reefs and atolls have been brought forward that do not require its aid. III. The occurrence of cases of elevation in regions of atolls and barrier reefs inconsistent with the subsidence-theory. IV. No ancient coral reefs in the geological series have the great thickness attributed by the subsidence-theory to modern reefs. V. Other methods of explanation and their supporting evidence. The adverse remarks directed against the idea of a sinking continent in the Pacific as the initial condition in the coral-reef subsidence are outside of the present discussion for the reason stated on the first page of this paper. In the following pages . the objections are first explained, under the above-mentioned heads, and then follow, in paragraphs lettered a, 4, ¢, etc., the writer’s discussions of the several points. AM. Jour. Sct. lane SERIES, Vou. XXX, No. 177.—SeEpr., 1885. ay 4 TO} Presa. Dana— Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. I. Darwin’s insufficient knowledge of the facts. In the Address referred to in the opening page of this article, Dr. Geikie, speaking of Darwin, observes: ‘It should be borne in mind that, compared with more recent explorers, he did not enjoy large opportunities for investigating coral reefs.” “He appears to have examined one atoll, the Keeling Reef, and one barrier-reef, that of Tahiti.” “By a gradually widening circle of observations a series of facts has been established which were either not known, or only partially known, to Darwin.”—The authors appealed to for the views that are presented as a substi- tute for Darwin’s are Prof. Kar] Semper, who has examined and described reefs of the Pelew and Philippine Islands; Dr. J. J. Rein, who has published on the physical geography of the Ber- mudas; Prof. Alexander Agassiz, who has written on the Florida reefs and others in that vicinity ; and Mr. John Murray of the Challenger Expedition, whose investigations were made at Tahiti: all able men in science whether more learned or not than Darwin on the special subject under discussion. The facts from ‘‘a widening circle of observations’ referred to comprise the physical and biological results of deep-sea exploration. The writer is mentioned as one of the “competent observers” who had given ‘independent testimony” in favor of Darwin’s views after “at least equal opportunities of studying the sub- ject,” and as he has, in these later years, looked into the new facts, he has at least a claim to a hearing. As to Darwin’s knowledge, it appears to the writer that the apology offered in the above citations was not needed. In his detailed investigation of Keeling atoll—a good example of atolls and like all the rest in its principal features—and in his examination of the Tahitian reefs, followed up by a careful study of other atolls and reefs of the ocean through the maps and descriptions of former surveying expeditions, he had a broad basis for judgment and right conclusions. When the second edition of his work was published in 1874, many of the important facts from deep-sea exploration were already known; and later he learned of the more recent results; and he did not recant. A letter of his, of October 2nd, 1879, published by Mr. Semper, while admitting with characteristic fairness the interest of the facts collected by the latter, expresses his con- tinued adherence to the opinion “that the atolls and barrier reefs in the middle of the Pacific and Indian oceans indicate subsidence.” The writer, as his expositor, may be excused for adding here that his own ‘independent testimony” was based on observa- tions among coral reefs and islands in the Pacifie during parts of three years, 1839, 1540 and 1841; that, besides working J. D. Dana—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. 171 among the reefs of Tahiti, the Samoan (or Navigator) Islands, and the Feejees (at this last group staying three months), he was _ also at the Hawaian Islands; and, in addition, he landed on and gathered facts from fifteen coral tslands, seven of these in the Paumotu Archipelago, one, Tongatabu, in the Friendly Group, two, Taputeuea and Apia, in the Gilbert Group, and five others near the equator east of the Gilbert Group, Swain’s, Fakaafo, Oatafu (Duke of York’s), Hull and Enderbury Island.* The writer may, therefore, be acquitted of presumption if he states his opinion freely on the various questions that have been brought into the discussion by other investigators. Sympa- thising fully with the sentiment expressed in the words, ‘‘ The example of Darwin’s own candor and over-mastering love of truth remains to assure us that no one would have welcomed fresh discoveries more heartily than he, even should they lead to the setting aside of some of his work,” and knowing that we are all for the truth and right theory, he has reason to believe that those who have been led to object to Darwin’s conclusions will be pleased to have their objections reviewed by one who has a personal knowledge of many of the facts. Il. Subsidence not ordinarily a fact because methods of origin have been brought forward that do not require tts aid. It is urged that, while subsidence may have happened in several cases, it is not at all necessary to the making of barrier reefs and atolls; that ‘subsidence has been invoked because no other solution of the problem seemed admissible ;” that the “solution” by subsidence ‘is only, an inference resting on no positive proofs.’ a. Darwin’s usual methods were not such as these words imply, and we think that he was true to those methods in his treat- ment of coral island facts. Darwin can hardly be said to have “invoked” subsidence. Subsidence forced itseif upon his at- tention. He saw evidence that it was a fact, and the theory came ready-made to him. The proof of subsidence from the relations in form, structure and history between atolls and the large barrier islands, like the Gambier Group, Raiatea, Bolabola and Hogoleu, scarcely admitted, he says, of a doubt; and other facts were all in harmony with it. This, his chief argument, with the enforcing evidence in my Report, (see $$ 4 and 10 of Part I of this paper) is not set aside and not mentioned in the Address from which the above sentences are cited. b. Darwin observes that “from the nature of things it is scarcely * These five islands are on the map of the Central Pacific accompanying Part I of this paper. Hull’s Island, is ‘‘ Sydney” of the writer’s Expedition Report. + Address, page 24. 172, J. D. Dana—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. possible to find direct proof of subsidence,” recognizing the fact that subsidence, unlike elevation, puts direct testimony out of sight. But still it has left evidence which he perceived and thought convincing: and this stands, whatever virtue there may be in other explanations. Moreover, we have now direct testimony for subsidence, from the facts brought forward (for another purpose) by Mr. Murray, as is set forth beyond. Ill. Zhe occurrence of cases of elevation in regions of atolls and barrier reefs. The fact that elevated reefs and other evidences of elevation occur at the Pelews, a region of wide barrier reefs and atolls, has been presented by Prof. Karl Semper,* after a study of those islands, as an objection to the theory of subsidence ; for we have thereby (in the words of the Address), ‘‘a cumbrous and entirely hypothetical series of upward and downward move- ments.” Prof. Semper reports the existence of reefs raised 200 to 250 feet above the sea-level in the southern third of the larger of the islands, while the other two thirds exhibit evi- dence of but little, if any, elevation. a. Such facts are of the same general character with those of other elevated reefs and atolls discussed in §$12, 18, 16 of Part I, and the same explanation covers them. The Pelew region is one of comparatively modern volcanic rocks and this renders local displacements a probability. 6. The occurrence of great numbers of large and small masses of coral rock, in some places crowded together, upon the west- ern or leeward reef of the several Pelew islands, and of none on the eastern reef, is mentioned as evidence against subsidence and in favor of some elevation: because, Professor Semper says, the strongest wind-waves on the western side are too feeble to break off and lift on the reef so large masses, some of them (as his words imply rather than distinctly state) ten feet thick. But the difficulty does not exist in fact; for earthquakes may have made the waves. ‘The region just west of the Pelews is one of the grandest areas of active volcanoes on the globe. Tt embraces the Philippine Islands, Krakatoa and other volcanic islands of the Sooloo sea, Celebes, etc. The agents that could do the work were there in force. ‘To the eastward, in contrast, lie the harmless islands of the Caroline Archipelago, mostly atolls, serving, perhaps, as a breakwater to the Pelews. The small elevation referred to is therefore not proved by the * First in 1868, Zeitschr. Wissensch. Zool., xiii, 558 ; additions in Die Philippinen und ihre Bewohner, Wurzburg, 1869; and still later in his ‘‘ Animal Life” pub- lished in Appleton’s International Scientific Series in 1881. ‘ J. D. Dana—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. 1738 evidence adduced; and yet it may be a fact without affecting the theory of Darwin, as I have fully illustrated.* It is important to have in mind that the coral-reef era prob- ably covered the whole of the Quaternary and perhaps the Plio- eene Tertiary also, and hence the local elevations that have taken place in the ocean were not crowded events of a short period. Moreover, these local elevations in coral seas are spread over an area of 25,000,000 square miles. As an example of the long distances: the Paumotu Archipelago, consisting of more than eighty atolls and two barrier-islands, and covering about 450,000 square miles, contains only three or four atolls that are over twelve feet high; and of these, Metia is 250 feet in height, Elizabeth, 80 feet, Dean’s probably where highest, 15 or 20 feet. Metia is one of the westernmost, near 148° 13’ W. and 15° 50’ S.: Dean’s is 60 miles to the north-northeast of Metia, and Hlizabeth is far to the southeast, in 128° W. and 25° 50’S., or nearly 1450 miles distant from Metia. Locate these points on a continent, and Pacific distances and the length of Pacific chains of atolls will be appreciated. 1V.—Wo ancient coral reefs have the thickness attributed by the subsidence-theory to modern reefs. An argument against the subsidence-theory is based by Prof, J.J. Rein +t on the alleged fact that the thickness attributed to modern reefs is far beyond that of any such reefs in earlier time ; that is, the thickness is unprecedented. The argument decides nothing. The question is one of geological fact, not to be settled by a precedent. Whether, then, there are precedents or not it is not necessary to consider. Besides this, it implies a distinction between coral-made and shell-made rocks which does not exist. The coral-reef rock is largely made of shells, and the process of formation for a lime- stone of shallow-sea origin is essentially the same whether shells or corals are the predominant or the sole material. No thick formation of any kind of rock was ever made, or could be made, by shore or shallow-sea operations without a slowly continued subsidence or a corresponding change of water-level. * Mr. Semper’s objection to the theory of subsidence based on the coéxistence of all kinds of reefs in the Pelews, atoll, fringing and barrier, with no reefs about one island, and from the relative steepness of the submarine slopes on the east and west reefs of an island have been sufficiently met in Part I + Dr. Rein’s first memoir on Bermuda appeared in the Senckenberg Ber. natur- forsch. Gesellschaft, 1869-70, p. 157, and the later in the Verhandlung des I. deutsch. Geographentages, 1881, Berlin, 1882. The above argument is from the latter paper, and is given here from the citation by Dr. Geikie, the publication not being accessible to the writer. 174 J.D. Dana—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. V.— Other methods of explanation, and their supporting evidence. A. Mr. John Murray, one of the able naturalists of the Chal- lenger Expedition, reports the following important results from soundings off northern Tahiti, made under his supervision and that of the surveying officer.* Along a line outward from the edge of the barrier reef there were found: (1) for about 250 yards, a shallow region covered partly with growing corals, which deepened seaward to 40 fath- oms; (2) for 100 yards, between the depths of 40 and 100 fathoms, a steeply but irregularly sloping surface which commenced with a precipice of 75° and had a mean angle exceeding 45° ;+ then (8) for 150 yards a sloping bottom 30° in angle; (4) then a con- tinuation of this sloping surface, diminishing in a mile to 6°, at which distance out the depth found was 590 fathoms (8,540 feet). Over the area (2), or the 100 yards between 40 and 100 fathoms, the bottom was proved to be made of large coral masses, some of them “20 to 30 feet in length,” along with finer debris ; outside of this, of sand to where the slope was re- duced to 6°; and then of mud, composed ‘of volcanic and coral sand, pteropods, pelagic and other foraminifers, coccoliths, ete.” These observations have great significance. They show (1) that the feeble currents off this part of Tahiti carry little of the coral debris in that direction beyond a mile outside of the grow- ing reef; (2) that a region of large masses of coral rock and finer material occurs at depths between 240 and 600 feet; (3) that, a mile out, the bottom has the slope nearly of the adjoin- ing land, and in this part is covered with the remains of pelagic life. From the second of these facts—the great accumulation of coral blocks below a level of 240 feet—Mr. Murray draws the conclusion that, in the making of fringing, barrier and atoll reefs, the widening goes forward (a) by making first upon the submarine slopes outside of the growing reef a pile of coral debris up to the lower limit of living reef-corals; and then (6) by building outward upon this accumulation as a base. He also announces, after speaking of other causes influencing the growth of corals, the more general conclusion that “it is not necessary to call in subsidence to explain any of the character- istic features of barrier reefs and atolls,” and concludes that his views ‘‘do away with the great and general subsidences” ap- pealed to by Darwin. a. The widening-process, in the first conclusion, nad previ- * Proc. Edinburgh Roy. Soc., Session 1879-80, p. 505. + Dr. Geikie gives in his paper a section of the soundings. ‘‘ on a true scale, vertical and horizontal,” and in it the upper steepest part of this 100 yards has a slope of about 75°. J.D. Dana—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. 15 ously been a part of the Darwinian theory; for, as stated in $10 (Part J), a fringing reef, where no subsidence is going on, widens above and steepens its seaward-slope, and it could do this only by the process described : that is, by building out upon a base of debris, or, more correctly, upon true coral-reef rock made by the gradual consolidation of the debris.* 6. The broader conclusion Mr. Murray does not sustain by a mention of special facts from the soundings, tending directly to meet the question of change of level, but by attempting to show that through the eroding action of currents and other means (as had been argued by Prof. Semper), in connection with the process already explained, reefs of all kinds can be made from submarine banks without aid from subsidence. In this place I confine myself to the question as to the fact of subsidence. The only direct argument presented against subsidence is contained in the statement, that the very broad shore-plain of Tahiti shows that ‘the island has not in recent times undergone subsidence,” and may indicate a slight eleva- tion; and in this he sustains the earlier statement of my Report, which says (p. 298) that the broad shore-plain of Tahiti prob- ably overlies in some parts the fringing reef, and (p. 300) the shore-plain, if built upon reefs, as I was assured, may afford proof of a rise of one or two feet.” But this admission, as I have explained for other cases of local elevation, is in no way opposed to the theory of subsidence. ce. The kind of submarine slopes to be looked for off reefs is illustrated by the soundings, as Dr. Geikie indicates. But it is interesting to note that the facts, while very important, sustain instead of correcting those announced by earlier observers. Beechey and Darwin make the mean slope about 45°, and my Report says 40° to 50°. I have assumed for the slope of the bottom outside of the reef-limit the same angle as for the sur- face-slope of the island just above the water level: 5° to 8° off Tahiti, of which 5° is accepted as most correct, and 3° to 5° off Upolu; and the assumption as regards Tahiti is sustained by the Challenger soundings. My Report states (from the Expedition surveys) that off Upolu, the bottom ‘loses more and more in the proportion of coral sand till we finally reach a bottom of earth,” and introduces this as an argument against the indefi- nite drifting of coral sands into the deep ocean ;{ and this argu- ment the Tahiti soundings sustain. With reference to the occurrence off some shores of precipi- tous submarine slopes, the Challenger soundings give definite facts as to one case. It leaves undisturbed the previously re_ * My Expedition Geological Report, pp. 131, 132, where figures are given illus- trating the effect of widening. + Ibid., page 47. t Ibid., page 154. 176 J. D. Dana—Origin of Coral Reefsjand Islands. ported cases of like steepness at greater depths; for example, the sounding of Captain Fitzroy at Keeling atoll (while Darwin was there), 2200 yards from the breakers, in which no bottom was found at a depth of 1200 fathoms, but the line was partly cut at a depth between 500 to 600 fathoms; the sounding by the Wilkes Expedition off Clermont Tonnerre (Paumotu Archi- pelago), where the lead brought up an instant at 350 fathoms, and then dropped off again, descended to 600 fathoms without reaching bottom, and came up bruised, with small pieces of white and red coral attached; a sounding by the same Expedi- tion, a ‘‘cable’s length’ from Ahii, in which the lead struck a ledge of rock at 150 fathoms and brought up finally at 300 fathoms.* All the older soundings need to be repeated; but there must be enough truth in those quoted to warrant the remark that the force of Darwin’s argument for subsidence from the steepness of the submarine slopes about atolls is not weak- ened by the Challenger results. d. But the chief interest of the Challenger soundings con- sists in their affording “direct” proof, ‘ positive” proof, of much subsidence ; a kind of proof that subsidence sinks out of sight, and which soundings may yet make available in many similar cases. That belt of coarse debris—including ‘“‘ masses 20 to 80 feet ” long—was found over the steeply sloping bottom at depths between 240 and 600 feet. These depths are far below the limit of forcible wave-action. They are depths where the waters, however disturbed above by storms, have no rending aud lifting power, even when the bottom is gradually shelv- ing; depths, in this special case, against a slope which for 100 yards is 75° in its upper part, and in no part under 45°, the vertical fall being 360 feet in the 100 yards. Strokes against the reef-rock thus submerged, and under such conditions, would be extremely feeble. Waves advancing up a coast, whether storm-driven waves or earthquake-waves, do little rock-rend- ing below the depth to which they can bare the bottom for a broadside plunge against the obstacle before them, although the velocity gives them transporting power to a greater depth. It is the throw of an immense mass of water against the front, with the velocity increased by the tidal flow over a shelving bottom,—the rate sometimes amounting, according to Steven- son, to 36 miles an hour or 52°8 feet a second,—together with the buoyant action of the water, that produces the great effects. A vertical surface below the sea-level of 20 feet made bare for the broadside stroke is probably very rarely exceeded even * Thid., page 55. J. D. Dana—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. 177 in the case of earthquake-waves; and with storm-waves, or recorded earthquake-waves, the displacement of the water at a depth of 240 feet would be at the most only a few inches. I saw on atoll reefs no upthrown masses of coral rock over ten feet in thickness and twenty feet in length or breadth. It is therefore plainly impossible that such a belt of debris should have been made at its present level, or even at a depth of 20 feet ; and hence the debris affords positive proof of a large subsi- dence during some part of the reef-making era. The existence of the belt of debris may be explained as follows: If the reef now at a depth of 240 feet were at the sea-level as the sea-level reef, and subsidence were not in progress for a period, the very steep front of the reef now just below the 240-foot level might have resulted from the widening that would have gone forward. And, under such conditions, the action of the occasional extraordinary waves might have torn off masses from the front which would have tumbled down the steeply sloping surface until the belt of debris had been formed. Then, with a renewal of the slow subsidence, the thickening of the reef would have been re- sumed and gone on to its final limit, and the rendings of the great waves found lodgment at higher levels. The masses now on atoll reefs must be from comparatively recent up- throws. This direct evidence of subsidence from Tahiti renders it reasonable to make subsidence in atoll-making a general truth. It is nevertheless desirable that facts of the kind should be multiplied. The abrupt descent in the submarine slopes of reefs detected by Fitzroy at a depth below 38000 feet, and those reported by the Wilkes Expedition at depths of 2100 and 900 feet, seem to indicate a similar rest at the sea level and conse- quent reef-widening, in the course of a progressing subsidence ; and proof of this may yet be found in belts of coarse coral- rock debris at the foot of the precipices. Such a period of rest would lead to the forming of submarine precipices in dif- ferent regions contemporaneously at different depths according to the rate of subsidence of the part of the subsiding area. B. From facts observed about the Florida reefs, Lieutenant HE. B. Hunt, U.S. N., announced, in 1863,* the conclusion that these reefs had received their westward elongation through the westward “sweep” of an eddy current to the Gulf Stream. The subject, nearly twenty years afterwards, was more thor- oughly investigated by Mr. Alexander Agassiz, and the same * This Journal, II, xxxv, 197. 178 SJ. D. Dana—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. conclusion reached.* Mr. Agassiz made also another im- portant observation—that this current is an abundant carrier of marine life for the feeding of the coral animals, and so accele- rates the coral growth and accumulation in its direction. Combining with these effects others considered beyond, Mr. Agassiz expresses, like Mr. Murray and Mr. Semper, the farther conclusion, that all kinds of reefs, atoll, fringing and barrier, may be made without aid from subsidence. a. The facts, presented by Lieutenant Hunt, and more fully by Mr. Agassiz with regard to the effects of the eddy current of the Gulf Stream, show that coral reefs may be elongated, and also that inner channels may be made, by the drifting of coral sands. But the action with coral sands is essentially “the same as with other sands; and illustrations of this drifting process occur along the whole eastern coast of North America from Florida to Long Island. We there learn that drift-made beaches run in long lines between broad channels or sounds and the ocean; that they have nearly the uniform direction of the drift of the waters, with some irregularities introduced by the forms of the coast and the outflow of the inner waters which are tidal and fluvial and have much strength during ebb tide. The easy consolidation of coral sands puts in a peculiar feature, but not one that affects the direction of drift accumulation. b. The great barrier reef off eastern Australia, a thousand miles long, has some correspondence in position to the sand- reefs off eastern North America. But it is full of irregulari- ties of direction and of interruptions, and follows in no part an even line. In the southern half, it extends out 150 miles from the coast and ineludes a large atoll-formed reef; in the northern half, the barrier while varying much in course is hardly over 30 miles from the land. There is very little in its form to suggest similarity of origin to the drift-made barriers of sand. c. In the Pacific Ocean, the trends of many of the coral island groups, and of the single islands, do not correspond with the direction of the oceanic currents, or with any eddy cur- rents except such as are local and are determined by them- selves. *On the Tortugas and Florida Reefs, by A. Agassiz, Trans. Amer. Acad., x1, 1883. Professor Louis Agassiz’s account of the Florida reefs was published in the U.S. Coast Survey Reports of 1851 and 1866, and reproduced in vol. vii of the Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. It gives an excellent descrip- tion of the Florida reefs, and of the action of boring animals and other injurious agents on corals, and reaches the conclusion that the reef has been raised to its present level and thickness by wave and current action, without the aid of eleva- tion or subsidence. The argument is based on such observations as could be made over the surface of the reefs and the adjoining sea-bottom, and bears on the question of the necessity of subsidence and not on the fact of subsidence. J. D. Dana—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. 179 Near longitude 180°, as the map of the Central Pacific (see Part I) illustrates, the equator is crossed by the long Gil- bert (or Kingsmill) Group, at an angle with the meridian of 25° to 80°, and not in the direction of the Pacific current which is approximately equatorial. This obliquely crossing chain of atolls is continued northward in the Ratack and Ralick Groups (or the Marshall Islands), making in all a chain over 1200 miles long; and, adding the concordant Hllice Islands on the south, and extending the Ratack line to Gaspar Rico its northern outlier, the chain is nearly 2000 miles long. Nothing in the direction of the long range, excepting local shapings of some of the points about the atolls, can be attributed to the Pacific currents. Moreover, the diversified forms of the atolls have no sufficient explanation in the drift process. d. Further: drifting by currents may make beaches and inner channels whether subsidence is going on in the region or not, and are not evidence for, or against, either a movement downward or upward. Sandy Hook, the long sandy point off the southern cape of New York harbor, has been undergoing (as the U. S. Coast Survey has shown) an increase in length, or rather variations in length, through the drifting of sands by an outside and an inside current; and this is no evidence that Professor G. H. Cook is wrong in his conclusion that the New Jersey coast is slowly subsiding. e. But even in this region of Florida we have strong evidence of a great subsidence during the coral reef era, and all the subsi- dence that the Darwinian theory demands. In a very valuable paper by Mr. Agassiz, published in 1879 in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology,* the author points out that the South American continent, in com- paratively recent geological times, had connection with the West India islands through two lines: (1) one along a belt from the Mosquito Coast to Jamaica, Porto Rico and Cuba; and (2) the other through Trinidad to Anguilla, of the Wind- ward Islands. He sustains the conclusion by a review of the soundings made by the Steamer Blake under the command of J. R. Bartlett, U. S. N., and a consideration of the facts con- nected with the distribution of marine and terrestrial species. As the soundings show, the former of the two connections re- quires for completeness an elevation of the region amounting to 4060 feet over the part south of Jamaica, 4830 feet between Jamaica and Hayti, and 5240 feet between Hayti and Cuba. The other line of connection requires an elevation of 3450 feet. An open channel, as he observes, would thus be left be- tween Anguilla and the Virgin Islands, where there is now a depth of 6400 feet. The close relations in the existing fauna * An abstract of the paper is contained in this Journal, ITI, xviii, 230, 1880. 180 J. D. Dana— Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. of the Gulf to that of the Pacific waters prove that it continued to be a salt-water gulf through the era of elevation. Mr. Agassiz infers that the connection of the West India Islands with South America existed before the Quaternary era. But there are other facts which seem to prove that it was con- tinued into, or at least was a fact, in the Quaternary. The opinion as to a connection of the Windward Islands with South America in the Quaternary was presented by Prof. H. D. Cope in 1868, and earlier, as he states, by Pomel, on the ground of the discovery in the caves of Anguilla of a species of gigantic Rodent related to the Chinchilla, as large as the Virginia deer, and nearly equaling the Quaternary Castorozdes of Ohio.* Further, De Castro, as cited by Dr. J. Leidy in his “Mammalian Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska,” 1869, an- nounced, in 1865, a gigantic sloth of the ‘ Quaternary,” from Cuba, which he referred to the genus Megalonyx, and Dr. Leidy named Megalocnus rodens, proving a Quaternary connection be- tween the continent and Cuba. The fact of an elevated condition of the region sufficient to make Cuba and Anguilla part of the continent during the earlier Quaternary, if not in the Pliocene also, is thus made quite certain. This is fully recognized by Wallace.t Such a condi- tion could hardly have existed without a large elevation also of Florida, though probably not, as Mr. Agassiz holds, to the full amount of the depression between it and Cuba—nearly 3000 feet—because Cuba is most closely related in fauna to South America. The subsidence which brought the region to the present level was consequently within the coral-reef period. It is hence hardly to be doubted that the making of the Florida, Bahama and other West India coral reefs was going on during the progress of a great subsidence. None of the facts mentioned by observers are opposed to this view. It is of interest to note here that on Cuba and Jamaica there are elevated coral reefs, the highest on Cuba 1000 feet above the sea, according to Mr. Agassiz, and probably at one point 2000, according to Mr. W. O. Crosby’s observations,t and on Ja- maica 2000 feet, according to Mr. Sawkins; indicating that there have been upward movements subsequent to the down- * Proc. Philad. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1868, 313, and Proc. Philad. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1869, 183; also Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 30 pp. 4to with 5 plates, Washington, 1883. The last paper (prepared in 1878) contains descriptions of the following species from the Anguilla bone-cave. Amblyrhiza inundata Cope (the large Rodent announced in 1869), A. guadrans Cope, A. latidens Cope, an Artiodactyl apparently of the Bovide and a little smaller than Ovis aries. With them was obtained an implement (‘a spoon-shaped scraper or chisel”) made of the lip of the large Strombus gigas. + Geograph. Distrib. of Animals, ii, 60, 78. ¢ Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist, xxii, 124, 1882, and in abstract in this Jour. xxvi, 148, 1883. J. D. Dana— Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. 181 ward. Mr. Crosby argues that the great thickness of the now elevated reefs could have been produced only “ during a pro- gressing subsidence,” so that “ we have apparently no recourse but to accept Darwin’s theory.” C. It has been urged by Mr. Semper, Dr. J. J. Rein, Mr. A. Agassiz, Mr. Murray, Dr. Geikie and others, that since the growing calcareous deposits of the sea-bottom are slowly rising toward the surface by successive accumulations of the shelis and other debris of marine species, they may have been built up locally in various regions of the deep seas (as they actually are now about some islands) until they were near enough to the surface to become next a plantation of corals; and that in -this way, atolls became common within the area of the tropical oceans. The method is regarded as setting aside subsidence. a. The advocates of this hypothesis have not pointed to such a mound now approaching the ocean’s surface on the western border of the Gulf Stream, where the depth over the remark- ably luxuriant region is least; and none over any part of the tropical Pacific. It is suggested that the Chagos Bank may be one example; butit is not known to be so. Professor Semper states that he found evidence of pelagic life instead of modern corals in the lower part of the elevated reefs of the Pelews. Dr. Geikie cites from letters by Dr. Guppy in Nature of Nov. 29, Dec. 6, 1883, and Jan. 12, 1884, the fact that in elevated reefs on the Salomon Islands, 100 to 1200 feet high, the coral rock forms a comparatively thin layer over impure earthy limestone abounding in foraminifers and other pelagic organ- isms, such as Pteropods. Such observations have great interest, but they only prove that, in coral-reef seas, corals will grow over any basis of rock that may offer where the water is right in depth, and do not nullify any of the evidences of sub- sidence. ‘his point should be kept before the mind in all future study of coral-reef regions. Borings in coral islands, as recommended on a former page, are the true means of investi- gating it. b. The old hypothesis that atolls may have been built upon the summits of submerged mountain-peaks or volcanic cones at the right distance under water for growing reef-corals, or, if not at the right level, brought up to it by other organic depo- ‘sitions, or down to it by abrasion, is urged by Mr. Murray. This writer observes that ‘‘ the soundings of the Tuscarora and Challenger have made known numerous sub-marine elevations : mountains rising from the general level of the ocean’s bed at a depth of 2500 or 3000 fathoms up to within a few hundred fathoms of the surface.” But ‘a few hundred fathoms,” if we 182 J. D. Dana—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. make few equal 2, means 1200 feet or more, which leaves a long interval yet unfilled.* It is also urged that some of the ‘‘ emerged volcanic moun- tains situated in the ocean basins’’ may have been wholly swept away and left with a few fathoms of water above them. But this is claiming more from the agents of erosion than they could possibly have accomplished, as the existence of an atoll in the ocean and the examples on coasts of wave and tidal action prove. D. To give completeness to the hypothesis which makes barrier and atoll islands out of sub-marine banks (whether these banks have a basis of volcanic or other rocks, or of calcareous accumulations), 1t 1s necessary to show that the waters of the waves and currents can make barrier islands and atolls out of such banks without subsidence; and explanations to this effect have been given. It is urged, in agreement with Darwin, that the outer por- tions of reefs increase faster than the inner, owing to the purer water about them and the more abundant life for food; that the inner parts are not only at a disadvantage in these respects but suffer also from coral debris thrown over them. They add to these causes of unequal growth mentioned by Darwin, the solvent and abrading action of the waters. It is hence concluded that, under these conditions, the sim- ple bank of growing corals may have a depression made at center, which, as the process continues, will become a lagoon basin, and the reef, thereby, an atoll with a shallow lagoon ; that the atoll, so begun, may continue to enlarge through the external widening of the reef and the further action of current- abrasion and solution within; or, in the case of fringing reefs, that the change may go on until the reef has become a barrier- reef with an inner channel and inner reefs. It is admitted that subsidence may possibly have helped in the case of the deepest lagoons. Dr. Geikie expresses his opinion on the subject thus: “As the atoll increases in size the lagoon becomes proportionally larger, partly from its waters being less supplied with pelagic * The actual depths over the elevations in the Tuscarora section between the Hawaian Islands and Japan, numbering them from east to west, are as follows: 1, 11,500 feet; 2, 7500 feet; 3, 8400 feet; 4, 12,000 feet; 5, 9000 feet (this seven miles west of Marcus Island); 6, 9600 feet. Whether ridges or peaks the facts do not decide; probably the former. No. 1 has a base of 185 miles with the mean eastward slope 40 feet per mile (=1:132) and the westward 128 feet per mile. No. 2 has a breadth of 396 miles, with the mean eastern slope mostly 37 feet per mile, but 51 feet toward the top, and the westward, 55 feet per mile (=1:96). No. 3 was the narrowest and steepest, it being about 100 miles broad at base and having the mean eastern slope 192 feet per mile and the mean west- ern 200 feet. J.D, Dana—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. 188 food, and therefore less favorable to the growth of the more massive kinds of corals, partly from the injurious effects of cal- eareous sediment upon coral growth there, and partly also from the solvent action of the carbonic acid of the sea-water upon the dead coral.” Mr. Semper gives examples of the effects of currents at the Pelew Islands, stating that by striking against or flowing by the living corals they make the reef grow with steeper sides and determine its direction, and urging that abrasion and solu- tion have made not only the deep lagoon-like channels, but the deeper channels between the islands. He holds that in Kri- angle, which he describes as a true atoll with no channel leading into the lagoon from the sea, that the lagoon may have been “the result of the action of currents on the porous soil during a period of slow upheaval.* He says, further, that the large channel in the main island of the group ‘forty fathoms deep and many miles wide,” “finds an easy explana- tion on the assumption of an upbeaval;” it became “ wider in proportion as the enclosed island consisting of soft stone [tufa|] was gradually eaten away, and during slow upheaval it would continue to grow deeper in proportion as the old porous por- tions of the reef and the rock in which it was forming were more and more worn down by the combined action of boring animals and plants, and of the currents produced by the tides and by rain.” Mr. Semper refers to the dead depressed tops of some masses of Porites near tide-level as the effects of the deposit of sediment over the top of the living coral and of erosion by the waves and exposure to rains while the sides continued to grow; and the fact is made an example on a very small scale of atoll-making. Other examples of the action of currents, sediment, boring species, and the solvent action of carbonic acid in the waters, are mentioned by Mr. Agassiz, in his excellent account of the “Tortugas and Florida reefs.” a. The theory, if satisfactory, accounts not only for the origin of an atoll, but for the origin of atolls of all sizes, shapes and conditions, and for great numbers of them in archipelagos and chains; not only for channels through fringing reefs, like those that abrasion in other cases makes, but for all the irreg- ular outlines of barriers, for the great barriers reaching far away from any land, and for the positions and indented coasts of the small included lands. Is it a sufficient explanation of the facts ? b. The currents that influence the structure of reefs are: (1), the general movement or drift of the ocean, in some parts varying with seasonal variations in the winds; (2), the currents * Animal Life,” pp. 269, 270. 184. J.D. Dana—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. connected with wave-action and the inflowing tide over a shelving bottom; and (8), the currents during the ebb, flowing out of channels; together with (4) counter-currents. Hach region must have its special study in order to. mark out all the local effects that currents occasion. Such effects are produced whether a secular subsidence is in progress or not, and hence a - particular review of the subject in this place is unnecessary. The shaping of the outside of the reef and the determination of the width and level surface of the shore-platform are due chiefly to the tidal flow and the accompanying action of wind- waves, as explained in §17 of Part I.* The current that accompanies the ebb is locally the strong- est. Owing to the great width of many barrier reefs and of the channels and harbors within them, the tide flows in over a wide region. At the turn in the tide the waters escape at first freely * Since the first part of my paper was published | have observed in an article by Mr. A. R. Hunt, in the Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, iv, 254, January, 1885, the remark, referring to a statement of the above fact in my Manual of Geology, that the ‘‘ statement though strictly in accordance with Mr. Russell’s theory, has so far as I can ascertain, no foundation in fact.” The state- ment, as I have said (and as I illustrate in my Geology) was but the statement of a fact observed by me first in 1839 on the coasts of Australia and New Zealand, without a thought of any theory; and part of the explanation is overlooked by Mr. Hunt. I observed that the first waters of the incoming tide swelled over the sandstone platform (which was a hundred yards or more wide off the Port Jackson heads), and became thus a protector of the sandstone platform from breaker strokes; and that the lower part of the sandstone bluff to a height a little above high tide, was hollowed out by the strokes of the breakers. A similar erosion near high tide level of the great coral masses standing on the coral-rock platform of atolls I also observed while among the Paumotu Islands. Prof. A. E. Verrill informs me that he has seen examples of the same action on a grand scale about the island of Anticosti in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The observations do not appear to me to be at variance with the principles laid down in Mr. Hunt’s valuable paper; they require only his recognition of a tidal effect which he does not fully consider, and which British seas cannot illustrate. To produce a platform, (1) the rock-material exposed to the flow of the tide and the breakers must be firm enough to resist wear during the early part of the flow, and at the same time soft enough to allow the striking breakers to cut into the base of the bluff, or shear off the projecting ledge; and (2) the region must not be one of very high tides or stormy seas, for, in such regions of forceful waves and tides, the movements are too often of the destructive kind through the whole continuance of the flow, leaving no chance for the protection a platform needs. Loose sand-deposits are too soft; they are worn off below the sea-level and changed in surface by storms; but some firmer kinds may make a low-tide flat in a bay where the tides are small. Coral-reef rock, the material of the atoll plat- form, has the hardness and solubility, in carbonated sea-water, of ordinary lime- stone. The rock of the Port Jackson Heads is a friable sandstone. At the Bay of Islands, New Zealand, the platforms occur in an argillaceous rock, which be- comes soft and earthy above by weathering, but is unaltered and firm below because kept wet (loc. cit. p. 442). At the Paumotus the tides are two to three feet high, and the platform usually 100 yards or more wide; at the Phcenix Group the tides are five to six feet high and the platform mostly fifty to seventy yards wide; at the Port Jackson Heads, the ordinary tides are six: feet high and the platform fifty to one hundred and fifty yards wide; at the Bay of Islands (in the sheltered waters of the bay), the tides are eight feet high and the platform is under thirty yards wide. J. D. Dana—Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. 185 over the same wide region; bdut, with a tide of but two or three feet, there is but little fall before the reef—which lies at low tide level and a little above it—retards it by friction; and thus escape by the open entrances is increased in amount and in rate of flow. The facts are the same in atolls where the lagoons have entrances.* c. Examples of massive corals having the top flat, or de- pressed and lifeless, while the sides are living, are common in coral-reef regions, wherever such corals are exposed to the deposition of sediment, and where they have grown up to the surface so that the top is bare above low tide. or yen Bee/* where A and B are arbitrary constants. If the origin of the curve is now taken at the center of the giving : : : : ee base of the solid of revolution, and if for convenience — is made equal to c, y must disappear for c=a and therefore B= ay Net y= Ae ee me Bae ey, 19) : : When a=, ¢ */° 0 and the equation reduces to the sim- ple, well-known logarithmic form of uniform resistance. If the origin is taken at the summit of the cone, and both w and y are multiplied by ¢, the equation may be written = O(N en). Here 6 must be determined to correspond to the equation of condition which becomes ve (yy? —y'*) dx=4b'e=min. The more } exceeds 6° therefore, the smaller will be 40°. Now it is well known property of 4 that it exceeds its square more than any other number, and consequently /=4. Introducing this value and restoring ¢ the equation becomes ae Ce eC ¢ 2 é and the Elastic Limit of Lava. 287 and this is the equation of the curve which by its revolution about the x-axis will generate the finite unloaded column of ‘least variable resistance.’* This is the same curve barring the value of constants which I have shown twice elsewhere,f characterizes step faults. It might have been deduced directly from the discussion pre- sented in the latter paper on the distribution of energy in compressible masses under the action of a constant force, or that discussion might have been evolved from this. The arrangement of sheets of rock in a complex fault, the distribu- tion of pressure in the atmospheric column, the form assumed by a cold rivet, and the shape of a volcanic cone, as well as some other important cases, and possibly some vegetable formst are mere variations of a single problem and find their solution in different readings of the equation p= Neg Be where w is the energy potentialized per unit volume. DNB ; ; is the natural unit of the volcanic curve The quantity~ corresponding to the constant sub-tangent of the infinite form and to the constant of the catenary curve. It is of course con- stant for any given homogeneous material and different for different materials. Consequently solids of different materials * Whether this proposition is new or not my reading is insufficient to deter- mine. I can only say that I have looked for it in vain in a number of treatises in which it might have been expected to be mentioned if known. + Geology of the Comstock Lode, chap. iv; Impact Friction and Faulting, this Journal, vol. xxx, p. 116. ¢ The case of a loaded column of uniform strength seems unlikely to be met with in inorganic nature for it appears to imply an adjustment of the column after the imposition of the load. I strongly suspect however that the simple logarithmic column is the form to which tree trunks tend in forests where the influence of winds is but little felt. Where such trees reach a large size and especially where the wood is soft, the increase in diameter near the ground is very marked. Thus in the red-wood forests of California the largest trees are generally cut some ten or more feet above the ground to save the inconvenience of handling a trumpet shaped log. This increase of diameter is less marked in trees of moderate size than in very large ones and less among hard wood trees than in species the wood of which is soft. Forest trees of course seek the light, and one can scarcely doubt that they reach it as rapidly as it is possible to do so consistently with stability. If so the load at any section below the branches per unit of area of this section will be a maximum and will be the same at all sections, and if this is true the form is the simple logarithmic column. For if F is the area of the section or vy’, and if F, is the value of F for the datum plane, the equation may also be written P=F,e7 2/*, This would lead to a simple means of testing the question under favorable cir- cumstances. If one were to cut a well developed forest tree just below the branches and divide the trunk into two or more portions, weigh the branches and each log, and measure each cross-section, it could of course be determined in a moment whether the load per square inch of all sections were uniform or not. 288 Becker—Geometrical Form of Volcanic Cones corresponding to this equation will differ only in scale or will : oe 2 ; be geometrically similar. The value of — can easily be ex- pressed in terms of 2 and y. It will be found that 4n° ya Dat ayae 490° a Fa i which gives 2H y yy Gan Sane & being the angle which the tangent at any point makes with the x axis.* In the figure of least variable resistance the radius becomes zero when ?@=45°. Below the point of the cone #@ increases with the radius. In comparing the theoretical form with actual occurrences this angle is especially significant. Comparison with actual cases.—W hether or not the figure of least variable resistance is that of a volcanic cone, can, I take it to be, determined only by comparison in spite of the appar- ently good reasons which have been stated for such a supposi- tion. The first step for such a comparison is the reduction of each drawing or of corresponding numerical data to the same unit, which can be done by help of the formula for 2 vast given. Professor Milne gives diagrams and tabulated meas- urements of Fusiyama and Kumagatake which I have attempted to reduce in this way. The diagrams were taken from selected photographs and are probably slightly but cer- tainly not greatly distorted. Their actual scale is unfor- tunately not given. For the left side of Fusiyama Professor Milne gives in centimeters the position of eleven points on the section referred to the axis of the volcano. Of these I rejected the two uppermost for reasons to be mentioned presently, and 2 : calculated a for each of the others, assuming that the cord connecting any two points was parallel to the tangent at a point half way between them. By reference to Professor Milne’s diagram it will be seen that his points are so close that * For the infinite logarithmic column on the other hand 2K ay) p tand while for the catenary yas (eo /%4 a) y S (tan? ¢+1)4 oe and the Elastic Limit of Lava. 289 no sensible error is involved in this assumption. The average 2 : : value of — obtained was 2°86 centimeters. ‘To reduce the diagram to any desired unit, c, it is only necessary to redraw it to a scale in which 556 is treated as unity. The value of c which I happened to find convenient was 4. I drew both sides of Fusiyama to the same scale to which I had plotted the equation of the solid of maximum stability and give the plots below. I treated Kumagatake in the same way, getting the value of the natural unit in Professor Milne’s diagram as 2°61. In fig. 1 may be seen the theoretical locus and Professor Milne’s outlines of these cones reduced as described. They are drawn to the same axial line but to different bases, so that for purposes of exact comparison a tracing of one should be made and shifted vertically until it more or less nearly coin- cides with the other. If this is done, a similarity will be revealed between the results of theory and the facts which seems to admit of but one explanation. FIGURE 1.—Theoretical curve and outlines of actual voleanoes. The comparison EF — Food is to be made by vertical transposition. I, is y= ; II, Milne’s outline of Fusiyama; III, Milne’s outline of Kumagatake; IV, Shasta, enlarged from Taber’s stereoscopic view from north side, No. 1542; V, Hood from the Dalles, enlarged from Watkins’ New Boudoir Series, D. 61; VI, Popocatapet’] enlarged 2k from A. Briguet’s photos of Aqueduct of Tomacoco Mill, No. 19; c¢, the unit or Wai: I may mention that the slopes as given by Professor Milne are reproduced as accurately as it is practicable to draw them to an altered scale, and that the natural units obtained as stated were used without any correction or adjustment. That for Fusiyama might be changed a trifle, for, according to my computations, Professor Milne has not taken the axis quite at > 290 Becker—Geometrical Form of Volcanie Cones the center. On recomputing it however for the slight discrep- ancy mentioned, I find that the difference in the cross section of the mountain would be imperceptible on the scale of the figure, and I therefore prefer to present it exactly as it results from Professor Milne’s measurements. A small part of the lower portions of the left sides of the mountains as given by Professor Milne are omitted because they could not be ineluded without unduly reducing the scale of the cut. These portions correspond as well as the remainder with the theoretical form. Professor Milne gives no more of the right side of Kumagatake than the cut shows. In computing the value of the natural unit I rejected the two measurements nearest the peak because the summit is not only most subject to erosion when not snow-capped but should not theoretically coincide with the figure of least variable resistance; for such a coincidence would imply an infinitesi- mal crater while the existence of an actual crater implies the presence of less matter, or a smaller load, close to the summit and consequently a more rapid convergence of the sides. Strictly speaking, the presence of a crater would affect the whole figure, but the influence of this diminution of the load will manifestly be extremely slight excepting near the crater itself whenever the crater is small compared with the volume of the cone. For the sake of comparison with these very perfect examples I have introduced outlines of Mt. Shasta, Mt. Hood and Popocatapet’l carefully reduced to appropriate scales from pho- tographs. These mountains are all rather irregular but will serve at least to show a striking similarity in the curvature of volcanic cones, and a pretty close agreement with the theo- retical form. This likeness can best be judged of by making a tracing of the theoretical cone and placing it upon the out- lines of the mountains. Professor George Davidson has kindly lent me a sketch of Mt. Renier, which he made for the special purpose of recording its slopes. Long practice in this kind of work makes him confident that this sketch is correct as to angles to something like one degree. The sketch coincides most remarkably with the theoretical form but is not added to the diagram because its evidence is scarcely comparable with that obtained mechanically by photography. In the case of a very large and deep crater it might be interesting to compare the form of greatest stability with that of the wall of the crater. If R were the radius of the outer surface of this wall at any level and r the radius of the inner surface the area of the ring would be z(R’—7’) and (R’—r’)% would have the same value as y in the equation given for a pointed cone. Professor Milne states that the highest slope he has observed and the Hlastie Limit of Lava. 291 upon a volcano is 40° upon Kumagatake, while he notes in pictorial representations of volcanic cones angles often exceed- ing 50° and one reaching 69°. He is inclined to think that artistic feeling may have induced exaggerations in these cases. Other geologists: have of course also called attention to such misrepresentations. If my theory of the form of volcanic cones is correct these objections are well founded, since 45° is reached only at the (impossible) point of a solid cone. If the thin walls of large craters, however, are sufficiently solid to take a form of least variable resistance higher angles than 45° will occur. The elastic limit of the average lava of cones.—Besides its geometrical importance in the equation of the volcanic cone Gn Cu the quantity — possesses a further property of at least equal interest. The coefficient of resistance at the elastic limit of the material of the cone is A= ——C. wld Now x is a constant which it is peculiarly difficult to deter- mine experimentally for any material, while it is one of prime importance in the grand question of geology, upheaval and subsidence. The value of c, however, can be immediately derived from observations on voleanic cones or from drawings to scale or from photographs of which the scale and the angle of the plane of projection to the vertical are known, while p is determinable for uniform material with the utmost accuracy and ease and a close approximation to its average value could doubtless be obtained by a considerable number of experi- ments for the materials of almost any volcanic cone. The value of g is capable of being further checked by the results of pendulum observations. The form of the more regular class of volcanic cones will therefore enable geologists to determine the modulus of resistance for the elastic limit on an enormous scale for an extremely important class of the constituents of the earth’s “crust,” and if the scale should prove not to com- pensate for the uncertainty as to the value of the density, the method cannot fail to afford a valuable check on those ob- tained from laboratory experiments. Mr. Mark B. Kerr of the U. S. Geological Survey has kindly furnished me with a surveyed section of the “Sugar Loaf,” Siskiyou County, California. It is shown in fig. 2 with the theoretical curve on a larger scale than that employed in fig. 1. The agreement is very good and the scale being known gives 2 =T= 2560 feet = 780°26 meters. 292 Becker— Volcanic Cones and Elastic Limit of Lava. The height of a uniform column of this material which will strain its lower surface to the elastic limit is u poe feet = 390 meters. If its specific gravity is 3, the load it will bear at the limit of elasticity per square centimeter is 117 kilos. This is a very reasonable result, for I find in a table compiled from a number of trustworthy sources the following values for the pressure at the breaking point (which is of course greater than that at the elastic limit). Good brick, 100 kilos. pr. sq. cm. ; sandstone, 200; limestone, 800; granite, 600. It is probable that the mean specific gravity of the cone is below 3 and its carrying power not much above that of good brick. A good suite of specimens would be necessary to give this determination much value because of the uncertainty as to the density of the material, but it at least exhibits the method.* 2. ae: PELE eh BOA SEAN EY Sp FIGURE 2.—Theoretical curve and surveyed section of Sugar Loaf, Siskiyou County, California. The comparison is to be made by vertical transposition. : 2 Elevation of base, 4000 feet; of summit, 6399 feet. c= cai Lunar voleanoes.—If p is given the form mg, where m is the mass of the unit volume and g the acceleration of gravitation, PB Vee : : : ¢ or a is inversely proportional to g. Hence, if the attraction of gravitation at the earth’s surface were to diminish ¢ would * Since this paper was completed I have had access to the maps of Mt. Shasta, recently made by the U. S. Geological Survey. For the sake of testing the theory set forth above four vertical sections through the summit were prepared by the topographical assistants on lines running north and south, east and west, northwest and southeast, northeast and southwest. All of these profiles showed a very satisfactory general agreement with the theoretical form and yield a value for k/p of about 1320 feet or within 40 feet of that found for Sugar Loaf, so that considering the roughness of the method the two results are to be regarded as substantially identical. The main mass of Shasta appears to consist of andesites, somewhat “‘ trachytic” in texture. G. F. Matthew—New genus of Cambrian Pteropods. 293 increase and, celer’s paribus, loftier volcanic cones would result. If, therefore, the material of the volcanic cones on the moon closely resembles that of those on the earth, the enormous height of lunar volcanoes is in part ascribable to the feebleness of the attraction which the moon exerts upon bodies at its sur- face. On the other hand, studies of the form and dimensions x lene of lunar volcanoes would lead to values of —, from which it ? might be determined approximately whether the height of a column of lunar lava which would strain its lower surface to the elastic limit does or does not correspond to that of columns of terrestrial lavas; a step of some interest in lunar physical geology, and one which might even lead to a guess as to the lithological character of the lunar rock, since different lavas 5 cma u probably have different characteristic values of —. Office U. S. Geol. Survey, San Francisco, Feb., 1885. Art, XXXVIIT.—WNotice of a new genus of Pteropods from the Saint John Group (Cambrian); by Gro. F. Matruew. In studying the organic remains of the St. John Group the writer has met with a new genus of Pteropods which is of interest as showing the relation of the ancient genus Hyolithes and its allies to the Cephalopods. Hichwald’s genus Hyolithes was based on a species which is camerated near the apex ; but the new genus not only has this chambered area near the apex, but is also divided by dia- phragms on one side of the shell, nearly to the aperture, some- what in the manner of Phragmotheca of Barrande. It may be described in the following terms :— DiPLoTHEca n. gen. Slender oval cones somewhat triangular in section with abbrevt- ated or attenuated apices. In the narrower part of the tube or cone there are several septa that divide off segments of the tube from the body cavity (chamber of habitation). The body cavity is separated from one side of the outer shell by a thin partetion supported by dehicate transverse septa or diaphragms. The apex in one species is prolonged into a narrow attenuated fleaible tubule with trans- verse annulations (diaphragms ?) at regular intervals. This genus differs from Camerotheca* (another group of Hyalithoid shells associated with it in the same measures) in the more rapid enlargement of the shell during growth (which * Described in the Canadian Record (Canadian Naturalist), 1885. 294 G. F. Matthew—New genus of Cambrian Pteropods. thus formed a shorter cone than Camerotheca), and in having a firmer and, as preserved in the shales, rounder side, where it has the support of the lateral diaphragms. This feature of the endo-skeleton is most distinct in two species, varieties of which are found in the sandstones near the base of Div. 1 of the St. 2b John Group. The shells of these pteropods are here found scattered over the surface of the sandy layers of an old sea bottom, close to the shore line; and occur mingled with the material forming the casts of worm burrows and imbedded in phosphatic nodules. They thus occupied locations where in later formations lamellibranchs might be looked for: but the remains of numerous individuals of the species of this genus are also found in fine shale at a higher horizon, showing that the genus inhabited deeper waters as well. Further particulars of these species will be found in an arti- cle read before the Royal Society of Canada, 1885. Reference to the figures: la. Diplotheca acadica Hartt, sp. var. crassa, dorsal view, showing the dia- phragms of the endoskeleton. The diaphragms near the aperture and the septa near the apex are exposed by the abrasion of the shell. lb. Same, transverse section, showing the body cavity partly enveloped by the phragmated part of the tube (represented by the shaded area). ; 2a. Diplotheca Hyattiana, +, vertical section, showing the septa at the apex of the tube, and the diaphragms at the side. 2b. Same, section of a flattened shell, from front to back, showing the curved apex. oe Diplotheca Hyattiana var. caudata, 2, showing the annulated flexible tubule attached to the apex. 3a. Phragmotheca Bohemica Barr., showing along the axial line the place where the phragmated sheath is found and the closeness of its diaphragms—figured for comparison. 3b. Same, transverse section of the shell, the shaded portion marks the narrow phragmated sheath. St. John, N. B., July, 1885. J. L. Wortman—Cope’s Tertiary Vertebrata. 295 Art. XX XIX.— Cope's Tertiary Vertebrata ;* by J. L. WoRTMAN. THE exceptional facilities which this country affords for re- searches into the history of its extinct vertebrate inhabitants have been well known ever since the rich fossiliferous deposits of the Rocky Mountain region were first brought to the atten- tion of students of geology. The unusual qualifications necessary for a successful prose- cution of investigations in this branch, as well as a general lack of the requisite facilities in the way of large osteological collections in this country, have no doubt prevented many from entering this field of study. The expense likewise attendant upon the collection, prepara- tion, and illustration of material is so considerable that only those who have a comparatively large amount of means at their disposal can make much headway init. While these causes have necessarily limited the number of investigators to an extent by no means commensurate with the material to be investigated, activity has nevertheless been proportionately great since Leidy, Cope and Marsh began making collections of fossil remains in the West. Later Scott and Osborne of Princeton have been more or less actively engaged in the same pursuit. As a result of the study of these collections great contribu- tions to our knowledge of the extinct vertebrate fauna have been made. Those of Leidy were the first, and their superior excellence must always remain a monument to his scholarly attainments. Contributions by Cope and Marsh have followed from time to time, some of which have been complete and handsomely illustrated; their value is of high order. Up to.within a comparatively short time however, the greater part of their immense collections, especially those from the Tertiary horizons, have been made known only through preliminary descriptions and stray papers in which little else was attempted than a brief and hasty description of the most salient characters of the new species and genera discovered. Within the present year two notable quarto volumes have been issued by the U. S. Geological Survey, forming the most considerable contributions to the subject which have yet appeared in this country. One of these is-by Professor E. D. Cope of Philadelphia, and is devoted to the vertebrate fauna of the older Tertiary deposits of Western America. It comprises somewhat over one thousand pages of text, which is illustrated *U.S. Geolog. Sury. Territories. The Vertebrata of the Tertiary formation of the West. BookI. By Edw. D. Cope. Washington, 1883-1884. 296 J. L. Wortman—Cope’s Tertiary Vertebrata. by one hundred and thirty-three beautiful lithographic plates. As it covers but little more than one-half of the entire Ter- tiary fauna, it is soon to be followed by another volume of equal dimensions which will be devoted to the later horizons. To students of Mammalogy, this work will prove of unusual interest on account of the flood of light which it throws upon the origin and relationship of many groups which have hith- erto proven puzzles to the best zoologists. One of the leading questions in the study of the Mammalia is their origin and ~ succession. It is well known that they make their first appear- ance in rocks of Triassic age; that they continue to be repre- sented by a few small marsupial-like creatures up to the begin- ning of the Cretaceous period, where, with a single exception,* the record is lost until the Hocene is reached. It is likewise well-known that the fauna of this period is comparatively highly specialized and comes into existence, so far as we now know, without announcement in the preceding formation. Previous to the discoveries of Professor Cope, the Wasatch was the oldest Hocene deposit of which we had any knowl- edge. These beds contain the remains of an extensive fauna, a large proportion of which is composed of Perissodactyle ungulates. They likewise contain Rodents, Lemurs, Creodonts, Taxeopods, ete. In the present volume we have brought to our attention an Eocene fauna which antedates that of the Wasatch, viz: that. of the Puerco. Here, so far, no Perissodactyles have been dis- covered ; neither have Rodents as yet been found, although it appears to be quite rich both in species and individuals. Since these groups have always been hitherto regarded-as a constant feature of any early Hocene fauna, this is somewhat remark- able. The Perissodactyles appear to be replaced by a most extra- ordinary group to which an ordinal rank has been assigned by the author under the name Taxeopoda. ‘The Rodents are repre- sented by the Zeeniodonta, an assemblage of extinct forms with large scalpriform incisors in both jaws, while Lemurs, Creo- donts and primitive allies of the Coryphodonts go to make up the list of the mammals. Altogether, the facies of this fauna is much more primitive than that of any other group of Hocene Mammalia so far known, and its discovery may be justly regarded as the most important that has been made in this subject within the past decade. T'o those who await with confidence the discovery of the connecting links between the mammals of the Jurassic and * Messrs. Wortman and Hill discovered the remains of a small Stereognath mar- supial in the Laramie deposits of Dakota in the summer of 1883, associated with the bones of huge Dinosaurs. To this species Cope gave the name Meniscoéssus. J. L. Wortman—Cope’s Tertiary Vertebrata. 297 the rich fauna of the Eocene as heretofore understood, the dis- covery of the Puerco constitutes a bold advance. As regards the important additions to our knowledge of special groups, which this work contains, they are so numer- ous that it is impossible to mention more than a few of the leading ones in this connection. We have here presented for the first time any thing like a broad and comprehensive gene- ralization of the relationships of the hoofed Mammalia. Assum- ing as a basis of understanding the fact that the limb structure has been all important to these animals in the struggle to sur- vive, Professor Cope has divided them into four groups accord- ing to the degree of modification of the carpal and tarsal articulations. He has shown that in all primitive ungulates the carpal and tarsal bones are serially arranged; that is to say, those of the proximal row are directly superimposed upon the correspond- ing elements of the distal set, a condition whose mechanical advantage in sustaining the weight of a bulky body in rapid movement, is much inferior to that of the higher types in which the carpal and tarsal bones interlock. The four orders which he thus constructs are the Taxeopoda, Amblypoda, Proboscidea and Diplarthra. The first of these is the most primitive, being pentedactyle, probably semi-planti- grade, bunodont, and in many ways approaching the clawed orders. It attained its greatest development in the Puerco epoch, where it is represented by numerous species and genera. According to the views of Professor Cope, which seem to be unusually well-founded, this group forms the central stem from which the others have been derived, having as a cotemporary in the Puerco horizon the Zaligrada, a sub-order, which estab- lishes a close connection between it and the Pantodonta of the later Hocene. It is here also that the Hyrax, that anomalous nondescript, for the first time finds fellowship, being at the same time the only living representative of this remarkable‘order. It appears to be an oversight on the part of Professor Cope that he did not detect the ancestral connections of the tree Hyrax with his Meniscotherivride, a family of the Zaxeopoda. Itis likewise some- what questionable whether he is correct in giving the 7omxo- dontia a position in this order. With reference to the immediate connections between the Diplarthra, a group corresponding to the Ungulata of most authors, and the Taxeopoda, comparatively little has been made out; neither do we receive any additional light upon the direct ancestry of the Proboscidians in the present contribu- tion. The internal arrangement of the Zaxeopoda is thoroughly Am. Jour. Sci.—TH1RD SERIES, VOL. XXX, No. 178.—Oort., 1885. 19 298 J. L. Wortman—Copes Tertiary Vertebrata. considered and many genera and species described. The char- acters of the order are established principally upon unusually perfect skeletons of Phenacodus primevus and P. Vortmani, which were obtained by one of his collectors in the valley of the Big Horn in Wyoming Territory. A fact of no small significance is ascertained with regard to the superior molar teeth of some of the Puerco representatives. They are shown to be trituberecular and are therefore the sim- plest pattern which is known to exist in any ungulate. From this the evolution of the teeth of all the Ungulata from a sim- ple type appears to be demonstrated. In the Perissodactyle division of the Diplarthra much is added to our knowledge. The suborder is for the first time divided into familes whose exact limits are defined and the genera systematically arranged. The osteology of the four- toed equine representative, Hyracothervwm, is thoroughly de- scribed, and an almost complete skeleton figured. The oste- ology of the Lophiodont genera, Triplopus and Hyrachyus, are also described from exceptionally perfect skeletons. As already indicated, the discovery of the Zaligrada, a new sub- order of the Amblypoda, constitutes the principal advance in our information respecting this division, nevertheless numerous genera and species related to the Coryphodonts as well as one extremely interesting genus bathyopsis, near to Loxolophodon, are also described and figured. Another generalization of scarcely less importance is that which relates to the arrangement of the clawed Mammalia. From the previous publications of Marsh and Cope we have been made acquainted with the remains of several extinct groups which display characters intermediate between those of orders now living. These are the Zid/odontia of Marsh, which has both Insectivorous and Rodent affinities, the Tandodonta of Cope, which seems to connect the Tillodonts with existing Edentates and the Creodonta of Cope, which apparently blend the modern Carnivora with the ancient Jnsectivora. These, together with all existing Insectivores as well as the Lemurs, are grouped into a single order under the name Bunotherva and their relationship defined. This has appeared indeed necessary since the additional evi- dence which paleontology affords unquestionably demonstrates the close affinities of these groups and strongly suggests a com- munity of origin. Only three of these divisions are found in the Puerco, and these are the Creodonta, which are nothing more than slightly specialized Insectivores, the Zewnzodonta and the Lemurs. It is evident therefore that the Tillodonts, Edentates Bats, Carnivores and Rodents must have been derived from these three, and seeing that the latter are so closely related in J. L. Wortman—Copes Tertiary Vertebrata. 299 this epoch it would not do very great violence to the system to unite under this order an even greater number cf these divis- ions than is done by Professor Cope. The origin of the Car- nivora from the Jnsectivora through the specialized offshoot Creodonta is demonstrated beyond all peradventure, it seems to us, while many interesting and important facts have been dis- covered which throw a great deal of light upon the philogenetic history of the Dogs and Cats of modern times. Although not indicated by Professor Cope, it seems in the highest degree probable that in his Insectivorous genus Hsthonya, we have the ancestor of the Yillodontia, which in turn gave origin to the Toxodontia. Among the Lemuroids many new and interesting genera are added to the list, as well as much important information re- specting them. Prominent among these is the description of the skull of Anaptomorphus, a remarkably specialized form for so early a period as the Wasatch from whose rocks it was derived. Others of scarcely less importance are described and figured. Another discovery of importance, which is here recorded, relates to the probable ancestry of certain of the marsupials, including the very curious genera Plagiawlax and Thylacoleo. According to Professor Cope, Ctenacodon of Marsh, from the American Jurassic, is the ancestral type from which these Pia- giaulacid Marsupials were derived. The line of development, as indicated by him, is as follows: Ctenacodon, Plagiaulazx, Ptilodus, Catopsolis and Thylacoleo. Ptilodus and Catopsolis, from the Puerco Kocene, are the important links which have been added by Professor Cope, establishing not only an inter- esting fact of phylogeny, but adding at the same time another link to the chain between the Jurassic and Hocene Mammalia. Altogether this ponderous volume forms one of the most substantial contributions to the subject which has ever been made, and certainly marks an epoch in the history of paleonto- logical science. The genera and species considered are well systematized and defined, the descriptions clear and accurate, while the illustrations are for the most part well done. That which, however, will in all probability commend the work most to thoughtful students of paleontology, is the unusual grasp of its philosophic deductions which are in every way worthy of the marked ability of its author. U.S. Army Med. Mus., Washington, D. C. July 16, 1885. 300 T. H. Aldrich—Tertiary of Alabama. Art. XL.— Observations upon the Tertiary of Alabama; by THe ALDRICH: In the following article, the results of a personal examina- tion of the Tertiary of Alabama are given so far as is necessary to reply to the papers of Dr. Otto Meyer in the June and July numbers of this Journal, entitled “The Genealogy and the Age of the species in the Southern Old-tertiary.” The proof of the stratigraphical relationship, as worked out by Dr. Meyer, rests upon quotations from previous writers upon the subject, and upon a theory of descent and resemblance, which Dr. Meyer applies to the fossils of the different groups, There does not seem to be any positive statement in his articles that the superposition of the beds as given by him came under his actual observation, therefore I shall proceed by giving the stratigraphy at different points, and then some remarks upon his identifications of species. The old town of Claiborne, Ala., is built upon what is locally known as “second bottom” of the Alabama River, a level sandy plain over a mile wide at this place; Jackson on the Tombigbee River, and Selma and part of Montgomery, both upon the Alabama River, are built upon the same terrace and present almost precisely the same topographical features as Claiborne. This terrace apparently is the oldest upon these rivers and has been subject to extensive erosion. The drift following filled up the depressions to a level plain, on the remains of which Claiborne now stands. Going toward Perdue Hill through the main street of Clai- borne (which runs in a southeasterly direction) at a point about one and a half miles back we reach the base of the hill; as we ascend it we find, in the road and gullies alongside, limy spots indicating the presence of the ‘“‘ White Limestone” below, and at a point about two miles from the bluff, on the side of the road, there is an outcropping of the White Limestone highly charged with Orbitoides and casts of several different forms of shells; by the aneroid barometer this point is 110 feet above the top of the bluff at the river. These limy spots con- tinue to show still higher, with an occasional outcrop nearly to the top of the hill. The crown of the hill is covered with the red loam, and is 180 feet above the top of the bluff. The dip of the strata at Claiborne seems to be a little west of south, therefore this street is very nearly upon the strike. This fact, together with the difference in level, plainly proves that at Claiborne itself the White Limestone is above the Claiborne group. The dip of the strata can be shown by T. H. Aldrich—Tertiary of Alabama. 301 observations made by a careful writer, the Rev. C. 8. Hale ;* on page 859 of that article he states that the Claiborne sand (No. 7) appears at low water at a point four miles south; the bottom of the bed at the Claiborne bluff is about 90 feet above low water; this shows a southerly dip of at least 22 feet per mile. Thetruedipis more than this, as the river runs W.S.W. between these places. The following section with the above explanation will give a clear view of the vicinity of Claiborne. Lal a8 | Eo oo) HAY .... Orbitoides Claiborne. i Limestone. __ Alabama River at low water. Claiborne Bluff, (a) (a.) Section from the river through Claiborne to Perdue Hill. = (a.)=limy spots. pie South of Claiborne where the road crosses Randon’s Creek, I found fine specimens of Pecten Poulsoni Mort., Orbitordes Man- tell: Con., a species of Echinus and several casts of other shelis. Al these species are also found at Perdue Hill. The section of Claiborne bluff following shows (No. 9 and 10) strata not given by Dr. Meyer, probably owing to a higher stage of water at the time of his visit. There is otherwise no material difference. The measurements were made at the lower landing with the exception of the two lowest beds which rise up at the upper landing and above (another proof of a southerly dip). I wish here to correct an error which seems to be made by nearly every writer who has given a profile of the bluff at Claiborne,t and that is the designation of the lower part of the Claiborne section as lime-tone. It is a calcareous clay and not limestone, the average proportion of lime being about 12 per cent,t and Winchell’s statement that this bed has not been recognized eisewhere is also erroneous, as shown further on. Beds Nos. 9 and 10 are particularly interesting from the fact *Geology of South Alabama, by C. 8S. Hale, this Journal, II, vol. vi, pp. 354- 363. 1848. + Conrad, J. A. N.S., 1st Series, vol. vii, p. 122. 1834. Winchell, P. A. A.S., 1856, Part I, p. 86. Tuomey, lst Bien. Rept., 1850, p. 152. ¢ Lea, Contrib. to Geol., 1833, p. 22. Mell, Tr. Am. Inst. M. Engrs., 1880. B02 T. H. Aldrich—Tertiary of Alubama. Section of the Bluff at Claiborne, Ala. 40 ft. ID) ARS a ae 45 ft. |White Limestone bed, containing Scutella and casts of shells, Zeuglodon bones found in this bed.—Hale, this Journal, 1848, p. 361 Alabama River at low water. 3°ft: 4|\Scutella beds a2 seo 2. 52.2 ee C 6 ft. |Coarse ferruginous sands, indurated at bottom_____._.....| B _| 17 ft. (Claiborne sand—thin layers of lignite show about 10 ft. ro down from top. In places this layer becomes over a foot z ThiCk ys epee ee he oc. soci ee Oe eee 6 A | < Asttan imduratedsandivel ed Gems sy se mee Sree eee 1 A | z 18 ft. |Caleareous clayey strata becoming sandy in lower part ..-.; 2 E ° 4 |1 ft. 6 in.|Indurated sandy ledge -------._...---- a PES Ss 3 Sutton) Calcarcous)clay;sandysatbottoms 292. neem ee ee eee 4 5 ft. |Light yellowish gray calcareous sand, lower part indurated Contaiminercastsiofeshrell se sees ry sy ie ee b) 21 ft. Light yellowish gray calcareous sands containing O. selle- | formis Con., Scutella Lyelli in fragments, Scalpellum EHo- cense Mr., Pecten Deshayesii Lea, Pecten scintillatus? Con., etc. Shows indurated ledges in some places__-_.----.--. 6 3 ft. Layer of comminuted oyster shells... .--.-------------- i ae | 2 ft. |Dark blue black sandy clay... -.---- "ais ei eee 8 e | 2 |10-15 ft.\Bluish green clayey sands, very few fossils in upper part. aal | crowded below, a large number of the fossils distorted by Zz | pressure containing O. selleformis, Con., Venericardia ro- sit | tunda Lea, Nucula magnifica, Arca rhomboidella Lea. pe | Anomia —n. s., Amphidesma limosa Con. — many other we | Ts SEWN VO Sia es a le FS C70 cea ec Oe nee 9 gE | Pa = 6 ft. Dark bluish greens and containing a peculiar small form of | Vener. planicosta Lain., Turritelia Mortoni Con., Turritella —n. s. Crassatella—sp?, Corbula—sp?, and many bivalves.| 10 T. H. Aldrich—Tertuary of Alabama. 303 that they contain species in abundance that are rare in the Claiborne sand. Turritella Mortont is found very large here. Owing to illness a complete list of species has not yet been prepared. The geographical distribution will be given in the future; the range of many species will be a surprise to those who rely upon paleontological evidence alone to prove the age of the various beds of the Tertiary of Alabama and Missis- sippi. In many cases actual superposition seems to be the ‘only sure guide. Now if Dr. Meyer’s theory is correct we should find under- neath the Claiborne beds the Jackson and Vicksburg forma- tions. : We give below what we actually found. Proceeding up the river from the Claiborne Landing we lose all trace of the Ter- tiary rocks in about a mile and a half; then till we reach Lis- bon, on the west side of the river abc ut five miles up, only the recent bottom lands appear; here is a fine exposure of the lower Claiborne beds in a nearly vertical bluff about a mile long. Section at Lisbon. ts Dunfacesoillor osama ys. yeh eee aU hasan al ene ey 2 20 feet. 1) Sandy strata with clay streaks, no fossils observed, - 10 feet. (2) Sandy clays, dark brown, badly weathered, highly fossiliferous, equals No. 9 and 10 of Claiborne section, contains some new species, also Amphidesma limosa Con., Arca rhomboidella Lea, Turritella, n. s., V. planicosta Lam., V. rutunda Lea, Lucina compressa Lea, Ancillopsis vetustus Con., Rostellaria Whitfieldi ECU ES ICLCy ee eo se el ee eI i SO Oe (oebland, san divgledioe. LOU eis pug MUA BO Eel see NY OES u (4) Caleareous clayey sands, light yellow when wet, nearly white when dry* ‘to 8’ 0 5) Coarse grained ferruginous sands, fossils numerous_ - 3’. 07 te} and (7) Light yellow sand with a hard ledge on top, er) lower five feet dark blue when wet ----.------------ 20 feet. (8) Bluish-black clay with remarkable fucoidal looking raised rib-like concretions upon the exposed bedding [OUT OESS repat eh ose OnE el Nl A el ON Lo les MUO LN 8 feet. No. 8 is the top of the Buhr-stone series which are exposed higher up the river. Lapparia dumosa Con.,= Mitra pactilis of Claiborne sand, is found in No. 5. This is the only Jackson fossil in addition to those already known found here. About one mile from McCarty’s ferry on the Tombigbee * There is a remarkable difference in color between beds when wet and when dry. At Prairie Bluff. Ala., we noticed that deep blue clayey beds weather out higher upon the bluff, where perfectly dry. to a nearly pure white sand. The distinctive characters are so few between hundreds of layers that it is hard to characterize them so as to be recognized by a future observer. 304 L. H. Aldrich—Tertiary of Alabama. River, we measured the Buhr-stone with the aneroid, making it 270 feet thick from our camp on top of the hill to the river. Dr. Smith’s observations at other points indicate at least 70 feet more to go on top of this, giving at least 340 feet of thickness. All the fossils found in the Buhr-stone were Claibornian in specific character ; I mention Venericardia parva Lea, T. obruta Con., V. rotunda Lea and Corbula Murchisoni Lea. Continuing our section downward we find at White Bluff on east bank of the Tombigbee River, the following, viz: at top. (1) Hard Bubr-stone, vertical bluff .-_------------- 90-100 feet. (2) Clay Si sso. 98 2 ies Meee eee as a .30 feet. (3) Clay with lignite stems distributed throughout -- 3’ 0" (AEC lay ee OE eee een oct ie.e sae aes 5’ 0" (5) elie mitesin shine stieakcnu=s uae s)he ae Oey (G)eBbairenbelaiyis = hse ee th eee ae ieek ee ie Coming up the river toward Wood’s bluff, we find, rising from under this exposure : (7) Clays, some layers very sandy. Found one speci- men.ot -Athleta Tuomeyz Con: here_- 22552 7 see 50’ 0” (8) A thin streak of fossiliferous sand containing Wiood’s bluti fossils ise) 552 eis 2p peel ayy Bee Omer (9): ‘Claysssibarren aiont 6 Sea 5s cee i 2 eo aie eee Lo On (10) 2-4 feet Green sand, brown outside, dark green when freshly cut, fossiliferous, iesibNeci int lineatunr ‘Heilpr., seems confined to this bed... a ees ees 4' 0" (11) Clay, dark grayish-blue, containing Athleta Tuo- meys, Cons abundant, 52658 see ke aaa 8! 07 (12)) Indurated/@reensand2 222 oh eee eee ee 2'-3' 0" (13) Greensand “marl (Ginesfossilsivhere) eee 3 (14) Indurated Greensand marl crowded with shells, large proportion: Murritellasy= ee] 2se nes | eee GENS (15) Indurated Greensand marl ledge making a shoal in thewivier, showing): seh eee epee) Sh ae ene sO" Nos. 12, 18, 14 and 15 really form one mar! bed, the distine- tions are mainly in hardness and in being more or less fossil- iferous. This group (Wood’s bluff) is very extensive, and can be traced easily to the western border of the State. We found it at Butler, Choctaw Co. Professor Heilprin has described most of the species found here.* It is unnecessary to continue this series farther to prove the object in view; but nearly every bed down to the Cretaceous has been examined without revealing the Jackson or Vicks- burg groups. Dr. E. A. Smith and Dr. Lawrence Johnson have made sec- *P. A.N.S., 1880, p. 364. T. H. Aldrich—Tertiary of Alabama. 305 tions of the whole Tertiary. Their report is now in course of publication by the National Survey. Having personally collected, in company with Dr. Smith this summer, in nearly every bed known below this (Wood’s bluff). horizon, I can testify that no evidence of much value can be obtained from the fossils. The Vicksburg and Jackson have not been found down 710 feet below Claiborne as the above sections will testify; if they are below this, then Dr. Meyer has got to sandwich in between Claiborne and Jackson the whole of the Bubr-stone formation. This formation is found only in the N.K. of Mississippi, a long distance from the position of the two groups mentioned. Dr. Meyer is equally unfortunate in his quotations from au- thorities. I review as follows: 1838. Conrad, Spondylus dumosus Mort. is here spoken of as a stumbling block in Conrad’s way and especially to Lyell. We have lately found it at Hatchitigbee bluff, 25 feet beneath the buhr-stone. 1834. Observations, etc., Conrad. In this section Conrad distinctly states that he saw only the ‘‘ White Limestone” and the “ Bluish Limestone,” Nos. 7 and 8 of his section near Clai- borne, and probably made his erroneous determination from the fact, as stated by Lyell, that the Claiborne beds are worn away largely in places and have been replaced by the “ White Lime- stone.” If Conrad had made a trip to Perdue Hill at the time of his visit the error would not have been made. March, 1846. Lyell’s general statements are correct and proved by all subsequent observers to have been very care- fully made. 1850. M. Tuomey, 1st Biennial Rept. of the Geol. of Ala. Dr. Meyer quotes Tuomey as follows, p. 149: “Sir Chas. Lyell has proved that the White Limestone is newer than the fossil- iferous bed at Claiborne by showing that this bed which con- tains identical fossils underlies the bluff at St. Stephens. This is certainly the case, for although this bed is not seen at the base of the bluff it is overlaid, as I have just stated, by a yel- low limestone which is a prolongation of that at St. Stephens.” By a juxtaposition of sentences Dr. Meyer evidently proves satisfactorily to himself ‘ that Lyell’s Claibornian bed at the base of St. Stephens bluff according to his (Lyell’s) determination need not be Claibornian, but that it is also not at the base of St. Stephens bluff.” Having personally examined this expo- sure within the past month in company with Professor Smith, State Geologist of Alabama, I consider that Lyell’s statement is correct. The same bluff that is at St. Stephens is over the Claiborne sand bed at the point Tuomey speaks of. A rough section taken at this place, which was hurriedly done owing to a heavy shower at the time of our visit, is as follows: 306 T. H. Aldrich—Tertiary of Alabama. Section half a mile north of St. Stephens. No. 6. White limestone, highly charged with Orbitoides LAOH RAK IIR a RS RE Ne an ea eer Pees 40 feet. No. 5. Hard ledge limestone containing spines of a species OmvC@rdaris.. USMS Ree 2 lore 2 feet. No. 4. White limestone containing P. perplanus Mort., ete, no) Onbitoides) founda el. 2! ee ee 50 feet. No. 3. Scutella bed. Yellow sand indurated in places,-_ 2 feet. Also containing Osteodes — sp. ? No. 2. Claiborne sand, 15 feet thick in places measured, containing the well known Claiborne fossils......-... 15 feet. The sand is a trifle redder than at Claiborne, but a sin- gle glance is enough to show they are the same. I noted the following species among many others: Rostellaria velata Con., Pecten Deshayesii Lea, Crassatella protexta ‘ Con., Venericardia rotunda Lea, V. transversa Lea, Turbinolia Maclurii Lea, Dentalium thalloides Con., Astarte sulcata Lea, Corbula Murchisonii Lea, Cytherea perovata Con., Cyth. equorea Con., Fusus protextus Con., Melongena alveata Con., Crassatella alta Con. No. 1. A blue sandy clay containing a few Claiborne fossils and! asspecies! of \Osteodesa sss fea) a eee 10 feet. Tombigbee River level. This should be convincing. Dr. Meyer in his opening quotation from Tuomey which is given previously should have added the succeeding paragraphs. I quote:* “ Another locality occurs a few miles from Clarksville on the land of Mr. Chambers, on one of the branches of Satilpa Creek, where this fossiliferous (Claiborne) bed is laid bare by the denudation of the upper beds and appears in the bottom of a ravine, in the very midst of the White Limestone, at a locality too where the latter rock is rich in the remains of Zeu- gloden.” Dr. M. leaves out of his authorities the Rev. C.S. Hale.t The reader is referred to p. 860 where he gives two localities near Claiborne (below) showing a section from the Seutella bed (C. of my Claiborne profile) up to the Orbitoides limestone. Winchell,t on page 84-85, gives two localities where the Claiborne sand has the White Limestone above it, namely, Stone Creek and in Clark County, Ala. The northern dip mentioned by Hilgard has its counterpart in Alabama in several places; in fact there is a large basin in the Tertiary of Alabama, first spoken of by Tuomey,§ proba- bly with a smaller sub-basin north of it. Professor H. A. * Ist Bienn. Rept., 1850, p. 148. + This Journal, 1848, p. 354-363. A A. A. 8., 1856, pp. 82-93. Ist Rept., 1850, p. 150, and in Hilgard. this Journal, new series, 1867, vol. xiii, p. 37. T. H. Aldrich—Tertiary of Alabama. 307 Smith has confirmed this, and is now engaged in completing his observations. A locality north of Barrytown, Ala., at and in the vicinity of a mill spoken of by Tuomey,* furnishes another section from the Lisbon beds up to the White Limestone, a small patch of which is left on top of Womac hill. The bed at the mill con- tains: O. selleformis Con., very large and fine; TYeredo —n. s.; Scalpellum Hocense Meyer; Pecten Deshayesii Lea, and corre- sponds with the bed (6) of Dr. Meyer’s section. Winchell’s statement that this bed is not found elsewhere is disproved. The species described by Conradf which were received from Dr. Spillman in which he gives the locality ‘‘ Enterprise, Miss.,”. Dr. S. writes me (Aug. 14, 1884) were not found there; he says: “I have no recollection of sending T. A. Conrad any fossils from near Enterprise. I sent him some from Garland’s Creek, three miles east of Shubuta, Miss., in the southern part of Clark County.” This removes one question, as these shells are undoubtedly Jacksonian and Dr. Meyer is no doubt correct. in calling the beds at Enterprise Claibornian. One more point remains to be quoted, and this is, that the crystalline limestone of the Vicksburg group has never been found in Alabama below the Claiborne sand, while crystalline limestone over 150 feet thick shows above it. Reviewing Dr. Meyer’s summary of reasons: ist. He speaks of the lower limestone, which is not a lime- stone; also sections already given show beyond question that Lyell was correct in his general statements. 2d. This is no argument whatever; differences in level of 100 feet between points nearly 100 miles apart have no strati- graphical value. If the general dip is southerly in Alabama and southwest to west in Mississippi, all the beds are sure to outcrop at the surface somewhere. 3d. The Jackson group in Mississippi presents a mixture of Vicksburg and Claiborne forms, and this very fact is a strong argument in favor of its true position, being between the two groups. Mitra pactilis Con. is common at Jackson as WM. dumosa Con., yet it also_is found at Lisbon, still lower than Claiborne sand by 100 feet. The relationship is therefore to be largely widened. 4th. V. parva Lea has a still larger range, probably through 1000 feet of strata. doth. Venericardia diversidentata Mr., from Jackson, is nothing more nor less than V. rotunda Lea. Conrad at one time evi- dently considered it new, as he gives a name in Wailes (Geol. of Miss.) “ Cardita tetrica,” but afterward abandons it. This * 1st Rept., p. 148. He also mentions finding 0. Selleformis Con. here. + Am. Jour. of Conchology, 1865, vol. i, p. 137. 308 Cowles and Mabery—On the Hlectrical Furnace, and species ranges through nearly the whole Tertiary, the Vicksburg group included. I have it from Vicksburg. Fulgur Mississippiensis Con. and Tellina Vicksburgensis Con. are found in both groups, also in the intermediate Red Bluff strata. Why they could not ascend from the Jackson to Vicksburg passes my understanding. Fulgur filiws Mr. seems from the description to be /. Mississippiensis itself; the differences pointed out are trifling, and there are intermediate forms. 6th. Pleurotoma terebralis Lam. = P. cristata Con. I have from the Greggs Landing marl which is several hundred feet below the Wood’s bluff group and not far from the Cretaceous, - therefore its origin is below all the groups in question. ‘The Acteon spoken of has a greater range than given. in reference to Natica Mississippiensis Con.: As the Wood's bluff is over 700 feet below the Claiborne its origin is simply shown to be below the three groups under discussion. 7th. Here Dr. Meyer is guilty of assuming a parallelism which he has not seen and of which he gives no proof whatever. In conclusion, let me state that the Tertiary is a great deal thicker than has been before supposed, and arguments based upon the upper quarter of its thickness are very likely to be upset by the paleontology of the three-fourths as yet unknown. An enormous territory remains here for the paleontologist, both in Mississippi and Alabama, entirely outside of the three groups, Vicksburg, Jackson and Claiborne, full of beautiful new species and gigantic forms of little Claiborne shells, that would cause one to exclaim, what could have led to such degeneration ! There is no doubt that there is a relationship existing be- tween fossil species the same as in living forms, but, until the great unknown territory is more fully explored, comparisons are not apt to be ot much value. Dr. Mever has shown great industry in his papers, and apart from his unfortunate mistake in stratigraphy, they are well worth especial study. Art. XLI.— On the Electrical Furnace and the reduction of the Oxides of Boron, Silicon, Aluminum and other metals by Carbon; by KuGENE H. Cowes, ALFRED H. COWLES and CHarLes F. MABery.* THE application of electricity to metallurgical processes has hitherto been confined chiefly to the reduction of metals from so- lution, and few attempts have been made to effect dry reductions by means of an electric current. Sir W. Siemens endeavored to utilize the intense heat of an electric arc for this purpose, but accomplished little beyond fusing several pounds of steel. A * Read at the Ann Arbor meeting of the American Association. the reduction of Oxides of Silicon, Aluminum, etc. 3809 short time since Eugene H. Cowles and Alfred H. Cowles, of Cleveland, conceived the idea of obtaining a continuous high temperature on an extended scale by introducing into the path of an electric current some material that would afford the requisite resistance, thereby producing a corresponding increase in the temperature. After numerous experiments that need not be described in detail, coarsely pulverized carbon was se- lected as the best means for maintaining a variable resistance, and, at the same time, as the most available substance for the reduction of oxides. When this material, mixed with the oxide to be reduced, was made a part of the electric circuit in a fire- clay retort and submitted to the action of a current from a pow- erful dynamo machine, not only was the reduction accomplished, but the temperature increased to such an extent that the whole interior of the retort fused completely. In other experiments, lumps of lime, sand and corundum were fused, with indica- tions of a reduction of the corresponding metal ;° on cooling, the lime formed large well defined crystals, the corundum beautiful red, green and blue hexagonal crystals. Following up these results with the assistance of Charles F’. Mabery, Professor of Chemistry in the Case School of Applied Science, who became interested at this stage of the experiments, it was soon found that the intense heat thus produced could be utilized for the reduction of oxides in large quantities, and ex- periments were next tried on a large scale with a current from two dynamos driven by an equivalent of fifty horse-power. For the protection of the walls of the furnace, which were made of fire-brick, a mixture of the ore and coarsely pulver- ized gas carbon was made a central core, and it was surrounded on the sides and bottom by fine charcoal, the current follow- ing the lesser resistance of the central core from carbon elec- trodes which were inserted at the ends of the furnace in contact with the core. In order to protect the machines from the vari- able resistance within the furnace, a resistance box consisting of a coil of German silver wire placed in a large tank of water was introduced into the main circuit, and a Brush ammeter was also attached by means of a shunt circuit to indicate the quantity of current that was absorbed in the furnace. The latter was charged by first filling it with charcoal, making a trough in the center and then filling this central space with the ore mixture, which was covered with a layer of coarse char- coal. The furnace was closed at the top with fire-brick slabs containing two or three holes for the escape of the gaseous pro- ducts of the reduction, and the entire furnace made air-tight by luting with fire-clay. Within a few minutes after starting the dynamo, a stream of carbonic oxide issued through the open- ings, burning usually with a flame eighteen inches in height. 310 Cowles and Mabery—On the Electrical Furnace and The time required for complete reduction was ordinarily about an hour. The furnace at present in use is charged in substantially the same manner, and the current is supplied by a Brush machine of variable electromotive force driven by an equivalent of forty horse-power. A Brush machine capable of utilizing 125 horse-power, or two and one-half times as large as any hitherto constructed by the Brush Electric Company, is being made for the Cowles Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company, and this machine will soon be in operation. Hxperiments already made show that aluminum, silicon, boron, manganese, magne- sium, sodium and potassium can be reduced from their oxides with ease. In fact there is no oxide that can withstand tem- peratures attainable in this electrical furnace. Charcoal in con- siderable quantities is changed to graphite; whether this ind1- cates fusion or solution of carbon in the reduced metal has not been fully determined. As to what can be accomplished by . converting enormous electrical energy into heat within a limited space, it can only be said that it opens the way into an exten- sive field for pure and applied chemistry. It is not difficult to conceive of temperatures limited only by the capability of car- bon to resist fusion. The results to be obtained with the large Brush machine above mentioned will be of some importance in this direction. Since the cost of the motive power is the chief expense in accomplishing reductions by this method, its commercial suc- cess is closely connected with the cheapest form of power to be obtained. Realizing the importance of this point the Cowles Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company has purchased an extensive and reliable water-power, and works are soon to be erected for the utilization of 1200 horse-power. An important feature in the use of these furnaces, from a commercial stand- point, is the slight technical skill required in their manipula- tion. The four furnaces in operation in the experimental lab- oratory at Cleveland are in charge of two young men 20 years of age who, six months ago, knew absolutely nothing of elee- tricity. The products at present manufactured are the various grades of aluminum bronze made from a rich furnace product that is obtained by adding copper to the charge of ore, silicon bronze prepared in the same manner, and aluminum silver, and alloys of aluminum with several other metals. A boron bronze may be prepared by the reduction of boracie acid in contact with copper. As commercial results, may be mentioned a daily production in the experimental laboratory averaging fifty pounds of 10 per cent aluminum bronze; and it can be supplied to the trade in large quantities at prices based upon $5 per pound for the reduction of Oxides of Silicon, Aluminum, ete. 311 the aluminum contained, the lowest market quotation of this metal being at present $15 per pound. Silicon bronze can be furnished at prices far below those of the French manufacturers. The alloys, which the metals obtained by the methods above described form with copper, have been submitted to careful study. An alloy containing 10 per cent of aluminum and 90 per cent of copper forms the so-called aluminum bronze, with a fine golden color, that is retained in the atmosphere for a long time. The tensile strength of this alloy is usually given as 100,000 pounds to the square inch; but castings of our 10 per cent bronze have stood a strain of 109,000 pounds. It is a very hard, tough alloy, with a capacity to withstand wear far in excess of any other metal in use. All grades of aluminum bronze make fine castings, taking very exact impressions, and there is no loss in remelting as in the case of alloys containing zinc. The 5 per cent aluminum alloy is a close approximation in color to 18 carat gold and does not tarnish readily. Its tensile strength in the form of castings is equivalent to a strain of 68,000 pounds to the square inch. An alloy containing 2 or 3 per cent alumi- num is stronger than brass, possesses greater permanency of color and would make an excellent substitute for that metal. When the percentage of aluminum reaches 13 an exceedingly hard, brittle alloy of a reddish color is obtained; and higher percentages increase the brittleness and the color becomes grayish-black. Above 25 per cent the strength again increases. The effect of silicon in small proportions upon copper is to greatly increase its tensile strength. When more than 5 per cent is present the product is exceedingly brittle and grayish- black in color. It is probable that silicon acts to a certain ex- tent as a fluxing material upon the oxides present in the copper, thereby making the metal more homogeneous. On account of its superior strength and high conductivity for electrical cur- rents, silicon bronze is the best material known for telegraph and telephone wire. The element boron seems to have almost as marked an effect upon copper as carbon does upon iron. A small percentage in copper increases its strength to 50,000 or 60,000 pounds per square inch without diminishing to any extent its electrical conductivity. Aluminum increases very considerably the strength of all metals with which it is alloyed. An alloy of copper and nickel with a small percentage of aluminum, called Hercu- les metal, withstood a strain of 105,000 pounds and broke without elongation. Another grade of this metal broke under a strain of 111,000 pounds with an elongation equivalent to 33 per cent. It must be remembered that these tests were all made upon castings of the alloys. The strength of common brass is doubled by the addition of 2 or 3 per cent of alumi- 312 R. B. Riggs—The Grand Rapids Meteorite. num. Alloys of aluminum and iron are obtained without difficulty; one product was analyzed containing 40 per cent of aluminum. In the furnace, iron does not seem to be absorbed readily by the reduced aluminum when copper is present; but in one experiment a mixture composed of old files 60 per cent, nickel 5 per cent, and of 10 per cent aluminum bronze, 35 per cent was melted together and it gave a malleable product that stood a strain of 69,000 pounds. When the reduction of aluminum is conducted in the ab- sence of other metals it forms a compound with carbon analo- gous to pig iron as it comes from the blast furnace; and prod- ucts are frequently analyzed that contain-sixty or seventy per cent of aluminum. If the ore contains silicon the latter is absorbed by the aluminum and compounds of the two ele- ments containing ten or fifteen per cent of silicon are often taken from the furnace in considerable quantities. These im- portant products are at present under examination. Art. XLII—The Grand Rapids Meteorite ; by R. B. Riaes. In a recent number of this Journal (October, 1884), L R. Eastman describes a meteorite found in Grand Rapids, Michi- gan. A preliminary analysis was made at the time, but of a very inadequate amount of the oxidized material, taken from the surface. Since then the meteorite has come into the keep- ing of the National Museum, and a more complete analysis gives the following results :— 1 ie cee tN Mia DS Pats A Cee a co 88°71 MIND sR BABS 6 AC RR 10°69 Gage BA Rs 07 Mig tie Ana R Hs Go ie ene 02 Be thet arene 2 a ae al ae al eee 26 Sikkk Statin Scie Ue Ss 08 Cj(combined) 232355 es ‘06 Graphite,.2920 025 3 see eae ‘07 99°91 It is a mass of great apparent homogeneity, weighing orig- inally about 50 kilograms. One of the sections, however, on be- ing polished, discloses a nodule about a centimeter in diameter, like troilite in appearance, which remains to be investigated. A polished surface of the meteorite etched with nitric acid developed very handsome Widmannstittian figures somewhat like those on the iron from Robertson County, Tennessee. Chemical Laboratory U. 8. G. 8., Washington, Aug. 26, 1885. Chemistry and Physics. 313 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. Sensitiveness of Selenium and Sulphur to Light. —'The remarkable property possessed by selenium of having its electri- cal resistance varied by the action of light has been the subject of many investigations, since its first announcement in 1873. The cause of this phenomenon is discussed by SHELFoRD BipWELL ip ‘a recent number of the Philosphical Magazine (August, 1885, pp. 178-191). Remarking upon the ingenious method of forming selenium cells described by C. E. Fritts, who melted the selenium as a thin film on a plate of metal with which it forms a sort of chemical combination, he suggests the similarity of some of the phenomena described by Fritts to those of electrolysis. The arrangement of the two metallic plates with the third substance between them, that is, of the selenium between the metal plate upon which it is melted and the gold leaf film by which it is covered, is suggestive of this; while the unequal resistance of the two surfaces and the generation of an independent electromotive force, in conjunction with the polarization effects observed, make the conduction of selenium seem truly electrolytic. The objec- tion that the selenium itself is not a electrolyte is met by the suggestion that in the process of making the cell a metallic selenide may have been formed, and the apparently improved conductivity of the selenium, and the accompanying phenomena, may be ac- counted for by the existence of this selenide, rather than by any change in the crystalline condition of the selenium. As bearing upon’this question the author made a series of experiments with sulphur. Five parts of sublimed sulphur and one of precipitated silver were heated together, and a cell con- structed by spreading some of the melted sulphur, containing particles of silver sulphide, evenly over a surface of mica, and then laying a piece of thin silver-foil on its surface. The cell was found to vary in resistance to a marked degree when exposed to the light of a burning magnesium wire. Other experiments went to show the same result and to prove that the effect of the light was due to the action of radiation proper and not to any incidental rise in* temperature. Other cells, constructed in a somewhat different manner, behaved in the same manner though in different degrees; with all the resistance diminished to a marked extent under the action of radiation. One of them, the resistance of which was small, was connected with ten Leclanché cells and a telephone, and exposed to a rapidly interrupted beam of light; it gave a musical note nearly as loud as would be obtained from a good selenium cell. All of the sulphur cells resembled selenium in giving polarization-currents after being detached from the battery. The author urges that the effects of radiation, in the case of the sulphur-silver cell, are to be looked Am, Jour. Scl.—Tuirp Series, VoL. XXX, No. 178.—Ocr., 1885. 20 314 Scientific Intelligence. for principally at the surface of the electrodes, though not necessarily confined entirely to it. It is shown that light favors the union of sulphur and silver to form silver sulphide, and it is suggested that the same influence which would assist the union of two substances when they have a tendency to unite might act conversely when they have a tendency to separate. Radiation, therefore, acting upon a thin layer of silver sulphide might exert a material influence upon the conductivity of the sulphide by facilitating the molecular rearrangement of the atoms of sulphur and silver. The bearing of all this upon the explanation of the action of light on selenium is obvious, though experimental proof is needed to establish it. ; 2. Molecular Shadows in Incandescent Lamps. — The forma- tion of metallic deposits in incandescent lamps with a carbon filament is described by J. A. Ftemine, the metal coming from the wire to which the carbon is attached. A sage-green deposit of copper is observed in an Edison lamp not infrequently; and in one case a silvery transparent metallic film of platinum was deposited on the inside of the glass bulb. These deposits recall the experiments of Wright (this Journal, xiii, 49; xiv, 169, 1877), who formed brilliant specula by deposition from a metallic electrode in exhausted tubes. An interesting point in the lamp deposits was the existence, under some circumstances, of a line of no deposit on the surface in the plane of the filament. This is to be regarded as the shadow of the loop in which the trajectory of the molecules is interfered with by the carbon filament. The deposit near the neck of the bulb is thicker than at the crown because of the greater number of molecules which here strike the glass. In the case of the carbon deposit, often observed, it was found that the molecular shadow of the filament, or the line of no deposit, could be formed by suddenly raising the filament to a very high tempera- ture, as for instance by placing a 50-volt lamp for an instant on a 100-volt circuit; but when the deposit went on slowly no line was observed, only a general smokiness. In the former case the projection of the molecules from the carbon is violent enough to prevent their paths from being altered by collision with molecules of the residual air, so that a larger proportion reach the envelope in the direction of projection, thus causing a deposit on all parts except as shielded by the loop. The best shadows were obtamed from a lamp with a single loop.—PAil. Mag., August, 1885, pp. 141-144. 3. Disintegration of the carbon filament in an incandescent Electric lamp.—Some experiments carried on by BucHAnan, having as their object the deciding of the question as to whether the observed breaking of the carbon filament at the negative end was due to a local excess of temperature or a “ Peltiér effect,” led to a negative result; the local heating detected being too small to account for a break at one end rather than the other. The author concludes that the disintegration of the carbon filament preceding complete destruction, as described by Preece, is doubt- Geology and Mineralogy. 315 less the result of molecular changes in its structure produced by maintaining it at very high temperature; and he finds manifes- tation of the alteration in the change of thermo-electric power of the carbon.— Phil. Mag., August, 1885, pp. 117-126. 4. On changes produced by Magnetization in the Length of Rods of Iron and Steel—An abstract of an article on this subject by SHELFORD BIDWELL, after mentioning the results reached by earlier experimenters, goes on to remark that by using thinner iron rods and greater magnetizing forces the curious fact was established that if the magnetization be carried beyond a certain critical point, the consequent elongation, instead of remaining stationary at a maximum, becomes diminished, the diminution increasing with the force. If the force is sufficiently increased, a point is reached where the original length of the rod is totally unaffected by magnetization ; and if the magnetization be carried still further, the original length of the rod is reduced. It also appeared that the position of the critical point in steel depended in a remarkable manner upon the hardness or temper of the metal. The author embodies his results for iron, steel and nickel in a series of formal laws.—Proc. Koy. Soc., No. 237, p. 265. Il. GroLtocy AND MINERALOGY. 1. Notes on some of the Geological Papers presented at the Meeting of the American Association at Ann Arbor :* (1.) A. Wincnert. On the Geology of Ann Arbor. The following is a summary of the geological facts within easy reach of Ann Arbor. Drift covers the nearest outcrop of rock 20 miles away; depth of drift at the University 200 feet, at the Observa- tory, 230 feet; on hills west and north probably 375 feet. Indi- cations of terminal moraine. Kettle hole within a few rods. The drift accumulations rest on the outcropping belt of Marshall sandstone, trending northeast-southwest. Sheets of impervious materials included, forming water basins, and this source of supply is the basis of the water-works of Ann Arbor. Tabular limestone masses imbedded in upper part of drift as formerly described by the writer in this Journal, IJ, xl, 331-8; ascribed to action of ice- floes in Scientific Monthly, Toledo, Oct., 1875, this Journal, III, xi, 225-8; with additional facts in Proc. Amer. Assoc., xxiv, 1875, pp. 27-43; differently explained by T. C. Chamberlin in Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Sury., 1881-2, pp. 326-330. (2.) S. G. Witriams. Traced the Lower Helderberg strata into western New York. (3.) A. H. WortHen. On the Quaternary deposits of Illinois. The author exhibited sundry sections obtained by borings in central and southern-central Illinois. They showed generally that the lower portion of the Quaternary formation is strictly stratified; that no bowlder beds exist, but that bowlders are sparsely scat- tered through the middle portions; that a dirt bed generally * For these notes this Journal is indebted to Professor Alexander Winchell. 316 Scientific Intelligence. separates the lower and middle portions; that finally, the explana— tions usually applied to the northern drift will not apply in these parts of Illinois. (4.) A. Wincuett. On sources of trend and Crustal Sur- plusage in mountain structure. [The first part embodied views embraced in a paper sent Professor J. D. Dana in 1881.] The second part traced the consequences of slow subsidence of the: earth’s equatorial protuberance resulting from the secular retarda- tion of its axial velocity of rotation caused by the action of the moon on the lagging tide. [The section voted to request a fuller abstract of this communication, the paper being orally presented. | (5.) Wu. B. Taytor. On a probable cause of the shrinkage of the Earth’s Crust. By a singular coincidence this paper con- sidered the second cause mentioned in the preceding paper. It was, however, only to explain surplusage of circumference; while the other employed the principle for both surplusage and trend. (6.) H. 8. Witi1ams. On the classification of the Upper Devo- nian. Presented numerous studied sections of strata ranging east-- and-west in southern New York, and pointed out the progressive changes in the faunas. He thought there was some ground for admitting that the equivalent of the Catskill group might be sought within the range of the Waverly series of the West. To this Professor Hall sharply demurred, and claimed that if the Catskill is made Carboniferous, then all, to the bottom of the Corniferous, must be so made, since traces of a Catskill fauna are found in eastern New York below the Corniferous. A. Winchell recalled the doctrine of “ Colonies” maintained by Barrande, and. instanced the case of an Upper Silurian fauna of over 3,000 feet. occurring in the midst of the Lower Silurian in Bohemia. 7.) Epwarp Orton. Exhibited the records of a deep well at. Cleveland, Ohio, in which over 200 feet of rock-salt were passed, with a parting of 15 feet of shale and 81 of limestone, at a horizon apparently de/ow the Niagara limestone. But the final interpre- tation of the section was left for future study. (8.) E. W. Craypoir. On the Materials of the Appalachians. Held that the vast volume of the deposits and their increasing coarseness toward the southeastern part of Pennsylvania imply the former existence of a lofty pre-paleozoic range to the east of the present Appalachians. (9.) N. H. Wincuert. On Lingula and Paradowides from the- Red Quartzites of Minnesota. Exhibited a large slab from the ‘¢ pipestone quarries,’ which was covered with small shells named by him Zingula. The remains of the shells on chemical testing showed a distinct phosphatic reaction. From the same quarries was exhibited a form regarded as an imperfect Paradowides,. showing the central axis and part of the pleure of the right side. As this pipestone bed is included in the quartzite of Wisconsin (at Baraboo, etc.) described by the Wisconsin geologists as Huro-. nian, the discovery is important. | A. Winchell stated that the so-called shells appeared to be- Geology and Mineralogy. 317 undoubtedly brachiopods of the pleuropygian order, but with characters intermediate between Lingulidie and Discinide. He reminded the section that he had years before assigned the Baraboo quartzite to the Lower Silurian on lithological grounds, though Professor Irving had subsequently attempted to invalidate the reference. E. W. Claypole thought the objects exhibited were undoubtedly organie and coincided as to the affinities of the ‘shells. (10.) A. WincHELt, On Cenostroma and Idiostroma and the comprehensive character of Stromatoporoids. Enumerated the ‘structural characters found in the group, and traced the mor- phology of each structure separately, showing on what grounds generic distinctions had been based. He then indicated the assemblages of characters which distinguish Ccnostroma and Idiostroma from other genera, and gives them validity. He finally pointed out the fact that the Stromatoporoids possess a very wide range of affinities: with Sponges, in external aspect, curdled tissue, water canals and oscula, though none of these characters are present in all; with Horaminifera, in their lamine and interspaces; in their radial, branching canals, seen in Eozo6n, and in the concentric layers, interspaces and curdled structures of foraminiferal Parkeria ; with Anthozoa, in their laminz (com- pared with Heliolitide and some Favositide), their radial struc- tures, their individuation (incipient in Cenostroma, completed in Idiostroma), and the (by some) supposed tabule of Caunopora ; with Hydrozoa, in the resemblances of Hydractinia and more strikingly, Labechia, which may be regarded really a Stromato- poroid; with Polyzoa, in the tubes and (supposed) tabule of Caunopora, and some further resemblances of Eschara nobilis. It is vain, therefore, to seek to place Stromatoporoids within the bounds of any recognized class-type. The author exhibited numerous specimens, thin sections and photographs illustrating generic distinctions, and circulated a printed synopsis of Stroma- toporoids, For a full list of the geological papers presented to the Associa- tion see page 324. 2. Can underground heat be utilized ?—J. StaRKIE GARDNER has an article on this subject in the Geological Magazine for September. The author concludes from the increase of heat downward, from metamorphism, from volcanoes, and from the earth’s up and down movements, that there is abundant reason for believing that the earth has a thin crust. The movements would be physically impossible in an earth solid throughout. If the principal mass is kept solid at a temperature beyond the fusing point of rock through the pressure of the external envelope, “the pressure must become relaxed as the surface is neared, and at a certain point the rock must obey its impulse and melt,” and thus make a layer in a state of fusion. The movements of the crust are more compatible with a crust of ten miles thickness than with one of fifty miles. ‘‘The deepest artesian well in the world 318 Scientific Intelligence. is being bored at Pesth, and has already a depth of 951 meters. The work is under taken by the brothers Zsigmondy, partially at. the expense of the city which has granted £40,000 for the purpose, with the intention of obtaining an unlimited supply: of warm water for the municipal establishments and public baths.” The present temperature is 161° F.; and it will be prosecuted until water of 178° is obtained. About 175,000 gallons of warm water stream out daily, rising to a height of 35 feet. “It needs no seer to pierce the not-distant future when we shall be driven to every expedient to discover modes of obtaining heat without the com-- bustion of fuel, and the perhaps far more remote future when we shall bore shafts down to the liquid layer and conduct our smelt-- We operations at the pit’s mouth.” A gigantic bird of the Lower Eocene of Croydon, Gastor- nis Wa ieee E. T. Newron. (Geol. Mag., August, 1885.)— The remains of this bird indicate a species as large as the New Zealand Dinornis. The most perfect tibiotarsus when complete: must have had a length at least of 20 inches, and its trochlear extremity is 34 inches wide; while in another specimen the latter is 4 inches wide. The remains are from the ‘Blue Clay” and lignite patches of the Woolwich beds. The original specimen of Gastornis— G. Parisiensis—was from the Lower Eocene beds of Meudon, near Paris. The Anserine affinities of Gastornis, as regards the tibiotarsus, held by some writers, are confirmed by the detailed comparison of the Croydon bones with recent forms. In other parts of its organization the genus is regarded by Dr. Victor Lemoine as having affinities with the Ratite. 4. Comstock Mining and Miners; by Exior Lorp. U. S. Geol. Survey, Clarence King, Director. 452 pp. 4to. Washing- ton, 1883. (Recently issued; bearing the date of March 1, 1882, in the letter of transmittal.)—This report is a history of the development of the Comstock mines to the close of the year 1880, and, as the preface observes, it is the story of the birth of the silver-mining industry in this country as well as of its vigorous growth. On account of the great productiveness of the lode, the rapid movement in population it occasioned, the quick succession of events, and the later decline and depopulation, the history has unusual social and political interest. It is full of surprising inci-. dents, and of vivid descriptions of scenes and occurrences, and contains much in the way of social and mining statistics. The interesting volume is illustrated by three excellent maps. 5. Materialien zur Mineralogie Russlands von N. von Kox- scHaRow. Vol. ix, pp. 81-272. St. Petersburg, 1885.—A contin- uation of Kokscharow’s great work on Russian Mineralogy is always a welcome and valuable addition to mineralogical litera- ture. The species discussed at length in this part of the 9th volume are turquois, wulfenite, topaz, vesuvianite, nepheline,, sanidine, linarite. ee Botany. 319 Ill. Borany. 1. The Microscope in Botany: a Guide to the Microscopical Investigation of Vegetable Substances. From the German of Dr. Julius Wilhelm Behrens. Translated and edited by Rey. A. B. Hervey, A.M., assisted by R. H. Warp, M.D., F.R.M.S. Illus- trated by thirteen plates and 153 cuts. Boston: 8. E. Cassino & Co. 1885. pp. 466, 8vo.—This is a large and full book, on the microscope and its use in the investigation of vegetable structures and products. For the translator, while it has evidently been a labor of love, it must have been a long and serious task; and the publisher has brought it out in the best style, one would say upon superfluously fine and thick paper, which, however, allows the illustrations to appear at their best. One-third of the volume is devoted to the microscope and its appliances. The preparation of microscopical objects and microscopical reagents are discussed in about the same number of pages; and the microscopical inves- tigation of the principal vegetable substances is treated with similar fullness. Dr. Ward has borne a part in the earlier chap- ters. Dr. Corwentz of Danzig contributed the short and very useful section upon the preparation of fossil plants. There is a good section on drawing under the microscope. In respect to the more important vegetable substances copious bibliographical ref- | erences are appended. ‘The microscope in this country is in many hands, and there is an increasing disposition to turn it to real sci- entific account ;—for which this volume should be helpful. a. 6. 2. Bulletin of the California Academy of Sciences, San Fran- cisco.—The new departure made by the issue, in February, 1884, of the first number of this Bulletin, has been followed up with - spirit by the publication, last February, of the still ampler No. 3, pp. 61-177, in direct continuation of No.1. A No. 2, if it exists, is therefore out of pagination, and we believe was only a fly leaf. And now, in September, we receive No. 4, or at least the first part of it, continuing the volume to p. 228. The papers are all botani- cal, except two short ones by Dr. Behr on Lepidoptera. Dr. Harkness, still zealously devoted to the mycology of the Pacific coast, here gives us only a few pages, noting additional known Fungi and characterizing: some new ones:—among them his Lycoperdon sculptum, well said to be “a curious and strikingly beautiful species,” having a singular tuberculated cortex, the like of which has never been seen before. Plate I. gives a good representation of it. Mrs, Curran, the efficient curator of the botanical collections at the Academy (which, happily, are at length being well cared for and in the way, as they should be, of steady augmentation), who published, as her first paper, three new species of Californian plants in the earlier part of the Bulletin (among them a second Acanthomintha, contirming the genus, with a difference), con- tributes another to No. 3, chiefly from her own discoveries. he most interesting one is her Memacladus rigidus. She has also 320 Scientific Intelligence, done excellent service—bibliographical and critical—by looking up all the extant materials of the various genera and species pub- lished, during a series of years, by the venerable Dr. Albert Kellogg in the several volumes of the Proceedings of the Califor- nian Academy, as well as in some out-of-the-way and quite unsci- entific and ephemeral journals or newspapers,—comparing such specimens as could be found with the neat drawings which Dr. Kelloge delighted to make. These drawings are very much better than the rude reproductions of them which were given in the Proceedings, are more numerous, and are generally more helpful than the descriptions in the work of determination. The labor of looking up these scattered publications and of digesting the bibliography must have been very considerable. But Mrs. Curran, with what help she could obtain, has brought them all together in 23 pages of the Bulletin, with the needful references, appending the synonymous name, where there is any known to her. Botanists who have to do with this troublesome matter must heartily thank Mrs. Curran for this conscientious piece of work. Without this exemplification some botanists might have found it difficult to believe that Dr. Kellogg’s Linum trisepalum is Helian- themum scoparium, his Ludwigia scabriuscula the Ammannia latifolia, his Gnaphalium Nevadense the Antennaria dioica, his Ligletes Californicus the common Bahia lanata, alias Hriophyl- lum cespitosum, and his Heterocodon minimum the Alechemilla arvensis, not “ Specularia biflora.” Also, that the new genera Melarhiza, Partheniopsis, Tesseruntherum, and Ranapalus, are founded respectively upon the Wyethia helenioides, Venegazia, Frasera speciosa, and Herpestis rotundifolia. It is helpful, also, to have in the Bulletin copies of the dozen plates, the greater part colored and of new Lower Californian plants, long ago prepared for the Hesperean, but we believe not published. If they did appear, along with the descriptions, in this “monthly magazine published in San Francisco in earlier years,” it is unlikely that the botanical world knew or could have known anything of them. And the same must be said of “the columns of the San Francisco Rural Press,”—hardly a scientific vehicle. In thus noticing, as it comes in our way, the botanical work of "a scientific pioneer on the Pacific coast, we should not withhold our tribute of respect and admiration for this zealous, wholly dis- interested, and simple-hearted lover of nature, who merely wished to do what he could for the advancement of our knowledge of the Californian flora, under conditions—such as the want of books and collections—which would not improperly have kept back almost any other equally ardent naturalist. The ample remainder of the third number and the whole of the recent issue of the fourth consists of ‘Studies in the Botany of California and parts adjacent,” by Edward Lee Greene. They show a quickness quite equal to the author’s well known quickness and acuteness in observation. Besides the interesting new mate- rial here elaborated—much of it gathered in an enterprising expe- Botany. 321 dition by boat to the islands of Lower California—there is a good deal of reconstruction of old species, a large number of new ones, and several new or restored genera of plants. Valuable as these contributions to our botany must be, we suppose that more time for elaboration, less confidence as to specific distinctions, and a more restrained judgment a out genera might have made them better. Yet opinions will naturally differ in botany as well as upon other subjects. The present writer, for one, would not willingly found a genus upon an outlying plant which appears to differ from Draba only in its late-dehiscent or possibly indehiscent silicle, and another upon a wingless Zhysanocarpus (which even Nuttall with all the loose ideas of his later years about genera had no thought of separating); still less would he have thought of a probable junction of these two proposed genera into one upon a “half- anticipation” of an unseen second ovule in the Zhysanocarpus. Nor would he accede to the restoration of Nuttall’s genus Hucrypta, nor readily believe that the genus Eschscholizia com- prises as many as ten definable species. As to Mimulus, although Mr. Greene’s discovery that the capsule of Diplacus dehisces first and mainly by the upper suture certainly strengthens the claim of the latter to generic rank, there are no new reasons for re- instating Hunanus, nor for setting up I. pilosus (or MW. exilis) as a genus. On going over the whole ground anew, with all the extant material, and with all the impartiality the present writer ean muster, he still is of the opinion that Mimulus is best treated as a multiform genus. On the other hand there cannot be a better genus than Bebbia, Greene (and our associate Mr. Bebb has well earned the honor) ; and it is not Mr. Greene’s fault nor that of Dr. Cooper (who both long ago stated that Carphephorus junceus, Benth., had yellow flowers) that the genus had not already taken its place. If the writer was slow of belief, with only the dried specimens before him, he was at once convinced when he came upon this striking plant, full of golden bloom, in the Grand Cafion of the Colorado. Our idea of the affinity of this genus, however, is quite unlike that of Mr. Greene, and will in due time be recorded. Mr. Greene re- fers to a “sunflower-like odor,” apparently of the herbage; but he makes no mention of what was to us a most attractive character- istic, namely, the delicious aroma, like that of Acacia Farnesiana, which its blossoms exhale. A. G. 3. A Systematic Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns indigenous to or growing wild in Ceylon: Compiled by Henry Trimen, M.B., F.L.S., Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon. Colombo, 1885. pp. 137, 8vo. Separately issued from the Journal of the Ceylon branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.— Mr. Trimen, the successor of the late Mr. Thwaites at the noted and charmingly situated establishment at Péradeniya, has set himself actively to the work of mastering the botany of Ceylon, and has now brought out this catalogue of 1071 genera, phenog- amous and vascular cryptogamous, besides two of Characee, and 322 ' Miscellaneous Intelligence. of their known Ceylonese species, with some synonyms. The naturalized species are enclosed in brackets; the endemic species, by a happy thought, are in small capitals, which at once catch the eye. Ae AGE 4. Hon. Grorcr W. CurnTon, probably the oldest native bot- anist of this country, a man of remarkable personality and attract- iveness, died at Albany—the city of his birth and boyhood September 7, at the age of about 78. Some biographical notice of Judge Clinton, and of the late Charles Wright, may be ex- pected in the January number of this Journal. A. G. TV. ASTRONOMY. 1. Identity of Dennings and Biela’s comets.—In the Obser- vatory Mr. Denning and Captain Tupman discuss the question whether these two comets may not be the same body, and are led to believe their identity probable. The two comets have their line of nodes nearly coincident, the ascending node of the one being very nearly the descending node of the other. The earth is supposed to have thrown the comet from one orbit into the other, the radius vectors being made to equal that of the earth by minor disturbances of Jupiter. If however the radiants for the two comets be compared they will be found to differ in position by a distance of 125° or 130°, and this distance is a measure of the necessary disturbing power of the earth in order to throw the comet from one orbit into the other. Either comet, it will be found by a simple computation, would have to come much nearer to the earth’s center than 4000 miles in order to suffer such a perturbation of orbit. V. MIScELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Ann Arbor, Michigan.*—The thirty-fourth meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science convened in Ann Arbor on Wednesday, August 26, and adjourned on Tuesday evening, September 1. The sessions were held in the halls and apartments of the University, which were found unusu- ally commodious, being spacious, accessible and quiet, and the large University hall seating 3,000 persons. The total number of members registered during the meeting was 364, and the total number of new members elected was 153. A very large number of visitors attended the meeting in addition to the above lists. The total number of papers entered for the meeting was 179; and of these 176 were read, including one illustrated evening lecture. Of these papers there were read before the section of Mathematics and Astronomy, 12; before that of Physics, 23; that of Chemis- try, 18; of Mechanical Science, 12; of Geology and Geography, 27; of Biology (which was made to include all paleontological * The editors are indebted for this sketch to Professor A. Winchell, of Ann Arbor. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 323 papers), 32; of Histology and Microscopy, 4; of Anthropology, 26; of Economic Science and Statistics, 21. The lecture was on Friday evening by Capt. E. L. Corthell, on “The Interoceanic Problem and its Scientific Solution,” with lantern illustrations. The address of retiring President Lesley was delivered on Wednesday evening to a large audience in University Hall, the vice-presidential addresses having been mostly given during the afternoon. The arrangements effected by the local committee appeared to ‘have been perfect, and were the subject of universal commenda- tion. All the usual preparations of rooms, blackboards, tables, sign-boards and the like were provided, and there was opened,, next door to the Permanent Secretary’s office, a post-office, express office, telegraph office and telephone office. On the same floor was. the office of the committees on excursions and on transportation. The insufficiency of the hotel accommodations led to the opening of many private houses—not a few for both lodgings and board — and a common restaurant with a capacity of 300 was organized for such as desired it. Many citizens were also free entertainers. On Thursday evening a public reception was given at the Court House—a new fine building with imposing staircases—whose two. stories and basement had been decorated with elaborateness and artistic taste, which won praise from the thousand guests in attendance. On Friday afternoon the city gave also an elegant lawn party on the campus. On Saturday 400 guests, invited by the liberality of Detroit, enjoyed, free of all expense, an excursion to Detroit and thence by the steamer Northwest up the Detroit River and Lake St. Clair, viewing the government improvements © in the lake and the unique line of summer houses on the islands; and thence to Marine City. At this point are very extensive salt works, based on an enormous supply of rock-salt of the Salina Group, found here 1633 feet below the surface, and having a known thickness of over 115 feet. After an inspection of these works, for which every facility was provided by the proprietor, Mr. C. McElroy, the excursion proceeded to St. Clair, where an elegant dinner was served at the “Oakland House,” a vast summer hotel, whose business is based on a mineral-well supplied from the Huron Group and rich in sulphur. Returning from here, a lunch was served on board, speeches of greeting were made and replied to, and a delightful day was ended with the return at 9 o’clock. A general excursion was also arranged for September 2d to Mackinac and thence in various directions. Entertainments of less general character were numerous. A reception was given to the geologists and many of their friends on Friday evening by Professor A. Winchell, and one to the chemists and their friends on Monday evening by Dr. Prescott. The botanists were taken by Professor Spaulding on an excursion to the Tamarack Swamp. [Invitations to lunch and dinner were abundant; and carriage rides about the city and suburbs were quite general. The principal interest in these details is the demonstration that the Association can obtain ample conveniences 324 Miscellaneous Intelligence. and enjoyments in a city with a population of less than ten thousand. Indeed, Ann Arbor could have accommodated a thousand guests as easily as five hundred. It was generally remarked that the scientific work of the meeting was good. An unusually large proportion of Fellows was present. Fewer papers than usual had to be rejected ; and there were several papers of great and permanent importance, as will appear from the particular reports. The section of Histology and Microscopy was merged in that of Biology by request of the section itself. Resolutions were adopted expressing a high appreciation of the value of the work of the “ Coast and Geodetic Survey,” and a hope that criticisms of the work might be left by the government to competent scientific experts. The subjects of the addresses before the several sections by the vice-presidents were as follows: Professor W. R. Nicwo.s, to the Chemical section, on Chemistry in the service of public health ; Professor Epwarp OrTon, to the Geological section, on unfinished problems relating to the geology of coal; Professor J. Burkirr Wess, of Ithaca, to the Mechanical section, on the second law of Thermo-dynamics; Dr. B. G. Witpmr, of Ithaca, to the Biologi- cal section, on an educational museum of Vertebrates; Professor S. H. Gace, of Ithaca, to the section of Microscopy and Histology, on the limitations and value of histological investigations; Mr. W. H. Datt, of Washington, to the Anthropological section, on the native tribes of Alaska; Mr. Epwarp ArTxinson, of Boston, to the section of Economical Science, on the application of Science to the production and consumption of food. [Abstracts of these addresses, together with notes on many papers read at the meet- ing, are given in the number of Science for September 11 (No. 136) and the address entire of the retiring president, Professor Lesley, in the number for August 28. ] Buttalo, New York, was selected for the meeting of the Associa- tion in ]886—where the meetings of 1866 and 1876 were held—and Wednesday the 18th of August appointed for the opening session. Professor Epwarp S. Morse, of Salem, Mass., was elected President, and the following for Vice-Presidents of the different sections: Professor J. W. Grpss, of New Haven, Mathematics and Astronomy; Professor C. F. Brackxrrr, of Princeton, Phys- ics; H. W. Witey, of Washington, Chemistry; O. CuanutTE, of Kansas City, Mechanical Science; Professor T. C. CHAMBERLIN, of Washington, Geology and Geography; Professor H. P. Bow- pitcH, of Boston, Biology; Horatio Hats, of Clinton, Ontario, Anthropology; JosepH Cummines, of Evanston, Ill, Economic Science and Statistics. List of Papers accepted for Reading. 1. Astronomy. Mathematics, Physics. H. A. Newton: Effect of small bodies passing near a planet upon the planet’s velocity. D. P. Topp: On a rare sun-spot, observed 1885, May 19, 21 and 22; The audi- ble circle.—a new device whereby the settings of an astronomical instrument may de made by the ear. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 325 W. Harkness: On the flexure of transit instruments. G. W. Hove: Description of a printing chronograph. J. BuRKITT WEBB: Polar versus other coordinates. J. Haywoop: The visible shadow of the earth. S. P. LANGLEY: Spectra of some sources of invisible radiation, and on the recog- nition of hitherto unmeasured wave-lengths. J. A. BRASHEAR: A practical method for working rock-salt surfaces for optical purposes. J. W. Moore: The direct optical projection of electro-dynamic ‘‘ lines of force ;” The optical projection of electro-dynamic phenomena. H. 8. CaRHART: On surface transmission of electrical discharges. E. L. NicHous: A spectro-photometric analysis of the color of the sky; Chemi- cal behavior of iron in the magnetic field. H. KE. Atvorp: Telemetric aid to meteorological records. W. FERREL: Psychrometry. C. H. CHANDLER: A new harmonograph. T. F. JEWELL: Apparent resistance of a body of air to a change of form under sudden compression. H. W. Eaton: The relation of vanishing and permanent magnetism. T. C. MENDENHALL: Note on electrometers and atmospheric electricity. A. E. DoLBEAR: On the contact theory of electricity; On an incandescent elec-. tric lamp for projection; On a new galvanic element. A.J. Rogers: Electrolysis of salt of the alkalies and alkaline earths. C. K. WeaD: Exhibition of a combined spectro-photometer and ophthalmo- spectroscope. C. J. REED: Exhibition of an apparatus for demonstrating the laws of falling bodies. C. H. RocKWELL: Some practical results in determining time and latitude with the almucantar. W. H. Chayrton: Weather changes of long period. T. BassnetT: Parallax of the sun. S. 8. Hateut: Rapidity of calculation. 2. Chemistry. T. Taytor: On the crystals of butter and other fats. A. B. PRescoTtT: Control analyses, and limits of recovery in chemical separations. E. D. CAMPBELL: A colorimetric method for the estimation of phosphorus in iron and steel. W. A. Noyes: On para-nitro-benzoic-sulphinide. W. H. Witzy: Estimation of acetic acid occurring with lactic acid in sour milk or kumys; Composition of kumys made from cow’s milk; Honey and its adultera- tions. E. H. Cowuss, A. H. Cowes and C. F. Masery: On the electrical furnace and the reduction of the oxides of boron, silicon, aluminium and other metals by carbon. W. A. WITHERS: Chemical conversion scales. H. B. Battie and F. B. Dancy: Consideration of the atomic weights of some. of the elements found in agricultural analysis, and their application to conversion tables to facilitate calculation. Note on the estimation of water in glucoses, honeys, etc. HELEN C. DES. ABgBott: A chemical study of Yucca angustifolia. A. VY. HE. Youne: Thermo-chemical analysis of the reaction between potassic hydrate and common alum. F. P. Dunnineton: A sponge-like mass containing titanic acid; A simple method of fixing crayon drawings on paper. J. W. LANGLEY: On the concentration of certain acid radicles by the differen- tial action of chemism. O. C. JoHNsON: Negative bonds and rule for balancing equations. J. W. Pike: Chemical and thermo-chemical relations of the gases of the atmos- phere in the disintegration and metamorphism of rocks. C. J. ReED: Graphical representation of the relation between valence and Men- delejeff’s periodic law. 326 Miscellaneous Intelligence. C. G. WHEELER: Action of carbonic anhydride in aqueous solution on some minerals, and modifying influence of sodium chloride. 3. Mechanical Science. L. S. RANDOLPH: Strength of stay-bolts in boilers. D. P. Topp: On a universal form of pressure motor. S. S. Harenr: Use and value of accurate standards for surveyors’ chains, J. Burkitt Wess: The lathe as an instrument of precision; The economy of accurate standards. C. J. H. Woopsury: Experiments upon the coefficient of efflux of automatic sprinklers. F. C. WAGNER: Electric light tests. M. E. CooLey: Testing indicator springs; A new smoke-burning device. R. H. THurston: Cylinder condensation in steam engines; A Prony brake for governing powerful steam engines. A. Hoga: Deep water at Galveston, Texas, and how to secure it. 4. Geology, Paleontology, Mineralogy. A. WINCHELL: Geology of Ann Arbor; Cenostroma and Idiostroma, and the comprehensive character of Stromatoporoids; Sources of trend and crustal sur- plusage in mountain structure. W.B. Taytor: A probable cause of the shrinkage of the earth’s crust. 8. G. Wintiams: Westward extension of rocks of the Lower Helderberg period in New York. J. D. Dana: Lower Silurian fossils in a limestone of the original Taconic. L. E. Hicks: Structure and relations of the Dakota Group. F. D. CHESTER: Results from a study of the gabbros and associated amphibo- lites in Delaware. A. D. CRANDALL: Occurrence of trap rock in eastern Kentucky. A. H. WortHEN: The Quaternary deposits of Illinois. G. K. GrnBERT: Post-glacial changes of level in the basin of Lake Ontario. H. 8. Witirams: Classification of the Upper Devonian. E. Orton: The gas and oil wells of northwestern Ohio; Record of the deep well of the Cleveland Rolling Mill Co., Cleveland, O. W. McApams: The Loess and drift-clays. W. B. Dwieut: Discovery of fossiliferous Potsdam limestone at Poughkeepsie,’ NYE KE. W. CuaypPoLe: The materials of the Appalachians. T. SterRyY Hunt: Apatite deposits in Laurentian rocks. J. C. BRANNER: Glaciation of the Lackawanna Valley. C. WacHsMuTH: The presence or absence of underbasals can be ascertained from the columns. E. D. Cope: On the brain and auditory organs of a Permian Theromorph Saurian. A.S8. Tirrany: The Corniferous or Upper Helderberg Group of Scott County, Towa and Rock Island, Il.. with a list of fossils; The Chemung Group at Burling- ’ ton, Iowa. with a list of its fossils. N. H. WINCHELL: Notice of Lingula and Paradoxides from the red quartzites of Minnesota. G. F. Kunz: A new mass of meteoric iron from Charleston, Kanawha County, West Virginia; Mineralogical notes: Tourmaline locality at Rumford, Maine; Pseudomorph of feldspar after leucite (?) from Magnet Cove; On a remarkable rough collection of diamonds; Native antimony and its associations at Prince William, New Brunswick. 5. Botany, Zoology, Microscopy. EK. STURTEVANT: Observation on the hybridization and cross-fertilization of plants; Germination studies. C. E, Bessey: Further observations on the adventitious inflorescence of Cus- cuta glomerata; Question of bisexuality in the pond-scums (Zignemacec). C. R. BARNES: Process in fertilization in Campanula Americana. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 327 H. G. Bercer: Biological deductions from a comparative study of the induence of Cocaine and Atropine on the organs of circulation; Structure of Glattidea pyra- midata (Stien) Dall. ! C. V. Riny: The song-notes of the periodical Cicada (Cicada septendecim L.), and the mechanism by which they are produced; Some popular fallacies and some new facts regarding Cicada septendecim; On the parasites of the Hessian- fly ( Cecidomyia destructor Say). A. W. Butier: The periodical Cicada in southeastern Indiana; Observations on the musk-rat. J. C. ArtHUR: Proof that Bacteria are the direct cause of the disease in trees known as pear-blight. S. H. Gage and §. 8. PHELes Gace: Aquatic respiration in soft-shelled turtles (Aspidonectes and Amyda). KE. D. Corr: Phylogeny of the placental Mammals. T, J. BuRRILL: The mechanical injury to trees by cold. J. M. CovuLtER: On the appearance of the relation of ovary and perianth in the development of dicotyledons. C.S. Minor: A new membrane of the human skin; Organization and death ; Morphology of the supra-renal capsules; The structure of the human placenta; Evolution of the lungs. D. H. CAMPBELL: The development of the prothallium of ferns. J. B. STEERE: The importance of individual facts of environment in the forma- tion of groups of animals. ‘ B. G. WILDER: Experiments antagonizing the view that the serrulee (serrated appendages) of Amia are accessory organs. H. AYERS: On the structure and functions of Spheeridia of the Hchinidii; On the carapax and sternum of the Decapod Crustacea. W.G. Fartow: Notes on some injurious Fungi of California. D. E. SanMon and T. SmitH: A new Chromogenous Bacillus (Bacillus luteus suis). J. B. WEBB: Entropy; The life of the universe. W. H. Watmstey: Photo-micrographs on gelatine plates for lantern projection. T. J. BurRILL: Photo-micography work with high powers. C. P. Hart: A new, cheap and quickly constructed adjustable microtome. R. Hircscock: Optical arrangements for photo-micrography, and remarks on magnification. 6. Anthropology. J. O. Dorsey: A visit to the Siletz agency; Primary classifiers in Dhegiha and cognate languages; Indian personal names. A. W. Butter: The remains of San Juan Teotihuacan. N. H. WincHELL: A supposed natural alloy of copper and silver from the north shore of Lake Superior, in Minnesota. W. C. Wyman: Exhibition of copper implements. ALIcE C. FLETCHER: Sacred war tent and some war customs of the Omahas: An average day in camp. F, LA FiescHe: Laws and terms of relationship of the Omahas. W. McApams: Exploration of recent Indian mounds in Dakota; Ancient pic- tographs in Illinois and Missouri; Explorations in the great Cahokia mounds. H. Gitman: Burial customs of our aborigines. W. L. COFFINBERRY: Exhibition of specimen with notes. J. W. SANBoRN: Customs, language and legends of the Senecas. W. M. BeaucHamp: Permanence of Iroquois clans and sachemships. Mrs. EH. A. Smitu: Significance of Flora to the Iroquois; Who made belt wampum ? M. L. Rouse: Music in speech. G. H. Perkins: The stone axe in the Champlain Valley; Stone implements from Vermont. C. S. Minot: The number habit; Are contemporary phantasms of the dead to be explained partly as folk lore? F. W. Putnam: Ornaments made of pieces of human skulls, from a mound in Ohio; Proper methods of exploring mounds. W. ZIMMERMAN: The degeneracy of races. W. DeHass: The animal mounds of Wisconsin. 328 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 1. Economic Science and Statistics. H. E. AtyorpD: Relative value of human foods. C. VY. Riney: A new method of counteracting the ravages of locusts or so-— called ‘‘grasshoppers” (Acrididze); The present status and future prospect of silk-culture in the United States. C. REEMELIN: City Government. E. Atkinson: Insurance against loss by fire; Competition and codperation synonymous terms. E. B. Eviiott: The silver question; Electric lighting. J. W. Hoyt: On the need of a systematic reorganization of the executive departments of the government in the interest of science and of public economy. CG. W. Smitey: Some defects of our Savings Bank system and the need of Postal Savings Banks in the United States. Mrs. Etten H. RicHarps: An illustration of a method of teaching elementary science in grammar schools. 2. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.—The resolutions with regard to the United States Coast Survey, passed at the recent meeting of the American Association at Ann Arbor, without a dissenting voice, are in accord, we believe, with the views. of scientists throughout the. country. The survey has had great influence in promoting the progress of high science in the land through its demand for the best abilities in the departments of mathematics, physics, hydrography and geodesy, in order to carry forward its work, and through the investigations it has been com- pelled to undertake for the improvement of its methods, the elab- oration of its observations and the perfecting of its results. No department of work under the government requires greater exact- ness and a wider and profounder range of knowledge. For thirty years and more, commencing under Professor Bache, its annual reports have contained, not only charts of hydrographic work in great numbers, but also papers of high scientific merit bearing on the various questions arising out of the investigations in progress, and others fundamental to those investigations; and this has con- tinued to be true to the latest issue under Mr. Hilgard. The work of the Coast Survey, as outlined by Bache and carried forward by his successors, has a unity and a completeness which should be preserved in its future scope and management. Besides ele- vating the science of the country, it has tended also to exalt in foreign lands the standing of American science. Any crippling ot the Survey in the present unfinished stage of its work would therefore be a national calamity. The demand, in the vote of the Association, that the head of the Coast Survey (and by inference the superintendents of other scientific work) should have the highest possible standing among scientific men, and should command their entire confidence, is in accordance with the “civil service” principles of the country.. Sure destruction to the usefulness and reputation of the scientific departments—for example, those of the Coast Survey, the Smith- sonian Institution and the Geological Survey—would follow their subjection to the control of persons without thorough scientific education, for it would be quite sure to end in subjection to the debasing influences of political ambition. , 4 SCIENTIFIC AND MEDICAL BOOKS, MINERALS, And other objects of NATURAL, HISTORY. A. E. FOOTE, M. D., No. 1223 Belmont Avenue, Philadelphia, Penna. (Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy; Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; : Life aoe of the Academy of” at. Sciences, Phila., and American Museum of Nat. History, Central Park, N. Y. City. j Specimens sent to any part of the world by mail. Specimen copies of the NATURALIST’s LEISURE HouR, of 32 pages, sent free. Subscription 7 cents a year; for club rates : and premiums, see each issue. Treceived the highest award given to any one at the Cen- tennial Exposition of 1876, and the only award and medal given toany American for “Collection of Minerals.” | iio YYy WwirZ SOF My Mineralogical Catalogue of 100 pages is sent post-paid on receipt of 15 cents, heavy paper 25 cents, bound in cloth 50 cents, G sheep 75 cents, +4 calf $1.00, cloth interleaved $1.00, 14 sheep interleaved $1.25, 14 calf interleayed $1.50, (price-list alone, 16 pp. 3 cents). It is profusely illustrated, and the printer and engraver charged me about $1,000 before a copy was struck off. By means of the table of species and Sccorpar ying tables, most species may be verified. ‘The price-list is an excellent check list, containing the names of all the species, and the more common yarieties, arranged alphabetically, and preceded by the species number. The species number indicates the place of any mineral in the table of species, where will usually be found the species name, streak or lustre, cleavage or fracture, hardness, specific gravity, &., &., fusibility and crystalli- gation. I haye yery many species not on the price-list, and some that I had in 1876 are no longer in stock. COLLECTIONS OF MINERALS for Students, Amateurs, Professors, Physicians. et al. The collections of 100 illustrate all the principal species and all the grand subdivisions in Dana and other works on Mineralogy; all the principal Ores, &e., &e. The collections are labelled with printed label that can only be remoyed by soaking. The labels of the $5.00 and higher priced collections give Dana’s species number, the name, locality, and in most cases, the composition of the Mineral; the $5.00 and higher, are also aecompa- nied by my illustrated Catalogue and table of species. The sizes given are average; some smaller, many larger. 25 50° 100 in box. | in box. | in box. NumBeEr OF SPECIMENS. 100 200 300 Gry stals ane TracmMents sy vote en eiye, cual (epsct anon -.-..-.-| $50 | $100 | $200 | $1 00 $2 00 | $3 00 SiGe bSISIZe APOC tosis Caw cues eve leies ot iwitae Ser ch eualleloo 3 00 6 00 5 00 10 00 | 25 00 PARAL CUTAN SIAC, AYA AMER airs at sh treated led ie) cil, oth oon ois Seek ae 10 00 25 00 | 50 00 High School or Academy size, 214x314 in., Shelf Specimens, . 25 00 50 00 | 100 00 College size, 314x6in., Shelf Specimens ....... erlelie te 50 00 | 150 00 | 300 00 I haye now over 70 tons, and over $60,000 worth of Minerals, mostly crystallized, in stock. I can refer to the following Gentlemen and Colleges, all of whom, with thousands of others, have bought of me and most of them haye given me especial permission 10 use their names as reference, 5 Prof. 8. F. Baird, Prof. J. W. Powell, Prof. F. VY. Hayden, Prof. R. Pumpelly, Prof. C. V. Riley, Dr. Joseph Leidy, Prof. J. D. and E. 8. Dana, T. A. Edison, Prof. G. J. Brush, Prof. J. P. Cooke, HE. B. Coxe, Agassiz Museum, Harvard University Prof. A. & N. H., Prof. C.S. Sargent, Prof. C. EH. Bessey, Iowa State Agl. College, Dr. John §. Billings, Prof. Winchell, Prof. J. F. Newberry, D.S. Jordan, Prof. R. H. Richards, Mrs. Ellen S. Richards, Prof. Maria S. Eaton, Prof. T. Sterry Hunt, C. S. Bement, Prof. A. E. Smith, Beloit College, Prof. G. A. Koenig, Public Library Cincinnati, Cincinnati N. H. Society, M. Buisson, Minister of Instruction, Paris, France, Lau- renco Matheiro Lisbon Portugal, Prof. Orton, Prof. Ira Remsen, Gen. A. Gadolin, Imp. School of Mines, St. Petersburg, Russia, Prof. A. E. Nordenschiold Royal Museum, Stockholm, Sweden, Dr. Nicolo Moreira Imperial Museum, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, British Museum, Royal Museum Berlin, Dr. P. KH. Defferari Italy, Harvard University, University of California, University of Nebraska, Oregon State College, Yale College, Wisconsin University, Columbia College, Michigan University, Wellesley College, Illinois Industrial University, Massa- cehusetts Institute of Technology, Col. School of Mines, University of Virginia, University of Missouri, lowa State University, Minnesota State Normal School, McGill College, Amherst College, Chicago University, Uni- versity of Notre Dame, Princeton College, Johns Hopkins University, University of Georgia, University of Ohio, Brimmer School Boston, and many others in Nevada, Washington Territory, Canada, Maine, Texas, Peru, Chili, England, Brazil, Germany, Austria, etc., etc. ; Shells, &c,—I can put up collections of shells at the following low rates: 25 Genera, 25 species, $1.00; in box, $1.25. 50 Genera, 100 species, $5.00; in box, $6.00. 100 Genera, 300 species, $25.00; 200 Genera, 1,000 species, $150.00; 250 Genera, 2,000 species, $500.00. Catalogue of 2,500 species of Shells, made for me by George W. Tryon, Jr., who has labelled nearly all my shells, 3 cents, printed on heavy paper with genus label list, 10 cents. I haye purchased one or two of the most celebrated collections known, and have now over 2,000 lbs., 3,000 species, and 30,000 specimens of Shells and Corals in stock. Catalogue of Birds, Eggs, Hyes, Skins, etc., etc., 3 cents. Catalogues of various classes of Scientific Books, 32 pp., e€a.3 cts. Medical Books, 80 pp.,10 cts. (Please specify exactly what class of books you wish catalogues of.) beg ’ . 2 3 Send for the Naturalist’s Leisure Hour, giving full particulars. Specimen copy free. You will confer a double favor by handing this to some professor, physician or other person interested in science. 4 CONTENTS. e ‘4 Art. XXXII.—Crumpling of the Earth’s Crust; by W. B. 3 AV LOR) = 0582) 28 Jo FW VS Or XXXIJII.—The Old Tertiary of the Southwest; by E. W. HERG ARD, 050 Bs I , XXXIV.—Remarks on a paper of Dr. Otto Meyer on “Species in the Southern Old-Tertiary;” by E. A. oi) Ms Oe ee taelen sh Catania ia bel SRNR Lm XXXV.—WNative Antimony and its Associations at Prince William, York County, New Brunswick; by G. F. GUNZ ie Rs POR Os : XXXVI.—Crystalline Rocks of Alabama; by C. H. Hrren- COOK, 0 S25 ee gneiss ke 100 lo i Sek eae XXXVII.—Geometrical Form of Volcanic Cones and the Elastic. Limit of Lava; by G. F. Beck, _----_-._ <2 XXXVIII.—Notice of a new genus of Pteropods from the Saint John Group (Cambrian) ; by G. F. Matruew, --- XX XIX.—Cope’s Tertiary Vertebrata; by J. L. Wortman, XL.—Observations upon the Tertiary of Alabama; by T. H. ATED RICH, 2, or Cee a Saar ear a on ict ae ee XLI.—Electrical Furnace and the reduction of the Oxides of Boron, Silicon, Aluminum and other metals by Carbon ; by EK. H. Cowzzs, A. H. Cowxzs and C. F. Masmry,--- XLIT.—The Grand Rapids Meteorite; by R. B. Rieas, - -_- SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics——Sensitiveness of Selenium and Sulphur to Light, 8. BIDWELL, 313.—Molecular Shadows in Incandescent Lamps, J. A. FLEMING: Disintegration ofethe carbon filament in an incandescent Electric lamp, BUCHANAN, 314.—Changes produced by magnetization in the length of rods of Iron and Steel, 8S. BIDWELL, 315. Geology and Mineralogy.—Notes on some of the Geological Papers presented at the Meeting of the American Association at Ann Arbor, 315.—Can underground heat be utilized?, J. S. GARDNER, 317.—A gigantic bird of the Lower Hocene of Croydon, Gastornis Klaassenii, H. T. Newron: Comstock Mining and Miners, E. Lorp: Materialien zur Mineralogie Russlands von N. v. KOKSCHAROW, 318. Botany.—The Microscope in Botany: a Guide to the Microscopical Investigation of Vegetable Substances, A. B. HeRvEY and R. H. Warp: Bulletin of the California Academy of Sciences, 319.—Systematic Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns in Ceylon, H. TRImMEN, 321.—Hon. GEORGE W. CLINTON, 322. Astronomy.—Identity of Denning’s and Biela’s comets, 322. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Ann Arbor, Michigan, 322.—U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 328. TEN-VOLUMEB INDEX. An extra number of this Journal, containing an index to volumes xxi to xxx, of sixty pages or more, will be ready in January. The publication of this num- ber involves a large extra expense to the editors, and it will be sent, therefore, to those only who specially order it. The price is seventy-five cents per copy. Orders are solicited, as the edition will be a small one. = alent Charles Lb. Walcott, ae -Fice Geolos ical Survey. mre Wil Mee lig Von XXX. ? NOVEMBER, 1885. Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. M. zs S03 oid a AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. EDITORS JAMES D. ann EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Prorrssors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, anp JOHN TROWBRIDGH, or Camsriner, Proressors H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven, Prorressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuLaDELpHta, THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXX.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXXX.] No. 179—NOVEMBER, 1885. BewW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D..& EPs. DANA. LSS. TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). 6.40 to foreign subscribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by money orders, registered letters, or bank checks, ‘ 9 ES : : PUBLICATIONS OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY. I. American Journal of Mathematics. S. Newcomps, Kditor, and T. Crate, Associate Editor. Quarterly. 4to. Volume VII in progress. $5 per volume. If. American Chemical Journal—I. Remsen, Editor. Bi-monthly. 8vo- Volume VI in progress. $3 per volume. Ill. American Journal of Philology.—B. L. GILDERSLEEVE, Editor. Quar- terly. 8vo. Volume V in progress. $3 per volume. IV. Studies from the Biological Laboratory.—Including the Chesapsake Zoological Laboratory. H.N. Martin, Hditor, and W. K. Brooxs, Asso- ciate Editor. 8vo. Volume II] in progress. $5 per volume. V. Studies in Historical and Political Science.—H. B. Apams, Hditor. Monthly. 8yvo. Volume III iu progress. $3 per volume. VI. Johns Hopkins University Circulars.—Containing reports of scientific and literary work in progress in Baltimore. 4to. Vol. I, $5; Vol. Il, $3; Vol. III, $2; Vol. IV in progress. $1 per year. Vit. Annual Report.—Presented to the President by the Board of Trustees, reviewing the operations of the University during the past academic year. Vit. Annual Register.—Giving the list of officers and students, and stating the regulations, etc., of the University. Published at the close of the Aca- demic year. Communications in respect to exchanges and remittances may be sent to the Johns Hopkins University (Publication Agency), Baltimore, Maryland. BH CK HR (BRO Dee eS No. 6 Murray Street, New York, Manufacturers of Balances and Weights of Precision for Chem- _ ists, Assayers, Jewelers, Druggists, and in general for every use where accuracy is required. April, 1871.—[tf.] IVE Jo IN Sea eee eS Sold, Bought and Exchanged. Address L. STADTMULLER, New Haven, Conn. References: Prof J. D. Dana and Prof. G. J. Brush. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES] » Art. XLUL—The Quantitative determination of Niobium; by T. B. OSBORNE. NIOBIUM occurs in nature almost always in connection with tantalum and titanium, in the presence of which it has been heretofore impossible to obtain more than an approximate de- termination on account of the close analogy of the behavior of these three elements, when occurring together, toward reagents. Marignac proposed in 1866 (Arch. de Se, xxv, p. 17) the process now generally employed for the determination of nio- bium, but as he says in describing his method, only approxi- mate results can be obtained by its use. His method depends on the difference in solubility of the potassium fluorine salts of tantalum, niobium and titanium. ‘Tantalum forms a salt of the composition TaF,2KF dissolving at ordinary temperatures in 150-200 parts of water acidulated with hydrofluoric acid and erystallizing in fine needles. Niobium on the other hand forms a salt of the composition NbOF,2KFH,O, dissolving in twelve parts of water and crystallizing in scales isomorphous with the corresponding titanium salt: The potassium titanium fluoride dissolves in ninety-six parts of water. Marignae adds bifluoride of potassium to the solution of the fluorides of tantalum, niobium and titanium, and concentrates till scales of TiF,2KF or NbOF,2KFE appear. The TaF,2KF is filtered and washed with the aid of a pump until the wash- ings no longer give any orange red precipitate with solution of galls after standing two hours. On account of the solubility of the TaF,2KF the mother liquor containing the NbOF,2KEF must always be a saturated solution of TaF,2KF and likewise a loss must occur on washing, so that even if the process of , Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp SERIES, VOL. XXX, No. 179.—Nov., 1885. 21 * ; 330 7. B. Oshorne— Quantitative determination of Niobium. crystallization be several times repeated, as is usually neces- sary, a very considerable loss must occur. Moreover, the tantalum potassium fluoride cannot be entirely freed from nio- bium in this way, for I found in preparing TaF,2KF that the niobium cannot be entirely removed by simply crystallizing and washing, as | was compelled to recrystallize several times before the TaF¥,2KF' gave no evidence of the presence of nio- bium, when tested by reducing with zinc and hydrochlorie acid. Titanium will, when present in any considerable quantity, render the application of this method still more uncertain on account of the intermediate solubility of the potassium titanium fluoride and its close resemblance to the NbOF 2KF. From this description it will readily be seen that this method is open to serious objection and can only find acceptance in want of a better. I therefore undertook an investigation of the reduction with zinc in acid solutions containing niobium with the hope of discovering a more accurate and less difficult method of determination. The salts of tantalum and niobium I prepared from columbite from Branchville, Connecticut, in the following way: The mineral was ground to pass a sieve of 100 meshes to the inch, and 500 grams fused with bisulphate of potassium ina platinum dish, 100 grams at a time. When thoroughly fused the mass was immediately poured into cold water which caused the separated tantalic and niobic acids to granulate and expose a large surface to the action of the water, whereby the solution of the bisulphate of potassium was very materially promoted and the lumps broke up easily on stirring, the tantalic and niobic acids separating partly. in a flocculent and partly in a granular form. After washing by decantation the residue was treated with ammonium sulphide and then filtered and washed to remove any tin or tungsten which might be present. Hydrochlorie¢ acid was then added and after washing, the residue was ob- tained free from iron and manganese. ‘The residue was next treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, in order to remove any silica, precipitated with ammonia and washed free from sul- phates. he tantalic and niobic acids thus obtained were dis- solved in an excess of hot hydrofluoric acid and carbonate of potassium added gradually, and after cooling, the Tal¥,2KF filtered off. The crude TaF,2KF was recrystallized several times and washed till no reduction whatever took place on testing with zine and hydrochloric acid. The mother liquor from the crude TaF,2KF was then nearly neutralized with carbonate of potassium which caused the solution to nearly solidify from the formation of NbOF,2KF, This product was then recrystallized several times and tested for tantalum by boiling with pure water, when, according to Marignae, if the slightest trace of tantalum were present, it would sep- T. B. Osborne— Quantitatwe determination of Niobium. 331 arate as an oxyfluoride. None was found. Analyses of the NbOF,2KFH,O thus obtained gave the following results. Calculated. H.O 5°92 5°90 5°97 NbO 36°92 36°84 36°87 K. 26:07 26°13 25°97 F, 31°09 eli} 31°19 4M trace trace BAT 100:00 100:00 100:00 This analysis shows that the salt was practically pure. The trace of titanium was found by testing with H,O, and amounted to only -0066 per cent. . Tantalum when treated with zincand hydrochloric acid does not reduce. Niobium on the other hand forms apparently several reduction products or at least exhibits colors varying according to treatment. When zinc is added to a dilute hydro- chlorie acid solution of niobium, a blue color is formed in the cold; if the acid is strong a brown color is obtained which, if the acid is allowed to act on the zinc until nearly neutralized, changes to blue and an indigo blue precipitate separates out. When heated to 100° only quite dilute acid solutions give a blue color which speedily turn brown. Those containing more acid give a brown color at once. If sulphuric acid is used in- stead of hydrochloric, the blue color appears at first, but on heating with much acid this passes into a brown differing slightly in color from that produced in the hydrochloric acid solution. A grass-green color is often obtained in the cold, with both sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, which appears to be intermediate between the blue and the brown as the blue passes into green and this into brown. All solutions strongly acidified with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid give on heating a dark brown color, which evidently indicates the lowest reduc- tion attainable, while the blue color marks a higher oxide than the brown or else an incomplete reduction. The solution reduced with sulphuric acid and zine is much less stable than that with hydrochloric acid, for on pouring it while warm into water, if the amount of reduced niobium is sufficient, an evolution of hydrogen takes place from the decom- position of the water. With hydrofluoric acid and zine a violet color is produced similar to that given by titanium with zine and sulphuric acid. Under similar conditions titanium gives a green color. The first attempts at a quantitative determination of niobium were made with sulphuric acid solutions of NbOF,2KF, as sul- phuric¢ acid is better suited for titration with potassium perman- ganate than hydrochloric. It was found, however, that the amount of reduced niobium was very far from constant. More 332 T. B. Osborne— Quantitatiwe determination of Niobium. constant results were obtained by pouring the reduced solution into ferric sulphate, but these varied too widely to give any promise of a satisfactory method. Hydrochloric acid was then tried and iodine solution added till a drop gave a blue color with a drop of starch solution, then sodium thiosulphate solu- tion in slight excess, then a few drops of starch solution and iodine added till a blue color appeared. It was found, how- ever, that a dark brownish color was formed near the end of the titration which so obscured the blue of the starch that very unsatisfactory results were obtained. I then tried potassium dichromate for titrating, pouring the reduced solution into ferric chloride but without success. Potassium permanganate was then returned to and man- ganese sulphate or magnesium sulphate added to prevent the action of the hydrochloric acid on the permanganate. It was afterward found that by sufficient dilution the end point could be obtained with all the accuracy desirable without the addi- tion of either magnesium or manganese sulphates. The results - are shown in the following table. The reduction was assumed to be to Nb,O,. Amount of Time of Percentage Amount of acid used. NbOF;2KFH.O. reduction. of Nb.Os. 50 c. ec. HCl sp. gr. 1:1 SOD 2 hour 34°24 u6 “4652 i 35.21 us “4932 Ys 35°58 3 “5900 ot 34:90 Hf “5561 “a 34°50 6614 ue 35:24 ce 4926 14 hour 34 01 rs “56896 f 34:60 AQUCAC Shee: "4982 & hour 34:27 he ‘4161 bs 34°13 AX) ©; @ 5291 4 hour 33°56 Gi) Os (Cone,)) “52119 #£ hour 37°68 sf *8122 a 38°41 ¢ 4256 if 36°74 oe nating) ce 37°65 (25 ec. “ (cone.) 4421 “ 36:97 Eis "56162 “ 37:54 I gees ce 3910 ti 37°40 1 ES8 « 1-0592 “ 38:07 a ics ates es *8890 1 hour 37°56 & =e ‘9274 : 35°90 Bp “6134 £ hour 38:58 re) “6861 uy 38°78 ‘ “5980 ot 38°30 o 5828 oe 38°70 Ob “T7611 e 37°68 Xs *6530 oy 38°07 In the above analyses the fluorides were dissolved in water and the 3 acid added. In the following concentrated acid was added di- rectly to the fluorides 1:1023 ae 39°03 "8395 af 38°86 The amount of Nb.O; corresponding to the niobium in the T. B. Osborne— Quantitative determination of Niobium. 383 The foregoing series of determinations show that the reduc- tion of the niobium is quite constant for a given strength of acid depending not on its amount but on its strength. The determinations were made by dissolving NbOF,2KF in water and adding the indicated amount of acid. The first eight deter- minations, where 50 ¢. c. of dilute acid were used, give an average of 34:78. With 40 c.c. the same amount of water was used to dissolve the fluoride, the strength was consequently less and the average lower, being 34:20. With 30c¢. c. 33°56 was found. When concentrated acid was used the amount of water required to dissolve the fluorides was small in compari- son with the amount of the acid in solution, so that the amount of water used exerted but little influence on the reduction, but the increased strength of acid raised the average to 37°80. The results obtained when concentrated acid was used to dis- solve the fluoride are higher still, the average being 38°94. Thus we have For 30 c. ec. HCl sp. gr. 11 33°56 per cent Nb.O; AN Os ©), rf Bylo) 9 He a MMaG & i plone. if Concentrated HCl Sas OMe: Fluorides dissolved in cone. HCl 38°94 “ BS It appears therefore that the amount of reduction increases with the concentration of the acid. The formula for an oxide corresponding to the reduction in the last case would be Nb,O,,. Marignae sought to obtain a formula for this oxide in the same way and obtained Nb,O,. This is very nearly equal to Nb,O,, since, for eight atoms of niobium there would be thirteen and a third atoms of oxygen according to his formula. It is proba- ble that neither of these oxides represents the oxide formed, but that a partial reduction has taken place as will appear from the results obtained from niobic acid in the following manner. Ten grams of NbOF,2KF and five grams of TaF,2KF were accurately weighed and heated with sulphuric acid in a plati- num dish till all the hydrofluoric acid was removed. The acid solution was poured into water and precipitated with ammonia, washed by decantation and then thoroughly dried at 100° C. Weighed portions were then ignited and the total amount of mixed oxides of tantalum and niobium determined. The per- centage of niobic oxide in these mixed oxides was calculated from the relative amount of the fluorides of each metal taken. In this way it was found that the mixture of tantalic and niobic acid precipitated and dried at 100° contained 47-36 per cent of Nb,O, Weighed portions were then dissolved in as small an amount of hydrofluoric acid as possible and 50 ec. c. of concen- trated acid added and the reduction carried on at a temperature 334 T. B. Oshorne— Quantitative determination of Niobium. of about 80° C. for three quarters of an hour. The amounts obtained were as follows: Am’t of mixed Amount of oxides taken. Nb.O; found. *6400 46°99 "6652 Nb2O; present 47°45 “T7455 w+ - aH 46°70 “7663 47°36 per cent. 46°64 *8323 46°97 In the above determinations the reduction was evidently to Nb,O,. Marignac states that alkali fluorides impede the re- duction, and this would explain why the reduction in the fore- going determinations was complete while in those where the potassium fluoride of niobium was used it was incomplete; as the amount of alkali fluoride was always in the same propor- tion to the amount of tantalum and niobium constant results ~ might be expected, butit is remarkable that so small an amount of alkali fluoride should exert so great an influence on the re- duction, and that the hydrofluoric acid added to dissolve the niobic acid did not also interfere with the reduction. Two analyses were made in order to throw light on this point by adding weighed amounts of potassium fluoride to a mixture of tantalic and niobie acids free from fluorides and containing 45°99 per cent of Nb,O,. Weight of Weight Nb.O; Nb.O; mixed acids. of KF. found. present. 5696 . “0900 43°83 45°99 5405 3728 43°87 From this it would appear that the amount of alkali fluoride exerted no influence, but that its presence did. In this case, however, the reduction is proportionally greater than when NbOF,2KF was used. The influence of titanium was next studied. ‘Titanic acid was treated exactly as the niobic acid and the following results were obtained. TiO. found by reduction and titration. Present. 20°38 20°36 20°48 In order to determine whether both niobium and titanium would reduce together as well as separately, the oxides were mixed together and the niobium determined by deducting from the amount of permanganate used the amount necessary to oxidize all the reduced titanium and calculating the niobium corresponding to the balance. In this way I obtained the amounts given below. Mixture of Titanic acid Nb.20; Nb20; three acids. present. present. found. 11798 gr. “0859 gr. -4928 gr. “4907 *8145 0687 "3357 3314 T. B. Oshorne— Quantitative determination of Niobium. 335 For the determination of titanium in the presence of niobium the method proposed by A. Weller (Berichte, xv, 1882, 2, p. 2592), appeared most suitable. It depends upon a comparison of the color produced by hydrogen dioxide in an acid solution of titanic acid, with the color of a solution containing a known amount of titanium. A. Weller, in describing his method, calls attention to its applicability to the determination of titanium in the presence of tantalum and niobium, but says he has not tried it in this case. I therefore undertook to determine the best manner of applying it. I found that it was necessary to use hydrofluoric or hydrochloric acid in order to keep the tan- talum and niobium in solution when sufficiently diluted. I found that the first of these acids even in small amounts entirely prevented the formation of the color of titanium with hydrogen dioxide and that hydrochloric acid deepened it very greatly in proportion to the amount added. It is necessary, therefore, to have the solution free from fluorides, and to have the same amount of acid in the standard solution as in the solution to be analyzed. It is very difficult to obtain these conditions and I was entirely unsuccessful in my attempts to determine the amount of titanium in a solution containing much free acid. I succeeded in obtaining quite satisfactory results, however, by precipitating the strongly acid solution with a small excess of ammonia and then redissolving the precipitate with as little sul- phuric acid as possible, the freshly precipitated niobic and tan- talic acids being readily soluble in dilute acid. In order to test the accuracy of this method a mixture of tantalic, niobie and titanic acids containing a known amount of each acid was dissolved in hydrofluoric acid in a platinum dish and the excess of acid evaporated off on the water bath. The fluorides thus obtained were dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric acid and poured into a glass flask of about 100 c. ¢. capacity, the platinum dish being rinsed out with concentrated hydrochloric acid. The solution and rinsings amounted to 50 c.c. Amalgamated zinc was then added and a piece of plati- num and the solution allowed to reduce in a stream of carbonic acid for three-quarters of an hour at a temperature of about 80° C. During this process the greater part of the hydrofluoric acid was removed from the solution, going off as silicon fluoride. After cooling thoroughly the reduced solution was poured into a beaker and diluted to 350. ¢. with distilled water freshly boiled and perfectly cold. A standard solution of potassium permanganate was added till the solution, at first nearly black, became perfectly clear and a distinct pink color was produced by the addition of a single drop. ‘To the solution containing the tantalum, niobium and titanium, ammonia was added in slight excess and then sulphuric acid till the precipitate pro- duced by the ammonia dissolved entirely. In this way a solu- 336 ZT. B. Oshorne— Quantitative determination of Niobium. tion was obtained containing a very small amount of free acid and practically free from fluorides. This solution was then diluted to 500 c¢. ¢., and 50 ¢. ce. brought into a nesslerizing tube and 2c. c. of hydrogen dioxide added. About 40 ¢.c. of water was added to another tube of the same dimensions and then 2 ¢. c. of hydrogen dioxide. A solution of titanic acid, prepared by evaporating potassium titanium fluoride with excess of sulphuric acid and diluting with water until 1c. ce. equaled one milligram of titanium oxide, was then run in until the color in the two tubes was nearly alike. They were then .brought to the same volume and the standard solution of titanium added drop by drop till there was no longer any dif- ference in color discernible. The number of cubie centimeters of the standard solution multiplied by ten gave the number of milligrams of TiO, in the solution analyzed. By calculating the amount of permanganate solution necessary to oxidize the Ti,0, formed by reduction of this amount of TiO, the amount of permanganate employed to oxidize the niobium was found and from this the amount of niobium calculated. The tanta- lum was found by subtracting the sum of the niobic and titanic — oxides from the sum of the three oxides. In this way the fol- lowing amounts of each were found. Nb.0; Ta.0O; TiO. Malkcenis) 3 gO julian ee SOU OTe 2246 er, “0687 gr. TNOYOUANSL Se SE Ras AE OF *2289 * 50.6 Olina It is necessary that during the reduction the heat should not be too great, as the tantalic acid is liable to precipitate and to carry with it both niobium and titanium and the reduction con- sequently will be incomplete. If tantalum is not present the solution can be boiled without danger. In order to analyze a mineral containing these three elements the mixed oxides can be obtained in the usual manner by fusing the finely ground mineral with bisulpbate of potassium, digesting with water, filtering, heating the residue with ammonium sulphide, wash- ing to remove tin and tungsten if present, treating the residue with dilute sulphuric acid to remove iron, washing and igniting with ammonium carbonate. After obtaining the joint weights of the oxides, fuse with potassium bisulphate, digest with water, and the residue, washed free from sulphates, dissolve in hot hydrofluoric acid, evaporate nearly dry on the water bath and proceed with the reduction and determination as just described. An analysis of Branchville columbite by this method, gave the following results: UM Oe eal Se oak 18°95 19:44 Specific gravity INO Ae aes Goat 60°95 60°46 5°73 TR Oi ae TRIN AES My 12°86 12°95 Mitral) Sp re Se ae 7:07 7:00 Oxygen ratio 1-103 99°83 99°85 Newberry— Geology along the Northern Pacific RL. 337 Marignac constructed a table of specific gravities of colum- bite which showed that in general the specific gravity increases with the amount of tantalam. The relations which he found hold good for this analysis. Art. XLIV.—WNotes on the Surface Geology of the country border- ing.the Northern Pacific Railroad; by J. S. NEWBERRY. From Chicago through Wisconsin and Minnesota the Northern Pacific Railroad passes over an almost unbroken sheet of drift, which, though of great interest, has been so fully described in the able reports of Messrs, Chamberlin, Winchell and Upham, that nothing further need be said here in regard to it. Going west from Duluth to Brainerd the line of the road for the most part lies in what is evidently the old deserted bed of a westward extension of Lake Superior. The ground is still low and swampy and much of ibe surface is formed of what is unmistakably lake sand. At various points farther west true till is seen with its striated pebbles; and one such exposure at Audubon is within reach of every traveler. Beyond this, bowlders scattered over the surface and pebbles in the ditches continue as evidence of the transport of material from the eastern highlands. About Bismarck the bowlders though fewer are still not rare and are gathered in groups and trails, as elsewhere along the margin of the drift area, suggesting transport by ice floats. The last of these bowlders is seen at Sims, about twenty miles from Bis- marck. From this point to the crossing of the Little Missouri one can hardly find a stone to throw at a bird or a shrub big enough fora tooth pick. ‘This is an extension northward of that broad prairie area which I have crossed in many places farther south. Here, between the eastern drift and that from the Rocky Mountains, the soil is formed entirely by the decom- position of the underlying rocks, and wherever these are shales and calcareous sandstones, as they are throughout most of the Cretaceous formation, there are no outcropping ledges of rock; the country is smooth and stones of all kinds are scarce. This belt, which runs from the Mexican to the Canadian line, is prairie because of the dryness of the climate and not on account of the soil or the geological substructure; for between the “Cross timbers” and the Raton Mountains with a considerable variety of geology and topography, there are no trees except along the water courses, which, fed by the melting of the snows on the Rocky Mountains, are perennial and supply constantly the amount of moisture that is a necessity for tree growth. 388 J. S. Newberry—Surface eae of the country The peculiar fineness of the soil of the northern portion of this belt has been supposed to have something to do with the prevalence of grass and the absence of trees, since in Illinois and Wisconsin, along the border line between the forest and the prairie, the levels where the soil is fine are grass-covered, while the swells and ridges, rocky or gravelly, carry trees; but as I have shown elsewhere, these local peculiarities of the soil, favor- ing, the first grass and the second trees, have to some extent caused the observed interlocking of prairie and forest. Farther west, with every kind of soil and geological structure, there are no trees, but everywhere grass, while east of the Mississippi and beyond the battle ‘ground between the two forms of vegetation, all kinds of topography, soil and substructure are covered with forest. No one who has traversed the continent along several parallels of latitude and has studied the relations of vegetation to soil and geological structure will fail to find conclusive evidence that the influence which has determined the kind and quantity of vegetation in the varied topographic and climatic districts of the west is the rainfall. The valley of the Little Missouri is deeply cut in a table land composed of the Laramie coal-measures, of which 200 or 300 feet with several seams of coal are exposed in the cliffs. Thou- sands of silicified tree-trunks are scattered over the surface and innumerable stumps are apparently standing where they grew, but no foreign material is anywhere visible. A few miles below the railroad crossing the valley expands and opens into the famous Mauvaises Terres, or “‘ Bad lands of the Missouri.” The course of that stream being here nearly east and west and the valleys of the tributaries north and south, these coalesce and form in the old lake beds picturesque but dangerous labyrinths. As soon as one enters the valley of the Yellowstone he finds himself surrounded by transported material. Gravel and bowl- ders of crystalline, sedimentary and volcanic rocks form the bed and bars of the river, increasing in coarseness and quantity to Livingston, but in all this material I was unable to find any- thing that was to me even presumably of eastern origin. Dr. C. A. White (this Journal, vol. xxv, 1883, p. 206) re- ports finding what: he considers eastern glacial drift along the valley of the Missouri and that of the Yellowstone, but my search for such material was vain.* The geology of the Yellowstone Park has been well described by Dr. Hayden and his assistants, Mr. W. H. Holmes and Mr. ° A. C. Peale, but I was surprised to find the traces of glacial action so widespread and unmistakable. It is probably not too * As will be seen farther on, I found in the valley of the Missouri about the falls great quantities of drift with bowlders of fossiliferous limestone, quartzite, gneiss and granite, all remarkably like the eastern drift, but which I subsequently traced to their place of origin in the Belt mountains. bordering the Northern Pacific Railroad. 339 much to say that every valley of the Park was once filled with ice; for moraines, bowlders, glacial lakes, and more rarely glacial striz give testimony on this question that cannot be disputed. Ice-borne blocks are seen on the sides of the Yellow- stone valley below the mouth of Gardner’s River, and south of Mammoth Hot Springs every depression has once held a glacier. Swan Lake is of glacial origin and is bounded on the south by a terminal moraine, while lateral moraines and striated rock surfaces mark the old ice level high up on the sides of the valley. Near Marshall’s the road leads over a succession of great moraines of clay and bowlders which continue to and around the Fire Hole basin, and prove that this also was once largely filled with ice. From all I could learn the evidences of glacial action which are found here in the lowest portion of the Park may be traced through all parts of it, DRIFT OF THE UPPER MISSOURI. The Missouri River, formed at Gallatin City by the union of the Madison, the Gallatin and the Jefferson, traverses with a northwest and then northerly course the valley between the Rocky and Belt Mountains, and finds its way out to the plains by a long circuit around the northern bases of the Belt and Crazy Mountains, eastern outliers of the Rocky Mountain sys- tem. Cutting through barriers formed by interlocking spurs at the “Gate of the Mountains,” the river enters an undulating prairie country which extends from the north side of the Belt Mountains to and beyond the Canadian line. All this region is occupied by a sheet of drift that in thickness and extent rivals that of the plains surrounding the Canadian highlands; but, as far as my observation extended, I found this of local origin. At the Great Falls of the Missouri the underlying rock is exposed, but the drift-sheet comes up to the edge of the gorge and forms the low hills which stretch away to the east and north like the long sweils of the ocean. In the valleys of the streams which come down to the Missouri from the Belt Moun- tains, the rock substratum is generally visible; but the interven- ing plateaus are covered with a sheet of drift that varies greatly in thickness as it is spread over a rock surface that was once deeply and irregularly eroded. For example, near the Upper Falls of the Missouri, where the banks of the river are solid rock and perhaps a hundred feet high, a tributary coming in from the south cuts across an old valley filled with drift, which extends almost to the present river channel. At its mouth this tributary has high rocky banks, but a few hundred yards above they are altogether composed of drift. This is a true till, thickly set with bowlders, some of which are two feet or more in diameter. 340 J. S. Newberry—Surface Geology of the country The bowlders are usually rounded, sometimes subangular, and are composed of gray or red granite, quartzite, Paleozoic lime- stone and a variety of eruptive rocks. The resemblance to the drift from the Canadian highlands is so great that I was only convinced of its local origin when I found all of its constituents in place in the Belt and Rocky Mountains. The granites were to my eye indistinguishable from those of the eastern Laurentian series. As I subsequently learned, they are of Archzean age, and nothing but careful microscopic examination will show them to be distinguishable, if they are so. These facts lead me to suspect that the very careful and experienced observers who have reported the finding of eastern Laurentian bowlders on the flanks of the Rocky Mountains, 4000 feet above the sea may have been misled by this striking resemblance. On the undulating surface of the table lands between the tributaries of the Missouri, large bowlders are occasionally seen, as in the States bordering the Great Lakes, and we passed one of these somewhat angular in form which had served so long as a rubbing-post for the buffaloes, recently abundant in this region, that its sides are all polished, and a deep furrow is worn around it by their feet. THE GORGE OF THE COLUMBIA. The gorge of the Columbia is one of the most impressive and interesting topographical features in all the picturesque West. It is cut with a nearly straight westerly course across the whole breadth of the Cascade Mountains, fifty miles, and its banks rise from’ 2,000 to 4,000 feet directly from the river side. Most of the material of which the walls are composed is basalt. This can be seen to form distinct layers, the products of differ. ent overflows from the great volcanic vents north and south of - it. Cape Horn, a bold headland, stows a vertical face of trap nearly 500 feet in height. No one who examines the gorge of the Columbia will fail to be convinced that it has been cut by the river. The general altitude of the mountains in which there are no other passes lower than about 5,000 feet, as well as the altitude of the lake deposits on the eastern side indicate that the work of cutting this channel began at a height not less than 3,000 feet above the sea. At this time the river must have had a fall of at least this number of feet into the valley of the Willamette; and to realize the conditions then existing, we must picture to our- selves a series of cascades of greater magnitude and more picturesque than any now known. ‘This water-power was, however, busily engaged in cutting down the barrier, and in process of time it was so completely removed that a nay- igable canal was opened from the Dalles to the ocean. The bordering the Northern Pacific Ratroad. 341 Western entrance to the gorge is now at tide-level and the lower part of the river is, like the Hudson, an arm of the sea. It is true that at present the ‘Cascades of the Columbia,” form a serious interruption to the navigation of the river, for they are produced by a dam sixty-three feet high, which fills the channel for three miles. But this dam is of recent date, as we know, and has been caused by an avalanche from the sides of the gorge. Above it the river is simply a long lake, and in low water a series of stumps are seen coming up from below the water-level which belonged to trees that could never have grown in the places they occupy if the barrier of the Cascades had existed. Steamboats navigate the Columbia from the Dalles down, with a transfer at the Cascades, and this is much the better route to take for those who would get a good view of the gorge with its imposing walls, its hanging forests and its picturesque waterfalls which leap 1,000 feet from the cliffs, to say nothing of the old Indian burial grove, and the multitude of silicified tree trunks at the Cascades. The railroad is built along the face of the southern cliff, high above the water, and although it gives only a one-sided view of the gorge, it is generally chosen by travelers who prefer rapid transit to beauty of scenery. ANCIENT GLACIERS OF THE CASCADE MOUNTAINS. As is well known, the Rocky Mountains from New Mexico to British Columbia abound in evidences of ancient glaciation. The same is true of the Uinta Mountains, the Wasatch, the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains. In the group of five snowy peaks called in Oregon the Three Sisters—because only three are visible from the Willamette valley, miniature glaciers. were found by our party in 1855 at the heads of McKenzie’s Fork and one of the tributaries of the Des Chutes, and on Mt. Shasta and Mt. Rainier are many true glaciers, of which some are several miles in length. But all the glaciers and snow- fields now existing on the Cascade Mountains are insignificant compared with those of the Glacial period. Then every gorge was filled with snow and ice, the broader and more irregular summits were covered with glaciers and these descended far below the present line of perpetual snow. Nowin many locali- ties and over many square miles the rock surfaces are planed smooth or grooved like a plowed field, and every projecting erest of volcanic rock, rough and ragged as it was, is rounded over and worn into a roche moutonnée. From the Three Sisters glaciers descend into the valley of the Willamette on the west and that of the Des Chutes on the east, and I traced glacial 342 J. S. Newberry Surface Geology of the country markings from the snow line to a point 2,500 feet lower, where they pass under the alluvium of McKenzie’s Fork.* It has been claimed by Lecoq (Les Glaciers et les Climats) and following him by Professor Whitney and others (Later Cli- matic Changes), that the great development of glaciers during the Ice Period, such as those of the Canadian highlands, the Rocky Mountains, the Cascades and Sierra Nevada, was not the effect of a cold but a warm period, which increased the precipi- tation and consequently the snow-fall at all places where the temperature was low enough to cause it to take the form of snow. If this was all, however, the most extensive glaciers should be in the Alpine districts of the tropics or temperate zones wherever the precipitation is most abundant and the tem- perature low enough to produce perpetual snow. . But the great glaciers of the present time are not on the Andes, the Himalayas or the Alps, but on Greenland and the Antarctic Continent where the climate is very cold and the amount of precipitation small. We also find on the summits of the Cascades a demonstration of the fallacy of this view; since here some of the mountains rise 14,000 feet above the sea and the line of perpetual snow is not over 7,000 feet, while the annual precipitation is greater than in almost any other portion of our country. In fact the snow accumulates in such quantity that even in mid-summer it reaches down to where it is met and opposed by a vigorous forest growth—the product of a high temperature It is evident that no elevation of temperature, though it should increase the evaporation on the Pacific and the rain-fall on the coast, would cause the renewal of the ancient glaciers; but with a depression of temperature which should continue the present winter con- ditions through the year, the precipitation remaining the same, the accumulation would soon cover the mountain summits with snow and ice and bring the glaciers down to their old limits. THE LOWER COLUMBIA. The country bordering the Lower Columbia is too well known to require description. I am impelled, however, to refer to one or two points in its physical structure which are of special in- terest when brought into connection with facts of similar import observed in the region about Puget’s Sound. I have said that the Lower Columbia is an arm of the sea. It is in fact a deep river valley which has been flooded by an influx cf the sea caused by subsidence. This brings tide-water to the foot of the falls of the Willamette at Oregon City, and to the Cascades. It requires no argument to prove that such a channel could not have been cut unless by a rapid stream flowing into the * Pacific Railroad Report, vol. vi, Part II, Geology, p. 42. bordering the Northern Pacific Kaitroad. 343 ocean when it stood at a lower level. Whether the change in the relative level of land and sea here remarked was part of a general movement which produced the influx of the sea into the fiords which fringe the northwest coast; and whether this is not a part of a still grander movement that flooded the old excavated valleys of the James River, the Potomac, the Schuy]l- kill, the Hudson, the St. Lawrence and the Saguenay and at the same time filled the fords of the northeastern coast, are ques- tions which cannot now be fully answered but are ‘worth con- sidering. It will be noticed that the general plan of the topography of this part of the coast is altogether similar to that of California ; namely, the great wall of the Cascades bordered on the east by the Willamette and Cowlitz valleys, and the Coast Mountains along the sea shore, are reproduced farther south by the Sierra Nevada, the great California valley and the Coast Ranges. And these features are not only physically similar, but geologi- cally identical; the Cascades being the northern continuation of the Sierra Nevada, the more modern Coast Mountains being continuous, the great trough between them essentially one, but. filled at its center by a mass of mountains. SURFACE GEOLOGY OF THE PUGET’S SOUND BASIN. The name Puget’s Sound is made in popular use to cover all the peculiar group of inlets and tideways which lie immediate- ly east of Vancouver's Island,—Puget’s Sound proper, Admi- ralty Inlet, Hood’s Canal, etc. These occupy the northern ex- tension of the great Columbian valley, which, like its counter- part in California, les between the Coast ranges and the Cordil- leras. Farther north still this depression is deflected toward the northwest by achange in the trend of the Cascade Mountains and the representatives of the coast ranges on Vancouver's island. In Washington Territory the Coast Mountains are higher than in Oregon and have received the local name of the Olym- pian range, of which the highest summit is called Mt. Olympus. This range terminates somewhat abruptly but is apparently continued in the mountains of Vancouver's Island. Through the gap between these and the Olympian range a deep channel is cut, now an arm of the sea, called the Strait of Juan de Fuca. In former times, when. this portion of the continent, and probably the whole north west coast, stood higher above the sea, this Strait was the valley of a great river which drained most of the western slope of the Cascades in Washington Terri- tory, and had as branches the Skagit, Snoqualme, “Dwamish, Puyallup, Nisqually and various minor streams. During the Ice period this hydrographic basin was filled with a great gla- cier made up of contributions from all the surrounding moun- 3844. J. S. Newberry—Surface Geology of the country tains. It flowed out to sea by the Strait of Fuca, but this channel was far too narrow for it and it spread over all the southern portion of Vancouver's Island, planing off, rounding over or deeply scoring the rocks in its passage. As the glaciers retreated they left behind a sheet of drift several hundred feet in thickness, partly water-worn and stratified, partly unstratified bowlder clay with striated pebbles, of which the surface was nearly level. In process of time the draining streams had cut in this plaif a series of valleys all tributary to one which led out through the Strait of Fuca to the ocean. After perhaps some thousands of years, during which the excavation of these valleys progressed, a subsidence of the land or rise of the ocean caused the water to flow in and occupy the main valley and all its tributaries up to the base of the mountain slopes. Such in few words is the history of the formation of this remarkable system of inlets. They are simply the flooded val- leys of a great river and of the branches that formerly joined it but now empty into the extremities of the finger-like inlets that have partially replaced them. There are but few localities in Puget’s Sound basin where ‘the rocky substratum rises so as to be visible above the water level. Along the northern and western ‘margin on Vancou- ver’s, Sucia, Orcas and Whidby Islands, and at Chuckernut’s and Sohome the rock appears, but at Tacoma, Steilacoom, Seattle, Port Madison, Port Townsend, and it may be said generally about the Sound, the shores are steep bluffs, 100 to 150 feet in height composed of drift alone. From the cliffs at Port Town- send and Tacoma, I took sub-angular scratched and ice-worn pebbles as characteristic and convincing as any to be found in the bowlder clays of the eastern States. The subsidence which caused the sea water to flow into the subaerially excavated valleys of Puget’s Sound also filled the channel of the Columbia, the Cascades and the system of fiords, of which these are representatives, that fringe the northwest coast. We have evidence, too, that the area occupied by the sea was at one time much more extensive than now, for all the country immediately about “Puget’s Sound is marked with a series of marine terraces which Mr. Bailey Willis, who studied them carefully when connected with the Transcontinental Sur- vey under Professor Pumpelly, tells me can be traced to a height of 1600 feet above the present ocean level. These ter- races are conspicuous on the low divide which separates the valley of the Cowlitz from the basin of Puget’s Sound; and here, as over much of this region, the ground is covered with pebbles and water-worn bowlders, the product of the long con- tinued dash of the shore waves on a slope composed of drift materials. In the advance and recession of the shore line, the bordering the Northern Pacific Railroad. 345 finer materials have been mostly washed away, and the stony surface has little agricultural value. Jortunately it is well adapted to the growth of trees, and the splendid forest which covers it is perhaps an equivalent for all it has lost. The facts here given show why the cultivation of the soil in Washington Territory is limited to the narrow belt of modern alluvinm along the streams, and indicate that coal mining, the fisheries and the lumber industry must be in the future as they now are, the most important sources of wealth. MODERN GLACIERS OF THE SIERRA. From the Willamette Valley and Puget’s Sound grand views are obtained of the great snow peaks of the Cascade Mountains; the Three Sisters, Mt. Jefferson, Mt. Hood, Mt. Adams, Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Tacoma and Mt. Baker. Of these, Mt. Hood has an altitude of 11,225 feet, Mt. Adams 12,250, and Mt. Tacoma 14,400. In Colorado and California there are a number of summits of equal absolute altitude, but they have nothing like the relief above their surroundings that these have; carry far less perpetual snow, and in every way are less impressive. In Washington Territory the line of perpetual snow on the west side of the mountains is about 6500 feet; on the east side, several hundred feet higher. Mt. T’acoma carries therefore about 8000 feet of snow. Below this it is covered with a dense forest. As none of its foothills rise to the height of 2000 feet above the sea and are invisible at a distance, from many places about the Sound practically the whole of the mountain is seen at one view ; a gigantic cone, 14,000 feet in height, apparently rising directly from the sea level. Mt. Shasta has the same altitude, and as seen from Scott’s valley is wonderfully impres- sive, but it is situated farther inland and farther south, its base is higher and it has less snow, and is therefore somewhat less imposing. It is not too much to say then, that no other moun- tain on this continent and none in Hurope rivals Mt. Tacoma in grandeur and beauty, and it is doubtful whether in the world there is any that produces a profounder impression upon the beholder. Mt. Hood, as seen under favorable circum- stances from Fort Vancouver, especially when reflected from the lake-like surface of the Columbia, is as beautiful but far less grand. Though appearing in the distance so smooth and symmetrical, Mt. Tacoma has been found to be a ragged and compound mass consisting of three conspicuous summits and many subordinate peaks, with precipices 2000 to 3000 feet in height and deep gorges which make the ascent difficult and even dangerous. Am. Jour. Scil.—THIRD SERIES, Vou. XXX, No. 179.—Nov., 1885. 22 846 Newberry—Geology along the Northern Pacific R. R. It has been ascended, however, several times, and its labyrinths sufficiently explored to prove that it carries from eight to twelve glaciers, some of which are many miles in length and will bear comparison with those of the Alps. Every traveler who enters Puget’s Sound region from the south is sure to be struck by the turbid milky appearance of the water of the Cowlitz River along which the railroad runs for miles. This character it shares with all streams that drain glaciers, and which has caused the Swiss mountaineers to give to the waters of such streams the name of Gletscher Milch. Its turbidity is due to the sediment produced by the constant erinding action of these enormous masses of moving ice set with stones upon their beds, and attests the sometimes disputed efficiency of glaciers as eroding agencies. The Puyallup, White River, and other streams, which come down from Mt. Tacoma, are alike milky, and each shows that one or more glaciers are continually grinding away at its head. On the contrary, the streams which do not come from glaciers and are supplied by rain only, and that filter through the decaying vegetation of the dense forests, carry very little sediment and that chiefly carbonaceous matter. These are clear but brown, and the con- trast which the water of such streams presents to that of the rivers which drain the glaciers is very striking and justifies the names borne by two such of Black and White Rivers. It has been contended by some writers, as has been mentioned, that the extension of glaciers in former times was due simply to an increase in the amount of precipitated moisture, but it is easy to see that the heavy rain-fall of Washington Territory might be increased indefinitely with no considerable elongation of the glaciers. But even with the rain-fall remaining as it is, if a depression of temperature should take place carrying the present conditions of winter through the year, the glaciers would soon creep down into their old beds, fill all the valleys of their draining streams and finally coalesce to form one grand glacier which would flow out through the Strait of Fuca to the ocean. Following the coast northward from Puget’s Sound we find the glaciers coming down lower and lower until in Alaska they reach the sea level. No one can claim that this is because the precipitation is greater there, since observations show that it is not, but every candid man will acknowledge that it is because at the north the temperature is lower. He must also accept these facts as a demonstration that a prime factor in the produc- tion of the phenomena of the Ice Period was a secular depression of the temperature. L. Bell—Rainband Spectroscopy. 347 Art, XLV.—Rainband Spectroscopy ; by Louis BELL, It is now more than ten years since Professor Piazzi Smyth pointed out that the absorption bands of aqueous vapor in the solar spectrum were likely to be of considerable service in meteorology; but although his observations were evidently successful and have been often repeated with equally good results, little progress has been made in the practical appli- cation of the principle. This lack of results appears to be due to two causes. First, as the method seemed to offer an easy way of predicting the weather, it at once fell into the hands of the would-be weatherwise who understood it: very imperfectly and were thoroughly incompetent to use it. The successful often made the wildest claims for it, and those less skillful or fortunate were active in denunciations, even derid- ing it as “an optical illusion strengthened by long practice.” Secondly, there were real difficulties in the way of its applica- tion. Nearly all observations of the rainband have depended upon eye estimations of its intensity, unsatisfactory at their best and doubly so when complicated by long intervals, clouds, and widely varying conditions of illumination. The rainband is a small object in the instruments generally used for the pur- pose, and it is no easy matter to compare it with such a vague and variable thing as a mental scale of blackness. The refer- ence to the Fraunhofer lines is open to nearly as much objec- tion, since their apparent intensity is liable to vary with the light, width of slit and general condition of the spectroscope to an extent which renders them very uncertain standards for scientific purposes. The first mentioned cause is an unfailing concomitant of every discovery that smacks of popular science; the second is due only to the nature of the observation itself and can be removed with comparative ease. The object of this paper is to call attention to a device by which something like quanti- tative accuracy can be secured in the study of the rainband, and to the general methods which appear to give the best re- sults in this investigation, which, it is to be hoped, will prove of permanent service to meteorology. The desideratum is evidently a definite and trustworthy scale of variable blackness, extending over quite a wide range, and easily comparable to the rainband. A direct photometric measure of the intensity of the absorption band would of course be valuable, but is an observation too complicated and delicate for everyday use. The measurement could be made however by using a standard of light as one of the sources of illumination in the spectro-photometer of Vierordt (‘‘ Die An- 348 L. Bell—Rainband Spectroscopy. wendung des Spectral-apparates ”) or some modification, like that described by the writer (American Chemical Journal, vii, No. 1). The ideal scale therefore should be constructed so that the absolute intensity of its various readings could be found by the above or some other method. Janssen and others have tried various rude methods of esti- mation, but the only scientific instrument for measuring ab- sorption lines yet devised is that due to Mr. C. S. Cook, and described by him in “Science,” 11, 488. His plan consists, in brief, of forming diffraction fringes in the field by a silk fiber placed a trifle beyond the focus, and varying their intensity by moving the fiber to or from the focus by means of a screw collar. The fringes thus produced resemble the lines of the rainband quite closely, and form a very reliable and delicate scale. Its successtul use, however, requires a skilled observer and much care, and its indications cannot be reduced to abso- lute measure except by a comparison with some absorption line which can in turn be evaluated with a spectro-photometer, itself by no means an easy matter. While this method is very effective in measuring the individual lines of the rainband some plan for measuring the band as a whole seemed desirable, and, after some casting about, the writer determined to give a careful trial to the interference bands produced in the spec- trum by a crystal in polarized light. So far as known, this method has not hitherto been used. The instrument used was a direct-vision spectroscope by Schmidt of Berlin, which gave a very bright spectrum with moderate dispersion and beautiful definition. Its five prisms polarized well enough to make it a very efficient analyzer. A bit of selenite having a well defined natural edge was then split down till the interference bands produced by it were about as wide as the maximum rainband as seen in the above instrument. The plate thus prepared was placed immediately in front of the slit, covering, however, only half the field. The usual cap of the spectroscope was removed, and replaced by a tube graduated to five degrees and carrying a 9™™ Nicol prism. Thus equipped; a long series of preliminary experi- ments were made to settle upon the best method of observa- tion and adjustment of instrument. Finally the following plan was adopted. The thickness of the selenite plate was so adjusted that the bands appear as in fig. 1, one of them being situated about the average width of the rainband on the less refrangible side of D, i. e. in the red. Then the Nicol prism was turned till the interference band was of the same intensity as the rainband, when the field appeared of the same brightness from the red side of the interference band to D. In this method of observation it is quite as well L. Bell—Rainband Spectroscopy. 349 to have the selenite plate cover the entire slit, as the field is then uniform and the obtrusive black line produced by the edge of the plate is absent. In passing it must be remarked that the nomenclature of the atmosphere lines is in a state of confusion thrice confounded. Hach investigator seems to have numbered or lettered them to suit his taste. Only two telluric groups of lines have designa- tions which are generally received, the band at w. |. 628 (a) and that at w. 1.578 (0). In this state of affairs the writer would suggest that for sake of brevity it would be well to apply the letter 7 to the well known rainband near D, reserving AGanBaa@s amyOld, Bu F 8 for the faint band given in Angstrém’s chart between « and D, and using Brewster’s lettering for the more refrangible part of the spectrum. Then in referring to the individual lines that go to make up 7’or any other of the bands it would be well to simply number them in order of their wave length —7l, 72, ete. And a careful map of 7 is badly needed. After being arranged as above, the spectroscope was used constantly for six months with complete success. The place of observation was Baltimore, Md., a location well calculated to give rainband observations a severe test, by reason of a cli- mate more than usually variable. Having arranged a satisfac- tory scale, the point to be determined was, how far rainband observations alone are to be trusted as prophetic of the weather, and how they should be taken with a small instrument like the one used in order to secure maximum efficiency. As to the first point the annexed chart answers the question. An observation was taken at 8 A. M. and another at 2 P. M., usually in the western sky. No other instrument was used to confirm the indications of the spectroscope. Hrom day to day the instrument was now and then readjusted as regards slit, focus, etc., and there was no difficulty in securing identical scale readings after such readjustment. The instrument polar- ized too well, so that the interference band could be made 350 L. Bell—Rainband Spectroscopy. i et - Ss Ae Bacty 3 : rr) ay cry, - i) =e hee, 12 r=) SS = in n nN~ Si * wo g R- a- : eo - ~ 8 = 2 in, ie, — ib- Ss co a Bite ae ee. g : - & ca ayes £89 in- & in - = wea, Us eang 50 0 100 50 ae = sure ‘ 40°, and grade insensi- bly above and below into highly altered strata contorted and seamed in every direction, especially the underlying beds. This disturbed area is a local one, however, and much progress has been made in this district in tracing out the foldings of the slates. This fossiliferous bed is not far from the base of the formation, and is not intercalated in the other members by fold- ing in an overturned syncelinal. The fossils found near Walden were at the junction of beds of grauwacke and thin layers of fossil slates, exposed in the quarries below the bridge and elsewhere. Leptena sericea Was quite abundant at one point, and Orthis testudinaria was asso- ciated but in less numbers, also O. pectinella and a fragment of Conularia probably Trentonensis. The fossils were finely pre- served and the subjacent rock contained numerous small nodules of soft, bituminous matter as noted by Horton in his Report to Professor Mather in 1839.* They are often 10 mm. in diameter. Several indistinct fucoid impressions appear on some of the layers but none were recognizable. The rocks dip southwestward at a moderate angle, and strati- - graphic studies in this district make it appear probable that the fossiliferous beds are at a low horizon in the formation. Further details of the stratigre phic structure will be given in the paper before noted. In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge my indehredners to Professor R. P. Whitfield for his kindness in determining the greater number of the species for me, and for his aid and advice at many times in the investigation. Art. LVII.—Report of the American Comimittee-delegates to the Berlin International Geological Congress, held Sept. 28th to Oct. 3d, 1885; by Persiror FRAZER, D.Sc., Secretary. THE following report of the third session of the International Geological Congress in Berlin, was made from notes taken by the Secretary of the American committee for this session. These notes were afterwards written out in full, with the kind assistance of Professor Williams to whom the writer hereby expresses his sincere obligations. It will be remembered that the inception of this most important gathering was the action of a com- *3d Annual Report of Natural History Survey, p. 144. International Geological Congress. 455 mittee at the Buffalo meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1876, the year of the Centen-. nial Exposition. This committee left the work of organizing the first Congress in the hands of a committee of geologists, who thereupon selected as the date of the first Congress the year 1878, or that of the French ‘“ Exposition Universelle.” The first Congress was duly held, and was remarkable for nothing so much as the absence of any representatives of Germany. After settling some preliminary matters it was decided that the next sitting of the Congress should be held at Bologna, in 1881. This second session of the Congress was also held ; and by this time, the methods of accomplishing the ends of unification in nomenclature and coloring having become better understood, it was determined to undertake to make a map of Hurope ona scale of x54pyy- A committee was appointed to take this in hand, and another to devise ways and means of making a consistent nomenclature for the science. The two committees met at Foix and Zurich during the four years that intervened between the Congress of Bologna and that of Berlin, and the work of the present Congress has been mainly the adoption of the propositions made at these meet- ings. At the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Ann Arbor last summer, Professor H. 8. Williams and Professor Persifor Frazer were added to the original committee, constituting the American delegation and actually represented at Berlin by Professors James Hall and J. S. Newberry. Professor Brush, who was in Berlin at the time, was elected by the committee one of the members. The members of the American committee present at the time of the opening session of the Berlin Congress were, Prof. James Hall (President), Prof. J.S. Newberry, Prof. Brush, Prof. H. S. Williams and Prof. Persifor Frazer (Secretary). The International Geological Congress met at its third ses- sion in Berlin, Monday, September 28. The members and dele- gates arriving before this date registered at the office of the Bureau in the Bergakademie. The council met at 11 o'clock Monday morning to determine upon the programme of the first session and nominate officers of the present meeting, and at 5 o'clock the members of the Congress assembled at the house of the Reichstag for mutual greetings. Only members of the con- gress were admitted, and those having registered and received the card of membership were presented with the badge of the Congress, which was in the form of a medal, with the well- known geological and mining symbol of crossed hammers in 456 International Geological Congress. the center under which are the words ‘‘ Geologorum conventus —mente et malleo;” and on the reverse—“ Berlin, 1885.” The formal opening of the Congress took place Tuesday morn- ing, September 20th, at 11 o ‘clock, at the House of Deputies. “At this meeting, Professor Capellini, of Italy, occupied the chair as President of the Congress at Bologna. On his right was Dr. von Dechen and M. Hauchecorne, on the left Professor Beyrich and Professor Hall. On the ministerial benches on the right were the diplomatic and government officers, and on the left the vice-presidents, representing various countries, Professor Capellini introduced the “ Cultus-Minister,” Herr von Gossler, who welcomed the Congress in German.* Herr von Gossler dwelt upon the fact that no science could proceed in any direction without calling to its aid the assistance of the other sciences. He noted the advantage which had -accrued to astromomy by this course. He reminded his hear- ers that Prussia had been the home of von Buch and yon Humboldt, and in the name of the Prussian government he warmly appreciated the honor conferred upon Berlin by its choice as their place of meeting, and bade them welcome with the miner’s greeting “ Gltick auf.” He added humorously, that as the facts of gcology rest upon the results of the action of water, he knew the present weather would not deter the true geologist from his work. Dr. von Dechen then read his address in French, beginning with thanks to the members for having elected him honorary President. He called to mind the names of many men of Huro- pean science of a past generation, specifying among them some of the greatest with whom he had been intimate in Paris, in London and in Germany. He stated that much had been done in Geology since the last Congress at Bologna, and much still remained to be done. After thanking the government for its kind reception of the guests, he concluded by expressing the high appreciation of the people of Berlin of the honor done them by the Congress in meeting in their midst. Professor Capellini then addressed the Congress. His first words were that he owed the honor of occupying the chair to the fact of his having been chosen to preside over the Congress at Bologna. He sketched the origin and history of the Congress from the time of its inception by the committee of the Ameri- can Association for the Advancement of Science in 1876, through the Paris sessions in 1878 and the Bologna Congress of 1881, and mentioned particularly the very friendly attitude which his Majesty, the king of Italy, had assumed toward its * By the action of the Congress at Bologna the language of its debates is French. LS ae International Geological Congress. 457 work and deliberations. He continued: “I had the hovor in the month of August last, to communicate to his Majesty, King Humbert, the project of holding the third session of the Con- gress in Berlin, and his Majesty specially charged me to convey to the officers and members his kindliest greeting, and the assurance of his sincere interest in the result of its delibera- tions, and desired me to be the interpreter of his wishes for its complete success. (Hearty applause.) In conclusion I have the honor to announce, that Dr. Beyrich has the floor.” Here- upon Dr. Beyrich read from manuscript his address in French. It was an exhaustive history of the development and proceed: ings of the Congress up to the Bologna session, and also of the successive meetings of the committees on the chart of Hurope at Foix and at Zurich. He also gave an account of the meet- ing of the German committee at Stuttgart in 1883. The meet- ing of the Congress at Berlin was determined upon for 1884, but was postponed on account of the cholera. The objects of the Congress—the discussion and determination of questions of geological classification, nomenclature and cartography were explained, and a general account of the results already attained was given. He closed by calling attention to the charts and collections in the Bergakademie which illustrated these results. At the conclusion of the address of Dr. Beyrich, the following list of nominations for officers of the conncil for the Berlin session was read by Professor Capellini, and the nominations there made were elected by unanimous vote of the Congress, whereupon M. Capellini yielded the chair to Dr. Beyrich. MeEemMsBeEers OF THE BUREAU, Flonorary President: Dr. yon Dechen. President: Prof. Beyrich. Vice- Presidents: Messrs. Credner, Fraas and von Gtimbel, of Germany ; Stur, of Austria; Dewalque, of Belgium; Johnstrup, of Denmark; Vilanova, of Spain; James Hall, of the ,United States; Jacquot, of France; Hughes, of Great Britain ; Szabd, of Hungary; Blanford, of India; de Zigno, of Italy; Kjerulf, of Norway; van Calker, of Holland; Choffat, of Portugal; Stefa- nescu, of Roumania; Inostranzeff, of Russia; Torell, of Sweden; Renevier, of Switzerland. General Secretary : M. Hauchecorne. Secretaries : Messieurs Fontannes, Bornemann pére, Fornasini. W ahnschaffe. Treasurer: M. Berendt. anna Members of the Council: Messrs. Benecke, Dupont, ‘Béckh, Ewald, Frazer, Gaudry, Geikie, Giordano, von Hantken, de Lap- parent, Lepsius, Mayer-Hymar, von Mojsisovics, Newberry, Pilar, Platz, Strtiver, Topley, Williams, Zittel. AM, JOUR. Scl.—THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXX, No. 180.—Dnc., 1885. 29 458 International Geological Congress. — At the opening ‘of the evening session, at 6 o'clock, M. Hauchecorne, the secretary, requested the members to inform the Bureau of any ladies they might have with them, in order that means might be provided for their comfort and entertain- ment. The first printed list of members was then presented. The secretary further stated, that catalogues of the museums of science and of arts had been prepared and would be distrib- uted at the close of the meeting. he Prussian minister had provided for the opening of the museums to all members of the Congress, from 9 o'clock till 3 P. M., and certain days were designated when the chiefs, or their representatives, would be present to show and explain their contents. M. Renevier (of Switzerland), chairman of the committee on. the chart of Hurope, then commenced to read the report of his committee, explaining beforehand that it was not hs report but the.report of the committee which had met at Foix and at ‘Zurich, and deliberated upon the matters referred to them. Although the place and times had been appointed for the dis- cussion of all matters pertaining to the preparation of the geo- logical map of Europe, unfortunately, the committee was not complete at any of its meetings. The Committee of Direction has made a contract with the house of D. Reimer & Co., of Berlin, which engages to under- take the publication of the map under excellent economic and scientific conditions. The map will be divided into 49 sheets, each sheet of 48 centimeters by 58 centimeters. These 49 sheets united will form a rectangle 3,28 meters high, 3,43, wide. Professor Kiepert, of Berlin, has agreed to prepare the topographic base, which will be entirely remodeled according to the most recent data that can be obtained. The house of D. Reimer & Co. undertakes the publication at its own cost, on the single condition that the international committee guarantee to it the placing of 900 copies at 100 francs a copy, and furnish it sums on account in advance. The price of subscription is 100 francs, but 125 francs will be fixed at as the trade price of the work. This guarantee subscription has been divided as follows. Hach of the great States of Hurope: Great Britain, France, Spain, Italy, Austro-Hungary, Germany, Scandinavia and Russia agree to take 100 copies each. The six small States, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Switzerland, Portugal and Rou- mania, will divide among themselves the last hundred copies. A promise has been received from each of the above named countries that it will lend its assistance to the committee, con- formably to the distribution above, with the single exception of Spain, whose answer has not yet been received. The commis- sion will consider what can be done to obtain this answer. As to the geological symbolization, it will be furnished natu- International Geological Congress. 459 rally by the national committees, each one for its own country, and these contributions will be harmonized by the labor of the Committee of Direction, which, besides, will have the duty of completing the work, by all the data accessible to it, published or unpublished. The chromo-lithographic work will be done by the editors, Reimer & Co., conformably to the international scale fixed at Bologna and completed at this meeting. The scale of the map was fixed by the unanimous consent of the Bologna Congress, September 29th and 380th, 1881, at T5000) ‘at the same time that. the map was decided upon, and its execution was confided to eight members composed of: Messrs. Beyrich, Committee of Direc- Gls Hauchecorne, tion at Berlin, veri Daubrée, France, Giordano, Italy. Dr. Moller, Russia. Mojsisovics, Austro-Hungary. Topley, Great Britain. Renevier (General Secretary), Switzerland. Specimens of the work done on the chart were exhibited to the Congress. The greatest progress had been made on those portions under the charge of Germany and Italy. The chart exhibited the wisdom of the decision of the Bologna Congress in expressing the successive subdivisions of the periods by etad- uated tints of the same color, the deepest tints representing the oldest stage. At this point, Professor Capellini exhibited a roll that had been handed him as the first installment of the colored map of Italy, made on the scale agreed upon (zsy45q,). It contained Central and Southern Italy. M. Nikitin (Russia), reported that an installment of the map of Russia was en route, and that it would be exhibited the next day. In conclusion, the report offered the following resolutions for the adoption of the Congress: 1st. Dr. Moeller, who has resigned, is hereby replaced in the eommission by Mr. Karpinski. 2d. The ‘‘ Carbonic” system (or Permo-carboniferous), ail be represented by a gray color in three tints. 3d. The “ Devonic” system will have three tints of brown. 4th. The color of the ‘Siluric” system is left to the choice of the committee on the chart. 5th. The eruptive rocks will be represented by seven tints of red, from bright to dark brownish. 6th. The determination of other questions in the report is left to the discretion of the committee on the map. 460 International Geological Congress. This was acted upon section by section. Section 1 was adopted without dissent. Section 2 was then read. Professor Hughes (Cambridge), objected strongly. He said the discordance between the two formations in England was enormous and that the English geologists would never consent to this union. ~ Professor Dewalque (Belgium), defended the proposal of the committee. M. Hauchecorne (Germany), urged that the gray chosen by the committee for the Permian was a greenish gray very differ- ent from that of the Carboniferous, ana he believed that if Professor Hughes would look at the chart as made, he would find that all the distinction he desired was accomplished by this tint. His view was that a distinction of two entirely differ- ent tints of the same general color base would effect as com- plete a representation of the difference.between the two series as could be effected by totally different colors. M. Nikitin (Russia), thought the Carboniferous ought not and could not be joined to the Permian, and discussed the case of the so-called transition beds in Nebraska and elsewhere in illustration of the view. Professor Renevier (Switzerland), thought the Culm, Carbon- iferous and Permian really constitute one system, but in order not to prejudge the case he had invented the term “ Carbonic.” Section 2 was then adopted. It was voted that the Carbonif- erous and Permian be colored in different tints of gray. M. Dewalque (Belgium), objected to the use of the term Silurian in the following (4th) section, on the ground that the question of the limitation of the Silurian was to be brought up hereafter. M. Renevier said he had used the term ‘‘Silurique” in order not to bring up the Silurian question, and moreover, he had said ‘‘Silurique, Cambrian included.” He called the attention of M. Dewalque to the fact that it was impossible for him to discuss things without applying to them names, but that he did so in a manner that he thought would commit the committee and Congress in the least possible degree. Professor Hughes energetically protested against the use of the word “Silurique.” He had not found the Cambrian in the region of the Silures. M. Jacquot (France) allied himself warmly with Professor Hughes in protesting against the use of the term Silurique, at least for the measures in France. One can recognize distinctly the difference between the Silurian and Cambrian in every part of the extended contact in his country, in the Pyrenees and in various other places they are never to be confounded. Professor Renevier said, it is not a question of confounding International Geological Congress. 461 them, but it is simply a question of using one general color- base for a column of measures which have certain points of analogy and are usually found together. They could be easily distinguished from each other by differences of tint or other means. M. Jacquot replied that he could not see any reason for uniting two things that are distinct. M. Hauchecorne (Secretary), said: Gentlemen, we must get on, and I ask as a personal favor on behalf of the committee on the chart of Europe, that the members repose a certain amount of confidence in it. It is not intended to prejudge any question or force upon the delegates any views other than those they desire to support. He suggested that the fourth article might be so altered as to allow the committee to adopt provisionally according to their choice, a scheme of colors for convenience, and that this choice should not decide the scien- tific question connected therewith at all. M. Jacquot accepted the suggestion of the Secretary, and thereupon section 4 was adopted. 5th. The eruptive rocks shall be represented by seven tints ranging from dark to light red. Carried. 6th. The solution of other questions that might arise were- referred to the committee on the chart for decision. Carried. M. Choftat (Portugal) said that in joining the Dogger and the Malm, a junction is made which is opposed by all paleonto- logical and petrographical evidences. M. Hauchecorne stated that in his opinion the objection was too much a matter of detail to be bronght before the Congress at this time, and he appealed to M. Choffat to withdraw his objection. M. Choffat replied that, in doing his work in Portugal, it was impossible for him to take this view of the two series. M. Hauchecorne again appealed in the name of the com- mittee to M. Choffat, to withdraw. his objection, stating that the committees on the maps of Hurope and of Portugal mould have ample time to consider and adjust all these points of differ- ence. . No definite action was taken. M. Hauchecorne then announced that the council would meet at 11 a. M. and the Congress at 2 P. M. on Wednesday. The first two hours of the session would be devoted to busi- ness and the last two to purely scientific discourses. 2D SESSION, 2:30 P. M., 30th SEpt. At the request of Dr. Beyrich, ie Honorary President, Dr. von Dechen, took the chair. The Secretary then made an- nouncements in regard to excursions, and stated that the Con- gress until 4 P. M., would discuss the report of the committee Nee! oe . vere 462 International Geological Congress. upon the chart of Hurope. Afterwards they would listen to lectures upon special subjects: M.Gaudry upon certain rep- tiles, and Dr. Newberry (of New York), on a new fish from the Devonian. The Secretary further announced the gifts which had been presented to the Congress. M. Dewalque began the reading of the report of the com- mittee upon uniformity of nomenclature at p. 18: A. Archzean System, Nos. 1, 2 and 8. “The first question to settle is, whether it should be included under the Paleozoic. . The nega- tive of this does not seem doubtful. Consequently and in con- formity with the proposition of the French report, we propose to the Congress to decide that this system shall form a group to be known as the Primitive group. The termination of the word primitive will recall the characters which distinguish it from the groups ‘primary, secondary,” &c. M. Blanford proposed that we postpone the question of forming such a group till a later occasion. Professor Hughes did not think that we had found the bottom of this group, and therefore we should wait for the determination of the term to be used, whether group or system. -He called attention to an error in the report by which it would seem that the English committee prefers the term Pre-Cam- brian. .'The English prefer the term Archean to Pre-Cambrian, and they have used the former term. M. Dewalque said if this group be not accepted, it must belong to the Paleozoic. [Loud objections.] Mr. Dewalque replied there was no way of avoiding the dilemma. Professor Hughes thought we might represent it as a part of an unfinished system, but not as a system or a group. M. de Lapparent (France) said if the Congress is willing to decide that there are no fossils in the Archean, it should be set apart; if it contain fossils it must be joined to the Paleozoic. M. Renevier proposed the term Terrain to avoid pre-judg- ing the question of the rank in the classification of these rocks. He objected to the use of this term in any systematic sense, but believed it might be employed in a general sense. Dr. von Dechen said, we want the terms “group” and “sys- tem” used for the chart, and do not want any vague terms. He believed it was necessary to maintain the usage of terms adopted by the Congress at Bologna. Professor Hughes suggested that the use of the term group, for the Archean be adopted, without settling its subdivision into systems, or attempting any correlation between subdivis- ions in different countries. M. Renevier replied that we do not apply to eruptive rocks, the words ‘‘group” or “system,” but simply “rocks.” If erup- Internatronal Geological Congress. 463 tive rocks require no classification further than this, the words and coloration are sufficient for the Archean. Dr. Beyrich said that all that was necessary at present was the acceptance of the Archzean as anterior to Paleozoic time. M. Stefanescu proposed the term “group” for all the rocks preceding the Paleozoic. His question was, “Shall we say Archean ‘system’ or ‘group ?’” M. Firkct said there were two questions involved : 1st. Archeean or Primitive? 2d. Group or system? M. Dewalaue spoke to the same effect. Dr: Hauchecorne asked for a vote on the terms ‘‘ group” or system.” ‘‘Group” was chosen. The vote was then taken on ‘ Archean” or ‘ Primitive.” “ Archean” was adopted, after M. Renevier (chairman of the committee on the chart of Hurope), had explained his views upon the question. M. Dewalque proposed that some member should make a motion to divide the Archzean into three parts. Dr. Hauchecorne asked M. Dewalque to make some propo- sition in order to bring the question before the Congress. No action was taken. He stated that it was proposed to subdivide the Archean into Azoic schists, Crystalline schists, and Protogine schists. Professor Hughes suggested that it would be better to express the petrographic character and not divide the group chronologically. To this M. Renevier agreed. M. Jacquot stated that no division of the Archeean in France was possible at present. The work of M. Lory in France and in the Alps results in establishing, as the best procedure, the coloration of mica-schists and gneisses in the same manner. He also supported M. Hughes’s proposition. M. Firket agreed to the petrographic divisions, but objected to the term “ Azoic.” It begs the question of the existence of life. M. Stefanescu stated that the Archzean is well represented in Roumania, but there was extreme difficulty in making subdivisions. M. Lapparent respectfully requested that the term “ Proto- gine” be suppressed once for all, and gave his reasons. A vote was taken and the term was suppressed. The proposition of Professor Hughes was then adopted, viz: to accept the Archean as a group, leaving the petrographic divisions to each geologist and not assigning to them any chronological value. | The question then taken up was B 4, 5, and 6 (p. 14 of the committee’s report), as follows: The conference at Zurich has admitted provisionally the 464 International Geological Congress. union into one system (for which the name is yet to be deter- mined), of the different beds, corresponding to the Cambrian and Silurian of the British Isles. The French, Portuguese and Roumanian committees propose the name of Silurian System. Before voting on the proposition, the Congress will have first to pronounce upon the names to he given to the three groups, and then on their union into one or two systems. The Hungarian ~ Committee propose a Cambrian and a Silurian system ; the latter comprising the groups 5 and 6 united. The Belgian Commit- tee would have proposed an analogous grouping, but preferred to conform to the decision taken by a large majority at Zurich. The. French Committee does not propose any name for the three groups. The Roumanian Committee gives them inad- missible names (these should be each in one word), “lower, middle and upper.’ The Belgian Committee proposes the names Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian. The Portuguese substitute ‘Bohemian’ for the last term. We have already said the English Committee has not been called to decide upon the questions of the report which have been submitted to it.” Since the receipt of the reports of the national committees, the questions to be decided have been complicated. M. Jules Marcou, in an important work published by the American Academy of Science and Arts, and entitled ‘The Taconic System and its position in stratigraphic geology,” has vindicated the priority of the term Zaconie of which the Cambrian alone (or Primordial fauna) would be the equivalent. We think the question is demonstrated. In such a case the term Cambrian would be employed to replace the Ordovician, the name Silu- rian would come back by right to group 6. If we be not in error this solution would avoid many difficulties. We propose to the Congress to determine first, the names that the groups 4, 5 and 6 should bear. It will have to decide afterward whether they constitute one or two systems, and finally the name or names to be employed. Professor A. Geikie proposed that the Congress postpone the subject of subdividing the Cambrian and Silurian until the meeting in England; on the ground that the Silurian question was mainly an English question. (Loud murmurs). Professor Hughes agreed with Professor Geikie as to the propriety of postponing the discussion of these questions, and said that Professor Hall had also expressed his approval of this course. The chairman, Dr. von Dechen, put the question to divide the Silurian, but leave the names till the meeting in England. M. Capellini regretted such action, if it would postpone the completion of the European map. M. Hauchecorne said it would not, as the map could be completed without waiting for the determination of the names. International Geological Congress. 465 The motion was then put and carried. The Congress then took up the Devonian. M. Dewalque continued reading that part of the report in regard to the De- vonian (pp. 15, 16), numbers 7, 8 and 9. (a.) Conformably with the only propositions that have been made, the Congress is requested to decide that the three series of this system shall bear the names respectively of the Rhenian, the Hifelian, and the Fammenian. (b.) We propose that the Calceola beds should form a part of the Hifelian. (c.) Finally we propose to the Congress to decide that the upper limit of the Devonian system is to be placed at the base oi the Carboniferous limestone; that is to say, that the system comprises the psammites of Condroz, the lower Carboniferous, (Kiltorkan, Marwook, Pilton) the upper ‘Old Red’ or the Cal- ciferous.sandstone, ete.. M. Renevier asked why the Coblentzian was called Rhenian. M. Lapparent explained that Coblentzian was used in a more restricted sense. M. Dupont demanded that the upper Devonian begin with the zone of Cyrtia Murchisoniana. Dr. Beyrich remarked that few in Germany would agree to this classification. M. Renevier desired to say that M. Gosselet, whom he had expected to see here, regarded the junction between the Calceola beds and the Stringocephalus beds as forming the division between the lower and middle Devonian. M. Dupont remarked that such was the classification of M. Gosselet some time ago. Much had been done since. Dr. von Dechen said the Calceola beds should be in the middle Devonian. The third section of the Devonian (in regard to its upper limit) was then read. M. Geikie said that an error had crept into this clause and he proposed to strike out all after the word ‘Condroz’ except the words “the Upper Old Red.” M. Renevier objected to sharp lines. Weshould not go into such details and he asked for the striking out of the. clause on principle. M. Capellini said if it was necessary for the coloration of the map he would retain it, but it did not seem to him to be necessary. M. De- walque thought it was necessary to make sharp distinctions in the map as to the beginning and ending of series, otherwise how was it possible to compare corresponding series in different countries? The limits must be at the same horizon for all regions recorded on the map. M. Capellini proposed to adjourn the decision of fixed limits, because it was not necessary to the coloring of the chart. M. Hauchecorne was of M. Dewalque’s opinion. Dr. Beyrich thought that we could not separate the Devonian from the Carboniferous at an absolute horizon. tis 466 International Geological Congress. M. Renevier said this was necessary in important cases but was not important here. M. Lapparent remarked that if the geolo- gists of England are content to sit still and make no objection to the proposed limitation, the Congress would save much trouble by permitting the proposed limitation to be accepted, because the English are most interested in it. At the close of the discussion the clause was stricken out. Several scientific papers were then read, among them one by M. Gaudry on some fossil reptiles, and another by Dr. New- berry on a new Devonian Fish. 3D SESSION, Oct. 1, 2:30 P. M. Session opened with Dr. von Dechen in the’chair. M. Fon- tannes, secretary, read the minutes of the last two meetings, alter which M. Dewalque continued the reading of the report of the committee on unifying the nomenclature. Professor Capellini read a telegram from the Syndic of Bologna as fol- lows: “Bologna, proud of having been the seat of the second session of the International Geological Congress, sends an affec- tionate greeting to the illustrious savants assembled at Berlin, and hopes that their works will aid the progress of civilization.” M. Hauchecorne then announced the scientific memoirs which would be presented at 4 P. M. Szabo: On the new map of Schemnitz. Mayer-Eymar: The perihelions of the Globe and the sedi- mentary rocks. Reusch (Norway :) 1. Exhibition of a meteorite which fell in Norway in 1884, with some observations on meteorites in general. Reusch (Norway:) 2. Exhibition of specimens and charts illustrating the phenomena of pressure and tension in meta- morphic rocks. Taramelli: On chemical deposits, and two or three other papers. This was followed by a list of the donations giyen to the members of the Congress and to individuals. The announcement of the trips to Thale, Leipzig and Stass- furt were so modified as to enable those members who desired to proceed directly on Wednesday to Dresden instead of re- maining to make the geological excursions with Professor Credner. These would go directly to Dresden under the auspi- ces of Geheimrath Professor Geinitz, and on Thursday visit the Natural History Museum of the Zwinger, and afterward the collections of the Royal Gallery. Thursday evening they were to reassemble on the Briihlische Terrasse, and the next day to spend the time in observing the collections of Dresden. They will reassemble on the Belvidere on Friday evening. (This programme was carried out with some modifications.) The continuation of the Report of the committee on nomen- International Geological Congress. 467 clature was then proceeded with by M. Dewalque at p. 15. D. the Carboniferous System. M. de Lapparent took the floor and eee the proposition of the committee to unite the Permian with the Carboniferous. His ground was that every classification should base its horizons upon vestablished fauna. Most happily for the geologists, in the earlier formations there is the most valuable evolution of the Cephalopods; but it was not thus with the Permian, as he appealed to the paleontologists who had occupied themselves with these beds to declare. Among other arguments presented, he remarked that in Asia, there was no Pelagic fauna, by means of which one could distinguish the Carboniferous and the Permian, and the same was true in other countries of which there were representatives present. He concluded, “I believe that in establishing the Permian as a unit we construct some- thing which has nothing in common with the characters adopted for other sub-divisions ; which has no distinctive characters of its own; and which in fact does not exist. Whereas united to the Carboniferous we have two distinct horizons of faunas, each of which is susceptible of further subdivision by pro- nounced differences in character. Dr. Beyrich made some ob- servations. Mr. Jacquot thought that Mr. Dewalque should read to the Congress the opinions that had been expressed by the different nationalcommittees. ‘This would have, in his view, the most capital importance in deciding the question. Mr. Dewalque conformably to the request of the last speaker, called first upon the French committee. M. Lapparent did not think that his opinion should be brought into conflict with that of the French committee, to which as a member his name was attached. M. Renevier spoke on this question. M. Choffat, in the course of his remarks, insisted that the question of the thickness of measures was an entirely insignifi- cant one. M. Capellini read the report of the French Committee and observed that M. Lapparent may very well present his own views in the Congress, even though they be different from those of the committee. Prof. Hughes exbibited a chart of a section made by himself: there was a large gap between the Permian and the Carbonif- erous; still the amount of time to be ascribed to that gap is differ- ent in different places, and no doubt if the contact line could be every where examined, places would be found where the two sys- tems would approach each other very nearly. As at the base of the Carboniferous also, there is an enormous break of at least 27,000 feet of measures that had been eroded before the present discordant contact was effected. That between the Permian and i Carboniferous represents also an enormous lapse of time. In reply to the argument from the percentage of fossils common to the Carboniferous and Permian, he observed that the number of fossils, which are found in a given neighborhood depends both upon the excellence of the geologists looking for them and the assiduity of their search. The percentage of fossils common to the Paleozoic and Mesozoic is increasing every day in proportion to the hammering done. M. de Lapparent was of the opinion that the arguments for establishing these stages should be pelagic traces rather than geographic situations. He continued, that if we could restore the geographical divisions of the world as they were at the time when these various groups were laid down and the Carbonif- erous and Permian did not present analogies which could be made out, he (Lapparent) would acknowledge himself in error, but the same argument could not be drawn from the present geographic conditions of the earth. He would cite, however, another argument, namely that from petrographic studies, There was not to be found in the Permian a trace of certain rocks so peculiar throughout the Carboniferous. All the outflows char- acterizing the Carboniferous on the one hand and the Triassic on the other were wanting in the Permian measures, where another order of things from that preceding seemed to have supervened. Dr. Beyrich made some remarks. Another member of the Congress, stated that the Rothliegendes must be separated from the Carbonic and also from the Triassic. The Hon. President, von Dechen, said that the Rothliegendes was a very remarkable group. It has the thickness in some places of 1,600 meters, and even at this depth the bottom is not found. Rothliegendes and Zechstein occur over vast extents of country. In Russia there are outcrops of it larger than the whole of some countries existing in Europe. M. Blanford said: ‘In taking up this question we take up one that concerns many parts of the world. Outside of Hurope there is no Permian—I mean no Kuropean Permian. It is 1m- possible to separate the upper from the middle ahd lower Cat- boniferous. I believe that the fauna of the Zechstein is a local fauna and therefore I give my adhesion to the views of M. de Lapparent as to uniting the Permian and the Carboniferous.” M. Capellini, rising with the report of the committee at Zurich in his hands, remarked that there must be some mistake in the printed report inasmuch as it was there stated that M. Blanford was of the opinion that there was an evident division between the Carboniferous and Permian. M. Blanford stated that the report was entirely correct and that he would explain how the misunderstanding arose. He was under the impression, during the discussion at “Zurich, that 468 ‘ International Geological Congress. International Geological Congress. 469 \ the question was simply of Huropean geology—and in the vote that was taken he had no part. M. Stur made some observations on the course to be pur- sued in treating these two formations. He believed in uniting the Permian and Carboniferous in one system. | | M. Nikitin: ‘‘We have two regions in Russia, where we have studied these groups. They are divided into two stages. Tn central Russia, in the Volga valley, we can distinguish them, but at the foot of the mountains we cannot. We cannot at the present time, therefore, define accurately the limits be- tween these different systems, but no doubt in the future we. shall be able to do so. M. Renevier was glad to hear from M. Stur’s remarks the confirmation of views which he had always held and often ex- pressed, namely: that the classification based on gaps is false and artificial. I agree with M. Nikitin, that our groups are al! artificial. (Dissenting murmurs). Oswald Heer calls the Per- mian Upper Carboniferous by its flora. And as to the fauna he has shown a great number of species that are similar. M. Gaudry has done the same for the reptiles; M. Fritsch’s views tend in the same direction. The divisions ought to be made on paleontological evidence. Professor Newberry remarked that he knew it was a question here of the European map, and perhaps it would be an imperti- nence on the part of an American to express any opinion; ‘‘but I am asked,” he continued “to express the opinion of my honored colleague Professor Hall, that there is no Permian in America. From my own studies also I know, that there is an insensible transition from the Carboniferous beds, to those which correspond in position to the Permian, and there is no strict line of demarcation between the Trias and the Permian. There- fore, for America (and only for America I speak), the Permian as a separate division does not exist.” M. Capellini: “The president asked me to see what can be done to advance the map, and although it appears to me that a majority of those present is in favor of joining the Permian and Carboniferous, still there is a respectable number of those who are opposed ‘to it. And therefore the commission on the map would propose to adjourn the discussion and definite set- tlement of this question until a future time. _ M. Topley said: “ M. Blanford speaks only in general terms and not for Hngland in the matter of these groups. It is highly important, as well for the classification as for the eco- nomic geology of Hngland, to preserve the identity of each system. He agreed with Professor Hughes in drawing a strong line of demarcation between the Permian and the Carbonif- erous. 470 International Geological Congress. M. de Lapparent said: Task the Congress to give the statements made by Professor Newberry and M. ‘Blanford, in regard to the absence of the Permian in various parts of the ‘world, the atten- tion that they deserve. It seems to me that the object of this Congress was to establish a system applicable to all the world and not to Hurope alone, or it should not have invited geolo- gists from other countries than the Huropean to participate. M. Capellini remarked that these matters were to be settled as broad and grand questions in Science—without paying too much attention to individual matters of detail in which differ- ent countries might differ. M. Neumayr ‘thought that just because the questions were grand and broad they : should be left to the free and unrestricted discussion of scientific men in the journals and societies of the world, and not be settled by a majority which changes with every country, and after the address of an eloquent orator. M. Capellini made some further observations. Professor Hughes said that Professors Newberry and Blanford had stated that there was no Permian in India and America, but that they had simply found fossils having a Permian facies in the Oar- boniferous. He concluded by. expressing the belief that it was better to leave the question open. M. Hauchecorne: I agree entirely with the views of Professor Hughes as to the scientific aspect of the question, which we propose to leave to the future. But in the map we will arrange the order of the beds provisionally as it is in the proposed chart of colors without uniting the two systems in the legend of the chart by a bracket. The Hon. President von Dechen agreed with the views ex- pressed by Mr. Neumayr and desired the map to go on to its completion at the earliest moment. M. Dewalque: “I propose the following as expressing the opinion of the Congress on this subject :” “The Congress not wishing to pronounce any view on the scientific question of the proper division of the Permian and Carboniferous, preserves the classification as it now is.” (Adopted with about fifteen dissenting votes). — 4TH SESSION, Oct. 2D, 2:30 P. M. The Congress assembled in the Reichstags chamber and M. Capellini occupied the chair as chairman pro tem. The report of the Council was read and the nominations pro- posed by it for the committee on the chart of Europe were voted upon and unanimously elected. They were as follows in alphabetical order (in French) by countries: Germany, Romer. India, Blanford. Austria, Neumayr. Italy, Capellini. Belgium, Dewalque. Japan, Neumann. International Geological Congress. ATL Canada, T. Sterry Hunt. Norway, Kjerulf. Denmark, J ohnstrup. Holland, van Calker. Spain, Vilanova. Portugal, Choffat. United States, James Hall. Roumania, Stefanescu. France, de Lapparent. Russia, Inostranzeff. Great Britain, Hughes. Sweden, Torell. Hungary, Szabo. i Switzerland, Renevier. The members of this committee were requested to vote for a president for the next meeting. M. Fontannes read the jour- nal of the preceding session, which was approved. M. Capellini, in the chair, then took up the question on which the Congress was engaged at the close of the last session, and asked if any one wished to speak further upon giving three divisions to the Trias. After a pause, M. Renevier re- marked that he did not wisk to take up the time of the Con- gress, but he wanted to know how it is intended to color the Trias. Is it intended only provisionally to accept the divisions for the chart or not? M. Stefanescu said the proposition to accept the divisions of the chart prejudges the whole question. M. Dewalque, M. Blanford, and M. Capellini further discussed the question, and finally the three-fold divisions of the Trias proposed at the Zurich meeting was agreed to. The question as to the proper place of the Hettangian beds (whether with the Trias or with the Lias) was discussed but no decision was reached. It was decided to divide the Jurassic into three parts. The question of the union of the Rheetic, not including the Hettangian, with the Lias or Trias was again discussed. M. Hauchecorne observed that the scale of colors and sym- bols were so arranged that the Rheetic could be classed with - the Trias or Lias to suit the observer. The question as to the superior limitation of the Lias with the zone of Ammonites opalt- mus was discussed. M. Choffat thought that so little of this series is known in Kurope that the limit should be left for each geologist to place it at his own discretion. Agreed to. Next the Tertiary was taken up. An animated debate ensued in which M. Meyer of Zurich, Dr. Beyrich, M. Stefanescu and M. Neumayer took part. Finally the chairman, M. Capellini, proposed that, in view of the fact that no progress seemed possible owing to the diver- gence of views maintained, a vote of confidence in the commit- tee on the chart be taken; assuring the members of the con- gress that the committee would exhaust every means to satisfy the views of the different members. (This vote of confidence was carried unanimously.) 472 International Geological Congress. The proposition in regard to the Hruptive Rocks was then taken up. . Professor von Dechen declared that there should be no dis- tinction made between the rocks of extinct and of active volea-: noes, or between ancient and modern eruptive rocks, but there should be a strong distinction drawn between ancient tuff and ancient eruptive, and between modern tuff and modern erup- tive rocks proper. Dr. Beyrich agreed with his Excellency, Dr. von Dechen, on this point. ° M. Blanford said it should be taken into consideration that in parts of England, in the Hebrides, in parts of America and ~ elsewhere, there were eruptive rocks, and lavas which resembled stratified rocks very closely. He objected to the petrographic division of the eruptive rocks, while the sedimentary rocks are divided chronologically ; the more so, as many of the eruptive rocks, like those he has instanced, strongly resemble the strati- fied rocks. The whole matter was finally left to the committee on the chart. The president protem. then passed to the second order of business, and gave the floor to Dr. Neumayr, who read the report upon the proposed plan for the preparation of his Nomen- » clator Paleontologicus. 5TH SESSION, Oct. 3D, 10 A.M. At the morning session several scientific papers were read. Among them was a report upon the system of coloration in use in the United States Geological survey. Mr. McGee, who had prepared this report, did not arrive till late in the prog- ress of the Congress. The paper was presented to the council » in English, but the rule requiring all the communications to the Congress to be presented in French, necessitated the preparation of an abstract in that language. This abstract, at the request of Mr. McGee, was presented to the Congress by Dr. Frazer, together with prefatory and explanatory obser- vations by himself regarding the map; exhibiting the principal features of the system which was displayed. At 2.30 Pp. M. the sixth and closing session of the Congress was called to order. The journal of the last sitting was read and approved. M. Hauchecorne made several amendments. Three sheets of the map of Galicia were presented, with a letter from their author, Professor Szajnocha. A letter was received from M. Abich, stating that he had returned to St. Petersburg and had resumed his labors. M. Capellini(pres. pro tem.) called attention to the Nomencla- tor Paieontologicus, of which M. Neumayr had given descrip- tion yesterday, and recommended that it be published under the International Geological Congress. A783 auspices of the Congress and under the editorial direction of a committee, consisting of Messrs. Gaudry, Neumayr, Zittel and Etheridge, with power to add to their number. (Carried.) M. Vilanova then mounted the tribune and asker! assist- ance for his polyglot dictionary of geology, a Spanish-French specimen of which he exhibited. The committee on the formation of an international geological society, and of an international geological journal reported, and a letter was read from M. Gregorio of the committee fa- voring the plan; whereupon the president pro tem., M. Capel- lini, stated that upon consideration of the report and the facts, the council had decided against the advisibility of both plans. Baron Levi asked an explanation. M. Capellini stated that no reports could be made to the Congress, unless previously recommended by the council, and explained that it was not intended to slight the proposition of his countryman, whose acts and motives were warmly approved and appreciated, but simply to adjourn the question till the meeting of the next Congress. Upon this a vote was taken upon the action recom- mended by the council, viz: favoring the scheme of an inter- national geological journal, provided it were supported by joint private enterprise, which was approved. The president pro tem. then announced that the second part of the programme would be proceeded with and gave the floor to M. Nikitin, who explained the work he had done on the portion of work in Rus- sia committed to his care, viz: Central and South Hast Russia, including the basin of the Volga. On the conclusion of M. Nikitin’s remarks, M. Vasseur took the floor and exhibited thirteen sheets of the geological map of France, prepared according to the principles adopted at Bologna. M. Hauchecorne, the general secretary, stated that -it was a pity that the legend of the Russian maps should be printed in characters which people of other nationalities could not understand, and he asked that a copy of each map should be furnished with the names in French characters. M. Nik- itin replied that every sheet that he had exhibited contained the names of all the important places and all the rivers and streams in French characters, and demonstrated that this was the case. M. Posepny read a treatise on the fluid condition of the inte- rior of the earth. M. Ochsenius presented his views on the ori- sin of salt deposits and gave diagrams and explanations, claim- ing analogies between certain chemical and physical conditions in the Caspian and the German oceans and the results of ex- plorations to be seen in the mines at Stassfurt and elsewhere. M. Capellini (president pro tem.) then announced that the hour had come to draw the session to a close. Am. Jour. Sct—Turep Series, Vou. XXX, No. 180.—Desc., 1885. 30 474 International Geological Congress. It was time for the Congress to determine the place of meet- ing of the 4th Congress onl 1888. The council had to propose that the next meeting be held in the year 1888, between the fifteenth day of Aucust and the fifteenth day of September ; that London be the place of meeting and that Messrs. Geikie, Blanford, Hughes, and Topley be the committee to prepare for the proper reception of this Congress. Professor Hughes thought it had been very appropriate to cede to Germany. the place of meeting of the present Congress, and its success had justified his opinion. He repeated his statement made to the council, that he had a petition signed by one hundred and thirty-seven English geologists requesting the Congress to meet in London. This petition included the names of the Duke of Argyle, the Earl of Enniskillen, and some of the most eminent geologists of Engiand; and he hoped that England would be chosen as the next place of meeting. M. Geikie expressed the same views and said that English geologists follow the action of this Congress with the greatest interest, and would unite in giving it a warm reception. The recommendation of the council was approved. The acting president, M. Capellini, yielded the chair to the president, Dr. Beyrich. M. Capellini then took the floor and said: “ Before parting, thanks were due to certain august per- sonages and societies and individuals, naming His Majesty, the Emperor of Germany ; the Prussian Government, and especially the Minister of Public Works, and the Cultus Minister who opened the Congress with an able address, the Academy of Mines, his Excellency Dr. von Dechen, Dr. Beyrich, and Dr. Hauchecorne.” (Applause). Dr. Beyrich observed that in the last words he had to ad- dress to the Congress, he begged to be permitted to speak in the language in which he thought. He thanked the Congress for its kind assistance and support, and introduced his Excel- lency, Dr. von Dechen. The honorary president remembered well the first scientific Congress held in Berlin in 1858, under the auspices of the Baron Alexander von Humboldt. Berlin was then a small town but bad grown enormously since. He concluded by hoping that all the members would return to their homes with an agreeable souvenir of their sojourn in Berlin. Dr. Hauchecorne, the general secretary, spoke of the eminent service of M. Capellini, and concluded with the hope that the friendships made here would endure and be the more closely knit at the future session to be held in London. M. de Lapparent mounted the tribune and expressed, on behalf of the members of the Congress, their sense of obligation to the German committee of arrangements. Geological questions, he O. T. Sherman—Bright Lines in Stellar Spectra. 475 said, were of a kind to be settled on the spot, and geological brethren mutually dug in the earth and divided the debris in a christian spirit. While here in Berlin, our intellects, our artistic tastes, and our capacities for pleasure have all been considered. Honor to the noble science of geology, which can induce intelligent men such as our hosts, to provide for the dead fossils from the earth’s crust mansions as superb as the residences of kings. (Applause.) The Congress was thereupon declared adjourned. Arr. LVII.—Bright Lines in Stellar Spectra; by O. T. SHERMAN. UP to date, as far as my knowledge goes, bright lines have been admitted to form part of the spectra of but six stars, - Lyre, 7 Cassiopeize, and four small stars in Cygnus. The elaims of four others in Orion have been advanced and denied. In the recent volumes of the Nachrichten, Konkoly and Gothard have called attention to the first and second of the stars enumerated above. The result of the former work may be summed up in the identification of the bright lines D,, Ha, Hg, Hy, Ho, of the dark lines b, D, and a broad band in the violet, and the recognition of a seven day period for the variation of the spectrum of 8 Lyre.* Konkoly also says :+ “Teh glaube auch noch manchmal im Griin und Blau einige sehr zarte Linien gesehen zu haben, was aber auch eine durch das Flattern des Spectrums verursachte Taéuschung sein kann.” With a view to following these stars and learning whatever a conscientious study of their spectra might show, the equa- torial (8 in.) of the Yale College Observatory was devoted thereto. The spectroscope employed is a direct vision by Duboscq ; the distance from the slit to the collimating lens being about 14:8™, The train is broken into two series of three prisms each. Using the single series the lines b, and b, are barely separated. Using the double series the nickel line between D, and D, is seen, and b, is separated from b, by about the width of the latter. The power of the eyepiece of the observing telescope is about 180. A cylindrical lens behind the eye- piece is usually employed. Previous to each night’s work the instrument was adjusted upon the sun; a solar spot, when pos- sible, being brought sharply in focus upon the jaws of the slit. For stellar observation the slit was opened wide, 5™™ or more. * Astronomische Nachrichten, 2539, 2548, 2651, 2581, + Astron. Nachr., 2548, p. 62. 476 O. LT. Sherman—Bright Lines in Stellar Spectra. When the series of observations was first commenced there were recognized in the spectra but a few bright lines, so situ- ated as to be probably the hydrogen lines, D,, and in addition 1474(K) and 1250(K). As the observer became accustomed to the spectrum of # Lyre it became apparent that there were also other bright lines. With the single series of prisms ten such were counted. Recalling now the course of reasoning which led to the day- light observation of the solar prominence, and also that many more bright lines than those already recognized were seen in the spectrum of the solar atmosphere, | employed the highest dispersion obtainable. The number of bright lines was in- creased to seventeen. It seems extremely probable that an increased dispersion will bring out many more. Arrange- ments for so improving the apparatus are in progress. The story for y Cassiopeiz is similar. The instrument has been turned upon numerous other stars and in each case many or few bright lines have been seen, lines, so far as I know, formerly unsuspected. The: careful description awaits the completed apparatus. At present it would seem that the lines are most easily seen in the red stars. This may be a mistake. ‘The word lines is here used only by analogy to signify bright stellar images. At the red end under a sharp focus they stand out the full breadth of the spectrum, bearing somewhat the same relation to the background as the prominence to the solar spectrum. In the brighter portion of the spectrum they are cut down to fine star points. At the blue end they become more distinct but not so sharp as at the red, At times they shine with almost a metallic brilliancy; at other times they are faint, faded, and easily passed over. Certain sets appear to be prominent at times, others at other times. The difficulties of the observation, and the roughness of the recording apparatus have hindered a completely satisfactory identification of the lines. Assuming the position of the hydro- gen lines and of D,, and on their basis drawing the curve con- necting scale reading and wave length, the mean of nine ob- servations upon 7 Cassiopeiee affords the following approximate wave lengths. The positions of the dark lines are underlined. Ha, 685°6, 628, 616, D,, 9840 ? 576, 555-75, 642-2, 58098, 516-75, 502, 499-0, 492, Ha, 467°35, 462°3, Hy 418 ? Ho, 399°3. It is of interest to compare these with the following wave lengths taken from Prof. Young’s catalogue of lines observed at Sherman :* Hz, 6346, 614-06 D,, 585-27, 553-4, 544-59, 581-59, 516-83 and 516-67, 501-76, Hg, 457, Hy, 421-5, He. Z * This Journal, Noy., 1872. S. P. Langley— Optical Properties of Rock-salt. 477 While the identification is not complete the number of the approximate coincidences renders it extremely probable that the lines observed are those of the solar atmosphere. To quote the pioneer of American spectroscopic observa- tions, it would seem that there are many stars in the same con- dition as the sun, but with. the corona more pronounced. Yale College Observatory, November, 1885. Art. LIX. — Note on the Optical Properties of Fock-salt ; by S. P. LANGLEY. SINCE the first experiments of Melloni the optical proper- ties of rock-salt have received comparatively little attention, although this substance is every day coming more into use, as the importance of the study of radiant heat is recognized. It was asserted by Melloni that rock-salt is almost perfectly dia- thermanous to all kinds of heat radiations, and -that it trans- mits a little over 92 per cent. of the incident heat of whatever kind. This statement was disputed by Provostaye and Desains,* who maintained that there was considerable difference in its absorptive action toward heat radiated from sources differing widely in character; still, even admitting the claims of these physicists, the great difference between the action of this: sub- stance and others, such as glass, is very striking, and we are dependent chiefly on it for our analysis of the action of obscure heat. In certain researches which have been made of late at the Allegheny Observatory on the distribution of heat in the spec- trum of the moon, and of terrestrial sources of radiation at very low temperatures, the use of an exceptionally perfect rock- salt train has been sought in order that heat deviations meas- ured with a precision comparable with that of optical work might be secured, at the same time that the extremely feeble radiations at command should suffer the least possible amount of absorption in the apparatus. After long searching, blocks of rock-sait were finally obtained through the great kindness of Professor C., S. Hastings, of Yale College, from which two 60° prisms were cut of about 64 millimeters on a side, and lenses of nearly 75™™ aperture. The most perfect prisms the writer could obtain in Hurope, did not distinctly show a single Fraun- hofer line, and he was assured by opticians there that no rock- salt prism ever did or could do more. He is happy to say that the skill of our American opticians has produced what was pro- nounced impossible,—a rock-salt prism which shows the Fraan- hofer lines with all the sharpness of flint glass. Such prisms * Comptes Rendus de Académie des Sciences, xxxvi, p. 84. 478 SS. P. Langley—Optical Properties of Rock-salt. have been made for us by Messrs. Alvan Clark & Sons, of Cambridge, and Mr. J. A. Brashear, of Pittsburgh, who has worked that here described and which shows the nickel line between the D’s. For the reduction and arrangement of these observations a more complete knowledge of the properties of rock-salt than had hitherto been obtained was essential, particularly as regards its indices of refraction for rays of determinate wave-length, and its diathermaney for dark heat rays of different degrees of refrangibility. Advantage has been taken of the use of the train -above mentioned to determine, not only the indices, which will pres- ently be given, but also the the apparent transmission of rock- salt plates in different parts of the spectrum, but the latter part of the work is not represented here. We shall only observe that we have had occasion to form ‘‘heat”-spectra from radiating sources below the temperature of melting ice, and that while most ofthe rays, even from these sources, passed freely through the prism; with the smallest deviations corresponding to wave lengths, probably exceeding 100,000 of Angstrém’s scale, a slight absorption began to be noticed. We hope to shortly give more full determinations of this, in connection with a statement of the deviations and wave-lengths of heat from sources at all degrees between the temperature of melting platinum and that of melting ice, with which it will appear in a more proper con- nection. . Although in working with such heat radiations even as those forming a part of the solar infra-red spectrum, more error is to be expected than in the optical observations, these errors are, with our present apparatus, of an order not wholly incompar- able with the optical ones. It is however to be understood that the best heat spectrum work can only be accomplished with brightly polished rock-salt. The surfaces of the rock-salt prism and lenses undergo a deteri- oration when exposed to the air, which is more or less rapid ae- cording to the greater or smaller relative humidity of the atmos- phere at the time. In ordinary dry weather they may be used several times before they become spoiled, while in damp or rainy weather, three or four seconds is a sufficiently long time to cover them with condensed moisture, and work under these cireum- stances is of course impossible. After the surfaces have in this way become unfit for use they are repolished, and the refracting angle of the prism is thereby unavoidably altered. The change is usually small, generally not exceeding 1’, so that for most of our heat measures it may be neglected altogether. The changes . have however tended on the whole to reduce the refracting angle, so that it is now about 4’ smaller than when the prism was first used. S. P. Langley—Optical Properties of Fock-salt. 479 To make all observations strictly comparable, they are re- duced to one value of the refracting angle, for which the devia- tions of the Fraunhofer lines and the wave-lengths corres- ponding to given deviations in the infra-red, have been deter- mined with the greatest possible accuracy. ‘T'his standard value of the refracting angle is 59°57’ 54”. A series of observations for fixing the positions of the Fraunhofer lines was made by Mr. J. E. Keeler of this observatory, on September 14th, 1885. One arm of the spectrometer, which was firmly clamped, carried a glass collimating lens of 25 feet focus, and the other an achromatic observing telescope of nearly four feet focus, with a mycrometer eyepiece. The double deviations of the C, D,, b,, and F lines were observed, and also the differences of deviation between these and the other lines whose positions were deter- mined. For observing the M and N lines a Soret fluorescent eyepiece was used, and in the infra-red a bolometer, having a single strip 34, millimeter in width. In the two last cases the prism was automatically kept in the position for minimum de- viation. The spectrometer circle reads by two opposite ver- niers to 10’, but on account of the construction of the instru- ment, (for whose principal purpose arms whose length is incon- sistent with absolute rigidity had to be used) care is necessary to measure an angle with this degree of precision, as the arms are liable to spring slightly on the application of lateral pres- sure. The deviations given in our table were obtained by Mr. Keeler by setting on the line, with the micrometer eyepiece, after the telescope had been directed upon it and freed from strain by a light tap, and applying the micrometer correction to the circle reading. It was found by careful comparison of the solar spectrum given by the rock-salt prism with that by a fine prism of flint glass, that in spite of the greater dispersion of the latter, no lines could be seen in its spectrum which the rock-salt prism would not also show. The probable error of one setting of the micrometer was less than 1’. From the agreement of the different measurements made in this way, it is believed that the deviations throughout the visible spectrum are correct to within 5’. Those in the ultra-violet and infra- red, cannot of course pretend to this degree of accuracy. ‘The positions of pat (invisible) given by two in‘lependent series with the bolometer differed by 30”; those of @ (invisible) by 1’, those of ¢ (invisible) by 30” and those of 2 (invisible) agreed exactly. We have thus obtained incidentally the data for constructing a table of refractive indices of rock-salt throughout the entire range of the solar spectrum, with an accuracy which we believe to be greater than has heretofore been attained, and which we deem of sufficient interest to give in full below, for the con- Dae ’ ce 480 S&P. Langley— Optical Properties of Rock-salt. venience of others having oceasion to rarnle with this material, and for testing theories of dispersion. Refracting Angle of Prism=59° 57’ 54’”. Line. Wave-length. Deviation. A Refractive Index. M 0°3727 ASEM ON DT” eal 1°57486 L 0°3820 43 35 27 1.20 157207 isl 0°3933 43 19 32 nS) 1°56920 Joly 0°3968 43 14 44 NPI) 1°56833 G 0°43038 42 367 TG 1°56133 Ith 0°4861 41 51 47 1°13 1°565323 b, 0°5167 41 33 43 Holy 154991 b, 0°5183 41 32 52 1:12 . 154975 D, 0°5789 41 24] 1°10 1°54418 ID 0°5895 4] 2 29 1°10 154414 C 0°6562 40 42 56 L:09 154051 B 0°6867 40 35 49 1:09 1753919 A 0°7601 40 22 25 1°08 153670 pot O94 40 1 26 1°07 1°5328 P 1°13 39 49 11 1°06 15305 ap 1,39 39 39 56 1:05 1°5287 10) 1:32 JON 292i 1°05 1°5268 Temperature=24° C. Barometer 731-1™. The wave-lengths of the M and L lines are from Cornu, those of the lines between H and A inclusive, from Angstrom, and those of the infra-red bands from the Allegheny observa- tions. The column headed J was prepared at the suggestion of Mr. Keeler, and is for the purpose of facilitating the re- duction of observations made with a different prism angle from that for which the table is computed, and for which our wave- length curves are drawn. If we differentiate the ordinary formula for a prism _ sin $(A+d) ~ singA with respect to A, which we now regard as a variable, we have dd nm cos +A = --1=4 dA cos3(A+d) ; or dd=dd A. The values of 4 for the different lines of the spectrum are readily computed from the table of deviations and refractive indices. To find, then, the deviation of a line after any re- polishing of the prism, we have merely to multiply the change of the angle by the approximate value of 4 taken from the table, and we obtain the change in the deviation of the line, and hence also the deviation required. Thus, if the new angle is found on measurement to be 59° 57’ 44”, dA=—10”, and Chemistry and Physics. 481 the deviation of the F line, (say), will have been changed by —10”x113= — 11:3”. That is, the deviation of the F line is now 41° 51’ 36’. The reduction from the new to the stand- ard angle is of course the reverse of this, and that the use of the table saves much labor in redetermining the constants of the prism will be understood when it is added that ours has been entirely refigured and repolished by the maker as many as ten times during the present year. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On the Reaction of Barium sulphate on Sodium carbonate, under pressure. —SPRING has succeeded in effecting by means of pressure alone, a reaction between barium sulphate and sodium carbonate. An intimate mixture was made of one part of pure precipitated barium sulphate, thoroughly dried, with three parts of pure and dry sodium carbonate. About a gram of the mixture was submitted to the compression, the cylinder produced pulver- ized and extracted with water; and the insoluble residue analyzed to determine the amount of barium carbonate produced. After compressing the mixture under a pressure of 6,000 atmospheres for a few instants only, nearly one per cent of the barium sulphate had been transformed into carbonate. The uncompressed mix- ture gave only traces of barium carbonate. The cylinder from the first compression was pulverized and compressed anew. After four successive compressions the amount of carbonate produced rose to 4°78 per cent, and after six to 8°99 per cent, thus showing very clearly the value of renewing the surfaces of contact. If these cylinders after pressure be left to themselves for some time, the chemical action continues up to a period of fourteen days ; the quantity of barium carbonate, produced in the cylinder sub- mitted to six compressions, rising during this time to 10°89 per cent, thus throwing some light on the interesting question of diffusion in solids. Again, if these cylinders, after compression, be divided in halves and one half heated for three hours to 120°, it is found on analyzing these two halves that the barium carbo- nate formed has actually diminished during the heating; the per- centage falling between one and two per cent. The author proposes now to study the reaction of sodium sulphate and barium carbonate under the same conditions.— Bull. Soc. Ch., IL, xliv, 166, Sept., 1885. ‘6. F. B. 2. On Sulphocyanurie acid.—The read conversion of cyanic into cyanuric ether, led Hormawnn to attempt a similar transforma- tion with sulphocyanic ether. And successfully, for.on heating methyl sulphocyanate to 180°-185° for several hours it was con- verted into methyl sulphocyanurate, proved to be the normal is se 482 Scientific Intelligence. not the iso-acid. On attempting to repeat this process subse- quently with carefully purified materials, no trace of the poly- meric body could be found. The result was, however, readily effected, after a few drops of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid were added to the liquid before digestion. The ether is obtained in beautiful crystals which may be heated to 180° with water with- out change; though in presence of concentrated hydrogen chloride it splits at 100° into methyl mercaptan and cyanuric acid. Similar ethyl and amyl compounds were obtained. To obtain the sulpho- cyanuric acid, the methyl ether was mixed with sodium sulphide and heated in closed tubes to a temperature of 250° for three or four hours. The solution, after filtration, was treated with hydro- gen chloride in excess, whereby the sulphocyanuric acid was’ pre- cipitated as a yellow granular powder. It may be obtained pure by conversion into ‘the sodium salt and reprecipitation. It is scarcely soluble in water, even boiling, and is also insoluble in alcohol, ether, benzene and nitrobenzene. It has the formula (N=C—SH),. The sodium, barium, silver, lead, copper, potas- sium, lithium, calcium, magnesium and other salts are described insoluble.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xviii, 2196, Sept., 1885. G. F. B. 3. On the Synthesis of Cocaine—Some months ago Mrrck announced the production of a derivative of cocaine, benzoyl- ecgonine. He has now succeeded in re-introducing the methyl group into this derivative and in reproducing cocaine. For this purpose the benzoyl-ecgonine was heated with the theoretical quan- tity of methyl iodide and potassium hydrate in methyl alcohol, in sealed tubes to 100°. The product obtained was identical with the natural cocaine in all its physical and chemical proper- ties.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Gres., xviii, 2264, Sept., 1885. G. F. B. 4. On Hydrogen Persulphide. —Sazatyer has examined with care the substance known as hydrogen persulphide with a view to: fixing definitely its composition. As ordinarily obtained it is a red- dish- ‘yellow oily liquid, varying in composition from HS, to Sas This uncertainty of composition is due to the free sulphur ‘dis- solved in the persulphide, the liquid saturated at 18° having the composition H,S,,.. It contains also H,S dissolved, from which it may easily be treed by placing it in vacuo. ‘The persulphide was prepared by Thenard’s method by allowing a fine stream of cal- cium polysulphide | to flow into concentrated hydrogen chloride, both cooled to 10°. The yellowish liquid, well dried, was then distilled in vacuo, and afforded a clear brilliant, very limpid, mo- bile yellow liquid, having an extremely irritating odor. While retained in the bulbs which acted as the receivers, it was perma- nent; but it decomposed on decantation. On analysis, three samples ¢ gave as the sulphur in excess of H,S 57-9, 59:2 and 58-9 per cent; or 58°7 as a mean. ‘This corresponds “nearly to the formula ILS,, which requires 58°5 per cent. From these results the author concludes that the true formula of hydrogen persul- phide is H,S, analogous to H,O,; the excess of sulphur being due to a par tial ‘decomposition in the process of distillation, the sul- Chemistry and Physics. 483 phur vapor being carried over with that of the persulphide.— Bul. Soc. Ch., Il, xliv, 169, Sept., 1885. G. F. B. 5. On the Valence of Phosphorus.—The valence of the ele- ment phosphorus has long been an open question. On the one side the compound PCI, has been regarded as proof of its pentad character; while on the other, this pentachloride has been consid- ered a molecular compound consisting of a molecule of the ter- chloride united to a molecule of chlorine, PCl,. Cl, Even the oxychloride POCI,, may be written either O=P=Cl or Cl,= P—O —Cl to accommodate the former or the latter view. Mz1- CHAELIS and La Coste have now thrown some light upon this question ; and this for the first time from the purely chemical side. In 1882 the former of these chemists, in connection with Gleich- mann, discovered a body of the composition PO(C,H,), which he called triphenyl-phosphine oxide. It was prepared by warming the hydrate, which itself was obtained either by the action of sodium hydrate upon triphenyl-phosphine dibromide, or by acting with potassium chlorate and hydrogen chloride upon triphenyl- phosphine; processes analogous to those by which phosphorus oxychloride is formed either from the pentachloride or the tri- chloride. The substance is a solid body, of specific gravity 1°2124 at 22°6°, having a vapor density of 9°9. The authors have now succeeded in preparing another body having the empirical for- mula (C,H,),PO, by the action of phenol upon diphenyl phospho- rous chloride. This therefore must have the constitution (C,H,), PO (C,H,). Hence if phosphorus is trivalent and its oxychloride is Cl,=P—O —Cl, this compound must be identical with tri- phenyl-phosphine oxide above described. But these bodies, whose molecular magnitudes are both expressed by the formula C,,H,, PO, are radically ditferent in physical as in chemical properties. Triphenyl-phosphine oxide as already stated, is a solid body fus- ing at 158:5, and completely indifferent to bromine, oxygen, sulphur, selenium, benzyl chloride and methyl iodide; while the isomeric phenoxyl-diphenyl-phosphine is a thick oily liquid, which readily combines not only with the elements above mentioned, but with the alkyl-halogens to form crystallizable addition pro- ducts; a property characteristic of the compounds of trivalent phosphorus. The constitution of this phenoxyl-diphenyl-phosphine therefore can be expressed in a formula only by considering it as a derivative of an isomeric phosphorus oxychloride at present unknown, which contains trivalent phosphorus, thus: Phenoxyldiphenyl-phosphine Triphenyl-phosphine oxide Vv (C,H,),P -O—C,H, (C,H,),P=O LIsophosphorus oxychloride Phosphorus oxychloride III Cl,P. OCl Cl.P=—0 (unknown.) Hence phosphorus and the other elements of that group must be considered quinquivalent, and the compounds into which these elements enter with a less valence, as unsaturated.—Ber. Berl. Chem Gres., xviii, 2118, Sept., 1885. G. F. B. bi?) Se pe 484 Scientific Intelligence. 6. On the Measurement of the Resistance of Liquids.—Two methods for measuring the resistance of liquids have been pro- posed, in both of which polarization is a minimum; one, the elec- trometer method suggested hy Lippmann,* the other the alter- nating current method brought into use by Kohlrausch. Boury and Foussrreav have made comparative tests of these two methods for the purpose of determining their relative value. In the former, as modified by Foussereau,t the column of liquid is included in a closed circuit, containing also a battery and a known and adjustable metallic resistance. By means of a commutator, the terminals of a condenser may be alternately connected with two points in the liquid column or two in the metallic resistance, the difference of potential of these terminals—corresponding to the difference of potential of the points with which they are in contact —being determined by means of a Lippmann electrometer in the condenser circuit. By adjustment two points in the metallic cir- cuit are found such that their difference of potential is exactly the same as that: between the two points in the liquid. ‘The resist- ance between the latter is then equal to that between the former, which is of course known. Bouty in employing this method uses a compensating battery in the condenser circuit, and has obtained very satisfactory results with it.[ The experiments on the alter- nating current method, were made by means of a small Deprez generator revolving about 100 times per second. This current passed through a Wheatstone bridge, a sensitive telephone being used in place of the galvanometer. Large electrodes, 0°01 square meter each, were employed and the generator and. resistances were carefully insulated. But it was found next to impossible to adjust the telephone to silence when metallic resistances formed the sides of the bridge; although the resistance coils used were by approved makers. With low values, a minimum sound could be distinguished; but as the resistance increased, this minimum sound became louder and less distinguishable. But, what is of more importance, when the bridge was balanced for sound, it was entirely unbalanced for the resistances; the error rising to 20 per cent even. This result is manifestly due to the fact that these resistance coils were not free from induction and the coefticient of self-induction with alternating currents became a serious matter. The sides of the bridge were then formed of liquid resistances. Three of these consisted of pairs of glass jars containing zine sul- phate solution and amalgamated zine plates; a syphon between them regulating the resistance of each pair. The fourth consisted of a specially constructed liquid rheostat, made of two glass cylinders, one above the other, containing each a copper electrode of large surface immersed in copper sulphate solution. By means of a olass tube passing through the bottom of the upper jar, nearly to the bottom of the lower, communication is established between them. A glass rod passing through the tube serves to vary the liquid in the tube and so the resistance of the apparatus. * C. R., Ixxxiii, 192, 1876. + J. Phys., II, iv, 189, May, 1888. t Ibid., II, i, 346, Aug., 1882, II, iii, 433, Aug., 1884. a Ne Chemistry and Physies. 485, At its upper end this rod carries an index moving over a gradu- ated scale, calibrated by an electrometer. The resistance of this rheostat varies from 1200 to 5000 ohms. With these resistances in the bridge, the extinction of sound in the telephone was abso- lute. The liquids to be measured were placed on one side of the bridge, using platinum electrodes. With strong or only moder- ately weak solutions, an excellent balance could be obtained; but when these became more dilute, the error was considerable. With one thousandth solutions of magnesium chloride and potassium chloride, the difference between two consecutive measurements was 25 per cent by this method; while with the electrometer method, the error was only one-third of one per cent. The au- thors believe, therefore, that for very dilute solutions, the elec- trometer method is preferable.—/J/. Phys., H, iv, 419, Sept., 1885. G. F. B. 7. A method of precisely measuring the vibratory periods of tuning-forks.—Vhe third volume of the Memoirs of the National - Academy of Sciences contains a paper by Professor A. M. Mayer embodying the results of a research recently carried on by him with funds from the Bache endowment. ‘This research had as its object the elaboration of a method for measuring accurately the times of vibration of tuning-forks, and the determination of the laws of their vibrations with reference to the use of the tuning- fork as a chronoscope. The method employed was briefly to make a clock flash, at each second, a spark of induced electricity on a trace made by a style attached to the prong of the vibrating fork. To accomplish this the pendulum of the clock was armed with a triangular piece of platinum foil which each second cut through a globule of mercury contained in a small iron cup. To insure the best results, fresh mercury was taken with each experi- ment and the height of the mercury was adjusted by a screw collar in such a way as to make the globule as nearly as possible rigid and free from vibrations with each touch of the platinum point. The clock through this mercury connection was placed in the circuit of the primary coil of an inductorium, the current of which was given by a single voltaic cell. The tuning-fork, with one of its prongs armed with a light style of thin elastic copper foil, was screwed to a board with a hinge which with a screw- stop suitably placed allowed of its being inclined so that the style was just in contact with a smoked surface of paper wound on a rotating cylinder. The secondary circuit of the induction coil included the fork and cylinder. In the experiment the fork was raised on the hinge, set vibrating by a bow, and then de- pressed again, so that the style should write out its vibration on the smoked surface; at each second, as the platinam-pointed pen- dulum left the mercury, the primary circuit was completed and an induced current caused a spark from the point of the style, which made a single minute circular white spot on the blackened surface. The determination of the vibration-period of the fork is obviously given by counting the number of waves in the trace '« &, SAL eee 486 Scientific Intelligence. and measuring the fraction of a wave with a microscope-microme ter. It was found to be essential to accuracy that the induction. discharge should give a single spark only and that the spot made by it should bisect the trace of the fork. Grande. : A. GRAHAM BELL: Preliminary report on the investigation relating to hereditary deafness. C. A. Young: On the new star in the nebula of Andromeda. C. H. F. Peters: On the errors of star catalogues. T. H. Starrorp: On the formation of a Polar catalogue of stars. JamMrES Hatt: Remarks upon the Lamellibranchiata fauna of the Devonian rocks of the State of New York, and the results of investigations made for the paleontology of the State. 0, T. SHERMAN: On new lines in the spectra of certain stars. —-— *W. B. Dwicut: Primordial rocks among the Wappinger Valley limestones, near Poughkeepsie, N. Y. — *J. A. LINTNER: On recent progress in economic entomology. *C. H. Peck: The New York State herbarium. *Orro MEYER: On a Section through Southern Tertiaries. OBITUARY. Dr. Witiiam B. Carpenter, the English Physiologist, died on the 10th of November last at the age of seventy-two years. INDEX TO VOLUME XXX* A & Absorption cell, new form of, Bostwick, 452. Academy, California, Bulletin of, 319. Connecticut, Transactions of, 247. National, Albany meeting, 490. Acid, sulphoeyanuric, 481. tartronic, 76. Agassiz, E. C., Louis Agassiz, 406. Aldrich, T. H., Tertiary of Alabama, 300. Alkalimetry, new indicators for, 75. American Philosophical Society, 86. Antimony, native, Kunz, 275. Armsby, H. P., Digestion Experiments, 88. Association, American, Ann Arbor meet- ing, 87, 168, 315, 322. British, at Aberdeen, 405. Aurora borealis, annual change of, 240. B Bailey, L. H., Talks afield about Plants, 167. Baird, S. F., Report of Secretary of Smithsonian Institution, 167. Ball, V., Report on Museums of America and Canada, 168. Barium sulphate, pressure, 481. Barker, G. F.,. chemical abstracts, 73, 153, 380, 481. Barometer, areas of low, Loomis, 1. Barus, C., kaolinization, 163. Bathymetric map of the Pacific, Dana, 96. Batteries, galvanic, see Electricity. Beccari, O., Malesia, 487. Becker, G. F., impact friction and fault- ing, 116, 194, 244. volcanic cones, 283. t stratigraphy of California, 399. Precious Metal Deposits, 487. Behrens, J. W., The Microscope in Bot- any, 248, 319. Bell, L., rainband spectroscopy, 347. Bennett, A. W., Text-book of Botany, 164. Benzene derivatives, synthesis of, 384. Biela’s and Denning’s comets, 322. reaction of, under ‘ Binney, W. G., obituary of Thomas Bland, 407. Black Hills, uranium minerals from, 82. Blake, W. P., new localities of erythrite, 163. Bois, D., Le Potager d’un Curieux, 164. Bolton, H. C., Catalogue of Chemical Periodicals, 88. Catalogue of Scientific and Techni- cal Periodicals, 247. Bostwick, A. E., new form of absorption cell, 452. BoTANY— Anthers, structure of, 488. Ascidia, histology of, 489. California plants, 319. Edible plants, 164. Fungi, reserve carbohydrates in, 489. Illustrationes Floree Atlanticee, 487. Micrococcus, influence of sunlight on, 489. Plants inhabited by ants, 245, 487. Roses of North America, 166. Tetracoccus, 166. Bower, F. O., Practical Instruction in Botany, 164. Bowman, J. E., Introduction to Practical Chemistry, 168. Brezina, A., Meteorites of the Vienna Museum, noticed, 402. Britton, N. L., North American species of Scleria, 246. Bromine, union of, with chlorides, 381. Brown, W. G., quartz-twin from Vir- ginia, 191. Burbury, 8S. H., Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, 241. C Call, R. E., Quaternary and Recent Mol- lusea of the Great Basin, 79. Campbell, H. D. and J. L., Rogers’s Geol- * ogy of the Virginias, 357. Canada, glaciation of the Hudson’s Bay region, 242. Carbon dioxide, decomposition of, by the electric spark, 383. reduction of, by carbon, 381, filament, disintegration of, 314. heat of combustion of, 154. * This Index contains the general heads Borany, GEOLOGY, MINERALS, OBITUARY, ZOOLOGY, and under each the titles of Articles referring thereto are mentioned. 492 Carpenter, W. Z., cyclonic storms and magnetic disturbances, 241. Claypole, E. W., materials of the Appa- lachians, 316. Coast and Geodetie Survey, 328. Cobalt and nickel, separation of, 75. Cocaine, synthesis of, 482. Comets, Biela’s and Denning’s, 322. Cope, E. D., the Amblypoda, 79. Tertiary Vertebrata, 295. Copper sulphate, crystallized, 157. Coral reefs, see GEOLOGY. Cowles, A. H. and E. H., the electrical furnace, 308. Cremona, L., Projective Geometry, 489. Cummings, C. E., North American Moss- es and Hepaticee, 85. Cyanogen, preparation of, 74. Cyclones and magnetic disturbances, 241. D Dana, A. G., mineralogical abstract, 395. Dana, FE. S., mineralogical notes, 136. thinolite from Lake Lahontan, 390. Dana, J. D., origin of coral reefs and » islands, 89, 158, 169. Bathymetric map of part of the Pa- cific, 96. Union Group, Pacific Ocean, 244. displacement through intrusion, 374, igneous rocks of Nevada, 388. geology of Scotland, 392. geology of Minnesota, 396. Darton, N. H., native silver in New Jer- sey, 80. fossils of Orange Co., N. Y., 452. Density of liquids at high temperatures, 380. E Earth’s crust, crumpling of, Taylor, 249. velocity, as affected by small bodies passing near it, Newton, 409. Electricity, B. A. unit, Fletcher, 22. irregularities in action of galvanic batteries, 34. ‘‘transfer resistance ’’ cells, 238. Ellis, G. E. R., Introduction to Practical Organic Analysis, 168. Emmons, 8. F., Precious Metal Deposits of Western United States, 487. Ethane, illuminating power of, 156. Hye, sensitiveness of, to colors, Nichols, 37. in voltaic F Filter papers, toughened, 157. Fletcher, L. B.. determination of the B. A. unit, 22. INDEX. Fontaine, W. M., Older Mesozoic Flora of Virginia, 162. Fossils, see GEOLOGY. Foulke, S. G., an endoparasite of Noteus, 377. Fowler, J., List of the Plants of New Brunswick, 85. . Frazer, P., report of Berlin Geological Congress, 454, Furnace, the electrical, Cowles, 308. G Gardner, J. S., can underground heat be utilized? 317. , Gas, amount of moisture in, Morley, 140. Geikie, J., physical features of Scotland, 159. Genth, F: A., vanadates and iodyrite from New Mexico, 81. Geological Congress, report of, Frazer, 454, GEOLOGICAL REPORTS AND SURVEYS— Canada, 77, 241. Minnesota, 396. New Jersey, 161. Pennsylvania, 160. Sandwich Islands, 406. United States, 79, 162, 244, 248, 295, 318, 388, 390, 399, 486. Virginias, 357. GEOLOGY— Aerial formations, 78. Alabama, crystalline rocks of, 278. tertiary of, Aldrich, 300. Alps, disintegration in the, 79. folds in, 79. Ann Arbor, Winchell, 315. Appalachians, materials of, 316. Aralo-Caspian basin, 243. . Cambrian rocks, British Col., 79. Coals and lignites of the Northwest Territory, 77. Ccenostroma, Winchell, 317. Cone-in-cone structure, Young, 78. Coral reefs, origin of, Dana, 89, 158, 169. Jrystalline rocks of the Northwest, Winchell, 397. of Alabama, Hitchcock, 278. Diplotheca, Matthew, 293. Earth’s crust, crumpling of, TZaylor, 249. Faulting, impact friction and, Becker, 116, 194, 244. Fossils, absence of, in pre-Cambriar strata, 78. geodized, 376. Gabbro, Essex Co., Mass., 163. INDEX. GEOLOGY— Gaspe peninsula, rocks of, 242. Gastornis Klaassenii, 318. Geodized fossils, 376. Glacial phenomena of Hudson’s Bay region, 242. of New Brunswick, 242. scratches in Maine, Stone, 146. Glaciers of the Sierra, 345. Gypsum deposits, Williams, 212. Idiostroma, Winchell, 317. Igneous rocks of Nevada, 388. Intrusion, displacement through, Dana, 374. Kaolinization, Barus, 163. Lava, elastic limit of. Becker, 283. Lignites of the Northwest Territory, Hoffmann, 77. Limuloids, new Carboniferous, Pack- ard, 401. Lingula, from red quartzites of Min- nesota, 316. Matthevia, Walcott, 17. Mediterranean basin, in the glacial period, 243. Mesozoic flora of Virginia, 162. Mountain making, 249, 417. Northern Pacific Railroad, Newberry, 337. Orange County fossils, Darton, 452. Paradoxides Davidis in America, 72. Prestwichia, Devonian, Williams, 45. Primordial rocks, British Col, 79. Pteropods, paleozoic, Walcott, 17. Quaternary of Illinois, 315. Seottish highlands, Judd, 392. Species, Old-tertiary, Meyer, 60, 151, 421. Spiraxis, Newberry, 244. Stratigraphy of California, 399. Streptochetus, Seely, 355. Syenite in Essex Co., Mass., 163. Tertiary, old, of the Southwest, Meyer, 60, 421, Hilgard, 266, Smith, 270, Aldrich, 300. species in the French, Meyer, 151. vertebrates, 295. Trend in mountain structure, Win- chell, 417.. Wind drift structure, 78. Goodale, G. L., botanical notices, 164, 488. Physiological Botany, 488. Gore, G., “ transfer-resistance,” 238. Gravis, A., Vegetative organs of the Nettle, 84. Gray, A., botanical notes, 82, 164, 245, 402, 487. Groth P., Physikalische Krystallogra- phie, 80. 493 H Haacke, eggs of echidna, 85. Hague, A., igneous rocks of Washoe, Nevada, 388. Hall, A., star system 40, 0? Hridani, 403. Hayes, H. V., irregularities in the action of galvanic batteries, 34. Hazen, H. A., condensing hygrometer and the psychrometer, 435. Heat, utilization of underground, 317. Heilprin A., Town Geology, 401. Hemsley, W. B., Botany of the Chal- lenger Expedition, 402. Hidden, W. #., a transparent crystal of microlite, 82. hanksite from California, 133. Hilgard, E. W., Old-tertiary of the Southwest, 266. ; Hitchcock, C. H., crystalline rocks of Alabama, 278. Hoffmann, G. C., Coals and Lignites of the Northwest Territory, 77. Hydrogen persulphide, 482. Hygrometer, condensing, Hazen, 435. I Iddings, J. P., fayalite in the Yellow- stone Park, 58. allanite as a constituent of rocks, 108. igneous rocks of Washoe, Nev., 388. J Judd, J. W., British Association address, 392. K Kinahan, G. H., Irish and Canadian rocks compared, 78. Koehne, H., Lythraceze of the United States, 83. Kokscharow, N. v., Mineralogie Russ- lands, 318. Krakatoa eruption, an effect of, at Java, 396. Kuntze, O., Monographie der Gattung Clematis, 84. Kunz, G. F., meteoric iron from New Mexico, 235. native antimony from New Bruns- wick, 275. L Lake Superior, analcite from copper- bearing rocks, 112. Langley, S. P., transmission of light by wire gauze screens, 210. optical properties of rock-salt, 477. 494 Lasaulx, A. von, Einftthrung in die Gesteinslehre, 402. Lava, see GEOLOGY. Levier, Plantes 4 Fourmis, 245. Light, a standard of, Trowbridge, 128. Liquids, measurement of resistance of, 484, Lloyd’s Drugs and Medicines of North America, 246. Loomis, E., contributions to meteorol- ogy. 1. Lord, E., Comstock Mining and Miners, 318. M Mabery, C. F., the electrical furnace, 308. Macfarlane’s Geological Railway Guide, 244, Magnetization, changes in length of iron and steel rods, produced by, 315. Marble Border of Western New Eng- land, noticed, 402. Matthew, G. F., Paradoxides Davidis in America, 72. new genus of Cambrian pteropods, 293 Mayer, A. M, measurement of vibra- tions of tuning-forks, 485. McGee, W. J., Geological Map of the United States, 244. Mendenhall, T. C., differential resistance thermometer, 114. Mercer, H. C., the Lenape Stone, 79. Metals, electrical furnace for, 308. Meteoric iron, New Mexico, Kunz, 235. Meteorite, Grand Rapids, Riggs, 312. catalogue, 402. . from Mexico, Shepard, 105. of Washington Co., Penn., 404. Meteorological circular letter, 87. Meteorology, contributions to, Loomis, 1. Methane, illuminating power of, 156. Meyer. O., species in the southern old- tertiary, 60, 421. species in the French Old-tertiary, 151. MINERALS— Allanite, Jddings, 108. Aualcite, Penfield, 112. Antimony, native, Kunz, 275. Diamond, hardness of, 81. Descloizite, 81. Emeralds from North Carolina, 82. Endlichite, 81. Erythrite, Blake, 163. Fayalite, Yellowstone Park, Jddings, 58 Gerhardtite, Wells and Penfield, 50. Hanksite, 133, 136. Hornblende, enlargements of, Hise, 231. Van INDEX. MINERALS— Hornblende minerals, fusion of, 395. Todyrite from New Mexico, 81. Lead silicate, artificial, 138. Microlite, 82. Proustite, 402. Pyrargyrite, 402. Pyroxene minerals, fusion of, 395. Quartz-twin, Brown, 191. Silver, native, New Jersey, 80. Thinolite, Dana, 390. Molecular shadows in lamps, 314. Morley, E. W., moisture which sulphuric acid leaves in a gas, 140. Mountain, see GEOLOGY. Mueller, F. v., Kucalyptographia, 83. incandescent N Newberry, J. S., geology along the Northern Pacific R. R., 337. New Brunswick, Quaternary of, 242. New Jersey, native silver in, Darton, 80. Newton, #. 7., Gastornis Klaassenii, 318. Newton, H. A., effect upon earth’s velocity of small bodies passing near it, 409. New Zealand Institute, Transactions and Proceedings of, 246. Nichols, H, L., sensitiveness of the eye to colors, 37. Nickel, separation of, from cobalt, 75. magnetic permeability of, Perkins, 218. Nitrates, artificial, 50. Nitrogen, determination of, 153. North Carolina, emeralds from, 82. Nystrom, J. W., Pocket-Book of Me- chanics and Engineering, 7. 0 OBITUARY— Baumhauer, E. H. von, 408. Bland, Thomas, 407. Carpenter, William B., 490. Clinton, G. W., 322. Edwards, H. Milne, 248. Fresca, Henri, 248. Kerr, W. C., 248. Macfarlane, J., 407. Peale, Titian R., 168. Wright, Charles, 247. Observatory, Cincinnati, Report of, 404. Pacific, coral reefs and islands of, J. D. Dana, 89, 169. bathymetric map of, Dana, 96. | Ocean water, composition of, 385. Optics, physiological, Nichols, 37. Organic compounds, heat of combustion of, 154. Orton, E., deep well, Cleveland, O., 316. INDEX. Osborne, T. B., quantitative determina- tion of niobium, 329. Oxides, reduction of metallic by elec- tricity, Cowles, 308. Oxygen, new absorbing agent for, 155. simple method of liquefying, 73. Oyster, J. H., Catalogue of Plants, 85. P Packard, A. S., new Carboniferous limu- loids. 401. embryology of Limulus, 401. Pailleux, A., Le Potager d’un Curieux, 164. Patterson, H. N., Check-list of North American Gamopetale, 85. Penjield, S. L., gerhardtite and artificial basic cupric nitrates, 50. analcite from Phoenix mine, 112. mineralogical notes, 136. Perkins, C. A., magnetic permeability of nickel, 218. Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 86. Phosphorus, valence of, 483. Plants, see BOTANY. Platinoid, electrical resistance of, 240. Powell, J. W., Contributions to North American Ethnology, 248. U.S. Geological Report, 486. Propane, illuminating power of, 156. Psychrometer, Hazen, 442. R Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen Flora, 488. Rainband spectroscopy, Bell, 347. Rethwisch, E., Pyrargyrite and Prous- tite, 402. Riggs, k. B., the Grand Rapids mete- orite, 312. Russell, I. C., Geological Reconnaissance in Southern Oregon, 79, 487. s Sablon, L. du, structure and dehiscence of anthers, 488. Salt, optical properties of, Langley, 477. Saporta, Les Organismes Problématiques des Anciennes Mers, 83. Sargent, C. S., Woods of the United States, 82. Scotland, physical features of, 159. Screens, transmission of light by, Lang- ley, 210. Scribner, G. H., When did Life Begin, 88 Sea, see Ocean. 495 Seely, H. M., new genus of chazy spon- ges, 355. Selenium, method of separating, from tellurium, 156. Selenium, sensitiveness of, to light, 313. Selwyn, A. R. C., Canada Geological Report, 241. Shadows, molecular, 314. Shepard, C. U., meteorite from Mexico, 105. Sherman, O. T., a study of thermome- ters, 42. spectrum of Nova Andromede, 378. bright lines in stellar spectra, 475. Smith, #. A., remarks on a paper of O. Meyer, 270. Smith, S. [, notice of Whitman’s Meth- ods of Microscopical Research, 403. Spectra, bright lines in stellar, Sherman, A475. Spectroscope, rainband, Bell, 347. Spectrum of Nova Andromede, Sher- man, 378. Star system 40, o? Hridani, Hall, 403. Stephenson, J. A. D., Emeralds from North Carolina, 82. Stewart, B., note on cyclonic storms and magnetic disturpances, 241. Stone, G. H., drift scratches in Maine, 146. Stur, D., Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Flora der Vorwelt, 80. Sulphur, sensitiveness of, to light, 313. at Tait, P. G., Properties of Matter, 241. Taylor, W. B., crumpling of the earth’s crust, 249, 316. Tellurium and selenium, method of sep- arating, 156. Temperatures, underground, 397. Thermometer, differentia] resistance, Mendenhall, 114. Thermometers, a study of, Sherman, 42. Thomé, O. W., text-book of Botany, 164. Transfer-resistance in voltaic cells, 238. Trimen, H., Catalogue of Plants of Cey- HmlouNeale Trowbridge J., irregularities in the action of galvanic batteries, 34. a standard of light, 128. Tuning-forks, measurement of vibrations of, 485. U Union Group, Pacifie Ocean, Dana, 244. 496 ? V Vun Hise, C. R., enlargements of horn- blende fragments, 231. Verrill, A. E., Catalogue of Mollusca, 247. Vines. S. H., Practical Instruction Botany, 164. Virginia, Rogers’s Geology of, 357. ' Voleanie cones, Becker, 283. in Ww Wadsworth, M. E., syenite and gabbro in Essex Co., Massachusetts, 163. Walcott, C. D., Paleozoic pteropods, 17. Warren, W. F., Paradise Found, 88. Water, molecular weight of, 158. Watson, H. W., Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, 241. Watson, S.. Contributions to American Botany, 166. Webb, T. W., The Sun, 168. Well, deep, at Cleveland, Ohio, 316. Wells, H. L., gerhardtite and artificial basic cupric ‘nitrates, 50. White, C. A., Fossil Ostreidee of North America, 7 487. Whitman, ©. 0., Meth®ds of Microscop- ical Research, 403. Williams, H. S., limuloid crustacean from the Devonian, 45. classification of the upper Devon- ian, 316. INDEX. Williams, S. G., gypsum deposits in New York, 212. Winchell, A., geology of Aun Arbor, 315. notes on papers at American Asso- ciation, 315. Winchell, A., Coenostroma and Jdiostro- ma, 317. trend and crustal surplusage, 417. Winchell, N. H., red quartzites of Min- nesota, 316. Geological Survey of Minnesota, 396. crystalline rocks of the North- west, 397. Winwood, H. H., Cambrian or oe ordial rocks in British Columbia, 7 Worthen, A. H., Quaternary of Thineis, 31d; geodized fossils, 376. Wortman, J.L. notice of Cope’s Tertiary Vertebrata, 295. Z Zipperer, P., Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Sarraceniaceen, 247. ! ZOOLOGY— Anoplophrya Notei, Foulke, 377. Echidna hystrix, eggs of, 85. Limulus, embryology of, Packard, 401. Mollusca of New England coast, 247. See further under GEOLOGY. 498 Air, rarefied, as a conductor, v, 231. results of analysis of, i, 83. variations in amount of oxygen in, ii, 417, 429. Air-thermometer, Michelson, iv, 92. for chemical purposes, iil, 143. Alabama, crystalline rocks of, xxx, 278. geological reports, ii, 80; v, 311. Old Tertiary of, Meyer, ix, 457, xxx, 60, 421; Hilgard, ib., 266; Smith, ib., 270; Aldrich, ib., 300. phosphatic deposits in Cretaceous | of, vii, 492. Alaska, glacier phenomena of, viii, 74. notes on, Dail, i,,104, iv, 67. Aldrich, T. H., Tertiary of Alabama, xxx, 300. Algebra, Peirce, ili, 336. Alizarin-blue, soluble, iv, 468. Alizarin-orange, preparation of, iii, 486. Alkali lands, reclamation of, i, 407. Alkalinetry, new indications for, xxx, 75. Alkaloids, natural mydriatic, i, 400. Allantoin in vegetables, iii, 147. Allen, G., Colors of Flowers, v, 236. Allen, O. D., deep-sea magnesian lime- stone, vi, 245. Allen, T. F., Characeze Americanee, iv, 72. Allotropic states, density and chemism | of elements in different, vi, 317. Alloys, formation of, by pressure, ili, 485. Alps, see GEOLOGY and Glacier. Altitude, see Height. Altitudes, Dict. of, Gannett, ix, 424. Aluminum, atomic weight of, i, 321. - Amalgams, thermo-electric relations of, ix, 60. American Journal of Science and Arts, in 1818, vi, 79. American Philosophical Soc., xxx, 86. Ammonia, direct synthesis of, i, 498. Ammonium, tribromide, i, 145. Andrews, E., glacial markings of un- usual forms, vi, 99. . Animals, see ZOOLOGY. Annals of Mathematics, vii, 80. Anthemene, a hydrocarbon of chamo- mile, vill, 149. Anthony, W. A. Hlementary Physics, ix, 61. Anthracene, new syuthesis of, vi, 66. Anthracite, see GEOLOGY. Antimony, atomic weight of, vii, 55. Antiques, fraudulent, Pulnam, vii, 498. Antlitz der Erde, Suess, vii, 151; Arabinose, identical with lactose, i, 236. Arizona, Deer Creek coal field, Walcott, ix, 338. ‘Minerals from : vanadates, etc., dioptase, iii, 325; turquois, v, 197. jarosite, 1, GENERAL INDEX. [2 | Arizona, pre-Carboniferous of, Walcott, vi, 437, 484. | Armsby, H. P., digestion experiments, 1b:g) BOIS BOO tehsy | Arsenic, separation of, ix, 166. Spectrum of, Huntington, i ii, 214. | Arsenides, formation of, by pressure, v, 381. ix, 418. | Arsenobenzene, i, 71. _ Artesian wells in New Haven Trias, v, |: 1386. e in New Jersey, Cook, xxx, 161. | at Cleveland, O., xxx, 316. | Arzruni, groddeckite, vii, 74. Ash of epiphytes, iv, 299. Ashburner, C. A., Anthracite survey of | Pennsylvania, ii, 152. | Pennsylvania Geological | i, 155, 241, 409; ii, 152; vii, 407; vili, 234; xxx, 160. Atlas of Panther Creek Basin, v. 387; vil, 407. Assimilation, color and, v, 312. | Association, American, meetings of, ii, 86; ili, 495; iv, 157; vi, 159, 248; vii, A497; viii, 78; xxx, 87. 168. papers before, ii, 240; iv, 303; vi, 325; viii, 303, 307; xxx, 315, 322. British, at Aberdeen, xxx, 405. at Montreal, vii, 496; viii, 300. Lubbock’s address, ii, 268, 343. Southampton meeting, iv, 310. Southport, vi, 332, 412. Asteroids, see Planets. Astronomical Bibliography, i, 76. conference, international, ix, 79. observations at Dunsink, ix, 78. papers of American Ephemeris, v, SANs | Society, Memoirs of, i, 335. Astronomische Nachrichten, iii, 160. Atmosphere, buoyancy of, Cooke, vi, 38. See Air. Atomic theory, vi, 63, 310, 478. weight of platinum, ix, 253. weights, new determination of, vii 482. Reports, Ny Sell & 415; iv, relations among the, vi, 236; vii, 485. Atropine, i, 400. Aurora borealis, annual change of, xxx, 240. of Sept. 12-13, 1881, 341. | Murali, supposed subterranean drain- age of, iv, 295. | IWant! the, vu, 159; Scheberle, ii, ix, 76, 160; ii, 198, 410, viii, 145; | NoTe.—The names of Minerals ae inserted under the head of MINERALS ; notices are referred to only under OBrTuARY. Under the heads BoTany, ‘GROLOGY, ZOOLOGY the references to the topics in these departments are srouped together: the same references appear elsewhere, at least under the author’s name. Mes~ In the references to volumes Xxi to xxix, only the numerals i to ix are here given. A Abbott, C. C., human tooth from gravels, near Trenton, vii, 498. Primitive Industry, ii, 326, 401. Abbott, H. L., Report on Mines for De- fense of Harbors, ili, 496; iv, 236. Abney, photographs of solar corona. V, 130. Absorption, atmospheric, Langley, viii, 163, 242. by carbon dioxide, Keeler, viii, 190. cell, new form of, Bostwick, xxx, 452. of dark heat rays, 1, 236. - spectra of colorless liquids, i, 500. Academy, California, Bulletin of, vii, 413; xxx, 319. Connecticut, Transactions of, iv, 159, 477; xxx, 247. Davenport, Proceedings of, v, 87. National, medals of, v, 482; vili, 77. | Meeting of, v, 400. j Memoirs of, ix, 267. papers before, i, 84.509; i, 79; iv. ; 482; vi, 489; vii, 417; viii, 406; xxx, ' 490. New York, /owents Sty Ibe, HCG, Philadelphia, Proceedings of, i, 81. St Louis, Transactions of, iv, 319. Wisconsin, Transactions of, v, 233. Acetol, from sugar, vi, 66. Acetoxims, v, 228. Acid, aconitic, from sorghum, azaurolic, iv, 466, carbonic, See Carbon diowide. eatechol-orthocarboxylic, v, 147. chlor-hyponitric, i, 234. hyponitrous. iv, 143; vi, 141. iii, 488, mandelic and paramandelic, vi, 404. | monohydrated sulphuric, ix, 165. mucobromie, vi, 142. new, in beet root, vi, 240. nitric, ignition by, i, 398. production of hydroxylamine from, vii, 234. GENERAL INDEX OF VOLUMES XTX XX OF THE THIRD SERIES. | Acid, nitrous, determination of, vi, 143. all Obituary in general, however, in evaporation of water, ii, 145. organic, in examination of minerals, v, 470. pentathionie, ii, 73. perchloric, iv, 391. saccharinie, i, 139. sulphocyanuric, xxx, 481. sulphuric, freezing point of, iii, 236. manufacture of, i, 75, 144. tartaric, synthesis of a glucoside of, vii, 483. ~ tartrionic, xxx, 76. tropic, synthesis of, i, 139, 400. uric, synthesis of, vy, 229. Acoustic curves, optical projection of, Stevens, ix, 234. - Actinic balance, Langley, i, 187. Bolometer. Aerolites, see Meteorites. Affinity, chemical, Langley, viii, 437. Africa, geology of South, viii, 468. Agassiz, A., Chun’s Ctenophorz, i, 81. Heeckel’s Medusee, ii, 160. Cretaceous and recent Hchinid faunee, ili, 40. ; ie obituary of C. Wyville Thompson, iii, 496. Challenger Echinoidea, iii, 75. Young Stages of Osseous Fishes, iv, 401. Selections from Embryological Mon- ographs, v, 239, vii, 417. Tortugas and Florida reefs, vi, 408. : Echini of the Blake Expedition, 1, mS) Sees Wy ASS an WG 7, ' Surface Fauna of Gulf Stream, vii, 417 NE Agassiz, Louis, his Life and Oorres- alta pondence, xxx, 406. Air, boiling point of, vili, 150. ; electrical potential of the, ix, 403, tk organisms in, at high altitndes, ce ae 73. vy See 360, - a EDITORS _ JAMES D. anv EDWARD S. DANA. ER EDITORS NEw ae . GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuiLaDELpPuis. THIRD oie The. OL. XXX, —[ WHOLE NUMBER, ~CXXX. | “INDEX TO VOLS. XXI-XXX. _ NEW HAVEN, CONN: J. D. & BE. 8. DANA. z 1886. _ TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET. - ere ae :* yt ‘ x 5 £o. p) € POV es eRe Ae | Pred , POS, : 2b Ses Vee a gas! 5 | “VOLUMES B Backhouse, T. W., physiological optics, vi, 305, 496. Bailey, L. H., Talks afield about Plants, rs8c, WOU: Bailey, L. W., Geology of Southern New Brunswick, i, 506. Bailey, W. W., Botanical Collector’s Handbook, ii, 326; iii, 246. Baillon, H., Monographie des Compo- sées, ili, 492. s Baines, A. C., deflection of streams by ter- restrial rotation, vill, 434. Baird, 8. F., Reports of Fish Commission, 1,85; iv, 320. Bulletin of Fish Commission, v, 240. Report of Secretary of Smithsonian Institution, xxx, 167. - Baldwin, H., Orchids of N. England, viii, 2311. Ball, J., Flora of North Patagonia, viii, P57: Ball, V., Geoiogy of India, iv, 151. Report on Museums of America and Canada, xxx, 168. Ballard, R., the Pyramid Problem, v, 482. Barium, double orthophosphates of, vi, 239. sulphate, reaction of under pressure, xxx, 481. Barker, G. F., chemical abstracts, i, 66, 136, 232, 321, 396, 498: ii,°71, 145, 217; iii, 143, 234, 409, 482; iv, 56, 141, 225, 387, 464: v, 74, 146, 226, 305, 379; vi, 66, 236, 316, 401; vii, 53, 140, 233, 315, 403, 482; viii, 146, 452; ix, 163, 251, 331, 399; xxx, 73, 153, 380, 481. | International VCongress of electri- | cians, 1, 395. } obituary of Henry Draper, v, 89. variability of the law of definite ' proportions, vi, 63. British Association, vili, 300. American Association, viii, 303. Electrical exhibition at Philadelphia, viii, 386. Draper’s experiments, ix, 269. Barnard, E. E., transit of Venus, v, 430. Barometer, areas of low, Loomis, xxx, 1. tubes, filling of, Waldo, vii, 18. Barometric gradient in great storms, Loomis, vi, 442. - measurements. Gilbert, iv, 404. observations, reduction of, Loomis, ri, Te) Arabi IL eile pressure, Hazen, i, 361, 453; iv, 105. Barrande monument, vii, 422. Barrots, C., Hall’s Devonian fossils of | New York, i, 44. new method for, | | | | | OIE OOG 499 Barrois, C., the Paleozoic of Spain, vii, 491. Barus, C., kaolinization, xxx, 163. Bases, mutual displacement of, v, 380. new organic, li, 219. Batteries, galvanic, see H/ectrical. Bauermann, H., Mineralogy, i, 506; viii, 318. Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron. Vi, Log: Beal, J. W., cross-breeding of Indian corn, iv, 452. Beam. W., rocks of Yellowstone Park, v, 106, 352. Bean, T. H., fishes of the New England coast, il, 295. Beccari, O., Malesia, vii, 241; xxx, 487. Becker, G. F., temperature and glacia- tion, vi, 167. Geology of Comstock Lode, vi, 414, 479. influence of convection on glacia- tion, vii, 473. mineral belts of the Pacific slope, viii, 209. theory of faulting criticized, vill, 348. impact friction and faulting, xxx, 116, 194, 244. volcanic cones, xxx, 283. stratigraphy of California, xxx, 399. Constants of Nature, i, 510. Precious Metal Deposits, xxx, 487. Becquerel, H., magnetic rotatory polar- ization of gases, i, 139. magnetic properties of nickeliferous iron, i, 229. infra-red emission-spectra of metal- lie vapors, vill, 457. wave-lengths in the infra-red of the solar spectrum, viii, 459. Beebe’s Four-Place Tables, iii, 162. Beecher, C. H., abnormal forms of fresh- water shells, ix, 267. Devonian Ceratiocaridee, ix, 69. Behr, H. H., Genera of Vascular Plants near San Francisco, viii, 156. Behrens, J. W., The Microscope in Bot- any, xxx, 248, 319. Behring Strait, notes on, Dall, i, 104. Bell, A. G., production of sound by radi- ant energy, i, 463; ii, 87. a modification of Wheatstone’s microphone, ii, 87. apparatus for determining the posi- tion of a bullet in the body, iii, 46; y, 22. formation of a deaf variety of the human: race, ix, 348, 424. Bell, L., rainband spectroscopy, xxx, 347. Bells, ancient Japanese bronze, ii, 326. 500 GENERAL INDEX. Bennett, A. W., Text-book of Botany, xxx, 164. Bentham, G., notes on Cyperaceze. i, 412. notes on Orchideze, i, 412. notes on Gramineze, ili, 244. Genera Plantarum, v, 481; vi, 245. memorial of, Gray, ix. 103. Benzene, constitution of, vil, 235. derivatives, synthesis of, xxx, 384. molecular compounds of, vy, 228. Benzil, certain derivatives of, vii, 56. Bergmann, #., formic and acetic acids in plants, v, 161. Berthelot, mercurie fulminate, i, 235. chlorhydrates of metallic chlorides, | i, 396. pernitric oxide, i, 398. spontaneous oxidation of mercury, iy i: perchloric acid, iv, 391. Berthollet’s law, proofs of, iv, 464. Beryllium chloride, vapor-density of, vill, 149. erystalline form of, viii, 148. spectrum of, vi, 316. Bessey, C. E., The Essentials of Botany, | vill, 475. Biela’s and Denning’s Comets, xxx, 322. Bigler, Lake, see Lake Tahoe, under GEOLOGY. Binney, xxx, 407. Pulmonate Mollusks, ix, 76. Birds, see GEOLOGY and ZOOLOGY. Bismuth, diamagnetism of, iv, 392. Black Hills, see Dakota. Black Mountain, height of, ix, 84. Blake, F. H., vanadinite in Arizona, viii, | 145. Blake, W. P., realgar and crpiment in | Utah, i, 219. vanadinite, ete., from Arizona, ii, 235, 410. ulexite in California, ii, 323. new locality of chalchuite, v, 197. minerals from Dakota, vi, 235; viii, | 240; ix. 71. erystallized gold, viii, 57. new localities of erythrite, xxx, | 163. Blake, Steamer, reports on expedition of, Th Seiers) wy WS COR iy MBI abe ie) 159, vii, 157, 417. pote in Gulf Stream, iv, 447, 479. ? Blanford, W. T., fossils as a criterion of | geological equivalency, vill, 315. Bleaching powder, constitution of, iv, 465; vii, 53. Blood-crystals and their coloring matter, | 1, 499, | Blowpipe analysis, Cornwall, iv, 400. | Bloxam, ©. bL., Chemistry, vii, 80. W. G., obituary of T. Bland, | | Bohnensieg, G. C. W., Repertorium An- nuum Lit. Botanicee, iii, 70; viii, 473. Bois, D., Le Potager d’un Curieux, xxx, 164, | Boissier’s Flora Orientalis, vili, 157. | Bolometer, use of, i, 187; iv, 395; vy, 170; vil, 169; xxx, 477. Bolton, H. C., organic acids in examina- tion of minerals, i, 86; v, 470. Catalogue of Chemical Periodicals, xxx, 88. Catalogue of Scientific and Techni- cal Periodicals, xxx, 247. | Booth, H., Utica slate graptolites, vi, 380. 'Borneol, vi, 141. | Bornet, H., Notes Algologiques, i, 508. Notice Biographique sur J.Decaisne, vi, 247. | Boron hydride, ii, 147. Bosnia-Herzegovina, geology of, i, 409. | Boss, L., comet b, 1881, ii, 140. comet vii, 1881, (Swrft), iii, 77. | Boston city water, iii, 250. ~ Society of Natural History, ii, 85 ; | iv, 235. | Bostwick, A. H., influence of light on electrical resistance of metals, vill, 133. | new form of absorption cell, xxx, 452. | BoranicaAL Works Noticep— Agricultural Grasses of the United States, Vasey, vi, 32%; viii, 403. American Journal of Forestry, Hough, iv, 400. Arboretum Segrezianum, Zavallée, ii, 238: v, 312) Atlas de la Flora des Environs de Paris, vi, 77. Australian Plants, Jhiller, vi, 78. Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Ustilag- ineen, Woronin, iv, 73. > Botanical Collector’s Handbook, Batty, li, 326, ii, 246. Fragments, Bunbury, vii, 155. Taxonomy, Carwel, vii, 241. Botanische Jahrbticher, Hngler, iii, 71. Mikrochemie, Poulsen, ii, 328. Practicum, Strasburger, viii, 474. Botany of California, Watson, i, 251, 330. British Moss-Flora, 329- ii, 239. | Catalogue of American grape-vines, Bush and Son, vii, 155. | of Canadian Plants, Jdacown, ix, 265. | of Plants, Oyster, xxx, 85. | Challenger Expedition, Botany, xxx, 402. Clematides Megalanthes, yii, 494, Braithwaite, i, 5 | VOLUMES XXI-XxXX. 501 BoTanicaL Works Noticep— | BoranicaL WorKS NovTiceEpD— Colors of Flowers, Allen, v, 236. Comparative Anatomy of the Pha- nerogams and Ferns, ix, 72. “Compendium Floree Atlanticze, Cossen, | vi, ‘U7. Conspectus Floree Europes, Nyman, ve 162. Contributions to American Botany, yn WOW Ayal BMS soo RG, | Contributions to N. A. Botany, Gray, iv, 298. Corallina, Solms-Laubach, ii, 325. Course of Instruction in Botany, Bower Vines, xxx, 164. Dictionary of Popular Names of Plants, Smith, iv, 476. Drugs and Medicines of North Amer- ica, Lloyd, vili, 474; xxx, 246. Elements of Forestry, Hough, iv, 408. | Hucalyptographia, F. v. Miiller, i, 249, DOG ee | Hnglish Plant Names, Harle, ii, 491. Entwickelungsgeschichte der Pflan- zenwelt, iv, 72; v, 394. | Kssentials of Botany, Bessey, viii, 475. | Kuropas och Nord Amerikas Huitmos- | sor, Lindberg, iv, 156. Fertilization of Flowers, H. ‘Muller, | vi, 324 Hora Brasiliensis, ili, 244; v, 162; vill, 402. Italiana, Parlatore, viii, 403. of British India, Clarke and Hooker, | vy, 162. of Hssex Co., Mass., Robinson, i. 251. | of Minnesota, Upham, viii, 472. of North Patagonia, Baill, viii, 157. of the Southern States, Chapman, v, 480. of Washington, Ward, iti, 492. ~ Orientalis, Boissiers, viii, 157. Peoriana, Brendel, v, 81. de la Gironde, Clavaud, iv, 72. Forests of N. America, Sargent, ix, 264. Genera Plantarum, Bentham and | Hooker, v, 481; vi, 245. | Germination of Welwitchia, Bower, | 1, 412. Greenland Flora, iii, 247. Gymnosporanga, Harlow, i, 332. Handbuch der Botanik, JMiller, vii. 322, Schenk, A., vii, 322. Icones Plantarum, Hooker, iii, 71. Ilustrationes Flore Atlanticee, vi, 78; | xxx, 487. | Isoétes in North America, Engelmann, | Iv, 72. | Itinera Principum 5. Coburgi, vi, 247. | Jahrbuch des K. Botanischen Gartens, | Kichler, iii, 70; vy, 479; ix, 266, Journal of Yinnean Society, iv, 299. Kryptogamen Flora, Rabenhorst, i, 507; v, 314; xxx. 488. Lythraceze of the United States, Kohne, Xxx, 83. Malesia, Beccari, vii, 241; xxx, 481. Manual of the Coniferze, Véitch, iii, 69. Marine Algee, Farlow, ii, 158. Les Meilleurs Blés, Vilmorin, iii, 494. Microscope in Botany, Behrens, xxx, 248, 319. Monographie Phenogamarum, De- Candolle, ii, 235 ; v, 481. Monographia Festucarum Huropza- rum, Hackel, vi, 17. Monographie des Composées, Ballon, iti, 492. Monograph of Lilium, Hlwes, v, 82. Morphologie und Physiologie der Pilze, DeBary, ii, 324. Mosses of North America, Lesquereux and James, vill, 155. Movement in Plants, Darwin, i, 245. Names of Herbes, Turner, ili, 326. Native Forests, Cleveland, iv, 400. Native Trees of the Lower Wabash, Ridqway, iv, 400. New Asiatic Plants, ii, 245. N. A. Gamopetalze, Patterson, xxx, 85. North American Hepatica, Under- wood, viii, 403. North American Lichens, Tuckermann, ili, 326. North American Mosses and Hepat- ice, Cummings, xxx, 85. Notes Algoiogiques, Bornet and Thuret, i, 508. Orchids of New England, Baldwin, vill, 2377. Organismes Problématiques, Saporta, xxx, 83. ‘ Origin of Cultivated Plants, DeCan- dolle, y, 241, 370; vi, 128; ix, 267. Our Native Ferns, Underwood, iv, 156. Pflanzenkrankheiten, Mrank, vii, 415. Pflanzenphysiologie, Pfeffer, vii, 322; Sachs, vii, 322. Phytogeogenesis, Kwnze,vi, 414, 486. Plantes 4 Fourmis, Levier, xxx, 245. Les Plantes Potagéres, Vilmorin, v, 235. ' Plants of Buffalo, Day, vii, 415. Plants of Ceylon, Trimen, xxx, 321. Plants of New Brunswick, Fowler, xxx, 85. Plants of San Francisco, Behr, viii, 156. Plants of Worcester Co., Mass., Jack- son, Vi, 487. Podostemacere, Warming, ti, 492; iv, 400. 502 BoranicaL Works NoticeEp— Popular Californian Flora, Rattan, iii, 495. Potager dun Curieux, Pailleum, xxx, 164. Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen Flora, Winter, i, 507. Repertorium Annuum Literaturze Bo- tanicae, Bohnenzieg, iii, 70; viii, 473. Sarraceniaceen, Zipperer, xxx. 247. Student’s Flora, Hooker, viii, 238. Synoptical Flora, Gray, viii. 237. Talks Afield about Plants, xxx, 167. Text-book of Botany, Thomé and Ben- nett, XXX, 164. Traité de Botanique, Tieghem, vii, 32 Wild Flowers of America, Sprague, | vil, 414. Woods of the U. States, Sargent, xxx, 82. BoTANY— Acids, formic and acetic, in plants, vy, 161. Alcoholic ferments, Hansen, ii, 492. Algze in animals, ii, 328, 329. New England, ii, 158. Alismaceee, ii, 236. Anther cells, structure of, xxx, 488. Ants inhabitmeg plants, xxx, 245, 489. Ascidia, histology of, xxx, 489. Asia, plants of, iii, 245. Bacteria in air, ix, 73. Bananas in cultivation, vi, 130. Bean in cultivation, vi, 130. Bromeliacez of Brazil, vi, 247. Bailey, | GENERAL INDEX. Buffalo catalogue of plants, vii, 415. | California plants, 1, Xxx., 319. Canadian plants, ix, 265. Cedar apples, i, 332. Chlorophyll, action of, v, 312. Chorizanthe, Parry, vil, 76. Climate, influence of, on vegetation, Buysman, vii, 354. Clematis, vii, 494; Kunze, xxx, 84. Colors of Flowers, v. 236. Compass-plants, ii, 159, 245. Coniferze, female flowers of, iii, 418; iv, 233. Coriaria, iii, 159. Corallines of Naples, ii, 325. Crateegus, species of, v, 312. Crenothrix infecting water, iv, 318. Cucurbitaceee, li, 237. American, Gray and Trumbull, v, | 370. Cyperaceze, Bentham, i, 412. Cyperus, Clarke, viii, 75. Diatoms, structure of, vii, 416. Dyera, a new rubber-plant, iv, 299. 251, 330; vii, 413; | | | | | | Botany— Edible plants, xxx, 164. Embryos, pecuitar organ of, iv, 296. Epiphytes, the ash of, iv, 299. Ferments, alcoholic, ti, 492. Ferns, comparative anatomy of, 1x, 72. Festuca, species of, vi, 77. Flora Brasiliensis, ii, 244. viii, 402. of Greenland, iii, 247. of New Zealand, 1x, 343. of Northern Africa, xxx, 487. of Minnesota, vili, 472. of North America, Gray. iv, 321; Vili, 323. of Patagonia, vill, 157. |'See BoranicaL WoRKS— Ds) Flowers, colors of, v, 236. Forests of the U. States, ix, 264. Fungi, morphology and physiology of — ii, 324, reserve carbohydrates in, xxx, 489. respiration and transpiration of, viii, 241. Genera, number of, vi, 246. Graminez, Bentham, iii, 244. Grape-vines, American, vil, 155, Gymnosporangia, Farlow, i, 332. Helianthus, cultivated, v, 244. Herbage of permanent meadow, vi, 395. Hops, origin of, v, 254. Hypericum, ili, 245. Hypopitys or Hypopithys, viii, 238. Illex, ili, 159. Indian Corn, cross-breeding. Beal, iv, 452. Lastarrizea, vill, 76. Leaves in sun and shade, vy, 313. motions of in the light. ili, 245. Lenticels, structure and function of, vill, 239. Lepturus paniculatus, ili, 71. Lichens, North American, iti, 326. Lilium, monograph of, v, 82. Malvaceze, androecium of, v, 480. Manihot, cultivated. v, 248. Metallic oxides in plants, ii, 491. Micrococcus, influence of sunlight on, xxx, 489. Monochasma, ili, 159. Movements of plants, 1, 245, ii, 245. Nectaries and water-glands, viii. 240 Nettle, vegetative organs of, xxx, 84, Nitrites, detection of, in plants, vill, 239. Nomenclature, Gray, iii, 157; vi, 417. Orchidaceze, Bentham, i, 412. Origin of Vegetation. vi, 486. Palms, structure and growth of, viii, 239. Passiflora in cultivation, vi, 129. q Borany— Peach, origin of, v, 370. Persea gratissima, vi, 128. Phanerogams, comparative anatomy Oli oe fey Philozoon, iii, 329. Podostemaceze, ii, 492; iv, 400. Portulacea oleracea, v, 253. Potatoes, cultivated, v, 246. Resins, office of, in plants, iii, 494. Respiration of plants, iti, 423. Roses of North America, xxx, 166. Saprolegnia, of salmon disease, iv, 74. Schzenonardus Texanus, iii, 71. Scleria, revision of, xxx, 246. Seeds, vitality of, iv, 297. Spongiophagus Carteri, ii, 493. Starch grains, origin of, i, 330. Taxonomy, thoughts on, vii, 241. Tetracoccus, xxx, 166. Timber-line, Gannett, iii, 275. Tomato in cultivation, vi, 128. Trilisa, viii, 403. Uredines, hetercecism of, v, 314. Ustilagineee, Woronin, iv, 73. Varieties, names of, Gray, vii, 396. Veatchia, Gray, vii, 413. Vegetable kingdom, development of, v, 394. Water in plants, movement of, v, 237. Welwitchia, seedling of, i, 412. Wood, structure of, v, 480. Woods, strength of, i, 251. Yams, cultivated, v, 250. “Yellow cells” of Radiolarians and Coelenterates, iii, 328. Zoochlorella, iii, 329. See further under GEOLOGY. Bouvé, T.T., Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., ii, 85. Bower, F. O., Practical Instruction in Botany, xxx, 164. Bowerbank, J. 8., British Spongiada, iv, ATT. Bowman, J. K., Introduction to Practi- cal Chemistry, xxx, 168. ' Brackebusch, D. L., Minerals of Buenos Aires, i, 161. Brackett, C. F., galvanometer for power- ful currents, i, 395. the Littrow spectroscope, iv, 60. device for measuring power, vii, 20. Elementary Physics, ix, 61. Brady, H. B., new genus of spherical rhizopods, v, 84. Braithwaite, R., British 329- ii, 239, Brazil, diamond in, Derby, iv, 34. geological report, iv, 153. gold in, Derby, iii, 178; viii, 440. itacolumite of, Derby, viii, 203. martite of, Derby, iii, 373. Moss-Flora, VOLUMES XXI-XXxX. 503 | Brazil, minerals of, vii, 73; ix, 70. nickeliferous iron of Sta Catarina, iii, 229: ix, 33, 496. plants of, iti, 244, vi, 247, viii, 402. rocks of, Derby, vii, 138. Brendel, F., Flora Peoriana, not., v, 81. Brewer, W. H., suspension and sedimen- tation of clays, ix, 1. evolution of the trotting horse, v, 299. Brezina, A., Kryst. Untersuchungen, viii, Be Meteorites of Vienna Mus., 402, XXX, | Bricks, Milwaukee, iv, 154. mineral from, i, 157. Briosi, G., on an organ of some vegeta- ble embryos, noticed, iv, 296. Brinton, D. G., Aboriginal American Authors, vil, 498. the Giiegiience, vii, 498. British Columbia, Cambrian or Primor- dial, rocks in, xxx, 79. geology of, Dawson, ii, 15. Mesozoic of, Whiteaves, ix, 444. Britton, N. L., Staten Island Geology, ii, 488. pot-holes in the Bronx valley, v, 158. N. A. species of Scleria, xxx, 246. Broadhead, G. C., Carboniferous rocks of Kansas, ii, 55. Bromine, carbon compounds in manufac- ture of, v, 308. union of, with chlorides, xxx, 381. vapor-density of, iv, 142. Bromoform, direct production of, i, 236. Brongniart, C., Silurian fossil cockroach in France, ix, 419. Brooks, W. K., Development of the Squid, ii, 414. the Law of Heredity, vii, 156. Invertebrate Zoology, iii, 491. Brown, W. G., quartz-twin from Virginia, 2o-oq ISL Browne, A. E., Becker’s theory of fault- ing, Vili, 348. Browne, W. F., glacier motion, vi, 149. Bruce, A, T., brains of Tertiary mam- mals, vi, 70. Bruhl, J. W., on molecular structure and refractive power, i, 70. Brun, fulgurites in the Alps, ix, 415. Brush, G. J., American sulpho-selenides i, of mercury, i, 312. scovillite, v, 459. identity of scovillite and rhabdo- phane, vii, 200. Brysen, J., glacial phenomena of Long | Island, v, 475. | Buenos Aires, vanadates from, ii, 157. minerals of, v, 161. Bush, L: o04 Buffalo Society of Nat. Hist., i, 338. Building stones, durability of. i, 410. GENERAL INDEX. | Bullet within the body, apparatus for. finding, Bell, iii, 46; v, 22. Bunbury, Botanical Fragments, vii, 155. Burbury, 8. H., Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, xxx, 241. Bureau of Scientific Information, viii, 320. Bush and Son, Catalogue of American | grape-vines, vii, 155. rata, EXO Buysman, influence of sea and continen- | tal climate on vegetation, viii, 354. C Cadmium, atomic weight of, ii, 148. Czsium, production and properties of, iu, 411. California, ammonites group of, iv, 152. colemanite from, vill, 447; erythrite from, xxx, 163. hanksite from, xxx, 133, 136. Lake Tahoe, Le Conte, vii, 145. lakes, changes of level in, i, 415. metalliferous vein-formation in, 23. meteoriciron from, Shepard, ix, 469. mineral belts of, Becker, vili, 209. Mineralogical Reports, v, 392; 493; ix, 263. stratigraphy of, Xxx, 399. ulexite in, Blake, ii, 323. vivianite in, iv. 155. voleanoes of, Haque, vi, 222. Call, R. H., loss of Des Moines, iv, 202. Quaternary and recent Mollusca of the Great Basin, xxx, 79. Calvin, S.. fauna at Lime Creek, Iowa, v, 432. Campbell, Survey in Georgia, vi,-411. Campbell, H. D., tin ore in Virginia, vii, 411. Potsdam group, Virginia, ix, 470. Campbell, J. L., dufrenite from Rock- ridge Co., Va., ii, 65. geology of the Blue Ridge, viii, 221, 242. Rogers's pxoxexe i D)i/e Campbell, L., Life of J. CO. Maxwell, ix, 347. Camphol-urethanes, physical isomerism of, vil, 483. Camphor, compound with alcohol, i, 400. Canada, apatite of, viii, 74. chrysotile from Shipton, Smzth, 32. in the Tejon 1V, ix, | P., notice of Marsh’s Dinoce- | ix, 34]. | Vii, | | | | | Carbonic acid, see carbon dionide. | Carhart. H. S., Geology of the Virginias, | | | | | | Carll, ya ’ af | Canada, coals and lignites of, xxx, 77. geological reports, i, 243, 410, 506; iv, 151; vii, 410; ix, 265, 340, 408; Soe. UPS ETE glacial deposits near Bow River, ix, 408. markings, Andrews, vi, 99. phenomena of the Hudson’s Bay Region, xxx, 242. lazulite from, i, 410. See meneghinite, tennantite irom vil, ee 411. i ge Peace River region, i, 391. i) Royal Society Proceedings, vill, 159. samarskite in, iv, 475. . white garnet from, Awnz, vii, 306. pe zircons from, i, 507. Cape Verdé, volcanic rocks of, v, 393. Capillarity of small floating bodies, Le- Conte, iv, 416; vii, 307. Capillary constant and chemical compo- sition, vil, 484. Carbon, atomic weight of, iv, 225. dioxide absorption by, viii, 190. decomposition of, by the elec- tric spark, xxx, 383. ¢ of atmosphere, i, 401; iv, 387, 468: vi, 147. of sea-water, iii, 53; xxx, 387. reduction of, by carbon, xxx, 381. solubility of, under pressure, iv, 469. specific heat of, ix, 332. disulphide in prisms, Draper, ix,269. purification of, ii, 147. filament, disintegration of, xxx, 314. heat of combustion of, xxx, 154. monoxide, behavior of toward air and moist phosphorus, vii, 318. boiling point of, viii, 150. oxidation of, iv, 465. ~ preparation of, v, 228; vi, 143. oxysulphide, physical properties of, ili, 484. resistance of, under pressure, JJen- denhall, iv, 43: Thompson, iv, 433. patsy Gh sulphobromide, new, ili, 483. BAER oxide, see carbon monoxide. electromotive force of a ~ Daniell cell, viii, 374. J. F.. Pennsylvania Geological Reports, 11, 78; vu, 71. Carneliey, T., ice at high temperatures, 1, 385. Carpenter, P. H., Report on the Coma- tulee, 11, 413. Crinoids of the Carribean Sea, v, 238. Carpenter, W. L., cyclonic storms and magnetic disturbances, xxx. 241, 9] VOLUMES Carpenter, W. L., Report on Sun-spot areas, ix, 76. Carter, H. J., Carbonifercus sponge- spicules, i, 158. Jaruel, T., Botanical Taxonomy, vii, 241. Caswell, A., Meteorological Observations at Providence, iii, 496. Catalogue of Periodicals, Bolion, xxx, 88, | 247. Cellulose, fermentation of, vi, 404. Census Report, Forests, ix, 264. Cesaro, koninckite, ix, 342. Chamberlin, T. C., correlation of termi- nal moraines, iv, 93. terminal moraine of second glacial epoch, vii, 68; viii, 228. geology of Wisconsin, vii, 146. hillocks of angular gravel, vii, 378. Chance, H. M., the millstone grit, i, 134. Pennsylvania Geological Reports, i, 409- v, 310, 471; vii, 69, 71; viii, = 234: Chandler, C. F., Waters of the Hudson River, ix, 347. Chapman, A. W., Flora of the Southern ~ United States, v, 480.’ Chatard, T. M., mineralogical notes, viii, 20. Cheesman, L. M., effect of hardening on magnetism of steel ard iron, iv, 180. measurement of electric currents, Vili, 117. Chemical affinity, Langley, viii, 360, 437. change, illustration of, iii, 237. Society, American, ii, 165. _ CHEMICAL WorKS NoTicED— Chemical Literature, ix, 61. Chemical Periodicals, Catalogue of, Bolton, xxx, 88. Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, Richards, iii, 416. Manual of Chemistry, Watts, viii, 72. Principles of Chemical Philosophy, | Cooke, ii, 398. Researches in Mineralogy Chemistry, J. L. Smith, ix, 262. Theoretical Chemistry, Remsen, vii, 238. Chemistry, celestial, Hunt, iii, 123. recent progress in, iv, 312. Chester, F. D., drift in Delaware, v, 18, 436; vii, 189; ix; 36. geology of Delaware, ix, 70. China, work of v. Richthofen. vi, 80, 152. fossils of, vi, 123, 152. Chinese Empire, Natural History of, v, 316. Chinoline, reactions of, iii, 146. Chlor-ethyl oxide, symmetrical, iii, 485. Chlorhydrates of metallic chlorides, i, 396. 9 a and | SOE SRO, 505 | Chloride of silver, solubility of, in water, Cooke, i, 220. Chlorine peroxide, vapor density of. iv, 390. Chloroform, direct production of, i, 236. Chromium, determination of, iv, 226. oxychloride, ix, 254. Chronometers, compensation of, ix, 497. Chun, C., Ctenophoree, i, 81. Cinchona bark, new alkaloid from, iii, | 412. Cincinuati Society of Natural History, Jou i, 409 ; iii, 65. Cipher-code for astronomival telegrams, li, 244. Claassen, #., potassium chloride in ab- sinth, iii, 323. analysis of siderite, ili, 325. mineralogical notes, vi, 486; ix, 343. Clarke, A. R., Geodesy, i, 337. Clarke, C. B., Flora of British India, v, 162. Kast India Species of Cyperus, viii, 1B. Clarke, Ff. W., mineralogical notes, viii, 20. topaz at Stoneham, Me., ix, 378. Clarke, J. M., Gundlachia in western New York, iii, 248. new Devonian phyllopods, ii, 476. cirriped from the Devonian, iv, 55. new Devonian Crustacea, v, 120. Devonian spores, ix, 284. Claus, C., Text-book of Zoology, ix, 421. Clavaud, A., Flore de la Gironde, iv, 72. Claypole, H. W., materials of the Appa- lachians, xxx, 316. Clay, Milwaukee, iv, 154. Clerk, D., Theory of the Gas Engine, v, 88. Cleveland, Tree Culture, iv, 400. Climate and eccentricity of earth’s orbit. Haughton, iv, 436. of the dry zones, Guyot, vi, 161. of western U. States, ii, 247. see BOTANY and GEOLOGY. | Clock-beats, arrangements for transmit- | ting, Nipher, iv, 54. Clouds, carbonic acid in formation of, lee vale Te dust, fogs and, i, 237. | Coal, see GEOLOGY. Coal-dust, danger from, in mining, Hovey, li, 18. | Coal-tar, distillation of, vy, 151. | Coan, T., volcanic eruption in Hawaii, i, Wb) 1 227. 298300) | Life in Hawaii, iv, 77. Coast Survey Reports, i, 77, 240,416; iv, . 302 v, 398; vi, 413; vii, 77; ix, 44, Work, iii, 162; xxx, 328, 506 GENERAL INDEX. Cobalt and nickel, separation of, xxx, (ay Cobwebs of Uloborus, Hmerton, v, 203. Cocaine, synthesis of, xxx, 482. Codfish, reddening of salted, i, 85. Cohen, E., work on the microscopic Structure of minerals, noticed, iv, 155. Cold from reaction of solids, ii, 206. see Temperature. Collett, J., Indiana Geological Reports, iv, 293 : vill, 314. Collier, P,, remarkable nugget of plati- num, i, 123. # uranothorite, i, 161. Colorado, coal field near Cafion City, ili, 152. coking coal and anthracite of, ili, 64. extinet glaciers of, Hills, vii, 391. Florissant lake basin, ii, 409. geological report, i, 408. hypersthene-andesite of, Cross, v, 1338), jurassic strata of, White, ix, 228. jura-trias of, Hills, iii, 243. Laramie of, iv, 150. Leadville deposits, Emmons, iv, 64. minerals from: jarosite, i, 160; smaltite, ili, 380; ix, 420; zeolites . from Table Mt., iii, 452; iv, 129; topaz, phenacite, zircon, iv, 281; cryo- lite, ete., vi, 271; topaz, vi, 484; sanidine, topaz, vii, 94; ldllingite, cosalite, hiibnerite, vii, 349; kaolin- ite, vii, 472; zunyite, guitermanite, ix, 340. Permian plants of, v, 157. Tertiary of the Grand Cafion, Dut- ton, iv, 81. vanadium in Leadville ores, iii, 381. Color and assimilation, v, 312. and atomic weight of compounds, viii, 453. correction of double objectives, Hast- ings, ili, 167. impressions, duration of, Michols, Vili, 243. sensitiveness of eye to, Peirce, vi, 299. Colors in decreasing light, iv, 62. Comet of 1771, orbit of, v, 166. (a) 1881, Swift, elements of, i, 509. (6) 1881, observations of, Boss, ii, 140, 303, Burton, ii, 163, Harkness, ii, 137, Holden, ii, 260. photographs of spectrum of, ii, 134, 163. polarization of light of, Wright, ii, 142. spectroscopic observations of, ii, 135, 137, 164. tail of, Boss, i, 303. ‘ \ ; Comet c, 1881, polariseopie observations of, Wright, ii, 372. vii, 1881, elements of, iii, 77. of 1882, I, elements of, Parsons, vii, 32. I, 1882, photog. spectrum of, iv, 402. of Sept., 1882, elgfents of, iv, 301, 488; Frisby, v, 86. ‘motion of, v, 309. nucleus of, Holden, iv, oe 2 observations of at U. Observatory, vii, 77. — Pons-Brooks, observations ‘of, at Yale College, vii, 76. spectroscopic obs. of, vii, 76. Comets, Biela’s and Denning’s, xxx, 322. notation of, ili, 160. Comoy, Etudes pratique sur les marées fluviales, viii, 228. Compton, A. G., autographic records ef vibrations of tuning forks, vil, 444. Comstock, C. B., variation of a ane bar at the same temperature, li, 26. Comstock, W. J., analysis of onofrite, i, 312). Conductivity of metals, ii, 316. | Congress, International, at Washington, viii, 405. Connecticut Academy, Transactions of, Xxx, 247, glacier scratches in Goshen, i, 322. high terraces in Hastern, Koons, lv, 425. metamorphic rocks of, Dana, viii, 393. Middletown minerals, ix, 263, 343. potholes at Gurleyville, Koons, v, 471. rainfall at Middletown, v, 118. in Wallingford, Harrison, i, 496. Salisbury minerals, v, 459. Taconic rocks of, Dana, ix, 205, 437. the Round Hill Ridge, Dana, ix, 66. trap of West Rock, ii, 230. Triassic trap of, Davis, iv, 345; v, 474. .. Valley, glacial flood of, Dana, iii, 87, 179, 360; iv, 98; v, 440. glacial phenomena of mouth of, Dana, vi, 341; vii, 113. kames of, Dana, ii, 451. Constants of Nature, atomic weights, i: 510. Continents and ocean basins, ix, 336. . Naval | Cook, H. H., regenerative theory of solar action, vi, 67. Cook, G. H., unconformability in Silurian of New Jersey, vii, 153. New Jersey Geological Reports, i, |. 409; tii, 325; v, 383; vii, 408; xxx, 161. 11] VOLUMES Cooke, J. P., physical notices, i, 70. J. Thomsen’s thermochemical inves- tigations of structure of hydrocarbons, i, 87. * solubility of chloride of silver in water, i, 220. William Hallowes Miller, i, 379. correction of weight for buoyancy of the atmosphere, vi, 38 on atomic weights, vi, 144. law of definite proportions, vi, 310. Dumas; vili, 289. Principles of Chemical Philosophy, li, 398. Cooper, T., mineral near dopplerite, ii, 489; iti, 154. Cope, E. De new extinct Percidee from Dakota, vy, 414. Permian Vertebrates of Texas, i, 407. Arrangement of the Perissodactyles, ii, 163. Eocene Saurian and Mammals, New Mexico, ii, 408. Miocene Rodents and Canidee of the Loup Fork, ii, 408. Eocene Vertebrates of New Mexico ‘and Wyoming, ili, 324. N. A. Fossil Mammals, v, 392. Dinosaurian of the Laramie, vi, 75. Anguilla Bone Cave, vii, 71. Papers on Fossil Vertebrates, ix, 70. Vertebrata of the Tertiary of the West, ix, 260; xxx, 295. the Amblypoda, xxx, 79. Copper implements, how formed, iii. 162. nitrates, artificial, xxx, 50. sulphate, iv, 389; xxx, 157. Coral reefs, see GEOLOGY. Cornwall, H. B., Manual of Blowpipe Analysis, iv, 400. Corona, see Sun. Corthell, Ei. L., Mississippi Jetties, i, 165. ‘Corwin, cruise of the, vii, 417. Cosmos les Mondes, ii, 494. Cosson, E., Atlas de la Flora des Envi- rons de Paris, vi, 77. Flore Atlantice, wah Us, tse 487. Cotton Census Reports, viii, 160. Coues, H., American Ornithological Bib- liography, i, 83. Check List of Birds, iv, 478. Cowles, Electrical furnace, xxx, 308. Craig, T., on Projections, vii, 245. Cremona, l., Projective Geometry, xxx, 489, Crinoids, see GEOLOGY and ZooLoey. Croll, J., geological climatology, vi, 249. yortex-atom theory, vi, 478. Greenland and antarctic ice, vi, 488. XXI-XXX. 507 Croll, J., Wallace’s modification of the physical theory of secular changes of climate, vil, 81, 265, 432. Newcomb’s rejoinder, vii, 343. mild polar climates, ix, 20, 138. arctic interglacial periods, ix, 300. Crookes, W., radiation from incandescent lamps, ix, 494. Crosby, W. O., geology of Frenchman’s Bay, Maine, ili, 64. elevated coral reefs of Cuba, vi, 148. origin and relation of continents and ocean-basins, ix, 336. Cross, R. 7., new topaz locality, vi, 484. Cross, W., minerals of Table Mountain, ili, 452: iv, 129. minerals from Pike’s Peak, iv, 281. hypersthene-andesite, v, 139, 391. triclinic pyroxene, vi, 76. eryolite from Colorado, vi, 271, 496. sanidine and topaz from Colorado, vii, 94. Cryptidine, synthesis of, v, 382. Crystallization, experiments in, iv, 464. strain counected with, vii, 461. Cuba, elevated coral reefs of, vi, 148. iron ores of Santiago, Kimball, viii, 416. Cummings, C. E., North American Moss- es and Hepaticze, xxx, 85. Cutting, H. A., durability of building stones, i, 410. Cyanides, production of, from trimethy]- amine, vill, 147. Cyanogen, preparation of, xxx, nA, Cyclones and magnetic disturbances BXSKSXG 241. tornadoes and waterspouts, Ferrel, hy, Bey Oymene, preparation of, iii, 412. D Daday, EH. von, polythalamian from a salt-pool, ix, 15. Dakota, geology of the Black Hills, Jen- ney, u, 399. glacial drift in, White, vii, 112. Jurassic strata of, White; ix, 228. minerals from, cassiterite, spodu- mene, beryl, vi, 235; ix, 71; colum- bite (tantalite) vili, 340, 430; uran- ium, ete., xxx, 82. Tertiary, Percidee from, Cope, v, Dale, T.-N., geology of Rhode Island, vii, 217, 282. Dall, W. H., notes on Alaska, i, 104. Alaska Tertiary deposits, iy, 67, “Blake” Mollusea, ii, 413, t oats a wor y 4 Ai et ate ti >e oe * . y Ae ap. at : Mice r a ae ox 508 GENERAL INDEX. 7 Damour, Seremeietiite, v, 478. | Dana, J. D., terminal moraine of Penn. picro-epidote, v, 479. | viii, 231. Dana, A. G., gahnite of Rowe, Mass., the southward ending of a great { ix, 455. synclinal in the Taconic, viii, 268. Dana, E. S., emerald-green spodumene, | Taconic slates, viii, 311. hiddenite, ii, 179. the Azoic system, viii, 313. monetite crystals, ili, 405. Cortlandt hornblendic and augitice monazite from Aléxander Couuty, rocks, villi, 384. N. Carolina, iv, 247. origin of bedding in so-called meta- — stibnite, Japan, vi, 214, 496. morphic rocks, viii, 393. allanite, apatite, tysonite, vil, 479. making of limonite ore-beds, vill, herderite. Maine, vii, 73, 229; vili,) 398. 318. decay of quartzyte, vili, 448; ix, 57. hanksite, etc., xxx, 136. | rock notation for geological dia- thinolite, Lake Lahontan, xxx, 390.| grams, ix, 7.’ Klementary Mechanics, i, 254. | Archeean rocks of Vermont, ix, 66. _ Third Appendix to Dana’s Mineral- Round Hill, near New Haven, ix, 66. ogy, iii, 491. Taconic rocks and stratigraphy, 1x, Text-book of ) Mineralogy, v, 479. | 205, 437. Dana, J. D., geological terms, i, 326. | origin of coral reefs and gS limestone of Westchester Co., and TSOC 89, 158, 169. ; New York Island, i, 425; ii, 103, bathymetric map of pont o the 313, 327. PACiiChraxaxn 96) appendages of trilobites, ii, 79. | Union Group, Pacific Ocean, LOO iron ore of Rhode Island, ii, 152. | 244. doleryte of eastern N. A., li, 230. displacement through inbuign eae iron ores of Marquette, ii, 320, 402. 374. “Kames” of the Connecticut river igneous rocks of Nevada, xxx, 388. valley. ii, 451. ; geology of Scotland, xxx, 392. flood of Connecticut valley aneiee of Minnesota, xxx, 396. ili, 87, 179, 360; iv, 98. | Life and character of L. Apasea Dutton’s Tertiary of the Grand) xxx, 4J6. Cafion, iv, 81. | Daniell, A., Principles of Physics. vii, the tignitic of California, iv, 152. | 487. age of the Taconic system, iv, 291. | Daniell cell, new form of, ix, 257. southward discharge of Lake Win- | Darton, N. H., new locality for Hayesine, nipeg, iv, 428. iii, 458. : Whitney’s climatic changes, v, 153. | fossils of Orange county, N. Y., age of Bernardston rocks, v, 369. | xxx, 452. Jura-trias of Eastern North Ameri- | Darwin, C.. Power of movement in ca, origin of, v, 383, 474. Plants, i, 245. Life of W. E. Logan, v, 386. memorial fund, iv, 159, 239. western discharge of the flooded | Darwin, F., movements of leaves in the Connecticut, v, 440. light, iii, 245. : ripple-marks. v, 467. Darwin, G. H., tidal friction, i, 462. iron ores, crystalline, v, 476. stresses caused by continents and hemidioryte, v, 478. | mountains, ii, 317; iv, 256. geological notes, vi, 148, 408. funar disturbance of gravity, ii, 49. glacial phenomena over the New | rigidity of the earth, v, 464. Haven region, vi, 341. Daubreée, joints in strata, ili, 63. Pennsylvania geological report, vii, | substances from “forts vitrifiés,” 69. 150. glacial climate, vii, 93. Davis, W. M., Triassic trap of Connecti- phenomena of the Glacial and Cham- cut and New Jersey, iv, 345; v, 474. ~ plain period, in the New Haven region, Becraft’s Mountain, vi, 381. Ty dls | non-conformity at Rondout, ONE geology of Wisconsin, vii; 146. Ie ak Ss) obituary of Guyot, vii. 246. | gorges and waterfalls. viii, 123. Ohio River, flood of 1884, vii, 419. | distribution and origin of drumlins, terminal moraine of the second gla-| viii, 407. cial epoch, viii, 228, geological papers, Cagiiand iv, 230, 13] VOLUMES Davis, W. M., Whirlwinds, Cyclones and | Tornadoes, viii, 151. Dawkins, W. B., antiquity of man, iv, | 314, Dawson, G. M., geology of Peace River | region, i, 391. geology of British Columbia, 11, 75. | glacial deposits in central North | America, ix, 408. geological map of British Columbia, i, 80. Dawson, J. W.. structure of Uphantzenia, Tie NS, Krian flora of the United States, iv, 338, 488. skeleton of a whale from Ontario, V, 200. erect Garnonmeren: trees, Scotia, v, 478. Unsolved Problems in Geology, vi, 320. Cretaceous and Tertiary Floras of British Columbia, vii, 410. Prehistoric man in Egypt and Syria, vill, 158. Day, D. F., Catalogue of the Plants of Buffalo, vii, 415. De Bary, 3p Morphologie und Physiol- ogie der Pilze, ii, 324. Comparative Anatomy of the Phan- erogams and Ferns, ix, 72. De Candolle, Monographize Pheenogama- rum, li, 235; v, 481. origin of Cultivated Plants, v, 241, SOp avila LA Sienvixes 2G Botanical nomenclature, vi, 417. Heredity and Selection in the Hu- man Species, tx, 265. Delaware, drift in, Chester, v, 18 vii, 189, ix, 36. Delesse, Révue de Géologie, i, 244. Density of iron before and after fusion, i, 147. of liquids at high temperatures, xxx, 380. Derby, O. A., geology of the diamond, iii, 97; iv, 34. gold-bearing rocks of Brazil, ili, 178. Brazilian martite, 11, 373. Brazilian minerals, vii, 73; ix, 70. decay of rocks in Brazil, vii, 138. flexibility of itacolumite, viii, 203. gold in Brazil, vii, 440. the Santa Catharina meteorite, ix, 33, 496. Descartes on Cosmology, i, 80. Dextrose, transformation of, into dextrin, ii, 502; Diamond, combustion of the, vii, 317. see GEOLOGY and MINERALS. Dictionary of Altitudes, Gannett, ix, 424. Nova 436; LOT EVIRS 509 | Dictionary. of the Exact Sciences, Poggen- dorff, ti, 245. Dielectricity, constant of, vi, 146. | Diffraction bands, Moreland, ix, 5. erating, coefficient of expansion of. Mendenhali, i, 230. gratings, iv, 63. curved, vi, 67, 87, 214. | Diffusion of solids into solids, ui, 409. Digestion experiments. Armsby, ix, 355; | xxx, 88. | Diller, J. S., fulgurite from Mt. Thielson, vill, 252. octahedrite as an alteration product | of titanite, vili, 234. | topaz from Stoneham, Me., Dinocerata, see GEOLOGY. Dinosauria, see GEOLOGY. Dissocioscope, ili, 235. Distillation of coal tar, Lunge, v, 151. ix, 378. Dixon, A., the ash of epiphytes, iv, 299). Dodge, W. W., Lower Silurian fossils in Maine, ii, 434. Menevian argillites at Braintree, Mass., v, 65. Doelter, C., voleanie rocks of the Cape * Verde Islands, v, 393. Dering, D. A., Geology of the Rio Negro, Patagonia, vi, 410. Domeyko, I., Mineralojia, 1, 161. Douglas, J. Jr., Lunge’s Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, 1, 75. Dowell, B. #., water-level in lakes of ~ | Oregon, i, 415. Draper, H., photographs of spectrum of comet of June, 1881, ii, 134. photographs of spectrum of nebula of Orion, ili, 339. use of carbon bisulphide in prisms, ix, 269. obituary of, v, 89. Astronomical Medal, v, 482. Draper, J. W., phosphorograph of a so- lar spectrum, i, 171. Drops floating on water, ili, 50. Drumlins, see GEOLOGY. | Duclaux, influence of sunlight on Micro- coccus, xxx, 489. Dun, W. A., Ohio Floods, ix, 262. Dunean, P. M., Arctic Echinodermata, | i, 247. Dunnington, £. P., minerals from Amelia | o., Virginia, iv, 153. Dust, fogs and clouds, i, 237. | so-called cosmical, ii, 86. | see Sun-glows. Dution, C. E.. arid climate of Western United States, ii, 247. Fisher’s Physics of the Earth’s | Crust, iii, 283. ~ Dutton, C. E., Tertiary bistory of the | Grand Caiion district, iv, 81, 482. volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands, | Vv, 219; xxx, 487. ‘effect of a warmer climate on gla. | ciers, vii, 1. j Dwight, W. B., fossils in Wappinger | Valley limestone, i, 78; vii, 249. E Harle, J., English Plant Names, ii, 491. | Earth, density of, ili, 51. physics of crust of, iii, 283. rigidity of, Darwin, v, 464. stresses in, Darwin, ii, 317: iv, 256. | structure of, Suess, vii, 151. | temperature of the hemispheres, | Ferrel, iv, 89. velocity of, as affected by small | | bodies passing near it, Newton, ESS) 409. Harth-moon system, evolution of, Haugh- | ton, iv, 335. Harthquake in Ischia, iii, 337; vi, 473; | viii, 312. in Middle and Eastern States, viii, 242. Phillipine Islands, i, 52. reported, at Caraccas, vi, 79, 155. | Earthquakes, American, etc., Rockwood, | i, 198; ii, 289; iii, 257, 337; v, 353: vi, 155; vii, 358; viii, 242; ix, 425. Japanese, li, 468; v, 361. | in Spain, Rockweod, ix, 282. | of Switzerland, ili, 337. see also under GEOLOGY. Earths. metals of the rarer, iii, 412. Eastman, J. R., solar parallax, iii, 160. | meteoric iron from Grand Rapids, | viii, 299. Faton, D. C., botanical notices, i, 330; | iv, 156. Farlow’s New England Algz, ii, 158. Ebonite, transparency of, ii, 148. Eclipse, see Sun. Hdison’s electrical met=2rs, ili, 52. tasimeter, Mendenhall, iv, 43, 433. Edwards, A. M., * Blake” Crustacea, 1i, | 413. Egypt, prehistoric man in, viii, 158. Kichler, A. W., Jahrbuch des botani- | schen Gartens, iii, 70; v,479; ix, 266. female flowers of Coniferz, iii, 418. | Flora Brasiliensis. v, 162, Elasticity and motion, ii, 396. | of solids, vii, 140. | Electrical absorption of crystals, ii, 147. | accumulator, ii, 75; ili, 414, 415; -~ yi, 319, 510 GENERAL INDEX. Electrical battery, irregularities in action of, xxx, 34. observed and calculated force of, vill, 452. the Daniell, ix, 257; the Smee. v, 268. congress, v, 79; vili, 71. current, measurement of, Cheesman, viii, 117; Yrowbridge. ix, 236. by silver voltameter, viii, 224. currents, alternating produced, ix, SH the apparatus for determination of Foucault’s, vi, 320. effect of on thinning of alae ix, 334. magnetic effect on, v, 477; vii, 486; Hall, ix, 117. 215°5 svi, of earth’s surface, vii, 237; vii, ale exhibition at Philadelphia, viii, 225 ; Paris, ii, 395; viii, 310. furnace, Cowles, xxx, 308. lamps, incandescent, deposits in. KKK OAS se radiation from, ix, 494. |* light, absorption of, by the atmos- phere, iv. 287. lighting, distribution of. over great distances, ix, 59. lights, cost of, v, 150. machines, dynamo, ii, 484; ili, 147; Vii, 57. ; measurements, photography in, Trowbridge and Hayes, ix, 374. meters, Edison’s, iii, 52. piles, (thermo-electric), ix, 495. potential, difference of, iii, 487. of the air, ix, 403. rays, reflection of, iii, 413. resistance, expression of, Nipher, vii, 465. if of distilled water, ix, 256. of gases, ili, 321. 487. of metals. influence of light on, Bostwick, vii, 133 of a vacuum, ili, 149, 487. unit of, see ohm. shadows, Fine and Magie, i, 394. spark, vision by, Stevens, iv, 241. tension of mercury, iv, 61. units, ili, 241; iv, 62, 310 ; xxx, 22; see ohm. | ELECTRICAL WoRKS NoTicED— Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Magnetism, S. P. Thompson, iti, 241. Notes on Thompson’s Lessons, Murdock, vii, 320. Treatise on Electricity, Maxwell. iii, 149. La Lumiére Electrique, iii, 250, 15] VOLUMES ELECTRICAL WORKS NOTICED— , Magneto- and Dynamo-Hlectric Ma- chines, Krohn, Higgs, ix, 336. Magneto-elektrischen und dynamo- elekirischen Maschinen, ete., Glas- er-De Cew, v, 151. Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, Watson & Burbury, xxx, 241. Measurements in Electricity and Mag- netism, Gray, vii, 487. Physical Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, Gordon, i, 140. Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, | Mascart and Joubert, vi, 148. Electricians, conference of, vii, 159; viii, 386. Hlectricity and light, iv, 145. applications of, iv, 310. as the equivalence of a chemical process, iv, 286. atmospheric, vii, 144; viii, 70. B. A. unit, Pletcher, xxx, 22. conduction of, in rarefied air, ix, 335. conservation of, ii, 74, 148. due to evaporation, vi, 145. earth currents, vii, 237; viii, 71. Hall’s phenomenon, vi, 477; vii, 486: ix, 117. heat and, ix, 60. inertia of, ili, 240. influence of surrounding gas on pro- duction, 316. International Exposition of, i, 164. storage of, ii, 75; iii, 414, 415; vi, 319. Thomson effect, Trowbridge and Pen- rose, 1V, 379. “transfer resistance” in voltaic cells, xxx, 238. transmission of power by, ii, 397; v, 469. Electrification by evaporation, Freeman, iti, 428. Electrodes, disintegration of, ili, 240. metallic in hydrogen, 1, 323. Electro-dynamic balance, ii, 398. Electrolysis, quantitative determination | of metals by, ix, 164. Electrolytes, dielectric polarization in, ii, 321. Electro-magnetism, theory of, iii, 240. Hlectrometer, new capillary, vi, 477. HJectrometric measurements, viii, 390. Electromotive force, v, 76. of a Daniell cell, Carhart, viii, 374. Hlements, specific heat of, ix, 331. Elephant pipes in the Museum at Daven- port, lowa, ix, 411. by induction-machines, vii, | Kage eee 511 Elevations, supposed, of New Hngland Coast, i, 77. Elkin, W. L., Heliometer determinations of Stellar Parallax, viii, 404. Elliott, H. W., Seal-islands of Alaska, iii, 334. Elliott, J. B., age of the southern Ap- palachians, v, 282. Ellis, G. EK. R., Introduction to Practical Organic Analysis, xxx, 168. Ellis, W., magnetic declination and sun spots, i, 238. Elwes, J. L., Monograph of the Genus Lilium, noticed, v, 82. Emerson, B. K., dyke of Hleeolite-syen- ite in New Jersey, ii, 302. diabase intersecting zine ore, iil, 376. the Deerfield dyke and its minerals, iv, 195, 270, 349. Emerton, J. H., the cobwebs of Uloborus, v, 203. New England Therididee, iv, 477. Emmons, 8. F., Geology and Mining In- dustry of Leadville, iii, 496; iv, 64. Precious Metal Deposits, xxx, 487. Engelmann, G., female flowers of Coni- ferze, ili, 418; iv, 233. Isoétes in North America, iv, 72. Engineering, materials of, Thurston, viii, 405. Engineers, Report of Chief of, i, 84. England, geological map of, v, 310. Engler, A., Hntwickelungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt, iv, 72; v, 394. Botanische Jahrbticher, iii, 71. Kumengem, H. V., Researches on the Structure of Diatomaceze, vii, 416. Entomological Bulletin, ii, 415. Reports, v, 240; vii, 417. Ernst, A., earthquake at Caraccas, vi, oe Uthane, illuminating power of, xxx, 156. Hiheridge, R., Presidential Addresses, ii, 410; iv, 230. | HKther, motion of, Michelson, ii, 120. nature of, Hunt, iti, 123. | Ether, slow combustion of, vi, 67. Hthers, indices of refraction, Long, i, 279. silicic, of the phenols, vi, 241. Ethnology, Report of Bureau of, ix, 81. Ethyl carbamate, new reaction of, vii, 483. peroxide, v, 147. Kurope, red diluvium of, i, 155. Evaporation and molecular weight, vii. 233. | Hwing, A. L., chemical erosion of lime- | stone, ix, 29. Explosives, modern, high, Hiéssler, viii. Peo), - Ferric hydrate, colloidal, vii, 405. _~ Fog-signals. 512 Hye, sensitiveness of, to color, Peirce, | Fontaine, W. M., minerals in ‘Amelia vi, 299; Nichols, xxx, 37. ‘of trilobite. 302. see also Optics. F Reerde Islands, geology of, iv, 152. Farlow, W. G., Clathrocystis on codfish, | 1, 85. botanical notices, i, 507; ii, 492; iii, 159, 326, 329; Gymnosporangia of the United States, 1, 332. Marine Algz of New England, no- | ticed, ii, 158. Fauna, see ZOOLOGY. Favre, A., Chart of Drift and Glaciers of | Swiss Alps, ix, 65. Faxon, W., dimorphism in the genus | Cambarus, vii, 42. articles on Crustacea, ii, 414. Ferrel, W., cyclones. tornadoes and wa- | terspouts, TH B38) relative temperatures of the hemis- | pheres, iv, 89. 324, | Ferns, see BOTANY. Fewkes, J. W., a Cercaria with caudal setee, iii, 134. | articles on marine invertebrates, ii, | 413, 414. Films, influence of an electric current on, ix, 334. Filter papers, toughened, xxx, 157. Fine, H. B., shadows obtained during the glow discharge, i, 394. Finlay, J. P., Tornadoes, not., iv, 407. | Fisher, O., the Earth’s Crust, iii, 283. Flames, electricity of, iv, 144. new arrangement for sensitive, iii, | 51. Fletcher, L. B., determination of the B. APO eRK DD Flint, A. R., variation in length of bars at freezing point, vy, 448. Floating bodies, attractions and repul- | sions of, ZeConte, iv. 416; vii, 307. Flood of the Ohio River, 1884, Dana, | | Furman, J. H., copper- bearing region in vii, 419. Florida, geology of, Smith, i, 292. nummulitic deposits in, iv, 294;, v, 158. | Rhinoceros and Hippotherium from, | ix, 418. | reefs, geology of, Agassiz, vi, 408. Fluorine, free, in fluor spar, ii, 71. Fogs, clouds, dust and, i, 237. soundless zones near, iv, | 470. JENERAL INDEX. injury to. Walcoit. | | Ford, S. W., the genus Obolella, iv, 73: v, 314.| | Forel, F. A., | Frazer, Co., Virginia, v, 330. older Mesozoic flora of Virginia, xxx, 162. | Foot- -prints, supposed human, Marsh, vi, . 139. | Forbes, 8. A., Food of Fishes, i, 338. i, 131. the embryonic forms of trilobites, ii, 250. Primordial fossils in Stuyvesant, INE Ye yali3 5: rocks near Schodack Landing, viii, } 206, 242: ix, 16. age of slaty rocks near Schenectady, 1X 39 Ue structure and movement of glaciers, iv, 146. pelagic fauna of fresh-water lakes, v, 83. Glacial Studies, viii, 400. | Forts vitrifiés, materials from, ii, 150. | Forwood, W. H., geyser action at Yellow- stone Park, vi, 241. | Fossils, see GEoLoGy. | Foulke, S. G& an endoparasite of Noteus, ORG! SIT | Fowler, J.. ‘List of the Plants of New Brunswick, xxx, 85. Foye, J. C., Tables for Determination of Minerals, ii, 418. | Frank, 13}. Die Pflanzenkrankheiten, vii, 415. Fraunhofer lines, see Spectrum. P., Peach bottom roofing slates, reel) a report of Berlin Geological Congress, xxx, 454. Frazer, B. W., axinite near Bethlehem, Penn., iv, 439. Preeman, S. H., electrification by evap- oration, ili, 428. z | Frisby, E., comet of 1882, v, 86. Fritts, C. E.. new form of selenium cell, Vi, oe Fuchs, T., distribution of oceanic life in depth, v, 163. | Falgurites from Mt. Thielson, Vili, 252. in the high Alps, ix, 415. Diller, northern Texas, iii, 65. Furnace, the electrical, Cowles, xxx, 308. Fusion, modes of, ii, 220. see Melting. G /Gabb, W. M., Caribbean Miocene Fos- sils, ii, 77. Gage, A. P., Elements of Physics, y, 383. 17] VOLUMES XXI-XXX. 518 Gage, S. H., Anatomical Technology, v, | Geographical Congress, International, 316. Idi telawexeyae Galvanic elements, chemical energy and | Geological Atlas of Panther Creek Basin, electromotive force of different, i, 74. v, 388; vii, 407. Galvanometer, aperiodic, vii, 57. of Pennsylvania, ix, 340, 496; for powerful currents. Brackett, i. xxx, 160. 395. chart of Yellowstone Park, i, 244. new, ix, 167. colors, and terms, i, 326. Galton, F., Life- -History Album, viii, 78. Congress, at Berlin, vin, 78, 318; Gannett, H, the timber-line, iii, 275. ix, 496; xxx, 454. Dictionary of Altitudes, ix, 424. at Bologna, i, 325; iii, 150; vi, Gardiner, J. T., Report of New York 410. State Survey, iv, 318: vii, 418. maps of British Columbia, i, 80. Gardiner, W., water-glands and necta- of British Islands, v, 310. ries, vili, 240. of Florida, i, 305. Gardner, J. S., Can underground heat of the Territories, (Hayden’s), be utilized? xxx, 317. vil, 153. ' Garman, S.. New Reptiles and Fishes. of U. States, Hitchcock, i, 505 ; li, 162. Mc Gee, xxx, 244. Gas. moisture in, Morley, xxx, 140. Record for 1878, iv, 408. analysis, apparatus for, v, 74. | GEOLOGICAL REPORTS AND SURVEYS— under greatly diminished pres-| Alabama, EK. A. Smith, for 79, ’80, ii, sure, vili, 454. | SO) Savavoile coal, determination of sulphur in. v, Brazil, Paleontology, iv, 153. 1D! | Canada, A. R. C. Selwyn, Director. densities, determination of, iii, 409. | for 77879, i, 243, 410 (Dawson, isentropic curve of, Nipher, iv, 138. | Hoffmann); for New Brunswick, i, Gases, absorption of dark heat rays by, 506; for 79, ?80, iv, 151 (Dawson, i, 236. etc.); for 780-82, vii, 410; Macoun’s action of radiant heat on, i, 323, | Catalogue of Plants, ix, 265; geol. 324, | map, ix, 340; for ’82-’84, ix, 408 and vapors, diffusion of, viii, 70. | (Pearl R., Dawson); xxx, 77 (Hoff- apparatus for liquefying, iv, 143. mann), xxx, 241 (Bell, Hills, etc.) diffusion of, iv, 392. | Colorado, J. A. Smith, i, 408. electrical resistance of, ili, 321, Georgia, Campbell and Ruffner, vi. 487. 411. kinetic theory of, ix, 255. . Iinois, A. H. Worthen, vol. VII, vi, influence of, on reflecting surfaces, 414, 483. i, 140. India, Economic, Ball, iv, 151. in smoky quartz, i, 203, 209. | Indiana, J. Collett, i, 166,410; ii, 78; magnetic rotatory polarization of, iv, 293; viii, 314. i, 139. Minnesota, N. H.Winchell, W. Upham, reduction to normal volume, vii, 315. for 1880, iii, 62, 64; 1881, v, 88, under electrical discharges, i, 75. 155; for 1882, vili, 155, vol. I, of viscosity of, ili, 239; ix, 59. final Rep., viii, 316, Crustacea, viii, Geikie, A., lava-fields of Hurope, i, 145. | 322; ix, 68; for 1883, Upham, flora, on the Dimetian, etc., v, 478. vill, 472; for 1884, xxx, 396. crystallme rocks of the Scottish New Brunswick, see Canada, above. Highlands, ix, 10. Newfoundland, v, 88. Director-general of geological sur- | New Jersey, G. H. Cook, for "80, i, vey of Great Britain, iii, 338. AQ At) ti) tory Sis inl, 3.25) -\for Geological Sketches, iv, 153. | 82, v, 383; for ’83, vii, 408; for Geikie, J., physical features of Scotland, | 84, xxx, 161. x:0% IBS). N. York, James Hall, paleontological, Geissler thermometers, i, 449, 451. v, 391, vili, 234. Genth, F. A., contributions to mineral-| N. Carolina, i, 410. ogy, iv, 398, Northern Pacific R. R., Scientific vanadates and iodyrite from ae Survey, R. Pumpelly, iv, 237, vii, Mexico, xxx,81. | 246 (maps). Pennsylvania Geological Reports, v, Ohio, Part 1. Zoology, v, 311; yol. 310. 473. | v, Heconomic Geology, Orton, ix, 68. 3 514 GEOLOGICAL REPORTS AND SURVEYS— Pennsylvania, J. P. Lesley. Director, | 1, 153 (Lesley, Carll), i, 241 (Ash- burner, Bradford oil district); i, 329, viii, 470 (coal flora, Lesquereux) ; i, 409, ii, 78 (Carll, Chance, Plutt), ii, 152 (Platt); ii, 485 (Platt, Mc Creuth, White, Platt); v, 157; 310 (Steven- son, Chance, White, Hall, Genth); v, 387 (Atlas of the Panther Creek basin); v, 471 (White, Chance. Hall); vii, 69 (Prime, Chance, San- ders, Hall); vii, 71, Chance, @ Invil- liers, Carll): vii, 149 ( White); vii, 407 (Ashburner); viii, 231 (Lewis, terminal moraine, ete.); vili, 234 (@Invilliers, Chance, Ashburner); viii, 396 (@’Invilliers, Hwing, Lesley, limonite beds and origin); vii, 470 (Lesquereux, coal flora); vili, 406, ix, 69 (Beecher, J. Hall); ix, 340 (Grand Atlas, Div. I); ix, 496 (atlas of Counties); xxx, 160( Wali, Clay- pole, atlas, Div. III). Portugal, ix, 417. Queensland, R. L. Jack, i, 159. _ U.S. Survey under Capt. Wheeler. U.S. A., iv, 149 (White, Steven- son, Laramie, Carbonif., etc.) U. S. Survey under Dr. Hayden, i, 244. (Geol. charts); i, 328 (Gray, Hooker, Cope); ii, 408, 409, ( Cope. Scudder); ii, 153 (Packard); iv, GENERAL INDEX. 401) (Allen, Grote); vi, 243 (Peale, , on the Geysers); vi, 409, (12th Ann. Rep.) vii, 153 (Geol. map); ix, 260, xxx, 295 (Cope, Tertiary Vert., Lesquereux, Cret. and Tert. flora). U.S. Geol. Survey, C. King, Director, Ist Ann. Rep., ii, 487; iv, 64 (#m- mons, Leadville); iv, 81, 482 (Dut- ton, Grand Cafion); vi, 414, 479 (Becker, Washoe); viii, 462 (Irving. Copper-bearing rocks); xxx, 318 (Zord, Comstock Mining and Min- ers). U.S. Survey under J. W. Powell. Rep., by Newton and Jenney on the Black Hills, i, 399. : U.S. Geol. Survey, J. W. Powell, Di- rector, Bulletins, ii, 282 ( White); iii, 452, iv, 129, 281, (Cross and Hillebrand); iv, 404, (Gilbert, meas- uring heights); v, 139, vi, 76, (Cross, andesite); v, 206 (White, Glacial, Upper Mo.); v, 311, 392 ( White, non-marine fossil mollusks) ; y, 401 (Drving, sandstones); v, 411 (White, Green R. group); vi, 24 - (White, burning of lignite); vi, 120 X GEOLOGICAL REPORTS AND SURVEYS— ( White, Laramie flora), vi, 150 (Gil- bert, L. Bonneville); vi, 271 (Cross & Hillebrand, Cryolite, &e.); vi, 482: - vii, 64 (2nd Ann. Rep., Hague. Walcott, ete.); vii, 66 (3d Rep.. “Ph Hague, Marsh, Russell, White); vii. 75 ( Williams, U.S. Min. Resources) ; vii, 94 (Cross, Sanidine, topaz); vii, 349 (Hillebrand, Lollingite): viii, 20 (Clarke & Chatard, Minerals); vili, 228 (Chamberli::, glacial); viii, 401 (Russell, L. Lahontan); ix, 169, 173 (Marsh, Dinocerata); 416 ( Wal- cott, Pal., Hureka Distr.); xxx, 79 (White, Russell, Call); xxx, 162 (Fontaine. Mesozoic Flora); xxx, 244 (Mc Gee, map); xxx, 248 (N. A. Eth- nology); xxx, 388 (Hague & Iddings) Washoe rocks); xxx, 390 (£. S. Dana, Thinolite); xxx, 399 (Becker, California Strat.); xxx, 486, 4th Ann. Rep. (Dutton, Williams, Rus- sell). s Virginia, W. B. Rogers (reprinted) ix, 414; xxx, 357. Wisconsin, vi, 483; vii, 146. Wyoming, ete., vi, 241. Geological Society, American, iv, 69. of London, vii. 421. GEOLOGY— - work on, Packard. ii, 418. Abrasion by wave action, Dana. xxx, 103, 176, 184. Aerial formations, xxx, 78. Aetosauria, Marsh, vii, 338. Age, fossils as a criterion of, viii, 315. kinds of rocks as a criterion of, Judd, xxx, 393. Alaska, notes on, Dail, i, 104; iv. 67. Algues, Fossiles, work on by Saporta, vV, 235. Allgemeine u. Chemische of Roth, vii, 493. Allodon, Marsh, i, 511. Alps, Apuan, i, 328; i, 488. disintegration in, xxx, 79. folds in, v, 477; xxx, 79. the great fault in, i, 406. Jurassic. of St. Gothard Tunnel. i, 405. : the occidental, ix, 417. see GLACIER. Alteration of superficial deposits, by surface waters, ii, 80. Alveolites, Thompson, ii, 235. Americas, denudation of, Reade, ix, 290. Ammonites in the Tejon group of Cal- ifornia, iv, 152. Amyzon shales. Cope, i, 328. 19] VOLUMES XXI-XXX. 515 GEOLOGY— | GEOLOGY— Anchisaurus, Marsh, ix, 169. | Anguilla bone cave, vu, 71; xxx, 180. | Ano Arbor, Winchell, xxx, 315. Annelid jaws from the Wenlock and Ludlow of England, i, 244. Annelids, Silurian of Gotland, v, 392. Anthracite field of Pennsylvania, sur- WENZ Oli, ae WVES Ti AR ay UIT Rte vil. 407. of Colorado, iii, 64. in Sonora, Mexico, iv, 399. mining, li, 152. Anthracopupa, Whitfield, i, 126. Antlitz der Erde. work on, Swess, vii. 151; ix, 418. Apatite of the Canadian rocks, Vennor, viii, 74. Appalachians, age of, Hiliott, v, 282. materials of, xxx, 316. Aralo-Caspian basin, xxx, 243. Archean, divisibility of, Zrving, ix, 237; on subdivisions of, Whitney, vill, 313. Archeeopteryx, the Berlin, viii, 465, Argillite of Newfoundland. Wads- worth, viii, 101. Argillites, Braintree, Dodge, v, 65. Arvonian formation, v, 478. Azoic System, work on, Whitney, viii, | 313. | Beerocrinus, Wachsmuth and Springer, | vi, 365. Bavarian Geology, work on, Giimbel, | Vill, 317. Beeraft’s mountain. Davis, vi, 381. Bedding, origin of, Dana, viii, 393. Belgium. fossiliferous metamorphic | rocks, v, 234. | Bermuda, Rice, ix, 338. Bernardston fossils, Whitfield, v, 368. | Birds, Jurassic, Marsh, i, 341; ii, 337. | toothed, i, 255. | Bituminous matter in Ohio shales, | Orton, iv, 171. | Bitumens. origin of, Peckham, viii, 105. | Black Hills, Newton, ii, 399. Blue Ridge, uear Balcony Campbell. viii, 221. Bosnia, Herzegovina, Geol., v. Mojsiso- | vics, 1, 409. | Bowlder clays, see Glacial. Brains of Tert. mammals, vi, 71; ix, 190. Brick-clays making cream-colored | bricks in Minnesota, iii, 64. | British, relation to Scandinavian, | Judd, xxx, 393. | Columbia, ii, 75; ix, 444: xxx, | 79. Brontosaurus, restoration of, Marsh, yi. 81, Falls, Buried valleys, ii, 151, 486; v. 472; vii, 149. Burlington limestone in New Mexico. Springer, vii, 97. California, stratigraphy of, xxx, 399. Cambrian in British Columbia, xxx. 19. subdivisions of, v, 478; vii, 321. Camptosaurus, Jdarsh, ix, 169. Caribbean Miocene fossils, Gab, ii, 77. Catskill plateau continued in Pennsyl- vania, v, 471. Caverns, American, work on, Hovey, lv, 238. Centre County, Penn., viii, 396. Cephalopoda, new, Dwight, vii, 254. on genera of fossil, Hyatt, viii. 488. Ceratosaurus, Marsh, vii, 329; viii, 161. Chalk, sponge-spicules from, i, 407. Channel-fillings, Devonian, Williams. We SHS: Chemung, fauna of, alt. China, Work on, Richthofen, vi, 80, 152. fossil plants of, Newberry, vi, 123. Cincinnati rocks, fossils of, iii, 65. Cirriped, new Devonian, Clarke, iv, 55. Claiborne, age of, ix, 457; xxx, 60, 266, 270, 300, 421. fossils of, Mell, i, 151. Clays, sedimentation of. Brewer, ix, 1. Climate and eccentricity, Haughton, lv, 436. mild polar, Ovoll, ix, 20, 138. of later geological time, i, 149, 150: ili, 489; v, 153. of Siberia in era of Mamraoth, i, 148. secular changes in, ii, 437. see Glacial Climate. Climatic Changes, work on, Whitney, 1, 149, 150; iii; 489; v, 153. Climatichnites Fosteri, Zodd. v, 233. Coal, Arctic, i, 157. borings for, Neb., Hicks, ix, 159. coking, of Colorado, iii, 64. field, Brazos, Texas, ii, 152. Cation City, Col., iti, 152. Deer Creek, Walcott, ix, 338, Flora, Carboniferous, Lesquereua, i, 329, 409; viii, 470; see further under plants. regions, Pennsylvania, i, 153, 329; 11, 152; v, 387; vil, 407: viii, 396, 470; xxx, 160, Coals and lignites of the Northwest Territory, oo.cs (fi. Williams, v, 91, ie ks 516 GENERAL . INDEX. GEOLOGY— GEOLOGY— :¥ Coal, structure of Carboniferous, vili,, Deerfield dyke, Emerson, i iv, 195, 270, Vente 467. 349. i Cockroaches, American fossil, Scudder. Delaware gravels, Chester, vii, 189; ix. ix, 418. 36. Paleozoic, Deichmiiller. iv, 475. Silurian, ix, 419. Ceeluria. Marsh, i, 339. Coenostroma, Winchell, xxx, 317. Colorado Cafion, pre-Carboniferous strata in, Walcott, vi, 437, 484. Tertiary of, Dutton, iv, 81. Comstock Lode, Becker. vi, 479. Cone-in-cone structure. Young, xxx, 78. Connecticut river, see GLACIAL. sandstone and trap, v, 383, 474, Continents and ocean basins, Crosby, | Dana, ix, 336. | origin of, Taylor, xxx, 249, 316; | A, Winchell, id., 417. creation of. by ocean currents, Lx, | 339. Copper and lead ore of Wisconsin, origin of, Chamberlin, vii, 147. Copper-bearing region in Texas, iii, 65. Denudation of the Americas, Reade, ix, 290. in the Colorado region, Dutton, iv, 482. Devonian Crustacea, Clarke, v, 120. rocks of Belgium, vy, 234. flora, U. S., (Brian), Dawson, ii, 233: iv, 338, 488. fossils of New York, i, 44. of Penn., White, vii, 150. Diabase intersecting zine ore, Hmer- son, lii, 376. Diamond, geology of, Derby, iii, 97; iv, 34. 3 Diclonins mirabilis, Cope. vi, 75. Dicotyledons, Mesozoic, Ward,vii, 292. Dictyophyton, Whitfield, ii, 53, 132. Didelphys pygmeea, Scott, vii, 442. Diluvinm, gray and red of Europe, i, 155; ii, 80. Dimetian formation, vy, 478. Dinichthys minor, Ringueberg, vii, 476. rocks of Lake Superior re-. Dinoceras, restoration of, Marsh, ii, gion, N. H. Winchell, v, 155; 1x, | 31. 67, 339; Wooster, vii, 463 ; Irving, Dinocerata, work on, Marsh, 1x, 169, Vili, 462; ix, 258. 173. Coral reefs of Cuba, elevated, vi, 148. | of Florida, vi, 408. origin of, Dana, xxx, 89, 158, 169. limestone of Pacific, analysis | of, xxx, 244. | Corals, Carboniferous of Scotland, | Thompson, vill, 316. | Niagara and Upper Helderberg, | Hall, iv, 295. Paleozoic, of Spitzbergen. ix, 69. | Cortlandt Geology. Dana, ii, 103; viii, | 384. Cosmica] dust, so-called, ii, 86. Cretaceous of Q. C. Is., i,, 243. of British Columbia, vii, 410. Crinoids; fossil, Willer, vii, 158. Paleozoic, vi. 105. .365. Silurian, Wachsmuth and Spring- ef, V, 255. with articulating spines, ix, 339. Crustacea, new Devonian. Clarke. v, 120. Cuba, iron-ores of, Kimball. viii, 416. Cyathophycus, Walcott, ii, 394. Dawsonella, Whitfield, i, 125. Deer Creek coal field, Walcott, ix, Dinosauria, classification of, Marsh. i, 493) = iil, Sills) ya, 85s: vale Opposite Dinosaurs, American Jurassic, Marsh. i, 167, 339, 417; iii, 81; vi, 81; vii, 161, 329; viii, 161; ix, 169. of the Laramie. Cope, vi, 75, 122. Diplodocus, characters of, Marsh, vii, 161. Diplotheca, Matthew, xxx, 293. Dipterocaris, Clarke, v, 121. Displacement through intrusion, Dana, xxx, 374. Docodon, Jarsh, i, 512. Drift, see GLACIAL. Drumlins, distribution of, Davis, viii, 407. Dust, cosmical, ii, 86. Eagle River, preglacial channel of, Whittlesey, Ix, 392. Earthquakes of the Great Basin, Gul- bert, vii, 49. Earth, rigidity of, Darwin. vy. 464. Physics of, Fésher, iii, 283. _ Earth’s features, origin of, McGee, 1, 276; Winchell. xxx, 417; Taylor, Xxx, 249. Ecea beds of South Africa, vin, 468. 338. Echini, Cretaceous and recent, Agas- horns, impregnated with tin ore. siz, Ui, 40. i, 81. Echinognathus. Walcott, iii, 213. 21] VOLUMES XXI-XXX. 517 GEOLOGY— _GEOLOGY— Economie Geol. of India, Ball, iv, 151. | Klevations, supposed, on the New | England Coast, i, 77. | Hocene of Wyoming and New Mexi- | co, ii, 324. Kozoon, controversy on, ili, 418. Krian, see Devonian. Esker, on the term, Ainahan, ix, 135. Kuphoberia, Scudder, 1, 182. Eureka district, Walcott, ix, 416. Burypteride, Carboniferous, Hall, ix, 69. Hurypterus, new, iii, 151, 213; ix, 69. from near Buffalo, ii, 418. Exploration of Wyoming, Forwood, vi, | 241. Facies Géologiques, Renevier, ix, 262. | Feerée Islands, iv, 152. | Faulting, Becker’s theory of, Browne, | vill, 348. | impact friction and, Becker, xxx, | 116, 194, 244. | Faults, origin of, J/cGee, vi, 294. | Fishes, Devonian, Whiteaves, i, 494. | Flora, fossil, general work on by | Stur, SEXOR, 80. see further under Plants. Florida, geology of, Smith, i, 292. see also under Florida. | reefs, Agassiz, vi, 498; xxx, 178. Footprints, human, in Nicaragua, vii, | 239. supposed human, Marsh, vi, 139. Foraminifera, on fossil, 7. R. Jones, iy, 69. | Fossils. why are they absent from pre- Cambrian strata, xxx, 78. a criterion of geological equiva- lency, vill, 315. molluscan of Syria, vii, 490. in metamorphic rocks, i, 78, 327, | 405; iv, 148; v, 234; vii, 69; (Prime). | Frenchman’s Bay, Maine, iii, 64. Frost, action of in arrangement of | earthy materials, i, 345. Fulgurites, viii, 252; ix, 415. Gaspé peninsula, rocks of, xxx, 242, Gastornis Klassenii, xxx, 318. Geodes, origin of, Dana, xxx, 376. Geodized fossils, Worthen, xxx, 376. Geologische Briefe, vom Rath, viii, 401. Geysers of California, iv, 23; v, 424; | Vise Yellowstone Park, vy. 104, 351; vi, 241, 243, Glacial, see GLACIAL. Glyptocrinus, y, 255; vi, 105. Gold in Brazil, Derby, iii, 178; viii. 440, Graptolites, Utica slate, Booth, vi, 380. Gravel, hillocks of angular, Chamber- lin, vii, 378. Gravels, Delaware, ix, 36. Green River group in Montana. White, v, 41i. ; Grezzoni of Italy, ii, 488. Gulf of Mexico, i, 288; ii, 58. dimensions of, viii, 320. former connection of, with Pacific Ocean, vii, 157. Gypsum deposits, Williams, xxx, 212. Hippotherium, Florida, Leidy, ix, 418. Hoplocrinus and Hybocrinus, Wachs- muth and Springer, vi, 365. Tee, see Glacier. Idiostroma, Winchell, xxx, 317. Insects, Carboniferous, Scudder, viii, 470; ix, 418, Devonian, Scudder, i, 111. Triassic, Scudder, viii, 199. Trish Hl, deposits containing, ii, 408. Jron ore of Centre Co., Penn., viii, 397. ores of Cuba, Kimball, viii, 416. of Marquette district, ii, 320, 402, 403. of Mexico, Silliman, iv, 375. of Rhode Island, ii, 152. origin of, Archzean, Newberry, i, 80; v, 476; Wadsworth, ii, 152, 320, 402, 403; Julien, v, 476; Cham- berlin, vii, 147. origin of limonite, Dana, viii, Chester, vii, 189; 398. Itacolumite, flexibility of, Derby, viii, 203. Jasper beds of Tuscany, i, 407. of iron ore beds, Wadsworth, ii, 403. Jointed structure, Gilbert, iii, 25; iv 50; vii, 47; Kinahan, iv, 68; v, 416; McGee, v, 152. in clay and marl, Till, WEBY Joints, in strata, near Paris, iii, 63. Jurassic strata of America, White, ix, 228. Jura-trias of Eastern North America, Dana, v, 383, 474. of 8. W. Colorado, iii, 243. Kame, see GLACIAL. Kansas, Carboniferous, Broadhead, ii. yay Kaolin from quartzyte, Dana, vili, 449. Kaolinization, Barus, xxx, 163. Kettle-holes near Wood’s Holl, Mass.. Koons, vii, 260; ix, 480. at New Haven, Dana, vii, 113. Le Conte, 518 GEOLOGY— Keweenaw ore deposits, vii, 147. | rocks, v, 155; wi, 2, 155, 321; | vil, 463; vill, 462; ix, 67, 237, 258, 339. sandstones, enlargements of feld-_ spar in, vii, 399. Kreischeria. a fossil Pseudoscorpion, iv, 474. Laccoliths. Ireland, ii, 152. Lake Agassiz, Upham, v, 156; vi, 327. | basin, Tertiary of Florissant. ii, 409. basins, classification of, iv, 230. Bonneville, Gilbert, vi, 150. GENERAL Erie, preglacia] outlet of, ii, 151. | 486; viii, 32. Lahontan of Nevada, vii, 67. thinolite of, Dana, xxx, 390. | Ontario, terraces of, iv, 409. Winnipeg, southward discharge | of, iv, 428; v, 156; vi, 327; vii, 34, | 104. Lakes, changes of level in, i, 415. of Minnesota, iii, 62. Lamellibranchiata of N. York, Hall, vy, 391; viii, 234. Laopteryx, Marsh, i, 341. Laramie, age of the, iv, 150, 152; vii, | 68. commingled types of. White, vi, 2080 yr Dinosaur from, Cope, vi, 75, 122. Mollusea of, White, v, 207. of Canada, iv, 151. of California, iv, 152. of New Mexico, Stevenson, ii, 370, plants of, vi, 120. Lava-fields of Northwestern Europe, Getkie, 1, 145. Leadville, mines of, Himmons, iv, 64. Lenticular hills, Hitchcock, vii, 72. Lestophis, Marsh, ix, 169. Lethzea Geognostica, Roemer, v, 478. | Lignite, burning of, in situ, White, vi, | 24, Lignites of the Northwest Territory, | 20.0:6) (fle Lignitic, see Laramie. Limestone, erosion of, Hwing. ix, 29. coral of Pacific, analysis of, xxx, | 244, nodules, deep-sea, iv, 447; vi, 245. metamorphic of Dutchess Co. fos- siliferous, Dwight, i, 78; vii, 249. of Orange Co., N. Y., fossiliferous, | Darton, xxx, 452; Prime, vii, 69. of Westchester Co., Dana, i, 425; ii, 103, 313, 327. odlitie of Indiana, iv, 293. Taconic, Dana. ix, 210, 443, INDEX. GEOLOGY— Limonite ore beds, Lesley, d’ Invilliers, Ewing, viii, 396; Dana, viii. 398. Limuloids, new Carboniferous, Pack- ard, xxx, 401. Lingula, from red quartzites of Minne- sota, xxx, 316. Linnarssonia. Walcott, ix, 115, Loss of Des Moines, and fossils in, Mc Gee and Call, iv, 202. Loxolophodon, Osborn, ii, 235. Macelognatha, Marsh. vii, 341. Magnesian, limestone cf deep-sea, vi. 245, Maine, Silurian fossils in, ii, 434. Mammals, Eocene of New Mexico. ii, 408. Fossil, of British Museum, Lyd- dekker, ix, 348. Jurassic, Marsh, i, 511. Man, antiquity of, Dawkins, iv, 314. glacial, in Minnesota, vi, 328. Paleolithic, Delaware Valley, iii. 152. Marsupial, 449. Marsupials. new Tertiary, Cope, iy, 295: Mastodons in New Jersey, iv, 294. Matthevia, Walcott, xxx, 17. Mediterranean basin, in the Glacial period, xxx, 243. Menevian argillites of Dodge, v, 65. Mersey tunnel, Reade, ix, 413. Mesonacis, Wailcott, ix, 328. Mesozoic Flora of Virginia, Fontaine, xxx, 162: and Cenozoic bibliography, Willer, ii, 234. Metamorphic rocks, fossils in, i, 78, 327, 405; iv, 148; v, 234; wil, 69, 249; ix, 10; xxx, 452. new Miocene, Scott, vii. Braintree, Metamorphism, Aing and Rowney, il, 418; Stevenson, ix, 414. see under Focks. Millstone grit, Chance, i, 134. Minas Geraes, Brazil, ii, 221. Mineral belts of the Pacific slope, Becker, viii, 209. Minnesota valley in the ice age, iv, 428; vi, 327; vii, 34, 104. Mollusks, non-marine fossil, v, 392; vii, 68. Carboniferous, Whitfield, i, 125. descent of, White, iii, 382. of the Great Basin. Cali, xxx, 79. Monticulipora, Nicholson, ii, 491. Moraine, see Glacial. Mount Lebanon fossils, vii, 490. Mountain making, see under Harth, , Mee, wale VOLUMES XXI-X XxX. 519 GEOLOGY — | GEOLOGY— Mountains, stresses caused by, ii, 317; | lv, 256. | Mt. Ktaadn, drift in, ii, 229. | Myriapods, ‘Carboniferous, Senile, ie 182; vili, 470. fossil, Scudder, iv, 161. Namaqualand schists, vili, 468. New England coast, nature and origin of sediments off, Verrill, iv, 447. New Mexico, formations and fossils | of, iv, 149. New York Bay, submarine geology outside of, Lindenkohl, ix, 475. | Niagara River and the Glacial period, | Wright, viii, 32. Nickel! in Nevada, Newberry, viii, 122. Nomenclature of subdivisions, 1, 326. Northern Pacific R. R., Newberry, XXX, Bei ie Nummulitic deposits in Florida, iv, 294: v, 158. Obolella, Ford, i, 131. Obsidian, Yellowstone Park, v. 106. Odontornithes, work on, Marsh, i, 255. Oil, origin of mineral, White, 1i, 486 ; Newberry, iv, 232. regions of Penn., Ashburner, i, 242 (Bradford Co.); xxx, 160 (maps); Carll, 1, 154; ii, 78; vii, 71. Oneida conglomerate, v, 472. Ore Deposits, Phillips, viii, 469. | Ores, deposition of, Newberry, viii, 465. see Vein-formation. Orthocynodon, Scott and Osborn, iv, 223. Osars, Chamberlin, vii, 389. | Palzeocampa, affinities of, Scudder, iv, 161. Paleocrinoidea, Wachsmuth and Sprin- ger, li, 494; vi, 365; Miller, vi, 105. Paleozoic of Spain, vii, 491. | of Texas, Walcott, viii, 431. Corals, Lindstrom, ix. 69. Fossils, Miller, iv, 474; v, 240. thickness of in Penn., i, 242. Panther Creek basin, Ashburner, v, 387; vii, 407. Pantotheria, Marsh, ii, 286, 410. Paradoxides Davidis in America, xxx, | (2. Peace River region, Dawson, i, 391. Peach Bottom slates, Frazer, ix, 70. ebidian formation, v, 478. Percidee, new fossil, Cope, v, 414. Permian plants of Colorado, v, 157. vertebrates of Texas, i, 407. Petroleum of British America, iii, 154. | see also Oil. Phénoménes d'altération, den Broeck, ii, 80. Philadelphia Co., v, 473. Phosphatic deposits in Alabama, Smith, vii, 492. Phosphates of North Carolina, viii, 75. Phyllopods, new Devonian, Clarke, iii, 476. Physical Survey of Georgia, Canypbell, vi, 411. Geography, Lectures on, Haugh- ton, i, 150. Plants, Carboniferous, i, 329, 409; vi, 412; viii, 470; of Worcester Co., Mass., Perry, ix, 151. of China, vi, 123, 153. Cretaceous and Tertiary, Lesque- reun, 1X, 260. Devonian, Dawson, ii, 338, 488. Japan fossil, Nathorst, v, 396. of the Laramie, White, vi, 120. Lignitic, Manitoba, ii, 233. of Mazon Creek, viii, 314. Mesozoic, Ward, vii, 292; taine, Xxx, 162. Silurian of Wales, ii, 153. Plioplarchus, Cope, v, 414. Plumulites Devonicus, Clarke, iv, 55. Peecilopod in the Utica slate, iii, 151. Pot-holes in Bronx Valley, v, 158. at Gurleyville, Conn., v, 471. Potsdam and Acadian groups, similar- ity of, Whitfield, vii, 321. and copper-bearing rocks, vii, 463. and St. Peter’s sandstones, Jrving, v, 401. group, Virginia, ix, 470. sandstone, sands of, iii, 257; iv, 47; v, 401. Prestwichia, Devonian, Williams, xxx, 45. Primordial, in British Columbia, xxx, 79. near the Hudson River, Ford, viii, 35. Proétus longicaudus, Williams, i, 156. Pterodactyls, American, Marsh, i, 342; iii, 251; vii, 423. Pteropods, Paleozoic, Walcott, xxx, 17. Pterygotus, Pohiman, ii, 234; iii, 418. Pyrgulifera, White, ix, 277. Quaternary in Europe, i, Glacial. Quartz deposit made at the ordinary temperatures, viii, 448, 466. Quartzyte and Silurian in Penn. confor- mable, Hal/, v, 473. decay of, Dana, viii, 448; ix, 57. 233: iv, Fon- 155; see 520 GENERAL INDEX. GErOLOGY— GEOLOGY— Queen Charlotte Island, age of rocks of, Whiteaves, ix, 444. Queensland Geology, Jack, i, 159. Receptaculidee, Hinde, ix, 69. Reptiles, new order of, Warsh, vii, 341. Reteocrinus, v, 255; vi, 105. Rhinoceros from Florida, Leidy. ix, 418. Rio Negro, Patagonia, Dering, vi, 410. River channels, re-eroded, i. 155. ‘ valleys buried, ii, 151, 486; v. 472: vii, 149. in Lincolnshire, vii, 240. Rivers, deflection of, Gilbert. vii. 427; vili, 434. Rocks, see ROCKS. Rodents, Miocene, i, 408. Rondout, section at, Davis, vi, 389. Sahara, the Northern, i, 157. St. Gothard tunnel, i, 405. St. John Group, dJatthews, viii, 74 ; 7 419, Sand, formed from quartzyte, Dora vili, 448. miniature domes i in, vill, 469. Sands of a sandstone crystalline, i, | 152; (Sorby), iii, 257; iv, 47 (Your) Vv, 401 (Irving). Sandstones, induration, Lrving, vi, 401. surface consolidation by songet pheric action, Wadsworth, viii, 466. -Saurian, Eocene, ii, 408. Schenectady, age of rocks near, ix, 397. Schists, propagation of heat in, iv, 154. Schodack Landing, rocks near, Ford, Vili, 206, 242; ix, 16. Scorpion, Upper Silurian, ix, 168. Scotland’s physical features, J. Geikie, xxx, 159. Seottish Highlands, Gezkie, ix, 10; Peach and Horme, ix, 62; Judd, 5C.OG) SL Sea-bottom deposits off N. England, Verrill, 1v, 447. Shetland Is., glaciation, i, 158. Silurian Cockroaches, Brongnidrt, 1x, 419. | fossils of the Girvan Distr., eridge, i, 243. unconformability between lower | and upper, v, 472; vii, 70, 153. Siphonoireta Scotica, Whiteaves, iv, 278. Slate, structure of, Sorby, i, 153. Soil-cap motion, iii, 59 ; vii, 321. Spergen Hill limestones, Whitfield, iv, A474, Spiders, Paleozoic, Scudder, ix, 70. Spiraxis, Newberry, xxx, 244, Spitzbergen fossils, Lundgren, ix. 69. Eth- Sponge-spicules, Carboniferous, i, 158. Cretaceous, Hinde, i, 407. Sponges, fossil. of the British Museum. Hinde, vii, 492. Spores, Devonian, Clarke, ix, 284. Staten Island geology, ii, 488. Streptochetus, Seely, xxx, 355. Sulphur, Cove Creek, Utah, v, 158. Susquehanna region, vii, 149. Syenite in Mass., iti, 418; v, 69; xxx. 163. Syrian Molluscan Fossils, Hamlin, vii. 490. Taconic rocks, age of, Marcou, ii, 321; Dana, iv, 291, viii, 268, 311, ix, 205, 437, xxx, 397; Hail. viii, 311; Hunt. vii, 490; Winchell, xxx, 397. near Lake Champlain, ii, 321. Taquamenon Bay, sandstones of, Win- chell, ix, 339. Tarsus der Vogel und der Dinosaurier, Baur, viii, 160. Terminology, i, 326. Terraces about Lake Ontario, Spencer. iv, 409. and ancient coast lines, ii, 149. Claiborne, Afell, i, 157. of Connecticut ‘and other valleys. J. D. Dana, ii, 451; iti, 87, 179, 360; iv, 98; v, 440; vi, 341; vii, 113. of Hastern Connecticut, Koons, iv, 425. m Pennsylvania, White, vii, 149. in Norway, ii, 149. Terrains, Anciens dés Asturies, Bar- rois, Vil, 491 ~ Tertiary of Alaska, Dall, iv, 67. the Atlantic slope, iv, 228. Flora of British Columbia, Daw- son, vii, 410. Lake-basin of Florissant, Colo- rado, ii, 409. Old, of the southwest, Alar ich, xxx, 300; Ailgard, xxx, 266; Meyer, ix, AD (Tie pexexoxe 60, 421: Smith, xxx, 270. species in the French, Meyer, xxx, 151. Eocene of Atlantic Slope, Hezl- prin, iv, 228. of 8. U. States, Heilprin, viii, 316. Geology, Heilprin, ibs, 69. Vertebrata, Cope, ii, 408; ix, 70, 260; xxx, 7 9, 295. History of the Grand Cation, Dut- ton, iv, 482. Thermal Springs, see Geysers. Tides in early time, ii, 323. Tortugas Reefs, Agassiz, vi, 408 ; xxx, 180. + oS 25] VOLUMES GEOLOGY— Traité de Géologie, Lapparent, iii, 154; v, 158. Trilobite, injury to eye of, Walcott, vi, 302. Trilobites, appendages of, Walcott, ii, 79: vii, 409. embryonic, Yord, ii, 250. new, Dwight, vii, 251; Walcott,ix,328. Primordial in Sardinia, iii, 65. Tully limestone, Williams, vi, 303. Unification in nomenclature, etc., pro- posed, vi, 69. Uphanteenia, Dawson, ii, 132. Valleys, old, filled with drift, ii, 151, 486; v, 472; vii, 149; ix, 392. Vein-formation, LeConte, iv, 23; v, 424; vi, 1. Veins, origin of, vii, 147; viii, 465. Vertebrata, Permian of Texas, Cope, i153.) | Eocene, Cope, iii, 324. Tert., Cope, ix, 10,260; xxx, 295. see Mammals, etc. - Voleanie cones, forms of, Becker, xxx, 283. rocks, see Rocks. of Great Basin, vii, 66, 453. of Washoe, vi, 479; xxx, 388. Volcanoes of California, Hague, vi, 222. work on, Judd, iii, 65. Washoe district, vi, 479; xxx, 388. Waterfalls, gorges and, Davis, viii, 123. Wave action on coasts, Dana, XXX, 103, 176, 184. Westchester Oo., N. Y., Dana, i, 425; ii, 103, 313, 30%, Whale skeleton from Ontario, Dawson, v, 200. Wind-drift structure, xxx, 78. Yellowstone Park, geological charts of, i, 244.. Zine, ore deposits, Baden, i, 502. Georgia, age of Appalachians in, Hilioti, Vv, 282. geological report, vi, 411. meteoric iron of, i, 286; vi, 336. Geysers, apparatus illustrating action of, iii, 320 see GEOLOGY. Gibbs, J. W., double refraction and dis- persion of colors, ili, 262. double refraction and circular po- larization, ili, 460. electromagnetic theory of light, v, 107. Gilbert, G. K., post-glacial joints, iii, 25. jointed structure, iv, 50; vii, 47. new method of measuring heights by means of the barometer, iv, 404. 4 1OG9.OO.Ced 521 Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville, vi, 150 . earthquakes of the Great Basin, vii’ 49, deflection of streams, vii, 427, (re- ply to same, Baines, viii, 434). Gill, D., Heliometer determinations of Stellar parallax, viii, 404. Gill, T., Bibliography of Fishes of Paci- fic Coast, ili, 496. Principles of Zoogeography, viii, 241. Glacial climate, discussion of, Croll, vi, 249, 488, vii, 81, 265, 343, 432, ix, 20, 138, 300; Becker, vi, 16%, vii, 473; Dana, vii, 93; Dutton, vii, 1; Haugh- ton, 1, 150; iv, 436; Hill, iii, 61; McGee, i, 437, ili, 61, vi, 113; Newcomb, vii, 21; Whitney, i, 149, v, 153; Woerkof, ili, 417; Wood, vi, 150, 244; climate in the era of the mammoth in Siberia, i, 148. Glacial deposits and phenomena: of New England, Maine, Stone on Kames, etc., ili, 242, vi, 328, viii, 152, xxx, 146; Mt. Ktaadn, ii, 229; White Mts., scratches, Hitchcock, vi, 350. in Massachusetts, kettle holes at Wood’s Holl, Koons, vii, 260, ix, 480. Connecticut Valley, (effects of Glacial flood) Dana, iii, 87, 179, 360, iv, 98. Connecticut, N. Haven region, Dana, vi, 341, vii, 113 (kettle holes, etc.); glacial scratches, ii, 322, vi, 345, 350, ix, 207; in Farmington Valley, v, 440; in EH. Connecticut, terraces, Koons, iv, 425. Long Island, v, 475, Dana, vi, 355; Chamberlin, Dana, viii, 230. New York, Smock, v, 339; scratches in the Catskills, iii, 338 ; Niagara River, Wright, viii, 32; Chamberlin, viii, 228. New Jersey, Cook, ii, 11; Wright, ili, 242; Smock, v, 339. Delaware, Wright, ili, 242 ; Ches- ter, v, 18, 436. Pennsylvania, Lewis, ii, 402, viii, 231, 276; |Nudutallal Strathmore Shoal Plate III. i., Vol. XXX, 1885. Am. Jour. Sc ‘pls WO “SOL SIL GYUBIEM *Z ‘ON—"NOUT OTMOTAAYY VEATXOTH | Gi ge: EE Ee Pe TES Siig Plate IV. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol XXX, 1885. ‘Opis JUOAT ‘Sq, $eg IYSIOM “| (ON—'NOU]T OLUOALAW VLFLMOTS a Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXX, 1885. Plate V. 4) Ape Le a ELLs x Mi p= eeaEN \ —re nN ere ig q 4G Ay a “gt ony ar ee mM eS ila i A A GLoRIeETA Mreteoric IRON.—No. 1. Weight, 1484 lbs. Torn side. yy fs / Re iG; Uf 5 i a ‘ +. fi he [vy Bee } | i HS: < Ee _ Grorteta Meteoric Iron.—No. 2. Weight, 115 lbs. Torn side. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXX, 1885. Plate VJ. CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF THE GLORIETA. METEORIC IRON. Printed from the Iron. 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Devoted to ‘Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physical Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History, Astronomy, and Meteorology, and giving the latest discoveries in these departments. EDITORS: JAMES D. DANA and HDWARD 8. DANA. Associate Editors: Professors ASA GRAY, J. P. Cooks, JR., and JoHn TRoW- BRIDGE, of Cambridge, H. A. Newton and A. HE. VERRILL, of Yale, and G. F. BARKER, Of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Two volumes of 480 pages each, published annually in MONTHLY NUMBERS. This Journal ended its first series of 50 volumes as a quarterly in 1845, and its second series of 50 volumes as a two-monthly in 1870. The monthly series com- menced in 1871. Twenty copies of each original communication are, if requested, struck off for the author without charge; and more at the author’s expense, provided the num- ber of copies desired is stated on the manuscript or communicated to the printers of the Journal. The title of communications and the names of authors must be fully given. Articles should be sent in two months before the time of issuing the number for which they are intended. Notice is always to be given when communications offered, have been, or are to be, published also in other Journals. Subscription price $6; 50 cents a number. A few complete sets on sale of the first and second series. Address the PROPRIETORS, J. D. and E. S. DANA, New Haven, Conn. CONTENTS. Page Art. LI.—Effect upon the earth’s velocity produced by small bodies passing near the earth; by H. A. Newron.._--._ 409 LII.—Trend and Crustal Surplusage in Mountain Structures; by GAL WINCH BEL S20 oe So 417 LIII.—The Genealogy and the Age of the Species in the Southern Old-tertiary; by O. Mrever__.____...______. 421 LIV.—The Condensing Hygrometer and the Psychrometer; — by TioA AGEN Ce Saat Te ys Se 435 LV.—A new form of Absorption Cell; by A. E. Bostwick__ 452 LVI.—Fossils in the Hudson River Slates of the southern part of Orange County, N. Y., and elsewhere; by N. H. IDARTON: Se Si ccee Shoe ias othe A a eee ee 452 LVII.—Report of the American Committee-delegates to the Berlin International Geological Congress; by P. Frazmr, 454 LVIII.—Bright Lines in Stellar Spectra; by O. T. SaeRMaAN, 475 LIX.—Optical Properties of Rock-salt; by 8. P. Lanenuy__ 477 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—Reaction of Barium sulphate on Sodium carbonate, under pressure, SPRING: Sulphocyanuric acid, Hormann, 481.—Synthesis of Cocaine, Merck: Hydrogen Persulphide, SaBaTieR, 482.—Valence of Phosphorus, Mr-. CHAELIS and La Costs, 483.—Measurement of the Resistance of Liquids, Bouty and FOUSSEREAU, 484.—Method of Oe the vibratory periods of tuning- forks, A. M. Maysr, 485. Geology and Natural History.—Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, J. W. Pow- ELL, 486.—Precious Metal deposits of the Western United States, S. F. Emmons and G. F. BECKER: Malesia, Plantz Ospitatrici: Illustrationes Flore Atlanticee, 487.—Physiological Botany, G. L. GooDALE: Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz, von K. G. Limpricut: Structure and Dehiscence of Anthers, LECLERC DU SABLON, 488.—Influence of strong sun- light on the vitality of Micrococcus, M. Ductaux: Histology of Ascidia, HECKEL and J. CHAREYRE: Reserve Carbohydrates in Fungi, L. HRRARA, 489. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Elements of Projective Geometry, L. CREMONA and C. Leunpesporr, 489.—National Academy of Sciences, 490.— Obituary—Dr. W. B. CARPENTER, 490. INDEX TO VOLUME XXX, 491. TEN-VOLUME INDEX. An extra number of this Journal, containing an index to volumes xxi to xxx, of sixty pages or more, will be ready in January. The publication of this num- ber involves a large extra expense to the editors, and it will be sent, therefore, to those only who specially order it. The price is seventy-five cents per copy. 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