int be sdb tnt nding DAT? nd 90 bsinemnab dh thts Siren

ene
Selererere enere ete

a
itr sa iadaaeaabe

Tr ee Pee at a Pee Eee vote!

oes sent
Sr sta tk 3k ha 2h SAGAAAAL ds ta Sada dads adda eel te dei Th AL
Lik ts thes hsdpa tha naan eee en a

FT EL ETE TEES OR ETT
NEE ET TE EWR PETE TORI E™
See a th th died dba dh ah aah ie da th A

oidsae ul 2 . taht dah ends cin Sed AD
eee f 4 " A phd Aina atl ied aes

Pres y vivie’ i " WHEY e ‘.
Ie mreiview y vets onal : mised tee, aieieivit és nannies

Bee belie EEE Tt Po Te ShGmpeceueeseece’ <" eee a :
nee eet HHT 4) LPL OCP iecar” Warr ‘ec! mit masanrii sparineal®
gun Ah ah wv
gq ane” yrange Edt Ao oe) biti veil ats fF epaeece SeReebe
PTL belt tt aah ppv EEE EP Ted slo

MWY

itinnnne Sig b Wr yes - nA ae Src ibe
f v A '
we Wihait nt EAC dan APU R A ae AA Ran we hapa
op Whee 2: Cue 8, vw J ae We, oe ‘ye: “CAA Sa. aN ms ‘r
che sill n Me eee rece NCD Uae ef py

Ha An. .

~ 7
Be ALS curl

ne. URAL | : Pa 7 . ul wile e! rT RA, € 4 ei" “SRL \ | i ahs ‘ sotnect wie
Lu Ab Pitan T) ty | P CO Se eesrrens IT og 8 te WA Ai |
wh, A Oe KA ta VV ly eA in 4 tyes ‘ 1 os An rayne ag ¥ A Ay: va4 «Ae
min “dhe 4 ‘Ay vo: 44 wit + ps "A AN Zass ‘Ng <A "Wyayig® ATL
Wane ygreran ‘“* > X OUR v3 ry dg’
aA a eee I fh aa te RE TTY ree TOOTIT Re. peer saat
OSS erica meee gd tedoame ny 7 Sore PS a
BA: oe Ahyte yt” NW @ TiN aN isl’
Wy ‘Begee Gs : EQN Ng aa or Ul y ea
ow Wey: TA Othe mA cg tah ene Weve rica at
1 , ‘ ey | ite “i 4 ie Adit 1S i 4
Avis 7 Fi ary. lin Pe f rtd yd: a A ‘ oy nN Lt “Steh 1 » tA 4
en wy Nf j WS : . {. e 7 t : es oad z : wig bi eu A
“OWLS Weygye-: ma | "y \ - d oy HR ng A k a AL YW oytty Soe We ee |
dm a1 arf We Why cbc) UNMET ngs 3 SUR Toate Ie Mr Wait
eq. hh < PS { PUD, » yD : VE TET TTT "we ASX nA AA Ay} r EL: |
Ah | or Tins a ach “. wd ™ FT Ta ed gts mtr
nh ida Nene Neha hia 1 WL :
Rite We etre U <6 Mitre poe Sk aN Av! int
‘ Wilgees J ine th ON ek Were enn evi ny vet igen ud. TNE wv
ow Aa inet “ec y I Talent] or Lesa ta enter) hia jee eete le tw FOC Nl <3 wv
Sn "Vode Oe agentes ih ee By @ a eneel Melel | 4 wee Sk LVueoneve Wil ¥ yet
ve HAV oud iy it collet wht lt 1] : Tt RA oie eve ag, ' = © 4 : ee. ky \ Beni
Ad Lee bl | dl ea oe,°sq0n Re eee to beter mae | White

fone) NAAP Kea te My ec Parr chhelebbk bak’

of AN \
oad! AT AL pe WN ey
, | : we kN af . 4) < MAY Vd. eet el Pas Lon tp bs 3 Leteeor
Peta 1 TUL i Cae \ ALT | Buy Vv Ye " sd eg OD vis Wifes LAA
ns ae : a* j Me 1 :
rr an SAY 4 x ul 4 Pees rT AL on ed <euee “wee eg Dat a i fn d ae ee yr
Uyie g Lil GO aan m0 ASUGHE Ma 1 be ry a A) CTT . x wv st et 5 Paid Lf | | es itt
r { a es fe | fs Avg row
NN abbyy re kel Pose Matti: wee 14 PAK er weve Ohta ELEN Ee m Wey vf Oy, AD |.
RTA A A eine <a aA VEX .¥,
Wry “4 _ ~ A anes me uy ae Sons wine: D . nN SAS As DADA. a «, 2% fa
~~ aft as ae anes sdctions ph yous" Ca BLU etugh wee: yr. ~ 7 AAAs
‘US onal eh NL he Wht) veveteeSar wf, tt.
Tal au roe! 5 NS PATA h Ace
"Wh ae ae wy Td : Nit Tbe
La 4 tity i : <s a eae re Li Uae Sa a ingahady ral
rs ne xd Syyr et GRE ” we ~My!
refit) MTT] YY SS ANC ee TEEN RAR Uae ce irate
<5 : | viereedews We wet - 08

THUS Rongyes--th)

Veet aed. |
OPN. tn _aiits. J). Wy AEC Wty. BY ah
: “Ny

eH Jah pte. : Tine TS Bes gtd

S

ah
a ie i PIF NFA no ee
MS Srerrecrnen TRA

aus SACI El te fo. =. ve in wt
- alia

‘ “a op ne I N ‘| “4 hake AFA : > ~ A A) = w
Mn NS ASX Aye? . 3 ' iv r vO wives samuel . SEO ere ov AA L. ©
vi weannneds ts Wh cantly hele wird! Yer Sc or MN Ad 1 Eee
, VUEr ag \ if ; 4 Hiceee wig.” Veeee, Mi Bm 6d] woe ¥
t ei Moco ees Bay ee. 7 Het aoc oN bol Ta ti ae | Sh SA | ROO ata hda ~v ty
We ae OU ria oa Vinee Gn VORanEe Th al ek os | weer
id i thers pant, a RANT Vee reeccemreeiwh | We abe
wi! y a “a wal! | ~h at 4 Ay a) ; 7 ‘y A ~ pal Lo . amare 8 tt ! } é Th 4 v Ate Be oe ail
; a ea e 4 ~~ ‘ . “i elk wl ate > aa Ad ue :
Voy all TI Td yuaitico conse ae iy ee a

(Mire, My Me . 4 a Taal “Wey. eee ww ol

+ Vi 1) mi eed e ul
Piller realest Mukasey
iets Fane uhh? NNN ala Se ee wii adel ws aye hte SS OL 1 ceed bie

hPa TAA hk na Abichhe cai ti we _ ancl a: Teh e es ‘e“va v~

es eye -

f
l.
i;
|

THE

AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCH.

JAMES D. ann EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Proressors JOSIAH P. COOKE, GEORGE L. GOODALE
anp JOHN TROWBRIDGH, or CampripGe.

Proressors H. A. NEWTON anp A. KE. VERRILL, or
New Haven,

Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, oF PaimapeEputa.

THIRD SERIES.
VOL. XL—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXL]

Nos. 235—240.

JULY TO DECEMBER, 18330. 2.

WITH X PLATES. \ 2 55Gi/tGpes

Slians

NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D & E. 8. DANA.
18) Oe

ERRATUM.

read from the bottom of ine page ue

PRESS OF TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, NEW HAVEN, CONN. Go:

’

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL.

Number 285.

Page
Arr. L—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism as the Exclusive
Theory of Organic Evolution; by J. T. Gurick .....-._- 1
IJ.—Southern Extension of the Appomattox Formation; by
Wie Je MicGim 2 aspen is CIN CRISS Be Ue ee oes Wen
I1L—Experimental proof of Ohm’s Tae ¢ preceded by a
short account of the discovery and subsequent verifica-
Hongo theglawe lye Ac Mee Misys) Sis eae le als 42
1V.—Microscope Magnification; W. L. SrEveNs .--..__-_- 50
V.—Notes on the Minerals occurring near Port Henry, N. Y.,
Dy dio [Med MIRE Se eB ceo BAe eee hae ele 62
V1.— Occurrence of Goniolina in the Comanche Series of the
MexasiCretaccous by kia) ©. mis 3 ee 64
VII.—Method for the Reduction of Arsenic Acid in Analysis;
by FE.’ A. Goocs and P. KH. Brownine._..-_2..5.5._: 66
VIII.—Development of the Shell in the genus Zornoceras
Hyatt; by C. EK. Brzrcuer—(With Plate 1) ----.--._- 71
IX.—Fayalite in the Obsidian of Lipari; by J. P. Ipprnes
PBIENGL pe Lape ea noo 8 0 oy Bea eat oa ei ee Gey NL ee aa 75
X.—Selenium and Tellurium minerals from Honduras; by
Eas Dana andy reco, (Wrens 222 rem an 78

XI.—Connellite from Cornwall, England; by S. L. Penrrerp 82

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Chemical. character of Beryllium, Krtss and Moraut,
86.—Estimation of the Molecular mass of Colloids by the method of Raoult,
SABANEEFF: Color of Fluorine and on its Spectrum, Morssan, 87.—Preparation
of Hydrazine from Aldehyde-ammonia, CurTIUS and Jay, 88.

Geology and Mineralogy—Post-Tertiary nDepeele of Manitoba and the adjoining
territories of Northwestern Canada, J. B. TYRRELL, 88.—Highth Annual Report
of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey, 1886— 87, 90.—Bulletin of the
Geological Society of America, vol. 1: Salt Range in India, W. WAAGEN: Col-
lection of Building and Ornamental Stones in the U. 8. National Museum, G. P.
MERRILL, 91.—Annotated List of the minerals occurring in Canada, G. C. Horr-
MANN: Hygroscopicity of certain Canadian Fossil Fuels, G. C. POREMANN:
Ninth Annual Report of the State Mineralogist of California, W. IrELaAn, Jr.
Course in Determinative Mineralogy, J. HYERMAN, 92 — Giornale di aneraloeia:
Cristallografia e Petrografia, F. SANSoNI, 93.

Botany and Zoology—Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien, Nos. 39 and 40: Zoe, a
Biological Journal, 93.—Deep-sea Mollusks and the conditions under which they
exist, W. H. Datt, 94.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Le Glacier de Aletsch et Le Lac de Marjelen,
P. R. BoNAPARTE: Stone implement at New Comerstown, Ohio, 95.—Knowl-
edge, an illustrated Magazine of Science: L’Exposition Universelle, H. DE
PARVILLE: Professor Richard Owen, 96.

lV CONTENTS

Number 236.
Page
Art. XII,—Cheapest Form of Light, from studies at the Alle-
gheny Observatory ; by 8. P. Laneixny and F. W. Very.
(Wath Plates TEE SIVs and Vp) a Sa ee eee Oi
XIII.—Contributions to Mineralogy, No. 48; by F. A. GentH 114
XIV.—Curious Occurrence of Vivianite; by Wu. L. Duptey 120
XV.—Classification of the Glacial Sediments of. Maine; by
GEORGE SH. STONBS 228 3 Cee Se ee sare eee ee ee ey eel
XVI.-—The Direct determination of Bromine in mixtures of
alkaline Bromides and Iodides; by F. A. Goocu and

J Re ENSIGN saa Ae ao Pe OR eee 145
XVII.—Some Lower Silurian Graptolites from Northern

Maines: by We Wi Dope me 2 0 ae See eee eee 153
XVIII.—Siderite-basins of the Hudson River Epoch; by

Janus) P. Kampann, (Wath Plate Wil) e222. a ae 155
XIX.—New variety of Zinc Sulphide from Cherokee County,

Kansas; by Jamus D. ROBERTSON _---__--.5--)-/222 160
XX.—Two new Meteoric Irons; by F. P. VENABLE__-_-___- 161
XXJ.—Aprenpix.—Notice of some Extinct Testudinata; by

O. C. Marsa. (With Plates VIL and VIII) .--:---. + 177

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics.—Nature of Solutions, PICKERING, 163.-—Molecular-Mass
of Iodine, of Phosphorus, and of Sulphur in Solution, BECKMANN: Conditions
of Equilibrium between Electrolytes, ARRHENIUS, 164.—Coincidences between
lines of different spectra, RuNGE: Hertz’s experiments, L. BoLTzMAN: Station-
ary light waves, O, WIENER, 165.—Hlectrical Oscillations in air, J. TROWBRIDGE
and W. C. SABINE, 166.

Geology and Mineralogy.—The American Committee of the International Congress
of Geologists, 166.—Professor Wm. M. Fontaine on the Potomac or Younger
Mesozoic Flora, 168.—Eruption of Bandai-san, 169.— Die Mineralien der
Syenitpegmatitgange der Stidnorwegischen Augit-und Nephelinsyenite, W. C.
BrROGGER, 170.—Catalogue of Minerals for sale by George L. English & Co., 17).

Botany.— Catalogue of Plants found in New Jersey, N. L. Britton, 171.—List of
Plants: Preparation of sections for the study of the development of organs,
GOETHART, 172.—Ascent of colored liquids in living plants, WIELER: Analyti-
cai Key to the Genera and species of North American Mosses, C. F. BARNES:
Structural and Systematic Botany, D. H. CAMPBELL, 173.

Astronomy.—Spectrum of the Nebula in Orion, W. Hueerns and Mrs. HUGGINS,
173.—New Group of Lines in the Photographic Spectrum of Sirius, W. Hue-
GINS, 175.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—American Association for the Advancement of
Science, 175.—Hailstones of peculiar form, O. W. HUNTINGTON: Oswald’s
Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften, 176.

Obituary.—Christian Henry Frederick Peters, 176.

HrRatuM.—Fig. 3, Plate III, has been omitted, hence the references to it on
pp. 105, 106 are to be struck out.

CONTENTS.

Number 237.

Art. X XII.—Rocky Mountain Protaxis and the Post-Creta-
ceous Mountain-making along its course; by J. D. Dana
XXIII.—The Magneto-optical Generation of Electricity ; by
SAMniEE SHELDON Ml ao eRe Ane en Denia ro See
XXIV.— Contributions to Mineralogy, No. 49; by F. A.
GentTH, with Crystallographic Notes, by 8. L. PENFreLp
XXV.—Chaleopyrite crystals from the French Creek Iron
Mines, St. Peter, Chester Co., Pa.; by S. L. Penrrenp-
XXVI.—Koninckina and related Genera; by Cuartes E.
BEECHER o-(VWaltheb later) rcs a2 sie ee uly Nol tae
XXVII.—The effect of pressure on the electrical conductivity
Olgliquids pbyeC MBATIUS RNs eae ea Sy ak Tans
XXVIII.—Notice of two new Iron Meteorites from Hamilton
Co., Texas, and Puquios, Chili, $8. A.; by Epwin E.

PO EO, HiT ots ek ype bee eh eee at Meee oles (athens cients Oak Adie le eEy
XXIX.—The Cretaceous of Manitoba; by J. B. Tyrretu
XX X.—On Mordenite; by Louis V. Prrsson___.-----._--
XXXI.—Geology of Mon Louis Island, Mobile Bay; by
ED AGNI MIG ACNIG DOING elibuae is lei er eye eu erate
XX XII.—On Leptznisca, a new genus of Brachiopod from
the Lower Helderberg group; by Cuarues EH. BeEcuEr.
(QWatthlate XG mie tia Sh Sone as cw ache ki
XXXIII.—North American Species of Strophalosia; by
@ Cuarins Hy BrecwEr. (With Plateix) = 25.5 2 2ee
XX XIV.—Notes on the Microscopic Structure of Oolite, with

Page
181
196
199
207
211

219
223
227
232

237

238

240

analyses; by Erwin H. Barsour and Josepu Torrey,
a) ire as Seeman aap een IAN UA US HE UNS CG Soe etalon see eta AG

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics.—On a new Element occurring in Tellurium, etc., GRUN-
WALD: On the Chlorides of the Compound Ammoniums; LE BEL, 250.—On the
production of Ozone and the formation of Nitrates in Combustion, ILosvay, 251.

Geology and Mineralogy. —Clinton Group fossils with special reference to Collec-
tions from Indiana, Tennessee and Georgia, FOERSTE, 252.—Presidential Ad-
dress before the Geological Society of London, BuaNnrorp, 254.—Paleozoic
Fishes of North America, NEWBERRY, 255.—Chert-beds of the Lower Silurian
of Organic Origin, HInDE: Fossils in the Taconic limestone belt at the west
foot of the Taconic Range in Hillsdale, N. Y., Dwicut, 256.—Revision of the
genus Araucarioxylon of Kraus, etc., KNowLron: Ueber dei Reste eines Brot-
fruchtbaums, etc, Natuorst: Tertidire Pflanzen der Insel Neusibirien, ScHMAL-
HAUSEN, 257.—La Flora dei Tufi del Monte Somma, MESCHINELLI: Remarks on
some Fossil Remains considered as peculiar kinds of Marine Plants, LESQUE-
REUX: Brief notices of some recently described minerals, 258.—On the sup-
posed occurrence of Phenacite in Maine, Ymnates: Tableaux des Minéraux des
Roches, ete., MicHEL-LEvy et Lacrorx, 259.—Index der Krystallformen der
Mineralien, GoLDscumipT: Report of the Royal Commission, ete., 260.

Miscelianeous Scientific Intelligence.—Report of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey for 1887, 260.—Aid to Astronomical Research, BrucE: Construction of
buildings in Earthquakes countries, Minne: A Handbook of Engine and Boiler
Trials, etc., THuRSTON: The Science of Metrology, NOEL.

. VI CONTENTS.

Number 238.

Arr. XXXV.—Description of the “ Bernardston Series” of
Metamorphic Upper Devonian Rocks; by B. K. Emerson
XXXVI.—Cireular Polarization of certain Tartrate Solu-
tions—LII ; by J.. A. Long. 22 22S
XXXVII.—Rapid method for the Detection of Iodine, Bro-
mine, and Chlorine in presence of one another; by F. A.
Goocu and F. T. BRooxs (2202 = eee
XXXVIII.—Metacinnabarite from New Almaden, Califor-
nia; by W. Hi. MELviLiE 322 5s nee

XX XIX.—Keokuk Beds at Keokuk, Iowa; by C. H. Gorpon
XL.—Note on the vapor-tension of Sulphuric Acid, with the
description of an accurate Cathetometer Microscope; by
CA) PERKINS: .. / 2222-124 eee eee eee

XLI.—Experiments upon the Constitution of the Natural
Silicates ; by F. W. CuarKke and E. A. ScHNEIDER ----

XLII.—Five new American Meteorites; by G. F. Kunz__-_-

XLITi.—Determination of the coefficient of cubical expansion
of a solid from the observation of the temperature at
which water, in a vessel made of this solid, has the same
apparent volume as it has at 0° C. ; and on the coefticient
of cubical expansion of a substance determined by means
of a hydrometer made of this substance; by A. M. Maver

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Page
263

275

283

2901
295

301

303
312

323

Physics.—Steam Calorimeter, K. Wirtz, 329.—Mountain Magnetometer, O. H.
Meyer: Velocity of Transmission of Electric Disturbances, J. J. THoMson:
Phosphoro-photographs of the ultra red, E. Lommet, 330.—Photography of
Oscillating Electric Sparks, Boys: Electrical Discharges in Magnetic Fields,
M. A. Witz: Molecular Theory of Induced Magnetism, Ewine: Elements of

Laboratory Work, A. G. EARL, 331.

Geology and Mineralogy.—Notes on the meeting of the Geological Society of
America at Indianapolis, 332.—Making of Icebergs, H. B. Loomis, 333,.—
Sandstone dikes in California, J. S. Dither: Annual Report of the Director of
the U. 8. Geological Survey for 1886-87: Hawaiian voleanoes, W. T. BRIGHAM,

334.—Brief notices of some recently described minerals, 335.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—American Association for the Advancement
of Science, 336.—British Association at Leeds: American Geological Railway
Guide, J. MACFARLANE: Royal Society of N. S Wales: Smithsonian Miscella-
neous Collections: Verzeichniss der Schriften tber Zoologie von Dr. O.

Taschenberg. of Halle, 342.

=,

CONTENTS. vil

Number 239.

Page
Art. XLIV.—Further Study of the Solar Corona; by F. H.
JBI REAL ON renege eee eek eg an Apaduaeee Ne Himpteye rues hyenas Arts. [OMEN ce tie 343
XLV.—Superimposition of the Drainage in Central Texas ;
Toiyglivamoy (ATS Peyepaen srs) ate arian Leer aa cial eo. 359

XLVI.—Description of the ‘“ Bernardston Series” of Meta-
morphic Upper Devonian Rocks; by B. K. Emerson__ 362

XLVIL.—Analysis of Rhodochrosite from Franklin Furnace,

New Jersey. by ik. H. BROWNING 22242) e122) 225-2 375
XLVIII.—Re-determination of the Atomic Weight of Cad-
MINS lV Ive day Teeuu nei eh Ee Sea eee oe 377

XLIX.—Occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite and compo-
sition of Uraninite in general; by W. F. Hittesranp_ 384

L.—Anthophyllite from Franklin, Macon Co., N.-C.; by

Sates seni T Depa a, Sayre tol a aye aS eue erase een BO
LI.—Preglacial Drainage and Recent Geological History of

Western Pennsylvania; by P. M. FosHay-_--.-.---.--- 397
LII.—So-called Perofskite from Magnet Cove, Arkansas; by

JES! AVG Niro ee piel ee PTE Belg eg an NN peer yee 403
LII.—Experiments upon the Constitution of the Natural

Silicates; by F. W. Crarke and E. A. SconxIDER..-- 405

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics.—Improved Vapor-density Method, Scuatn, 415.—Im-
proved form of Grove’s Gas Battery, Monp and Langer: Formation of
Hydrogen Peroxide from Ether, Dunstan and Dymonp, 417.—Action of Car-
bon monoxide upon Metallic Nickel, Monp, LANGER, and F. QuUINCKE, 418.—
Waves in air produced by Projectiles, MacH and WenTzeL: HE. Macu and P.
SALCHER: H. Macy and L. Macu: Re-determination of the Ohm, J. V. JONES,
419.—Alternating versus continuous currents in relation to the Human body,
H. N. LAWRENCE and A. HARRIES, 420.

Geology and Natural History.—Phylogeny of the Pelecypoda, the Aviculide and
their allies, R. T. Jackson, 421.—Revue des travaux de paléontologie végétale,
parus en 1888 ou dans le cours des années précédentes, G. DE SaporTA: Notes
on the Leaves of Liriodendron, T, Houm, 422.—Contributions to the Tertiary
Fauna of Florida, W. H. Datu: Syrinzothyris Winchell, and its American
Species, C. SchucHERT: Mineral Resources of the United States, D. T. Day,
423.—Hlements of Crystallography for students of Chemistry, Physics and
Mineralogy, Gro. H. WILLIAMS: Rumpfite, a new mineral, G. FIRTSCH:
Polybasite from Colorado, F. M. EnpuIcH, 424.

vill CONTENTS.

Number 240.
Page
Art. LIV.—Long Island Sound in the Quaternary Era, |
with observations on the Submarine Hudson River
Channel; by James D. Dana. (With Plate X) -----. 425

LV.—The Preservation and Accumulation of Cross-infer-
tility ; }by Joun’ T. (GuLick 222. 52:22 eee 437

LVI.—The Deformation of Iroquois Beach and Birth of
Lake Ontario; by J. .W. SPENCER 22225 2-252 e eee 443

LVIL.-—Experiments upon the Constitution of the Natural
Silicates; by F. W. CrarkeE and E. A. ScunerpErR _._ 452

LVIII.—Endialyte and Eucolite, from Magnet Cove, Arkan-
sas; by J. FRANCIS (WILLIAMS 2220 235 2.025 457

LIX.—Prediction of Cold-waves from Signal Service Weath-
er Maps siby f. Russert. 4-22 3 es eee 463

LX.—Peculiar method of Sand-transportation by Rivers; by
Jamms: Cy GRAHAM li ive oil Ge 6 oe hoe 2 476

LXI.—Note on the Cretaceous rocks of Northern California ;
by J.38. DLE ys. hoe east ee 476

LXII.—Magnetic and Gravity Observations on the West
Coast of Africa and at some islands in the North and
South: Atlantic: by (Hh. D2 PREstTon 22232202 asec a- 478

LXIII.—Fowlerite variety of Rhodonite from Franklin and
Stirling, NJ. by) i.) Vi iRsson, 22223022 484

LXIV.—Some Observations on the Beryllium Minerals from
Mt. Antero, Colorado; by 8. L. PENFIELD.---..--._--- 488

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics.—Action of Light on Chlorine water, PEpLER: Action of
Light on Phosphorus, PEDLER, 492.—Action of Fluorine on Carbon, 493.—
Selenic Acid, CAMERON and MAcALLAN: Use of the Platinum Thermometer,
EK. H. Grirrirus, 494.—True weight of a cubic inch of distilled water, H. J.
Cuanry: Heat asa Form of Energy, R. H. THurston: Sound, Light and Heat;
Magnetism and Electricity, J. SPENCER, 495.

Geology and Mineralogy.—Geological and Paleeontological relations of the Coal and
Plant-bearing beds of Paleeozoic and Mesozoic age in Hastern Australia and
Tasmania, ete., O. FEISTMANTEL, 495.—Jurassic Fish-Fauna in the Hawkesbury
beds of New South Wales, A. 8S. WoopwaRp: State of Alpine glaciers in 1889,
F. A. Foret: Cordierite as a contact mineral, Y. KikUCcHI: Sanguinite, a new
mineral, 497. :

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Deep-sea Dredging in the Pacific, A. AGASSIZ,
497.—National Academy of Sciences: Results of a Biological Survey of the
San Francisco Mountain Region and Desert of the Little Colorado, Arizona,
498.—Bulletin of the Scientific Laboratories of Denison University, W. G.
TigHt: Royal Society of Canada: Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissen-
schaften, 499.

INDEX TO VOLUME XL, 500.

Chas. D. Walcott, ,
U. S. Geological Survey.

x

Wor xe OF eo 4 JULY, 1890.

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

THE
[? AMERICAN

| JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

are EDITORS
JAMES D. anp EDWARD &8. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS ae
Prorzssors JOSIAH P. COOKE, GEORGE L. GOODALE
anp JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Camertnes.

Enmore tL A NEWTON ing A: ER VERIMLL. on
New Haven, .

Prormssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Pamapetrara.

THIRD SERIES.
VOL. XL._[WHOLE NUMBER, OXL.]

No. 235.—JULY, 1890.

WITH PLATE Tf.

NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. §. DANA.
ES 902

TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET.

ee

Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub-

seribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by
money orders, registered letters, or bank checks.

. We used every list of mineralogists we could secure, sending to persons

YTTRIA AND THORIA MINERALS, —
FROM LLANO CoO., TEXAS. eae

[See American Journal of ee, Vol. XXX io Dee., 1889.]

Asa seed of Mr. Niven’s recent visit to the locality, we now have
on the way from there a full line of these rare and interesting minerals.

Gadolinite, Fergusonite,

Yitrialite, Cyrtolite,
Thoro-gummite, Tengerite,
Niventte, Allanite.

Specimens 50 cents to $25 each. We will furnish, on application,
quotations for large quantities by the pound.

NORWEGIAN MINERALS.

We have just received a shipment direct from Norway, and we quote

as follows:

Aeschynite crystals, Hitteroe, 50 cents to $1.00.
Xenotime 6 oe 75 cents to $1.25.
Monazite 6 Moss, $1.00 to $1.75.
Thorite i Arendal, $1.50 to $3.00.
Cleveite gs Moss, $1.00 each.

Alvite 4 Arendal, 75 cents each.
Cobaltite as Sweden, 25 cents each.
= Columbite a7 Moss, 75 cents to $2.00.
Glaucodote oS Sweden, $1.50 to $2.00.
Menaccanite * Bamble, $l. 00 each.

Also White Apatite, Black Tourmaline, Serpentine, pseudomorph after
Enstatite, Aventurine Feldspar, Augite, Orthoclase crystals, Axinite,
Thulite, etc.

NEW CATALOGU E.

The early part of June we distributed our new Catalogue very widely. |

in all parts of the world. We would be pleased to hear from any ons
mille has not received a copy, and we will mail one at once.

Please direct all correspondence to our Philadelphia Office.

GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Dealers in Minerals,
1512 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 739 and 741 Broadway, New York. —

Mh, Wace

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[THIRD SERIES.]

Oe

Art. |.— The Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism as the Exclusive
Theory of Organic Evolution ; by Rev. Joun T. Guuick.

Natural Selection an Exclusive Theory with some Biologists.

IN a previous article, entitled ‘“ Divergent Evolution and
the Darwinian Theory,”* I dwelt chiefly on the need of a
bionomic theory that should explain polytypic, as well as
monotypic, evolution. One of the chief deficiencies in Dar-
win’s discussion of the “Origin of Species,” is that he does
not distinguish with sufficient clearness the conditions that are
necessary for the transformation of an original species into a
new species, when the former disappears in the process, leaving
the latter to occupy its place, and the conditions that are neces-
sary for the production of two or more species from one
original species. In this paper it may be instructive to
examine a vigorous attempt that has been made so to expound
the theory of natural selection (which Darwin considered as
inadequate to cover all the forms of monotypic evolution,)
that it shall serve as the full explanation of both monotypic
and polytypic evolution in all organisms lower than man. By
confining our attention to Mr. Wallace’s very interesting and
suggestive volume on “ Darwinism,” we shall be better able to
judge of the possibility of producing a self-consistent theory
on this basis; but we should bear in mind that the same view
is maintained by many naturalists, and that parallel statements
abound in their writings. Mr. Wallace’s volume not only
embodies the mature reflections of one of the joint authors of

* This Journal, vol. xxxix, pp. 21-30.
Am. Jour. Scl.—THIRD SERIES, VoL. XL, No, 235.—JuLy, 1890.
1

2 . J.T. Gulick—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism.

the theory of natural selection, but it fairly represents that
phase of biological theory w hich considers diver sity of natural
selection through exposure to different environments the only
eause of divergence. The following passage will show the
exclusive nature of his theory: “A great body of facts on the
one hand, and some weighty arguments on the other, alike
prove that specitic characters Thea been, and could only have

been, developed and fixed by natural selection because of their
utility. We may admit that among the great number of vari-
ations and sports which continually arise many are altogether
useless without being hurtful; but no cause or influence has
been adduced-adequate to render such characters fixed and
constant throughout the vast number of individuals which con-
stitute any of the more dominant species.” —Darwimism, p. 142.
This is in strong contrast with the following passage from the -
close of the Introduction of the sixth edition of the ‘Origin
of Species,” which is the last one that received the revision of
the author: ‘I am fully convinced that species are not immu-
table, but those belonging to what are called the same genera
are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct
species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of
any one species are the descendants of that species. Further-

more, I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the
most important, but not the exclusive, means of modification.”
On page 421 of the same edition, Darwin calls attention to the
fact that this passage has “been placed in a most conspicuous
position ” in the different editions of his work, and complains
of the writers who misrepresent his conclusions on this point.

Facts that are Neglected or Denied.

Though Darwin maintains that besides the inherited effects of
use and disuse and the direct action of the external conditions
there are other forms of variation leading to permanent modi-
fications of structure independently ‘of natural selection
(Origin of Species, 6th London ed., p. 421), he does not
attempt to explain how these divergences arise. Neither Dar-
win nor Wallace appears to have observed, that, as in domesti-
cation, the isolated breeding of other. than average forms,
in whatever way it is secured, is the one necessary, and always
effective, cause of divergence, so, in nature, wherever there
arises the isolated breeding of other than average forms,
there divergence will be produced; or that, as exposure to
different environments is only one of the causes that lead iso-
lated bands of men to desire and select different types of vari-
ation in the same species of animal, so exposure of wild spe-
cies to different environments is only one of several classes of

J.T. Gulick—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism. 3

causes that may subject isolated portions of one of these spe-
cies to different forms of selection, producing divergence ; or,
again, that as differences in the uses to which men put an
animal are not necessarily useful differences, so the differences
in the uses which isolated portions of a species make of the
environment, though they produce diversity of natural selec-
tion, leading to permanent divergence, are not necessarily
useful differences. These, with other allied doctrines, which
were presented in my paper on “ Divergent Evolution Through
Cumulative Segregation,” have received adverse criticism from
Mr. Wallace in the work mentioned above. He says: “In
Mr. Gulick’s last paper (Jour. of Linn. Soc., Zoology, vol. xx,
pp. 189-274), he discusses the various forms of isolation
above referred to, under no less than thirty-eight different
divisions, with an elaborate terminology, and he argues that
these will frequently bring about divergent evolution without
any change in the environment or any action of natural selec-
tion. The discussion of the problem here given will, I believe,
sufficiently expose the fallacy of his contention, but his illus-
trations of the varied and often recondite modes by which
practical isolation may be brought about, may help to remove
one of the popular difficulties in the way of the action of
natural selection in the origination of species.” (Note on p.
150).

In this passage Mr. Wallace seems to take issue with each
and all of my propositions; but after a careful study of his
whole discussion, one cannot but be in doubt whether he fully
dissents from any of them. This uncertainty arises either
from his failing to recognize distinctions which I have made,
or from ambiguities and inconsistencies in his own statements.

Extending the meaning of Natural Selection does not save the
Theory.

He represents me as contending that divergent groups are
frequently found in which the action of natural selection is
wanting. He here fails to distinguish between the absence of
diversity in the action of natural selection and the absence of
any action of the same principle. I have never maintained
that any species can long escape the action of natural selec-
tion; but I have that natural selection cannot produce trans-
formation of a race unless it secures the propagation of other
than average forms of that race; that it cannot be a cause of
divergence unless to this condition is added the independent
generation (i. e., isolation) of groups that are subjected to some
diversity in its action; and, that, in isolated groups, some of
the divergent characters may be due to other causes of trans-

4 J. T. Gulick—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism.

formation. In the passage I have quoted from p. 142, he
expresses great confidence in the proof that all specifie char-
acters are developed and fixed by natural selection; but in the
discussion that follows concerning the influence of natural
selection, he claims as belonging to this principle sets of influ-
ences which are usually included under sexual selection, and
which he cannot regard as due to the reactions between the
species and its environment. (See Darwinism, pp. 282-5),
and, even then, it is found too narrow to cover all the facts of
specific divergence; for, when he comes to consider the origin
and development of accessory plumes, he has to abandon the
theory to which he has clung through the greater part of the
book. Speaking of the enormously lengthened plumes of the
“bird of paradise and of the peacock,” he says, on page 293,
“The fact that they have been developed to so great an extent in
a few species is an indication of such perfect adaptation to the
conditions of existence, such complete success in the battle of
life, that there is, in the adult male at all events, a surplus of
strength, vitality and growth power, which is able to expand
itself in this way without uyury. That such is the ease is
shown by the great abundance of most of the species which
possess these wonderful superflucties of plumage. * * *
Why, in allied species, the development of accessory plumes
has taken different forms, we are unable to say, except that it
may be due to that individual variability which has served as
the starting point for so much of what seems to us to be
strange in form or fantastic in color, both in the animal and
vegetable world.” (The italics are mine.) According to the
theory he has elsewhere maintained, these superfluities of form
and color which are not controlled by natural selection should
present, “a series of inconstant varieties mingled together, not
a distinct segregation of forms” (p. 148); but in this passage
he teaches that they have assumed different forms in allied
species. On p. 141 he maintains that characters which are
neither beneficial nor injurious are from their very nature
unstable and cannot become specific, while here he offers a
suggestion as to how they have become specific. There is
then a problem that presses for solution, namely, the explana-
tion of permanent divergence in characters that are useless
without being hurtful (p. 142), unless he considers his sugges-
tion “that it may be due to individual variability ” an adequate
explanation; and I presume he does not. On page 142, he
says of characters that are “useless without bemg hurtful:”
‘No cause or influence has been adduced adequate to render
such characters fixed and constant; but in speaking of “the
delicate tints of spring foliage, and the intense hues of autumn,”
he says: “As colors they are unadaptive, and appear to have

J. T. Gulick—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism. 5

no more relation to the well-being of the plants themselves
than do the colors of gems and minerals. We may also
include in the same category those alge and fungi which have
bright colors—the red snow of the Arctic regions, the red,
green, or purple seaweeds, the brilliant scarlet, yellow, white,
or black agarics, and other fungi. All these colors are proba-
bly the direct results of chemical composition or molecular
structure, and being thus normal products of the vegetable
organism, need no special explanation from our present point
of view; and the same remark will apply to the varied tints
of the bark of trunks, branches and twigs, which are often of
various shades of brown and green, or even vivid reds or
yellows” (p. 302). He here seems to admit that instead of
useless specific characters being unknown, they are so common
and so easily explained by “the chemical constitution of the
organism ” that they claim no special attention.

Inconsistency in extending the meaning of Environment.

If Mr. Wallace accepts the definition of natural selection
which makes it the survival of those members of a species
which are best fitted to its environment (and this is the scope
he seems to assign to it in the earlier half of Chapter V where
the matter is under special discussion), then he ought to admit
that changes in a species produced by the action of the mem-
bers of the species on each other although they are adaptive
are not due to natural selection. If, on the other hand, nat-
ural selection is made to include the actions and reactions of
the species on itself (and this he does on pages 282-5), then
certainly he ought to admit that there may be changes in the
action of natural selection without any change in the relations
of the species to the environment. One way to escape this
dilemma is to extend the definition of the environment so as
to include every influence that affects the species, whether it is
within the species, or external to it; but this reduces his doe-
trine, that without change in the environment there is no
change in the organism, to the fruitless truism that without
some cause there is no change in the organism. An example
of Mr. Wallace’s extending the meaning of the environment
so as to include the action of the members of a species on each
other, is found on page 149. After mentioning several argu-
ments intended to show the impossibility that isolated portions
of a species should diverge while exposed to the same environ-
ment, he remarks, “It is impossible that the. environment of
the isolated portion can be exactly like that of the bulk of the
species. It cannot be so physically, since no two separated
areas can be exactly alike in climate and soil; and, even it

6 J.T. Gulick—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism.

they are the same, the geographical features, size, contour, and
relation to winds, seas and rivers would certainly differ. Bio-
logically, the differences are sure to be considerable. The
isolated portion of a species will almost always be in a much
smaller area than that occupied by the species as a whole, henee
it is at once in a different position as reyards its own kind.”
He then enumerates several differences in the biological en-
vironment that are liable to occur; but the point I wish now
to note is, that he mentions as one of the differences in the’
environment the “different position as regards its own
kind.” This is exactly the difference which, in so far as it is
the prevention of intercrossing and the consequent unification
of endowments and habits, constitutes isolation ; and unless he
is able to show that this difference is incapable of producing
any divergence, his contention is unsustained. But he here

yields the point at issue, by mentioning this amongst the
effective differences. The only way to escape the force of his
concession is to claim, as he virtually does here, that isolation,
being the separation of the isolated fragment from the influ.
ence of the original stock, is in itself a difference in the en-
vironment. By taking this position, however, he involves
himself in another contradiction ; for, if isolation is a differ-
ence in the environment, why does he deny that it has a direct
influence in producing change i in the organism ?

Diversity of Natural Selection during exposure to the same
Environment.

Another discrepancy in Mr. Wallace’s theory is that, while
he rightly assigns great importance to diversity of natural se-
lection arising from divergent habits in appropriating the
resources of the same environment, exhibited by different
sections of the same species occupying the same area, he,
nevertheless, insists that the representatives of a species, iso-
lated in different areas of the same environment, will be
neccessarily subjected to the same influences from natural
selection, and will inevitably maintain the same characters
and of course, the same habits. That he believes divergent
habits may arise, when the divergent groups are occupying the
same ared, and are prevented from crossing simply by the
divergence of habits, will be seen by the case of the varieties
of wolves mentioned on p. 105, and by some of the cases
mentioned on pp. 108 and 117; also by the statement, on p.
119, that—“ When one portion of a terrestrial species takes to
a more arboreal or a more aquatic mode of life, the change of
habits itself leads to the isolation of each portion,” and by a
similar statement at the bottom of p. 145. That he believes

J.T. Gulick—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism. I

there can be no change, either of habits or structure, when
portions of the same species are isolated in different areas
under the same environment, appears from the statement on p.
149, that—“If the average characters of the species are the
expression of its exact adaptation to its whole environment,
then, given a precisely similar environment, and the isolated
portion will inevitably be brought back to the same average of
characters.” And this he maintains will be the case even “if
we admit, that, when one portion of a species is separated
from the rest there will necessarily be a slight difference in the
average character of the two portions.”

-Does the Difference in the Environment increase with each suc-
cessive Mile ?

If the divergences presented by the Sandwich Island land
molluses are wholly due to exposure to different environments,
as Mr. Wallace argues on pages 147-150, then, there must be
completely occult influences in the environment that vary pro-
gressively with each successive mile. This is so violent an
assumption that it throws doubt on any theory that requires
such support. Of all the suggestions made by Mr. Wallace
concerning possible and inevitable differences in the environ-
ments presented in the successive valleys, it seems to me not
one meets the requirements of the case, or throws any light on
‘the subject. The one suggestion which is quite applicable as
an explanation is the one already quoted that “the isolated
portion is at once in a different position as regards its own
kind.” This is, I believe, a most potent difference, which (as
Mr. Wallace’s language seems to indicate), is directly intro-
duced by isolation, and (adhering to the meaning usually
given to environment,) is not at all due to difference in the
environments presented in the different areas.

Unstable Adjustments disturbed by Isolation.

There is a sentence in another chapter of Mr. Wallace’s
book which attributes to isolation (though without recogniz-
ing the important results that must follow) just that kind of
influence in introducing a certain class of physiological diver-
gences, which I claim for it in introducing, not only physio-
logical, but also psychological and morphological divergences.
I claim that there is, in many species, more or less variation
with unstable adjustment, in the habits which determine what
forms of food it shall appropriate, and that, when a few indi-
viduals of such a species (the offspring perhaps of a single
female) are isolated, this adjustment is often so disturbed by

8 J. T. Gulick—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism.

the failure of the few individuals to completely represent the
average character of the species and by their being treed from
competition, and wide interbreeding with those of their own
kind, that divergent habits of feeding are formed. I further
claim that for the production of this result it is not at all
necessary that the environments -presented in the isolated
districts should differ in any respect. Indeed if all but one
pair of a variable species should be destroyed, the descendants
of that pair, remaining in the same area and under the same
environment, would probably differ more or less from the
original stock. Those that breed together must have habits
that enable them to do so; and the offspring of those that
interbreed widely will for the most part, inherit the powers
and habits that enabled their ancestors to interbreed widely ;
but if the offspring of a single family are carried to an isolated
area presenting the same environment, there will be nothing to
ensure the perpetuation of exactly the original powers and
habits, unless the power of heredity is such that each pair is
sure to transmit the complete average character of the whole
species ; and this is not the condition of all species that pair,
if of any. Within the limits of each freely interbreeding
portion of a species a mutual harmony and adjustment of
habits is preserved, because it is the condition of propagation
within those limits; but between portions that are prevented
from interbreeding there is nothing but heredity to prevent
divergence in the kinds of adjustment; and in variable species,
the probability is that divergence will in time show itself more
or less distinctly. Though Mr. Wallace considers this reason-
ing fallacious when applied to divergence in habits he uses an
exactly parallel reasoning in the portion of the following pas-
sage which I designate by italics. “ /¢ appears as if fertility
depended on such a delicate adjustment of the male and fe-
male elements to each other, that, unless constantly kept up by
the preservation of the most fertile individuals, sterility is
always liable to arise... . So long as a species remains un-
divided, and in occupation of a continuous area, its fertility
is kept up by natural selection; but the moment it becomes
separated, either by geographical or selective isolation, or by
diversity of station or of habits, while each portion must be
kept fertile inter se, there is nothing to prevent infertility
arising between the two separated portions. As the two por-
tions will necessarily exist under somewhat different conditions
of life, and will usually have acquired some diversity of form
and ¢»lor—both which circumstances we know to be either the
cause of infertility or to be corelated with it—the fact of some
degree of infertility usually appearing between closely allied
but locally or physiologically segregated species is exactly

J. T. Gulick—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism. 9

what we should expect” (p. 184-5). Notwithstanding this
statement he does not seem to have grasped the idea, that in
the geographically isolated portions as well as in the others,
the “ different conditions of life” of which he speaks, may be
the different relations to the environment into which the
separated portions are brought by their divergent habits, with-
out any reference to inevitable differences in the size and con-
tours of the different areas or in any other features of the
environments ; and that the divergence in the habits may be
directly due to the prevention of interbreeding between sep-
arated portions which inevitably differ in average character,
especially if they are very small portions.

Isolated portions differ in varying degrees from the average
character of the Species.

The italicized portion of the passage last quoted attributes
to isolation, in stronger language than I should be willing to
use, a direct influence in producing divergence in the adjust-
ments on which fertility in the different portions of the species
depend. I should prefer to say that in some species the ad-
justments on which fertility depends are so delicate that,
adjustments producing perfect fertility within one intergener-
ating portion of the species, will not produce fertility in another
portion that has been long isolated. I do not make my state-
ments so sweeping as his concerning the divergent influence
of isolation on any one class of characters, but I include all
classes of inheritable characters, in sexually producing organ-
isms, as coming under its influence. I also insist that the
direct influence of isolation in producing divergence is in pro-
portion to the degree of segregation, which varies immensely
in different forms of isolation which are equally complete as
preventives of intercrossing. A very stable and homogeneous
species may be divided by geological subsidence into two large
sections, each represented by a vast number of individuals.
In such a case the difference in the average character, and con-
sequently the degree of segregation, of the two sections will
be infinitesimally small, and the influence of the isolation thus
produced will chiefly consist in its preserving in the different
sections any diversities that may arise in the effects of natural
selection, or of other principles of transformation. The isola-
tion between the land animals of Ireland and Britain, which
Mr. Wallace cites as adverse to my theory, is of this kind.
Again, there may be transportation and isolation of very small
fragments of a very variable species. In such a ease separa-
tion may involve a degree of segregation that from the first
produces perceptible divergence. Again, the process by which

10 J.T. Gulick—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism.

the isolation is produced:may be in itself segregative, in that
it brings together those endowed in some special way, causing
them to breed together, and preventing them from breeding
with others. This is especially the case with Sexual, Social,
and Prepotential, Segregation, and in some degree with Indus-
trial Segregation. Isolation thus produced is in its very nature
segregative, and would result in divergence if diversity of
natural selection did not arise in the different sections of the
species. Segregation with divergence may also be produced
by natural selection or some other principle of transformation
co-operating with some form of isolation that of itself is not
perceptibly segregative. As segregation of other than average
forms always produces divergence, and without it there is no
divergence, I claim that it is the fundamental principle of
divergent or polytypic evolution. Natural selection, which is
the exclusive propagation of those better adapted to the envi-
ronment, when it results in the preservation of other than
average forms, produces confluent or monotypic evolution ;
but it is never the cause of divergence, except when co-operat-
ing with some principle of isolation in such a way that the
two principles produce segregation. Failure to recognize
these distinctions, prevents Mr. Wallace from understanding
my theory, and leads him to represent me as claiming for isola-
tion all that I claim for segregation.

Incompatibilities arise during Positive Segregation.

On pages 173-186, Mr. Wallace maintains that “ Natural
selection is, in some probable cases at all events, able to accu-
mulate variations in infertility between incipient species”
(p. 174); but his reasoning does not seem to me conclusive.
Even if we grant that the increase of this character occurs by
the steps which he describes, it is not a process of accumula-
tion by natural selection. In order to be a means of cumula-
tive modification of varieties, races or species, selection, whether
artificial or adaptational, must preserve certain forms of an
intergenerating stock, to the exclusion of other forms of the
same stock. Progressive change in the size of the occupants
of a poultry-yard may be secured by raising only bantams the
first, only common fowls the second, and only Shanghai fowls
the third year; but this is not the form of selection that has
produced the different races of fowls. So in nature rats may
drive out and supplant mice; but this kind of selection modi-
fies neither rats nor mice. On the other hand, if certain
variations of mice prevail over others through their superior
success in escaping their pursuers, then modification begins.
Now, turning to p. 175, we find that in the illustrative case

J. T. Gulick—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism. 11

introduced by Mr. Wallace, the commencement of infertility
between the incipient species is in relations to each other of
two portions of a species that are locally segregated from the
rest of the species, and partially segregated from each other
by different modes of life. These two local varieties, by the
terms of his supposition, being better adapted to the environ-
ment than the freely interbreeding forms in other parts of the
general area, increase till they supplant these original forms.
Then, in some limited portion of the general area, there arise
two still more divergent forms, with greater mutual infertility
and with increased adaptation to the environment, enabling
them to prevail throughout the whole area. The process here
described, if it takes place, is not modification by natural
selection. The natural selection of which he speaks does not
arise till, with each advancing step, a new and complicated
adjustment (which introduces the two new forms, each with
unabated fertility with its own kind but with diminished fer-
tility with the other kind) has been attained by some other
process. That other process is the one described in the pas-
sage I have already quoted from pp. 184-5, where, according
to my apprehension, the cause of divergence is more correctly
stated than it is in the passage now under consideration. In
the latter part of my paper on Devergent Hvolution through
Cumulative Segregation 1 have shown that the different kinds
of incompatibility, preventing complete fertility between incip-
ient species (and there called forms of Negative Segregation),
cannot arise except as accompaniments of Positive Segregation
in some form; but that, having once arisen in connection with
partial Positive Segregation, they increase from generation to
generation by a law that is quite distinct from natural selection.
It was also shown that endowments only partially segregative (as,
for example, somewhat divergent habits of feeding), when not
concurrent with any forms of cross incompatibility, are liable to
be obliterated by crossing ; but, when associated with segregate
fertility and cross infertility, will increase from generation to
generation, even if the mongrels are as well adapted to the
environment as the pure forms. I at the same time called
attention to the fact that, when associated with some form of
partial positive segregation (as divergent habits of feeding, or
segregative sexual and social instincts), greater vigor, of pure
forms, as contrasted with the mongrels, would have the same
effect as their greater fertility. In other words, Segregate °
Vigor would preserve a partially segregated variety as effectual
as Segregate Fecundity.

120 ST. Gulickh—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism.

Incompatibilities will disappear unless preserved by Positive
Segregation.

Mr. Wallace has given a very instructive computation on
pages 181-4; but it does not seem to me to prove, as he supposes,
that infertility between the individuals of a species cannot
increase ‘‘unless correlated with some useful variation,” but
that it cannot arise, except as a transitory variation, ‘unless
associated with some positively segregative principle, causing
those to pair together which are fertile with each other. My
contention is that, without some positive form of segregation
fecundity and cross sterility can never arise; and that after it
has arisen under segregation, no amount of correlation with
useful variation will preserve it, if the positive segregation is
removed. If, for example, all the species of humming birds
were brought together in one country, and were deprived of
all segregative habits and instincts, it certainly would not
require many generations to reduce them to one species. If
equally adapted to the environment, the species that would
succeed in perpetuating itself would be the one represented
by the largest number of individuals; or if several species
were entirely cross fertile and were in the aggregate represented
by a larger number of individuals than any other similar group
of species or than any single species, then, the resulting species
would be the hybrid descendants of this most numerous group.
All the other species would become extinct through failing to
mate with ‘“ physiological complements.”

4 °
Why any need of distinctive Recognition Marks for those whose
Ancestors had but one set of Marks.

An example of one of the effects of divergence being
treated as if it were the primary cause of divergence is found
on pages 217-228 and 284, where the need of distinctive
characters for easy recognition is given as the chief cause of
divergence in calls, odors, and colors. The importance of
distinctive characters by which the members of a species may
distinguish their mates from those of other species cannot be
exaggerated; but how does it happen that the descendants of
one stock which had originally but one set of such characters,
have become segregated into groups, needing distinctive marks.
By confounding the problem of successive, monotypic adapta-
tion with that of coexistent, polytypic adaptation the real
causes of divergence have been obscured and misapprehended.
The diversity of Sexual and Social Selection, which Mr.
Wallace in these passages speaks of as natural selection, is due
to diversity of sexual and social instincts which in their turn
have been produced by different forms of segregation. For a

J. T. Gulick—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism. 13

fuller exposition of this subject I would refer to my paper on
“ Divergent Evolution through Cumulative Segregation”
(Linn. Soe. Jour. Zoology, vol. xx, pp. 234-8). The principles
which I have called Sexual and Social Segregation, Mr. Wal-
lace has mentioned in several places under the name “ selective
association,” or ‘selective isolation,” bat he does not recognize
the fact that, whenever this principle segregates forms whose
immediate ancestors were not segregated, it must be the direct
cause of divergence; and that, when divergent forms that
have arisen under Industrial and Local Segregation are brought
together through increase of numbers, this principle is often
the one cause preserving varieties that would otherwise be ob-
literated. With plants whose pollen is distributed by the wind,
and probably with both vegetable and animal forms whose
fertilizing elements are distributed by water, Prepotential
Segregation plays the same role as the segregative instincts of
higher animals. As this principle depends on the greater
rapidity with which the male and female elements of the same
variety or species combine, as contrasted with the elements of
different varieties and species, we might call it isolation through
selective impregnation, just as Mr. Wallace has called the in-
stinctive segregation, “isolation through selective association.”
Whatever names we give these two principles, they must be
important factors in divergent evolution.

Segregation produces Domestic Races, why not Species ?

Mr. Wallace seems to be opposed to the idea that some form
of isolation is essential to divergence; but in his argument he
yields so much that I cannot but think his opposition is largely
due to his misinterpreting the theory. Mr. Romanes has men-
tioned eight or ten forms of isolation; and Mr. Wallace says
I have discussed thirty-eight forms; but neither of us claim
that these are the only possible forms; nor do we claim that
any form of this principle is essential to the transformation of
one species into another when the original one disappears in
the process. The phrase “new species” as used by Mr.
Wallace in the following passage is ambiguous; but the second
sentence seems to indicate that he is here discussing diver-
gence as well as simple transformation. He says: “ Most
writers consider the isolation of a portion of a species a very
important factor in the formation of new species, while others
maintain it to be absolutely essential. This latter view has
arisen from an exaggerated opinion as to the power of inter-
crossing to keep down any variety or incipient species and
merge it in the parent stock. But it is evident that this can
only occur with varieties that are not useful, or which, if

14 ST. Gulick—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism.

useful, occur in very small numbers.” ... (p. 144). Near
the end of the same chapter, after presenting arguments in
favor of this position, and after reviewing some of the facts
which I have presented concerning the divergences of Sand-
wich Island land molluscs, he remarks— We have, however,
seen reason to believe that geographical or local isolation is by
no means essential to the differentiation of species, because the
same result is brought about by the incipient species acquiring
different habits or frequently a different station; and also by
the fact that different varieties of the same species are known
to prefer to pair with their like and thus to bring about a
physiological isolation of the most effective kind” (p. 150).
Except that he has used “ physiological isolation” where I
should have used psychological segregation, this last passage
is as completely in accord with what I have presented in my
paper on “ Divergent Evolution” as it could have been if he
had copied my statements. But how is this passage, and one
of similar import on page 185, to be reconciled with his own
statement just quoted from page 144. On pages 217, 218 and
226, he bases his argument for the importance of different
coloration in closely allied species on the obvious necessity for
means “to secure the pairing together of individuals of the
same species,” 1f a new species is to be kept “separate from its
nearest allies.’ He here assumes the fundamental fact on
which the theory of segregation rests. All that is wanting is
its recognition as a universal principle on which all permanent
divergences, whether varietal or specific necessarily depend.
In the formation of domestic variations it is fully recognized ;
for he says, “It is only by isolation and pure breeding that
any specially desired qualities can be increased by selection”
(p. 99). If experimental biology shows this to be a constant
law, is there any good reason for not applying it in the general
theory of organic evolution? Seeing it is admitted that arti-
ficial selection, unaided by isolation, is of no avail in produc-
ing divergent races, how can it be claimed that natural selection,
unaided by isolation, is of any avail in producing varieties and
species. Again, as in domestication, the segregate breeding of
other than average forms always produces divergence, have we
any reason to doubt that, when the same process takes place in
the grouping of organisms in a natural state, the result will also
be divergence ?

The discrepancies to which I have referred are it seems to me
due to deficiencies in the theory which Mr. Wallace maintains
in common with many others. These problems that drive the
exclusive utilitarian into various inconsistencies, can, I am con-
vinced, be consistently explained by the theory of Divergence
through Segregation.

26 Concession, Osaka, Japan.

McGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Ft ormation. 15

Art. Il.—The Southern Extension of the Appomattox Forma-
tion; * by W J McGee.

Contents: Introduction, p. 15—General Characters and Relations, p. 19—Geo-
graphie Distribution, p. 28—Hypsographie Distribution, p. 30—Stratigraphic
Relations, p. 31—Taxonomy, p. 33—Sources of Materials, p. 34—Interpretation,
p. 35.

INTRODUCTION.

In a paper entitled “Three Formations of the Middle
Atlantic Slope,” published in the American Journal of Science
-early in 1888,+ a distinctive late Tertiary formation, well
displayed on the Appomattox river in eastern Virginia, was
defined and named after that river; and its principal charac-
ters, its distribution, its stratigraphic relations, and its probable
age were briefly recorded. ‘The formation was then known to
consist of a series of predominantly orange-colored, nonfossil-
iferous sands and clays, resting unconformably upon Miocene
and older formations, and unconformably overlain by the
Columbia formation; it was known to expand southward,
from a thin and discontinuous bed exposed in a narrow belt on
the Rappahannock river, so rapidly as to form a terrane many
miles in width on the Roanoke ; and it was inferred to repre-
sent at least a part of the Orange Sand of Hilgard and other
southern geologists.

The several lines of research concerning the phenomena of
the Middle Atlantic slope recorded in this paper have recently
been extended southward into the Carolinas, Georgia, Ala-
bama, and Mississippi; and some of the results of the work
are deemed worthy of publication.

The Coastal Plain commencing in the Middle Atlantic slope
at Sandy Hook extends southwestward to the southeastern
angle of the continent forming Florida, and thence westward
and southwestward to the boundary of the national domain on
the Rio Grande. Throughout the sweep of nearly two
thousand miles from the mouth of the Hudson to the lower
Mississippi, the geographic division so trenchantly defined in
the Middle Atlantic slope is well marked, although its inner
boundary is less conspicuous in the south than in the nerth ;
for in the Southern Atlantic and Eastern Gulf slopes it is
commonly crossed at right angles by the rivers (the Alabama
alone marking it for a considerable distance), while in the
Middle Atlantic slope the principal waterways depart from
their normal direction to follow its course, and thus give origin
to one cf the most strongly marked physiographic features of

* Read before the Geological Society of America, Dec. 27, 1889.
+ Third Series, vol. xxxv, pp. 120-143, 328-330, 367-388, 448-468,

16 MceGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation.

the globe. Yet in the south asin the north the boundary is
the most important structural line of eastern United States:
it marks the junction of the unconsolidated and practically
undisturbed Neozoie clastics on the seaward side, at first with
the greatly disturbed crystallines, and then with the corru-
gated, folded, and everywhere completely lithified Paleozoic
strata of the southern Appalachians; on reaching it every
stream, great and small, is broken by a rocky rapid, a great
fall, or a cascade, and these lines of rapids, falls, and cascades
extend from the Roanoke almost to the Mississippi. And in
the Southern Atlantic and Eastern Gulf slopes, as in the
Middle Atlantic zone, the boundary is an important cultural -
line: Most of the leading southern cities are built at the falls
of the rivers, and their industries are determined by the water-
power which the rivers afford; the rivers are commonly
navigable below. and unnavigable above the falls, and the
original means of traffic were thus diverse, and this diversity
persists in some measure to-day; while the soils on opposite
sides of the boundary are essentially distinct, and so the in-
dustries growing out of the soil and its products are commonly
sharply contrasted. Among the southern cities located
on the fall-line are Columbia, Augusta, Macon, Columbus,
Montgomery and Tuscaloosa. The Coastal Plain lying between
this great structural, physiographic, and cultural boundary of
Nature’s drawing and the still more trenchant boundary
marked by the shores of the Atlantic and Gulf, is a lowland
zone, concentric with the continent save as expanded by the
Floridian peninsula, and scored radially by drainage lines, of
which many expose its structure.

This is the area in which the Appomattox formation is
found; and throughout the greater part of this area, the
formation is well developed and wonderfully presistent in
composition, structure, and stratigraphic relations.

In order to set forth clearly the phenomena of the Appo-
mattox formation in its southern extension, it 1s necessary to
note briefly the characteristics in the southern states of the
two great data-formations representing the beginning and the
ending of Neozoic time in the Middle Atlantic slope—the
Potomac and the Columbia.

About its type locality (the District of Columbia), the
Columbia formation exhibits two phases, 1. e., a fluvial phase,
consisting of brick-clay or loam graduating downward inte a
gravel or bowlder bed; and an zterfluvial phase, consisting
largely of debris derived from the immediately subjacent
formations, rearranged, intermixed with a variable element of
far traveled material brought down by the rivers, and re-

MeGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation. 17

deposited in a sheet of variable thickness, ranging from a
trifling veneer near the fall-line and at high levels to a con-
siderable bed of stratified deposits toward the coast. In the
Southern Atlantic and Eastern Gulf slopes, the formation in
like manner consists commonly of two principal phases and
several local varieties; yet all are connected by stratigraphic
continuity: In North Carolina the relations displayed in the
District of Columbia are maintained, save that the interfluvial
phase becomes progressively more and more sandy in crossing
the state from north to south, and finally passes into the
essentially continuous veneer of sandy loam or fine sand com-
pletely covering the seaward portion of the Coastal Plain from
the Neuse river to Mobile bay; in South Carolina the fluvial
phase becomes transformed into a sandy or silty loam flanking
the rivers in low terraces locally known as “‘second bottoms,”
while the interfluvial phase is represented by the wide-spread
mantle of pine-clad sands stretching scores of miles inland
from the coast—though the fluvial phase is sometimes re-
moved and the interfluvial phase is more profoundly. eroded
than in either higher or lower latitudes; in Georgia the two
phases of the formation are similar to those displayed in
South Carolina save that both have suffered less from erosion ;
in central Alabama the fluvial phase is represented upon the
principal rivers by extensive ‘second bottom” loam (which is,
on the Chattahoochee, indistinguishable from the Columbia
loam either in hand specimens or in hillsides), while in southern
Alabama the loam becomes sandy and expands into a super-
ficial mantle of pine-clad. sands entering the state from
Georgia in a hundred-mile zone which narrows to a twenty-
mile belt west of Mobile bay; in northeastern Mississippi the
fluvial deposits are similar to those of northern Alabama, and
to the southward they pass into the low-lying saad-plain en-
tering the State from the east; but toward the mouth of the
Mississippi the sand-flats narrow, and the sands pass into a
series of silts and clays with intercalated sand-beds which are,
according to Johnson,* stratigraphically continuous with, and

*The correlation of the Port Hudson with the Columbia represents the only
link in the series which was not established by personally tracing stratigraphic
continuity from section to section and from phase to phase on the ground. It is
just to say that the coast sands and subjacent clay beds of southeastern Missis-
sippi, the Port Hudson, and the loess with its basal gravel bed, were independ-
ently and antecedently correlated by Mr. Lawrence C. Johnson of Mississippi,
and that the well defined Columbia deposits of the Roanoke river have been
stratigraphically connected with the coast sands and ‘‘ second bottom” deposits
of North Carolina by Prof. Joseph A. Holmes of the University of North Caro-
lina, both of whom are engaged in geologic investigations of the Coastal Plain
under the auspices of the U. 8. Geological Survey and the direction of the au-
thor; and it is a source of gratification to be able to state that the observations
and inferences of these geologists are in all respects corroborative of the work
recorded herein.

Am. JouR. Sci1.—THIRD SERIES, VOL. XL, No. 235.—Ju.y, 1890.
2

18 MeGee—Southern Extension of Appomattoe Formation.

but another phase of, the Port Hudson of Hilgard; while in
western Mississippi the fluvial phase of the Columbia passes
into and is finally replaced by the vast body of loess with sub-
jacent gravel beds flanking the Mississippi river. These
various deposits are stratigraphically continuous, and form a
single and indivisible genetic unit; they were evidently laid
down during a single submer gence of the southeastern coast,
extending from the terminal moraine at the mouth of the
Hudson to and beyond the Mississippi river; and the local
variations in composition and structure are evidently due to
simple and easily ascertained local conditions.

The Columbia formation represents the first great episode
of cold in the Pleistocene; and by reason of the recent work
on its southern extension, it is now possible to map with
approximate accuracy the ceography of the southeastern part
of the continent during that episode.

In its type locality the Potomac formation is a brackish water
littoral deposit made up of gravel and cobble-stones of quartz and
quartzite (derived respectively from the Blue Ridge and from the
veins intersecting the Piedmont gneisses), arkose (derived imme-
diately from the Piedmont schists and granites), sand, derived
from all these sources, and a considerable element of clay; ; andits
age is probably early Cretaceous or late Jurassic—the abundant
plant remains indicating the former period, and the less abundant
vertebrate remains denoting the latter. South of the Appo-
mattox river the continuity of the terrane is broken by erosion,
and its surface is sometimes concealed by newer deposits; but
exposures are sufficiently frequent to warrant the conclusion
that the Potomac formation is stratigraphically continuous with
the beds of gravel, arkose, sand, and clay exposed at many
points in the Carolinas and still better displayed at Augusta,
Macon, Columbus, and other points in Georgia, and so with
the body of like materials stretching from the Chattahoochee
to the Tombigbee in Alabama—the Tuscaloosa formation of
Smith and Johnson.*

The Potomac formation is now connected, by actual observa-
tion of stratigraphic continuity between its most widely diverse
phases, and by identification at many intermediate points, from
its type locality on the Potomac to and beyond the Tuscaloosa
(Warrior). It is indeed variable in structure and materials in.
different parts of its extent; but the several variations are
easily traceable to local conditions of genesis. Viewed in the
large way, it is a single and indivisible genetic unit, represent-
ing the first episode in the development of the Coas tal Plain
of the Atlantic and the Gulf with its submarine extension—
the first episode in continental growth after the later throes of

* Bulletin U. 8. Geol. Survey, No. 43, 1887, p. 105.

Me Gee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation. 19

Appalachian deformation; it tells of profound depression,
pronounced seaward tilting, and prolonged submergence of the
young continent, whereby preéxistent physiography was greatly
modified, the cis-Mississippi land shrinking to half its area with
such attendant climatal changes that the fauna of land and sea
was changed and the land flora revolutionized more completely
than in any other eon of the earth’s history; yet the record of
the formation is so readily susceptible of interpretation that,
despite the remoteness of the period, and despite the obscurity
of later records, it is already possible to map with approximate
accuracy the geography of the Potomac epoch. So the forma-
tion is a structural and chronologic unit from which the strati-
graphy and the geological history of the Coastal Plain may be
reckoned.

GENERAL CHARACTERS AND RELATIONS.

As exposed north of Roanoke river, the Appomattox forma-
tion consists of moderately regularly stratitied sand or clay,
with occasional intercalations of fine gravel, commonly of
pronounced orange hue, and without fossils so far as known.
Farther southward these characters are generally maintained ;
but local variations appear from place to place, and certain
other moderately constant features are displayed.

Tn eastern-central North Carolina the formation is notably
variable and heterogeneous over the thinly covered eastern
extension of the Piedmont erystallines now culminating in the
continental projection of Cape Hatteras, (which has been during
past ages an even more conspicuous geographic feature than
to-day); and its features are evidently connected with the
proximity of the crystalline strata. Thus, at Wilson there is
the usual partition into several regular and rather heavy (2 to
5 feet) strata, the usual orange hue, and the usual distribution
of quartzite and quartz pebbles either throughout the several
strata or in bands or pockets; but the lowermost stratum
exposed in the northern part of town is largely composed of
arkose, slightly rearranged and sparsely intermixed with fine
quartz pebbles; and there is some admixture of arkose in the
superior layers. Then, half a mile south of Wilson, a nine-foot
railway cutting displays the usual heavy and moderately regular
bedding, and the usual hues both in weathered and unweathered
strata; while the lowest exposed bed (4 or 5 feet thick) is made
up of inter-laminated gray or white clay and orange or reddish
loam, the clay being fine and plastic, the loam rather sandy and
massive within each lamina, and the lamine sensibly horizontal
and ranging from an eighth of an inch to half an inch thick for
the clay, and quarter of an inch to an inch or more for the loam.
Both of these exceptional aspects of the formation are exhibited

20 McGee—Southern Extension of Appomattow Hormation.

in various exposures in this region; both resemble in some
measure characteristic aspects of the Potomac formation seen
in eastern Virginia; and it is significant that the Potomac is
not found here (probably by reason of removal through degra-
dation), that crystalline rocks approach and in the immediate
vicinity reach the surface, and so that the Appomattox probably
rests immediately upon the eastward extension of the ancient
Piedmont crystallines.

Nearer the coast the formation is frequently exposed in rail-
way cuttings and displays the features characteristic of the
contemporaneous deposits north of the Roanoke, save that the
orange tints are less pronounced and mixed with browns and
grays in some strata, that the bedding is thinner and more
pronounced, and that pebbles are small and rare. It is signifi-
cant that the aspect of the formation here approaches that dis-
played by the phosphate-bearing Pliocene beds of the South
Carolina coast.

Another distinctive but hardly distinct aspect of the forma-
tion is extensively displayed in central South Carolina, notably
about Columbia. Here the usual moderately regular and
rather heavy but always inconspicuous bedding of the forma-
tion is displayed; but the prevailing colors are richer and
darker than in other parts of the terrane, commonly ranging
from orange red to chocolate brown. Moreover certain of the

strata exhibit a peculiar mottling (which is better displayed
farther southward) ; certain other strata exhibit a distinctive
cross stratification defined by gray or white plastic clay in lamine,
irregular sheets, and lines of pellets; the various strata are
more uniform in composition than in the north, consisting
rather of loam than of sand and clay in alternating beds; and
the deposit as a whole takes on a solid, massive, and rock-like
appearance, and gives origin to a distinctive topography. So
conspicuously diverse in color, texture, and habit of erosion are
the prevailing formations of central South Carolina that over
thousands of square miles the surface is popularly divided into
“red hills” and “sand hills’”—the former representing the
Appomattox, and the latter the southern interfluvial phase of
the Columbia formation. The distribution of pebbles in this
vicinity is especially interesting: Northeast of the Congaree
river on the line of the Richmond and Danville railway, peb-
bles are rare to within two miles of the present waterway;
there they suddenly increase in abundance, and in some sections
within a mile from the river form a considerable and some-
times the principal part of the deposit; while south of the
river they quickly become rare, being abundant only within
a mile or less of the river bluffs. The pebbles are predomi-
nantly of quartz though partly of quartzite, and comprise a

Mc Gee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation. 21

few gneissoid fragments. They range in size from two and a
half inches downward. Commonly they are accumulated in
lines or pockets, sometimes at the base of the formation; but
a few also occur disseminated throughout the ill-defined strata.
. About the fall-line on the Santee river system, the Appomat-
tox loam is in part overlain unconformably by the Columbia
formation, though it has been severely degraded; and in an
admirable section on the Richmond and Danville railway
immediately east of the State House, where both upper and
lower contacts are displayed, the Appomattox rests unconform-
ably on the Potomac. Further up-river the Appomattox rests
directly upon the Piedmont erystallines which here give origin
to residuary products of dark red and brown color; and so the
origin of the exceptionally rich hues of the formation in this
region are not difficult to trace.

Is is in Georgia that the formation appears to be best
developed: About the fall-line it stretches from the Savannah ~
to the Chattahoochee in practically unbroken continuity; at
many points it overlaps far upon the Piedmont crystallines ;
on the seaward side of the fall-line it is unquestionably over-
lapped in turn by the pine clad sands of the Columbia forma-
tion over many thousand square miles; it evidently reaches a
considerable thickness—perhaps 100 feet or more; and its
various features are in part intermediate between and in part
common with those displayed by the formation in the Atlantic
and Gulf slopes respectively. Moreover it exhibits in this
region certain significant features not known elsewhere.

About Augusta, the exposures resemble those of the Conga-
ree, save that the exceptionally rich hues have faded to the usual
orange and orange-red ; while the cross-stratification marked by
lines of clay has become more, and the horizontal bedding even
less, conspicuous. There is an excellent exposure of the
gravelly loam of the formation at Green’s Cut, south of Augusta,
on the Georgia Central railroad. Itis made up at this point of
moderately homogeneous loam with little indication of bedding
save that the abundant pebbles are commonly arranged in lines
or accumulated in pockets, though sometimes disseminated.
Twenty miles farther southward, near Munnerlyn, there is an
exposure of 25 feet in which the loam is not only definitely
bedded but divided by intercalated layers of sand and silt,
giving an appearance of regular and distinct stratification ;
pebbles being small and rare, while the characteristic orange
tints run into dull browns and grays. There is a similar expo-
sure at Sun Hill, sixty miles east of Macon, in which the strata
are partially lithified, and the general aspect approaches that
of the regularly stratified Tertiary deposits of greater antiquity
found farther seaward.

22 McGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation.

At Macon the formation finds typical development. Above
the reach of modern alluvium, and above the vaguely defined
and poorly exposed “second bottoms” it forms the prevailing
surface; and in every street and suburban road, in every
storm-carved runnel and roadside gulley, and in every cutting
of the seven railways radiating from the city, its materials are
exposed; and the landscapes are toned by its pure orange,
orange- -yellow and orange-red tints, or the brick-reds assumed
on oxidation. Here the stratification of the deposit is rather
less definite and regular than usual, and in some limited expo-
sures it is apparently massive. Here, too, the distinctive cross-
bedding seen frequently in the south is characteristically dis-
played—some beds throughout their entire thickness, and
nearly all beds in some part of their thickness or length of
exposure, exhibit a rather vague cross-stratification rendered
conspicuous under certain conditions of weathering by inter-
calated Jaming and lines of pellets of white or gray plastic
clay. About Macon, too, there is well displayed a character-
istic habit of erosion and weathering which is common
throughout the south and occasionally seen in the north; 1. e.,
the exposed and long weathered surface of the deposit takes on
a more massive aspect than that of the fresh cutting, the
structure lines fade, the rain-cut gullies are transformed into deep
and smooth sided amphitheatres separated by broad, even-faced
buttresses: the whole forming soft contours. At the same
time the exterior portion of the deposit undergoes a slight
cementation, and the surface takes on a sort of dull glaze.
This peculiarity of weathering is difficult to intelligibly
describe, impossible to clearly portray, and yet so character-
istic as to be readily recognizable throughout the greater part
of the vast field occupied by the formation. About Macon,
as in other exposures near the fall-line and on considerable
rivers, the formation abounds in small pebbles, arranged in
lines, accumulated in pockets, or disseminated throughout the
deposit. On the Oconee these pebbles are chiefly “of quartz
with many of quartzite, and are commonly well rounded or
sub-angular; and it is noteworthy that they are similar in size,
material and degree of wear to those found in the subjacent
Potomac formation.

At Macon, as at Columbia, the Appomattox 1s intercalated
between the Columbia and Potomac for mations, the Piedmont
erystallines being exposed beneath the latter in the vicinity.
The Columbia is represented by poorly displayed ‘second
bottoms” and by the sand plains into which the lowlands
merge a few miles southeast of the city. These deposits are
strongly unconformable to and readily distinguished from the
distinctive loams of the Appomattox. The ‘Potomac consists

McGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation. 23

of exceptionally regularly stratified clays and sands, the latter
locally containing arkose in considerable quantity, with well
rounded pebbles i in sheets or pockets and sometimes scattered
throughout the mass. It is noteworthy that although the
Appomattox and the Potomac are here, as elsewhere, strikingly
unconformable, they sometimes merge so completely that no
line of demarkation can be drawn with precision. This is fre-
quently the case when the Potomac consists predominantly of
sand; when the uppermost stratum consists of clay the
contact is usually distinct and sometimes quite conspicuous. In
the exposures along the southwestern extension of Fourth
avenue the Appomattox and Potomac commonly blend; in
the cutting on the Georgia Central railway at the crossing of
Oglethorpe street, the formations are readily distinguishable ;
while in the railway cutting four blocks farther southward the
contact is distinct in one part of the section, though the
deposits appear to merge in another part.

The finest southern exposures of the three formations so
conspicuous and significant in the Middle Atlantic slope are
found just below the falls of the Chattahoochee in the villages
of Girard and Lively, Alabama, opposite Columbus. As usual
there is great unconformity between the “second bottom”
loams (by which the Columbia is here represented) and the
Appomattox, the latter having been completely removed from
a considerable belt flanking the river, while the former rests
upon the gneiss and the Potomac arkose throughout a large
part of this belt. An analogous relation holds between the
Appomattox and the Potomac—an immense volume of the
latter having been carried away before the former was laid
down.

The characteristics of the Appomattox in this vicinity are
normal, save that the distinctive cross-bedding outlined in
lamine of clay or lines of pellets of the same material is
exceptionally conspicuous, that the pebbles are larger, more
abundant, and rather less worn than usual, and that ‘there 1s a
notable element of arkose in its composition. In explanation
of these slight divergences from the type it should be noted
that the Potomac in this locality consists in exceptionally large
part of arkose (great beds of it sometimes being scarcely dis-
tinguishable from the disintegrated gneiss magnificently dis-
played immediately below the lower dam), that certain layers
of it consist of exceptionally pure kaolin-like clay, and that
its pebbles are larger and less worn than those found upon
smaller rivers—or in short, .that the local features of the
Potomac are reflected in those of the Appomattox. Contacts
between the Appomattox and the Potomac are clearly dis-
played in the railway cutting in Lively, and in a natural gulley

24 McGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation.

half a mile northwest of this point; in the former exposure the
formations are distinct throughout the greater part of the
exposure, but inseparable with any degree of accuracy in
another part; while in the second exposure the regularly
bedded orange-brown loams of the Appomattox, with a pebble
bed at the base, are conspicuously demarked from the creamy-
white, cross-stratitied arkose of the Potomac. The best expo-
sures of the Appomattox occur in the scarp of a fairly well
defined terrace about a hundred feet above the low-water level
of the river (below the falls) in the village of Girard.

Eminently satisfactory exposures of the Appomattox occur
about Montgomery (particularly in cuttings on the M. & E,
railway in the southeastern part of the city), where it rests
unconformably upon the Eutaw sands, the junction being
sometimes marked by a ferruginous crust, again by a sheet of
pebbles, and elsewhere by a decided difference in hue, though
it is sometimes indistinct; but the characters of the formation
here are in no way specially noteworthy save that the pebbles
contain an exceptionally large element of quartzite or semi-
quartzitic sandstone, together with large numbers of subangular
fragments of chert and siliceous dolomite.

The numerous excellent exposures of the formation about
Tuscaloosa are noteworthy in that they form a definite terrace,
evidently of considerable antiquity though probably restored
in part during the Columbia epoch, upon which the city as
well as the State University and Insane Hospital are located.
They are also noteworthy in that the pebbles comprise cherts,
siliceous dolomites, and a rather unimportant element of
quartzite, but no true crystallines. The pebbles are notably
smaller and less worn than in the more easterly and northerly
localities. Here as elsewhere about the fall-line the formation
is overlain unconformably by the Columbia, and in turn overlies
with still greater unconformity the Potomac—the Tuscaloosa
formation of Smith and Johnson; yet here as in other locali-
ties these formations of widely diverse age sometimes merge
so completely that no sharp line of demarkation may be drawn
between them. This is notably the case in the railway cutting
at Cottondale, seven miles east of Tuscaloosa, where the Poto-
mac is a cross-stratified gravel with a matrix of sand, and the
Appomattox a horizontally bedded mass of similar gravel in a
matrix of loam; yet usually despite this discordant bedding,
the materials merge. In some of the cuttings on the A. G. 8.
railway between Cottondale and Tuscaloosa, however, the
junction is marked either by ferruginous crusts or by sheets of
pebbles of ferruginous sandstone evidently derived from the
older formation.

Farther southward the formation is displayed at several

MceGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation. 25

localities, notably at Eutaw. Here it diverges from the usual
character in two respects, each of which indicates an intimate
relation to a subjacent and much older formation: north and
east of Eutaw the deposit is exceptionally sandy and friable
and the bedding is frequently obscure; and in numerous
exposures on the A. G.S. railway and along the wagon road
between Eutaw and the Tuscaloosa or Warrior river it may be
seen to merge into the stratified sands of the Eutaw, and in
general to take on the features of that Cretaceous formation ;—
in short it is as evident here that the Appomattox is made up
in part of the’ immediately subjacent formation as it is in the
numerous contacts with the Potomac (Tuscaloosa) formation at
Lively, Macon, Columbia, and other points at which the ma-
terials obviously intergraduate. Southwest of Eutaw a change
in the composition and general behavior of the deposit quickly
supervenes; only scattered ridges and irregular patches of the
formation now remain overlying the peculiar middle Creta-
ceous formation which Smith and Johnson now designate the
Tombigbee chalk (the ‘“ Rotten Limestone” of the books); in
these outliers the deposit exhibits the usual characteristic features
of the deposit ; but on close examination the sands and clays of ~
which it elsewhere consists are found to be intermixed with
calcareous particles, while toward the surfaces it loses the
peculiar massive aspect and dull glaze so commonly character-
istic of the formation, and commonly breaks down into sandy
red clays. Over the Tombigbee chalk in this vicinity the
prevailing colors are lighter and grayer, and over the Kutaw
sands darker and browner, than those displayed toward the
fall-line or generally elsewhere.

It isin Alabama that the Appomattox formation has been
found nearest the coast: between St. Elmo and Grand Bay, in
the extreme southwestern corner of the state, two strongly
contrasted types of surface appear. The first comprises the
smooth, sensibly horizontal pine-clad sands or “ pine meadows ”
of the coast; and the second consists of undulating bosses,
knolls, and plateaus rising above and evidently protruding
through the sand. The sand plains and pine meadows repre-
sent the local phase of the Columbia formation; while the
protruding knolls and plateaus of ancient topography consist
of regularly and rather heavily bedded loams, sands, and clays,
commonly orange-hued but weathering to dark reds and browns,
and evidently represent a somewhat erratic phase of the Appo-
mattox. ‘The deposits are erratic, first, in the complete assort-
ment of materials, the sands and clays being separated and laid
down in alterating layers; second, in the fineness of the materials,
clay forming the predominant element and the pebbles being
represented only by bits of quartzite or chert seldom over a

26 McGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation.

quarter of an inch in diameter sparsely disseminated through
the sandy layers; third, in the exceptionally regular stratifica-
tion; and fourth, in the absence of the distinctive clay-out-
lined cross stratification—though the sandy strata are some-
times cross bedded. The formation here is exceptionally
ferruginous. A thin layer in a cutting three-quarters of a mile
east of Grand Bay is locally used as an ochre; the plowed
fields and other exposed surfaces are sometimes besprinkled or
even shingled with small ferruginous nodules (or “ buckshot”)
weathered out of the loam; the prevailing colors are harsher
and generally darker than usual (though not so dark as at
Columbia), ranging from orange-yellow mixed with gray in
some strata, to prevailing orange-reds weathering to brick-reds
and chocolate-browns; and the peculiar mottling characteristic
of the deposit under certain conditions of exposure through-
out nearly its whole extent is beautifully displayed. In the
railway section in the eastern part of Grand Bay the relation
between the mottling below the reach of ready oxidation and
the formation of the ferruginous concretions found on the sur-
face are clearly shown: the lower part of the exposure,
extending to within 10 or 12 feet of the surface, is of
fairly uniform orange or orange-yellow hue, with some strata
passing into gray; next follows a stratum of 5 or 6 feet, con-
centric with the surface and discordant with the stratification,
in which the uniform hues are shot with vertical or oblique
lines of darker color, increasing in number upward and finally
uniting in a network of orange-red bands an inch or more in
width enmeshing polygons and irregular figures of original
color one to five inches in diameter; while still nearer the
surface the bands widen, the lighter colored polygons disap-
pear, and a nearly uniform orange-red hue supervenes. Yet
some of the lines of darker color persist as narrow bands of
brown, perhaps marking jointage planes; and on closely ap-
proaching the surface these are frequently found to become
partially indurated, so as to form a network of embossed
chocolate-brown lines, enmeshing orange-red polygons. About
the points of union of the embossed brown bands the segrega-
tion of ferruginous matter and the cementation are most
decided ; and quite near to the surface the nuclei thus formed
may be found to graduate into irregular ferruginous nodules,
diminishing in size and increasing in hardness until they pass
gradually into the state exhibited by the surface-found conere-
tions. So the mottling, the darkening of hue, the general
ferrugination, and the formation of nodules are simple results
of oxidation and hydration produced by weathering.

In Mississippi the Appomattox is well displayed at Nicholson,
near Pearl river, and only 20 miles from the Gulf; and 10

MecGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation. 27

miles farther northward, at Highland, there is a still better
development in which there is so large an element of pebbles
that the deposit has been extensively worked as a source of
gravel for railway ballasting. At these localities the forma-
tion exhibits the usual characteristics, save that in the first
pebbles are small and rare. In the second locality the abundant
pebbles. consist predominantly of sub-angular fragments of
chert an inch and a half or less in diameter, with no represen-
tatives either of the quartz and quartzite of the northeast, or
of the siliceous dolomite found at Tuscaloosa. At Hattiesburg
the formation is exposed in the uplands overlooking Leaf
river, and about Ellisville it crosses the divide between that
river and the Tallahoma, the usual characteristics being dis-
played in both localities; at Vossburg there is an extensive
accumulation of the deposit, which is here fairly stratified and
exceptionally friable, on the divide between the Leaf and
Chickasawhay drainage basins; and at Brandon the exposures
are less extensive than but similar to those at Vossburg.
In the vicinity of Meridian there are numerous exposures,
some of which ave erratic in character: Over the ridge formed
by the peculiar siliceous rocks of Eocene age called by Smith
the Choctaw buhrstone, the Appomattox is uncommonly
obdurate, and the distinct cross-bedding is outlined in fine
sand rather than in clay: yet despite the uncommon obduracy
of the material it has been completely removed from the
greater part of the surface throughout much of this belt of
high relief. On the northeastern side of the isolated knob of
Buhrstone a mile south of Meridian there is a bed of brown
or orange-red sand corresponding in many respects with, and
probably justly referable to, the Appomattox, though the
usual heavy bedding is absent, the characteristic cross-bedding
is inconspicuous, and the mass is much more friable than usual.
On the lowlying lands three miles northeast of Meridian the
Appomattox generally forms the surface; but it here contains
an exceptional element of clay, and in many sections appears
to merge into the Eocene clays assigned to the Hatchetigbee
formation by Smith and Johnson, just as another phase merges
into the Potomac (Tuscaloosa) in another locality.

So the Appomattox formation may be briefly described as a
series of obscurely stratified and frequently cross-bedded
loams, clays, and sands of prevailing orange hues, with local
accumulations of gravel about waterways; the materials vary-
ing somewhat from place to place, but always in the direction
of community of material between the formation and the
older deposits upon which it lies; while as a whole the deposit
retains so distinctive and strongly individualized characteristics
as to be readily recognized wherever seen.

28 McGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

The areal distribution of the Appomattox formation may
be stated either simply and easily in terms of original deposi-
tion, or in greater detail and with more difficulty in terms of
present outcrops.

In general distribution, the formation is known to expand
and thicken southward from a few thin beds occupying a nar-
row belt on Potomac creek, a few miles north of the Rappa-
hannock, to a thick deposit forming a terrane forty or fifty
miles wide on the Roanoke; to extend thence southward, in a
broad zone at first widening ‘but afterward narrowing with the
encroachment of the overlapping coast sands upon its area,
quite across the Carolinas; to form the most conspicuous ter-
rane of central Georgia, where it stretches from the fall-line to
the inland margin of the coast sands all the way from the
Savannah to the Chattahoochee; to again expand greatly in
Alabama with the contraction of the overlying coast sands
until it forms an essentially continuous terrane stretching from
the fall-line at Montgomery and Tuscaloosa to within half a
dozen miles of the Gulf in the southwestern corner of the state ;
and to maintain this enormous width in Mississippi, where
it extends southward from the Paleozoic area in the extreme
northeastern corner of the state to within twenty miles of the
Gulf on Pearl River and westward to within fifty miles of the
Mississippi, to be in part overlain and in part replaced by the
local phases of the more recent Columbia formation developed
on Gulf and river. This field of fully 50,000 square miles is
that over which the Appomattox has been traced in thousands
of exposures, and in which it generally forms the prevailing
terrane.

If the direct observation be supplemented by legitimate and
necessary inference, the formation must be so extended as to
bridge the valleys from which it has been degraded, and to
stretch beneath the various phases of the Columbia. formation
well toward the Atlantic and Gulf coasts—though its seaward
extension is doubtless aberrant in composition and structure,
particularly in Florida, where it merges with the continuous
series of off-shore deposits of the Neozoie which combine to
form the great submarine shelf fringing the continent on the
east and south. With this legitimate “extension, the field of
the formation becomes essentially coéxtensive with the Coastal
Plain of the Atlantic and Eastern Gulf slopes (exclusive of a
part of Florida) and assumes an area of 250,000 or 300,000
square miles. Over the whole of this vast area the Appomat-
tox formation must have stretched ; and over the greater part
of this area it must maintain the wonderfully uniform charac-
teristics of composition and structure exhibited to-day by its
stream-carved remnants.

Mec Gee—Southern Extension of Appomattoa Formation, 29

The areal distribution of the remnants of the Appomattox
formation represented by present exposures cannot be set forth
in detail without large scale maps or more elaborate statement
than space will now permit; but certain features of local dis-
tribution are too significant to be neglected.

Throughout the Coastal Plain the formation is deeply dis-
sected if not completely divided by the larger rivers at and
commonly for long distances below its inland margin. The
tributaries have invaded it as well, and so too have the smaller
streams, down to the rivulet and storm-filled rill; and thus its
entire surface has been sculptured by running water in a man-
ner well illustratmg the type of configuration elsewhere
classed as autogenetic. Now many of the tributaries, as well
as some of the subordinate members of the wide branching
drainage systems, have, like the principal rivers, cut com-
pletely through the formation and exposed the sub-terrane
over considerable areas; and while the extent of the destruc-
tion of the formation in this manner is of course dependent
upon the local efficiency of the several factors of degradation
(declivity, stream-volume, texture of the rock mass, etc.), it is
evidently related in some degree to the character of the subter-
rane. This relation is well exemplified over the uplands
flanking the Tombigbee and Alabama rivers on the west.
Over the terrane of the Potomac formation the Appomat-
tox generally prevails, despite the considerable altitude and
high local relief, save in the valleys of the largest rivers; over
the less elevated terrane of the Eutaw sands, it is more fre-
quently and more widely cleft by drainage ways, and its
remnants are thinner; over the next newer formation (the
Tombigbee chalk) which lies low and flat, the greater part of
the Appomattox has been carried away, not only in the vicinity
of the Tombigbee river but all the way from northeastern
Mississippi to beyond the Alabama river,.so that it is com-
monly represented only by isolated belts and irregular patches
which, as Smith has shown, most frequently lie on northerly
slopes; over the terrane of the Eufala sands, in which the
local relief again increases, the remnants of the Appomattox
quickly increase in number and expand until the formation
once more forms the prevailing surface on the uplands, though
the Cretaceous deposits are laid bare along most streams and
form the prevailing lowlands; and over the eight or nine lower
Eocene formations into which the Lignitic of Hilgard has
been divided by Smith and Johnson, and among which clay is
the predominant material, the Appomattox still further expands
until it forms almost the entire surface, highland and lowland
alike, save in the valleys of the larger rivers. Still farther
southward lies the great siliceous deposit of the middle Eocene

30 McGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation.

commonly known as Buhrstone—the Choctaw buhrstone of
Smith ; its rocks are the most obdurate of the entire Neozoie
series within the Gulf slope, and so its general surface is ele-
vated and sculptured into a complex configuration of pro-
nounced relief and sharp contours; yet despite these conditions
so exceptionally favorable to degradation, the Appomattox
frequently maintains its integrity over considerable areas.
Beyond the hill-land of the buhrstone les the lowland formed
by the predominantly calcareous newer Eocene formations—
the Claiborne, Jackson and Vicksburg—over which the Appo-
mattox is again trenched by almost every waterway and
reduced to ragged remnants only more extensive than those
overlying the Tombigbee chalk; but upon the silico-argilla-
ceous terrane of the Grand Gulf the remnants once more
expand until they form the greater part of the surface, save
along the larger waterways, as about Hattiesburg in Central
Mississippi. In short, the formation is generally preserved
over loamy and clayey terranes, much more seriously invaded
by erosion over sandy terranes, and largely degraded over
calcareous terranes ; and this is true not only of the section
from Tuscaloosa to Hattiesburg in Alabama and Mississippi,
but of the formation as a whole.

It has already been intimated that the composition of the
Appomattox everywhere depends in part upon that of the sub-
terrane, i. e., that its materials everywhere consist of local
elements and erratic elements combined in varying propor-
tions; and the variable friability and solubility resulting from
this inequality in composition is evidently the reason for the
unequal resistance which the formation has offered to degrada-
tion in various parts of its extent.

Hypsoerapuic DIstTrRIBUTION.

The best development of the formation in Virginia and
North Carolina lies between 25 and 150 feet, and its upper
limit is probably less than 250 feet, above tide. Farther
southward the lower observed limit remains about the same,
while the upper rises to at least 650 feet over the divide
between the Congaree and Savannah, where the formation is
well developed and constitutes the prevailing surface. The
lowest altitudes at which it has been observed near the Gulf
are less than 25 feet above tide at Nicholson and not much
higher at Grand Bay; and the greater altitudes in the Gulf
‘slope are not léss than 450 feet in uplands near Tuscaloosa,
and 600 feet in the Buhrstone hill-lands west of Meridian.*

*Tt has recently been found washed by tide waters on the east side of Mobile
bay, by Mr. L. C. Johnson.

MeGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation. 31

Briefly, the hypsographie distribution of the Appomattox
formation is essentially identical with that of the general sur-
face of the Coastal Plain from the Potomac to the Pearl, save
that the formation extends a little farther inland than the
mass of the Neozoics, overlapping for a few miles of distance
and a few yards of altitude upon the Piedmont crystallines
within the fall-line.

STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONS.

In several exposures on the Appomattox river at and below
Petersburg, the fluvial phase of the Columbia formation (as
developed in the Middle Atlantic slope) rests unconformably
on the surface of the Appomattox, and a like relation to the
inter-fluvial phase is displayed in several railway cuttings
south of Petersburg. In the excellent section at Columbia
the coast sand phase of the Pleistocene formation rests uncon-
formably upon the Appomattox; and at Lively, Alabama, the
“second bottom” phase of the newer formation overlaps
unconformably an eroded surface of the older one. From
these exposures in section the two formations are known to be
diverse in age.

The unconformity between the Columbia and the Appo-
mattox becomes more striking when the relations of the two
formations to the larger rivers are considered: Every great
waterway traversing the Coastal Plain from the fall-line to the
shore of Ocean or Gulf has for scores of miles trenched the
Appomattox to its base and commonly cut far into older strata,
and the orange loams and sands are usually removed from the
bottom and half the sides of the trough whose axis is marked
by the waterway; while the same rivers are flanked by ter-
raced belts of Columbia loam overlying the degraded edges of
the Appomattox and the older strata alike, and little invaded
by erosion (except on the Savannah and the Congaree) save
that of the river channel. It is true that the Chattahoochee,
Tuscaloosa or Warrior, and some other rivers are locally
flanked by terraces of Appomattox materials; but these ter-
races appear to be the product of local wave work during the
Columbia submergence rather than of the rivers and waves of
the Appomattox period.

Still more striking does the unconformity appear when the
general configuration of the two formations is compared:
About Grand Bay and St. Elmo in southwestern Alabama the
Columbia forms a smooth, monotonous, sensibly horizontal
plain, while the knolls and uplands of Appomattox protruding
through the flat-lying sands exhibit well developed autogenetic
sculpture; over the smooth plains of the Tombigbee chalk the
Columbia deposits skirt the rivers in sharp-cut terraces, while

32 McGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Hormation.

the Appomattox has been largely removed by erosion; on the
Oconee and Ogeechee Rivers in eastern-central Georgia the
monotonous plains formed by the coast sands of the Columbia
encroach upon and send tongues and fingers into the ravines
and broader depressions of a boldly sculptured upland of
Appomattox loam; and in North Carolina and Virginia the
Columbia is little more than a flowing mantle masking the
more rugged framework of the older Appomattox. Indeed,
throughout their extent these formations illustrate the con-
trast between “topographic youth” and “topographic old
age ” as defined by Chamberlin—the one is soft-faced, smooth,
- nearly featureless; the other hard-visaged, furrowed, strong
featured. ;

Local unconformities between the Appomattox and the sey-
eral subjacent Neozoic formations are frequently exposed in
section; and general unconformity with all these formations
alike is indicated by its overlap upon all from the Grand Gulf
of the Miocene to the Potomac (Tuscaloosa) of the Cretaceous
or Jurassic.

Especially significant is the unconformity between the
Appomattox and the Grand Gulf—the youngest of the series:
In southern Mississippi generally, and notably in the vicinity
of the Tallahoma river about Ellisville, there are sufficiently
numerous exposures of the siliceous clays constituting the
Grand Gulf to show that the surface of the terrane is one of
autogenetic sculpture, that the Appomattox was laid down as
a continuous mantle upon this sculptured surface, and that
after the close of the Appomattox period the rivers resumed

_approximately their ancient courses and have impressed a new
and fairly consistent sculpture upon the old. So, while the
newer formation crowns eminences and floors depressions alike
where not profoundly eroded, its mass is little if any thicker
on the upland than in the valley, and exposures are as common
in the upper as in the lower slopes; and along the larger rivers
the Appomattox has been frequently removed from the lower
slopes while it yet crowns the divides and highlands quite to
the brows of the bluffs.

Especially significant, too, is the relation between the Appo-
mattox and the obdurate strata of the Choctaw buhrstone,
since a rough record of great continental oscillation is con-
tained therein: Southwest of Meridian and west of Corinne
lies a prominent ridge of the peculiar siliceous rocks of this
formation, making the divide between the Okatibbee and
Chunkee river. This divide is a meandering crest, sending
out lateral spurs and culminating in height at every bend,
separating a plexus of steep sided ravines, coves and amphithe-

MeGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation. 33

aters—the whole simulating a mountain crest-line with its
peaks, arétes, cols, gorges and amphitheaters, save that every .
summit is blunted. This striking configuration tells a signifi-
cant story, but one too long for repetition here—it suffices that
it tells of a time when the land stood higher and the rivers
were made more energetic than to-day. Now over this irregu-
lar surface the Appomattox was evidently spread mantlewise,
just as over the qualitatively similar though less strikingly em-
phasized surface of the Grand Gulf; and here as there the post-
Appomattox rivers sought their old courses, and the new drainage
system corresponds substantially with the old ;* but the lower
base level of to-day has tended to develop a flatter surface than the
old, and while remnants of the orange loam are frequently caught
on the crests and lodged in the amphitheaters, they have been
commonly removed from the higher altitudes and are gener-
ally confined to the lower levels.

Perhaps the Appomattox merges into the phosphate-bearing
Pliocene beds of South Carolina; probably it is continuous
with some of the newer off-shore deposits of Florida; unques-
tionably it represents but the landward portion of one of a
vast series of deposits which at some distance beyond the
present shores of Ocean and Gulf are unbroken ; but certainly
there is a great unconformity, first between the Pleistocene
Columbia and the Appomattox, and second between the Appo-
mattox and all of the subjacent Neozoic formations yet sat-
isfactorily discriminated within the Atlantic and Gulf Slopes.

TAXONOMY.

No fossils have thus far been found in the Appomattox
formation except at Meridian, where Johnson has found it to
contain well preserved magnolia leaves apparently identical
with those of trees now growing in the same vicinity. Its
stratigraphic position, unconformably below the Pleistocene
and unconformably above the (probably) Miocene Grand Gulf
formation, indicates an age corresponding at least roughly with
‘the Pliocene.

The formation represents a considerable part of a more or
less vaguely defined series of deposits variously called ‘‘ Orange
Sand,” “Drift” or “ Quaternary,” “Southern Drift,” ete. by
many geologists; but since this vaguely defined series included

* The history of renewal of buried drainage systems in the eastern Gulf slope
is recorded in wonderful fulness and clearness. Three and even four times has
the autogenetically sculptured surface of the Choctaw buhrstone been submerged
and mantled with sediments, only to rise and resume more or less fully its old
aspect under the influence of waterways following the old lines. Such resur-
rected, or palingenetic, drainage and sculpture is characteristic of much of Mis-
sissippi.

Am. Jour. Sc1.—TuirRp Series, Vou XL, No. 235.—Juty, 1890.

cy
Vv

34 McGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation:

not only the Appomattox but also the basal gravel beds of the
Pleistocene loess, purts at least of the Cretaceous or Jurassic
Potomae (Tuscaloosa) formation, and other deposits of various
ages, none of the old designations can be retained without
material modification in definition. It therefore seems wise
to extend the term applied to the formation in the region in
which it was first studied and clearly defined.

Sourcrts OF MATERIALS.

The materials of the formation which may be certainly traced
to their sources are (1) pebbles or gravel, (2) arkose, and (3) a
certain portion of the more finely divided matter.

It has been stated incidentally that about the fall-line the
pebbles of the Appomattox are in large part identical with
those of the Potomac, and that they are evidently derived
therefrom. It has also been stated incidentally that the pebbles
of both Appomattox and Potomac vary from river to river
—quartz on the Rappahannock, quartzite with less quartz on the
James and Appomattox, quartz with less quartzite on the
Roanoke, quartz mainly on the Neuse and Cape Fear, quartz
with less quartzite on the Santee system, quartz and quartzite
in nearly equal proportions on the Savannah and Ocmulgee,
quartzite with less quartz on the Chattahoochee, quartzite, silic-
eous dolomite, quartz, and chert (in order of abundance) on the
Alabama, siliceous dolomite, chert, and quartzite on the Tusca-
loosa (or Warrior), and chert on the Pascagoula and Pearl;
and this variation goes exactly with the petrographic char-
acter of the most obdurate rocks traversed by the upper reaches
of the respective rivers.

Arkose is but a limited and unusual constituent of the
formation, and is only known to oceur under two sets of cun-
ditions: It occurs when the formation rests directly upon ~
erystalline rocks or when these rocks are exposed in such
proximity as to indicate absence of deposits intermediate in
age, as at Wilson, N. C. It occurs also, in less abundance and
purity, where the Appomattox rests directly upon the Potomac
formation and the latter is made up largely or exclusively of
the same material, as at Girard, Alabama. In both cases the
material is evidently derived from an adjacent and older forma-
tion.

Certain striking features in geographic distribution of the
Appomattox formation already pointed out indicate that in
many if not in all cases a part of its materials were derived
from immediately subjacent strata, and so that the character of
this formation in a measure reflects that of the sub-terrane—
the characteristic orange loams being exceptionally loamy over

MceGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation. 35

loams, exceptionally sandy over sands, exceptionally argilla-
ceous over clays, and exceptionally calcareous over limestones.
The combined volume of pebbles and gravel, arkose, and
the local elements of finely divided material, however, consti-
tute but the smaller portion of the entire bulk of the forma-
tion; and the general similarity in composition of the forma-
tion with the residuary loams and clays both of the Piedmont
erystallines and of the Paleozoics of the Gulf slope suggests
that these residua contributed largely to the formation. This
suggestion gains strength from the phenomena exhibited at
Columbia, where the Appomattox takes on a local aspect cor-
responding precisely with the local aspect of the residua de-
rived from the neighboring crystalline rocks.

INTERPRETATION.

The Appomattox formation illustrates a method of geologic
correlation which has grown out of the work in the Coastal
Plain of eastern America, and which is deemed worthy of
statement.

The primitive method of geologic correlation depends upon
tracing actual stratigraphic continuity across or around inter-
vening areas. This method is to-day the simplest and safest
within the reach of geologists; but it is practicable only
within single geologic provinces, and is limited by many other
conditions.

Another method of geologic correlation is based upon
petrography. At certain stages in the development of the
science of the earth, the various classes of rocks have been
more or less widely correlated upon grounds of similarity in
composition, texture, structure and other petrographic char-
acters; but it is now generally recognized that these charac-
ters are simply the expression of processes and conditions
which have been repeated in many parts of the world and in
all periods, and thus that the method can only be applied cau-
tiously and within narrow limits. To-day, correlation by
petrography is practically confined to the ancient crystalline
rocks, and even here it is viewed with distrust by leading
American students.

The disciples of William Smith—who are as numerous to-
day as the devotees of geology—correlate groups of rocks by
paleontology. It is the strength of this method of correlation
that, as practically applied, it embraces the desirable features
of the more primitive methods; that it involves also a broader
and more comprehensive grasp of phenomena and principles
than the simpler methods out of which it was developed ; that
it rests upon a sound philosophic basis ; and that it unites the

36 McGee—Southern Fetension of Appomattox Kormation.

physical aspect of geology with the record of biotic develop-
ment upon the earth in such manner as to form a logical and
consistent basis for the current cosmogony of enlightened men.
It is the weakness of the method that many rocks are too poor
in fossils to be correlated thereby; that formations may be
homotaxial yet not contemporaneous and vice versa; that
fossil facies represent the product of two principal factors of
which one (environment) is so variable under local conditions
that the product is inconstant among the minor rock divis-
ions; and that the geologic chronometers afforded by fossil
plants, fossil invertebrates and fossil vertebrates respectively
give unlike time units and, sometimes, discordant readings.
To-day the larger groups are confidently correlated by paleon-
tology; but leading American geologists no longer accept
identity of fossil facies as final proof of equivalence among
the minor rock divisions.

The method of correlation devised to systemize the struc-
ture of the Coastal Plain combines the desirable features of
the older methods, and adds thereto the interpretation of the
products of the several physical processes operating upon the
earth’s exterior. /It is a correlation by community of genesis,
or homogeny. “~The method involves a yet broader conspectus
of phenomena and principles than the paleontologic method ;
for in its application it is necessary to mentally restore the
various physical and biotic conditions of the past, just as pale-
ontology vivities the fossils of past ages. /

Correlation by homogeny is a simple application of the well
known principles (1) that geologic processes may be inferred
from their products, and (2) that geologic processes are uni-
versally interrelated.

Since the birth of the science it has been the proximate
end of geology to ascertain the genesis of terrestrial phenomena,
with a view to the ultimate end of developing a rational and
valid cosmogony ; and great progress has been made in this
direction. Now, ‘‘scientific progress may be measured by
advance in the classification of phenomena. The primitive
classification is based on external appearances, and is a classifi-
eation by analogies; a higher classification is based on internal
as well as external characters, and is a classification by homol-
ogies; but the ultimate classification expresses the relations of
the phenomena classified to all other known phenomena, and is
commonly a classification by genesis.” So, the primary geo-
logic classification was based directly upon the objective phe-
nomena of the external earth, and early geologic literature was
pervaded and the science shaped by this fundamental idea.
As time went on this classification was found too narrow to

McGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation. 37

represent intelligibly the facts and their relations, and the
desire for a more comprehensive taxonomy was indicated by
semi-arbitrary division of the science into departments defined
by community of agencies (physical geology, structural geol-
ogy, historical geology, etc.), within which the minor classes
were variously defined and grouped. Still later, not only the
primary but the secondary categories of phenomena came to be
commonly defined by genesis; and to-day the taxonomy
adopted by leading American geologists is predominantly
genetic, and geologic research is considered incomplete if it
fails to indicate the origin and course of development of the
phenomena studied.

The interrelation of geologic processes is illustrated in ter-
restrial gradation—the matter degraded from one spot or region
is deposited in some other spot or region; and commonly. the
regions of degradation and deposition are contiguous. It is
also illustrated in the deformation of the terrestrial crust,
whether antecedent or consequent*—when one part of the ter-
restrial crust is heaved another part is thrown; and commonly
the heaved and thrown parts are contiguous. It is illustrated
moreover in the relations between deformation and gradation—
when a mountain range or a continent is lifted it is attacked by
degradation, and when a sea bottom is formed it is subjected
to deposition ; and when degradation lightens the continent or
mountain it is stil] further lifted, and when deposition loads
the sea bottom it is still further depressed. This interrelation
runs through the entire range of geologic processes. It follows
that any process operating in one part of a geologic province
must be represented by a similar or kindred process in other
parts of the same province—i. e., in a mountain province the
degradation of one part is represented by degradation (perhaps
at different rates) in all parts; and in a sea province depo-
sition in one part is represented by deposition (varying in rate
and quality with local conditions) in all other parts. It equally
follows that the products of the processes are genetically re-
lated—that the sculptured forms produced by degradation are
of common genesis and greater or less similarity in form ac-
cording to the local conditions, and that the deposited beds are
of common genesis and greater or less similarity in volume
and material according to the local conditions. It further fol-

*The various mass movements concerned in the development of continents
and mountains are conveniently grouped as deformation, and the various classes
of particle movements concerned in the transfer of materials upon the surface by
air, water, ice, and other agencies are conveniently grouped as gradation; the
earth movements concerned in the elevation and exposure to degradation of con-
tinents are conveniently classed as antecedent; and the earth movements resulting
from transfer of materials through the processes of gradation are conveniently
classed as consequent.—Cf., Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. i, 1888, pp. 27-36; Geol. Mag.
Decade III, vol. ili, 1888, pp. 489-495.

88 MeGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation.

lows that the sculptured forms on the one hand are genetically
related to the deposited beds on the other hand; and it is
indicated not only by theory but by observation that such
relations sometimes extend not only from land province to sea
province, or vice versa, but across a sea province from one to
the other of the land provinces by which it is bounded, or vice
versa, and thus throughout great areas and perhaps continents.
In short, it is evident that when geologic agency was at work
in any spot it must have been doing something throughout the
neighborhood ; and properly conducted field work commonly
shows what this something was.

Now the universal interrelation of geologic processes has
been constantly recognized in the researches into the genesis
(1) of the deposits forming the Coastal Plain and (2) of the
correlative sculptured forms found in the contiguous Piedmont
and Appalachian regions; and it has been ascertained that
each category of phenomena commonly represents two classes
of genetic conditions—one general and the other local. Thus
the topography of the Piedmont and Appalachian regions
gives a record of a certain elevation above base level during
each of three or four well defined periods, as a general con-
dition whose effects may be traced over immense areas; but it
also gives a record of local conditions varying from place to
place with the volume and declivity of streams, the obduracy
of the rocks, the strike and dip of the strata, the homogeneity
or heterogeneity of the terranes, etc. Thus, too, the sedimen-
tary formations of the Coastal Plain give a record of submer-
gence beneath the ocean, during each of several well defined
periods, as a general condition affecting immense areas; but
they also give records of local conditions varying from place
to place with the proximity to and volume of rivers, the ex-
posure to prevailing winds, waves, and currents, the depth of
submergence, the proximity to shores, ete. But the effects of
the general and local conditions respectively can commonly be
discriminated with confidence, and the products of the general
conditions traced throughout their extent. This is true specific-
ally of the littoral and marine formations of the Coastal Plain,
all of which represent widespread submergence with local
variations in depth of water, proximity to shores, activity of
deposition, vicinity of rivers, activity of waves, ete. The
Coastal Plain formations may therefore vary from place to
place in composition, texture, and structure; but the different
phases are intergraduating parts of an indivisible unit, the
local variations are repeated from place to place, and the atti-
tude of each formation indicates a like relation between sea
and Aand in all parts.

n discriminating the general and local genetic conditions, it
is necessary to ascertain the relations between each formation

Mc Gee—Southern Lixtension of Appomattox Formation. 39

and its newer and older neighbors, and to interpret the record
of each unconformity in terms of continent growth. By this
means the different parts of a formation may be found to rep-
resent not only general community of genesis but community
of beginning and ending—in short entire community of struc-
tural relation. Each part of the formation then records in
similar terms the same episode in continent-building and world-
growth.

So, when a Coastal Plain formation is found to represent
eeneral community of genesis and structural relation in its
various parts it is considered homogenic and accepted as a
record of an episode in geologic history. The parts may or
may not be homotaxial; one part may be slightly older than
another part; but in a general way it is contemporaneous
throughout. Homogeny implies not only equivalence but

synechron iY

The value of homogenic correlation is illustrated by the
Columbia formation: in the Middle Atlantic Slope the forma-
tion consists of two diverse phases, one of which is composed
of dissimilar parts; in the Southern Atlantic and Eastern Gulf
slopes the brick clays, bowlder beds, and veneers of local debris
of the north are replaced by the “second bottoms” and coast
sands: and in the Mississippi embayment the formation is rep-
resented by the stratified clays, silts, and sands of the Port
Hudson, and the strongly individualized loess with its basal
gravel beds. Yet these widely diverse deposits represent a
general condition of submergence varying in amount from
region to region, in a gradual manner; the basal unconformities
are alike, and represent like conditions of continent- -erowth ; and
the degradation suffered by the formation in its various parts
is indicative of like antiquity. Again, one local phase found
in the Middle Atlantic Slope tells of local activity of the
rivers, the other tells of a general activity of estuarine waves
and currents, and both tell of glacial cold; the testimony of
glacial cold fails in the Southern Atlantic and Eastern Gulf
slopes, but there one phase tells of river work and estuarine
conditions, and another of wave work and marine condi-
tions, both operating on a distinctive local formation. So, too,
the loess and the subjacent gravel beds in the Mississippi em-
bayment tell of glacial cold in the upper reaches of the river,
accompanied first by a stimulated transportation and subse-
quently by such submergence as to slacken the waters and
precipitate fine debris; while the Port Hudson clays, silts, and
sands tell of submergence and estuarine deposition in the
brackish waters of an arm of the Gulf. Thus the general con-
dition represented by the deposit is everywhere the same;
while the local variations may be ascribed to varying local con-

40 MeGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation.

ditions. The formation has indeed been connected stratigraph-
ically between its most widely diverse phases and throughout a
considerable part of its area; but the absolute identification of
the various parts of a formation so diverse in composition, so
vast in area, and so unequal in hypsographie distribution, is
rendered posssible and satisfactory only by the homogenic
method of correlation.

The value of the method is still better illustrated by the
Appomattox: This formation is frequently buried beneath
newer deposits, and frequently and widely divided by erosion
over large areas, so that connection of the exposures by strati-
graphic continuity is impracticable. It is essentially unfos-
siliferous in the exposures thus far examined, so that paleon-
tologic correlation is impracticable; and while its materials,
texture and structure are moderately constant, they are too
variable to warrant correlation by petrography ‘alone. Yet it
is evident that the various parts of the formation are littoral

or sub-littoral; that all represent temporary incursion of the

sea upon a long-seulptured land surface; that all are affected
by the composition of the subterrane; that all are affected by
the proximity of rivers flowing along the present water lines ;
that the materials everywhere comprise certain constant ele-
ments; and that the structural relations of the formation are
essentially identical throughout its extent. So this formation,
like the Columbia, tells of a uniform general condition and of
certain easily discriminated local conditions; and its various
parts may thus be confidently correlated by homogeny. The
formation has indeed been traced and connected as far as pos-
sible by stratigraphic continuity through thousands of expos-
ures; but the isolated knobs projecting through newer
deposits and the isolated remnants left by erosion, and indeed
the regionai developments of the orange-hued deposit could
never have been satistactorily identified save by homogeny.

Eventually the formation will be confidently correlated with
certain topographic stages displayed in the Piedmont and
Appalachian regions of the Southern Atlantic and Eastern
Gulf slopes; but this correlation remains for fuller develop-
ment through future work.

It should be pointed out that neither the Columbia nor the
Appomattox adequately illustrates the value of homogenic
correlation, by reason of their poverty in fossils. Thus far
paleontologic correlation has been based upon certain explicit
or implicit assumptions concerning the geographic distribution
of organisms and the relations between organisms and environ-
ment “during past ages; i. e., it has been commonly assumed by
paleontologists that the eeographic distribution of organisms
and their relations to environmental conditions in the past
were much the same as those of the present. But when the

MecGee—Southern Extension of Appomattox Formation. 41

geologic formations are correlated by the physical method, the
geographic distribution of organisms and the relations between
organisms and environment during the geologic periods may be
determined with only less accuracy than the like conditions
- are determined to-day. So, by homogenie correlation, the ebb
and flow in the many branches of the vital stream during long
past eons will be measured, homotaxis will blend with homogeny,
and the cosmogony which it is the province of geology to de-
velop will be refined and ennobled.

By reason of its prevalence, its distinctive coloration, and its
fairly homogeneous composition, the Appomattox formation is
the most conspicuous deposit of the Coastal Plain between the
Roanoke and the Mississippi; over much of this vast area
it has been traced in thousands of exposures and extensively
connected by stratigraphic continuity, yet the observations
have been fully interpreted and the exposures finally correlated
by homogeny ; and it is largely through the application of this
method of study that the formation has been found to be a
well defined and indivisible structural unit, representing a
single clearly defined episode in the development of the conti-
nent. So distinctive is the orange-hued loam, and so definite
the history recorded within it, that it is destined to rank as a
great datum formation, from which the stratigraphy and geo-
logic history of the Coastal Plain must be reckoned downward
and backward as they are reckoned upward and forward from
the Potomace.

Hitherto no geologist has been able to form a definite con-
ception of the physiography of the southeastern part of the
continent during any given period. The episodes were too
short and the distances too long to permit satisfactory paleon-
tologic correlation; the deposits vary from state to state, and
from Gulf province to Atlantic province; beds come in and
beds run out; limestones change to shale and shales to sand-
stone; with the changes in material there are changes in
fossils, and the complex history recorded in the everchanging
series has never been raveled; and not half. the total thick-
ness of the beds yields faunge or floree in sufficient wealth
for close chronologic identification. Geologists have indeed
formed general conceptions of the development of the
province; but they have been hazy in detail, shadowy with
respect to the succession of events, and vague with respect to
quantitative measures of time or deposit. But the Appomat-
tox formation, with the method of homogenic correlation
which it largely inspired, enables the student to represent
graphically and with fair accuracy the physiography of the
southeastern part of the continent during a well defined
episode.

42 A. M. Mayer—Kxperimental Proof of Ohiv’s Law.

Art. Ill.—An experimental proof of Ohm’s Law: pre-
ceded by a short account of the discovery and subsequent
verification of the law; by ALFRED M. MAYER.

I PURPOSE giving in this paper a simple and direct experi-

mental proof of Ohm’s law, (c=). Generally a mere for-

mal statement of this law with illustrations are given in text
books on Physics, and the student is left to infer that its truth
is shown by the cumulative evidence given by the immense
number of quantitative relations in electrical actions which the
law associates, and by the experience that deductions made on
the basis of this law agree in measure with the results of ex-
periments. The latter fact is certainly one of the best proofs
of the truth of the law; but, nevertheless, the relations
between O, E and R are not directly and simultaneously shown

to be exactly expressed by oF It is true that some works
v

give experiments to show this relation but they are so difficult
to perform by reason of the difficulty of maintaining constant
C, E and R, that the results of the experiments only approxi-
mate to those required by the law.

Ohm was led to the conception of this law by assuming
that the flow of electricity in a voltaic circuit is similar to
the tlow of heat by conduction in a rod of indefinite extent.
Also, his assumptions that the actions of two electrified parti-
cles are directly as their distance and that the electricity is
uniformly dense over each cross section of a conducting wire
were directly opposed to the laws and facts well established by
Coulomb for statical electricity. It is not surprising that
scientific men were slow in adopting the views and theory of
Ohm. In his memoir (Die Galvanische Kette mathematisch
bearbitet von Dr. G. 8. Ohm: Berlin, 1827), he states: *
“Three laws, of which the first expresses the mode of distri-
bution of the electricity within. one and the same _ body,
the second the mode of dispersion of the electricity in the
surrounding atmosphere, and the third the mode of appearance
of the electricity at the place of contact of two heterogeneous
bodies, form the basis of the entire memoir, and at the same
time contain everything that does not lay claim to being com-
pletely established. The two latter are purely experimental
laws; but the first, from its nature, is, at least partly theo-
retical.

* See translation, published in vol. ii, of Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, p. 402.
London, 1841.

A. M. Mayer—Experimental Proof of Ohm's Law. 43

“ With regard to this first law, I have started from the sup-
position that the communication of the electricity from one
particle takes place directly only to the one next to it, so that
no immediate transition from that particle to any other situate
at a greater distance occurs. The magnitude of the transition
between to adjacent particles, under otherwise exactly similar
circumstances, I have assumed as being proportional to the
difference of the electric forces existing in the two particles ;
just as in the theory of heat, the transition of caloric between
two particles is regarded as proportional to the difference of
their temperatures. It will thus be seen that I have deviated
from the hitherto usual mode of considering molecular actions
introduced by Laplace; and I trust the path I have struck
into will recommend itself by its generality, simplicity, and
clearness, as well as by the light it throws upon the character
of former methods.

With respect to the dispersion of electricity in the atmos-
phere, I have retained the law deduced from experiments by
Coulomb, according to which, the loss of electricity in a body
surrounded by air, in a given time, is in proportion to the force
of the electricity, and to a coefficient dependent on the nature
of the atmosphere. A simple comparison of the circumstances
under which Coulomb performed his experiments, with those
at present known respecting the propagation of electricity,
showed, however, that in galvanic phenomena the influence of
the atmosphere may almost always be disregarded. In Cou-
lomb’s experiments, for instance, the electricity driven to the
surface of the body was engaged in its entire expanse in the
process of dispersion in the atmosphere; while in the galvanic
circuit the electricity almost constantly passes through the
interior of the bodies, and consequently only the smallest
portion can enter into mutual action with the air; so that in
this case, the dispersion can comparatively be but very incon-
siderable. This consequence, deduced from the nature of the
circumstances, is confirmed by experiment; in it lies the
reason why the second law seldom comes into consideration.

The mode in which electricity makes its appearance at the
place of contact of two different bodies, or the electrical
tension of these bodies, I have thus expressed: when dissimilar
bodies touch one another, they constantly maintain at the
point of contact the same difference between their electro-
scopic forces [potentials].

With the help of these three fundamental positions, the
conditions to which the propagation of electricity in bodies of
any kind and form is subjected may be stated. The form and
treatment of the differential equations thus obtained are so
similar to those given for the propagation of heat by Fourier

44. A. M. Mayer—Experimental Proof of Ohm's Law.

and Poisson, that even if there existed no other reasons, we
might with perfect justice draw the conclusion that there
exists an intimate connection between both natural phenomena ;
and this relation of identity increases, the further we pursue
it. These researches belong to the most difficult in mathemat-
ics, and on that account can only gradually obtain general
admission; it is therefore a fortunate chance, that in a not
unimportant part of the propagation of electricity, in conse-
quence of its peculiar nature, those difficulties almost entirely
disappear.”

From these premises, and guided by results of experiments
made by him and by Ritter, Erman, Jager, Davy and Bec-
querel he arrived at the following conditions as existing in a
voltaic circuit.

1. In a homogeneous conductor, forming part of a voltaic
circuit, the difference of the electric tensions at any two points
of the conductor is proportional to their distance.

2. In different conductors forming part of a circuit, the
difference of tensions at two points separated by an interval
equal to the unit of length is in the inverse ratio of the sec-
tion of the conductor and of its coefficient of conductivity.
Hence, in different conductors, equal differences of tension
correspond to lengths whose electric resistance is the same.

3. At the point of contact of two different conductors, there
is a sudden variation of electric tension.

4. If A equals the sum of the electro-motive forces, L the
resistances, A the resistance reckoned from a point m of the
circnit to a point » when the tension is zero, the tension at
the point m is given by the formula

u=Ap.

: A
Ohm eventually arrives at the formula S=7; which expresses

what is generally known as his law. Which formula, he says,
‘is generally true, and already reveals the equality of the force
of the current at all points of the circuit; in other words it
may be thus expressed: The force of the current in a galvanic
circuit is directly as the sum of all the tensions, and inversely
as the entire reduced length of the circuit, bearing iu mind
that at present by reduced length is understood the sum of all
the quotients obtained by dividing the actual lengths corres-
ponding to the homogeneous parts by the product of the
corresponding conductivities and sections.”

The words “ tension ” (Spannung) and “ electromotive force”
used by Ohm are the equivalent of the word potential. He
was the first to introduce this conception into the theory of

A. I. Mayer

Experimental Proof of Ohm’s Law. 45

the voltaic circuit and to the above words and to current and
resistance he attached precise meanings and showed the rela-
tions existing between those quantities. The clear detinitions
Ohm gave of these terms marked a transition from vague ideas
of “quantity” and “intensity” to the clear conceptions of
potential, electromotive force, current and resistance. The
word energy he also used with clear and accurate meaning
as is shown in the following statement: “that the decompos-
ing force of the cireuit is in direct proportion to the energy
of the current, and moreover, that it depends on a coefticient,
to be derived from the nature of the constituent parts and
their chemical equivalents.” This was published in 1827, six
years before Faraday’s researches on electrolysis.

Neither Ohm nor his contemporaries were able to test the
truth of the four statements given above as embodying Ohm’s
theory. It was reserved for Kohlrausch in 1849 to show by
very ingenious and accurate experiments that Ohm’s state-
ments were true in mode and in measure. Kirchhoff* and
Quincke + applied with success Ohm’s theory to the flow of
electricity in thin conducting plates, or bodies of two dimen-
sions, and the same was done by Smaasen ¢ not only in a plane
but in bodies of three demensions. The most remarkable con-
firmation of Ohm’s law was made in 1876 § by experiments,
suggested by Maxwell and performed by Chrystal in the
Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, “in which the testing of this
law seems to have been carried to the limit of experimental
resources.”

Though Ohm’s law has thus received such ample verification
that it ranks with the best established laws of nature, yet, as
Maxwell says, ‘‘Ohm’s law must, at least at present, be con-
sidered a purely empirical one. No attempt to deduce it from
pure dynamical principles has as yet been successful... .
The conduction of electricity through a resisting medium is a
process in which part of the energy of an electric current,
flowing in a definite direction, is spent in imparting to the
molecules of the medium that irregular agitation which we
call heat. To calculate from any hypothesis as to the molec-
ular constitution of the medium at what rate the energy of a
given current would be spent in this way, would require a far
more perfect knowledge of the dynamical theory of bodies
_ than we at present possess. It is only by experiments that we
can determine the laws of processes of which we do not under-
stand the dynamical theory.”

* Poge, Ann., t. lxiv, 1845, and t. Ixvii, 1846.
+ Pogg. Ann., t. xevii, 1856.

t Poge. Ann., t Ixiv, and t. Ixxil.
§ Brit. Assoc. Rept., 1876, p. 36.

46 A. M. Mayer—LHxperimental Proof of Ohm's Law.

Surely if an experiment, that is easily made, shows the
truth of a law of such theoretical and practical importance
as that of Ohm, even if it is one restricted in its range of OC,
E and R, but shows within its limitations the relations C= RP
then it should be made by all teachers of Physics so that clear
physical conceptions of those relations may be given to
students. As those who have seen these experiments have
deemed them worthy of being more generally known, I now
publish an account of them.

In the diagram the parts of the apparatus are shown, but
not at their relative distances apart or in the proper propor-
tions as to size. G is a low-resistance Thomson-galvanometer.
At Lis the condensing lens of a lime-light lantern, which is
covered with a cap having a rectangular opening init. Across
the middle of this slit is a vertical wire. The scale of the
galvanometer is at C, distance 165°* from the mirror of the
galvanometer. The width of the divisions on this scale are
2°5°™s, and the lines are drawn 2°5™™* in breadth, or ,'}; the
distance apart of the centers of the lines forming a unit of the
scale. The scale is at such distance from the galvanometer-
mirror that the image of the vertical slit just fits in the space
of a scale unit, while the breadth of the image of the vertical
wire is exactly equal to the breadth of a scale line. This
arrangement gives the means of observing a deflection of the
beam of light to ;5 and z5 of a unit with quickness and
accuracy.

The image of the slit is so bright and that of the wire so
distinct that this method of observing deflections of the
galvanometer may be used in broad day light and the deflec-
tions may be read throughout the room.

A. M. Mayer—KExperimental Proof of Ohm’s Law. 47

An incandescent electric lamp with a part of its surface
(behind the plane of its filament) silvered may replace the
lime-light. Thanks to this arrangement, I have been able
during many years to make before my class electrical measure-
ments, and to measure the radiation, reflection, refraction,
diathermancy and polarization of radiant heat.

At M isamagnet 25° long and 14°™* in diameter. On this
magnet slides a wooden disc. At R is box containing 1, 2 and
3 Ohms of resistance, made of coils of copper wire.

An insulated copper wire wound at its middle in a circle of
one coil, or in a spiral of any number of coils is placed over the
magnet and rests on the top of the wooden disc. The figure

shows, (one-half size) how this circle of one coil is made. It
is bent around a wooden cylinder 3$™* in diameter, and then
the free ends of wire are bent one half turn on each other.
The free lengths of the wire are then lashed to a light square
rod of wood as shown in figure. The wire and rod are then
coated with shellac to cement them firmly together. Rings of
spirals of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 coils are also made in the same
manner, but the coils are in a spiral, i. e. in one plane, and are
then cemented together with shellac between rings of thin
eard-board.

The length of wire forming each of these rings of spiral
coils with the portion on its handle is one meter long.

The resistance of this length of wire added to the resistance
of the lengths between it and G and R, together with the
resistance of the galvanometer is (for convenience) made one
ohm.

It may be well here to speak of the adjustment of the gal-
vanometer before describing the experiments, for I have
noticed in some laboratories -and lecture rooms galvanometers
which are used not as they should be. I have noticed that
the damping-magnet formed a considerable angle with the
plane of the coil. This was either because the median plane
of the coil was not in the magnetic meridian or because there
was considerable torsion in the suspending thread.

In these galvanometers, or, at least, in mine, the median
plane of the coil is placed parallel to the faces of the drum of
the instrument. The plane of one of these faces is brought in
the magnetic meridian of the room, which has been carefully

»
48 A. M. Mayer—Kuperimental Proof of Ohm’s Law.

drawn on the table under the vertical center line of the gal-
vanometer coil, by means of a long magnetic needle mounted
like those used on plane-tables. A line at right angles to this
meridian is now drawn so that its point of intersection with the
meridian line shall be exactly under the suspending thread of
the mirror. In the vertical plane of the line, drawn at right
angles to the meridian, is placed the vertical wire in the slit of
the lantern, L, and also the zero line of the scale C. The
scale is parallel to the magnetic meridian. The galvanometer
is now placed in the position given above and the “ directing
magnet”? removed to a distance. The image of the vertical
wire at L will now be found on the zero of the scale if there
is no torsion in the suspending thread. If it does not come to
zero then the head of the rod to which the thread is attached
is turned till image of wire coincides with zero of scale, and
then the instrument is in adjustment, and it will give deflec.
tions as the tangents of the strength of current, or, in other
words, the current strength will be directly as the readings on
the scale. The magnet M is now placed so that it causes no
movement of beam from the zero of the scale. The directing
magnet, above the coil, is now so adjusted that the time of an
oscillation of ulnts magnets of the galvanometers is above 5
seconds.

The coil, E, over the magnet is put in the circuit of G and
R. The wires between E and G and R are twisted and tied
together so that no induced current from the earth’s magnet-
ism may be caused by the motions of this part of the cireuit.
The image of wire is on zero of scale. Now on rapidly lifting
the coil from around the magnet a defiection is produced by
the magneto-electric current thus generated. It is sufficient to
know that the cause of this current is the quick lifting of the
ring with one coil. If we replace this by a ring of two coils
we get twice the deflection, and rings of 3, 4, 5, and 6 coils
gives 3, 4, 5, and 6 times the deflection given by the ring with
one coil. Adopting the conception of the lines of magnetic
force, we say that the ring with one coil cuts a certain number
of these lines, this cutting of the lines causes the current, and
is the electromotive force. The ring with two coils makes two
cuts of these same lines, or, cuts double the number of lines,
the rings of 3, 4,5 and 6 coils cut 3, 4,5 and 6 times the
number of lines and hence give 3, 4, 5 and 6 times the electro-
motive force.

In these experiments the resistance of the circuit has re-
mained constant. Now take the ring with 5 or 6 coils and let
us have one ohm as resistance of cireuit. On lifting ring from
magnet we get a certain deflection, which we may make ex-
actly equal to a whole number of the units of the scale by

A. M. Mayer—kxperimental Proof of Ohiv’s Law. 49

sliding up or down the disc on the magnet. We now take out
plug of resistance box and make resistance of circuit two ohms.
The deflection of the galvanometer magnet now becomes one
half of that of previous experiment, and successively making
the circuit with resistances of 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 ohms we get,
4, +, +, +, and 4 of the deflection we got with one ohm in
circuit.

When these experiments are made with the galvanometer in
perfect adjustment, and with the precautions indicated below,
the deflections arrive one after the other exactly as the law
requires. Thus showing with sufficient precision for a lecture
experiment that the current is directly as the electromotive
force and inversely as the resistance. Indeed generally the
closest scrutiny does not detect in the scale reading any de-
parture from the law.

Certain precautions are, however, necessary in these experi-
ments. The resistance outside the galvanometer must be of
copper wire, for such is the wire of the galvanometer. Also,
the whole of the apparatus must be put together the day before
we make the experiments, and the room maintained at as con-
stant a temperature as possible, so that the temperature of all
parts of the apparatus is the same. The deflections should not
exceed 15 divisions of the scale. Thus, if we start with 15 divis-
ions of deflection for a resistance of one ohm we will get 7:5;
5; 3°75; 3; 2°5 ; and 27148 deflections for resistances of circuit
of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 ohms; and if with a constant resistance
we obtain a deflection of 2 divisions of scale with a ring of one
coil, we will get deflections of 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12, with rings
having 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 coils.

It is necessary that the coils should be removed from the
magnet very quickly, otherwise the deflections will not be as
the law requires. In other words, the currents produced should
be as instantaneous as can be obtained. Instead of rapidly re-
moving the coils by the hand, I have sometimes lashed the coil
and their handles to a spring board with a hole in it which
went over the magnet. By a trigger this spring-board is re-
leased. We thus get the same velocity in lifting the coil in
each experiment. We have found, however, that the hand
of a good experimenter gives precise results. Sometimes I
have sent the coil from the magnet by the blow of a stick
delivered on the under side of the handle of the coil at its
center of percussion. There is no doubt some departure from
the law in these experiments, for it is not possible in such ex-
periments to obtain what is understood by instantaneous cur-
rents; and the damping of the magnet by the mirror acting
on the air must come into play. Yet I have never seen any

Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XL, No. 235.—Juty, 1890,
4

50 W. LeConte Stevens—Microscope Magnification.

but insignificant and barely discernable departures from de-
flections required by the law. This follows from the small
angles of deflections and low velocity of the motion of the
oalvanometer magnet in the experiments. It is also to be
noticed that with a good magnet of the size stated, and with
the galvanometer making one vibration in about 5 seconds, the
coil with 5 turns passes over only 2 cms. or less, of end of
magnet in order that it shall give a deflection of 15 divisions
of scale. It is evident that in these conditions a very short
time is occupied in cutting the lines of force. If the max-
imum deflection used is 15 divisions of the scale, the actual
angular deflection of the magnets and mirror amounts to only
6°29’. Yet 15 divisions are quite a length on the scale, being
equal to 387-5 cms. But these experiments may be as readily
made with a ballistic galvanometer. Then the magnets and
coils have to be of larger dimensions.

Experiments similar to those given have served to graduate
galvanometers. We have here the means of sending definite
amounts of currents through an ordinary galvanometer and we
may thus graduate its angular readings into their relative
values in current. The damping of the galvanometer has,
however, to be applied to the readings, and then the results
may best be put in the form of a curve.

Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J.

Art. 1V.—Microscope Magnification ; by W. LeConte
STEVENS.

WHEN a lens is interposed as magnifier between the eye and
an object, it produces a virtual image of this, the accommoda-
tion of the eye being so adjusted as to relax the ciliary muscle
and thus secure the most comfortable vision. For normal eyes
this occurs when the entering rays are parallel, rather than
when the accommodation is for the conventional near-point of
distinct vision. The position of the virtual image is hence
indeterminate; but by common consent it has been generally
agreed to consider its distance on the axial line to be 10
inches, or 254 millimeters, from the optical center of the lens.

It can be easily shown that, if the lens and object be fixed,
the increase of visual angle produced is a maximum when the
eye is closest to the lens, It is never possible to measure
accurately the distance from the optical center of the lens to
that of the refracting combination composing the observer's
eye. In theoretical calculations an allowance should be made
for it; practically it is regarded as zero.

W. LeConte Stevens—Microscope Magnification. 51

By some authors a distinction is made between the terms
“magnification” and “amplification,” and still further be-
tween “relative,” “comparative,” and “absolute” amplifying
power.* Whatever may be the value of these distinctions in
theory the writer can find no good reason for discarding the
familiar term, magnification, to denote the ratio of the diam-
eters of the retinal images produced with and without the
magnifying lens, or system of lenses, respectively. The con-
ditions under which the magnifying system is employed are to
some extent arbitrary.

To compute the magnification given by a microscope it is
necessary to multiply together the separate magnifications due
to the eye-piece and objective employed. Unfortunately the
nomenclature of eye-pieces and objectives is still far from sat-
isfactory; and it would perhaps be safe to say that the
majority of persons who employ them are unable, under exist-
ing limitations, to do more than accept certain labels and use
these in calculation. But the labels are misleading. To eall
an eye-piece “shallow” or “deep,” or to name it an A, B, or
C eye-piece, affords no definite idea of its power. Such arbi-
trary and useless designations deserve to be abolished. An
eye-piece should be labeled with its equivalent focal length
like an objective; and in each case the label should be accu-
rate to within one millimeter. This method of labeling eye-
pieces was recommended several years ago by the American
Society of Microscopists, but thus far there has been very
little compliance on the part of manufacturers. Tables of
magnification are given by certain firms for combinations of
objectives with eye-pieces as sold by them; but the purchaser
has to take these figures on trust. They are professedly
applicable only when “standard tube-length” is employed.
Such a standard exists only in name and not in fact. In 1887
Professor 8. H. Gage, of Cornell University, applied to all of
the prominent makers of microscopes in the world for infor-
mation as to the tube-length for which their objectives were
corrected, enclosing to each a diagram upon which should be
marked those points on the microscope body which were taken
as the limits of tube-length. From eighteen of these firms, in-
cluding the majority of those addressed, satisfactory answers
were obtained. Among the lengths given, the following in
millimeters may be taken as examples: 125, 146, 150, 160,
£65, 180, 1905) 200,203, 216, 220,228,250, 254. ‘The
last of these numbers occurs most frequently, corresponding to
10 inches. Examination of the diagrams revealed equal
diversity in regard to the points taken as the limits of tube
length. In one case it was from the upper surface of the eye
lens to the lower extremity of the objective; in another, from

*L, Didelot, ‘Du Pouvoir amplifiant du microscope,” Paris, 1887.

52 W. LeConte Stevens—Microscope Magnification.

the upper surface of the field lens to that of the topmost lens
of the objective.

The present writer had occasion, some time since, to pur-
chase a binocular microscope, with several objectives and eye-
pieces, for which a table of magnification was furnished.
Examination of this table showed that the magnification was
ealeulated by dividing 100 by the product of what were called
the focal lengths of objective and eye-piece, expressed in
inches. On inquiry of the dealer this rule was found to be
the one he had employed, and it was said- to be in common
use. Its results were admitted to be only approximate, but it
was supposed to be near enough to the truth for most prac-
tical purposes.

It has seemed desirable, therefore, to test this rule, and in
so doing to search out a few points that may possibly be of
interest to those who use the microscope as a physical instru-
ment. Its deduction is very simple. Let the object, ab, be

I

Q@

4

focalized by the objective, O, at ab’. Oc is taken as the
focal length of the objective, and Oc’ as the tube-length, 10
inches. If m be the magnifying power of the objective alone,
we have,

The visual angle, a, subtended at O by a’b’ is the same as that
subtended by ad, if an eye placed at O were capable of suft-
cient accommodation to secure distinct vision at so short a dis-
tance. The image, ab’, is viewed with an eye-piece, which
increases the visual angle from a to a’, producing a virtual
image which is assumed to be 10 inches away. If m’ be the
magnifying power of the eye-piece whose focal length is 7’,
we have, approximately,

, tanga’ 10
Titan fLE

If M be the total magnification, the result therefore is

70

Me min pr 5 ‘ : (1).

In applying this formula, if previous measurements have
not been made upon the lenses composing the eye-piece, a

W. LeConte Stevens— Microscope Magnification. 53

difficulty arises in regard to the value to be assigned 7’, since
eye-pieces ordinarily have no labels more intelligible than A,
B, or C, which numerically mean nothing. If a positive eye-
piece be employed, the focal length of its two lenses being
equal, the equivalent focal length of the combination is
obtained by the usual formula, if that of either of the two
lenses, and the interval between their optical centers, be meas-
ured. In case the eye-piece be negative, a majority of those
in use belonging to this class, the focal length of its eye lens is
easily found by allowing for its thickness and measuring down
to the diaphragm where the real image is formed. But the
size of this image has been decreased, and its position has been
changed by the interposition of the field lens. At the risk,
therefore, of giving what seems very elementary, it may be
well to consider briefly the theory of the negative eve-piece.
We may assume the proportions usually said to be adopted
in the construction of the negative eye-piece, that the focal
length of the field lens is three times that of the eye lens, and
the interval between these equal to the difference of their
focal lengths. The rays, rv, fig. 2, converging from the
objective toward the point, Q, have their convergence in-

creased by the field lens, so as to cross at Q’. They are made
parallel by the eye-lens, and emerge so as to produce a virtual
image which to the receiving eye appears in the direction E X.
Hence Q’ is in the principal focal plane of the eye lens, and Q
in one conjugate focal plane of the objective.

eo =i gs field lens.
“ LP =p = distance of virtual point of radiance.
sey tee 1) ep actual es convergence.
Then, by the fundamental law of lenses,
te kaa
DO Pn
Since E L=2/’, and E P’=/', we have p’=/’. Hence,
I il 1 3
Say) Haha Gh Pees I (=i
Se OTR ah 2

54 W. LeConte Stevens—Microscope Magnification.

: Soa ne.

The focal plane of the objective is hence midway between
the eye lens and its focal plane; and the diameter of the
image actually viewed with this lens is two-thirds of that
which would have been formed if the field lens had been

10 wate
absent. If we assume ~% as the magnifying power of the

objective when no field lens is used, the interposition of this

lens reduces it to gf My This reduction of magnification is
o

more than offset by the well known advantages which the

field lens confers. Introducing the proper correction in

formula (1), this becomes
2 100
=e 2).
Be. o

Formula (2) implies a knowledge of the focal length of the
objective and of only the eye lens. To find the equivalent
focal length of the eye-piece combination, let F stand for this
length, 7” and 7” for those of eye lens and field lens respect-
ively, and d@ for the interval between these lenses. Then the
usual formula for the combination is

1 1 It d

a S75) Sa 3 .
KF pot ee Sau ( )

In this case f’=387" and d=27. Substituting, we have
— or. 6 : 5 6 AN
=F (4)

Introducing this value off’ in formula (2), the result is

100
M— Re sito utes ee anne (5).

The value of fis labeled on the mounting of the objective,
and that of F is easily obtained by applying formula (4), 7”
being found without calculation, as suggested above, i great
accuracy is not required.

In formula (5), 100 is the product of two factors. One of
them is the assumed distance at which distinct vision with the
unaided eye is most easily attained? It may be taken as 250
millimeters, which is very nearly 10 inches. The other is the
distance from the focal plane of the objective to what we may
provisionally call its optical center. If we make this last dis-
tance our detinition of tube length, use for it the symbol T,
and let D stand for the distance of distinct vision, our formula
becomes,

W. LeConte Stevens—Microscope Magnification. 55

DT
Woes i me (6)

It remains now to be seen what modifications need to be im-
posed upon formula (6), since formula (1), from which it is
developed, is confessedly only approximate. Its second mem-
ber should be equal to the product of the magnifying powers,
m and m’, of objective and eyepiece respectively, as deter-
mined by experiment.

Assuming that the eye-piece has been constructed in accord-
ance with the conditions implied in the formula, F is to be
determined from 7’, which in turn can be measured with but
little error by use of the camera lucida. Let an eyepiece mi-
crometer be placed at the diaphragm and properly illuminated,
the microscope body being so tilted that the optical center of
the eye lens shall be 25u™™" above the white paper on the table.
With the camera lucida the divisions of the micrometer are
projected on the paper, and the magnification, 7’, is directly
determined. To find 7’, since the image is virtual, the value
of nv’ is substituted in the formula,

D
1 te la : : ue i

Ft (7)
This method may be checked by detaching the eye lens and
testing it independently by Cross’s formula, to be presently
iven.
: The value of 7, the focal length of the objective, cannot be
determined by ordinary methods because the microscope ob-
jective usually consists of two or more systems of lenses, each
made up of a crown and a flint; and the error involved in
“measuring the thickness of each of these separately and also
their distance apart is so considerable as to make the final
result very uncertain. The best formula to apply is that
deduced some years ago by Prof. C. R. Cross.* This formula
is of such importance that its deduction and application are
best given in this connection.

Let the field lens of the eye-piece be removed, and two
micrometer scales be employed, one of which, divided into
10ths of a millimeter, is placed on the stage as an object, while
the other, divided into millimeters, is placed at the diaphragm
in the focal plane of the eye lens. The image of the stage
micrometer is focused upon the eye-piece micrometer, and the
comparison of these images gives the magnifying power, 7, of
the objective at the distance selected. Assuming provisionally
an optical center for the objective under the given conditions,

* Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. lix, p. 401.

56 W. LeConte Stevens—Microscope Magnification.

Let p= distance of stage micrometer from this optical center.
Let p’ = Gs eye- piece a

!

Then, ’ mak, or poke : : Be ((s))

7

It is impossible to measure either p or p’ directly, but we
can measure the distance between the two micrometer scales,
which is equal to their sum. Calling this 7, we have,

l=pt+p',orp=/l—p'. : Bs (C8?)

Eliminating p between equations (8) and (9),

/ ml
P= m+ 1 . ° 5 . (10)
From the equation of lenses,
Thane Pie ec :
ue ge 2 we have f(p +p’) =pp'. 5) (G5)

Substituting in equation (11) from equations (9) and (10),
and reducing, the result is
ml

Since this formula is independent of p and p’, it may be
applied without any knowledge of the optical center of either
a single lens or a system of lenses.

The eye-pieces of the microscope to which reference has been
already made are devoid of labels, aithough the instrument is a
fine one, and the maker was one of the best known in America,
a careful and intelligent German, now dead. They have been
subjected to measurement, with the result given in Table I.
The two eye-pieces labeled in the table A, and A, were evi-
dently intended to be, in ordinary nomenclature, 2-inch eye-
pieces ; those labeled B, and B,, 13-inch eye-pieces, and the
one labeled CO, a #-inch eye-piece. All measurements of length
were made in millimeters.

TABLE I.

1 2. 3 4. 5 6. ie aie eS, 9.

Hig Tit d F af? i’ eG m!
A; 355 58°8 54:0 51°8 Doe 2°07 —— 3A eRe
As 34:9 58-1 54:0 52:0 inyieR} 2°08 —3°9 5°82
15% Des 40°6 38:0 36°6 31-9 1°46 + 2° 7:83
Be Zio 40°9 38:0 36:0 31:6 1:44 +42 | 7:94
C 13°6 28°7 23 20:2 20:4 “81 —T'4 | 13:38

On comparison of columns 2, 3, and 4, it is seen that in no
case is 7’ =37', or d=27’, as generally assumed in relation to
the negative eye-piece. To multiply the focal length of the

W. LeConte Stevens—Microscope Magnification. 57

eye-lens by 2 does not therefore give the equivalent focal
length of the combination. The approximation, as shown in
colums 5 and 6 is moderately good in eye-pieces A, and C, but
by no means so in B, and B,. In column 5 the value of F was
computed by formula (3), and the results translated into inches
for column 7. Column 8 shows the percentage of error in the
nominal equivalent focal lengths of the eye-pieces, and column
9 shows their actual magnifying power. Each of the data of
columns 2 and 3 is the mean of five independent measure-
ments; but the results in column 9 are affected with a
probable error greater than what should be expected if F could
have been obtained directly from ,f” alone.

The maker of an eye-piece ought certainly to know how to
test his work after it is finished. He has the right to use any
formula in construction that experience has shown to be valu-
able. But in every case the value of F ought to be determined
accurately by him, and labeled on the mounting of the eye-
piece, not in whole inches or aliquot parts of an inch, but in
decimal parts of an inch, or, still better, in millimeters. The
scientific world is familiar enough with the metric system to
warrant the abolition of other systems, at least in the construc-
tion of all new instruments.

TABLE II.
| |
1 QO Ae) 285 6
| | "
Vad | m j.mm. |f. inches.| e%
| [fase | |
Woe SS | BR a) ORR Pero
Bo a3 035 6°25 SOgliaer ewes +41
R. 14 300 | 710 32°4 1:28 +17
1B) ki) 2} | 93335) 2056))) 1508 —]1
B. z 284 13°50 | 1852, =| ‘716 +5
W.% 296 VASOOM Parl Se4er a "124 | +4
B.t | 288 18°80 ABI) ‘531 | —6
C.F 290 55°00 5-1 202 + 24
1B. 283 58-00 ASG 185 | +1
Wee 20T\115;0 236 | -093 | —10
Beale 287 170:0 1°68 | 066 | —5

In applying formula (12) to the determination of the focal
lengths of objectives it is found that the labeling of these is in
many cases very erroneous. In the paper to which reference
has already been made Professor Cross gave his measurement
of more than thirty objectives from various sources. In one
case, an objective, marked 54, inch, should have been marked }
inch. The measurements made by the present writer and re-
corded in Table II above, may give some idea of current errors

58 W. LeConte Stevens— Microscope Mugnification.

in this respect. In column 1 the capital letter arbitrarily stands
for the name of a maker, and the adjacent figures for the focal
length of the objective as labeled, in inches or fractions of an
inch, on the mounting. Column 2 gives the distance in milli-
meters between the stage and eye-piece micrometers, determined
by the length of the microscope body; and column 3, the cor-
responding magnification attained. Column 4 gives the com-
puted focal length in millimeters, which in column 5 is
reduced to inches for the sake of comparison; and column 6
gives roughly the percentage of error of the label.

On examination of Table II it is seen that the errors of the
labels are more frequently positive than negative, or that
objectives are more frequently labeled too low in power than
too high; and that the errors are unpardonably great in the
objectives of lowest power. It seems scarcely conceivable that
an error of 40 or 50 per cent could be made and deliberateiy
stamped on the mounting of an objective whose real focal
length is so easily found by experiment. It should be observed
that any error due to thickness of cover glass is negligible
when the focal length exceeds 20". The stage micrometer
used in these experiments was uncovered ; and since the higher
powers are usually adjusted to give their best definition when
a definite thickness of cover glass is employed, this fact may
partly account for the negative errors found in the two highest
powers examined, although the adjustment of collar in these
measurements was for use without a cover glass.

Having obtained the magnifying powers of objective and
eye: piece, their product is the total magnifying power of the
combination. If the equivalent focal length of the eve-piece
is definitely known, its magnifying power, m’, is obtained by
applying formula (7). If the tube length, a and focal length,
Ff, of the objective are known, its magnifying power, m, may
be accurately obtained. ae referring to fig. ae

G Omen ind 1 AQF
apes = oy But 5, + ma «, Og= Taf Hence,
.= —— 1. ; : : : 13
2d 7 ( )

e

In formula (13), if 7 be very small in comparison with T,
the term —1 may for all practical purposes be neglected. But
to do this involves serious er ror when objectives “of low power
are employed.

Table ILI shows the result of using eye-piece B, of Table I
successively in combination with five of the objectives of
Table II, the values of m’ and m being taken from these two
tables. Column 2 gives the values thus calculated, while col-
umn 3 gives the corresponding results independently obtained

W. LeConte Stevens— Microscope Magnification. 59

with the camera lucida. The next two columns result from
100 : bial
applying the formula M= 77 and reducing to millimeters ;

in column 4 the values of F and f have been taken from
Tables [ and II, and in column 5 they are the nominal focal
lengths, as indicated by the manufacturers.

TABLE IIT,
1 2 Bi 4 | 5

Combination. M=mm/’. | — Camera. Vie a | es a

| By h| By
Bi Se Wa B A 30°8 30°4 34-14 | 22°22
153i en daeeeel epithe hie 55.3 55-0 53°68 | 44°44
Bax Wik Sie 109°6 107°0 94°60 | 88°88
Bie Ch vas yee 430.6 433°0 339°0 266°7
Bix aWis cps eee 900.0 900°0 736°0 800°0

Table III shows, as might be expected, that the uncertainty
of results increases with the power of the objective.
Theoretically, columns 2 and 3 ought to be identical. Practi-
cally they are nearly so for low powers, but the difficulty of
taking exact measurement with high powers is very great.
The inaccuracies revealed in column 4 are due partly to the
fact that the formula is only approximate, but also because
the tube length is not 250 millimeters, and cannot possibly
have this value with the instrument employed. In column 5
erroneous values of F and jf, taken from the labeling, so
greatly increase the errors of column 4 as to make the meas-
urements worthless. Yet these are the results of calculation as
commonly applied to the data furnished by the manufacturers

In using the camera lucida the difficulty increases when the
higher powers are employed, just as much as in applying Cross’s
formula. Under any cireumstances, therefore, a wide margin
of uncertainty exists in estimating the magnification attained
with objectives of high power. Although the figures given
are in each case the mean of many measurements, the remark-
able agreement in the two results attained with the ;';th is
doubtless to some extent accidental. With medium and lower
powers it is shown by comparison of columns 2 and 3 that
results about equal in value to those with the camera lucida are
had by taking the product of the separate magnifications due
to objective and eye-piece. And formulas (6), (7) and (18) show
that this product may be expressed as
(D+E\(T—7)

Ma Sea (14).

60 W. LeConte Stevens—Microscope Magnification.

This formula is fully worthy of reliance if accurate values
of the equivalent focal length of eye-piece and objective,
respectively, are stamped on their mountings, and if the tube-
length also is stamped on the microscope body.

But the difficulty of securing definiteness and uniformity in
tube length is probably greater than that of securing proper
labels on the mountings of the lenses. It is necessary to fix
upon two points of the microscope body as the upper and
lower limits of the tube-length, and additionally for some
agreement to be reached among makers as to the tube-length
selected. What this shall be is a matter partly of precedent,
partly of convenience. The nominal standard is 10 inches in
England and America, but there is no pretense of adhering to
it. In Germany and the continent of Europe generally, about
180 millimeters is perhaps most ‘common. The latter is for
some reasons more convenient, and seems to be gaining in
popularity.

From what has preceded it is obvious that the upper limit
of the tube-length should be the focal plane in which an image
would be formed by the objective if no field lens were inter-
posed. If the eye-piece is made to fulfil the generally
assumed condition that the focal length of the field lens shall
be three times that of the eye lens, and the interval between
them shall be twice the focal length of the eye lens, the focal
plane in question would be just midway between the diaphragm
of a negative eye-piece and the optical center of the eye lens,
which is at the middle of its convex surface. The eye-piece
should be so constructed that when it is slipped into position
this focal plane shall be exactly at the top of the microscope
body, which then serves always as the upper limit of tube-
length. The desirability of making all eye-pieces thus “ par-
focal” has been already suggested by several writers. There
is no practical mechanical difficulty in attaining this end. In
case the negative eye-piece should not fulfil the generally
assumed conditions, the distance of the parfocal plane above
the diaphragm is easily found. Referring to Fig. 2, and using
the same notation, this distance is P’P, or p—p’, which; from

the formula - anes a is equal to - pa , ~The; required
Y ) Dp

distance of pattorall plane above diaphragm is thus given in
terms of the focal length (f’’) of the field lens and the dis-
tance ( p’) of the diaphragm from the optical center of this lens.

It should in justice be mentioned in this connection that at
least one celebrated European firm, that of Carl Zeiss, in Jena,
has for several years past been making all of its eye-pieces par-
focal. This is only one of the many good things for which

the scientific world’ is indebted to Professor E. Abbe, a phys-

W. LeConte Stevens—Microscope Magnification. 61

icist whose work in microscopical optics has been so thorough
that scarcely anything in this domain can be undertaken by
his cotemporaries which he has not already mastered. It is to
be regretted that the makers of microscopes generally should
be so slow in following a good example.

The determination of the lower limit of the tube length is
slightly complicated by the fact that a microscope objective
consisting of two or more systems of lenses, has no fixed point
through which all axial rays will cross when the position of
the point of radiance is varied. Its equivalent focal length
varies within narrow limits according to the distance of the
focal plane in which the image is formed. According to the
writer’s experiments it increases slightly as this distance is
increased. The objective labeled R. 14 in Table II was exam-
ined on an optical bench, the distance, 7, between the points of
radiance and convergence being varied from 160 mm. to 700
mm., and f calculated for 20 successive values of 7. The mean
of the first 10 values was 32:14 mm.; that of the second 10 was
32°38 mm., the extremes being 32°0 mm. and 325mm. This
objective consisted of two systems of lenses. A three-system
objective of nominal 4-inch focal length, and an objective of
one system, were likewise examined, with the result shown in

Table IV:

TABLE IV.
Label of Objective_..___.__-- W.3 R.14 C4
Number of systems._-_---._- 1 2 3
Ivars. GE (Fh Thay joe 202-800 160-700 130-520
Number of measurements_-_._ 12 20 14
J from first half, in mm._-._-_- 50:05 32°14 5°60
/ from second half, in mm.___- 50°00 32°38 5°70

From this table it is seen that the variation does not exceed
a tenth of a millimeter in the highest of these powers, a quan-
tity that is negligible in comparison with the whole tube-
length. Assume then that the distance from the top of the
microscope body to the extremity where the objective is
screwed in is a little shorter than the desired tube-length ; for
example, 160mm., if 180mm. is selected for tube-length.

#
Then in the formula, ee a we have p’=180, and / is
0 0

known, hence p is calculated. ‘The ‘working distance” be-
tween a slide and the exposed lens can be measured; and on
subtracting it from p we have the distance, within the objec-
tive, of the point which for the given tube-length behaves like
an optical center. This point, by the given formula, is known
to be 20 mm. from the extremity of the microscope body, and
hence the desired allowance can always be made in the mount-
ing to put this point in its proper place. The optical tube-

62 JS. F. Kemp—Minerals near Port Henry, N. Y.

length for which an objective is corrected should always be
stamped on its mounting along with the record of exact focal
length and numerical aperture.

If there be accurate labeling of optical tube-length, and of
the equivalent focal length of eye piece and objective, the
camera lucida ceases to be a necessity to the user of the micro-
scope. Under present conditions, however, and until better
methods are adopted by the majority of manufacturers, it is
the only ready means of approximating toward the correct
measurement of microscope magnification.

Brooklyn, N. Y., April 2, 1890.

Arr. V.—Wotes on the Minerals occurring near Port
Henry, N.Y.; by J. F. Kemp.

DuRIneG the summer of 1889 the following notes on minerals
occurring near Port Henry, N. Y., were made, largely with
the aid of Mr. W. H. Benedict, then in charge of the local
high school. At the abandoned ‘Pease quarry, a short distance
northwest of the town, a face of white crystalline limestone
has been laid bare, and in this occur streaks consisting chiefly
of hornblende, plagioclase, muscovite and quartz, but contain-
ing as well a great abundance of yellowish brown titanite crys-
tals, These latter average perhaps an inch, along ¢, by one-

half inch along 6, and are bounded by large 2P and OP and
less prominent «P# and oP—making the common semeline
type. Individuals appear to have been wrenched or broken,
possibly by mountain-making action. Fine brown tourmalines
occur with them in the same associations and are also wrenched
and bent. In one instance a crystal one and one-half inches
long, is bent around through at least 70°, yet without notable

ik fracturing: West ot guche
Pease quarry is a quarry
where flux was being obtained
for the local furnaces. The
rock is a beautifully clear
erystalline limestone with ex-
cellent, small, hexagonal tables
of graphi te disseminated
through it. Occasionally
lemon yellow calcite is found,
but of especial interest are the
fine crystals of clear calcite of
the general outline of the unit R with a low striated four-faced
pyramid imposed on each R face, and often truncated by R

J. F. Kemp—Minerals near Port Henry, N. ¥. 68

itself. (See Naumann-Zirkel, Mineralogie, fig. 18, under cal-
cite). This is caused by an oscillation between R and two or
more scalenohedra, whose long polar edges, and combination
edges are on the diagonals of the R face. Although in general
the faces are not well adapted to measurement, enough good
results were obtained to indicate 2/7 R.9/5 as one of the scaleno-
hedra present above R, and various results for the angle Y led
to the suspicion of two others. Below the R face there are also
two or more scalenohedra indicated, but the only one of which
measurements were obtained proved to be near 13/11 Rt 9/7.

Y measured, Y calculated. X measured. X calculated.

3/7 R 9/5 16621 166°10 129°18 130°10
166°01 129°25
165°50 129:27
130°12
13/11 R9/7 17048 170°30 Z measured. Z calculated.
170°25 96°193 96°30
170°26 96°44

R4 is also present upon all the crystals). The forms deter-
mined by Hessenberg on the combination above cited from
Naumann were R2 and 2/5 R2. The crystals are excellent
illustrations of oscillatory forms. Still west of this quarry is
the Treadway quarry in ophicalcite. Through this rock run
at times narrow streaks with pyrrhotite, quite large leaves of
phlogopite, brown tourmaline and well-crystallized light-brown
tremolite (oP,«Px,aPo and —P). A visit to the now
abandoned feldspar quarry six miles northwest of Port Henry
from which came the peculiar tourmaline crystals described
by Professor E. H. Williams (this Jour. III, xi, 273), revealed
the fact that it is probably a great feldspathic mass, either in
eneiss or granite (probably akin to the pegmatitic segregations
common in many granitic masses), and cut by three narrow
trap dikes, now much altered but doubtless originally diabase.
The tourmalines favor certain lines, and along these they occur in
isolated single crystals and as matted aggregates. Great masses
of biotite, as large as a barrel occur also in streaks, yielding
good cleavage masses under the sledge, and fine specimens of
rose quartz are less abundant. The quarry is called Roe’s spar-
bed.

At Mineville, one of the newer openings (the so-called
Lovers’ Pit) on Barton Hill is affording crystals and cleavage
masses of magnetite of unusual size and excellence. The crys-
tals are combinations of O and QO, and vary up to an inch
and more in diameter. They are buried in granular magnetite
of great purity. The faces are marked by striz parallel with
the O edges and at times running quite around the crystal. It

64 RL. T. Hill—Goniolina in the Texas Cretaceous.

~ can hardly be said that they favor any one face, for they often
divide the O faces into trangles. Other striations occur less
abundantly which may be referred to the intersection of planes
of «2O with O, seeming to indicate a minor parting, Stria-
tions parallel with the edges of O, have been previously noted
2, by Cathrein (Zwillingsbildung am Mag-
netit, Zeitschr. f. Kryst. xii, 47, 1887),
and again by Miigee (Nenes Jahrb.,
1889, i, 244), by whom they were re-
garded as polysynthetic twinning on the
spinel law, and due to gliding planes.
Such twinnings and striations on spinels
proper, have been long known (see
Striiver, Zeit. f. Kryst., ii, 480) and are
noted in most of the mineralogies. On
. Cathrein’s crystals the striations seem
especially to favor one face, and this adds weight to the above
explanations. The striations on the Lake Champlain erystals
are not especially parallel to any one face, but cross each other
frequently, and the other striations parallel to aO, add some
complexity. The beds which contain them have been subjected
to great dynamic movements and these partings are very prob-
ably due to pressure—which has also developed the fine pseudo-
cleavage planes in the massive mineral. If it were allowable
to conceive of a chief parting along O, and a rarer one along
«QO, occasioned by such pressure, without any accompanying
twinning, I should think it more likely to be the true cause of
the phenomena. The massive mineral shows these octahedral
parting planes quite as large as the hand.
Geol. Laboratory, Cornell University.

Art. VI.—Occurrence of Goniolina in the Comanche Series
of the Texas Cretaceous ; by Ropert T. Hint.

For several years I have been puzzled by a peculiar organ-
ism which occurs abundantly in the basal and medial beds of
the Comanche series of the Texas Cretaceous. This organism is
preserved in chalky beds of whose lithologie character it par-
takes, and is about the size and shape of ordinary playing mar-
bles used by boys except that it is slightly elongated, and
flattened at one end where there is a circular depression re-
sembling the point of attachment between a fruit and its stem.
The surface is minutely pitted or reticulated.

Possessing no library facilities at Austin, I recently sent
suites of these fossils to various paleontological friends in the

R. T. Hill—Comanche Series of the Texas Cretaceous. 65

scientific centers of the east, all of whom pronounced them an
undertermined species of the genus Goniolina, of D’Orbigny,
but as to where the genus belonged in the animal or vegetable
kingdom, no one felt positive as attested by the following let-
ter from a gentleman who is considered one of our ablest con-
chologists.

“The fossil you send belongs to a group which has puzzled
paleontologists for many years, and has been referred to al-
most every obscure group of paleozodlogy and botany. They
were named Goniolina by Orbigny, who put them among the
Foraminifera. Dr. White has shown me a French publication
by Dumortier in which a Jurassic species is referred to the
Crinoidea ; Zittel says that Saporta has decided that they are
the fruit of Pandanus or “screw pine.” My own opinion is
that they are fruzt of some kind, and Saporta’s reference is the
the most likely to be correct. Yours should be Lower Cre-
taceous.”

The above letter indicates a remarkable diversity of opinion.
But I think a brief examination of its place and mode of oc-
currence will remove this species at least from any suspicion
of being the fruit of land vegetation. It begins in the Colo-
rado river section at the first (lowest) fossiliferous horizon in
the basal Fredericksburg bed above the Trinity sands, and
ranges upward through 450 feet of sediments into the base of
the Comanche Peak chalk. There beds in which it occurs are
pulverulent chalks and all comparatively deep sea deposits.
In the lowest there are slight traces of finest comminuted
sand; in the upper, there are no sands or clays, but the strata
are all chalky and magnesian. In none of the beds are there
lignites, or other traces of land debris, which would probably
be the fact if the Goniolina were vegetable, while the molluscan
associates of the form are all off-shore species, such as Jfono-
pleura, Toxastes, Tylostoma and many other forms. At the
horizon of its chief occurrence it is associated with a chalk com-
posed almost entirely of a large foraminifer which Roemer
named Orbitolina Texana,* and which Meekt later referred to
the genus Zinoporus.

Zittelt refers the genus to the family Cornuspiride of the
Foraminiferee and says that it is a Jurassic genus.

Its occurrence in the medial third of the Comanche series—
the first noted in America—is of interest, and I shall be glad
to furnish specimens to any who desire them.

Austin, Texas, March 5, 1890.

* Kreidebildungen von Texas, F. Roemer.

+ Check List of Invertebrate Fossils of North America, p. 1.
+ Handbuch der Paleontologie, pp. 75, 110, 728.

AM. Jour. Sci.—TuHirpD SERIES, Von. XL, No, 235.—Juty, 1890.
5

66 Gooch and Browning—Method for the

Art. VII.—A Method for the Reduction of Arsenic Acid
in Analysis; by F. A. Goocn and P. E. Brownina.

[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale College—III.]

HourHorr’s development of Mohr’s suggestion relative to
the reduction of arsenic acid to the lower condition of oxidation
by the action of sulphurous acid,* with the demonstration that
arsenic acid can be evaporated even to dryness in presence of
hydrochloric acid without danger of significant volatilization,
has placed the analysis of or dinar y compounds of arsenic, both
natural and artificial, within the scope of Mohr’s classical and
exact method of determination by titration with iodine. As
Holthoff left the method, it is satisfactory so far as regards
accuracy, and as modified by MeCay,+ who substitutes for the
four hours’ digestion heating for one hour in a pressure-bottle,
is eminently. successful. In the acceunt of the experiments
about to be described we detail our experience in an attempt
to shorten still further the process of reduction of arsenic acid
by making use of hydriodic acid as the active agent instead of
sulphurous acid.

In a recent papert we have described a method for the
determination of iodine in haloid salts based upon the action of
arsenic acid, in the presence of sulphuric acid, according to the
equation,

H,AsO, + 2H-I = H,AsO, + H,O + I-I,

the iodine being completely volatilized, but leaving behind in
the arsenious acid produced by the action the record of the
amount of hydriodic acid originally present. This reaction we
propose to utilize conversely, and to employ potassium iodide
In excess, in presence of sulphuric acid, to bring about the
reduction of the arsenic acid to arsenious acid. which may be
determined, after neutralization, by the iodine method. The
conditions of the methods are different in that, in the former
the hydriodie acid is entirely broken up by the action of the
arsenic acid, and the iodine volatilizes easily; while in the
latter some hydriodic acid must remain in solution until a very
low degree of concentration is reached, and remaining must
exhibit its characteristic proneness to retain free iodine.

We find in practice that when a solution made up to con-
tain sulphuric acid, an arseniate and potassium iodide to an
amount somewhat in excess of that theoretically demanded to
effect the conversion of the arsenic acid to arsenious acid,

* Zeit. f. Anal. Chem., vol. xxiii, p. 378.
+ Am. Chem. Jour., vol. vii, p. 373.
¢ This Journal, vol. xxxix, p. 188.

Reduction of Arsenic Acid in Analysis. 67

is boiled, iodine is evolved and the color of the liquid
passes from the dark red when the iodine is abundant through
the various gradations of tint to a canary yellow, and then,
as the sulphuric acid reaches a degree of concentration suft-
cient to determine by its own specific action the liberation of
iodine, the color again darkens, and if the process of concentra-
tion is continued, and much arsenic. is present, crystals of
arsenious iodide separate and form more abundantly on cooling.
If evaporation is pushed stil! farther the arsenious iodide begins
to volatilize and at the point where the sulphuric acid fumes
the liquid loses all color and the arsenic has vanished more or
less completely. In one experiment conducted in this man-
ner it was found, by the method to be described later, that of
03861 grm. of arsenic pentoxide originally present with 1
grm. of potassium iodide and 10 em* of sulphuric acid [1:1]
the equivalent of 0°1524 grm. remained. In another similar
experiment in which, however, only a few milligrams of arsenic
oxide were involved not a trace of arsenic remained at the
end.

It is obvious that two points in this course of action demand
examination at the outset. First, means must be found for
removing the remnant of free iodine which is withheld by the
hydriodice acid; or of rendering it harmless in the titration
process to follow; and, secondly, the degree to which the solu-
tion may be concentrated without loss of arsenic must be fixed.
In our work upon the converse of this process, we noted
particularly the marked influence of the amount of sulphuric
acid present upon the degree of concentration necessary to
expel the iodine. We turned attention, therefore, at once to
this point in the present case and investigated the effect of
varying the proportion of sulphuric acid in solutions contain-
ing definite amounts of potassium iodide and potassium arseni-
ate. The volume of the solution was made up to about 100
em* and concentrated by boiling until the color was faintest.
Then, to determine provisionally, and for preliminary purposes,
the point at which volatilization of arsenic was likely to occur,
the concentration was continued until the arsenious iodide
began to separate. The results are tabulated as follows.

Volume when
color was Volume when

KI As.05 H.S0, [1:1] lightest. AsI; appeared.
1 grm. 0°1900 grm. 20 cm* 80 cm* 33 cm*
auf 66 0°1900 66 15 66 65 66 95 (74
fers. 68 OnE OORs: Ome AO ee 19 *
eke 071900 * iy BOs AEE

The amount of sulphuric acid which, considering rapidity
in concentrating to the proper point, ease in neutralizing the

68 Gooch and Browning—Method for the

acid previous to titration, and general convenience in manipu-
lation, seemed to be best was 10 em* of the mixture made by
diluting the acid with an equal volume of water. This we
fixed upon for use in future experiments and set the limit of
concentration at 40 em’.

It is manifest from the phenomena described that when
much hydriodi¢ acid remains in the solution the last portions
of free iodine cannot be completely removed by heat without
volatilization of the arsenic. We experimented, therefore,
upon the effect of very dilute sulphurous upon the remnant of
iodine in liquids constituted as described and concentrated to
40 em’, the point of minimum color, the solution of sulphurous
acid which we employed corresponding approximately to cen-
tinormal iodine. We found that upon adding the sulphurous
acid drop by drop to the hot concentrated solution the point
at which the color vanished could be determined without diffi-
culty, but that if the solution was permitted to stand a single
minute the color of iodine returned, doubtless developed by
the action of air upon the hot hydriodic acid. We adopted,
therefore, the plan of at once diluting the solution with cold
water as soon as the sulphurous acid had done its work and
immediately neutralizing with potassium carbonate. When
this mode of proceeding was followed we were unable to find
evidence of reversion of arsenious acid to arsenic acid, magne-
sia mixture producing in the solution no precipitate of the
ammonium magnesium arseniate.

Following out the same general lines, therefore, we pro-
ceeded to the quantitative examination of the process. Portions
of a standard solution of the dihydrogen potassium arseniate
were measured from a burette into counterpoised Erlenmeyer
flasks of 250 em* capacity, and the increase in weight was taken
as the measure of the actual amount of the solution employed.
Potassium iodide in solution, and 10cm* of sulphuric acid
[1:1] were added, and the liquid was diluted with water to a
volume of about 100 cm*. A trap made, as described in our
paper upon the reverse of this process, by cutting down a
two-bulbed drying tube, was hung in the neck of the flask to
prevent mechanical loss, and the liquid was rapidly concentrated
by boiling until the volume of 40 em‘, the point at which the
color of iodine had faded to a pale yellow, was reached. At
this point the flask was removed from the flame, its sides and
the trap were quickly washed down, the weak sulphurous acid
was added drop by drop from a burette until the color of the
free iodine had just vanished, the liquid was immediately
diluted with cold water, the free acid was nearly neutralized
with potassium carbonate and the point of neutralization was

Reduction of Arsenic Acid in Analysis. 69

reached and passed a little by the addition of the acid potassium
carbonate. After cooling completely a definite amount of
starch solution was added and the titration of the arsenious
acid was proceeded with as usual, due correction being made for
the amount of iodine necessary to produce the end color into
the volume of liquid and starch solution employed.

The value of the standard solution of the arseniate was fixed
by two series of determinations. One series was made accord-
ing to Levol’s method of precipitating the ammonium magne-
sium arseniate and weighing as the pyroarseniate, modified,
however, in that the precipitate was collected on asbestus in a
perforated crucible and ignited after moistening with ammo-
nium nitrate. In the second series McCay’s modification® of
Reich’s method was followed, excepting that the silver arseni-
ate was collected, dried and weighed on asbestus in a perforated
crucible. ‘The mean of several closely agreeing determinations
gave for the contents of 50 grms. of the solution in arsenic
pentoxide as 0°3824 germ. by Levol’s method and 0°3830 grm.
by McCay’s modification of Reich’s process. We took the
mean of these figures 0°3827 grm. as the standard of the solu-
tion.

The details of the experiments with this solution are recorded
in the following table.

KI H.S0, [1: 1] AsoO5 As20;

taken. taken. taken. found. Error.
(15 grm. 10cm* 0°3861 oem 0°3862 eu. 0°0001 Bi. a
| alae LO. 0°3862 0°3856 0-0006 —
4 IS) ahaa NOR ere nS Sola i ORB O-000L “+
Helicon.) 3 HOM en Ors SOM a 0;3862 “ O;0002') Sani
felons Oe OxcS Oar 0°3862 ° 00001 “ —
\@isaez <s HOM Od S62) e 03862 “ 0:0000 “
(alesis IO Olgeays Onn9 2:20 ier 0°0005 “*& —
lfaalioec 6 ORS ON 2 Cres O92 2s 00006 “=
4 i ey sas ON OF19305 01925 * 0°0005 “ —
| rae oS NOG e Ono Onmrcrrriee a Oph 92 i7 creas 0°0003 “f° —
ae LOMO) OPI Bae ONOZOE s 0-0007 “ —
[feel gree KO aie 0:1929 < On 28 mei O;0001 {>> =

Experiments in which smaller quantities of arsenic were
handled were made similarly, excepting that the standard solu-
tion, from which portions for the tests were measured, was
made by diluting the former standard ten times, and centinor-
mal iodine was used in the titration.

When the amount of hydriodic acid in solution is small,
correspondingly small amounts of iodine are retained after

* Am. Chem. Jour., vol. viii, p. 77.

70 Gooch and Browning—Method for the Reduction, ete.

KI H2S80, [1:1] As.05 As.0;

taken. taken. taken. found. Error.
1 grm. 10 cm® 0:0383 grm. 00380 grm. 0°0003 grm. —_
lacs 1@ 0:03888 0:0385 0°0002 +
Oa) & 1@, 0 O:03883Na 0:03884 ° O-;0001 “ +
0:4 “* 1@ o-0ss3s “ 0:03885 070002 “© +
Oesice 1g) -& OOS, 0°0386 ‘ 00003 * +
Oe2i<e Wy OsOSSoies 0-0384 * O-;000l “ +
Oras Oe’ 0:0076 “ ORDO & 0:0002 “ =
Ondine 1@. 9) & OS0076m ys OOO ab 00 0:;0002 “* —
(GY SS 1@ 6 0°0088 =“ O;00 345m 0:0004
Oso Ose O;003'Sinae O;003450ss 0:0004)

concentration. In the following experiments colorless solutions
were obtained and, for the sake of comparison with the previous
results, these solutions were neutralized and titrated without
treatment with sulphurous acid, there being no apparent need
for adding it in these cases.

KI HeSOu [it eee AsO As:05

taken. taken. taken. found. Error.
O2grm. 10cm* 0°6038 grm. 0:0035 grm. 0:0003 grm. —
Oster HO ess 070038 0:0035 =“ 0:0003 “© —

It appears, therefore, that the average error of the whole
number of determinations (twenty-four) made by this process
amounts to rather less than 0:0002 grm.—, falling between
extremes of 0°0003 grm. + and 0: 0007 orm. —. The entire
amount of arsenic pentoxide handled in the twenty-four deter-
minations was 38°7352 grms., and of this 3°7309 grm. were
indicated in the titration as reduced to the arsenious condition.
The loss 0:0047 grm.—the entire error of the process—amounts
to 018 per cent. of the amount taken.

Certain experiments were made to see whether the period
of evaporation might not be dispensed with by so modifying
the process that the entire amount of iodine set free in the
action of the sulphuric acid, the arseniate, and the iodide
might be reconverted at once by sulphurous acid to the condi-
tion of hydriodic acid. The conversion was apparently sue-
cessful, but the results of the modification were several per
cent below the. truth, indicating that the digestion during
evaporation, or the removal of the free iodine, or the combined
effect of the two, is essential to the completion of the reduction
of the arsenic.

The process as we recommend it may be summarized briefly
as follows :—To the arseniate in solution are to be added potas-
sium iodide in excess of the amount needed according to the
equation to complete the reduction, and 10 cm* of half and
half sulphuric acid. The liquid is to be diluted to about 100
em* and boiled rapidly (with the precautions of trapping as

C. FE. Beecher—Development of Shell in Tornoceras. 71

described) until the volume is decreased to 40 em’. The color
of free iodine is to be bleached by cautious additions of sul-
phurous acid (corresponding roughly to centinormal iodine)
and instantly diluted with water and neutralized with potassium
carbonate, the neutral carbonate at the first and afterward the
acid carbonate. The whole is to be cooled and titrated as usual
with iodine, using starch as an indicator. Its advantage is in
the rapidity with which it may be executed, the whole opera-
tion being easily completed in a half-hour.

Art. VIIl—On the Development of the Shell in the genus
Tornoceras Hyatt; by OnaRLES E. BrrecHer, Ph.D.
(With Plate I).

THE leading embryonal characters of the genus Zornoceras
have been drawn mainly from results obtained in the study of
Tornoceras retrorsum, von Buch, and allied species from the
Devonian of Germany.* Probably the best study of any one
of the species is that given by W. Branco of 7. retrorsum, var.
typum, Sandberger.t The adult features have been deter-
mined from the type Z. (Gon.) uniangulare Conrad, and
other closely related forms. Hitherto our knowledge of
this species has not been sufficient to give a reasonably full
diagnosis of the genus in its developmental relations, and
the results of the following study aim to supply the deficiency.
The importance of this is evident, as the characters of the
type are of prime consequence, and because 7. retrorsum
offers some differences in its development, and apparently
belongs to one of the more advanced phases in the evolution
of the generic stock. Instead of presenting a gradual growth
from its simple nautiliform protoconch through several slightly
diverging stages, it exhibits, to a degree, the principle of
accelerated development, as will be shown hereafter; while
T. uniangulare has a more uniform and complete growth, and
is probably one of the initial and most primitive species of
the genus.

Besides the sutural and tubular development, the material
studied illustrates the inception and growth of the surface
ornaments, and as these features are rarely found, the princi-
ples involved are of more than generic application.

* Proceedings Boston Society Natural History, vol. xxii, Hyatt: Genera of
Fossil Cephalopods, p. 320, 1883.

+ Palzontographica, t. 27. Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der fossilen
Cephalopoden, 1880.

72 C. £. Beecher—Development of Shell in Tornoceras.

The specific limits of 7. wntiangulare have not been clearly
defined, and many of the forms referred to Parodiceras (Gon.)
discoideum Hall, are evidently of the former species. A
comparison of the type specimens of both with others
which have been grouped with them, as figured in the
Thirteenth Report, New York State Cabinet, and in vol. v, pt.
ii, of the Paleontology of New York, shows that the first
species is really the common one, and so far as known, the
second is represented only by the original types.*

The adult differences are mainly noticeable in the depth of
the air chambers, and in the sutural curves. They can readily
be determined by strictly limiting the characters to those first
ascribed to each species. Parodiceras discoideum is also
apparently without the narrow cone at the bottom of the
annular lobe, and the ventral saddle is much less depressed.

The material for this paper is a portion of a collection pre-
sented to the museum of Yale University, by Thomas G. Lee,
M.D. The particular lot containing the Zornoceras consisted
of several hundred nodular concretions of pyrite of a radiated
structure, obtained from the Devonian (Hamilton) shales of
Wende Station, Erie County, New York. Most of them
preserved an organic nucleus, and about twenty-five species
have been identified as belonging to the Trilobita, Cephalopoda,
Pteropoda, Pelecypoda, Brachiopoda and Crinoidea.

The test of the trilobites and the shells of the brachiopods
are but little altered, while those of the cephalopods and
pelecypods are usually replaced by sphalerite, a difference
evidently connected with the more soluble nature of the
pearly shells of the nuculoids and cephalopods.

By carefully breaking away the outer enveloping volutions
of a number of specimens of Zornoceras, the early parts of
the shell were uncovered, and found to be well preserved, and
therefore, suitable for study. The drawings on Plate VIII
were made from the microscope, with a camera lucida.

The protoconch (figures 1, 2, Plate I) has an axial diame-
ter of about 1-1™™ and varies but little from this dimension
among several specimens measured. The vertical diameter is a
little shorter, so that the general form is that of a prolate
ellipsoid. The latera are prominent, and exposed as central
bosses in the umbilicus of a young shell.

* The following list is proposed as corrected references to 7. wniangulare :

13th Ann. Rept. N. Y. State Cab., p. 98, figs. 6 (bis) (type specimen) and 6?

Pal. N. Y., vol. v, pt. ii, pl. 71, figs. 11-14 (fig. 14=type specimen), pl. 72, figs.
6, 7, pl. 74, figs. 2, 4, vol. vii, pl. 127, figs. 10, 11, 12.

Of these, pl. 71, figs. 11, 12,13; pl. 74, fig. 4 and pl. 127, figs. 11, 12, were
referred to P. ( Goniatites) discoideum, Hall.

C. EL. Beecher—Development of Shell in Tornoceras. 7

At what precise growth stage the umbilicus becomes closed
cannot be ascertained from the material studied, but it is
evidently open during the formation of several whorls. Dur-
ing the conerescence of the first few air chambers, while the
diameter of the tube is diminishing, the tendency of the
umbilicus is to enlarge rapidly. Subsequent increase in the
tube and the greater involution of the whorls contract it, so
that in adult specimens, it is closed, while in large and often
senile individuals, a secondary deposit is made about the um-
bilicus, entirely obliterating it and covering the growth lines
of the shell.* Evidently this formation is similar to that de-
posited by the dorsal lobe of the mantle in Vautilus pompilius.

The axial diameter of the embryo shell is somewhat greater
than that of several of the succeeding air chambers. Thus,
the tube, in its growth, first contracts, and does not assume the
regular rate of increase until after the formation of at least
the second septum. <A cross section at the first septum is trans-
versely subelliptical, slightly arcuate, with a longer diameter
two and one-third times greater than the shorter. When a
transverse diameter of 1:2" is reached by the larval shell, the
outline of a section is lunate, but the proportions of length
and height are not materially changed. A section of the adja-
cent whorl is still more arcuate, as shown in figure 6, and in
an adolescent specimen 11°5"™ in diameter it is seen that the
diametral relations have become interchanged, and that the
outer whorl is elliptical in a vertical direction, and excavated
by the inner whorl to nearly half its longest diameter, making
the shell in all nealogic and ephebolic stages decidedly com-
pressed in outline (figure 13).

The first septum (figures 1, 2, 4) is moderately concave, and
extends nearly to the axis. The suture is simple, being nearly
in a single plane, without apparent lobes or saddles. Occa-
sionally, the imternal mould shows a siphonal lobe due to the
breaking away of the extremely thin filling between the siphon
and ventrum, but perfect specimens determine this to be an
accidental condition.

In the section represented in figure 12, the first two septa
are much thicker than those immediately succeeding, a feature
also noticeable on the exterior of the internal mould. Like-
wise, the first and second air chambers are deeper than the
three or four following. With these exceptions, the septa and
air chambers are generally uniform in their progression until
the adult stage.

It has already been noted that the first septum is extremely
simple, without apparent lobes or saddles. In the second sep-

* This feature is well represented in figure 11, Plate 127 of Pal. N. Y., vol. vii,
Supplement.

T4 CO. FE. Beecher—Development of Shell in Tornoceras.

tum, there is a well-developed sinus over the siphuncele, forming
a rounded ventral lobe, and a broad lateral saddle, with a eor-
responding, though less prominent, dorsal saddle. The third
and. following septa present more and more sharply angular
ventral lobes, until finally it is further extended by a siphonal
fissure in post-nepionic stages. The lateral saddle is not so
strongly curved from the fourth to the seventh suture which
is quite flat, but in the eighth, a slight retral bend is observable.
This evidently marks the inception of the lateral lobe. The
septum is now divided into the leading members characteristic
of the group, viz: a ventral lobe and saddle, a lateral lobe and
saddle, a dorsal saddle and an annular lobe, although the two
latter are less strongly marked than the others. Further
growth merely serves to emphasize these features, until the
nealogic stadium, when the ventral lobe is extended by the
siphonal fissure, and a minute cone appears at the bottom of
the annular lobe.

Several specimens of the protoconch give evidence of the
presence of the siphonal ccecum, and show that it was probably
closely appressed to the ventral wall. Figure 3 illustrates the
ovoid, marking on the interior of the shell, enclosing two
diverging lines which apparently represent the appressed por-
tion of the true ccecum, while the outer curved lines limit the
shelly deposit of attachment. The relative diameter of the
siphon at the first and for a number of succeeding chambers is
much greater than in the mature shell (figures 1, 6, 13). From
the beginning, it is situated close to the abdominal wall, and is
nearly invariable in its character.

The embryonie¢ shell is very thin, and almost smooth in its
earlier portions; then fine revolving lines of granules appear,
which become progressively more pronounced and arranged in
transverse rows, between which the earliest of the concentric
strize are developed. With the increase in the strength of the
strie, the granules disappear, and are obsolescent before the
protoconch is completed (figure 7). The striz are sharp,
elevated, and straight, forming a conspicuous feature of the
ornamentation, until in the third or fourth whorl, when they
become subdued, and finally are replaced by the fine inconspic-
uous and often fasciculate lines of growth which are present
in the adult shell. No indication of a funnel is shown up to
the completion of the first whorl (figure 10), as the striz
continue straight across the ventrum, but in the second (figure
11), the pronounced sinus in the strie shows that the funnel
had developed or, at least, had become of functional importance.

A comparison of the figures of 7. retrorsum, v. B., var.
typum, Sand., as illustrated by Branco (loc. cit. pl. v. fig. vil),
with the present species shows that the former presents a more

Iddings and Penfield—Fayalite in Obsidian of Lipari. 75

arcuate first septum, and that the second is comparable with
the third or fourth of 7. wniangulare, clearly indicating that
the development has been accelerated by the skipping of at
least two phases of growth in the septa. In other characters,
the two forms merely indicate differences which are probably
only of specific importance, such as the more angular form of
the lobes and saddles in 7. retrorsum, var. typwm, and the
absence of the minute cone at the summit of the annular lobe.
Yale University Museum, April, 1890.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IL.

Figure 1.—Protoconch, showing first septum with lateral edges broken. x18.

FIGURE 2.—Side view of preceding. x18.

Figure 3.—Ventral view of protoconch with one attached air chamber, showing
siphonal ccecum. x 18.

FIGURE 4.—Side view of first whorl. x18.

Figure 5.—Ventral view of preceding, showing development of ventral lobe. x 18.

FIGURE 6.—Transverse section of two whorls near the protoconch. x 18.

Figure 7.—Ventral side of protoconch, retaining the shell. x 18.

FIGURE 8.—Ventral side of specimen with first chamber, showing surface orna-
ments and indication of siphonal ccecum. x 18.

FIGURE 9.—Profile of same. x 18.

Figure 10.—Surface ornaments on a specimen consisting of asingle whorl. x 18.

FiGuRE 11.—Four striz from the second whorl of a specimen showing funnel
sinus. x18.

FIGURE 12.—Vertical section showing septa and air chambers. x 18.

FIGURE 13.—Outline of a half grown specimen. x3.

Figure 14.—A series of developed septa beginning with the first, showing gradual
inception and formation of lobes and saddles to the adult period
represented by j. a,b, ¢, d, represent the Ist, 2d, 3d and 4th septa,
while e and / represent the 7th and 8th respectively. x 9.

Specimens in Yale University Museum, from the Hamilton shales of Wende

Station, N. Y., except specimen figure 13, which is from 18-Mile Creek, N. Y.

Art. [X.—Fayalite in the Obsidian of Lipari; by J os.
P. Ippines and 8. L. PENFIELD.

THE Lipari islands have long been celebrated for their acid
lavas and pumices; and it was for the purpose of becoming
acquainted with their craters and flows of these rocks that one
of the writers recently visited this far famed locality. The
obsidian flows that terminated the voleanie activity which built
up the craters of snow-white pumice stretch their glassy
streams down the steep mountain slopes into the sea. Their
upper surface presents a rough and forbidding tract of sharp
angular blocks, which appear to have suffered very little change
since the solidification of the lava. This portion of the ob-
sidian is filled with small gas bubbles that give it a gray color,
and a more or less banded and laminated structure.

76 Lddings and Penfield—Fayalite in Obsidian of Inpari.

The inflation was not sufticient to produce pumice, as in the
ease of the obsidian flow at Obsidian Cliff in the Yellowstone
National Park.*

The spherulites and lithophyse that occur within the lava
sheets some distance from their upper surface are small. They
are very abundant in places and are distributed irregularly,
and also in layers. Occasionally, finely spherulitic bands ren-
der the rock lithoidal. The obsidian is jet black, but on thin
edges it is very transparent, and the light gray spherulites may
be seen at some depth within the rock. The hollow spheru-
lites in the obsidian stream from the Forgia Vecchia on the
east side of the island of Lipari are complex-looking bodies.
At first glance they appear to be gray, hollow shells with a
rudely spherical kernel at the center. Upon closer examina-
tion it is seen that the kernel is a highly erystallized spherulite
with distinctly radial structure combined with many small
globules. The center of the kernel is dense and gray, but the
outer portion consists of a bristling mass of acicalar erystals,
radiating outward, together with the crystalline pellets already
mentioned. The same crystals coat the inside of the surround-
ing shell, and in many places are continuous with those of the
kernels, and are evidently the same growth. The shell is dense
with a sub-vitreous luster, and has a narrow white band parallel
to the inner margin. The amount of space between the ker-
nel and shell varies considerably. In the smaller spherulites
there is very little, and the whole body is clearly one spheru-
lite consisting of a central portion with distinctly radial strue-
ture, surrounded by concentric shells of slightly different
characters. The innermost of these shells is highly erystal-
line, white and porous, with minute spaces between the acicular
crystals. The next shell is dense, gray and sub-vitreous, and is
followed by a narrow white one; the outside, broader shell
being dense, gray and sub-vitreous. In the larger spherulites
the porous zone has become so porous or open that it forms a
cavity between the central part of the spherulite and the outer,
denser zones.

Within the larger cavities the white pellets are recognizable
as spherical groups of tridymite, and with them are associated
oceasional thin tablets of fayalite, which, however, are not
found in all of the spherulites.

A microscopical examination of the spherulites shows that
they are beautifully crystallized at the center, the radiating
needles being alkali feldspar. Tridymite is also present, in
places being clustered in spherical groups of minute crystals.
The structure is the same as that observed in some of the

* Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone National Park, by J. P. Iddings, Seventh Annual
Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, 1888, p. 256.

Iddings and Penfield—Fayalite in Obsidian of Lipari. T7

spherulites at Obsidian Cliff, and described in the paper already
cited. The outer shells are fibrous, the gray ones being col-
ored by a cloudy material, which is light brown in transmitted
light, and does not appear to be doubly refracting. The feldspar
fibers throughout the spherulite are variously orientated in the
zone of their elongation, so that they extinguish light between
crossed nicols in groups at different angles to the plane of
polarization, and exhibit no definite dark cross. In this respect
also the spherulites correspond to those at Obsidian Oliff.

The chief interest, however, attaches itself to the fayalite
erystals in the cavities, which have not been noticed heretofore.
They are not abundant, but occur in several localities, having
been found by the writer at Forgia Vecchia, and in the obsid-
ian stream on Volcano, and having been noted in specimens
from Monte della Guardia on the island of Lipari. In the first
and second occurrences just mentioned the fayalite is perfectly
fresh and transparent. In the third it is more or less altered
and opaque.

The crystals of fayalite found at Forgia Vecchia are very thin
plates, the largest being abont 1™ long, 0°5™" wide and less
than 0:03" thick. The habit of the crystals is shown in the
accompanying figure. The forms which were

identified are a, 100, 2-27; 6, 010, 2-2; m, 110, oN
LT; k, O21, 2-45 and e, 111,1. Aslight-varia- 7 XY,

tion in habit is sometimes caused by the greater
development of the e faces. It should be |
noted that the prism in this occurrence is m,
110, Z, and not s, 120, as in the fayalite from .

Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone Park, and that the
basal plane c¢, 001, is wanting. Very accurate
measurements of course can not be expected
from such very minute crystals, but by em-
ploying a strong illumination and a low ocular lens, 0 of
Websky, the following angles were measured on a Fuess goni-
ometer, which serve perfectly for the identification of the
forms. The calculated angles are derived from the axial ratio
established on the fayalite from the Yellowstone National
Park.*

Measured. Calculated.
an€, 1004 111 LN" bye ADE 2
O tx (4p EZ al 95° 38! 95° 6/
bAk, 010 ~ 021 A OY 40° 49’
anamM, 100 « 110 DAs Oe QA 38
mam, 110 4 110 1BO> Bey 130° 44’

Cleavage is distinct ‘parallel to 6,010. The crystals have a
honey-yellow color and show no perceptible pleochroism. In

*This Journal, II], xxx, 1885, p. 58, also Seventh Annual Report of the U. 8.
Geological Survey, 1888, p. 271.

78 Dana and Wells—Selenium and Tellurium minerals.

polarized light they give an extinction parallel to the vertical
axis; and in the 45 degree position the thickest crystals ex-
hibit an interference color which is red of the second order.
In convergent polarized light an obtuse bisectrix emerges at
right angles to a, 100, the plane of the optic axes being paral-

lel to the base. The optical orientation is @=c, b=a and c=6.
Since a is the acute bisectrix the double refraction is negative.
These optical properties not only agree with orthorhombic
symmetry, but also with the determinations made on the
Yellowstone Park fayalite.

When treated with hydrochloric acid the crystals are decom-
posed, and gelantinize. They contain ferrous iron, and after
the separation of the iron from solution with ammonia, they
yield no micro-chemical reaction for magnesia. Their chemi-
cal composition, therefore, is undoubtedly the same as that of
the fayalite from Obsidian Cliff, namely: orthosilicate of iron.

The occurrence of fayalite in the hollow spherulites and
lithophysee in the obsidian of the Lipari islands, while not so
abundant as in that of the Yellowstone Park, is identical. It is
associated in the same manner with tridymite and alkali feld-
spars, and its development is unquestionably due to the same
causes in the two regions.

e

Art. X.—On some Seleniwm and Tellurium minerals from
Honduras ; by Epwarp 8. Dana and Horace L. WELLS.

THrouGH the kindness of Mr. Henry 8. Durden, of the
State Mining Bureau in San Francisco, we have received a
number of specimens of minerals containing selenium and
tellurium, two of which have proved to be of unusual interest.
The presence of selenium in some of them had been already
determined by Mr. Charles G. Schneider before they were
sent to us, but further than that the examination had not
gone. The locality from which they were obtained, as Mr.
Durden informs us, is the El Plomo mine, Ojojoma District,
Department of Tegucigalpa, Honduras.

The mineral, to which our attention was first directed,
proved upon blowpipe examination to contain selenium and
tellurium, while the metals proper were absent. It presents
itself in massive forms only, with indistinctly columnar
structure and shows a perfect cleavage parallel to a prism of
60°. The color is blackish gray, the streak black. It is dis-
seminated through a gangue consisting chiefly of quartz with
some barite. An analysis (Wells) of the mineral proved it
to contain selenium and tellurium only. The separation of

Dana and Wells—Selenium and Tellurium minerals. T9

selenium and tellurium was effected by the very convenient
method of Divers and Shimosé.* In carrying out this method,
it was found that the selenium obtained by a single separation
sometimes contained quite a large quantity of tellurium, but
the latter could be readily removed by one or two repetitions
of the process.

The results obtained are as follows, after deducting 65°68
per cent of gangue consisting of about 43 per cent of silica
and 19 per cent of barite with a little gypsum and a trace of
alumina :

OSS OS ORO OU ee Eg ean OUR ONBUE TS] eagn a ATR IA U8
A Deve ein Steg ae Dag tds Wak esigid Par Pedaa dS erom rs at POE te 70°69
100°00

The mineral is, therefore, intermediate between selenium and
tellurium in composition, and contains these elements in very
nearly the ratio of 2:3; though we do not attach any importance
to the ratio, for the mineral obviously represents simply an
isomorphous mixture of these two elements. It is of great
interest, however, since it is the nearest approach to native
selenium which has yet been found in nature.t The mineral
most closely allied to it is a native tellurium from Faczebaja
in which Foullon found 6°7 per cent of selenium. It seems to
us, therefore, to deserve to be given a somewhat prominent
position and we propose to call it Selen-tellurvwm. It is inter-
esting to note here the recent observations of Muthmannt
showing among other new points the existence of an allotropic
form of metallic selenium in hexagonal-rhombohedral crystals,
closely isomorphous with metallic tellurium. Our mineral is
shown by its hexagonal cleavage to belong with these, as was
to have been expected.

Associated with the selen-tellurium are a few minute trans-
parent crystals having a pale yellow color and adamantine
luster, which have the appearance of tellurite. The quantity
is so extremely small as to make an examination unsatisfactory
and we defer the matter in the hope of obtaining additional
material.

Quite distinct from the yellow crystals just mentioned, is a
greenish yellow mineral which is also obviously an oxidation
product and which is present more abundantly. It is best shown
in two or three specimens, having the aspect of a quartzose con-
glomerate and containing patches of a grayish metallic mineral
which proved to be nearly pure tellurium. Through this it is

* Jour. Chem. Soe., xlvii, 439.

+ We pass over Del Rio’s unconfirmed statement, in regard to the occurrence
of native selenium in Mexico, as not deserving of serious consideration.

t¢ Zeitschr. fiir Kryst., xvii, 356, 1890.

80 Dana and Wells—Selenium and Telluriwm minerals.

scattered in points and narrow veins. It is soft, with hardness
from 2 to 2°5 and is easily crushed to powder. The surface,
when exposed, is small mammillary and but little structure is
discernible even under the microscope, although a tendency to
separate into distinct scales is noted. The action on polarized
light is very feeble. The mineral is intimately mixed with
the gangue and it was only by using extreme care that it was
found possible to separate a sufficient quantity of material for
analysis, the purity of which could be regarded as beyond all
question. This was finally accomplished, however, and an
analysis made with the following results. Of the whole
amount obtained, viz: 0°32 grams, 0°12 gr. was taken for a
water determination and the remainder 0-20 gr. for the other
determinations. The results, considering the small quantities
used, are very satisfactory. The analysis is as follows:

Ratio.
Wiatenntitaess es 767+ 18 =-426 3°55 4:06 4
Mae sa ne 47-20-+-157 = 301).
ae ee nO sep Lt 1a cel) 262) cnn 800) tom
Hes Op ree eae aa ee 19°24~160 = 120 1:00 1:14 1
[nso] fee ney 23°89
99°60

These ratios are not quite. exact, but there can be no doubt
that it is a normal ferric tellurite of the composition Fe,O,.
3TeO,.4H,0 or Fe, (TeO,),+4H,0. The slight excess of
Fe,O, shown by the ratio very probably comes from the red-
dish ochreous material associated with it.

The calculated composition, with z1 of the Te atoms replaced
by Se, as:

Calculated for Analysis

Fe.0; #2 TeOs -+- SeO. . 4H20. Deducting Insol. Res.
REO re eae 64°4] PeO eae! 62°34
SeQior se merce 2°28 SeOss ua sene 2°12
Rel Ong il 22-07 He O; ee 25°41
IO aera ee 10°34 FO) eetisae ee Oul3
100°00 100°00

That the mineral is a ferre tellurdte is evident since it gives
off no chlorine when boiled with HCl, nor does it give any reac-
tion for ferrous iron when dissolved in cold HCl.

Two other tellurium-iron minerals have been thus far
described: these are Genth’s* ferrotellurite and the emmonsite
of Hillebrand.t Our mineral is like ferrotellurite in color,
but, if the results of Genth’s qualitative trial can be accepted
as conclusive, his mineral was a ferrous tellurate, which sepa-

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., xvii, 119, 1877.
+ Proc. Colorado Sci. Soce., ii, 1885.

Dana and Wells—Selenium and Tellurium minerals. 81

rates it widely from the Honduras ferric tellurite. Emmonsite
corresponds in composition more closely, being also a ferric
tellurite, and we were inclined at first to think that the two
minerals might be identical. Through the kindness of Dr.
Hillebrand we have had an opportunity to inspect the original
emmonsite, and furthermore Dr. Hillebrand has made a new
chemical examination of the scanty amount of material at
hand, the results of which are appended to our paper. Our
own examination did not extend beyond a microscopic study
of the cleavage plates, but these while confirming the points
made by Mr. Cross in regard to the cleavages and chief optical
characters, proved that in appearance the Honduras mineral
and emmonsite are widely different. Moreover, Dr. Hille-
brand’s recent results show that the two minerals differ both
in ratio of tellurium to iron, and also in amount of water.
The Honduras mineral consequently cannot be united with
either of the minerals named, and although our knowledge of
its physical characters is imperfect, the simplicity and exact-
ness of the chemical formula shows that it deserves to rank as
a definite mineral species. We propose, therefore, to call it
Durdenite after the gentleman to whose kindness we are
indebted for all the material we have had to use.

Note on Emmonsire spy Dr. W. F. HItLEesRanp.

I have attempted a re-analysis of emmonsite with the extremely
limited quantity belonging to Mr. Cross, which he kindly con-
sented to sacrifice for the purpose. Unfortunately the analysis
was not entirely successful, but what was done upholds the cor-
rectness of my former analysis and seems to prove that the two
minerals are distinct. The weight taken for analysis was 0764
grams. The water was determined in this by heating in a boat
with a plug of dry sodium carbonate filling the tube in front, and
collecting the water in a calcium chloride tube. The weight
found was ‘0032 grams, or 4:2 per cent. This, under the circum-
stances, is as near as could be expected to my original deter-
maton (3°28 per cent), which was made on less pure material,
and shows that emmonsite is distinct from the Honduras mineral,
which has over 10 per cent of water. After dissolving the
ignited mineral, a rather considerable portion of the solution
was unfortunately lost, but the relation of the iron and tellurium |
in what remained was estimated; the result ee ier te —
1:3°75. This is very near that originally found, 1. e., 1: 3°65.
I did not detect any zinc in this analysis, which is Mediators
of the opinion formerly expressed that it was present as an
admixture in some form.

In regard to the behavior of emmonsite on heating it may be
added that even at as low a temperature as 100° C. it becomes

AM. JouUR. ScI.—THIRD SERIES, VOL. XL, No. 235.—JULY, 1890,
=, ih}

82 S. L. Penfield—Connellite from Cornwall.

brownish, but regains its green color on cooling without having
suffered loss in weight. In an unpowdered condition it decrepi-
tates rather violently on further heating, and, as originally
stated, fuses readily to a red-brown liquid. In regard to the
evidence as to the condition of oxidation of the iron and tellurium
in emmonsite afforded by boiling the mineral with hydrochloric
acid, I would add that my former experiment was carefully
made and the products of distillation were collected in a solution
of potassium iodide. No evolution whatever of iodine was
observed. While this would not prove the entire absence of a
ferrous tellurate, it does prove conclusively, as indicated in my
original paper, that the mineral is chiefly a ferric tellurite. This
being true, it would be reasonable, even without other evidence,
to conclude that the mineral is simply a ferric tellurite and not a
combination of ferric tellurite with ferrous tellurate.

Washington, May 31, 1890.

Art. XL—On Oonnellite from Cornwall, England ;
by 8. L. PENFIELD.

THE rare Cornish mineral, Connellite, was first described as
a new species by Prof. Connell, who presented, in 1847, at a
meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science,* a short communication in which he stated that from
qualitative tests he had proved it to be a sulphato-chloride of
copper containing water. The name Connellite was first given
by Prof. J. D. Dana, in the third edition of his Mineralogy,
1850. In the fifth edition of his Mineralogy he also gives a
reference to the mineral as early as 1802, by Rasleigh,+ who
calls it a “copper ore of an azure blue color, composed of
needle crystals,’ from Wheal Providence. In 1863 Maske-
lynet published a description of the crystals, in which he deter-
mined the form as hexagonal, habit slender prismatic, with
holohedral pyramidal terminations. Owing to their small size
(crystals being not over y+, Inch in diameter), he was unable
to measure the angle of the terminal faces on the ordinary re-
flecting goniometer, but by means of a microscope attachment
to his goniometer he was able to measure them with a fair de-
gree of accuracy. He identified two prisms, a pyramid of the
first order, and a di-hexagonal pyramid. He gives two figures,
one of which is copied in the fifth edition of Dana’s Mineral-
ogy, the other representing a simpler combination of prism of
the second with pyramid of the first order.

* Report of the British Association for 1847. + Brit. Min., ii, 13, pl. 12, f. 1, 6.
+ Phil. Mag., IV, xxv, 39.

S. L. Penfield—Connellite from Cornwall. 83

The mineral is one of special interest to the author owing to
its apparently close relation to the newly described Spangolite,*
as well as the general interest which one always has for such a
rare and beautiful mineral, which has been for so many years
mentioned and partially described in mineralogical literature.
Fortunately Prof. Brush had in his cabinet a specimen of the
mineral, labeled Camborne in Cornwall, which he had obtained
from the Mineralien-Niederlage in Freiberg and which he gen-
erously placed at my disposal. The specimen was composed
chiefly of octahedral cuprite, in the cavities of which the con-
nellite had deposited, mostly in radiated groups; malachite and
agate were also associated with it. It did not at first seem pos-
sible that enough material could be obtained for making an
investigation, but on breaking into the specimen additional
cavities were found which contained crystals. Owing to the
beautiful blue color of the mineral it could readily be distin-
guished from the cuprite, and by careful selecting nearly 0:05
gram was obtained on which not the least trace of impurity
could be detected when examined with a strong magnifying glass.
The specific gravity of two of the pieces was taken in the barium-
mercuric iodide solution, and found to be 3:°364. There was,
therefore, the possibility of obtaining still more of the mineral
by crushing and sifting all of the material which had been
picked over and separating by means of the heavy solution.
The separation presented some difficulties, as the cuprite was
somewhat attacked by the heavy solution, and the malachite
varied in specific gravity (owing probably to impurities), some
of it being almost exactly like the connellite; the mineral was,
however, separated from the heavier cuprite and lighter agate,
but still contained malachite, from which it was further sepa-
rated by hand picking. The powder was repeatedly brushed
from one watch glass to another and examined in a strong light
with a lens, so that every bit of malachite which might perhaps
be attached to the connellite might be seen and removed. This
repeated examination of the powder assured the author that
the material which he had for examination was of exceptional
purity. Altogether 0-074 gram of the pure material was ob-
tained. Before commencing the chemical analysis the crystals
were carefully examined. The habit agrees well with the gen-
eral description of Maskelyne; most of the crystals are slen-
der prismatic, terminated by a pyramid of the opposite order.
Crystals are seldom over 0:°15™™ in diameter, the largest are in
slightly divergent groups, and it was not only difficult to iso-
late a single terminated individual, but also to adjust it on the
goniometer. In three cases the adjustment was made so that
the terminal angle of the pyramid (1011 4 0111) could be

* This Journal, IJI, xxxix, 370.

84 S. L. Penfield—Connellite from Cornwall.

measured with the following results: 49° 26’, 49° 50’ and 49°
42'. The reflections were good, but of course faint, owing to
the small size of the faces. “Maskelyne gives for the same angle
47° 10’. The zone 2110, 0111 and 9110 was also adjusted on
the goniometer in which the pyramid was found to be at right
angles to the prism of the second order and finally one pris-
matic zone was measured in which the angles approached very
closely to 60°. Using the mean angle of p P (1011 , 0111)
= 49° 39’, the length of the emul axis ¢ = 1°3392 can be
calculated. This is probably obtained from more exact meas-
urements than those of Maskelyne. Among the many frag-
mentary crystals examined under the microscope, the majority
had the simple habit of prism and pyramid of the opposite order,
a few only showed the combination of prism and pyramid of
the same order, while still others were slender and tapering, in
habit like an Alston Moor aragonite crystal, but usually termi-
nated at the very end by the ordinary pyramid. No crystals
were observed like those described by Maskelyne, showing
combinations of the two prisms or a dihexagonal pyramid.

Hardness about 3. Specific gravity as stated above, 3°364.
The crystals are transparent and of a beautiful dark blue color,
the fine powder is a pale greenish blue. Crystals show
under the polarizing microscope parallel extinction and strong
positive double refraction, determined on thin prismatic erys-
tals by means of the quartz wedge: they exhibit no percepti-
ble pleochr oism, which agrees with the statement of Maskelyne.
No distinct cleavage was detected.

The chemical analysis was made with great care on 0:0740
gram. This seems a very small amount for the purpose, but I
was prepared to take advantage of the experience which had
been gained in the analysis of spangolite, and as no rare or un-
usual constituents were met with, and as the analysis went on
without any mishap Iam prepared to place great confidence
in the results, which are as follows:

Ratio. Spangolite.

SO; 4°9 ‘061 1:00 10°11

Cl TA 208 3°42 - 4-11

CuO 72:3 “O11 15°00 59°51

H,O 16°8 931 15°34 20°41
Loss at 100° C. 4 Al,O; 6°60
101°8 100: "4

O equivalent to Cl Ie O eq. to Cl “12
1001 99°82

The ratio here is not very satisfactory except between SO,
and CuO, with H,O slightly in excess. If, however, we assume
that some OH is isomorphous with the Cl and caleulate enough

S. L. Penfield—Connellite from Cornwall. 85

OH so that when added to the Cl it will bring the ratio up to
the first whole number, the analysis will be as follows:

Ratio.
SO; 4:9 “061 1:00
Cl 7:4. 208).
OH 6 035 f 243 4:00
CuO | 72:3 “911 15-00
H.O 16°5 SONS 15°04

Loss at 100° C. “4

202-1
O equivalent to Cl and OH, 2°0

100-1

With this interpretation the ratio is very exact, and from
the repeated instances in which Cl and OH mutually replace
one another it seems best to make this assumption to explain
the analysis. The formula can then be written Cu,, (Cl. OH),
SO,,, 15H,O, although it is of course probable that all of the
Cu which is not in combination with Cl and SO, is combined
with hydroxyl. The compound is very similar to spangolite
in composition, an analysis of which is given above for com-
parison, both minerals being very basic sulphato-chlorides. In
spangolite, moreover, the closest relation was found between
SO,, Al,O, and CuO, while Cl was slightly deficient and H,O
high, and it was also stated in discussing that analysis that the
ratios could be made almost exact by assuming, as in this ease,
that a little OH is isomorphous with the Cl. The method of
analysis was on the whole like that employed in the analysis of
spangolite. The air-dry powder lost very little by drying in a
desiccator over H,SO, or in an air bath at 100° C. For deter-
mining the water the mineral was weighed in a platinum boat,
covered with dried Na,CO, and ignited in a combustion tube,
the water being collected in a weighed chloride of calcium
tube: it was found to be neutral. Before making the experi-
ment on the mineral a blank trial was made in which the chlo-
ride of calcium tube gained only -0002 gr., showing that dried
Na,CO, can be handled quickly in the air without taking on
any appreciable quantity of moisture. The greatest pains was
taken with the SO, determination: before filtering off the pre-
cipitated BaSO, the solution containing the precipitate was re-
peatedly evaporated with HO] to remove as far as possible all
HNO,. . After filtering off the BaSO, the filtrate was again
evaporated to dryness, taken up in very dilute acid and water
and the least trace of BaSO, filtered off. The BaSO, precipi-
tate originally weighed 0-0110 gr. after purifying in the ordi-
nary way by fusion with Na,CO, and reprecipitating it weighed
0-0103 gr., showing that the first precipitate was nearly pure,
and as there is some chance of loss during the manipulation of

86 Scientific Intelligence.

so small quantities the first weight was used in the analysis.
The very small percentage of SO, is certainly remarkable.
Finally, the last filtrate, after precipitating the copper with
HS, was evaporated to dryness, ignited to expel the excess of
H,SO,, the residue dissolved in water and tested with ammo-
nia, ammonium sulphide, ammonium oxalate and sodium phos-
phate, but as no precipitates were formed it was assumed that
everything had been precipitated from the solution. The
weighed AgCl and Cu,S were found to be pure.

Pyrognostics and chemical tests.—Connellite fuses before the
blowpipe at about 2 to a black shining globule, coloring the
flame green. Heated in the closed tube it gives abundant
water, which has a strong acid reaction. Insoluble in water,
but soluble in dilute acids, the solution giving with barium
chloride a shght precipitate of BaSO,.

Mineralogical Laboratory, Sheffield Scientific School,
New Haven, May, 1890.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. On the Chemical character of Beryllium.—In consequence
of the position of beryllium as a typical element in the periodic
system, Krtss and Morantr have made an exact study of its
chemical characters. The oxide was prepared from Arendal
leucophane, by acting on the finely pulverized mineral with sul-
phuric acid in excess, the operation being conducted in a platinum
dish. After driving off the excess of acid, the mass was treated
with water, and the solution added to one of ammonium carbon-
ate in excess, in which the precipitate at first formed was dis-
solved. After ten days standing, the filtrate was boiled, whereby
a precipitate of beryllium oxide was obtained, containing some
alumina and iron oxide. ‘lo purify it the beryllia was dissolved
in hydrochloric acid, precipitated with ammonia and digested
with ammonium carbonate solution, in quantity insufficient for
complete solution. The solution after ten days standing was
filtered and steam blown through it till almost all the beryllium
oxide was thrown down. The last trace of iron was removed by
adding ammonium sulphide to the ammonium carbonate solution,
allowing it to stand two days, filtering and boiling. ‘The ignited
precipitate was snow-white and dissolved in hydrochloric acid
yielding a colorless solution. To prepare metallic beryllium the
authors at first heated a mixture of the oxide and metallic mag-
nesium in a porcelain crucible; but the beryllium obtained was
contaminated strongly with silicon. They then reduced potas-
sium-beryllium fluoride with sodium in a steel crucible, the re-

Chemistry and Physics. 87

duced metal being protected from contact with the crucible. On
treating the mass with water small hexagonal crystals of beryl-
lium were obtained mixed with pulverulent metal and oxide. To
determine whether beryllium oxide could act as an acid oxide and
form beryllates the freshly precipitated hydroxide was digested
in alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide until it was sat-
urated, care being taken to exclude carbon dioxide. On evapo-
ration over sulphuric acid, a white silky mass was obtained which
gave a formula closely approximating Be(OK),. To determine
the basicity of beryllium oxide, absolute alcohol was saturated
with sulphur dioxide gas, and pure, recently precipitated beryl-
lium hydroxide was dissolved in it to saturation. On evaporation
over sulphuric acid, a white crystalline residue consisting of
minute hexagonal plates was obtained which on analysis corres-
ponded to the formula BeSO,. With boric acid, a borate
Be,B,O, was obtained.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiii, 727, Mch.
1890. G. F. B.

2. On the estimation of the Molecular mass of Colloids by the
method of Raoult—SaBaNe&EF¥ has made a series of experiments
to determine the molecular mass of certain colloid substances by
means of the freezing points of their aqueous solutions. Col-
loidal tungstic aeid, for example, dried at 200° and containing
2°57 per cent of water, corresponding to the formula H,W,O,,
which requires 2°52 per cent, has a molecular mass calculated
from the observed lowering of the freezing point, varying be-
tween 677 and 995; while that represented by the formula
H,W,O,, is 714. Colloidal molybdic acid forms minute hygro-
scopic plates, which dried over sulphuric acid for several weeks
still contain 6°99 per cent of water. It dissolves with difficulty
in water and produces a lowering of the freezing point corres-
ponding to a molecular mass of 620; that required by (MoQ,),
being 576 and that corresponding to tetra-molybdic acid H,Mo,O,,
being 594. For glycogen the molecular mass found was as a
mean 1585, corresponding to the empirical formula increased ten-
fold (C,H,,O,),,, which requires 1620. Dried at 115°, however,
this substance possesses a molecular mass one and a half times
less. The lowering of the freezing point produced by colloidal
silicic acid was so slight that the values obtained all came within
the limits of observational errors. Colloidal iron hydroxide
could not be obtained free from chlorine; the purest solution con-
taining one molecule of FeCl, to 116 molecules Fe(OH), On
the assumption that the molecular mass of the hydroxide is so
pee that its influence in producing the slight depression of the
reezing point observed may be neglected, the author calculates
from the observed data a molecular mass of 300 corresponding
to the formula Fe,Cl, which requires 325.—J. Russ. Phys. Chem.
Ges., 1889, 515; Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiii, (Ref.) 87, Mch.
1890. G. F. B.

3. On the Color of Fluorine and on its Spectrwm.—Moi1ssan has
examined the color of fluorine as seen through a platinum tube

88 Scientific Intelligence.

50 centimeters long, having its ends closed with transparent
plates of fluor spar. Under these circumstances the gas appears
of a distinctly greenish-yellow color, less strongly pronounced
than that of chlorine and inclining rather more to yellow. If a
little water be allowed to enter this tube full of fluorine, hydro-
gen fluoride is at once formed and the oxygen is set free in the
form of ozone, in a condition of such concentration that the
contents of the tube become of a deep indigo-blue color. In
order to obtain the spectrum of fluorine, sparks were taken in an
atmosphere of this gas contained in a platinum tube, between
gold or platinum electrodes. In the red region of the spectrum,
the author found thirteen well-defined lines having the following
wave-lengths: 749, 740, 734, 714, 704, 691, 687°5, 685°5, 683°5, 677,
640°5, 634 and 623. By a comparison of silicon chloride and
fluoride Salet had already observed lines of wave-lengths 692,
686, 678, 640, 623, which he attributed to fluorine.—C. F., cix,
937; Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiii, (Ref.) 140, Mch. 1890.
G. F. B.

4. On the Preparation of Hydrazine from Aldehyde-ammo-
nia.—Curtius and Jay have described a simple method of ob-
taining hydrazine from aldehyde-ammonia CH,.CH.OH. NH.
By the action of sodium nitrite upon a cold saturated solution of
aldehyde-aimonia in water feebly acid, the nitrosoamine of a base
C.H,,0,.CH.NH, which the authors call paraldimine results,
the nitroso-paraldimine itself having the formula C,H,,O,.CH
.NNO. If a little moist hydrogen chloride gas be passed into
the ethereal solution of this nitrosoamine, it yields paraldimine
hydrochloride C.H,,O,.CH. NH. HCI, in the form of clear color-
less needles. These dissolved in ether and treated with silver
oxide yield the free base paraldimine as a mobile colorless liquid,
with an odor recalling that of paraldehyde, and which solidifies
to a mass of crystals in a freezing mixture. By the action of
zinc dust and glacial acetic acid on the nitrosamine, amido-paral-
dimine O,H,,O,.CH.NNH, is formed; and this when boiled
with dilute sulphuric acid, yields paraldehyde and hydrazine
sulphate :

H
CsHii02.04 Nyvpp, + H20 + W280, = C,Hi,02.6 16

By distillation with alkalies hydrazine hydrate is obtained from
the sulphate. The nitroso-paraldimine may be converted directly
into hydrazine sulphate by the action of zinc dust and sulphuric
acid; but the yield is small owing to the fact that the reduction
is hable to go too far.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiii, 740, Mch.
1890. EH 184 1B

+N.H;,. H.SO,

Il. GroLtocy AND MINERALOGY.

1. Post-Tertiary Deposits of Manitoba and the adjoining
territories of Northwestern Canada; by J. B. TyrRex tt, of the
Geological Survey of Canada. (Bulletin of the Geological
Society of America.)—The district treated of in this paper com-

Geology and Mineralogy. 89

prises the northern extension of the prairies of Dakota and Mon-
tana lying within Canadian territory, and consists largely of the
drainage basins of the Saskatchewan and Assiniboine Rivers
stretching westward from the Archean nucleus to the Rocky
Mountains. This region is almost entirely underlain by clays
and sands of Cretaceous or Laramie age. But some Miocene
and Pliocene conglomerates, composed of quartzite pebbles from
the Rocky Mountains extend as far east as long. 107° 15’, and
these conglomerates furnish a secondary source of supply for
many of the quartzite pebbles of the drift.

The whole region, with the exception of four of the higher
points near its southwest corner, is covered with a deposit of till
that varies greatly in thickness, being especially affected by the
many inequalities in the surface of the underlying older beds.
The till is, as usual, an unstratified deposit largely ot local origin,
but having included in it a considerable amount of material de-
rived from the northeast. In the more western parts of the
Canadian plains it may be subdivided into two divisions, sepa-
rated by a distinct interglacial formation, showing clear evidence
of a retreat and a re-advance of the continental glacier, but for
Manitoba proper the evidence of an, interglacial period is not
so clear.

The fact is also again clearly pointed out that there is a nar-
row belt of country stretching along the foot of the Rocky
Mountains from which the till is absent and which has never
been overridden by the continental glacier,

Intimately associated with the till are a number of terminal
moraines similar to those that have been traced out by several
American geologists in Minnesota, Wisconsin and farther east,
which appear to extend in approximately parallel lines in a
northwesterly and southeasterly direction across the plains, be-
ginning on the east with the Riding and Duck Mountains and
extending westward to the Hand Hills and the western end of
the Cypress Hills. No terminal moraine is to be seen along the
western edge of the till-covered area, but the drift gradually
thins out and disappears. The theory is advanced that isolated
lakes may, for short intervals of time, have occupied the space
between the icefoot and the eastern flanks of the mountains, being
hemmed in to the north and south by local glaciers moving east-
ward.

The direction of flow of the continental glacier has been traced
out to some extent. In the great Lake Winnipeg Valley east of
the Duck and Riding Mountains the ice flowed southeastward in
the direction of the trend of the valley. A similar remark holds
good for the valley of the Upper Assiniboine River, and it is
quite possible that this direction may have been maintained all
the way across the plains, the ice leaving the Archean in a
southwesterly direction, and gradually sweeping round to the
southeast. In Lake Winnipegosis many of the islands are stated
to be of the nature of Drumlins, lying with their long axes paral-
lel to the direction of glacial striz.

90 Scientific Intelligence.

The Duck Mountain is shown to be of particular interest as its
summit is composed entirely of morainic debris, and after the
retreat of the continental glacier the summit of this moraine
became itself a collecting ground for the snow from which glaciers
flowed down the valleys of the surrounding slopes. A few kames
are also recorded as occurring along with this latest stage of
glaciation.

Overlying the till throughout extensive areas are stratified
alluvial deposits that have been laid down in the beds of extinct
Post-glacial lakes. A marked feature of these beds is the absence
of fossils of any kind. The positions of some of these lakes is
indicated, one or more lying near the headwaters of the Saskatche-
wan River, one east of the Missouri Coteau, and one on the upper
Assiniboine, but the largest occupied the basin of Lake Winnipeg
and has been named by Mr. Warren Upham, Lake Agassiz. The
shores of this lake have been traced northward to lat. 53°, and
how much farther north they extend is not known.

Mr. Tyrrell in answer to questions stated that the evidence at
present at hand appeared to indicate that the preglacial drainage
of the Winnipeg basin was northward rather than southward,
and that the isolated bowlders seen on the surface of the plains
had probably been carried to their present position within the
ice of the glacier itself, and not beneath it, as had been the case
with the great mass of the till.

2. 8th Annual Report of the Director of the U. S. Geological
Survey, 1886-87.— The following are Papers in this Report
issued separately.

(1.) Zhe Trenton Limestone as a source of Petroleum and
inflammable gas in Ohio and Indiana; by Epwarp Orton.
180 pp.—The Report of Prof. Orton is a full and thorough treat-
ment of the subject of petroleum and gas from the Trenton lme-
stone. The facts are among the marvelous in science, and they
are here ably presented and discussed both from a geological and
economical point of view. Mr. Orton’s paper in the last volume
of this Journal is in illustration of one branch of this subject.

(2.) The Geographical Distribution of Fossil Plants; by
Lester F. Warp. 300 pp.—Mr. Ward states in his opening
sentence that this paper is intended as a contribution to the
Sketch of Paleobotany which appeared in the Fifth U.S. G.S.
Annual Report. That paper was written as an introduction to a
larger work dealing exclusively with the literature of the science,
and proceeding primarily from a bibliographical standpoint.
This paper continues the subject ‘‘ without departing from the
chiefly bibliographical method,” while at the same time bearing
on the geographical distribution of fossil plants inasmuch as the
bibliography is presented under geographical divisions, com-
mencing with Great Britain. Mr. Ward makes the bibliography
historical for each country as regards the developments in paleo-
botany, gives copious notes on the various works mentioned, and
points out the bearing of discoveries in solving the various questions

Geology and Mineralogy. 91

that have been successively under consideration. ‘The paper has
involved a vast amount of labor in its preparation, and will be of
great value to all interested in the department. The localities in
the United States of fossil plants, and the geological periods of
the plants of each, are presented in colors on a map.

(3.) Geology of the Lassen Peak District ; by J. 8. Dizuer.
32 pp.—Mr. Diller has commenced his study of the geology of
the Cascade Range with that of the Lassen Peak district, and
here gives an account of the latter region—its general features,
stratigraphical structure, and upheavals in connection with the
structure of the Sierras and their relation to volcanic action in
the district. The formations described are the Auriferons slates,
Carboniferous limestone and serpentine; the Chico beds of the
Cretaceous and the Miocene. The important conclusions with
regard to the faults and constitution of the Sierras, reached by
Mr. Diller, are briefly noticed on page 152 of vol. xxxiii of this
Journal, 1887.

3. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. 1.—A
list of the papers published in separate parts constituting the
first volume of the Geological Society of America is given, so
far as then issued, on page 402 of the last volume of this Journal.
There have also appeared papers by J. B. Tyrrell on the Post-
Tertiary deposits of Manitoba and the adjoining territories of
Northwestern Canada (an abstract of which is given on page 38);
R. W. Ells, the Stratigraphy of the Quebec Group (reviewed in
the last volume of this Journal by C. D. Walcott) ; 'T. C. Cham-
berlin, some additional evidences bearing on the Interval between
the Glacial Epochs; H. 8. Williams, the Cuboides zone and its
Fauna, a discussion of methods of Correlation; E. Brainard and
H. M. Seeley, the Calciferous formation in the Champlain Valley
with a supplement on the Fort Cassin Rocks and their fauna by
R. P. Whitfield. The volume closes with the Proceedings of the
Annual Meeting held at New York, December 26, 27, 28, 1889,
by Prof. J. J. Stevenson, Secretary.

The titles of the papers and the names of their authors are
sufficient indication that the volume is one of unusual importance
as regards American geology, giving a long step of progress to
the science. There are several which would be noticed particu-
larly in this place if space allowed.

4. The Salt Range in India.—Dr. Wm. WaacEn, in the
Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Ser. xiii, on the Salt
Range, vol. iv, Part 1, 1889, points out that there is distinct
stratigraphic unconformability in the range at the base of the
Carboniferous. Another unconformability exists above the Neo-
comian and below the beds containing Cardita Beaumonti, to
which period the Deccan traps are referred.

5. The Collection of Building and Ornamental Stones in the
U. &. National Museum. A Handbook and Catalogue, by
Grorce P, Merritt, Washington, 1889 (Rep. Smithsonian Instit.,
1885-86, Part II, pp. 277-648).—The collection of building and

92 Scientific Intelligence.

ornamental stones of the National Museum upon which the pres-
ent work is based numbers nearly 3000 specimens. To a large
extent it was brought together through the efforts of the late
Dr. George W. Hawes, but his work upon it was interrupted by
his early death and it has been taken up and ably prosecuted by
Mr. Merrill. With the advantage of this large amount of ma-
terial the author has prepared a very useful manual of American
building stones. He gives the chief localities, the mode of occur-
rence, method of quarrying and working with numerous illustra-
tions, with notes on the effects of weathering, means of preserva-
tion, and other related points. The closing chapter gives a con-
cise summary of similar stones from other countries. A series of
appendices give tables showing the specific gravity, strength
per square inch, etc., also composition, price, and so on.

6. Annotated List of the minerals occurring in Canada, by
G. Curist1an Horrmann, Montreal, 1890 (Trans, R. Soc. Canada,
vii (3), pp. 65-105, 1890).—This is a carefully prepared list of
Canadian minerals with notes on the important localities. The
Species are arranged alphabetically and are about 280 in number.
An interesting occurrence noted is that of bournonite from
Marmora township, Hastings Co., and Darling township, Lanark
County.

7. On the Hygroscopicity of certain Canadian Fossil Fuels ;
by G. Curist1AN Horrmann, Montreal, 1890 (Ibid., pp. 41-55).—
The author has carried through an elaborate series of experiments
with a series of Canadian fuels from anthracite to peat, showing
the amount of water present in dry coal, in saturated, the loss in
dry air, and the amount reabsorbed in a moist atmosphere. Some
of the results are shown in the following statements :

Lignites (and peat) retain 2°5—5:0 p. c. and reabsorb 10°0—14°5 p. c. water.
Lignitic coals utp uLe teams Olea iicars ri 65— 90 * Y
Coals ia 0:'1—1°0 3 73 1:5— 6:0 “cb a3

8. Ninth Annual Report of the State Mineralogist of Cali-
fornia, Witt1amM IREwan, Jr., for the year ending December 1,
1889. 352 pp. Sacramento, 1890.—Some of the subjects dis-
cussed at length in this report are the refining and coining of
precious metals by 8. Gumbinner; the auriferous gravels of Cali-
fornia by J. H. Hammond, with numerous sections and excellent
illustrations; river mining by R. L. Dunn; on clays by W. D.
Johnston; on pottery by Linna Irelan, ete.

9. A Course in Determinative Mineralogy ; by Joun EvYEr-
MAN. Easton, Penn., 1890.—This is a brief concise series of tables
including chiefly the minerals of economic value, arranged first
according to metallic or non-metallic luster and subdivided by
blowpipe and chemical reactions. The chemical tests chosen have
the advantage that they throw together the species which are
allied in composition, e. g., those containing zine, copper, etc., and
hence tend to instruct the student as well as guide him in the
determination of species.

Botany and Zoology. 93

10. Giornale di Mineralogia, Cristallografia e Petrografia.
Diretto dal Dr. F. Sansonz. Vol. I, Fasc. 1. Milan, 1890.
(Ulrico Hoepli.)—Mineralogists will be interested in the estab-
lishment of a new journal in Italy devoted to Mineralogy, Crystal-
lography and Petrography. It is published at Milan under the
able editorship of Dr. Francesco Sansoni, of the University of
Pavia, well known as an active worker. The first number con-
tains an exhaustive article by Artini upon the Sardinian leadhill-
ite, with two plates, one by Sansoni upon the crystallography of
a series of organic compounds, and others by Boeris, Tognini
Melzi, besides notes and reviews.

III. Botany AND ZOOLOGY.

1. Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien, Nos. 39 and 40.—We
have had frequent occasion to call the attention of our readers to
the many excellencies of this comprehensive work under the
editorship of Professors Engler and Prantl. These numbers
latest at hand justify fully all words of commendation we have
bestowed upon the treatise. The engravings are clear and very
telling, and, as in previous numbers, for the greater part, original.
Schénland treats of the Order Candolleace, Hock, of Calycerez,
and Hoffmann, of Composite. In No. 40, Wille takes up, with a
good degree of fullness, certain of the lower Alge.

It gives us pleasure to urge upon our readers the request made
by the editors, that persons who possess pictures which exhibit
the characteristics of type-plants will kindly lend them for the
purpose of having them reproduced as illustrations in the work.

Gay lar G:

2. Zoe, a Biological Journal. San Francisco, published
monthly ($2.00 per annum).—One can hardly help wishing that
the founders of this new journal might have fixed upon some
name more attractive. Aside, however, from its name, this first
number of the new journal is attractive and promises well.

‘Restricting our notice to the botanical articles, we may call
attention to the following. Dr. Harkness leads off with a well-
considered paper on the Nomenclature of Organic Life. His
views are conservative, and, we may say, conciliatory. We wish
sincerely that his paper might find a larger circle of readers than
it is like to have in the initial number of a new magazine. Mr.
Brandegee speaks of an arborescent Polygala. In the cafions of
the Sierra de Laguna, Lower California, Polygala apopetala
“acquires its greatest development, and becomes a small tree,
having a trunk and spreading top, and equaling in height the
surrounding Acacias and Lysilomas.” Mr. 8. B. Parish has the
first part of a paper on the naturalized plants of Southern Cali-
fornia. His views in regard to discriminating between native
and naturalized plants are sound, and, if carried out further in his
work, in subsequent communications, will result in giving us
information of the highest value.

94 Scientific Intelligence.

Mrs. Brandegee furnishes interesting notes in regard to Dode-
catheon Meadia. She proposes to place the different forms pro-
visionally under four varietal heads. Mr. Brandegee sends a
short note about a forest of ‘‘ Cardon,” the Mexican name for two
species of Cereus, notably UC. Pringlei. Mr. Vaslit, speaking of
the genus Crossosma, is inclined to regard CO. Bigelovii a depau-
perate form of C. Californicum. The journal contains a brief
review of recent literature, and also short but interesting reports
of meetings of the California Academy of Sciences, and of the
San Francisco Microscopical Society.

It is a pleasure to welcome this carefully edited journal. We
hope that it will do for the Pacific coast what is so well done in
our nearer west by the Botanical Gazette and by the Bulletin of
the Torrey Botanical Club, on the Atlantic coast. G. L. G.

3. Deep-sea Mollusks and the conditions under which they
exist ; by Wu. H. Daty. Presidential address before the Biolog-
ical Society of Washington.—The questions considered by Mr.
Dall bear on the characteristics and evolution of deep-sea life,
and have great interest, although, as Mr. Dall says, “the explor-
ation of the deep-sea faunas has only begun.” The conclusion of
Tornoe that carbonic acid exists in the abyssal waters only in
combination is questioried on the ground of the common occur-
rence of eroded shells. It may be questioned also on the ground
of animal respiration in the depths, and probably also on that of
decomposition, which would make free carbonic acid to be at
least temporarily present; and considering that no plants exist
sufficient to use up the carbonic acid thus evolved the excess of
carbonic acid through the depths in some form must ever be on
the increase. Mr. Dall states that of the Mollusks the groups
that in shallow waters are phytophagous, live in the deeps chiefly
on foraminifera, which they swallow in immense quantities, and
he attributes to this the larger size of the intestine, the smaller
teeth and jaws, and other characteristics; for there is very little
food in a given mass of them in proportion to that in alge.
The carnivorous mollusks are the prevailing kinds; but the abys-
sal species, Mr. Dall states, may get all the food they want from
the pelagic life that descends at death from above, without prey-
ing on one another. The shells are not drilled, or otherwise
marked with evidence of attack by other mollusks. He gives facts
respecting the fishes of the bottom which show that they live on
mollusks and make large shell heaps. According to Professor
Verrill, sea-urchins have been brought up with shells in their
stomachs, and star-fishes with sea-urchins inside; so that depre-
dations are not wholly absent from the deep seas. Mr. Dall
observes that in deep-water mollusks the layer of aragonite of
the shells are thinner than in those of shallow water; the spines
of the Murices more delicate as if it were a character that was
fading out because unnecessary; the sculpturing is that which
strengthens in order to adapt to the pressure at the bottom; the
operculum is generally horny and to a large extent absent; the

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 95

shells have often a protective epidermis and probably against car-
boniec acid. Of the abyssal species in the collections of the
Blake, 28 per cent belong to the three families Plewrotomide,
Ledide and Dentalide. The number of Brachiopods in the
Littoral, Archibenthal (along the continental slopes), and Abyssal
areas are respectively, 8, 12, 3; of Pelecypods, 98, 114, 31; of
Seaphopods (genera Dentalium and Cadulus), 17, 28, 12; of
Gastropods, 280, 222, 83. Of these, there are common to all
three areas, 32 Gastropods, 5 Scaphopods, 10 Pelecypods and 2
Brachiopods. Joes aD:

TV. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. Le Glacier de Aletsch et Le Lac de Marjelen.—Princu
Roranp Bonaparte. 26 pp. 4to. December, 1889. Paris.—This
memoir is devoted especially to the Aletsch Glacier lake. It
is situated on the left side of the glacier about 800 meters from
the Eggischhorn and between this summit and the Strahlhérner.
Along side of the glacier, where the basin is wall-sided on
account of the melting by the water, the depth is 50 meters.
The lake has had frequent discharges in consequence apparently
of the movements of the Aletsch glacier. The last took place in
September, 1887, and was complete in 10 hours. It began on
the first by a lowering of the level of 0°15 meter on September Ist,
of 1 meter on the 2d, 2 meters on the 3d, and then on the 4th,
the whole disappeared. It was half full again on the 19th. The
recorded times of earlier discharges are: August, 1885; August,
1884; July, 1882; January, 1883, but was full again the next
July; July, 1878; August, 1874; August, 1873, complete in 8
hours; August, 1871; August, 1864; August, 1859; August, 1840;
August, 1820; August, 1813. Partial changes occurred also at
other times. The discharge of the lake is a great calamity for the
valley of the Rhone, which valley the waters reach near Brigue.
The waters descend usually without a previous warning, and
carry destruction to the cultivated fields on the way. The basin
of the lake is an old moraine. At high water the height of the
lake is 2367 meters; its area is 552,400 meters square.

It is proposed to lower the lake 124 meters by a canal taking
the waters above this level—rather more than half—into the
valley of the Viesch. This would diminish greatly, but not pre-
vent, the flood from a sudden discharge.

2. Stone implement at New Comerstown, Ohie.—Much inter-
est is excited in Northern Ohio by the recent discovery of a
typical paleolithic implement in the glacial terrace of the Tus-
carawas River at New Comerstown, Ohio. The implement is
made of the peculiar black flint which occurs in the “ Lower
Mercer ” limestone of that region, and is four inches long, two
wide, and one and a half thick at the larger end, and chipped on
both sides all around the edge. The discovery was made by Mr.
W. C. Mills, of New Comerstown, on Oct. 27, 1889. But its sig-

96 Scientific Intelligence.

nificance was not fully understood untila visit to the place by
Professor G. F. Wright and a party of friends from Cleveland on
the 11th of April. The glacial terrace is here thirty-five feet
above the flood-plain of the river, and the implement was found
by Mr. Mills in undisturbed gravel fifteen feet below the surface.
Additional interest pertains to this discovery because of the pre-
visions made by Mr, Wright of such discoveries in this valley
immediately after his survey of the region in 1881, and reported
at considerable length in this Journal, July, 1883, p. 44.

_ 3. Knowledge, an illustrated Magazine of Science, simply
worded, exactly described. 20 pages 4to.—An excellent periodical,
popular but accurate in its science, and fully illustrated. The
number for May contains a paper by R. Lydekker, on pouched
mammals, well illustrated, and one by A. C. Ranyard, on the
great bright streaks which radiate from some of the larger lunar
craters, illustrated by an admirable photo-engraved plate from a
photograph taken with the great Refractor of the Lick Observa-
tory, besides others of much interest, with book notices and mis-
cellaneous notes.

4. I’? Exposition Universelle, HENRI DE ParvittE—Causeries
scientifiques, découvertes et inventions; Progrés de la Science et
de Vindustrie. Vingt-neuvieme année—694 pp. Paris, 1890 (J.
Rothschild).—This volume gives a very full and instructive
account of the French Exposition of 1889. From its first
inception to its final completion nothing is overlooked, and
throughout the whole book there is a clearness of presentation
and profuseness of excellent illustrations which could have hardly
had their origin outside of Paris.

Professor Richard Owen.—A letter to the editors from Pro-
fessor G. C. Broadhead of Columbia, Missouri, states that Pro-
fessor Richard Owen was assistant to Professor Norwood on the
Survey of Wisconsin, lowa and Minnesota during the year 1849,
and immediately after became Professor in the Western Military
Institute, located at Drennon Springs, Kentucky. About 1854,
the school was transferred to Nashville, Tennessee. Mr. Owen
was Professor of the Natural Sciences in the School and as such
taught Chemistry, Geology and some Zoology, but also German
and Spanish, besides acting as officer in a military capacity and
teaching fencing.

Binney’s Terrestrial Air-breathing Mollusks. A third supplement to the 5th
volume, with 11 plates, has been published as Bulletin No. 4, vol. xix, by the
Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge.

Geological Survey of New Jersey, Annual Report for 1889. Also vol. ii, Part
1, of the Final Report; containing lists of the Minerals and Plants of the State.

Bulletin No. 2 (vol. i), from the Laboratories of Natural History of the State
University of Iowa, contains (1) on the Anatomy of the Gorgonide with 10
plates, by C. C. Nutting, and (2) a Catalogue, with notes of the Native Fishes of
Towa, by Seth EK. Meek.

REPORTS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ARKANSAS.
JOHN C. BRANNER, STATE GEOLOGIST.

An act of the legislature of Arkansas directs that the reports of the State
Geological Survey shall be sold by the Secretary of State at the cost of printing
and binding. The Reports issued, and their prices by mail are as follows:

ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1888.

Vou. I. On the gold and silver mines, and briefly on nickel, antimony, manga-
nese and iron in western central. Arkansas. Price $1.00.

Vou. II. On the general mesozoic geology, chalk, greensands, gypsum, salines,
timber, and soils of southwestern Arkansas. Price $1.00.

Vou. Ili. On the coal of the state, its distribution, thickness, characteristics,
analyses and calorific tests. Price 75 cents.

Other volumes will soon be issued.
Address, Hon. B. CHISM, Seeretary of State, Little Rock, Ark.

DANA’S WORKS.

Ivison, BLAKEMAN, TayLor & Co., New York.—Manual of Geology, by J. D

Dana. Third Edition, 1880. 912 pp. 8vo. $5.00.—Text-book of Geology
by the same. 4th ed. 1883. 412 pp.12mo. $2.00.—The Geological Story
Briefly Told, by the same. 264 pp.12mo. 1875.

J. Winey & Sons, New York.—Treatise on Mineralogy, by J. D. Dana. 5th
edit. xlviii and 828 pp. 8vo., 1868. $10.00. The 5th “subedition” was
issued by Wiley & Son in April, 1874. (Hach ‘‘subedition” (or issue from the
stereotype plates), contains corrections of all errors discovered in the work up
to the date of its publication). Also, Appendix I, by G. J. Brush, 1872. Ap-
pendix II, 1875. Appendix III, 1882, by K. 8. Dana.—Mfanual of Mineral-
ogy & Lithology, by J.D. Dana. 3dedition. 474 pp. 12mo., 1878.—Text-
book of Mineralogy, by EH. S. Dana. Revised edition. 512 pp. 8vo., 1883.—
Text-book of Elementary Mechanics, by E.S. Dana. 300 pp. with num-
erous cuts, 12mo., 1881.—Manual of Determinative Mineralogy, with an
Introduction on Blow- pipe Analysis, by GEORGE J. BRUSH. 8vo., 2d ed. 1877.
Third Appendix to Dana’s Mineralogy, by E.S. Dana. 136 pp. 8vo. 1882.

Dopp & Mzap, New York.—Corals and Coral Islands, by J.D. Dana. 440 pp.
8vo, with 100 Illustrations, several maps and colored plates. 3d ed., 1890.—
Characteristics of Volcanoes, with contributions of facts and principles
from the Hawaiian Islands, by J. D. Dana. 399 pp. 8vo. With illustrations,
maps, ete. 1890.

eC rm RS Or Ee RS
No. 6 Murray Street, New York,

Manufacturers of Balances and Weights of Precision for Chem-
ists, Assayers, Jewelers, Druggists, and in general for every use
where accuracy is required.

KOS Sal is.

Large collections for schools and individuals. The Cre-
taceous and Tertiary (vertebrate and invertebrate) Fossils
of the various groups of Dakota, Nebraska, and Wyoming
as described by Professors Meek, Leidy, Marsh and Cope.
Also Dakota group of Fossil Leaves. of Lesquereux. Large stock of
Minerals and Indian Relics also. Send for Illustrated Price ‘Catalocue.

L. W. STILWELL,
Bt. Deadwood, South Dakota.

CONTENTS.

ART, I.—Inconsistencies of Utilitarianism as the Exclusive
Theory of Organic Evolution; by J. T. Guiick ...---- ar
IJ.—Southern Extension of the cee Formation ; “by
WS. MoGuems Se a eae UES OS SL
Il1.—Experimental proof of Ohm’s ee preceded by a
short account of the discovery and subsequent verifica-
tion of the law; by A. M. Maynr =._----)- 2 Seas 42
IV.—Microscope Magnification; W. L. Srzvens .--.------ 50 -
V.—Notes on the Minerals occurring near Port Henry, N. Y.,
by J Ropes. on ees a eae so ae ee 62
Vi.—Occurrence of Goniolina in the Comanche Series of the
Texas Cretaceouss“by, Rie ip se ere ee ee 64
VII.—Method for the Reduction of Arsenic Acid in Analysis;
by F. A. Goocs and P. HE. Brownine.--2 225 2552.-2- 66
VUI.—Development of the Shell in the genus Tornoceras
Hyatt; by C. E. BrrcuEr—(With Plate ]): 32a eee 71
IX.—Fayalite in the Obsidian of Lipari; by J. P. Ipprves
and 8. i, PBNETELD 2 2G) 2g A See er 75
X.—Selenium and Tellurium minerals from Honduras; by
B.S) Dana; and) EO hie WEuns 2252 oe So oe ee 78

XI.—Connellite from Cornwall, England; by S. L. PEnrrerp 82

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Chemical character of Beryllium, Krtss and MORAuT;
86.—Estimation of the Molecular mass of Colloids by the method of Raoult,
SABANEEFF: Color of Fluorine and on its Spectrum, Morssan, 87.—Preparation
of Hydrazine from Aldehyde-ammonia, CURTIUS and Jay, 88.

Geology and Mineralogy—Post-Tertiary peas of Manitoba and the adjoining

territories of Northwestern Canada, J. B. TYRRELL, 88.—Highth Annual Report |

of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey, 1886-81, 90.—Bulletin of the

Geological Society of America, vol. 1: Salt Range in India, W. WAAGEN: Col-.

lection of Building and Ornamental Stones in the U. 8. National Museum, G. P.
MERRILL, 91.—Annotated List of the minerals occurring in Canada, G. C. Horr-
MANN: Hygroscopicity of certain Canadian Fossil Fuels, G. C. HOFFMANN:
Ninth Annual Report of the State Mineralogist of California, W. IRBLAN, Jr.:
Course in Determinative Mineralogy, J. EYERMAN, 92.—Giornale di Mineralogia,
Cristallografia e Petrografia, F. SANSONTI, 93.

Botany and Zoology—Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien, Nos. 39 and 40: Zoe, a
Biological Journal, 93.—Deep-sea Mollusks and the conditions under whicl they
exist, W. H. Dat, 94.

Miscellaneous Scientific Inteliigence—Le Glacier de Aletsch et Le Lac de Marjelen,
P. R. BONAPARTE: Stone implement at New Comerstown, Ohio, 95.—Knowl-
edge, an illustrated Magazine of Science: L’Exposition Universelle, ‘EL DE
PARVILLE: Professor Richard Owen, 96.

Chas. 3 eco, Eee Maile weet i) pees

Geological Survey. Paes yond ee cum fame
Rees ae ee Oe ~ AUGUST, 1890.

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

\

THE C.p.WALCO TT:

AMERICAN

EDITORS

JAMES D. ann EDWARD 8S. DANA.

aN ASSOCIATE EDITORS
| | ProrEssors JOSIAH P. COOKE, GEORGE L. GOODALE
a anv JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Camprines.

a " Prorzssons H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, or
i New Haven,

Prormssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Pamaperpuia.

THIRD SERIES.
VOL. XL.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXLJ

‘No, 236-—AUGUST, 1890.

WITH PLATES III—VIIt.

NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J.D. & E. 8. DANA.
1890.

“TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET.

Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub-
ibers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by
orders, Eepistpred letters, or bank checks, :

IME IN EA Lose

100 pp. Illustrated Catalogue Free

To any person mentioning this Journal, or copies handsomely bound in
cloth, 25¢c., postpaid. Our new Catalogue (15th edition), was issued
June ist. It contains (qa), Scientific Papers and Notes, 41 pp.; (6), A
Classified List of Mineral Species, 31 pp., including all species described
in Dana’s System of Mineralogy and its three Appendices, with a com-
plete list of all new species described up to May, 1890, giving in each
case the crystallographic form and chemical composition ; (¢) An Index
of some 3,000 mineralogical names. It is strictly scientific in character,
our business being to supply scientifically labeled and classified min-
erals to colleges and students.

Rare Texas Yttria and Thoria Minerals. Mr. Niven’s recent visit
to the localities has yielded us a large number of specimens. Now in
stock: Fergusonite in large crystals, one of them 12 inches long, per-
fectly terminated and with crystals of Thorogummite and Cyrtolite at
the base, $25.00. Cyrtolite in groups of superb crystals. Nivenite -
(new), Gadolinite, Allanite, Thorogummite (new), etc. Prices very
much lower than heretofore.

Celestite from West Virginia, described in American Journal of
Science, March, 1890, by Prof. Geo. H. Williams. A fine lot of the rare
pyramidal crystals, 15c. to $3.50.

1,000 Choice Garnet Crystals from Salida, Colorado, ranging from
# inch in diameter (4 0z.), up to 54 inches (52 Ibs.), and from 10c. to
$6.00. Two Large gangue specimens.

Topaz Crystals from San Luis Potosi. Mr. Niven has just shipped
the largest, most brilliant and perfect crystals ever found in this cele-
brated locality. Some of them are fully two inches long and doubly
terminated. Good little crystals as low as 10c. <A splendid stock of
crystals in the matrix, 25c. to $25.00. :

Hyalite from Mexico, extra good.

REMEMBER ALSO:-OUR FINE STOCK OF

ARKANSAS MINERALS: Phenacite, Bartrandite, Spessartite, Amazon ~
Stone, Barite, Rhodochrosite, Vanadinite, Descloizite, Calcite, Epidote,
Azurite, Malachite, Chrysocolla, Quartz, Atacamite, Amarantite,
Wultenite, Chalcanthite, Copper pseudomorphs after Azurite, etc., ete.

IN OUR TWO STORES WE HAVE THE
Largest, Finest and Most Complete Stock of Minerals in the U. S.

MINERALS FOR BLOW-—PIPE ANALYSIS A SPECIALTY.

Goniometers, Lenses, Mineralogical Books and Sundries.

GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Dealers in Minerals,
1512 Chestnut St.; Philadelphia. 739 and 741 Broadway, New York.

OD. WALCOTT.

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[THIRD SERIES,]

Oe

j — Arr. XII.—On the Cheapest Form of Light, from studies
r at the Allegheny Observatory ; by 8. P. LANGLEY and F.
; W. Very. (With Plates III, LV and V.)

THE object of this memoir is to show by the study of the
radiation of the fire-fly that it is possible to produce light with-
out heat other than that in the light itself; that this is actually
effected now by nature’s processes ; and that these are cheaper
than our industrial ones in a degree hitherto unrealized. By
“cheapest” is here meant the most economical in energy,
which for our purpose is nearly synonymous with heat; but
as a given amount of heat is producible by a known expendi-
ture of fuel at a known cost, the word “cheapest” may also
here be taken with little error in its ordinary economic appli-
cation.

We recall that in all industrial methods of producing light,
there is involved an enormous waste, greatest in sources of low
temperature, like the candle, lamp, or even gas illumination,
where, as I have already shown, it ordinarily exceeds 99 parts
in the 100; and least in sources of high temperature like the
incandescent light and electric arc, where yet it is still immense
and amounts even under the most favorable conditions to very
much the larger part.

It has elsewhere* been stated that for a given expense at
least one hundred times the light should in theory be obtain-
able which we actually get by the present most widely used

* See results of an investigation by S. P. Langley, read before the National
Academy in 1883, and given in ‘‘Science” for June ], 1883; where it is shown
that in the ordinary Argand burner gas flame indefinitely over 99 per cent of the
radiant energy is (for illumination purposes) waste.

AM. JouR. Sc1.—THIRD SERIES, VoL. XL, No, 236.—Auvaust, 1890.
7

98 Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light.

methods of illumination. This, it will be observed, is given as
a minimum value, and it is the object of the present research
to demonstrate that not only this possible increase but one still
greater is actually obtained now in certain natural processes, _
which we know of nothing to prevent our successfully
imitating.

It is now universally admitted that wherever there is light,
there has been expenditure of heat in the production of radia-
tion existing in and as the luminosity itself, since both are but
forms of the same energy ; but this visible radiant heat which
is inevitably necessary is not to be considered as waste. The
waste comes from the present necessity of expending a great
deal of heat in invisible forms before reaching even the
slightest visible result, while each increase of the light repre-
sents not only the small amount of heat directly concerned in
the making of the light itself, but a new indirect expenditure
in the production of invisible calorific rays. Our eyes recog-
nize heat mainly as it is conveyed in certain rapid ethereal
vibrations associated with high temperatures, while we have no
usual way of reaching these high temperatures without passing
through the intermediate low ones; so that if the vocal produc-
tion of a short atmospheric vibration were subject to analogous
conditions, a high note could never be produced until we had
passed through the whole gamut, from discontinuous sounds
below the lowest bass, up successively through every lower
note of the scale till the desired alto was attained.

There are certain phenomena, long investigated, yet little
understood, and grouped under the general name of “ phos-
phorescent ” which form an apparent exception to this rule,
especially where nature employs them in the living organism,
for it seems very difficult to believe that the light of a fire-fly,
for instance, is accompanied by a temperature of 2000°, or more,
Fahr., which is what we should have to produce to gain it by
our usual processes. That it is, however, not necessarily im-
possible, we may infer from the fact that we can by a known
physical process, produce a still more brilliant light without
sensible heat, where we are yet sure that the temperature ex-
ceeds this. No sensible heat accompanies the fire-fly’s light,
any more than need accompany that of the Geissler tube, but
this might be the case in either instance, even though heat
were there, owing to its minute quantity, which seems to defy
direct investigation. It is usually asswmed, with apparent
reason, that the insect’s light is produced without the invisible
heat that accompanies our ordinary processes, and this view is
strengthened by study of the fire-fly’s spectrum, which has
been frequently observed to diminish more rapidly toward the
red than that of ordinary flames.

Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light. 99

Nevertheless, this though a highly probable and reasonable
assumption, remains assumption rather than proof; until we
can measure with a sufficiently delicate apparatus the heat
which accompanies the light and learn not only its quantity,
but what is more important, its quality. Apart from the
scientific interest of such a demonstration, is its economic value,
which may be inferred from what has already been said. I
have therefore thought it desirable to make the light of the
fire-fly the subject of a new research, in which it is endeavored
to make the bolometer supplement the very incomplete eyvi-
dence obtainable from the visible spectrum.

As we may learn from elementary treatises, phenomena of
phosphorescence are common to insects, fishes, mollusks, vege-
tables, and organic and mineral matter. Among luminous
insects the fire-fly of our fields is a familiar example, though
other of the species attain greater size, and perhaps greater
intrinsic brilliancy, especially the Pyrophorus noctilucus Linn.,
found in Cuba and elsewhere. Its length is about 387"", width
11™™, and it has, like Pyrophori, three light reservoirs—two in
the thorax and one in the abdomen. To procure this Cuban
fire-fly I invoked the aid of the Smithsonian Institution, and
through the kindness of Professor Felipe Poey, of Havana, and
Senor Albert Bonzon, of Santiago de Cuba, in the Island of
Cuba, living specimens of the Pyrophorus noctilucus were
received here during the summer of 1889. I have also to
acknowledge my obligations to Professor C. V. Riley and to
Professor L. A. Howard, to whose knowledge and kind care I
am doubly indebted.

After a preliminary spectral examination in Washington, I
found it more convenient to continue the research at the Alle-
gheny Observatory by means of the very special apparatus sup-
plied by the liberality of the late William Thaw of Pittsburgh,
for researches in the lunar heat-spectrum.* Photometric
measurements throughout the spectrum of the insect’s light
were also made.

I have indicated the steps of the investigation, but the ex-
periments have been so largely and so intelligently made by
Mr. F. W. Very, that it is just to consider him as an associate
rather than an assistant in the researches. I shall accordingly
in what follows not discriminate between what each has con-
tributed.

HisroricaLt Nores.

We make no attempt to give any bibliography of the sub-
ject, and these notes are confined to what seems important in
the history of the physical side of it.

* Described in the Memoirs of the National Academy, vol. iv, Part II, p. 112.

100 Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light.

Nathaniel Hulme.'—Exper. 6. A dead shining glow-worm
was put upon water, contained in a wide-mounted phial, at the
temperature of 58. The phial was then sunk in boiling hot
water, and as the heat communicated itself to the contents of
the phial, the light of the glow-worm became much more vivid.

Exper. 7. Another lucid dead glow-worm was put into warm
water, at 114, to see if that degree of heat would extinguish
the light ; but on the contrary its glowing property was aug-
mented. All the water was then poured off, yet the insect
continued to shine for some length of time.

Exper. 8. Two living glow-worms were put into a one ounce
phial, with a glass stopple; and though they were perfectly
dark at the time, yet if the phial was briskly rubbed with a
silken or linen handkerchief, till it became pretty warm, it
seldom failed to make them display their light very finely.
This experiment was very frequently repeated. It had the
same illuminating effect upon the light of a dead glow-worm.

Exper. 9. The complete influence of 212 degrees of heat
was now applied to the light of a glow worm, by pouring upon
one when dead, but in a luminous state, some boiling water.
Its light was instautly extinguished thereby and did not revive.
The experiment was repeated and with the same result.

Macaire (quoted by Becquerel) found that the luminous
matter taken from the body of a glow-worm and heated, in-
creased in brilliancy up to a temperature of about 41° C., after
which the light diminished, became reddish and ceased at 52°
C. An electric current increased the luminosity in both the
living insect, and in the luminous part separated from the
remainder of the body, but ceased to have any effect in a
vacuum. Oxygen and carbon monoxide increased the light
of the living insect and of the luminous matter taken from its
body, but the light ceased in a vacuum, in hydrogen, in ear-
bon dioxide, in sulphurous anhydride, and in sulphureted
hydrogen.

Carus* observed that the luminous matter taken from the
body of the glow-worm ceases to shine when dried but glows
again when moistened.

Matteuccr’ found that the phosphorescent substance of the
Italian glow-worm (Lampyris [talica) soon ceased to glow in
hydrogen or in carbon dioxide, but shone decidedly brighter
in oxygen than in air, the oxygen being consumed and carbon
dioxide appearing. He drew the conclusion that the produc-
tion of light in this insect is entirely due to the combination

1 Philos. Trans., Roy. Soc.. London, vol. xc, p. i80-181, 1800.

2 “ Bibliotheque Univ. de Genéve.” 1821.

8“ Analecten zur Natur- und Heilkunde,” Leipzig, 1829; see also Comptes

Rendus, lix, p. 607, 1864.
4“ Ann. de chim. et de phys.,” III, ix, p. 71, 1843, also in C. R., xvii, p. 309.

Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light. 101

of oxygen with carbon which is one of the elements of the
phosphorescent matter. The greatest brilliancy occurred at a
temperature of 37° or 38° Cent., but all phosphorescence ceased
above 50° or below —6° Cent.

Robert* found that a glow-worm cut in halves continued to
glow for half an hour, when the light ceased, but commenced
again on the near approach of a candle, and continued as bright
as ever for thirty-six hours, after which it was impossible to
renew it. i

Pasteur’ has examined the spectra of our Pyrophorus with-
out finding any appearance of bright or dark lines. He states
that M. Gernez has made a similar observation on the spec-
trum of the glow-worm.

Becquerel’ gives a good summary of the results of previous
observers. Since phosphorescent solids give banded spectra
and thus differ from ignited solids and liquids which have con-
tinuous spectra, M. Beequerel concludes, from the apparent
continuity of the spectrum of the light from phosphorescent
animals, that their light approaches nearer to that of ordinary
incandescence,—a deduction which the following result renders
unnecessary.

C. A. Young* states that the “common” fire-fly gives a
continuous spectrum, extending from a little above Fraun-
hofer’s line C in the scarlet, to about F in the blue, gradually
fading out at the extremities. He observes that it is notice-
able that precisely this portion of the spectrum is composed of
rays, which, while they more powerfully than any others
affect the organs of vision, produce hardly any thermal or
actinic effect. In other words very little of the energy ex-
pended in the flash of the fire-fly is wasted.

(This is a most important and interesting inference, but it
will be observed that this is necessarily rather assumed as
highly probable than actually demonstrated, since the method
did not permit the dealing with the invisible rays except by
inference.)

It is quite different with our artificial methods of illumina-
tion. In the case of an ordinary gas light, experiments show
that at most, one per cent of the radiant energy consists of
visible rays, the rest being invisible heat; that is to say over
ninety-nine per cent of the gas is wasted in producing rays
that do not help in making objects visible.*

1C. R., xvii, p. 627, 1843.

2. R., lix, p. 509. 1864.

3 “* Ta lumiere,” 1867.

* The American Naturalist, Salem. 1870, vol. iii, p. 615.

°S. P. Langley has shown that the waste is in fact even greater than this;
see “ Science,” vol. i, No. 17, p. 482. 1883.

102 Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light.

Secchi* at first thought that the spectrum of the glow-worm
was monochromatic, but with an improved spectroscope, recog-
nized that other colors were present, though feebly and decided
that the spectrum was sensibly continuous.

Quatreyages, im connection with the paper of Secchi, remarks
that the previous observations of Spallanzani and Macaire, re-
peated with much care by Matteucci and Becquerel, show
beyond doubt that the light of glow-worms and elaters is due
to slow combustion. Thus the light is extinguished in a
vacuum, and in irrespirable gases, it reappears in contact with
the air, it is perceptibly increased by the presence of pure
oxygen, it persists after the death of the creature, and finally
it is ~accompanied by the generation of carbon dioxide. Never-
theless he points out that there is a-distinet kind of phosphores-
cence in the marine Noctilucide, due to the contraction of
muscular fiber, the shining tissue being seen through the
translucent body wall. This species of phosphorescence is
increased by irritants, but is independent of the presence of
oxygen and is not extinguished or in any way modified by
hydrogen or by carbon dioxide.

Robin and Laboulbene’ find the luminous organs of P. noc-
tilucus composed of irregularly polyhedral cells, 0-04™™" to
0-:06™ thick, between which pass very numerous fine tracheze
and nerves. The inner face of the organ is composed of
adipose tissue, and the outer of a transparent modification of
the ordinary chitinous covering of the insect. The authors
conclude that the light is due to chemical decomposition of a
nitrogenous body with formation of crystalline urates.

Jousset de Bellesme* finds that although the phosphorescent
cells, when separated from the body of the insect, continue to
glow for several hours, yet if crushed they instantly lose their
illuminating power, which indicates that for the production of
the light, the living cells must retain their integrity, and that
they are not mere reservoirs of a phosphorescent substance,
but continuous generators of it. He surmises that the light-
giving substance may be phosphureted hydrogen.

Meldola’ is quoted by Spiller® as having examined the glow-
worm spectrum and determined its approximate limits.

Conroy’ finds the glow-worm’s light green, and in a small
direct vision spectroscope showing a continuous spectrum from
C to 6, appearing like a broad band of green light extending
from 0":518 to Of-587 with a faint continuous spectrum into
the red to 0”:656.

WiC R., xxv, p: 321, 1872. (OE dite, boa, BA, MGIR
2 (0, Ih, Ikeavithi jos Sls wey JIC EXC DA SlS SSO:
5 “Proce. Entomological Soe.,” p. iii, 1880. 6 “ Nature,” vol. xxvi, p. 343.

7 “Nature,” vol. xxvi, p. 319, 1882.

Langley and Very— Cheapest Form of Light. 103

R. DuBois.’ — Perhaps the most important of previous
memoirs on phosphorescent insects is by this writer. It con-
tains an account of photometric measures in wave-length scale,
and also of heat measures with the thermopile. The latter
represent the only attempt even, in this direction, I know of,
and seem to be judiciously made but to be insufficient (on
account of the limitations of such apparatus) to establish the
author’s conclusion that the light is accompanied by no sensi-
ble heat. This conclusion, we repeat, though very probably
correct, does not seem to rest on the evidence of an apparatus
of at all the necessary sensitiveness. This memoir, however,
appears to be in general an excellent one, and well worthy the
student’s attention.

From all these statements it is abundantly clear that not
only physicists and chemists, but naturalists, have been led to
conclude that this light is not associated indissolubly with any
so-called vital principle or vital process, but it is a result of
certain chemical combinations, and that nothing forbids us to
suppose it may be one day produced by some process of the
laboratory or manufactory. With this conclusion in mind, we
now proceed to observations meant to demonstrate the fact
that this process (presumably discoverable but still unknown)
gives light without invisible heat.

These observations are: 1. Photometric. 2. Thermal.

Parr 1.—PHoroMETRIC OBSERVATIONS.

The first impression on viewing the light of the Pyrophorus .
noctilucus through a spectroscope is that it consists essentially
of a broad band in the green and yellow, while with precaution
we see this extending into and beyond the borders of the blue
and orange, but not very greatly farther, and these have been
taken by previous observers as its absolute limits. No one
appears to have experimentally and distinctly answered the
question, “ Would the light not extend farther were it bright
enough to be seen?” nor has it been proven as clearly as might
be desired that the result depends on the quality rather than
the quantity of the light, or given conclusive evidence, that if
the light of the insect were as bright as that of the sun it
would not extend equally far on either side of the spectrum.

It is impossible to increase the intrinsic brilliancy by any
optical device, but if it be impossible to make the light of the
insect as bright as that of the sun, it is on the other hand quite
possible to make the hght of the sun no brighter than that of
the insect, and this wouid appear to be the first step in obtain-
ing a definite proof that the apparently narrow limits of the
insect’s spectrum are due to the intrinsic quality of the light

1“ Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France,” parts 1, 2 and 3, 1886.

104 Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light.

and not to its feeble intensity. The only conclusive method
of determining this would appear to be to balance the light
from the insect with that of a definite portion of sunlight by
any ordinary photometric device; and having taken this sun-
light as nearly equal as possible to that of the insect, though
certainly not greater, to let this determined quantity fall on
the slit of a spectroscope at the same time with the light from
the insect, two spectra being formed one over the other in the
same field and at the same time.

The actual doing this is not so easy as it might appear,
owing to experimental difficulties connected with the insect, a
part ‘of which arises from the fact that its light is not only
fitful but unequal, being of very varying intensities when not
wholly intermittent.

The simplest way in which the experiment can be performed
is perhaps the following :

The insect is placed immediately in front of the slit of a
spectroscope so that the light of its thoracic or abdominal por-
tion falls upon the slit. This forms a narrow spectrum which
should be brought into the lower or upper half of the field,
the insect being attached to the spectroscopic apparatus in a
position as nearly fixed as possible. The spectroscope is now
placed with the axis of its collimator in the line of a ray of
sunlight cast from a heliostat without. In the path of this
ray is a screen with a circular diaphragm covered with ground
glass; a lens in front of the slit casts on one portion of it an
image of the white circle formed by the ground glass, which
image is the same size as the illuminating organ of the insect
and forms a spectrum of the same height in the reserved por-
tion of the field. A suitable disposition of lenses placed be-
tween the glass screen and the siderostat enables any degree
of illumination to be given to the former, from full sunlight
to nearly absolute darkness. If the normal spectrum be
studied, a grating is selected of such open ruling that the
entire visible spectrum of the first order can be seen in the
field, but the grating is first so placed that what is seen is not
the spectra but the reflected i image of the slit, the grating thus
acting (at first) the part of a mirror; so that ‘the observer first
sees the two circles of light of approximately equal size and
brilliancy, one formed by “the insect, the other by the sunlight,
and the light of this latter, by the arrangement of lenses
between the screen and the siderostat is then adjusted so that
while remaining of the size of the insect, it is judged to have
the same intrinsic brilliancy ; or at any rate, not a superior one.

The essential thing is that a photometric comparison shall
be made of the two lights before the spectra are formed, and

Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light. 105
that under these conditions the sunlight is equal but not supe-
rior to that of the insect.

The necessary condition of equality of the two lights from
which the spectra are to be formed, having thus been secured,
the grating is moved until the two spectra are brought into
~ the field. The resuit of this direct test is that the solar spec-
trum wher. intrinsically of the same brightness, or even when
clearly of less brightness than that of the insect extends some-
what further toward the red and distinctly further toward the
violet, the insect light being more intense than that of the sun
for equal lights in the green, but ending more abruptly on the
violet side.

It may be added that when the insect’s light grew brighter,
the increment appeared to be more in the blue end or as if the
average wave-length diminished, with the intensity, but there
was not opportunity to put this beyond doubt.

Photometric observations in the prismatic spectrum were
made previously to the adoption of the arrangement above
detailed, the first being on July 1, 1889, using thoracic light.
The insect was mounted on an adjustable stand to which it
was attached loosely, so as to give it such freedom of motion as
is needed to ensure its emitting the light. It was consequently
necessary to re-adjust its position incessantly, and this necessity
constitutes a very obvious difficulty. The thoracic light spots
are two ovals, each about 2™™ by 15™™ (see Plate III, fig. 1).
Their light is not so bright as the abdominal light, but much
steadier, and like that, of a decidedly greenish hue. One of
these oval spots was placed over the center of a slit, open just
enough to receive the light, or about 1°5™™. This slit was in
the focus of a glass lens of 8™ aperture and 82™ focus,
which acted asa collimator. The prism was a very large one
of flint (faces 11:5 high, 10:5 wide), whose mounting
included an automatic minimum deviation attachment. The
observing lens was similar to the collimator, with a low-power
eye-piece in whose field was a pair of heavy vertical parallel
wires. The whole was mounted on the spectrometer, primarily
designed for bolometric measures and fully described else-
where.* The insect turned so as to show the abdominal light
is depicted in Plate III, fig. 2, the form of this latter organ on
the enlarged scale in Plate III, fig. 3.

The observer waited for some time in a wholly darkened
room, and to the eye thus rendered sensitive, the visible spec-
trum, before magnification, was about 2™™ high and 20™™ long,
the parallel wires being distinctly visible in the indigo at a
setting of 45° 25’, corresponding to a wave-length of 0-468,
and in the red at 43° 53’, corresponding to 0*:640. The spec-

* See this Journal, March, 1883, p. 188.

106 Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light.

trum then was visible from a little beyond F to near C, or
through a range of 0“-172. As might have been anticipated
from the greenish color of the light, the maximum brillianey
was in the green near E, or near wave-length 0”53.* From
this point the light fell away on both sides more rapidly than
in the solar spectrum. (See Plate IV, A, B.)

July 2. A comparison of the spectra of the thoracic and of
the abdominal light gave the latter upon the average about
double the intrinsic brightness of the former. This was only
a crude estimate, but more exact methods under the limited
time for experiment would have been useless, owing to the
very fluctuating character of the ight. In continuation of the
photometric measurements of the preceding day on the tho-
racic light, this was compared with that from the flame of an
ordinary Bunsen burner at its greatest luminosity, whose area
was limited by a diaphragm to that of the size of the thoracic
light. The light from the base of this luminous flame (height
of flame about 3°5™, air shut off at base of burner) gave a
continuous spectrum, which in these first comparisons was
alternated with that of the insect. The spectra were judged
to be equal in the blue and the red, but that of the insect was
much brighter in the green. Again, a spectrum being formed
from light taken midway between the base and point of the
flame was found to Le everywhere too bright, but especially so
in the red.

July 8. Continuation of photometric measures but with
abdominal light. (An outline of the abdominal luminous
organ is given in Plate III, fig. 3.)

Wires seen in indigo 45° 29’ 0:463 Abdominal light.
eS rae Pe ie Sera 0°663 Range 0-200.
$s “indigo 46 56 0°390 Range 0-382.
< Soe ere diate anol 0-772 Bunsen burner.

(Luminous flame 4™ high, at point one-third down from top,
just within inner and slightly darker cone, seen through hole
2°5"™ in diameter.) Under these circumstances the spectrum
of the insect’s light was in the green a fair match for that of
the burner, elsewhere the latter was brighter but not very
greatly so. Since the insect’s spectrum was followed through
0”-18 with the thoracic light while with that of the same char-
acter but double the brightness it was followed only through a
very little more, or 0“:20, and while at the same time that of a
but slightly brighter artificial flame was followed through
nearly double or 0“:38, it seems probable that the insect’s light
actually ceases near the given limits, and does not merely dis-
appear from the inability of the eye to follow a diminishing

* In the normal spectrum the maximum has a wave-length 0/57.

Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light. 107

light. While we observe from these first photometric meas-
ures that the insect’s spectrum has undoubtedly a decided
maximum in the green, we are led to infer that this spectrum
is very probably of the nature of a broad band stretching from
beyond F to near C where wt terminates, and this very im-
portant inference we shall see confirmed later by other and
more exact measures.

August 5. Comparison of relative brightness in different
parts of spectrum of abdominal light with that from a student’s
lamp.

ue curser: supplied with means* for bringing into the
same field the spectra of two different lights, formed by a
Rutherfurd grating of 17296 lines to the inch (instead of the
prism) was employed for this purpose. The upper half of the
slit received the insect’s light, the lower half a beam from the
brightest part of the Argand flame, which had passed through
two Nicol’s prisms, one of which was attached to a divided
circle. The two spectra were then seen in the same field with
their edges in exact juxtaposition. In the field of the observ-
ing telescope was a slit 1™™ wide, subtending not quite 9°5
(minutes of arc), which allowed light having a range of wave-
length of about 0-01 to pass. The spectrum of the lamp-light
was brighter in every part of the field though in unequal
degrees till it was. diminished by turning the Nicol’s prism.
The angle through which the prism was turned to produce
equality having been noted, the values deduced from the
ordinary formula (transmitted light =/ cos’ a, the angle a being
90° when the light is diminished as much as possible by cross-
ing the planes of the Nicols at right angles) are as follows,
where the fractions are those by which the brightness of the
lamp spectrum at the various points is to be multiplied to pro-
duce equality with the insect spectrum.

Part of spectrum Blue

corresponding to green Orange
center of slit at very Green Green Yellow yellow
focus of observing near near near green. Citron. Yellow. near Orange.
telescope. F b E D

fe fe le p fe fe le lg
Wavelength; 5049) 7051 0:53 (0:54) 0;56),0;58) 1'0°597,0;60
Brightness, OO2 O02 0234) Oro Men Or2 4 Ou Onin 0:09

Owing to the motion of the insect and the varying brilliancy
of the light emitted, these figures (each of which is the result
of the mean of several trials including at least two measures)
still leave much to be desired. The supply of the insects
which had been procured and maintained alive with difficulty,
however, did not allow of the experiments being further pro-
longed, nor of the securing a direct comparison with the solar

* Alluded to but not fully described in this Journal, August, 1877.

108 Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light.

spectrum. The value of each part of the lamp spectrum hay-
ing, however, been independently determined with all possible
exactness in terms of the solar spectrum, we are enabled to
exhibit a comparison of the latter with the insect spectrum so
as to show them together (Plate IV, figs. A and B). It is
assumed that the same amount of luminous intensity (. e.
energy in terms of vision as determined by purely photometric
methods) is taken whether from the sun or the insect. The
subjoined curves (Plate IV, fig. 1) show the solar and the insect
luminosity throughout the visible spectrum on the preceding
assumption of the intrinsic equality, a result which, however,
might be lable to a slight correction of the relative places of
the maxima if a direct comparison with sunlight were ob-
tained. The important fact, however, seems to be brought
out almost beyond question that when spectra are formed from
two equal lights, one from the sun the other from the insect,
the latter’s spectrum terminates both at an upper and a lower
limit at which the solar light is still conspicuous. The conelu-
sion follows that the insect spectrum is lacking in the rays of
red luminosity and presumably in the infra-red rays, usually of
relatively great heat, or that it seems probable that we have
here light without heat, other than that heat which the lumin-
osity itself comprises and which is but another name for the
same energ’y.

Any other supposition would apparently involve the hypo-
thesis that the spectrum, which we have seen end at the red,
has a renewal in the invisible infra-red where the main portion
of the solar heat and that of all ordinary illuminants is known
to exist. Although this last hypothesis cannot be considered
to have much weight, and though we are led to agree with
previous observers that it may be assumed with much prob-
ability that the ordinary invisible heat would, if we had means
to observe it, be found unassociated with the fire-fly’s light,
yet this assumption is-itself far from being proof, and in view
of the great importance of the conclusions in question, we shall
now try whether it be possible to settle the point by thermal
measures with the bolometer.

Part 2. THERMAL OBSERVATIONS.

To give an idea of the amount of heat at our disposition for
experiment, and of the actual minuteness of the radiation
which proceeds from even the most Juminous tropical insect,
we may say that if that rate of radiation from a lamp-black
surface 1 sq. em. in area, which represents the amount of heat
necessary to raise 1 gram of water, 1° centigrade, in 1 minute
(i. e. one small calorie) be taken as unity, then the luminous
radiation of the fire-fly’s heat, per square cm. of exposed

Lanyley and Very

Cheapest Form of Light. 109

luminous surface, as we have found, is about 0°0004 calorie in
10*°*, and the total luminous radiation from the most power-
fully illuminating light spot of the insect (the abdominal one)
will not exceed 0:00007 calorie in the same time. But a small
portion of this could fall upon the bolometer, and that which
actually reached it during the time (10***) required for each
observation, was sufficient only to affect an ordinary mercurial
thermometer having a bulb 1™ in diameter by rather less than
0°:0000023, or by less than z;j557 Of one degree centigrade.

We have just mentioned that the total amount of heat
radiation upon which we have to make our investigation repre-
sents less than =)¢5 ay calorie, while that portion of this which
falls upon the apparatus, would in the time of one operation,
only raise the temperature of an ordinary mercurial thermo-
meter by less than 7,757, degree, and we have first to notice
the difficulty that in case invisible heat exists in company with
the light (and it certainly does exist in ordinary emanations
from the surface of any living creature independent of phos-
phorescence), we have in this minute radiation, heat of two
different kinds, both invisible and which it is yet indispensable
for us to discriminate. ;

We are helped to do this by the consideration that while the
insect, like any non-luminous one, must emit “animal heat”
from all its surface, its general surface temperature is certainly
low, since it feels cold to the hand whose greater warmth ex-
cites it to shine. This heat then corresponds to a temperature
much below 50° Cent., and such temperatures must, as we have
shown in other memoirs, be accompanied by the emission of
waves whose length relegates them to quite another spectral
region to that in which the invisible heat associated with light
mainly appears. We can then discriminate the rays of this
invisible “animal” heat without the formation of a heat spec-
trum by their inability to pass through a glass which transmits
with comparative freedom, radiant heat whose wave-length is
less than 3”, the latter including the region where if there be
invisible heat radiated with the light it must mainly le.

The heat in the spectral region of the infra-red we are con-
sidering, we know in advance must be, if it bear any sort of
relation to the light, almost immeasurably small, and in fact it
defied at first all attempts to obtain not merely a quantitative
measurement but even any certain experimental evidence of
its existence. At last upon July 24, with the arrival of a new
stock of over two dozen insects and with the aid of experience
derived from previous failures, these heat measures were
resumed. For the first described, the thoracic light is taken.

The insect was placed 125 from the mirror of 25-4°™ aper-
ture and 73°4™ focus, so that its image was formed at 178™

110 Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light.

and enlarged about 1-42 diameters, when a small portion of it
filled an aperture equal to the bolometer employed, which was
selected from the most sensitive of those used in previous
researches in lunar heat and had an aperture of 19% ™. By
the preceding arrangement of the mirror an image of one of
the thoracic bright spots, with enough of the surrounding body
to represent an area of about 13°4™", was enlarged to nearly
the surface of the bolometer.

Employing all the precautions taught by a multiplied experi-
ence, we obtained by a series of exposures of the bolometer to
the insect radiation’ a series of small but real galvanometer
deflections which represent the excess of total heat radiations
from the insect over those from a metal plate of a temperature
of about 25° C. forming the background. These heat radia-
tions come jointly from the luminous spot (area 3 to 4%4 ™™)
and about 9°¢ ™™ of the surrounding body. To determine their
characters we interposed a sheet of glass* which cut off all the
observed heat. The heat from the luminous spectrum and
from a spectral region below it extending to about 3” (80,000
tenth meters) was known to be capable of passing through this
glass. The evidence then is that there is no heat in the spec-
trum below this feeble radiation from the luminous thoracic
region, sufficient to be capable of affecting the apparatus,
though this was so sensitive as to promptly respond to the
feeble body radiation from the somewhat larger section of the
luminous and non-luminous surface.

Continuation on Abdominal Heat.

The insects’s light then is unaccompanied (in the specimen
subject to this experiment) by any measurable heat, but to

make it still more evident that this is due to the absence of
heat below the red (body heat not being in question) we now
proceed to'take an artificial flame, occupying the same area as
the radiating luminous part of the insect, and to see whether
heat is observed in it. If the flame be no brighter than the
insect, and the heat be nevertheless observed in it when in the
insect heat is lacking, it is obvious that in the latter case none
is observed because (sensibly) none is emitted, and this con-
clusion is reached @ fortiori when the flame light is less than
that of the insect.

July 27. Through a circular aperture 2‘5™™ in diameter, there
was passed alternately the total radiant heat, and that trans.
mitted by glass from a nearly non- luminous Bunsen flame,
whose luminosity was very much fainter than that from the
jusects. On this day there seemed to be an exceedingly minute

* Described in the Memoir “On the Temperature of the Surface of the Moon,”
Mem. Nat. Acad. of Sciences, vol. iii, as ‘‘ B.”

Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light. 111

deflection averaging + of one division of the galvanometer scale
from the total radiation of an equal portion of the abdominal
light spot of the insect, while from the flame there was a mean
deflection of 177°5 divisions, showing that the total heat radia-
tion from an equal area of a less luminous flame was many
hundred times that from the luminous area of the insect.

Glass being interposed, the heat due to this flame radiation
fell to 14°5 divisions, or about 8 per cent of the original radia-
tion, showing that of the quality of Bunsen flame heat immedi-
ately in question (that above 38” transmissible by glass), there
was still something like 60 times that of the combined body
and luminous radiation of the insect in the far less luminous
flame. Subsequently by the use of a lens giving greater con-
centration, measurable indications of insect radiation above 3”
and therefore distinct from any possible body heat, were ob-
tained through glass, showing the flame radiation of this quality
from an equal area of the same intrinsic brilliancy, i. e. znvzsi-
ble heat and of long wave-length, but shorter than 3” to be
about 400 times that of the insect.

These experiments were repeated with different luminous
flames and with different insects on succeeding days. In some
of them especially luminous insect specimens were secured
which with favorable conditions of the galvanometer, gave
very measurable deflections on the latter. By a similar use of
the glass to that described, it appeared that flames whose in-
trinsic brillianey is nearly comparable to that of a point below
the middle of the candle flame, and whose total brillianey is as
exactly as possible comparable to that of the insect, give several
hundred times the heat of the latter, even if we consider only
that quality of heat which is found above 3”, while if we com-
pare the total radiations (i. e. those directly observed without
the use of the glass) the contrast is still stronger.

It follows that the insect light is accompanied by approxi-
mately one four-hundredth part of the heat which is ordinarily
associated with the radiation of flames of the luminous quality
of those which were the subject of experiment. This value is
confirmed by other methods which we do not give here. It
will conduce to a clearer comprehension of this, if we exhibit
in a series of curves derived from our observations, the spec-
tral distribution of one unit of energy in the gas flame spec-
trum (Plate V, fig. 1); of the electric are spectrum (Plate V,
fig. 2); of the sun (Plate V, fig. 3); and of the insect (Plate
V, fig. 4). In all these the abscissee are the same, the portion
between O*-4 and 0-7 (violet to red) showing the part of the
energy utilized in light, while that from 0-7 to 34 shows the
part wasted as invisible heat. The energy in each case being
the same, the areas are the same, except that owing to the

112 Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light.

relative importance of the light heat curve (fig. 4) only about
giz of the latter can be shown in the limits of the plate.

The curves in Plate [V deal with luminous intensity only
and give no means of drawing those economic conclusions
which appear to follow from our experiments, and which the
curves in Plate V supply. These curves (Plate V) all ex-
hibit the spectrum on the normal scale, from that easily visi-
ble, lying between 0“-4 in the violet and 0“:7 in the red, then
to 3” near the limit of the glass transmission. In the case
of the first three, representing spectra of the gas flame, the
electric are, and the sun, nearly all the energy lies above 3” ;
in that of the gas-flame a considerable portion lies below 3”
(and still more in that of the candle-flame, if that were shown
where most of the energy would lie below 3” or outside the
limits of the drawing). The curves, then, we repeat, represent
equal amounts of energy (which without sensible error we may
assume to be all exhibited as Aeaé) and inclose equal areas.

The total area represents in each case the expenditure of a
unit of cost in thermal energy, the area between 044 and 0”°7,
the proportion of this utilized as /zgft, though as we have just
stated, in the case of fig. 4, the representative of the fire-fly
spectrum, only a fraction of this can be shown (owing to the
limits of the drawing.)

Resuming then what we have said, we repeat that nature
produces this cheapest ight at about one four-hundredth part
of the cost of the energy which is expended in the candle-
flame, and at but an insignificant fraction of the cost of the
electric light or the most economic light which has yet been
devised ; and that finally there seems to be no reason why we
are forbidden to hope that we may yet discover a method
(since such a one certainly exists and is in use on the small
scale) of obtaining an enormously greater result than we now
do from our present ordinary means for producing light.

APPENDIX.

Determination in Calories of the Heat in the Luminous (Abdom-
inal) Radiation of Pyrophorus noctilucus.

The determination is reached by two steps: (1) The calibration
of the galvanometer, so as to give the value of its division in
calories; and (2) the inference from the observed deflection in
divisions of the total of calories radiated.

1. The bolometer, whose face occupied 0°19 sq. em. (@), gave a
deflection of 342 divisions (6), at a distance of 25 cm. (7) from a
5 cm. circular aperture filled by a blackened Leslie cube. Seen
from the center of this aperture, the bolometer occupied, then

a

= = 00000484 of the hemisphere, and would have received this

=

Langley and Very—Cheapest Form of Light. 113

fraction of the total radiation, except that being placed exactly
opposite the radiating surface, more than the mean radiation fell
on it in a proportion which calculation shows to be about 4.
The fraction of the total radiation which it actually received,
then was 0:0000645 (c).

Accordingly the total radiation would have caused a deflection

b Beye
: = 5300000 divisions.

The surface of the cube was at a temperature of 99° Cent. and
was limited by the diaphragm to an area of 19°6 sq. cm. (d).
The total radiation from one centimeter then would have caused

a deflection of S =270400 div. The temperature of the bolo-

meter, which was that of the apartment was 20°C. According
to Dulong and Petit’s law, the radiation from such a surface at
99° C. to one at 20° C. would be 1:11 cal. per minute (e), which
does not greatly differ from our own independent determinations,

and for 10%°°-=0-167 (f°), (the time of the galvanometer swing),
cal.

270400
it equals 0°185 (ef). Hence —_, = ———— = 1462000 div. is the
q (Pf) cdef 0185
potentiality of work in 1 calorie, to be expressed in the swing of

cal.
the galvanometer needle, and 1 div.=0:000000684.

2. The galvanometer received the fire-fly radiation through a
lens which occupied 0°00655 of a hemisphere, and would have
transmitted this fraction of the total heat, except for its position,
which caused it to transmit 4 more than the average, which is
0°00873 (g). The measured radiation from this fractional part

pio edie (hands 196-0 diy dejthe deflection anhich would
be given by the total abdominal emission, or
96-2 x 6-000000684=0-0000658.
Since the luminous surface has an area of about 4 sq. em., this

cal.

corresponds to a radiation of 0:00039 per sq. cm. of radiating sur-

: : : 0°0004
face in the time of the galvanometer-needle’s swing, or to F
cal.
=0°0024 per sq. cm. per minute.
(Taking the water-equivalent of the bulb of an ordinary mer-

gr.
curial thermometer 1 cm. in diameter at 0°25 we find

0°84 « 7000000684

0°25
showing that if such a thermometer were placed in the position
occupied by the bolometer its rise during the time of the latter’s
exposure to the radiation of the insect would be between two and

three one-inillionths of a centigrade degree.)
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Turrp Series, Vou. XL, No. 236.—Auveust, 1890.
8

= 0°:0000028

114 fF. A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy.

Art. XI1.—Oontributions to Mineralogy, No. 48; by
F. A. GENTH.

1. Tetradymite.

SEVERAL years ago, tetradymite was found two miles south of
Bradshaw City, Yavapai County, Arizona. It occurs in erys-
talline masses, implanted in imperfectly crystallized, slightly
ferruginous quartz, associated with pyrite. A few imperfect
bladed erystals are visible suggesting an orthorhombic form,
combination of the prism and brachypinacoid, with cleavage
highly perfect brachydiagonal. Mostly in bladed crystalline
masses, the largest blade in my specimens over 30™ long and
6== broad. Some of the crystals, partly altered into a brown-
ish white, amorphous substance, probably montanite, with a
nucleus of tetradymite. After subtracting 15°6 per cent of
quartz and 1-8 per cent of ferric oxide, the analysis gave:

Sulla rs aes cee)
iRelluniumige sere =e 33°25
Bismuth eee eee 62°23

99°98

This gives nearly: Bi,(S,Fe.),, analogous to bismuthinite.

If the observation of rhombic forms is confirmed, it will place
tetradymite (with exception perhaps of that from Schubkan),
in its proper place in the system, in the group with stibnite
and bismuthinite. The quantity of the altered mineral was
too small for a fuller examination.

2. Pyrite.

The occurrence of arsenate of cobalt with the octahedral
erystals of pyrite at the French Creek, Chester Oo., Pa., Iron
Mines, suggested the examination of the latter which was
made in my laboratory by Mr. Aron Hamburger. The most.
perfect and purest crystals, averaging about 2™™ in size, gave
the following composition :

SOR Sea easerpeeee 54°08
WS es UES appre rege 0:20
Cas See ie eee 0°05
Na} 2 ee 28 eee ee 0°18
Colts {kd Wie eee 1°75
Meth 2S Se ee ee eee 44°24

EF. A. Genth— Contributions to Mineralogy. 115

The cobalt arsenate which occurs as a very thin coating upon
pyrite, calcite, byssolite, ete., has not the usual appearance of
erythrite, it is generally in microscopic crystalline groups of an
impure rose color. It is very rare and large masses, showing
it, would not have given 0-1 grm. of pure material. In order
to ascertain what its molecular composition might be, all por-
tions of the specimens containing it were scraped off and in the
resulting material the cobaltous oxide and arsenic pentoxide
were carefully determined. I obtained: 0:0366 grm. Mg, As,O,
and 0:0430 germ. CoSO,, equal to: 0:0272 grm. As,O, and
0:0208 grm. CoO. This gives the molecular ratios of As,O,:
CoO=1°18 : 2°8 or 1 : 2°36 instead of 1:3, probably owing to
the substitution of some other base, perhaps CaO or MgO for
a portion of the cobaltous oxide.

3. Quartz, pseudomorphous after Stibnite.

Mr. Wm. H. Schlemm, of Durango, Mexico, kindly sent me
some fragments of a mineral from this locality for identifica-
tion. There were about half a dozen pieces—most of them of
a yellowish white dull earthy mineral intermixed with erystal-
line quartz. One of the specimens showed a coating of stibnite
with a beginning alteration. Others contain the stibnite, with
the prismatic and brachypinacoid planes, completely altered
into a yellowish white quartz. A qualitative analysis proved
the presence of very small quantities of antimonous oxide.

4, Gold in Turquois from Los Cerillos, New Mexico.*

In many collections, specimens of gold enclosed in or asso-
ciated with a bluish green mineral are represented as turquois
with gold from the celebrated locality Los Cerillos, New
Mexico. Through the kindness of Messrs. Geo. W. Fiss and
James W. Beath of this city, I received specimens for exami-
nation. They proved that neither contained any turquois.
Both are said to come from Arizona.

a. The specimens from Mr. Fiss consisted of a compact,
slightly greenish sky-blue mineral. H.=2; sp. gr.=2°487.
With finely granular grayish white quartz and finely crys-
tallme, deep yellow gold, coating the bluish mineral and
also disseminated through the quartz. The analysis of the blue
mineral is given below (a), and, for comparison the analysis of
a variety of turquois from Los Cerillos, almost identical in
appearance with the former (6.)

* At my request, the distinguished archeologist Dr. Ad. F. Bandelier, under
date, Santa Fe, New Mexico, April 15th, 1890, informs me that he never had seen

any gold, associated with turquois, from Los Cerillos, and that he had never heard of
anyone who had found gold together with turquots.

116 F. A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy.

a. b.
hass by tenitiony 522552052 14°30 19°98
SiG) ee ac Sle ace eee 46°19 1°42
PO ess ae Sate ee ee 38°82 40°81
Cr,O, Se a en a 2 0°82 see
Heine sn ee oe ee Tees 2°19
CRE ek See ea Rs See Bee 8°83
PO ae aE Se Sinai ey ee apie 26°52

100°13 99°70

From this analysis it will be evident that the gold-bearing
mineral is not turquois, but a chromiferous clay.

6. Entirely different is the auriferous mineral received from
Mr. James W. Beath. It consists of brown ferruginous quartz,
apparently free from gold with a vein from 5 to 12™™ in width
of a greenish blue quartz with crystalline, deep yellow gold
disseminated. ‘The analysis of the greenish blue mineral gave:

Loss by ignition... ..-.---- 4:44
iO eeteet aoe ce gem 86°75
Oi G Rees eee de Ar 8°60

99°79

or a quartz with an admixture of about 19 per cent of chryso-
colla.

5. Zircon.

With the masses of monazite at Mars Hill, Madison Co.,
N. C., is rarely associated zircon in crystals of considerable
size. One, which I picked out from a lot of monazite, fur-
nished the material for the following analysis. It was 40™™
long, 28™" broad, rough and irregular, showed only the prism
and several pyramidal planes. Spee. gr.=4507. The analysis

gave :
TGOSSy sy Om Ome es eae 1:20
SIO Gs sis see ee eats olay cess Meee aie a ues 31°83
An ae atapetir te qapetenniec rte ee Nels Sn 63°42
He: O; tans acces fk ey ey eee ee 3:23
99°68

6. Scapolite.

At the Elizabeth Mine, French Creek, Chester Co., Pa., at a
depth of 400 feet small crystals of scapolite have been ob-
served, as a rarity ;—it appears to have resulted simultaneously
with another variety of garnet from the alteration of essonite.
They are filling cavities of a brownish gray and ash-gray

FA. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy. 117

garnet, associated with magnetite, pyrite and remnants of the
essonite. The crystals are columnar, the best are the smallest
and show combinations of the 1st and 2d prism with the basal
pinacoid ; no pyramidal planes could be observed. The larger
erystals are deeply striated, by which all planes are obliterated.
Their size varies from 2™™ in length and 0:25" in thickness to
20"" in length and 5™™ in thickness; frequently in groups.
Colorless to white and grayish white. Spec. grav.=2°675.
The analyses gave:

a b
Mossyby ignition=2 2252 8o 2 kes 1°50 1°51
© Oia sie eset Shiki ee 2°63 not det’d
SIO eae ee ee ee reenter ae aN 52°30 52°26
JIN CSB ras iS a Selene cael 23°68 24°15
ReVON mere rec oe UE nie Wel 0°58 0°43
INLD Ra ae ARS IS Nee UE 0°05 0°16
WAO ese ee Ba Ve ee 12°36 11°76
UNO) ape Rete eee Ae a Ms UA 6:29 not det’d
K O BOE UC EL nea ON ACAs Riath GAN ae AUN 0:77 66 6¢

100°06

7. Garnet.

This garnet which results from the alteration of essonite
shows occasionally dodecahedral and trapezohedral planes which
are sometimes coated with a thin shell (not over 0°5™™" in thick-
ness) of the original mineral of a bright cinnamon-brown
color. The purest has a brownish gray or ash-gray color and a
spec. gr. of 3°390. The analysis gave:

a b

Moss; by nenMitiones- so 2s 0°51 :
Gone ee aa. ep temo eee
SECO eae cepa ny a ol ee at on 41:42 41°69
PAGO) 8 ee ee 18:09 18°37
NEC neers | Pa aey Sep eee 10°81 10°27

Ju GaN OSs Gis SIR a tra ama gett 0°88 0°93
Ores Se Ese a he eens thie 0°59 0°52
ORK G) 5 cat TI is Be Tara je 2 lee dee wg ee aR a 26°19 26°10

100°20

8. Titaniferous Garnet.

The late Thos. S. Ash brought from the Jones Mine on
Green River, Henderson Co., N.C., a variety of garnet which
I have analyzed.

It is massive, of a splintery uneven fracture, has only slight
indications of dodecahedral planes, brown color, spec. grav.
=3°738. The analysis gave:

118 I. A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy.

oss\byenition pos... sascha ee Soe eee 0°55
SIO eas) See ee ok ee ee ae ee 35°56
“RTO 1 fa egestas epee TE Ue: er a Age ae Se 4°58
BNO) es 2 er ay tg pie ees Ae hs ee 4:43
Meine sa ees Leeann eee ake 20°51
RCO) ee See ais ope ee ete ye 1°88
Mig Oriate, Ss re Toe acne erect oe epee 0°17
COE © Me Ri ice bata a etl of age et ah Reh Se: 31°90

99°58

9. Allanite.

In the hope to find among the minerals which were asso-
ciated with the corundum and the pseudomorphs of spinel
(pleonaste) after corundum, which I described in 1873 in the
Proce. Am. Philos. Soe., xiii, pp. 861-406 the rare tscheffkinite,
I examined two varieties which I had in my collection as
allanite ?

a. The first variety has a velvet-black color, shows a slight
transparency with a greenish-black color and a vitreous luster.
Sp. gr.=3°546.

It is a pebble coated with white silica, resulting from partial
alteration. The analyzed portion was of perfectly pure ma-
terial (@).

b. The second variety is of a deep brownish black color,
thin splinters with brownish black transparency, vitreous
luster. Sp. gr.=3:491. Two small pebbles, the surface
slightly oxidized into a brown earthy coating. The material
for the analysis was quite fresh and apparently pure (0).

a b
ioss by Agnition= 22 22 oso. 2°25 2°63
SiON re sire Ra eae 31°67 32:04
AN Opera ete ean Cre Sites 0°33 ag
STO) Sis eR pata ers te Sea See 0°12
@eO Sad OUR Me es inaete ) 12°91
(Eni) Ome er aa once 10:24
BYE eer eiies uiN ae aeciee 0°36 0°33
(AO eae al eae 12°20 14-02
RerO eva setae as ee 4°49 a
He ioe he Leis cd a Opa em 10°89 7°52
Min Qiao cee a ae 2°52 0°37
MoO se. ie ocd dae 2:08 1:47
Ca Ore She es 9°37 11°34

100°07 100°16

10. Lettsomite from Arizona and Utah.

Messrs. Geo. L. English & Co. brought this rare mineral
from two new localities, but only one specimen has been ob-

F. A, Genth— Contributions to Mineralogy. LS

tained at each, the Copper Mountain Mine near Morenci,
Graham County, Arizona, and at Copperopolis, formerly the
American Eagle Mine, Tintic District, Utah. They very
kindly placed all their material at my disposal which enabled
me to make a fuller investigation and clear away the doubts
existing as to the constitution of this mineral.

1. The Arizona mineral forms narrow seams in a siliceous
gangue, coated with earthy varieties of limonite. The lettso-
mite occurs in incrustations up to a thickness of about 2™”.
In small cavities it shows thin fibers and small tufts often with
a radiated structure. Its color is from a deep sky-blue to
azure-blue; luster silky. Sp. grav. taken in alcohol 2°737.

Some of the lettsomite has undergone an alteration, begin-
ning with a change into greenish yellow, and finally, by the loss
of the cupric oxide, into a fibrous yellowish white mineral.
At portions where the alteration has taken place the matrix is
frequently coated with a cryptocrystalline, mammillary hydrous
aluminum sulphate. Neither could be obtained in a quantity
sufficient for a fuller investigation.

The analyses were made with almost pure azure-blue tufts
(z) and nearly pure sky-blue radiating particles (d and ¢).

a b c Mean. Mol. Ratio.
Insoluble ___.___ 0-46 0°38 0°48 0°44.
Teen See eee not det’d ) ° 94-44 21:89 21°89 1:216 NGSueds
SO sae > aes 12°38 = 12°59 12°49 0°156 ileal
Ciel) <a RE 47°40 46°34 46°39 46°71 0°590 3°38 4
I Oe eee 15-71 16:94 16°77 16°47 0-161 ) TOL
Hien O sper sie a 0°80 1°61 1°64 1°34 0:088 §

99°74 99°76 99°34

Considering the slight loss of cupric oxide by beginning
alteration, the ratio for SO,: CuO: Al,O,: H,O is 1:4:1:8=
Cu,Al,(OH),,.SO,+2H,O, which gives the following percent-
age composition :

AKG) Be eter ala rae Lee ano 102 15°88
SO r= es heer 80 12°56
A OnOnie epee ke eh ee 316 49°23
SEEOp yeep eatin eect sera aN 144° 22°43

642 100-00

2. The lettsomite from the American Eagle Mine occurs
upon a bluish green mineral, which appears to be amorphous,
clay-like, and evidently a mixture of clay and lettsomite. The
pure lettsomite forms a velvet-like coating of azure-blue silky
fibers. The specimen being very small, only 0°055 grms.
could be obtained for analysis, which gave:

120) W. L. Dudley—Curious occurrence of Vivianite.

SOs. tle Re se ean
CRORE Oris inti ite ae ee ae 49°54
12) 6 UP Mm reget Os a eile st ce 15°45
Pei @ tren Laci cota! 8 eee ons Ca, ae 0°91
H O(by GEE) cy 2 be one eS ioe iE gee 21°40

100:°00

closely agreeing with the above composition.
Chemical Laboratory, No. 111 S. 10th St., Philadelphia, April 6th, 1890.

Art. XIV.—A Curious Occurrence of Vivianite ; by
Wm. L. DUDLEY.

WHILE making the preliminary survey of the Cumberland
river from Nashville to its mouth for the purpose of locating
the locks and dams which are to be constructed by the Gov-
ernment, Assistant Engineer C. A. Locke discovered some
“blue roots” embedded in a stratum of clay which had been
exposed in the bank made by the erosion of the waters in
cutting out the channel of the river. The locality was about
two miles above Eddyville, Ky. The stage of the river was
about six feet above low water mark, and the stratum contain-
ing the roots was about two feet above the surface of the water
or eight feet above low water. The stratum is exposed there-
fore only for a limited season each year.

Maj. Locke gives the general characters and thicknesses of
the strata exposed in the cut, as follows: Soil, 2 feet ; light
yellow clay, 15 feet; light drab clay, 15 feet, at the bottom of
which the blue roots were found; below this an unknown
depth of gravel.

The “biue roots” were found in such position as to indicate
that they were in the place of their growth. The clay is
described as having a blue color when wet, and I regret that a
specimen of it was not collected for examination.

Four of these “ roots,’ more or less perfectly preserved,
were handed to me. They were from one-half to two centi-
meters thick and six to twelve long. The blue mineral which
has almost wholly replaced the woody fiber of the roots is of a
deep blue color resembling cobalt-blue but somewhat darker,
and of a duller hue. It is earthy and very friable. There is
no evidence of structure, and the specimens seem to be casts of
the original roots, formed gradually as decay proceeded.

Some of the remaining particles of the wood were given a
microscopic examination by Professor Jas. M. Safford, who
pronounced it coniferous.

W. LZ. Dudley— Curious occurrence of Vivianite. 121

For analysis some of the mineral was pulverized and sus-
pended in water. The small particles of woody substance
floating were removed. Heavy brownish mineral matter in
small quantity rapidly settled to the bottom, and the water
containing the blue substance in suspension was carefully
poured off and allowed to settle during twelve hours. This
operation was repeated and the mineral was in a very fair state
of purity. It was then dried in the air at the temperature of
the laboratory, and finally for twelve hours over sulphuric
acid. Analysis gave the following result:

Water civentotvat V00%@.22522) an. 10°59 per cent.
66 66 ee 230° CEG BANDS NA Tene 7-94 66

FANUC) 0 Wels poe ge be Spo de Gs RIE 17°74 “S

MEernicHOxid eee e et ek Sry tilneai 9°35 se

ISLET O US VOX Cl Cygne see ee pa oes 24°58 te

J laa ey Nasser SMS aa eee eiacoy enh write mat 0°59 oe

ALE MONTY SCTE = Ue nv A ge a Oe oe

Phosphoric anhydride (P,O,) ------ PART eto

insolublesmattens:. 22 te in aes 1°84 Ke

100°07

When the water was driven off at 100°, the residue had a
dull green color resembling chromic oxide. After heating to
230° until all of the water was eliminated the color was light
brown. In a desiccator, over sulphuric acid, the mineral
gradually lost water and for several days became green. This
occurred more rapidly of course if the air in the desiccator was
exhausted.

If in the above analysis, the lime, magnesia and insoluble
matter be eliminated and the percentages of the remainder
be calculated to 100, it is found that the mineral may be
very nearly represented by the formula 2(3FeO+ P,O,)+Fe,0,,
3A]1,0,, (P,O,), + 17H,O, or 2Fe,P,O, + Al,Fe,P,O,, + 17H,0.
This seems to indicate that the ferrous iron in the mineral is
combined with the P,O, to form vivianite, Fe,P,O,+8H,O,
and Professor F. W. Clarke arrived at the same conclusion
upon examining some specimens which I sent to the National
Museum. .

If the double molecule of vivianite, 2(Fe,P,O,+8H,O), be sub-
tracted from the above formula, there remains Al,Fe,P,O,,+H,O,
which resembles an almost dehydrated double molecule of tur-
quois, Al,P,O,,+10H,O, in which one molecule of Fe,O, has
replaced one of Al,O,. The mineral was so earthy and friable
that sections could not be cut, and therefore microscopic evi-
dence is impossible.

Chemical Laboratory of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn.,
March 21, 1890.

122 G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine.

Art. XV.—Classification of the Glacial Sediments of
Maine; by GEORGE H. STONE.

THIS paper assumes the now quite generally accepted theory
of Torell and Holst as to sub- and infra-glacial matter, 1. e.,
that the till of New England consists in part of a ground
moraine and partly of matter that was distributed through the
lower portion of the ice-sheet.

Preliminary.—lt is evident that every glacier is to a con-
siderable extent bathed in its own waters and is drained by a
system of glacial streams. The escaping waters continually
carry away their load of detritus. The largest ice-sheet must
have its system of drainage as inevitably as an ordinary Alpine
glacier that is confined to a single drainage basin. The hypo-
thesis that a given region was covered with land ice must
carry the burden of proving that there was, over the region in
question, a system of glacial drainage. The presence of such
a system furnishes a crucial test between the theories of land
ice, and icebergs or other forms of floating ice.

Reasoning from the analogies of the Alpine glaciers com-
pared with what is known of the Greenland ice-sheet, I infer
that near the front or lower extremity of every glacier (margin
of a body of confluent glaciers or ice-sheet), there is a belt
where the ice is so shattered by crevasses that the melting
waters almost immediately escape to the ground. This part of
the glacier is almost wholly drained by sub-glacial streams.
Back of this zone is another where the drainage is chiefly
effected by means of streams which flow in well defined chan-
nels on the surface of the ice, but at the last reach a crevasse
down which they fall and escape by sub-glacial tunnels. Still
farther back is a region which answers to the snow fields of
central Greenland. Here the melting waters of summer are
diffused through the unconsolidated snow of the preceding
winter and slowly seep through the soft slush, but have not a
motion sufficiently rapid to cause them to gather into streams
and erode well-defined channels. The three regions just
described pass one into the other by degrees. The breadth of
these respective belts I infer to be determined chiefly by the
rate of change in temperature as we go from the end of the
glacier backward. The slower the rate of change in tempera-
ture the broader will be these belts. The gentle slopes over a
large part of New England would tend to a slow rate of
change in temperature, while the fact that these slopes were
southward would cause a more rapid change, since it would
introduce the effect of latitude on temperature. On the whole
I estimate that these zones were pretty broad in New Eng-

G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine. 123

land, say from 75 to 100 miles for each of the two outer zones,
while northern Maine was occupied by a snow field or only
partially consolidated ice. During the tinal melting of the ice
these zones of sub-glacial and superficial streams would natu-
rally advance northward, and in course of time would cover
most or all of the névé area.*

In classifying the glacial deposits a fundamental question is
this: What is the difference between the till and the glacial
sediments ?

1. The test of stratification. One test proposed is that
amorphous or pell-mell drift is till while the stratified drift is
water drift, i.e., the sediments of glacial waters. This test is
a true one as a rule but not always. Thus there is a quasi
stratification of the clayey till of the lenticular hills, and on
the other hand masses of gravel, of which the stones are well
rounded and polished by water, have often by sliding lost their
stratification so that now they show no sign of intermittent
sedimentation.

2. The test of composition. Unwashed moraine stuff of an
ice-sheet, whether sub- or infra-glacial, should contain frag-
ments of all sizes permissible by the nature of the rocks.
Practically it is not safe to affirm of any till that it is abso- |
Intely unwashed, though a till composed chiefly of clay cannot
have lost any large proportion of its finest matter. No ob-
server can fail to notice that the terminal moraines of either
the great ice-sheet or those of the local White Mountain gla-
ciers contain much less of fine detritus than the till of central
and northern. Maine. Evidently there was very little moraine-
stuff near the extremity of the ice sheet which was not more
or less water-washed. The moraines of the local Androscoggin
glacier contain much less fine material than the till of the

* The above stated hypotheses are consistent with the opinion of Mr. R. Chal-
mers of the Geological Survey of Canada that from the highlands south of the
St. Lawrence River in Quebec the ice flowed north and eastward. This hypo-
thesis would make the valley of the St. John River in Maine the area of accumu-
lation from whence glaciers radiated north, east and south. In a paper on
Glacial Erosion in Maine (published in the Proceedings of the Portland Society of
Natural History in 1882), I dwelt at some length on the fact that the glaciation
of Maine is less intense in the northern part of the State. This indicates névé-
like conditions prevailing over northern Maine fora large part of the glacial
period. This conclusion would be consistent with the hypothesis that the radiat-
ing flow discovered by Mr. Chalmers continued throughout the whole of the
glacial age, or with the hypothesis that it was only a feature of the last days of
the ice-sheet. For even if we suppose with Prof. Dana that the highlands near
Hudson’s Bay were the radiating area during the time of maximum glaciation, it
is as yet permissible to suppose that in late glacial time the rising Champlain sea
melted its way up the valley of the St. Lawrence, thus isolating the portion of the
ice-sheet lying south of that valley. If so, the ice would for a time flow north-
ward from the water-shed of the St. John and from the Notre Dame hills. In
other words, late in the ice age northern Maine and the adjacent territory would
for a time be the area of accumulation from whence the ice-flow radiated, no
matter what may have been the earlier history of the region.

124 G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine.

adjacent country. The fact, then, that the finest matter has
been washed out of a mass of glacial-drift does not necessarily
prove that it is not true moraine-stuff. In Maine, the till
being largely derived from slates, limestones and feldspathic
rocks naturally contains a large proportion of clay. A sandy
till is here almost always a water-washed till, and it is gen-
erally easy, by a comparison of a suspected deposit with the
till of the neighborhood, to determine whether the deposit has
been modified by water or not. Such a comparison would not
be so easy over a large area of quartz sandstone. It is there-
fore difficult to always apply the test of composition to distin-
guish till from glacial sediments.

3. The test of transportation. According to this test, all
matter brought to its final position by ice movements would
be termed till, while that which was brought to its final
position by the water of glaciers would receive the name
glacial sediments. This test at once distinguishes from the till
all the sedimentary clays containing drift boulders and some-
times fossils which have been named boulder clays, and which
have often been confounded with the true morainal till,—to
the great detriment of glacial science.

The first and second of the above mentioned tests leave the
kames and osars in the same class with terminal moraines.
On the whole, the test of transportation is the best single test
whereby to distinguish the till from the glacial sediments.
Besides the three tests named, there are several others which
are often of great importance. In the field the method of
transportation of a given mass of drift has to be determined
by its structure, its composition, the shape of the individual
drift fragments and their markings, the shape of the mass, ete.

The sediments transported by the waters of the ice-sheet

were deposited in various situations.

1. In channels bordered on both sides by ice, partly in sub-
glacial tunnels, partly in channels open on the top to the
air. Such channels varied in breadth from a few feet up to a
mile or more. They were often locally enlarged so as to form
pools or lakes. Sediments dropped in them now form two-sided
ridges or plains.

2. In channels bordered on one side by ice, on the other by
the land. The sediments left in such a’ channel now form a
terrace along a hill-side.

3. In channels bordered for most of het length by ice,
but in some parts of their courses extending across a whole
valley. The rivers that flowed in such channels were so far
confined by ice walls that we must term them glacial rivers,
yet for a few miles in the midst of their courses, they were
bordered by land on both sides like ordinary rivers.

G. H. Stone— Glacial Sediments of Maine. 125

4. In front of the ice, (a) in the sea, (6) in lakes on the
land, formed where the land sloped toward the ice, (c) on a
land surface sloping away from the ice.

Sediments deposited in all these situations are to be found
in Maine.*

The names below given to the different kinds of glacial sed-
iments are provisional. The deposits are classified according
to their size, their shape, and their structure, their relations to
other forms of glacial sediments, the conditions of their de-
position, ete. Two-sided ridges not longer than about two
miles are termed kames, longer ridges are termed osars. Erosion
ridges, i. e., portions of a plain of sediment which have been
left as ridges in consequence of the erosion of the adjacent
parts of the plain, are never by me termed either kames or
osar. The latter terms are here applied only to sediments
originally deposited as ridges.+

CLASSIFICATION.

1. Lsolated kames.—These are found in all parts of Maine,
unless in the extreme north, which region I have not explored.
In the south-western part of the drainage basin of the Saint
John they are the only form of glacial sediment yet found by
me or reported by others. They are so distant from other
glacial sediments that they are termed isolated, thereby mean-
ing that so far as known they are the only sediment deposited
by the glacial stream which formed them. They may consist
of a single ridge or of a plexus of ridges enclosing kettle-
holes. They plainly consist of residual matter, i. e., of till
fragments from which the finer detritus has been removed by
flowing water. The stones are more or less water-worn, often
very much rounded. What has become of the finer matter of
the till? It has disappeared from the place of the kame,
which ends in sand or gravel, and there is no auxiliary clay
plain to show where the finer matter that was carried away by
the glacial stream has been deposited. When kames proper
are found above the contour of about 230 feet, they usually
end on the north, east and west in areas of unmodified till, and
sometimes also on the south. When not surrounded by a till-
covered country, they are found in the midst of the alluvium
of valleys, but there is no traceable connection between the
two forms of sediment. The valley drift in these cases is a
later deposit than the kame.

* Space permits only the presentation of a portion of the outlines of the sub-
ject. The details have been embodied in a report written for the U. 8S. Geolog-
ical Survey, completed June, 1888.

+ It is here assumed to be not a matter of much importance whether we form

the plural after the Swedish forms Ose—Osar, or regard the words to be thor-
oughly anglicized and term them Osar—Osars.

126 G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine.

These kames are heaps or ridges of sand, gravel and coarser
matter piled above the surrounding level, usually in places
where no ordinary surface stream can have deposited them.
They are just such deposits as would be formed in channels
between ice walls by waters which retained sufticient velocity
to carry off the clay and finer sand. The hypothesis of land
ice fully accounts for the confinement of streams by barriers
which now have disappeared. No other adequate physical
agent than land ice has been suggested.

I have thus far not been able to find ravines of erosion in
the till to the north of these kames, hence there is no direct
evidence that a sub-glacial stream flowed from the north to
form the ridge. A better interpretation is that the gravel was
deposited in the enlarged sub-glacial channel or pool that
formed at the foot of the cascade where a superficial stream
fell down a crevasse. They can also be accounted for as
having been deposited in deep pools in the bed of a superficial
stream. It is not necessary to assume that all the kames were
formed in the same manner.

The isolated kames vary in size, and many of them are only
a few feet wide and high. They appear to have been
deposited by small glacial streams that drained only a limited
area. In most cases they were probably formed during the
last days of the ice.

2. The hill-side kames.—An ‘interesting class of isolated
kames. They are found on the south slopes of rather high
hills and at the bottom of the hills they often expand into a
plexus of reticulated ridges, and sometimes into a small delta-
plain. In this plain we find a gradual transition from coarser
to finer sediment as we go southward. This proves that the
glacial stream flowed into a body of still water and lost its
motion. Such a deposit is in this paper named a delta. Some-
times this delta seems to pass by degrees into the valley drift,
which proves that the glacial stream flowed out from the front
of the ice into a valley over which the ice had already melted.
Such is by me termed a frontal delta, or plain, being formed
in front of the ice.

The hill-side kames are found above the contour 230 feet,
in the hilly country lying from 50 to 125 miles from the coast.
They are quite common in the region specified, especially in
the hill country of western Maine, situated south of the An-
droscoggin river. They vary in length from a few feet up to
a mile or two. In several cases ravines of erosion are found
in the till to the north of the kames. Even these small kame-
streams eroded the till to a depth or twenty or thirty feet and
to a breadth of 100 or even 200 feet. The eroded matter was
swept down the hill and helped form a plexus of reticulated
ridges or a delta near the base of the hill. In some cases

G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine. 127

where the hill-side kames are large, a deep sheet of till lies to
the north of the ridges, and there is not a sign of an erosion
ravine. We thus see that the details of the formation of these
kames vary greatly. The slopes of the hills on which they
are situated are pretty steep—usually 100 feet or more per
mile. None of this kind of kames have been found on north
slopes.

is Maine almost every winter there are small ridges of earth
formed on hillsides within the channels in the snow and ice,
produced by the melting water cutting down through the snow
into the soil. These small ridges are in several respects types
of the hill-side kames. The latter are found in places where
no ordinary stream can have existed, even in time of the
greatest floods. The glacial origin of the hill-side kames is
thus made certain. Most of them were probably deposited in
sub-glacial channels in very late glacial time.

3. Hames ending in marine deltas—A. good example is
found in Amherst. Two short hillside kames converge
together at the base of the hill and expand into a plain of
gravel which becomes finer and more nearly horizontally strat-
ified as we go south and southeast. Within about one-fourth
of a mile the gravel passes into sand and this into clay. This
clay is continuous with clay containing marine fossils within a
mile or two of the plain. The horizontal transition of gravel
into sand and finally into the marine clay leads to the infer-
ence that the glacial streams here poured into the sea and as
the waters were slowly checked they dropped their burden of
sediment classified horizontally according to the relative veloc-
ities of the currents. There are many other small marine deltas
in the State connected at their northern ends with either
single kame ridges or with a plexus of reticulated ridges.
The structure of the marine deltas will be referred to again.*

* The hypothesis that the reticulated kames were deposited in the sea was first
published by Prof. N.S. Shaler in 1885, That the great sand and gravel plains
of York and Cumberland Counties were in large part composed of matter depos-
ited by glacial rivers in the sea was determined by the writer independently
during June, July and August, 1885, while in the employ of the U. S. Geological
Survey, and the conclusion was set forth in administrative reports of that time.
That ridges of gravel are formed at the sides of swift streams entering stiller
water was discovered by me at the dam of the Penobscot river, at the foot of the
South Twin Lake in 1879, and was at once utilized in explanation of certain
ridges extending back from the alluvial plain of the Androscoggin River, in a
note on the Androscoggin glacier in the American Naturalist. But I did not
then discover the application of the principle to the case of the marine deltas of
glacial sediment. I have since discovered a fine example of gravel ridges enclos-
ing a kettle-hole below the dam of the Mattawamkeag River, at Kingman. No
one who examines these reticulated ridges below the Kingman dam can have a
doubt that the swift sediment-laden glacial rivers entering the sea or a lake, or
even a pool-like enlargement of a river channel, could form ridges enclosing ket-
tle-holes. In this case the kettle-holes represent unfilled space around which the
ridges were deposited.. In other words it is not necessary in the case of the
plexus of reticulated ridges that formed at the land-ward or ice-ward ends of the

128 G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine.

4. Kames ending in lacustrine deltas.—In hundreds of
places along the coast of Maine the writer has traced the
beaches of the sea up to a certain level and there lost them
altogether. The highest beach that I can find is at an eleva-
tion of 225 to 280 feet in the Kennebec region and 220 to 225
in eastern Maine. Beaches can be found at these elevations
on every hill that would be a projecting headland when the
sea stood at this level. Only a limited amount of erosion was
performed by the sea while it stood above its present level.
No terraces of erosion were made in the solid rock that I have
been able to recognize. On the most exposed headlands the
till was eroded and the glacial strizw effaced from the bared
rock, but the roches moutonneés remain. A few miles north-
east of Machias on the south slope of a high hill a deep sheet
of till shows a cliff of erosion and a beach at about 225 feet.
The cliff is now much fallen, but estimating from the size of
the beach-terrace it could only have been from six to ten feet
high and the erosion did not in some places reach to the bot-
tom of the till, This occurred on a slope which would be
exposed to the full force of the Atlantic at that time. Above
this beach the hill rises two or three hundred feet and shows
nothing but ordinary unmodified till. For these and many
other reasons I assign the highest elevation of the sea on the
coast of Maine that occurred in late glacial or in post-glacial
time at about 230 feet above the present sea level. During
earlier glacial time the sea may for a time have stood at a
higher elevation.

The deltas deposited in glacial lakes are situated above the
contour of 230 feet, and most of them are on the north sides
of hills where during the melting of the ice a lake would be
confined between the ice on the north and the hills lying to
the south. These deltas present the same horizontal sorting of
sediments as the marine deltas, except that they do not pass
by degrees into fossiliferous marine clay like those found
below 230 feet.

5. Massive kame-plains.—These are somewhat rounded or
sometimes rather level on their tops. They contain no kettle-
holes proper though the surface may be rolling or uneven.
They show only an imperfect and irregular assortment of sedi-
ments from coarse on one side to fine on the other. They end

marine deltas, to postulate masses of ice that occupied the places now repre-
sented by kettle-holes.

In my paper on the kames of Maine, read before the Boston Society of Natural
History in 1880 I recognized that the plains here termed marine deltas of glacial
sediment were marine deposits, but I supposed they were composed of kames
re-classified by the sea. This was based on an exaggerated estimate of the ero-
sive action of the sea. As soon as I had proved that the sea waves of the epoch
wrought but a very limited amount of erosion it became evident that the plains
in question had been deposited in their present state in the sea.

G. [. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine. 129

abruptly in gravel or sand, and the marine clay which usually
overlies them is plainly a later deposit, not contemporaneous.
They are mostly found below 230 feet. They vary much in
size up to half a mile in breadth and two or three miles in
length. The coarseness of the sediment proves that the waters
of the glacial rivers were never so far stopped as to permit
them to drop the finer detritus, as would have happened if a
glacial stream poured into an open body of water of the size of
the whole plain. The best interpretation of the facts is that a
glacial stream poured into a pool or lake within the ice. This
lake was not large enough to stop the stream sufficiently to
cause it to deposit its clay but did check the current somewhat
so as to make it drop the coarser sediment. Thus it happened
that the central part of the pool was filled with sand and
gravel while at the same time the pool enlarged by melting
and erosion of the adjacent ice. ‘hus after a time the real
pool consisted of a narrow strip of water situated between the
central bar of gravel and the surrounding ice. In this narrow
passage the velocity of the water was not sufficiently lost to
permit the deposition of the finer sand and the clay, nor were
any large kettle-holes made. The stratification of such portions
of these broad plains as I have been able to examine is irregu-
larly quaquaversal.

In the northeastern part of Monmouth are three deposits
each consisting of two elongated-semicircular plains of coarse
sediment separated by a central ravine. The plains are situ-
ated on hills where no stream can have existed to account for
the ravines by ordinary stream erosion. My interpretation is
that a swift glacial river flowed into one side of a lake con-
tained within ice walls and out at the other side without losing
much of its velocity. The ravines mark the channel of the
glacial river, while the lateral gravel plains collected in the
still water on each side of the swift current. ‘These plains are
one-fourth of a mile in diameter, one of them somewhat more.

We thus find several transition forms between the kame
proper and the complete delta, i.e., the plain that was formed
in a body of water sufficiently large, as compared with the size
of the glacial river, to completely check the flow of the incom-
ing water. Some of these intermediate forms perhaps deserve
recognition in our classification.

6. The discontinuous kame systems. — These consist of
deposits of glacial sediments, arranged in linear series, and sep-
arated by intervals varying in length from a few feet up to
two or three miles. When mapped, the linear arrangement is
very obvious. The gravel takes the form of domes, cones and
short ridges, often of considerable breadth so as to be plain-
like. These massive ridges or plains are found here and there

AM. JOUR. ScI.— THIRD SerRigs, VOL. XL, No. 236.—Aveust, 1890.

9

130 G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine.

in the midst of the series, and most of the systems contain in
their courses one or more marine deltas. When there are
more than one delta they are separated by intervals of several
miles.

It should be carefully noted that these gravel deposits are
separated by reaches of undisturbed till and marine clay.
This proves that these deposits were not once continuous and
they have not become discontinuous by recent erosion of the
intervening parts. In short, for some reason a glacial stream
here deposited its sediments at intervals, not continuously.

Systematic non-continuity is a feature of the glacial gravels
of the coast region of Maine, and is found in only three cases
above 230 feet.

All of the longer gravel systems, including the great osars
and osar-plains, become discontinuous as we approach the ocean.

The general law is that as we go south from the contour of
230 feet the glacial gravels become more and more discontinu-
ous, i. e., the intervals become longer, the gravel deposits
become shorter and smaller. Almost all the systems end north
of the present shore, and but a few feet above sea-level. In
Belfast and Penobscot bays several gravel systems enter the
sea, but these bays extend considerably north of the general
line of the coast. The above remarks apply only to the coun-
try east of Portland. I have only partially explored the coast
south of Cape Elizabeth.

The elongated cone and the dome are the prevailing shapes
of the smaller masses of glacial gravel in the coast region. So
characteristic is the shape that they may well be termed lentic-
ular kames. Their stratification is often somewhat quaquaversal.

Since for many reasons (more fully set forth in my report),
a line of these separated kames is considered as having been
formed by a single glacial river, they are classified as a single
system, hence a discontinuous system.

The cause of systematic non-continuous sedimentation furn-
ishes one of the most obscure problems connected with the
glacial sediments. ‘The subject 1s discussed at length in my
report.

The maximum development of glacial sediments is found
near the contour of 230 feet, and the amount diminishes in
opposite directions from this line. This fact leads to several
interesting inferences, but lack of space prevents further dis-
eussion of the subject at present. I will close by remarking
that it will yet be possible by a study of the terminal moraines,
the glacial marine deltas, etc., to map pretty accurately the
general outline of the ice-front as the ice retreated northward
before the sea.

7. The Osars.—These are the longer two-sided ridges. Several
of them are more than 100 miles in length. Near the north

G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine. 131

ends of the longer systems, the ridges have an uneven surface
and steep lateral slopes like some moraines. The material is
barely water-worn. It is till with the finest detritus washed
out of it, and the stones have been left, but little changed from
their till shapes. As we go southward the stones become very
much worn and rounded. The facts are only to be accounted
for as due to glacial rivers flowing southward in narrow chan-
nels bordered by ice walls. Rising out of the rather level
regions of central and eastern Maine to a height of 20 to 150
feet above the adjacent land, these long embankments form a
remarkable geological construction. They freely pass over
hills of moderate height from one drainage basin to another
and they cross rivers and lakes. The ridges are seldom con-
tinuous for more than ten miles, because they are usually in-
terrupted near the tops of hills crossed by the systems, also on
down or southward slopes of thirty or more feet per mile.
Here there appear to be topographical causes for such swift
currents as would sweep the ice-channels clear of sediment.
At the contour of 230 feet or not far south of it, they become
regularly non-continuous, even when traversing quite level
plains where there is no apparent topographical reason for the
interruption. At first the unconnected ridges are a mile or
two long and the gaps between them are short. By degrees
the system passes into a series of lenticular kames separated
by intervals many times as long as the kames themselves (up
to a mile or more). This gradual passage of a nearly continu-
ous ridge into a series of far-separated heaps furnishes part of
the argument for regarding a non-continuous kame system, so-
called, as having been deposited by a single glacial river, but a
short one. If it had extended north farther into the interior,
a continuous ridge would, probably have been formed in the
northern portion of its channel.

Most of the osars expand into one or more marine deltas.
When there are more than one, they are situated ten to
twenty-five miles apart, and the largest one is in most cases,
the one farthest north and nearest the contour of 230 feet.
Some of them contain ten or even twenty square miles.

Marine deltas of glacial sediments are of at least two well
defined classes.

1. Fan-shaped Deltas.—In this class, as we pass from the
area where the reticulated ridges are highest and enclose the
deepest kettle-holes, we find the coarser sediments becoming
finer in all directions both in front and laterally. Here evi-
dently one or more glacial rivers flowed into the open sea,
where they were free to spread outward through a semicircle.
Going outward we find the gravels becoming sands and the
sands become finer and at last pass into the marine clays.

132 G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine.

At the same time the lateral slopes of the reticulated ridges
become less steep, the kettle-holes shallower, the ridges broader,
and thus the plexus of ridges is merged in a rolling plain
which becomes more and more even until it is a level plain of
nearly horizontally stratified sand and at last clay. The posi-
tion of the mouth of the glacial river is shown by the kame or
osar extending north from the delta.

2. Narrow Marine Deltas.—In shape this kind of delta is a
long plain a half mile or less in breadth, and expanding but
little in breadth toward the south. There is a gradual transi-
tion from coarser to finer matter as we go southward and at
last the sand ends on the south in the marine clay. But at the
sides the northern portion of this plain usually rises abruptly
several feet above the adjacent ground. The marine clay here
overlies the sand or gravel plain which consists of matter much
coarser In composition than itself, proving that the clay is a
later deposit than the gravel and sand plain. My interpreta-
tion of the facts is that these deltas were formed in wide chan-
nels forming bays by which the sea ‘extended some miles back
into. the ice-sheet. At the time of deposition the delta was
bordered by ice on each side, while the open sea lay in front.
As the channel or bay broadened by the melting of the ice,
the parts adjacent became covered by clay, derived from the
glacial stream which now was checked in the recently widened
channel at a point farther north than previously.

The transition of the delta sands into the marine fossiliferous
clays proves that the latter were chiefly composed of the mud
poured into the sea by the glacial streams. I have not been
able to find fossils in the clays very near the marine deltas and
apparently the inflow of cold, muddy, fresh water exterminated
marine life near the mouths of the glacial rivers. The small
amount of erosion accomplished by the waves of the sea is
elsewhere noted. Eroded till can have furnished but a small
proportion of the great sheets of silt and clay, which cover a
large part of Maine up to 230 feet. Logically the marine clays
ought almost wholly to be classed among the glacial sediments.
But the clay portions of the marine deltas of neighboring
glacial rivers often coalesce, so too the delta-clays are mixed
with some clay derived from till eroded by the waves. Hence
it is difficult to map the delta-clays, and for the present I con-
fine the term marine deltas to the coarser sediments (gravels and
sands) spread over the sea bottom by the glacial streams. Yet
‘ it ought distinctly to be admitted that the so-called Champlain
clays of Maine are almost wholly a marine off-shore deposit of
Gletscher-milch, such as must be forming off much of the
Greenland coast to- day.

8. The broad Osars or Osar-plains.—All the longer gravel
systems of Maine take the form, at the northern ends, of the

G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine. 133

ordinary osars or two-sided ridges. Going south from five to
twenty-five miles we find in many cases the ridges having rather
steep lateral slopes expand into level- topped plains up to a
half mile in breadth. These plains are usually, but not always,
finer in composition than the narrow ridges of which they are
the extension. Measured transversely t the tops of these plains
are horizontal, but measured length-wise, the broad osars are
found to go up and over hills just like the osars. In numer-
ous instances the osar-plains have been deeply eroded by
streams and boiling springs. A common type of erosion is
where a central ridge has been left uneroded, also a terrace on
each side of the original plain. Thus two valleys have been
eut down into the plain, one on each side of the axial ridge.
This central ridge has the same height as the lateral terraces,
or sometimes it is higher. The material of the ridge is coarser
than that of the rest of the plain. A good example of an
eroded osar-plain is found in the towns of Woodstock, Milton,
and Rumford, on the line of the great gravel system that ex-
tends from the upper Androscoggin Lakes to Portland. Here
an osar-plain extended across the whole valley of a stream
flowing northward into the Androscoggin River. Its average
breath is from one-fourth to one-third of a mile. The plain is
now deeply eroded so as to leave an alluvial terrace on each
side of the valley and a prominent central ridge widely known
as the Whales-back. A great glacial river here flowed from the
Androscoggin Valley at Rumford Point, southward over a
divide at North Woodstock more than a hundred feet higher
than Rumford. The osar-plain is composed of sand near
Rumford, and becomes coarser as we approach the divide at
North Woodstock, from whence the glacial stream flowed
down the valley of the Little Androscoggin River.

The mode of formation of the broad osars was approxi-
mately as follows. Firstly a ridge of gravel was deposited in
a narrow channel between ice walls. We need not now inquire
whether this was a sub-glacial tunnel or a superficial channel
cut down through the ice to the ground. By degrees this
channel enlarged laterally by the melting and erosion of the
ice until at last it became several, sometimes many times as
broad as the original channel. It is very common to find the
gravel at the sides of the osar-plain much less water-worn than
that found in the central parts. This points to much less
violent water action when the stream was widest. The broad
osars seldom if ever are overlaid with bowlders having till-
shapes.- It appears incredible there should be a sub- elacial
channel a half mile wide, overarched by ice, yet the sediment
carrying no till bowlders fallen from the roof. Whatever we
think of the narrow glacial rivers as to their being sub-glacial

134 G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine.

or superficial, I regard the broad channels as having been open
on the top to the air.

Several of the longer osar-systems change to the form of
osar-plains for a distance of five to forty miles, and then
return to their original form of the two-sided ridge with
arched cross-section. Thus the two developments—narrow
and broad osar—alternate in the course of the same gravel
system. The topographical relations of the two are the same.

The diagnosis of the osar-plain has come slowly tome. In
the earlier. years of my exploration all alluvium found in the
bottom of valleys was at once classified as valley drift, and
was supposed to have no direct bearing on the question of the
glacial sediments. It was almost shocking to begin to suspect
that the credentials of the valley drift had not all been written
out, so great is cur veneration for geological terms. The
object of this paper is not to deal with original data. But the
osar-plains are so important a class of glacial sediments that it
may be well to depart from the rule and give a brief descrip-
tion of a concrete sample

A nearly continuous osar begins in the vicinity of the
Sebois lakes and passes south and eastward past Patten to
Sherman, where for a time the gravel nearly disappears on the
top of the divide between a stream flowing northward into the
Mattawamkeag River, at Island Falls, and the Molunkus
stream which flows nearly south into the Mattawamkeag at
Kingman. The proof is positive that a large glacial river
flowed from the north to the head of the Molunkus valley.
Naturally this river ought to have flowed down the valley.
For ten miles below Sherman we find the Molunkus bordered
by a low plain of sand and fine gravel. This plain extends
across the bottom of the valley from hill to hill, just like a
sheet of ordinary river alluvium. We shall notice, however,
that the stones of the gravel are more worn and rounded than.
is common in the beds of Maine streams except among the
mountains where there is a fall of seventy-five feet per mile or
more. As we tramp this plain for about ten miles the appear-
ance of the deposit remains like valley drift and probably we
shall become more and more convinced that it is valley drift
and nothing more. Then we shall find our gravel plain going
obliquely up out of the bottom of the valley. and for the next
ten miles taking the form ofa terrace up to one-fourth of a
mile wide, situated on the east side of the river at a height of
fifty to seventy-five feet above it. This gravel terrace is on
the average at least one-fourth of a mile from the river.
From the point where the gravel plain leaves the river and
goes up on to the hillsides there is no gravel along the Molun-
kus all the way to Kingman, only silt. Nor is there any
gravel terrace on the west side of the river corresponding to

G, H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine. 135

this on the east side. At Macwawhoe our gravel terrace
becomes a two-sided plain and soon expands into a plexus of
reticulated ridges enclosing kettle-holes. The ridges here are
composed of very round cobbles and bowlderets. Approaching
Kingman the gravel plain narrows to a two-sided ridge of sand.

It thus becomes certain that the sand and gravel situated on
the east side of the Molunkus stream for the lower twenty
miles of its course could not have been deposited by any ordi-
nary stream and is of glacial origin. The argument now
stands as follows: A large river flowed in an ice channel from
the north to the head of the Molunkus valley. It is also
proved that a glacial river flowed through the lower part of
this valley. Such a stream cannot appear or disappear sud-
denly by accident. The stream in the lower twenty miles of
the valley must have been the same that flowed to the head of
the valley. But in the upper ten miles the only gravel is that
plain in the bottom of the valley looking like valley drift.
The shape of the gravel stones is now explained and we see
why the alluvium of the valley changes when the osar-plain
goes up on to the hills. The alluvial plain of the Molunkus
for the ten miles below Sherman is not valley drift but an
osar-plain happening to occupy the bottom of a valley.

It may be added that this gravel system extends from King-
man near eighty miles southward to Columbia. We are
considering a very long and large glacial river.

From this and numerous other examples it can be confi-
dently affirmed that osar-plains are often found extending
across the bottoms of valleys like river alluvium. There are
in Maine special facilities for proving these plains to be of gla-
cial not fluviatile origin. Thus the courses of the longer
osars and osar-plains lead most of them across several valleys
of natural drainage. It can thus be easily proved that there
is a great change in the character of the alluvium of these val-
leys at the points where the gravel systems enter or leave the
valleys. The shapes of the gravel stones and various other
phenomena also furnish tests, but it requires a considerable
study of the till, the glacial gravels, and the valley drift of a
region to safely apply these tests. In long north and south
valleys, like that of the Connecticut, where the course of the
glacial nearly coincided with that of the post-glacial river, some
of these tests cannot be applied, and it will be much more
difficult to distinguish osar-plains from valley drift than it is
in Maine.

The osar-plains I esteem of more geological significance
than perhaps any other form of glacial sediments because of
the light they throw on the mystery of the valley drift.

It is not probable that the narrow channels of the osars
broadened to those of the osar-plains by lateral erosion and

136 G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine.

melting that proceeded at an equal rate throughout the whole
Jength of a long glacial river. This broadening must often
have been recessive, i.e., gradually extending northward. If
so, the broad plain that was deposited in this newly widened
channel was, with respect to the glacial river which to the
north still flowed in a narrow channel, a frontal plain.

On the north side of hills crossed by the channels of the gla-
cial rivers there was a reach of water rising to the top of the
hill lying to the south which was in equilibrium. These hills
in fact formed a series of dams or lakes in the courses of the
rivers. The sediments deposited in these reaches of rather
dead water were very characteristic and the phenomenon is
found almost everywhere. The traces of these dams are more
obvious in the osar-plains than in the narrow osars.

What are elsewhere termed narrow marine deltas appear to
have been deposited in channels of the ice which, if above sea
level, would contain osar-plains. Though narrow as com-
pared with the fan-shaped delta yet these channels were very
broad as compared with the kame and osar-channels. In
other words an osar-plain deposited beneath the sea became
the narrow marine delta.

9. The reticulated kames.—As before stated, a plexus of
reticulated ridges enclosing kettle-holes is found at the land-
ward end of the marine and lacustrine deltas. So far the ~
reticulated ridges might be considered merely as a feature of
the deltas and not deserving classification as a distinct form of
deposit. But reticulated ridges are found unconnected with
deltas or only very remotely. Hence I consider them as being
well entitled to be recognized asa peculiar type of sedimentation.

The plains of reticulated kames are mostly found in the
broader valleys and rather level regions situated between 230
and 600 feet above present sea-level. They are most abund-
ant where the local rocks are granite, though not absent from
the slate areas. They are especially large and numerous in the
southwestern part of the State. Here they may be found ten
and even twenty miles in length and from one-half a mile up
to three or four miles in width. All degrees of complexity
are represented, from the great plains just mentioned down to
the simple case of a ridge forking into two branches which
after a time come together again and thus enclose a basin.
The plains consist of a jumble of every possible kind of ridge
and heap, enclosing all forms and sizes of hollows, from depres-
sions a foot in depth up to lake basins, which often have no
visible outlets. ;

And not only do we find ordinary narrow kame ridges con-
nected by cross ridges, after the manner of the usual plexus of
reticulated ridges, but there are broad plains or series of reticu-
lated kames which anastomose over large areas and enclose

G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine. 137

spaces several or many miles in diameter. ‘Thus in that part of

-Maine west of Sebago Lake and south of the Androscoggin
River, all the larger gravel systems are connected with each
other, not only at the great marine deltas (the deltas of the
glacial rivers are here so large that those of adjacent rivers
coalesced) but above the contour of 230 feet we find each
gravel series connected with the rest by lateral series. The
most remarkable of these reticulations of the plains themselves
are found in the towns of Fryeburg, Brownfield, Porter, Hi-
ram, Cornish, Parsonsfield and Newfield. The country is very
hilly. The principal streams of the region, the Great and
Little Ossipee Rivers, flow in east and west valleys, while their
lateral tributaries occupy aseries of north and south valleys.
Four series of gravel plains, each from one-sixteenth to three-
fourths of a mile wide, traverse this region along the north
and south valleys, thereby crossing all the east and west valleys.
This course leads them in several places up and over hills more
than 200 feet high, measured on their northern sides, and in
one case over a hili about 400 feet high. Every few miles the
north and south series are connected by transverse gravel plains
of similar character. Most of these le in the east and west
valleys, but part of them go over hills. The complexity of the
long reticulations can only be appreciated by inspection of the
map. The gravel plains in question take the form of osar
plains alternating with reaches of plains composed of reticu-
lated kames. In three places they are connected with the
great kame-plains mapped by Mr. Warren Upham as extend-
ing in New Hampshire from Conway southward.

My paper on the kames of Maine read before the Boston
Society of Natural History in 1880 made it certain that the
longer gravel systems of Maine often have branches converg-
ing toward the south like tributaries of the ordinary rivers that
flow southward. It is now certain that many osars and osar-
plains divide into branches which diverge toward the south,
like the delta branches of rivers. This does not refer to
branches which presently came together again (the phenom-
enon of the reticulated kames) but to branches that diverge for
long distances and some of them end in marine deltas ten or
more miles apart. In these cases the branches do not come to-
gether at any place after divergence. This can be accounted
for in different ways.

1. It is probable that in case of some of the diverging or
delta branches, the rivers which deposited the diverging lines
of gravels flowed simultaneously in both the channels like the
delta branches of the Mississippi.

2. In some places one of the lines of diverging gravels is
found following a slope of natural drainage, while the other
goes over hills at a higher level. Such for instance are the

138 G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine.

diverging osars and osar-plains found at North Waterford, also
at the southeast angle of Hogback mountain in Montville, and
in the valley of Break-neck brook in the northeastern part of
Baldwin. In these and other similar cases the most probable
interpretation is that the glacial river for some reason changed
its course, so that the two lines of gravels were not formed
simultaneously. Probably the channel first in use was the one
leading over the higher ground. When the lower channel was
opened the old one over the hills would gradually be aban-
doned. Yet the ice conditions were so far independent of the
shape of the ground that it will be unsafe to affirm that the
most favorable land-slope would in all cases be the most favor-
able route for a glacial river.

We may have, then, in the course of a single long gravel
system, the olacial sediment taking the form of the osar, the
osar-plain, and the plain of reticulated kames, also the marine
and lake deltas. All are the work of the same glacial river
acting under different local conditions. While it is impossible
to treat of the more purely theoretical questions in a single
paper, yet a few words as to the relations of these different de-
posits and their probable origin will be added.

The first trace we have of the long glacial river is that it
deposited the osar. This proves that it flowed in a rather
narrow channel—about 300 feet or less in width. All the facts
in Maine, as well as those observed by Prof. Dana in the Con-
necticut valley, point to a larger and larger flow of water as we
near the end of the ice period. This enlarging glacial river
gradually broadened its channel, partly by melting of the ice
at the sides, and partly by er osion. If the enlar gement of the
channel took place fast enough to afford passage for the waters,
a broad channel was formed in which the level-topped broad
osars were deposited But on long, steep down slopes, espe-
cially in the granitic regions where the englacial till was very
abundant, vast quantities of sediment were swept down the
slopes into the valleys and plains. The glacial channels in the
valleys were rapidly filled with sediment. This, together with
the great increase in the flow of the waters, forced the glacial
rivers to form new channels. In other words, since the con-
ditions were those of extraordinary sedimentation, there was
not time to enlarge a single channel so as to carry off the
waters, but large numbers of narrow channels were formed,
connected at frequent intervals one with another by transverse
channels. In these reticulating channels the reticulated kames
were deposited. It should be noted that these remarks apply
only to the reticulated kames not closely connected with marine
or lacustrine deltas. No doubt the two classes of ridges are
often intimately mixed.

G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine. 139

According to the above stated hypothesis the reticulated
kames neither connected with the deltas nor with those local
plains that were deposited in small lakes or pools where the
glacial streams were partly stopped, were formed in channels
within the ice, while in the delta plexus the reticulated ridges
were foymed in front of the ice, so that the gravel collected
in the stiller water at the sides of the swift current.

It is probable that a large part but not all the reticulating
ice-channels were sub-glacial.

Some additional considerations relating to the origin of the
reticulated ridges are the following :

1. In the case of the deposits here termed deltas, we have a
gradual change of sediments from coarser to finer. This is
proof of a gradual slowing of swift waters, such as must hap-
pen when a rapid stream flows into a large body of rather still
water. But in the case of the plains of reticulated ridges
found above 230 feet, we can follow them for several or many
miles and find but very little sign of horizontal assortment of
sediments. The largest deltas below 280 feet show a decided
change in fineness within two or three miles.

2. Wherever we find the horizontal gradation from coarser
to finer sediment, we also find in going in the same direction
the ridges growing broader (somewhat in fan-shape) and the
lateral slopes more gentle till the ridges coalesce in a rolling
plain. But many of the osars fork into two or more branches
which continue of nearly uniform size for two or three miles
till they unite again.

3. Take the case last cited of long diverging branches en-
closing a space one-fourth mile wide. If the space between
the branches was open water, how can we account for the pro-
digious size and swiftness of the stream which swept so wide
and long a space clear of sediments and left a ridge on each
side of it, yet permitted the deposit of a single ridge loth to
the north and south of the double-ridge? In such a ease it
seems to me impossible that the space enclosed between the
ridges was kept clear of sediment by flowing water. The ar-
gument seems to be overwhelming that it was occupied by ice.

There seems to be no other way to account for all the facts
except on the hypothesis that there were two classes of reticu-
lated ridges, one formed in branching ice-channels, the other
in open water where swift streams flowed into it.

10. Osar Border-clays.—In several places a kame or osar
is bordered on each side by a plain of grayish clay which in
some cases rises in a steep bank above the adjoining ground in
places where we can admit no recent erosion sutticient to
account for such a terrace. So, too, such clay plains are
found going over hills where no surface stream can have

140 G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine.

flowed, not even the swollen rivers of the valley drift epoch.
These conditions prove that the clay was deposited in a channel
between ice walls. The central gravel ridge proves that
originally a glacial stream flowed in a narrow channel and
deposited a kame or osar. Later the channel broadened so as
to become an eighth of a mile wide or somewhat wider. The
border-clays were deposited in channels resembling those of
the osar-plains, but they all belong to the shorter gravel sys-
tems. In the case of the longer glacial rivers the flow of water
was moderately swift, so that a plain of sand and gravel was
laid down in the broad channel. When the supply of water
was small the flow became so slow in the broad channels that
the finer sediment was dropped. This clay flanks and overlies
the sides of the central ridge, or in some cases appears to pass
into by degrees and to stand at the same level.

As there are some advantages in confining the names kame
and osar to ridges of the coarser sediments, I give this bordering
clay a special name, though in fact it is genetically a broad-
channel deposit like the osar-plains. In both, the central part
of the plain is coarser than the material at the sides.

In Madison and Anson a plain of the border-clay is strewn
with quite a number of bowlders up to six feet in diameter, or
somewhat more. These bowlders show no sign of water-polish
on their surfaces and have the till-shape. But there is no
sheet of till overlying the clay, only these occasional erratics.
They were probably dropped from small bergs or ice-floes
floating on the glacial stream.

11. Frontal Plains.—These are plains of sediment brought
by glacial streams down to the extremity of the glacier and
then spread sub-aerially over the land in front of the ice.
The sediment extends across the bottom of the valleys in
which it is found, and thus with respect to these valleys, is a
form of valley drift. In Maine the frontal plains or deltas are
found in valleys having a southward slope and at an elevation
of more than 230 feet. They form the southern terminations of
rather short osars. The osar ridge widens as we go southward
and soon expands into a plain that extends across the whole
valley. The stones are very much water-worn, and thus have
the shapes found in the glacial gravels but not in the beds of
streams, except the very steep mountain streams. Within a
few miles we pass beyond the gravel and coarse sand and find
the valley covered with a deep sheet of silt and clay. These
so-called frontal plains are found in only a few places in Maine
and are situated sixty or more miles back from the coast.
They must have been formed late in the ice age when the ice
had melted over the coast region. Both the frontal plains and
the marine and also the lacustrine deltas, were deposited in
front of the ice, but under different circumstances.

G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine. 141

12. Much of the so-called Valley Drift.—The deposits hereto-
fore described are so unmistakably of glacial origin that I antici-
pate no difference of opinion on this point among those who study
the facts in the field. We now approach a class of sediments
concerning which the interpretation is more doubtful, and
probably more facts may be needed before we solve the
problem in its details. It is but justice to add that my con-
clusions have been very slowly formed and even yet are in
part tentative.

Where was the material derived from that forms the thick
sheets of alluvium which cover the bottoms of most of the
larger valleys of New England ?

If this sediment was derived from post-glacial erosion of the
till andif the deposition of the alluvium took place after all the
ice had melted, we ought now to find the marks of this erosion.

1. Since the alluvium was deposited in the larger valleys,
the erosion must have taken place in the steeper lateral valleys
and on the higher hill-slopes. Ravines of erosion in the till
ought to abound on all the highlands, and their aggregate
volume ought to be very great in order to account for so large
a body as the valley drift. Now there are multitudes of
ravines of erosion on the hill-sides and in the upland valleys,
but they are mostly small. Each year it has appeared more
and more improbable that the existing ravines represent the
vast erosion required by the hypothesis that the valley drift is
due to post-glacial erosion of the till. Nor do I see any proof
of the obliteration of ravines such as must have been formed.
Nor is it admissible to postulate, in so hilly and uneven a
country as Maine, any great diffused or general ablation from
the whole surface of the till, taking place after the ice had all
melted. The contour of the surface is such that surface
waters necessarily gather into rills and these into larger
streams, thus largely localizing the erosion in ravines

2. The valley drift is chiefly composed of the finer parts of
the till. If this fine detritus was washed out of the till after
the final melting of the ice and deposition of the till in its
final position, we ought now to find in the upland valleys and
ravines great masses of residual gravels composed of the coarser
matter of the till left after the removal of the finer matter to
form the valley drift. No such extensive bodies of coarse
residual matter are found in such positions as ought to occupy
them on this hypothesis.

The problem resolves itself into this: How can we account
for a very great erosion of the finer matter of the till, yet so
diffused over the surface as not to leave very large erosion
ravines and masses of residual gravels?

The subject is too complex to properly present within the
limits of a single article. The outlines are as follows:

142 G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine.

1. The phenomena of the osar-plains prove that not infre-
quently broad channels existed within the ice up to a half
mile or more in width. Within these channels great rivers
deposited plains of nearly horizontally stratified gravel and
sand. These are purely glacial sediments.

2. In numerous instances these broad channels extended
across the valleys in which they were situated. In such cases
the plains of glacial sediment cover the whole bottom of the
valley from one side to the other. They thus oceupy the
position natural to fluviatile drift and are indistinguishable
from it except by tests involving the study of many facts. The
osar border-clay is a collateral phenomenon of the same class.

3. In like manner osars of unmistakably glacial origin
expand into plains that soon extend across their valleys after the
manner of valley drift. These are the frontal deltas or plains.

4. In general the alluvium of valleys parallel with the direc-
tion of ice-flow is considerably coarser in composition than that
of valleys transverse to this direction, and the stones are much
more water: worn.

5. The larger of the present rivers poured great quantities
of sediment into the sea while it stood at the contour of 230
feet or thereabout. This apparently was cotemporaneous
with the first flow of the rivers in their present valleys, after
the ice had become so far melted as to permit them. The
coarser fluviatile sediments at that time brought into the sea
are now found in the form of broad sheets of sand which
extend twenty or more miles south of the contour of 280 feet.
These fluviatile sands may be termed fluviatile deltas to dis-
tinguish them from the off-shore deposits of the glacial rivers.
All of them end before reaching the present shore unless the
delta of the Androscoggin be an exception. For example, the
Kennebec River of valley drift time poured into the sea in or
near Madison and the fluviatile delta-sands of that time form: a
sheet one or more miles in width, which overlie the marine
fossiliferous clays and extend as far south as Waterville. If
during the retreat of the sea to its present level the Kennebec
had continued to pour as large quantities of sand into the sea as
it did while its mouth stood near 230 feet, we ought now to find
a sheet of sand one to three miles wide covering the marine
clays all the way southward to the present coast. Instead, we
find only a small amount of fluviatile deltamatter south of
Waterville, and this forms only a narrow strip near the river
and is hardly distinguishable from the present flood-plain of
the river. This proves that it was only while the sea stood at
or near 230 feet that the swollen rivers of the Valley Drift
epoch were able to transport large amounts of sediment. The
shortness of this period is proved by the limited amount of
erosion wrought by the sea.

G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine. 143

We have, then, to consider not only the thick sheets of
alluvium covering the bottoms of the valleys above 230 feet,
but also the fluviatile off-shore sands deposited at the same
time. These are now exposed for our.examination. Alto-
gether they represent a very large body of sediment. And we
tind proof that it was all laid down within a very brief period.
If this vast amount of fine sediment was derived from the till
after the ice had all melted, we could not fail to find the
ravines and other traces of this enormously rapid erosion. The
uplands ought to have been dissected into a condition ap-
proaching that of the bad-lands of the west.

The most probable interpretation from these and many other
facts is the following:

While it is true that the morainal matter contained in the lower
portion of the ice must often have been irregularly distributed in
consequence of local causes, yet on the average it is probable that
the proportion increased near the ground. During the final melt-
ing a larger quantity of till would each year become exposed on
the surface of the ice. During the melting of the last 100
feet very little clear water could have escaped from the ice.
The surface was covered with muddy till. The sub-glacial
tunnels were roofed with muddy ice and the same muddy ice
was revealed in the walls of superficial channels and crevasses.
The melting of each minute ice grain unlocked more mud.
The rains and melting waters washed away this unconsolidated
ooze far more easily than they could erode till already com-
pacted and settled. Hrosion accomplished by waters issuing
from beneath is a very different process from ordinary erosion
by rains and streams. Moreover this erosion was more de-
pendent on the ice-conditions than on the slopes of the under-
lying land surface. Here, then, was an ablation diffused over
the whole surface. While post-glacial erosion of previously
deposited till wonld be largely localized in the steeper lateral
valleys, late glacial erosion would be far more diffused. The
coarser or residual matter of the till would be left over the
whole surface, not in the ravines and smaller valleys.

It is a well known law of melting ice that the parts quickest
drained of their melting waters melt slowest. So on the melt-
ing ice-sheet, wherever the waters gathered, there the melting
proceeded most rapidly. This is the principal cause of the
great enlargement of the river channels from those of narrow
osar to broad osar-plains.

The facts in Maine reveal very much of the hydrography
of the ice-sheet. It is impossible here to go into details or to
discuss the effect of hills on the overlying ice-surface. We
have also to consider the effect of the till that accumulated on
the ice-surface in consequence of the melting of the upper ice,
in protecting the ice beneath it from the heat of the sun and

144 G. H. Stone—Glacial Sediments of Maine.

thus retarding the melting. The net result of all the forces
involved was that the waters were diverted into the valleys
during the last days of the ice-sheet. The ice in contact with
the water melted’ more rapidly than the ice of the uplands
which was readily drained. The time came when the streams
extended across the whole of the lower part of the valleys
while much ice still remained on the hillsides. We might call
the vast streams, which then tilled the valleys, ordinary rivers,
since they were not bordered immediately by ice. Yet the
seepage of ooze and flow of Gletschermilch, silt and sand,
which had helped fill the broad channels of the osar plains
period, still continued from the uplands with even greater
rapidity. At the place of deposition over the bottoms “of the
valleys this drift was fluviatile, but with respect to the ice that
still remained on the uplands it was frontal matter.

in large part the valley drift is a frontal plain of glacial
sediment. In several of the north and south valleys the cen-
tral part of the plain of so-called valley drift is an osar-plain
proper. Given a broad channel] and a more rapid melting of
the ice at the sides of the channel as we go southward, it is
evident that at some point the stream will have broadened so
as to extend across the whole bottom of the valley. All the
sediment below this point will be a frontal plain with respect,
both to the osar-plain river flowing from the north and also
with respect to the multitude of small streams and seeps from
the ice on the hills at the sides of the valley. As the enlarge-
ment of the glacial channel proceeds northward, the frontal
plain is oriented at the same rate. We thus have sediments
that were deposited along the axis of the valley between ice
walls ultimately flanked and more or less covered by frontal
matter. It will usually be very difficult to distinguish the osar-
plain from the frontal plain, since they blend one into the
other by degrees.

The writer has not explored the upper portion of the valley
of the Connecticut River and therefore cannot venture a
positive opinion. But the descriptions of the alluvium of this
valley given by Messrs. Hitchcock, Upham and Dana are not
only consistent with there having been an enlarging ice-channel
along the axis of the valley, but are highly suggestive of that
hypothesis. The alluvial drift of the lower course of the
Aroostook River and the middle course of the St. John has
very nearly the same character, with perhaps a larger admix-
ture of frontal matter.

The osar-plains also help us solve the question, long mooted,
of the origin of the river terraces.

It will be noted that the above outlined conception of the
Valley Drift epoch, though derived from a strict induction
from the facts as observed in Maine, is in many respects not
very different from that of Dana’s Manual.

Gooch and Ensign—Determination of Bromine. 145

Art. XVI.— The Direct determination of Bromine in mix-
tures of alkaline Bromides and Ilvdides; by F. A. Goocu
and J. R. ENSIGN.

[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale College.—IV.]

In a recent paper from this laboratory* two methods were
elaborated for the direct determination of chlorine in mixtures
of alkaline chlorides and iodides. These methods are based upon
the action of oxidizing agents, in presence of free sulphuric acid,
upon dilute solutions of the haloid salts at the boiling tempera-
ture. Under conditions properly controlled, iodine is entirely
eliminated by volatilization, leaving the chlorine combined and
undisturbed. In the work of which this paper is an account
we have endeavored to determine the applicability of the same
reactions to the separation of bromine from iodine in similar
association. It appeared very early in the work that the exact
conditions which were found suitable in the separation of
chlorine and iodine are inappropriate to the separation of bro-
mine and iodine. Thus, while according to one of the two
methods which we discuss, the gas evolved from 2 grms. of
sodium nitrite, passed into a solution containing in 400 em* 0:5
grm. of potassium chloride, 1 grm. of potassium iodide, and 5 em*®
of strong sulphuric acid, eliminated the iodine with a mean error
of 0:0002 grm. +, and while according to the other process the
iodine was removed by the action of 2 grms. of ferric sul-
phate and 3 cm* of nitric acid upon a solution similarly
constituted otherwise with a mean error of 0:0001 grm., it
was found that like conditions in certain experiments in which
potassium bromide replaced the chloride were productive
of errors amounting to from 00100 grm. to 0:0200 grm. in
both processes. It was evident, therefore, that the reactions
which obtained in these processes must be carefully studied
and adjusted to make them applicable to the separation of bro-
mine and iodine. Attention was turned at the outset to the
behavior of the bromide taken by itself—that is, unaccom-
panied by an iodide—in boiling solutions containing the rea-
gents of the process. Measured portions of solutions of po-
tassium bromide and of the other reagents were brought to
definite volume and boiled in a distillation flask connected with
a condenser. The measured distillate was treated with silver
nitrate after the addition of a few drops of sulphurous acid to
convert free bromine to hydrobromie acid, and, after the ad-
dition of an excess of nitric acid to dissolve precipitated sul-
phite, the silver bromide was settled, filtered off upon asbestos
in a perforated crucible, dried and weighed. The details of
these experiments are given in the accompanying tabular state-
ment.

* Gooch and Mar, this Journal, xxxix, 293.

Am, Jour. Sci.—TuHirD Series, Vout. XL, No. 236.—Auveust, 1890.
10

146 Gooch and Ensign—Determination of Bromine.

I.

HesO; ENO; “KBr = HBr: Initial Final AgBr found = HBr.
[1:1] taken, volume. yolume. in the distillate. lost.
cm?®. em*, grm. erm. em?*. em?, erm, erm.

10 hs 1 06799 400 300 00001 trace
10 ie 1 06799 300 200 0°0003 0:0001
10 EY 1 0°6799 200 100 0°0006 0:0003
10 Eg 1 0°6799 100 50 0°0024 0°0010
10 pie 1 0°6799 50 25 0°0196 0°0084
Il.
Be 3 1 0°679 600 500 0:0002 0-0001
es 3 1 0. eae 500 400 0-0001 trace
oe 3 1 0°6799 400 300 0:0002 0-000]
ae 3 1 06799 300 200 0°0004 00002
ae 3 i 0°6799 2000 00, 0:0019 0:0008
ae 3 1 0°6799 100 50 0:0224 0:0096
III. 5
10 3 1 06799 6C0 500 0:0008 0:0003
10 3 iL 0°6799 500 400 0:0004 0:0002
10 3 ] 0°6799 400 300 0-0010 0:0004
10 3 1] 0°6799 300 200 0:0018 0:0008
10 3 HE 0°6799 200 100 0:0170 0:0073
10 3 ] 06799 100 70 color of bromine in distillate
DYE
10 2 1 06799 400 300 0:0012 0°0005
10 3 1 0°6799 460 300 0:0016 0:0007
10 4 it 0.6799 400 300 0°0034 0°0015
10 5 1 0:6799 400 300 0:0094 0:0040
10 10 1 06799 400 300 0°0212 0:0130
Whe,
H.SO, HNO, HBr = KBr Initial Final AgBr found HBr
ieall| inthe =
taken. volume. volume. distillate. lost.
cm’, em?®. erm. OTN CMe. em?, erm. grm.
oe at 0°6799 1 300 200 trace trace
ye iE 0°6799 1 200 100 0-0009 0°0004
ae) ae 0°6799 ] 100 50 0:0007 ~ 0:0003
ay: ae 06799 1 50 5) 0-0004 06-0002
las ute 0°6799 i 25 15 0:0004 0°0002
oe re 0°6799 1 15 5 0:0423 00180
VI
10 a 0°6799 1 300 200 0:0009 0:0004
10 ace 06799 i 200 100 0-0011 0:0005
10 Bak 0°6799 1 100 50 0°0012 0:0005
10 Bia 0°6799 1 50 25 0°0064 0°0027
10 che 0:6799 1 25 10 color of bromine in distillate
VII.
ie 5 0:°6799 1 600 500 trace trace
aes 5 0°6799 1 500 400 0°0002 0-0001
aa 5 0-6799 1 400 300 00018 0:0007
uve 5 0:6799 1 300 200 0:0032 0:0014
mae 5 0°6799 1 200 100 00-0202 0:0086
Bes 5 0°6799 ] 100 90 _ color of bromine ir distillate

Gooch and Ensign—Determination of Bromine. 147

WAVE,

H.SO, HNO; Fe.(SO.)3 HBr = KBr Initial Final AgBr found= HBr
[1:1] taken. volume. volume. in the distillate. lost.
em*.- cm* grm. ® grm. erm. Meme: em’. gr. grm.

=e 5 2 0-6799 Tt 600 500 00021 0:0008
a 5 2 0°6799 i 500 400 0°0036 0:0016
10 5 2 0:6799 1 600 500 00037 0:0016
10 5 2 0°6799 1 500 400 0:0082 0°0035

From the experiments of series I, it becomes plain that 5
em® of strong sulphuric acid (added as 10 em* of the mix-
ture made by diluting the strong acid with an equal volume of
water) and 1 grm. of potassium bromide do not interact in a
way to set bromine free or to volatilize hydrobromic acid ap-
preciably until the volume of the liquid has decreased by boil-
ing to about 100em*. The results of series II show, in like
manner, that the effect of 3¢m* of nitric acid—the amount
which was found to be suitable in the separation of iodine and
chlorine in presence of a ferric salt—is not significant until
the liquid is concentrated to 200 cm*. The combined effect of
the two acids, as shown in the experiment of Series III, is
somewhat different. Here it is evident that bromine is liber-
ated at the highest degree of dilution emploved, though the
Joss is hardly significant in a volume of liquid larger than
400 cm*. In the experiments of series 1V, the effect of in-
creasing the proportions of nitric acid, while keeping the
amount of sulphuric acid and the degree of change in dilution
constant, was manifestly to magnify the decomposition of the
hydrobromic acid.

In series V to VIII, hydrobromic acid was employed instead
of the bromide. From the results of series V, it becomes evi-
dent that concentration of the pure hydrobromic acid may be
pressed to 15 cm* without incurring serious loss. The effect of
the presence of sulphuric acid in raising the limit below which
the volatilization of hydrobromic acid begins appreciably, is
plain in the figures of series VI. Series VII sets the volume of
400 em* as the limit to which the same amount of hydrobromic
acid may be concentrated without loss in presence of 5 cm* of
nitric acid. Series VIII indicates unmistakably that even at a
volume of 500 em* the combined influences of sulphuric acid,
nitric acid and ferric sulphate taken in the amounts named
remove bromine, the loss being greater when the sulphuric
acid is present than is the case when the nitric acid and ferric
sulphate are present without it.

The general indication of all these results taken together
and brought into comparison would seem to be that improve-
ment in the processes for separating iodine by the use of the rea-
gents whose action is here studied should lie in the direction of
greater dilution of the solution treated. Accordingly certain

148 Gooch and Ensign—Determination of Bromine.

experiments were undertaken following the same general plan
already laid down, excepting that the original volume of the
liquid boiled was taken much larger than before, and the. con-
centration guarded. Determinations were first made in blank ;
—that is to say, the process was completed in all respects as if
iodine were present and to be separated, excepting that no iodide
was introduced. To the solution of the bromide, weighed in
an Erlenmeyer flask of 1200 em* capacity, were added 10 em® of
sulphuric acid [1:1], and, after diluting to at least 600 em* of
water, the gas from 2 grms. of sodium nitrite was passed into
the liquid, the trap consisting of an abbreviated calcium chlo-
ride tube with two bulbs, was hung in the neck of the flask,
and the boiling was continued for at least an hour and a half.
Finally the solution was cooled, treated with silver nitrate,
and the silver bromide precipitated was settled, filtered off on
asbestos in a perforated crucible, dried and weighed. The de-
tails of treatment are given in the table.

TABLE IX.
= 3 |
x a6/ 3 |g]
[| NaNO.usedin | KBr=HBr (8 &| 6 |o | AgBr=HBr | Error in
OFs| generator. taken. ‘as|F |B) found | HBr.
Bee [lines ane |
A iS |
em?. erm. erm. | grm. |cm?.) cm?. grm. | grm. | grm.
10 2 05394 0°3667 800 500 1200°8506 0°3665 0:0002—
10 2 0°5387 0°3663) 700 400 90'6°8492 0°3659 0:0004—
10 2 05397 0°3669 600 400 90/0°8511)0°3667 0:0002—
10 2 0°5397 0°3669 600 400 90,0°8488 0°3657 0°0012—
10 2 0°5369 0°3650 600 400 900°84650°3647 0:0003—
weit oh Fe.(SO4)3 + HNO; opr PGT oe Ma ESS es | ee rc tran | Pa ea | RN eo | v----| ----- |--------
grm. em* |
10 2 5 0°5384 0°3662 800 500 105.0°8494.0°3661 0°0001 —
10 2 5 0°5384 0°3662 800 500 105,0°8483\0 3655 0°0007—
10 2 5 0°5371 0°3652, 600 400 90 .0°8455'0°3643 0:0009—
10 2 5 0°5363

0°3645 600 400 900°8439 0°3636 0°0009—
| | |

It is obvious that so far as the treatment in blank is con-
cerned the degree of dilution had been reached at which no
signiticant volatilization of the bromine takes place. We pro-
ceeded, therefore, to make the actual separation, the only
change in conditions being the addition of 0°5 grm. of potas-
sium iodide, which was especially prepared and used in solution
as described in the paper to which reference has been made.
The boiling was continued ‘until red litmus paper, moistened
and held in the escaping steam for a minute or two, showed no
reaction for iodine.

Gooch and Ensign— Determination of Bromine. 149

TABLE X.
=| a6 | bee ie |
=") KI 25 | KBr=HBr & g 3 5 AgBr=HBr Error in
S | Og taken, Salma eeulntound.: |) Tess,
BS) | 28 s83 3
= Ze me 1a
cm*, grm. erm. erm. | erm. | em. cm%. grm. | grm. | — grm.
“10 | 0:5 | 2 0°5371'0°3652 600 500 20 (0°8358 0:°3601 0°0051—
10 | 0:5 | 2 (0°53670°3647 ) 600 500 30 |0°8337 03592 0:0055—
10 | 0:5 | 2 95365 0:3647 | 600, 500 20 |0°8309 0°3580) 0:0067—
Bees es Fes, )a-e NUS ee le [ORE STs ast Ur eS ALA 8
/grm. cm? | | | |
OM O25 2 5 0°5373 0°3653 700, 550 75 (0°8170 0°3520; 0°0133—
TOW s0;5)) 2 2 5 0°6375.0°3655 700 550 60 0°8171 0°3520, 0-0135—
| | }

In the comparison of the results of these experiments with
those of Table LX, it is plain that, though the time of exposure
to the boiling temperature is much shorter, the evolution of
the iodine is attended by a not inconsiderable disappearance of
bromine. This loss is greater in those tests in which the oxi-
dation is produced by the combined action of nitric acid and
the ferric salt. It is plain that in this form the method is use-
less. We tried next the effect of reducing the quantities of
the reagents used by one-half, keeping the volume of the liquid
the same, and, finding that the process, conducted otherwise
exactly as described above, yielded under these new conditions
0 1825 grm. of hydrobromie acid instead of 01827 grm. taken,
we began a series of experiments designed to test the effect of
varying the amounts of sulphuric acid present. The other con-
ditions were kept unchanged. Table XI contains the record of
experiments of this sort in which the oxidizing effect was se-
cured by the action of nitric acid and a ferric salt. In Table
XII are given the results of experiments in which the fumes
generated by the action of sulphuric acid upon sodium nitrite
were passed into the liquid to set the iodine free.

TABLE XI.

= | om 4

= | [ee ee ie

= | EKER H Br (2 2) ania elAebr=aBey «2
Sac Ts live /< e—Jeleie VS 68 |a8/ AgBr=HBr.

S KI. | Feo(S04)s + HNO. | taken. ae! = = Ioe “found. e
Be | Fe eisai Syl Kees

cm? germ, grm. | cm. | erm. grm. cm, || grm. | grm. grm.
5) 0°5 7 3 0°5514) 0°3748) 650! 500 | 90 | 0°8285)0°3570/0:0178—
A | 0:5 | 2 3 !0°5510'0°3745| 650; 500 | 90 | 0-8378/0 3610|0:0135—
3 | 0:5 2 3 0°5514, 0°3748 650, 500 | 90 | 0°8463/0°3647/0°0101 —
2 O25 2 3 0°5504 0°3741, 650 500 90 | 0°8521.0°3672, 0:0069 —
1 || 09) | 2 3 0°5508 03744) 650 500 |) 90 | 0°8554'9°3686'0:0058 —

150 Gooch and Ensign—Determination of Bromine.

TABLE XII,

= Bs Z

s alee =o! = =n :
eee = & KBr=HBr |. S oF AgBr=HBr | Error in
S os taken. =i Le =| found, HBr.
B Alec ae E HE |
em?. erm. grm. grm. | grm. | cm?) em®. grm. grm. erm.

5 | 0.5 2 05374 0°3654, 600 never less Ab’t 0°84600°3645 0:0009— |

than 500 30

OmeOs5 A \ PBS ioy Ocean). (Ugo ae .-. 0°8447 0°3639 0:0016—
+ HeenOso 21025365073 64.0i| 26 0.0) eae eee eee eee 0°8473 0°3651 0:0004+
| He Oso 2 | OPS N | OREOVE) ONO oe 0°8461 0°3645 0:0001 +

Hmm Os5 A OPENS OPS YRAL| (XO pees he 0°8070 0°3478 0:0007+
L5 0:5 7A OFA OR 44S3) (UO) a eg 0°8645 0:3725 0:0018—
(4 0-5 BNO Bye Owe! GeO yee oe 0°8466 0°3647 0:0005—
+ Zk) Ost) AA OR aI TH OPaX Ge) | OHO) See Ve se be 0°8473 0°3651 0:0004—
(4 | 0:5 PANO NS ORS TAG) Gy) ee oe ee So 0°8676 0°3737 0:0007—
(3 05 POSSE OPS OOS oe See se eee 0°8459 0°3644 0:0008—
| 3] ORD: PAW (OPK ID)|| OP SKE Tle (G0) Da see a 0°8465 0°3647 0:0000
4 Se Oz5) AMNOZH3 681023649] 60.0) estes ees pen 0°8486 0°3656 0:0007 +
1 83.1) OPS} Ze OsDS G41073 64: GiENG 5 (aera eee ee 0°8471 0°3650 0°0004 +
(3 0°75 WS OATES. OSA) OO oe ee 0°8690 0°3744 00002 +
(eSiiO025 PA OOS ORME BAO) = = er Se 0°0915 0°0394) 0:0003 +
1 3) |) 2 sOLO 521020 3/05)O DO pee eee een ena 0°0883 0°0380, 0:0005 +
(2 0°5 2 OZd3.66)073\04ilee 65,0) res eee ee eee ere 0°8478 0°3654| 0:0007 +
+ Qo 0x5 P| OPDSKES) | ORSON (AIG Se oe 0°8472 0°3651) 0:0001 +
(2621) 0:5 A) | Cas) 53)| PRIETO) a BE 0°8687:0°3742) 0:0005—
(al ImOs5 Qe ROZD'S GNMOLS OA Slim G 6 Os paeeenteeas yee neraen | aye 0°8494 0.3660 0:0012+
4 Lee Ors Pa WASRHG| OeXRebH i) Oo oes oe aoe boas 0°8450 0°3658 0:0011+
1s) 20:5)" 2!) .0;5368) 0536494650) [S552 eos = _.-. 0°8492.0°3659, 0°0010+
(1! 0-51 2 10-551

SUVOUES) OnO aoas anes sea Siee ee 0°8763 0°3776 0:0027 +

It is plain that in both processes the loss of bromine dimin-
ishes as the amount of sulphuric acid decreases. In the pres-
ence of nitric acid and ferric sulphate the point is never
reached, within the limits of our experimentation, at which
the error is brought within allowable bounds. This mode of
attempting the separation of bromine and iodine we therefore
abandoned.

On the other hand the nitrous acid process, fairly successful
when the sulphuric acid present is restricted to 5 em* of the
half and half acid (or to 2°5 em* of the strong acid), is estab-
lished as trustworthy when the sulphuric acid present is held
within the limits of 2 cm* to 4 e¢m* of the [1:1] mixture. The
mean error of thirteen determinations in which the proportions
last mentioned were preserved is 0, lying between extremes of
00008 grm. —and 0:0007 grm. +. When the quantity of sul-
phuric acid is still further diminished there appears to be a
slight tendency to show an apparent excess of the bromide,
due in all probability to the retention of a little combined
iodine in the solution. The best proportion for practical use
is probably 8 cm* of the half and half acid to an initial volume

Gooch and Ensign—Determination of Bromine. 151

not less than 600 em*—the amount lying midway between the
proportions with which divergences begin to be noted.

Other test determinations were made along the same lines,
excepting that, instead of generating the nitrous fumes outside
the liquid under treatment, pure sodium nitrite was introduced
directly into the solution. The nitrite was prepared free from
halogens by adding to its solution a little silver nitrate, acidu-
lating distinctly with nitric acid, and filtering off the little
silver chloride thus precipitated, together with a small amount
of silver nitrite thrown down at the same time. The strength
of the solution thus prepared was determined by acting upon
a definite portion with ferrous sulphate in excess and titrating
the residual ferrous salt with potassium permanganate. The
details of these experiments are given in Table XIII.

TABLE XIII.
hie]
z
. se | isa | |
ve >= | KBr=HBr | _© 3 2 | AgBr=HBr =|

S a0 taken. | ‘a aS OE found. me
nn we | | $3 a ga ipa eles
iy a litte - | fe|>) io) =o seal Plen
x i By] harps > Ha | Se
: Be ama | ——
em* grm. grm, grm. — grm. em? | em? | grm. | grm.| grm.

| | never About |
3 | 0°5 | 0°35 | 0:5508 Poles 650 below 30 =| 0°8689 0°374+4 0:0001—

| | | 500 cm? | | |
Bi 160.51 010:35 |.0;5513/0;3747 650 |e te 0°8694 0°3746 0:0001—
3 [05 | 0°35 |0:5513/0-3747| 650 | ___... |_.-.. _ 0°8699 0:3748 0-0001 +
3 10-5 | 0°35 |0°3005/0-2042| 650 | ______ litany 04746 0°2045 0:0003 +
Butu0: 0:35) | 0:2759\01875] 650 ks. 0°4358 0°1878 0-0003 +
3 10:5 | 1°75 |0:551310°3747| 650 |... _- Lh | 08705 0°3750 0:0003 +
3 | 0-5-| 1-75 |0:5510/0°3746| 650 |... _- eee | 0°8707 0°3751 0:0005 +

The mean error of these seven determinations is 0:0002
grm. +, lying between the extremes 0:0005 grm. + and 0-0001
grm.—. In the first five of these determinations enough
nitrite was employed to break up one and a half times the
amount of iodide taken, if the action is supposed to go to the
point of setting NO free. In the last two experiments, eight
times the quantity of the nitrite theoretically thus called for was
taken with no apparent change in the effect.

That iodine may be removed with reasonable accuracy from
mixtures of iodides and bromides without disturbing the bro-
mine is evidently established ; and, inasmuch as the proportion
in which the reagents are taken in the corresponding process
for the separation of chlorine from iodine lie far within the
limits found applicable to the bromine separation, it would be
natural to suppose that in the presence of a chloride associated
with the bromide the sum of the hydrobromic and hydrochloric
acids would be given with exactness under the conditions suit-

152 Gooch and Ensign—Determination of Bromine.

able for the estimation of the former. We deemed it best,
however, to submit this point to the test of experiment. The
result substantiates the presumption.

TABLE XIV.
io 4

e | —Q fQ |

do | & ee 2 Error | Error
Fal | a ie cai. Error in caleu- | caleu-
© |Ki| 3 | Ker| KCl | os == silver lated as | lated as
a S| | 4 oO 4 Ep salt. HBr HCl
x A as <q |
cm? grm.grm. grm. | germ. erm. erm. erm. grm. | erm,

3 0°5 0°35) 0°5517 0°4981 1°8280 | 1:8262 | 0:0018— 9:0008—) 0:0006—

3 | 0°5/ 0°35) 0°551L1/ 0:-4980| 1°8268 1°8253 | 0:0015— 0:0005—) 0:0004—

It is plain, in conclusion, that of the two methods which we
have studied, though both are applicable to the separation of
chlorine from iodine, but one is utilizable for the separation of
bromine from iodine, and that under modified conditions. With
the necessary modifications, however, it is good, and easily ap-
pled. It may be briefly summarized as follows: The neutral
solution containing the bromide and iodide is diluted to 600 em*
or 700 em®* (instead of 400 em*, which was found to be a suffi-
cient dilution in the case of the separation of chlorine from
iodine), 1 em* to 1:5 em* of strong sulphuric acid, or, better,
2em* to 8cm* of the mixture made by diluting the acid with an
equal volume of water, (instead of 10 c¢m* of the 1:1 mixture
employed in the chlorine separation), are added, a sufficient
amount of pure sodium or potassium nitrite is introduced, (or,
if it is preferred, the gas generated by the action of dilute sul-
phuric acid upon the ordinary nitrite and mtroduced from the
outside may be employed instead,) and the liquid is boiled, after
trapping the flask as described, unti! the color has vanished and
the escaping steam no longer gives to red litmus paper the color
characteristic of iodine. The residual liquid is treated with an
excess of silver nitrate, and the precipitated bromide filtered off,
dried, and weighed. The process of boiling need not extend
beyond a half hour, or a little more, and care should be taken
that the volume of the liquid shall never be less than 500cm*.
We have not dealt with quantities of the potassium bromide
and iodide larger than 0°5 grm. each, approximately. The
presence of 0°5 grm. of potassium chloride does not affect the
sharpness of the separation.

W. W. Dodge—Lower Silurian Graptolies. 153

Art. XVII.—Some Lower Silurian Graptolites from
Northern Maine; by W. W. Dover.

EIGHT years ago I pointed out a newly found graptolite lo-
eality in Penobscot County, Maine,* about seventy-five miles
north of Bangor and twelve east of Mt. Katahdin. I have
since obtained a few additional specimens there, and now re-
port them for the evidence they give as to the age of the
rocks in which they occur.

The entire list of determinable forms before me is as fol-
lows:

Helicograptus gracilis Hall (sp.)
Dicellograptus ?

Diplograptus, n. sp.

Cryptograptus marcidus Hall (sp.)
Glossograptus spinulosus Hall (sp.)
Young graptolite.

ook eyo

This is clearly a fraction of the Norman’s Kill assemblage
of species.

No. 1 is represented by a single specimen, incomplete but
distinct and showing well the ‘peculiar proximal bar. It was
taken from an extensive ledge that lies along the south bank
of the Wassatiquoik, about a mile above the junction of that
stream with the east branch of the Penobscot. Thin layers of
graptolite-holding shale are separated by considerable thick-
nesses of highly siliceous slate that varies in color from olive-
gray to deep blue-black.

The specimens of No. 2 are too obscure for certain recog-
nition even of the genus. The hydrothece are undistinguishable.
The branches have the double curvature that in different de-
grees is shown in several species of Dicellograptus, but they
do not include an angle agreeing exactly with that assigned to
any of the described species.

The best specimen of Diplograptus yet obtained was found
in 1881 north of the stream, in a free, angular piece of shale,
and was then mentioned as D. pristis. It differs in some
particulars from D. pristis His., as described by Tullberg.t

The free portion of the outer margin of its hydrothecze is
unusually long, equalling three-quarters of the width of the
polypary, (12™™ : 22"). The specimen has fewer hydrothece
in a given length of polypary than any described species, +

* This Journal, Dec., 1881, vol. xxii, p. 434.

+ Bihang till Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, Bd. vi, No.

SDD lO llectatale

t D. peosta excepted, if necessary; description of which I have not been able
to consult. For the name, see Wisconsin Geological Report 1862, p. 430.

154 W. W. Dodge—Lower Silurian Graptolites.

only sixteen in an inch, six in ten millimeters. D. longissemus
Kurek* (Upper Silurian) has seven hydrothec in ten milli-
meters; they overlap each other more than do those in the
Maine specimen, and terminate differently. D. foliaceus
Murch.,+ has eighteen to thirty in an inch, and is wider. JD.
euglyphus Lapw.,t for which a different marginal angle of
the hydrothece is stated, has eighteen to twenty-four. D.
rugosus Emmons § has twenty anda wider polypary. LD). pris-
tis has nine or ten in ten millimeters and has a small radicle.|
The Maine specimen agrees nearly with D. pristis and D. lon-
gissimus in the angle between the outer margin of the hydro-
thecze and the central line of the polypary. It has a radicle
two millimeters long.

The precise level at which this probably new species occurs
relatively to the other specimens has not yet been ascertained.

4. Graptolithus marcidus Hall, has been treated as identical
with Cryptograptus tricornis Carr. (sp.). Prof. Hall’s figure
shows no essential difference. C. tricornis has parallel lateral
margins. In all distinct and entire specimens, from fifteen to
forty millimeters long, that I have seen, from Hudson River
valley localities, there is well marked distal convergence of
the margins. The convergence sometimes begins or becomes
more rapid at a point distant perhaps six times the maximum
width of the polypary from its proximal extremity, that is
about one-half or one-third of its length, and thus is seldom
conspicuous in the proximal half of the polypary. A slight
proximal convergence also is frequently or usually noticeable.
Prof. Hall’s figure may represent a specimen which had lost
part of its polypary. The few parallel-margined New York
specimens that I have seen are small (with pointed distal ex-
tremity{) or imperfect.

I think C. marcidus should be retained for the present.

The Maine specimen is from the same piece of shale with
the Diplograptus above mentioned (No. 3.) The slightness of
the test characteristic in Cryptograptus makes the specimen in-
conspicuous, but it is easily recognizable after the attention is
directed to it.

5. The specimens of Glossograptus were obtained from the
same ledge as No. 1, but from a higher layer of shale. They
are very indistinct. The spines appear to be in number about
ten on each side. The polypary, exclusive of the spines, is

* Geol. Fér. i Stockholm Foérh., Bd. vi, Heft 7, p. 302, taf. 14, figs. 8, 9.

+ Sil. Syst., Pl. xxvi. f. 3. Hopkinson and Lapworth in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.
Lond. 1874, xxxi, p. 657.

¢ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., (5) v, p 166.

§ American Geologist p. 105, Pl. 1, fig. 26.

| Tullberg, op. cit., p. 10.
“| Like fig. 17, Plate B, of Graptolites of the Quebec Group.

Kimball—Siderite-basins of Hudson River Epoch. 155

sixteen millimeters long and three or three and one-half wide.
The spines are three millimeters long, directed somewhat dis-
tally and a little reflexed. So far as the specimens can be
made out, they agree well with Prof. Lapworth’s figure of the
ventral aspect ot G. Hincksia Hopk. (sp.).* The species of
this genus require revision, but its American representatives
are not yet fully known.

At the localities near Albany, beside a very abundant Glosso-
graptus which is perhaps a small form of G. cé/iatus Emmons,
there is an oddly irregular shaped form, that in some respects
approaches G. pinguis Hopk. (sp.).t Figure 16 of Plate B,
Graptolites of the Quebec Group, seems to represent this peculiar
eraptolite in a spineless condition and small.

No. 6 somewhat resembles Mr. Carruthers’ figure of the
young form of Cryptograptus tricornis Carr. (sp.),t but is a
little longer in proportion to its width, and the sides do not
diverge quite so rapidly. I have no opinion to express as to
its relations.

The Graptolite compared in 1881 to Dicranograptus ramo-
sus probably can not be identified. There is no Phyllograptus
among my specimens.

Cambridge, Mass.

Art. XVIII.—Siderite-basins of the Hudson River Epoch ;
by JAmes P. KimBaut. With Plate VI.

THE Taconic region on the borders of western New Eng-
land and eastern New York has ceased to be the debatable
ground it once was, thanks to Prof. James D. Dana and to
collaborators in special parts of the same field—notably, the
late Rev. A. Wing on the limestone region of Vermont, Prof.
W. B. Dwight in Dutchess County, N. Y., and the excellent
work of C. D. Walcott. The unity of the limestones with the
Calciferous, Chazy and Trenton formations, appearing in
widely different aspects at intervals over this extensive area;
the identity of its associated series of shales, grits, sandstones,
ete., with metamorphic products like fissile slates, hydro-mieas,
schists, quartzites, and even gneisses ; and the relations of part
of the schists with the Hudson River group of strata have

* Graptolites of County Down, Proc. Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, 1876-7,
Appendix LV, plate vi, fig. 24a.

+ For the opportunity to study this and a number of other interesting grapto-
lites, some of which will probably prove to be new or previously unknown in
New York rocks, I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Charles Schuchert.

t Trans. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, 1858, p. 468, fig. 2; Annals and Mag. Nat.
Hist. (3), ili, p. 25; Geol. Mag. 1868, V, Plate V, fig. 110.

156 Kimball—Siderite-basins of Hudson River Epoch.

been set forth by Professor Dana in a remarkable series of
memoirs contained in this Journal from the years 1873 to
1888, inclusive. The recent work by C. D. Walcott, toward
locating the Cambrian and other points has removed all re-
maining doubts as to the general age of the rocks.

The association with the same strata of siderite or clay iron-
stone, or, as more widely distributed, residues 2 sctw of its
weathering decomposition, has also been pointed out with ref-
erence to the geographical and stratigraphical occurrence of
limonite beds throughout the same region.

A recent study of the iron-ore bodies in course of very
active and systematic development by the Hudson River Ore
and Iron Company since the year 1875 at Burden, Columbia
County, N. Y., affords a number of interesting facts not unim-
portant in their bearing on the still rather obscure structural
geology of the western margin of the Taconic area extending
to the Hudson River, and indeed on the geology of the whole
Taconic belt.

Sections from the river to the vicinity of Johnstown, on
the New York and Albany turnpike, traverse the Hudson
River shales to the base of the heavy body of fissile slates cov-
ering the western foot-hills of the Taconic range, with fine
exposures by excavations and diamond drill of the intervening
calcareous grits and ferriferous limestone beds, including in
places basins of siderite in unaltered form. The stratigraph-
ical relations of at least this horizon of iron ore are easily
established. The probability of its unity with a definite hor-
izon of other well known occurrences of ferriferous material in
altered or weathered form in numerous parts of the develop-
ment of the same series of strata is indicated by several
circumstances, such as appertain to an expansive bottom
whether littoral or marine.

The iron-ore basins referred to are about a mile east of the
Hudson, between Catskill and Germantown railway stations, a
few degrees north of west from Copake, or directly opposite
that point in a line, that is, at right angles to longitudinal
axes of flexure in this part of the Appalachian system. The
intervening ground is occupied by a series of minor folds
whose longitudinal axes conform to the parallelism of the
same system. The ore-basins, four in number, constitute a
chain. Their longer axes are likewise parallel to the trend of
the Taconic and Catskill ranges. All but the first or most
southerly basin, and the terminal southern part of the second
or next basin to the north, have been folded and elevated into
anticlinals whose western and middle zones have been com-
pletely eroded to give place to the bed and terraces of the
Hudson. With the exception noted, the parts of the basins

Kimball—Siderite-basins of Hudson River Epoch. 157

still preserved are in monoclinal dips to the east, and expire
under cover by attenuation. The broken or basset edges of the
ore-beds outcrop on the west slope and near the crest of a line
of prominent ridges, the first from the river, known as Mt.
Thomas, Cedar Hill and Plass Hill. The several basins have
thus been elevated into what previous to the sculpturing of
the immediate valley of the Hudson was a range of anticlinals
of which the remnants are still prominent landmarks. The
thickness of the ore-beds along the escarpment formed by this
outcrop varies according to the relations of the line of obliter-
ative erosion with different sections of lenticular bodies, as
well as to the expanse and depth of the original basins of
deposit. For all are distinctly lenticular in shape when
referred to their uneroded condition, and considered as rem-
nants of a whole which corresponded each to a cast of its
original basin. The disrupted edge of the ore-body of the
second basin (in order from south to north), in the crest of
Mt. Thomas is near 600 feet above the river and about 44 feet
in maximum thickness. Similar escarpments in the third or
Cedar Hill basin expose a thickness of 380 feet of ore, and in
the fourth or Plass Hill basin, 8 feet. The thickness of the
filling of each basin is proportional to its original expanse
approximately determined by a horizontal projection of the
anticlinal arch. The first, a small basin, is wholly submerged
though at a shallow depth. This has been partially exhibited
by excavations along its upturned edge, and its extent deter-
mined by diamond drill. Though bodily lifted upon the
flanks of an anticlinal, mostly eroded, this ore-body preserves
the configuration of a basin and, like all the basins, is faulted
and thrown in minor degree. It has entirely escaped erosion.

The floor of all the basins is gray argillyte weathering into
brown shales, of Hudson River age, according to the earlier
views of Prof. W. W. Mather and Prof. James Hall, sustained
by Mr. T. Nelson Dale’s discovery of fossils of that group in
the same formation near Poughkeepsie.* This is the lower-
most formation brought to the surface: in this part of the
Hudson River valley, and forms the beds of that river and of
the lower parts of its eastern affluents in Columbia County.
It was penetrated in boring No. 1 to a depth of 662 feet, from
an elevation 222 feet above the river, the total depth of this
boring being 987 feet. Overlying conformably the Hudson
River shales is a thin belt of limestone intercalated with ar e@il-
laceous shales, and continuous with caleareous grits, forming
the roof of the ore-basins. Numerous sections of this within
the compass of the first and second basins have been obtained
by use of the diamond drill.

* This Journal, xvii, 1879, p. 377.

158 Aimball—Siderite-basins of Hudson River Epoch.

These show a greatly expanded but variable thickness as
well as an increased variety in the composition of the sedi-
ments, all of which are transitional, that is, both calcareous
and ferriferous. The same belt is brought to the surface
farther east by bosses and anticlinals, in one case reversed. A
line of low bluffs has been sculptured from the same range of
elevations 1:14 miles east of Mt. Thomas. The local sections
referred to, compassing near 1300 feet of strata, including the
siderite basins, may be concisely presented as follows:

Maximum thickness.
Dense fissile slate at base of Taconic hills. Probable equivalent of
metamorphic (hydro-mica) slates further east. Weathering white. + 200 ft.

Breeciated ferro-caleareous Sandstone_ === 22222252222 225 eee 161
Ferro-caleareous sandstones, passing into conglomerate. ___._____._- 120
Aphanitic black argillyte, intercalated with arenaceous shale_______- 50
Ferro-caleareous grits, seamed with calcite._......____._..1-.-..2- 48
Siderite: clay-ironstone, passing into sub-crystalline spathic carbonate 44
Gray argillyte, weathering into drab shale. Bluffs of east bank of

Tatler) Ieiiveie, - lBeriMey INO, Wes eee les ee ee eee eck sss + 662

The grits capping the ore basins merge into thin-bedded
limestone in the intervals between the basins, as well shown on
the line of their axes along a stretch of low bluffs continuous
with the Mt. Thomas and Cedar Hill ore-escarpments. The
contact of the limestone with the underlying shales or floor of the
ore-basins, is in these intervals close and barren. The contact,
similarly exhibited in the second or eastern range of exposed
bosses and anticlinals, is likewise close and barren, but the eal-
careous grits still prevail instead of thin-bedded limestone, as if
the marine currents intermittently supplyi ing the coarser grits
had an easterly course. Overlying grits and limestone the mem-
bers are of the character of hydrous fissile slates. These form the
surface east of the monoclinals which elevate the ore-basins, their
first appearance east of the Hudson being at the base of the first
range of monoclinal hills. These slates, probably representing
the hydro-mica slates of the metamorphic area to the east are
very persistent, especially in the foot-hills of the Taconic
mountains where their great massiveness may be partially due
to replication, reverse dips or overthrown anticlinals occurring
even west of Johnstown, as shown by inferior strata.

The correlations of this fragment of Lower Silurian geology
are distinctly with the same field of structural and stratigraph-
ical work described by Prof. Dana in the memoir already
cited. The series of strata here described are probably all of
the Hudson River epoch, and little altered by metamorphism,
though on the western border of the Taconic area.

The ore-basins themselves are not without remarkable char-
acteristics. They may be described as a series of beds of
clay-ironstone intercalated with mechanical sediments, all

Kimball—Siderite-basins of Hudson River Epoch. 159

more or less caleareous as well as ferruginous. While, on the
one hand, in the southern portion of the second basin well
under cover, the iron-stone has been metamorphosed into
sub-erystalline spathice siderite, weathering decomposition, on
the other hand, has wrought the partial alteration of all
exposed parts of the beds into limonite. Metamorphism of
amorphous ferrous carbonate into spathic siderite appears to
be due to the unimpeded erystallization of such parts of the
deposits as were the freest from siliceous admixtures in the
form of mechanical sediments. That this has resulted from a
condition of exceptional purity is well shown by numerous
analyses as well as by the fact of the absence of crystallization
from parts of the deposits richer in siliceous matter. All the
familiar phenomena of alteration of iron-stone into limonite
are well exhibited in weathered parts ofall the basins, espe-
cially exfoliation of hydrous ferric oxide with the elimination
of silex and clay. These insoluble residuums are sometimes
preserved 7 sztw as contents of drusy cavities.

This remarkable series of ore-basins seem to owe their origin
to depressions on an in-shore mud bottom fed by waters from
decomposing basic rocks. From such waters ferric oxide was
precipitated along with mechanical sediments from the land
and calcareous sediments from the sea. Currents and occa-
sional perturbations introduced detritus, while vegetable and
animal life found conditions favorable for existence in degree
inversely to the predominance of ferric precipitate. This is
indicated by the presence in the ore of phosphoric acid in
inverse ratio to the proportion of iron, the metamorphic or
spathic ore of the southern part of the second basin alone
being below the Bessemer limit in phosphorus, and up to the
shipping standard in units of iron. Submergence of the basins
by rapid accumulation of sediments, and probably also by sub-
sidence below the range of atmospheric action was followed
by decay of buried organic matter attended by reduction of
ferric to ferrous oxide, Whence ferrous carbonate in the pres-
ence of carbonic acid and absence of atmospheric oxidation.
To some extent, also, carbonate of lime has probably been
replaced by carbonate of iron.

Senft’s theory of the formation of argillaceous iron-ores
through saturation of sedimentary beds with ferrous bi-ear-
bonate, and the formation away from atmospheric oxidation of
insoluble ferrous carbonate, while perhaps adequate to explain
certain occurrences of thin deposits and alternations of clay
iron-stone, notably in the coal measures, in circumstances of
emergence, fails to satisfactorily account for its formation on
a large scale under conditions distinetly pointing to submer-
gence.

160 JS. D. Robertson—Zine Sulphide from Kansas.

The following analyses of unaltered ores of both types, after
calcination, are “selected from the company’s file of eee
commercial analyses: I, spathic siderite from No. 2 mine, by
Mr. A. S. Bertolet, of Crown Point; Il, iron-stone from Mt.
Thomas, both from different parts of ‘the second basin:

it Il.

RCTROUSTOXIG Cha ease pe ape eene eae 2°78
HET TIC AO Xd Sys Re ee ee eae 68°23 65°73
Maonesiag aslo 2 ee eis a eee 7:07 712
PAU ar 0 a) PS ar car a pe pe oe DAD 3°01
ATE TYG a hi a cape Se Recency aa 3°36 4°35
Phosphorichacicl eases = ase 0°06 0°3188
SS TT Gea e ee Ra a REE pe eee eee 11°65 17:18
Mang anoustOxiGl Cire == eee ee ee 2°92 2°66
SHU of GU 5b cedhes aay ie atte cl URGE Sa Ce ses 0°62 0-78

+ 99°96 99°75
Mie tall lic sino mye et tee ets ee eee 49°92 46.70

The low proportion of alumina in contrast with the large
proportion of magnesia will not fail to be noticed. This is
remarkable throughout the whole series of analyses. The
detrital derivation of the earthy admixtures from basic—nota-
bly hornblendic rocks as prevailing in the Archzean highlands—
need scarcely be pointed out in explanation of this peculiarity
of these unaltered paleozoic iron-stones.

Washington, 26th April, 1890.

Art. XIX.—On a new variety of Zinc Sulphide from Chero-
kee County, Kansas; by JAMES D. ROBERTSON.

A NEW and peculiar sulphide of zine was found in south-
eastern Kansas a short time since, remarkable from the fact
that it is nearly pure white and completely amorphous.

This singular mineral is found on the Moll Tract in the
center of the town of Galena, Cherokee County, Kansas. The
ore body, which is reached by a shaft about 90 feet in depth,
consists of zinc blende with some large crystals of galena dis-
tributed through it. It is about 25 feet wide, 20 feet high,
and 100 feet long, so far as explored. The blende has under-
gone much decomposition from the action of surface waters,
the sulphide oxidizing to sulphate and being completely re-
moved in solution. Thus no calamine or smithsonite are
formed and the siliceous gangue rock remains, a cellular mass,
showing casts of the dissolved blende erystals. In the center
of the ore body and surrounded on all sides by partially
decomposed ore, is a flat opening three to four feet wide, six

F. P. Venable—Two new Meteorite Irons. 161

inches to a foot in height and filled completely with the white
zine sulphide. When taken from the mine this substance is
soft, full of water, and resembles in appearance and con-
sistency white lead ground in oil. It has a very slight reddish
east, probably from a little ferric oxide. Some red tallow
clays overlie the deposit. In ashaft about 250 feet distant,
near the same level, a much larger body has been exposed in
the floor of the workings. This mass of sulphide of zinc has
not been developed but is at least four feet in thickness and
extends for a distance of thirty feet. Evidences point to
quite an extensive body of this peculiar ore of zine in this
mine.

An analysis made by the St. Louis Sampling and Testing
Works shows the following composition on the dried sample:

iIimsoluble matters ee aos see ee Sat Ne a LENE 2°52,
PZAAT Go ees taro Yor va On Cy HE Roc MR MONO UR ENRRIRA 63°70
Sho ayo SNES Uy teak rane BTR CO BN RRR AS BHO
TERES EEG) (OD: <KG (5) hehe ea enn OP ee eS I et cE 2°40

99°39

The water which was contained in the original sample bot-
tled on the ground showed a slight amount of sulphuric acid.

This sulphide was evidently formed since the deposi-
tion of the ore by the precipitation of the sulphate of zine,
resulting from the oxidation of ordinary blende by sulphu-
reted hydrogen or an alkaline sulphide. No odor of sulphu-
reted hydrogen was perceptible in the mine nor was any
found in the water which saturated this sulphide of zine.
This mineral has never, it is believed, been met with before,
the conditions which would thus imitate the reactions of the
laboratory not being common in nature.

ArT. XX.—Two new Meteoric Irons; by F. P. VENABLE.

1. Krom Rockingham County, N. C.

THIS mass was reported to have fallen about the year 1846,
near the old ‘“ Mansion House,” Deep Springs Farm in Rock-
ingham Co., N.C. One of the old negro servants related to
Mr. Lindsay, the present owner of the farm, that “the rock
fell on a clear morning and struck the ground about a hundred
yards back of the garden. It frightened every one very much.
Col. Jas. Seales, the owner of the farm at that time, and Mr.
Dillard took a man and went to the spot and dug in about four
or five feet and got it out.” It lay about the house as a curi-

Am. Jour, Sci.—THIRD Serizs, Vou. XL, No. 236.—August, 1890.

162 F. P. Venable— Two new Meteoric Irons.

osity for several years when it ceased to be of any more inter-
est and was thrown aside. After Mr. T. B. Lindsay bought
the farm, he kept the meteoric mass for several years upon
his porch. In the fall of 1889 he presented it to the State
Museum. The indentation in the earth where it is reported
to have struck is still pointed out.

The weight of the mass was 11°5 kilos. It had somewhat
the outline of a rhomboid, measuring 270™™ x 210™™ (ex-
tremes) and having a thickness which varied from 10 to 70™™.
It is coated with oxidation products to a depth, in places of
several millimeters. ‘These give the whole mass a dull reddish
brown color. The surface is irregularly piited with broad,
shallow pits. It is somewhat concave on one side. On being
polished and etched it gave faintly the Widmanstatten figures.
It belongs to the class of sweating meteorites, beads of de-
liquesced ferric chloride appearing on the surface. This law-
rencite, so-called, is evidently unevenly distributed through the
mass. Analyses from different portions gave different amounts
of chlorine. In one boring it was noticed that the metal near
the surface (within 2) gave a decided percentage of chlorine,
while that coming from the deeper part of the drill hole (8-5™
from surface) gave no appreciable amount of chlorine.

The analysis gave:

Fe 87:01, P 0:04, SiO, 0°53, Cl 0°39, Ni 11-69, Co 0°79=100-45
2. From Henry County, Va.

This meteoric iron was found by Nathaniel Murphy in
Henry County, Va. about four miles from the Pittsylvania
County line, and one-half mile north of the dividing line
between North Carolina and Virginia, near to Smith River.
Murphy found the stone in a ploughed field in the latter part
of the spring of 1889. He gave it to Col. J. Turner Morehead
of Leaksville, N.C. Together with Col. Morehead he searched
over the farm, but could find nothing similar to this piece.
Col. Morehead sent the mass to Dr. H. B. Battle of Raleigh,
N.C. It weighed 1-7 kilos and the detached pieces, mainly
crust, weighed 0°22 kilos. This crust broke off along certain
lines by a sort of cleavage, and the main mass is permeated
with cracks, not irregular and zig-zag, but as distinct and
regular, almost, as if it were a piece of crystallized gypsum.
This cleavage is in two directions. The laminz vary in thick-
ness, but many are about $°™. The color of the surface is
dark bluish-black mixed with much red-rust coming from the
lawrencite. Parts of the soil apparently still clung to the mass.
It measured 60X70X75™™ taking the greatest lengths m the
three directions. Here and there spots were to be seen with

Chemistry and Physics. 163

bright silvery sheen. It contains a good deal of ferric chloride
and is rapidly crumbling. On polishing down one of the sides,
the Widmanstiitten figures (coarse) came out very plainly, no '
etching being necessary.
The analysis gave:

Fe 90°54, Cl 0°35, SiO, 0°04, P 0:18, Co 0°94, Ni 7°70=99:°70
University of North Carolina, May, 1890.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. On the Nature of Solutions.—PickERING has continued his
investigations on the nature of solutions and now gives the re-
sults as deduced from the freezing point of sulphuric acid solu-
tions. The following are his conclusions: “‘The freezing points
of solutions of sulphuric acid form four separate figures, each of
which represents the crystallization of a different substance. In
the case where water crystallizes out, the figure consists of a
single branch curve, whereas in the cases where the tetrahydrate,
the monohydrate and anhydrous sulphuric acid crystallize out,
each figure consists of two curves rising up and meeting at points
corresponding with the composition of the substance crystallizing
in each case respectively. The tetrahydrate as a solid, is a new
hydrate melting at —25°, its existence in solution having been pre-
viously established. Irregularities and sudden changes of curva-
ture are found in the figures. These changes occur at the same
points as those noticed in the case of the densities, heat-capacity,
heat of dissolution, expansion by heat, and electric conductivity.*
Of the seventeen hydrates indicated by the last-named _proper-
ties, everyone has received further confirmation from the present
work where such confirmation was possible (in thirteen cases) ;
in addition to which, three others have been recognized (two of
which were, however, suggested by the previous work), thus
raising the total to twenty. Sudden changes at H,SO, and at
about 36H,SO,SO, have also been established. The freezing
point diagram shows that the existence of a definite hydrate may
be marked by an indubitable change of curvature at the point
corresponding to its composition (e. g-, H,SO,(H,O), and H,SO,).
Many of the changes are sufticiently marked to be evident with-
out the aid of differentiation. The constituent portions of the
various figures are probably not parabolic. The changes at the
extreme end of the water-curves, with solutions containing less
than H,SO, to 100 H,O, are of considerable magnitude. The
figure here instead of being made up of one straight line, is made
up of several straight lines, the last change observed occurring

* Noticed in the May number of this Journal.

164 Scientific Intelligence.

with solutions as weak as 0°07 per cent H,SO,, or 0:0125 H,SO,
to 100 H,O. The molecular depression shown, even in this ea-
treme region, instead of being constant as it should be according
to the theory of osmotic pressure, varies between 2°95° and 2°1°.
The molecular depression in the various curves ranges from 0:01°
to 2°95° according to the nature of the solvent and that of the
dissolved substance, these numbers referring only to solutions
containing not more than one foreign molecule to 100 solvent
molecules. In no two cases out of the seven investigated does it
possess the same value. In every case an increase in the strength
of the solution beyond this proportion entails an abnormally low
freezing point. According to all existing physical theories of
solution the freezing points of such solutions should be abnor-
mally high.”—J. Chem. Soc., lvii, 331, May, 1890. G. F. B.

2. On the Molecular-Mass of Iodine, of Phosphorus, and of
Sulphur in Solution— BECKMANN has applied his method of de-
termining the molecular mass of a substance by means of the ele-
vation which it produces in the boiling point of a solvent, to the
cases of iodine, of sulphur and of phosphorus, dissolved in carbon
disulphide, and to that of iodine in ether. The molecular eleva-
tion of the boiling point in the case of carbon disulphide using
100 grams was 23°75° and referred to 100 c. c. was 19°43°. In the
case of ether the molecular elevation was, for 100 grams 21:05°,
and for 100 c. c. 30°21°. Asa result it appeared that the molecu-
lar mass of iodine, in solution both in ether and in carbon disul-
phide, is 254 very nearly ; corresponding to the formula I,. The
molecular mass of phosphorus in carbon disulphide is 124, eor-
responding to the formula P,; and that of sulphur in the same
solvent is 256, corresponding to S8..—Zeitschr. Physik. Chem., v, 76,
February, 1890. G. F. B.

3. On the conditions of Equilibrium between Electrolytes.—
ARRHENIUS has compared the experimental conditions of equilib-
rium in solutions with those pointed out by theory. In the case
of an acid and one of its salts, if « represents the fraction of dis-
sociated acid and d the amount of the salt, V being the volume
in liters containing one gram molecule of the acid and 7 mole-
cules of the salt, then (rd+a)z=KV(1—2), K being a con-
stant of dissociation determinable from the conductivity of the
acid. This equation is found to hold in the case of acetic and
formic acids and their sodium salts. Since for feeble acids a is
small, and may be neglected in comparison with xd or 1, and
since d is practically independent of the dilution, it follows that
the degree of dissociation, that is, the strength of a feeble acid
when a salt is present in the same solution, is proportional to the
amount of the salt. Between a feeble acid such as acetic, and a
salt such as sodium chloride, the equilibrium is that between four
substances, not only the two mentioned, but also the sodium
acetate and hydrogen chloride resulting from their reaction. If
the fractional dissociation of these substances in the order named
be expressed by d, d,d,d,, and one molecule of acetic acid on

Chemistry and Physics. 165

being brought into contact with m molecules of sodium chloride
produces 2 molecules of hydrogen chloride and sodium acetate,
then d,v d,w=d, (1—x) d, (n—«); a result agreeing with that
given by experiment. The author shows that it is possible to
deduce from this equation a value for the so-called “ avidity ”
measured by Thomsen and Ostwald, and he finds that for mono-
basic acids, the avidities for any given dilution are approximately
proportional to the degrees of dissociation of the acids at this
dilution. This conclusion agrees with Ostwald’s results. The
author also points out that the theory of Guldburg and Waage is
applicable only to equilibrium between four electrolytes, when
two of them are strongly dissociated; and further that one of
the conclusions of this theory, that the avidities of acids are pro-
portioned to the square roots of their aftinity-coefficients, is incor-
rect. Since the decomposition of certain salts by water, ob-
served by Walker to follow the ordinary laws of mass action,
takes place in accordance with the equation given above, it seems
necessary to assume that water is an electrolyte and is partially
dissociated.—Zeitschr. Physik. Chem., v, 1, Feb., 1890; J. Ch.
Soc., lviil, 437, May, 1890. G. F. B.

4, Coincidences between lines of different spectra.—Professor
RunceE of the Technical High School in Hanover examines meth-
ods given by various authors for discriminating real from acci-
dental coincidences between the lines of different spectra, and
applies the result of his own analysis to Grtinwald’s speculation
on the composition of the elements. It will be remembered that
Griinwald believed that his hypothesis was most strongly sap-
ported by the agreement between the wave-lengths of the lines
in the spectrum of water, as deduced by him from those of the
hydrogen spectrum, and their values as obtained by observation.
Professor Runge, however, finds that the distribution of differ-
ences is in perfect accordance with the one expected for an equal
number of wave-lengths chosen at random. The distribution of
differences gives no more reason to believe the coincidences real
‘“‘than to believe in a connection between the mantissas of log sin,
and the spectrum of water.”— Phil. Mag., June, 1890, pp. 462-
466. Jed,

5. Hertz’s experiments.—L. Bottzmawn shows the experiments
of Hertz to a large audience, even when the primary circuit is at
a distance of 8°7 meters from the secondary circuit, by making
the minute sparks in the secondary circuit connect the pole of a
battery with an electroscope. As long as no spark passed be-
tween the terminals of the secondary circuit, the electroscope
remained uncharged by the battery. When the circuits were
36°8 meters apart, it was estimated that the length of the sec-
ondary spark was ;,/,, of a millimeter. The method employed by
Boltzman serves also to examine interference phenomena.— A.
der Physik und Chemie, No. 6, 1890, p. 399. a5 Fat

6. Stationary light waves. —Orro WirNnER, by the employ-
ment of a peculiar photographic process, has succeeded in show-

166 Scientific Intelligence.

ing the existence of stationary light waves, analogous to the
sound waves shown in Kundt’s experiment. The author has also
endeavored by his method to settle the question of the direction
of the vibration of light with respect to the plane of polarization,
and believes that his experiments show that these vibrations take
place perpendicular to this plane. He also shows that the chemi-
eally active vibrations and the electrical vibrations are in the
same plane. In other words, the chemical action of the light rays
is joined to the vibrations of electrical force and not to those of
magnetic force.— Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 6, 1890, pp.
203-243, dg At

7. Electrical Oscillations in air.—Recent experiments in the
Jefferson Physical Laboratory of Harvard University, conducted
by Jonn TROWBRIDGE and W. C, Sastne, show that the medium
of the dielectric exerts a marked effect upon electrical surgings
or oscillations. The spark from a large air condenser was
analyzed by a rapidly revolving mirror and the oscillations
photographed. A marked periodicity in the time of the electrical
Waves was discovered when the air condenser was employed.
When a glass condenser was substituted for the air condenser the
periodicity became less marked. The, glass evidently could not
recover from the initial strain in time to interfere with the recur-
ring electrical oscillations. In the case of air, however, the partial
recovery from each electrical wave served to modify the time of
the latter. The work of the authors shows that for rapid charges
and discharges of an air condenser the factor expressing the
capacity is a periodic function, the value of which depends upon
the state of strain of the air.—Proceedings of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, May 18, 1890, pp. 109-123. J. 7.

Il GkroLogy AND MINERALOGY.

1. The American Committee or the International Congress
of Geologists—In the February number of the American Geolo-
gist (vol. v, No. 2), p. 125, is a report of a meeting of the
“American Committee of the International Congress of Geolo-
gists” held in New York Dec. 26, 1889. What is meant by the
name is the Standing Committee of the American Association on
the International Congress. As there is now an American Com-
mittee of the International Congress which, is known in the
French language of the Congress as the American “Comité
d’Organisation,” and is recognized as such by the London Bureau
of the Congress, and as it is necessary for this committee to act
in its official capacity as the American Committee of the Con-
gress in organizing the American Session, I beg to call attention
to the misuse of the name by the Committee of the American
Association.

There are three committees in America which have to do with
the International Congress of Geologists, and as several gentle-
men are members of all three of the committees, care is neces-
sary not to confuse them in their official capacities.

Geology and Mineralogy. 167

The ‘Comité Fondateur,” or founding committee, was ap-
pointed by the American Association for the Advancement of
Science in 1876. It was composed as follows: James Hall, presi-
dent; T. Sterry Hunt, secretary; W. B. Rogers, J. W. Dawson,
J. S. Newberry, C. H. Hitchcock, R. Pumpelly, T. H. Huxley,
Otto Torrell, E. H. de Baumhauer. To the committee were
added in 1877 the names of J. P. Lesley and A. C. Ramsay.

This committee performed its function of inaugurating the first
session of the Congress of Geologists at Paris in 1878, by which
it was given a place of honor as ex officio a part of the Bureau,
and was called “ Comité Fondateur de Philadelphie.” The Amer-
ican representatives now living are Messrs. Hall, Hunt, Dawson,
Newberry, Hitchcock, Pumpelly and Lesley. As a committee of
the American Association it reported in 1879. In this year also
the names of G. H. Cooke, J. D. Dana and Clarence King were
added, and the European names on the list were dropped.

In 1880, the committee was formally discharged, as stated in
the Proceedings of the Association for that year, vol. xxix, p. 748.

In the Proceedings for 1881, no mention is made of any com-
mittee on the International Congress.

In the volume of the Proceedings for 1882, the following entry
appears in the report of the general secretary, Proc. vol. xxxi,
p. 634;

“Dr. T. Sterry Hunt made a statement in reference to the Inter-
national Geological Committee, of which Professors Hall, Selwyn,
Lesley, and himself had been appointed representatives from —
North America. Several months ago a report was prepared by
them. The work was not yet completed, and, on the recommen-
dation of the standing committee, he moved that the committee
be continued. The motion was seconded by Professor Hall and
the committee was continued.” On page xviii of the same
volume, among the special committees of the Association under
the title “‘Committee on the International Congress of Geolo-
gists ” are printed the names of the American members of the
committee appointed in 1876.

The “International Committee” named above, in Mr. Hunt’s
statement can refer only to the “International Committee on
Cartography” and on “Classification and Nomenclature,” ap-
pointed by the Congress. The Association had no power either to
continue or discontinue them. Moreover, it was not the committee
appointed by the American Association in 1876 to organize the
Congress, for that committee had already performed its function,
reported, and been formally discharged.

‘The committee, thus irregularly established, has been continued
year by year by the Association. In 1884, G. H. Cook, E. D.
Cope, J. W. Powell, E. A. Smith and J. J. Stevenson were added.
In 1885 Persifor Frazer, N.H. Winchell and H. 8. Williams were
added. In 1889, the committee itself elected C. D. Walcott,
Wm. B. Scott and Robert Bell to fill vacancies made by the
death of G. H. Cook and the resignation of J. W. Dawson and

168 Scientific Intelligence.

J. W. Powell. So that this special committee of the American
Association “on the International Congress of Geologists,’ now
consists of James Hall, J. S. Newberry, T. Sterry Hunt, C. H.
Hitchcock, Raphael Pumpelly, J. P. Lesley and the names added
as above. Its officers are James Hall, chairman; Persifor Frazer,
secretary ; and C. H. Hitchcock, treasurer.

The third committee is the Committee of the International
Congress, appointed by the council of the London meeting of the
Geological Congress to organize an American Session of the
Congress, and is technically known as the American ‘“‘ Comité
d’Organisation,’ or Committee of Organization. And it is the
only American Committee ofthe Congress. It is composed of the
following gentlemer :

Messrs. Branner, Chamberlin, Cope, Dana, Davis, Dutton,
Frazer, Gilbert, Hague, Hall, Heilprin, Hitchcock, Hunt, Le
Conte, Leidy, Lesley, Marsh, Newberry, Powell, Procter, Shaler,
Stevenson, Walcott, Whitfield, Winchell and Williams.

Its officers are J. S. Newberry, chairman; G. K. Gilbert, vice-
chairman; and H. 8. Williams, secretary. H. S. W.

2. Professor Wu. M. Fontatne on the Potomac or Younger
Mesozoic Flora.—This new volume of the U. 8. Geological Survey
has been mentioned with high commendation by Mr. Lester F.
Ward, in the last volume of this Journal. Professor Fontaine
closes the volume of 377 pages, with an extended and thorough
comparison of the genera and species of the Potomac flora with
those elsewhere of the Jura-Trias and Cretaceous periods, and
ends with thirty pages of tables, twenty of which are a further
exhibition of these relations. We cite the last page preceding
the tables, presenting Professor Fontaine’s conclusions from the
plants as to the age of the Potomac deposits.

“Taken as a whole, then, and compared with the Cenomanian
flora of the Dakota and New Jersey Cretaceous strata, the angi-
osperms of the Potomac decidedly point to the Neocomian as the
age of the Potomac beds.

“ From this brief review of the flora,we see that there is in it a
very large and important element that belongs to the Jurassic or
typical Mesozoic flora; a less important but still large element,
that has near relations in Cenomanian and even living forms;
while the largest, most fully developed and characteristic element
is most nearly allied to forms distinguishing the Neocomian. All
the important species common to the Potomac and the floras of
known formations are found in the Neocomian, including under
this name both the Wealden and Urgonian. If any additional
evidence were needed of the Neocomian age of the Potomac, it
may be found in the peculiar union of old and new types, whose |
evidence, if we consider them by themselves, is contradictory.
Schenk, in Die Foss. Pflanz. der Werns. Schichten, page 29, in
speaking of the character of the Neocomian flora of the Werns-
dorf beds, well says that the flora of the older Cretaceous occupies
in the development of the plant kingdom a position similar to that

Geology and Mineralogy. 169

of the Trias, for the forms characteristic of two great periods of
development meet in it; that is, the survivors of the past period
(Mesozoic) and the new forms of the approaching one (Tertiary).
This being true, we should expect to find in any large collection
of Neocomian plants a great mingling of types. We should find
the survivors of the old floras and the newly arrived precursors
of the more recent ones mingied with a number that attain their
development in and are peculiar to the Neocomian. This is
exactly what we find to be true of the Potomac flora. That so
many of these plants are new is perhaps to be explained, in
part at least, by the fact already mentioned, that the flora of this
epoch is very poorly represented and comparatively but little
known. It is not possible to say positively to what precise epoch
of the Neocomian the Potomac belongs. Its flora ranges from
the Wealden through the Urgonian, and probably includes some
Cenomanian forms.” |

3. Eruption of Bandai-san. ‘Transactions of the Seismologi-
cal Society of Japan, vol. xiii, Part iii—-We have here a republica-
tion of the paper of Sexrya and Kixucut (noticed in a former
volume) on the remarkable eruption of Bandai-san in 1888, with its
plates, and also an important paper on the same subject by C. G.
Knorr and C. Micuin Suiru. <A point of general interest in the
observations discussed in the second paper relates to the condition
of the forests, especially those south and southeast of the place
of eruption. It is stated that the forests were subjected “not
merely to a hurricane of wind, but also to a fierce cannonading of
stones of all sizes from the tiniest grains to huge blocks.” “The
cloud of stones, largely unchecked, in their on-rush, shot over the
ridge and down the steep slopes till the smaller gradients and
their own accumulation brought them to a stand.” ‘ That much
ot it was launched horizontally so as to graze the surfaces of the
ridge and high level slopes is demonstrated by the nature of the
damage done tothe trees.” “To get some idea as to the heaviness
of this bombardment we counted the separate cuts and bruises on
the quarter of a square foot of the surface of a battered tree,
selected as a representative one; a careful count gave 75,” or
“300 missiles to the square foot.” ‘There is no reason to sup-
pose that the vertical projection was denser than the horizontal;
on the contrary, there are good reasons for supposing that the
horizontal was the greater;” in other words, “the amount pro-
jected at lower inclinations than 45° far exceeded the amount pro-
jected at higher angles.” ‘As regards the larger fragments the
outburst was confined to inclinations less than 30° to the horizon-
tal.” These facts seem to make it an explosive eruption in which
the explosion took place high up in the mountain. The mountain
had not been in eruption for 1000 years and had lost much of its
breadth in the meantime by erosion. The eruption was without
the medium in any way, according to Kikuchi (which is undis-
puted in the second paper), of liquid lavas.

170 Scientific Intelligence.

The authors discuss also the force and velocity of falling
masses, taking as data the accepted Gunnery tables, and make
out that, owing to the resistance of the atmosphere, a velocity of
about 720 feet a second is the greatest attainable by a rough flat-
sided rock, a square yard in section, and nearly 4000 lbs. in mass ;
“such a mass projected from a height of 8000 feet above the sea-
level, with a vertical speed of 8500 feet per second, will reach a
height of 24,500 feet above the sea-level; and it will return to the
earth from that height with a speed of 720 feet per second, which
speed it will nearly have attained after it has fallen about half
this height.” The object of the calculation was to prove that the
numerous deep cylindrical holes in the ground were not made by
the falling of stones (a view presented in a paper by Mr. Odlum)
but to some other cause, probably the uprooting of trees. J. D. D.

4. Die Mineralien der Syenitpegmatitgdinge der Siidnorwegis-
chen Augit- und Nephelinsyenite ; by W. C. Broaeer, 235 and
663 pp., with 27 plates and 2 geological charts. Leipzig, 1890—
Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie und Mineralogie, vol. xvi (Wm.
Engelmann).—It would be difficult to find in the whole range of
mineralogical literature another monograph of such exhaustive
thoroughness, so rich in new facts and descriptions of new species
and devoted to a region of such unique interest as this weighty
volume by Professor Brogger. The reader is impressed more
and more as he turns over the pages with the vast amount of
labor here expended and the rich results which the author has
attained. It is impossible here to do more than indicate in the
briefest manner the scope of the work. It is divided into a
general and a special part. The first part (235 pp.) takes up the
geological relations of the pegmatite veins of the Christiania
region, giving a general survey of the geology with the
several types of eruptive rocks here developed; this is followed
by an account of the geology of the syenite and nephelite-syenite
veins of the special region under examination, namely that be-
tween the Christiania and Langesund fjords. This region has
long figured, somewhat inaccurately, in mineralogical text-books
under the name of Brevig, a place, however, which lies just out-
side its proper limits. This latter part of the subject carries us
over a most instructive discussion of the paragenesis of the min-
erals peculiar to these veins.

The special portion of the work (655 pages), which forms the
bulk of the volume, is devoted to the minute description of
the mineral species, 73 in number. How rich this is will be in
part appreciated from the fact that some ten new species are
here described, while of many old species we have monographs
of the first importance. Of the new species, a number have
already been briefly characterized in this Journal (xxxv, 416)
from a preliminary article by the author published in 1887.
These are: Barkevikite, calciothorite, melanocerite, nordenskiéld-
ine, rosenbuschite. Besides these we have descriptions of the
following: HamBereire, a borate of beryllium in orthorhombic

Botany. 171

crystals ; JOHNSTRUPITE, a titano-silicate of the cerium metals,
calcium, sodium, etc.; it is allied to mosandrite, and near it in
crystallization ; Hiorprpau.itE, a fluo-silicate of zirconium, cal-
cium, sodium; it occurs in tabular triclinic crystals near wohlerite
in form; Karyocerirs, a silicate containing boron, thorium, the
cerium metals, calcium and others in smaller amount; occurs in
rhombohedral crystals, tabular in habit; WeIBYEITE, a carbon-
ate of the cerium metals near parisite. The descriptions of these
new species are models of thoroughness, and not less valuable are
the monographs on hydrargillite, the species of the thorite, sodalite
nephelite, mica, pyroxene, amphibole and feldspar groups, also
lavenite, leucophanite, homilite, acmite and egirite, and many
others. On the chemical side the author has had the assistance
of Professor Cleve and other chemists whose many careful analy-
ses add much to the value of the work. Mineralogists owe their
thanks not only to the author and those who have directly aided
him, but also to the editor and publisher of the journal of which
this work forms the sixteenth volume.

5. Catalogue of Minerals for sale by George L. English & Co.
Philadelphia, 1890.—This catalogue contains a convenient list of
the species arranged as in Dana’s System (with appendixes) and
including also others of recent date. The volume is issued in
attractive form and its value is increased by the republication of
a number of papers, with figures, on copper arsenates from Utah,
phenacite, bertrandite, etc. from Colorado, beryllonite from Maine,
and others.

Ill. Botany.

1. Catalogue of Plants found in New Jersey; by N. L.
Britton, Ph.D., Trenton, N. J., 1889, pp. 642.—Dr. Britton, of
the Torrey Herbarium, Columbia College, published in 1881, a
preliminary Catalogue of New Jersey Plants, and, in 1888, in
conjunction with five associates, a preliminary catalogue of the
flowering plants and ferns reported as growing spontaneously
within one hundred miles of New York City. In the latter, the
nomenclature was revised and corrected by Dr. Britton and
Messrs. Sterns and Poggenburg. The present catalogue preserves
the nomenclature employed in the earlier work. To the lists,
Mr. Rau contributes the Sphagna, while the rest of the Bryophyta
have been arranged by Mr. Rau and Mrs. Britton, after the C. F.
Parker list. Mr. Rau has given also a list of Hepatice. Dr. T.
F. Allen takes the Characex, and D. Eckfeldt the Lichens, basing
his enumeration on Professor Tuckerman’s determinations of Mr.
Austin’s collections. The catalogue of Marine Algz is contrib-
uted by Mr. Martindale, and the Fresh-water forms by Rev. F.
Wolle, the two lists being combined by Dr. Britton into a single
series. The Diatoms are given by Professor Kain; the Fungi by
Mr. Ellis and Mr. Gerard.

From Dr. Britton’s interesting tables we transcribe the follow-
ing data which possess much more than a local importance.

172 Scientific Intelbigence.

The State of New Jersey lies between the parallels of 38° 55’
and 41° 21’ north latitude, and the meridians 73° 55’ and 75° 33’
of longitude west of Greenwich, comprising somewhat above
8,000 square miles in area. Within these limits there are found :

Picotyledionecs | sls Mell hy epee ees 1,348
Mionocotyledoners = see ioe seas eee 558
Total Angiospermesy 22222 4454" ae 1,906
Total Gymnosperme ------------ 2 13
fotal Anthophytas=2 sees: = 190g
Total Pteridophyta -__..---- 76
Total’ Bryophyta a. > ses ee 461
Total Thallophyta....--.--- 3,021
Notalierotophytas ss. 9 sees 164

The catalogue will prove useful not only to local collectors, on
account of the great care with which the stations have been
given but will be of service to all those who are interested in the
problems of geographical botany. G. L. G.

2. List of Plants.—We have to note the following recent lists,
mostly with annotations. (1.) A list of plants collected by Dr.
K. A. Mearnes, Arizona, by Dr. N. L. Brirron. In the same
number is printed also a paper by Dr. Rusby on the general
floral characters of the San Francisco and Mogollon Mountains
of Arizona and New Mexico. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Se., vol. viii.
(2.) List of plants collected by Dr. E. Palmer, in Lower Califor-
nia in 1889. By Grorcr Vasey and J. N. Ross, from Proceed-
ings of U. S. National Museum, vol. xi. (3.) List of plants
collected by Dr. E. Palmer in 1888, in Southern California, by
the authors of the list above noticed, also by the same, the fol-
lowing: (4.) List of plants collected by Dr. E. Palmer, at Lagoon
Head, Cedros Island, San Benito, Guadalupe, and the Head of
the Gulf of California. The two last are printed as No. 1 of the
Contributions from the National Herbarium, Washington. (5.)
Plants from Baja, California, by T. S. BranpacGus, including sup-
plementary papers by Dr. GrorcEe Vasry, Dr. C. F. Mints-
pauGcH, Dr. H. W. Harkness, and others, Proc. Cal. Acad. Se.
ser. 2, vol. ii. (6.) Provisional list of the Plants of the Bahama
Islands, by Professor John Gardiner, University of Colorado.

3. Preparation of sections for the study of the development of
organs.—GOETHART, (Bot. Zeit. June 6, 1890) makes a sugges-
tion in regard to the use of Elder-pith for the cutting of sections
which has proved useful in some rather troublesome cases. From
the pith, a long vertical slice is made which fits by means of a
tongue into a notch on the larger part, and thus a firm grasp is
obtained for the preparation placed between the two. Around
the upper part a very thin platinum wire is wound, and the whole
is then placed in alcohol to harden. Exceedingly thin sections
can be made in this manner; the specimens can be placed at will
in any position and kept there firmly. G. L. G.

Astronomy. 173

4, On the Ascent of colored liquids in living plants.—In Bot.
Zeit., May 30, WIELER calls attention to an article by Goprxrts-
ROEDER, which has not yet come directly under our hands.
From Wieler’s notice, it appears that a very large number of
coal-tar colors can pass into the plants observed, provided the
solutions are very dilute. Experiments in this direction were
conducted in the Botanical Laboratory of Harvard College dur-
ing the past winter, by two students, whose work is nearly ready
for publication. From their studies it is plain that there is a
wide difference in the power of different plants to absorb these
solutions, and there are also very great differences as regards the
absorption of different colors by any single plant. In some in-
stances it has been possible to replace one color by another, pro-
vided the roots remain sound. Those cultures succeeded best in.
which the solutions were kept very slightly acid, as was naturally
to be expected. The distribution of color in the tissues of the
plants experimented on was very different, even in the same
species. It has been impossible to resist the conclusion that in
nearly every case the employment of the liquid introduced a dis-
turbing factor, the effects of this disturbance being diverse. In
the case of seedlings the plants were prone to yield to attacks of
moulds, and speedily decay. Experimenters must keep in mind
the fact that colored solutions are easily absorbed through in-
jured roots, and, further, that plants with injured roots can live
and grow slowly for a considerable time. G. L. G.

5. Analytical Key to the Genera and Species of North Amer-
ican Mosses; by Professor C. F. Barnes, Madison, Wisc.
Pamphlet.—This most useful work is distinguished by its sharp
lines of definition. In the few cases in which we have put it to
a practical test it has made short work of difficulties. It supple-
ments admirably the treatise ot Lesquereux and James. GL. G.

6. Structural and Systematic Botany ; by Professer D. H.
CaMPBELL. Ginn & Co., Boston, 8vo, 253 pp. The author has
taken for his work the title which Dr. Gray gave to his compre-
hensive treatise very many years ago, and which survives as a
minor title even in the sixth edition. A cursory reading im-
presses us favorably, leading us to believe that the work will be
useful in the hands of judicious teachers, and in much the
same way as the excellent treatise by Professor Bessey. With
these two works and the plain practical Plant-Dissection by
Professors Arthur, Barnes and Coulter, botanical students are
likely to have enough guidance of the right character. The ad-
vice in any and all of the foregoing handbooks is sound and safe,
and it ought to do very much toward turning out a large num-
ber of earnest workers. G. L. G

IV. ASTRONOMY.

1. On the Spectrum of the Nebula in Orion; by Wrri11aM
Hoveerns and Mrs. Hueeins.—A new study of the spectrum of
the nebula of Orion, with improved instruments and instrumental

174 Scientific Intelligence.

methods, and under more favorable conditions for observation,
has enabled the authors to determine more accurately the position
and character of the principal line. The position determined,
corrected for the earth’s motion and assuming that the nebula has
no motion of its own, is A 5004°75. A comparison with the bright
line of a hydrogen vacuum tube confirmed the conclusion reached
in 1874 that the nebula has very little of any sensible motion in
the line of sight. It is also shown that the principal line is not
coincident with but falls within the termination of the magnesium-
flame band. As regards the character of the principal line it is
found that it is sharply defined and presents nothing of the pecu-
liarity of a fluting. Confirmatory observations by other astrono-
mers are quoted, and a postscript dated June 15, states that a
telegram received from the Lick Observatory announces that Mr.
Keeler had confirmed, in 2 5, the position assigned to the princi-
pal line, namely, as not coincident with but falling within the
terminal line of the magnesic oxide band. It is hence certain
that the chief line is not due to magnesium or its oxide.

A second paper gives some important results of an examination
of new photographs of the spectrum taken March 14-17. These
photographs, of almost the same part of the nebula as the photo-
graph of 1889, showed the lines of hydrogen at / and at H strongly
impressed upon the plate, though these lines were carefully searched
for in vain in the former photographs; also the first two lines of
the ultra-violet series in the white stars described in 1879. Four
of these lines had been photographed in the spectrum of hydrogen
by Dr. H. W. Vogel, in 1879, and the entire series, with the ex-
ception of one, has been since obtained by Cornu in ‘exceptionally
pure hydrogen. The line @ at A 3887°8 is strong, and the next
line # at A 3884:5, though much fainter, is certainly present.
Between the hydrogen lines a and f there is a line stronger
even than a, which has a wave-length of about A 3868. No line
is found in the photograph exactly at the place of the solar line
K; the position of this line appears to correspond to a gap be-
tween two lines on the plate.

The strong line which was first seen in a photograph of the
nebula taken in 1882 is certainly stronger than Hy, and is by far
the most powerful line in the photographic region, and in position
it is found to be slightly less refrangible than 1 3724. It is be-
lieved the line will be found to fall between A 3725 and A 3726.
It is certain that the line does not coincide with any one of the
three components of the magnesic oxide triplet, but is less refran-
gible than the middle line at A387 24, and talls between this line
and the first line of the triplet at A 3730.

A marked feature of the lines is their abruptly different inten-
sities at different parts of their length, giving the blotchy appear-
ance which is characteristic of the lines in the visible spectrum.
These brighter blotches are sharply bounded, showing that the
different parts of the nebula are distinct and become suddenly
brighter than the neighboring parts. The lines of the new pho-

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 175

tographs contain two very strong and abruptly-bounded blotches,
and a third one less marked. It is now evident that this diffter-
ence in two parts of the lines indicates a different condition of the
nebula on the two sides of the star-spectra. Other lines besides
those described in this note are present, not only between G and
F, but also on the more refrangible side of the strong line about
\ 3725.—Proc. Roy. Soc., March 20, April 16, 1890.

2. On a new Group of Lines in the Photographic Spectrum
of Sirius ; by Witt1aAm Hueerns and Mrs. Huaerns, (Proc. Roy.
Soc., April 25.)—In 1879, the author gave an account of a series
of broad lines in the photographic region of the spectrum, char-
acteristic of Sirius, Vega, and other white stars, and which was
identified as a continuation of the spectrum of hydrogen beyond
H. In photographs taken since, the complete series of the hydro-
gen lines, including @ and 2, come out with great distinctness.
The presence of another group of broad lines was suspected some
distance farther on in the ultra-violet region, but until this year
they have not been seen in the photographs with sufficient dis-
tinctness for even approximate measurement. On April 4th, a
photograph of the spectrum of Sirius was taken with a long expo-
sure, the slit being made very narrow. This plate shows that the
spectrum of Sirius, after the termination of the hydrogen series,
remains, as far as can now be seen, free from any strong lines
until a position as far in the ultra-violet as about 1 3338 is
reached, at which place appears the first of a group of at least six
lines, all nearly as broad as those of the hydrogen series. The
third line of the group about A 3278 appears to be the broadest,
but they are all broad, though even in this photograph they are
not seen with the distinctness which is necessary for ascertaining
accurately their relative character. The sixth line occurs where
the spectrum is faint, almost at the limit of this photograph, which
was taken when Sirius was some distance past the meridian, and
it is uncertain whether this line completes the group, or whether
there may not be other lines still more refrangible belonging to
it. The following are the wave-lengths determined, but they
must be regarded as only preliminary, and but roughly approxi-
mate measures of the positions of the new lines:

2, 3338 2 3311 2, 3278 1 3254 2 3226 24,3199

VY. MIScELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1, American Association for the Advancement of Science.—
The 39th meeting of the American Association will open at
Indianapolis on Tuesday, the 19th of August. The meeting will
be the 50th anniversary of the organization of the Association of
Geologists and Naturalists, in whose expansion the present Asso-
ciation began its existence. The president for the meeting is
Prof. George L. Goodale, of Cambridge, Mass.

For all matters pertaining to membership, papers and business
of the Association, the permanent secretary, Prof. F. W. Putnam,
should be addressed at Salem, Mass., up to August 15; and from
Aug. 15 to Aug. 30, the Denison House, Indianapolis.

176 Scientific Intelligence.

Dr. George W. Sloan is chairman of the Local Committee.
Members of the Association arriving in Indianapolis before the
meeting should call for information at the temporary office of the
local secretary, Alfred F. Potts, No. 195 N. Pennsylvania street.

The American Geological Society will hold its semi-annual
meeting at the State House, on August 19.

2. Hailstones of peculiar form; by O. W. Huntineron. (Com-
municated).—During a severe thunder storm at Asquam Lake,
Holderness, N. H., on July 14th, there was a fall of large hail-
stones continuing for some 10 minutes. On examination, many of
the stones proved to be sharply defined crystals having the form
of a double hexagonal pyramid, resembling dodecahedral quartz;
others were rounded and flattened and some had a spherical
nucleus with small partially formed crystals projecting from it.

3. Oswald’s Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften. Leipzig,
1890. (Wm. Engelmann.)—Recent issues in this valuable series
(this Journal, vol. xxxvili, 256) are the following:

No. 4. Untersuchungen ueber das Jod, von Gay Lussac (1814).

No. 5. Allgemeine Flachentheorie (Disquisitiones generales circa superficies
curvas), von Carl Friedrich Gauss (1827).

No. 6. Ueber die Anwendung der Wellenlehre auf die Lehre vom Kreislaufe
des Blutes und insbesondere auf die Pulslehre, von KE. H. Weber (1850).

No. 7. Untersuchungen ueber die Lange des einfachen Secundenpendels, von
F. W. Bessel (1826).

No. 8. Die Grundlagen der Molekulartheorie. Abhandlungen, von A. Avogadro
und Ampére (1811-1814).

No. 9. Thermochemische Untersuchungen, von G. H. Hess (1839-1842).

No. 10. Die mathematischen Gesetze der inducirten elektrischen Strome, von
Franz Neumann (1845).

No. 11. Unterredungen und mathematische Demonstrationen tiber zwei neue
Wissenszweige die Mechanik und die Fallgesetze betreffend, von Galileo Galilei.
Erster und zweiter Tag (1638).

No. 12. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels oder Versuch
von der Verfassung und dem mechanischen Ursprunge des ganzen Weltgebaudes
nach Newtonischen Grundsaizen abgehandelt. von Immanuel Kant (1755).

OBITUARY.

CurisTIAN Henry Freprerick Prrers, the ever active and
accomplished astronomer, at the head of the Observatory of
Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., died on the 19th of July, in
his 77th year. In 1838, having two years before taken the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Berlin, he was with von Wal-
tershausen in his study of Mt. Etna, and afterward on the Geodetic
Survey of Naples. After the revolution of 1848 he left Italy, and
in 1853 came to the United States. He received an appointment
from the U.S. Coast Survey, and was for a while at the Cam-
bridge and then the Albany observatory, before his call in 1858
to Hamilton College. His laborious work of mapping the stars
was rewarded by the discovery of forty-seven asteroids. In
1882 a first series of his “Celestial Charts,” twenty im number,
was published. His results also include observations on comets,
on solar spots, on the Transit of Venus on the New Zealand Expe-
dition in 1874, when he took 237 photographs, and observations
at the Solar Eclipse of 1869, at Des Moines, Iowa.

7a) cal egal DO Os DS

Art. XXI.—Wotice of some KHxtinct Testudinata; by
O. C. MarsH. (With Plates VII and Valle)

THE remains of various Testudinata, some of special inter
est, have recently been examined by the writer. A_ brief
deser iption of a few of these is given below, and this, with the
figures on the accompanying plates, will make known their
main characters. Descriptions of other important specimens
of the same group will be given in later communications.

Glyptops ornatus, gen. et sp. nov.

The present genus is represented by a number of charac-
teristic remains, among the most interesting of which is the
skull shown on Plate VII, figure 1, which may be considered
the type specimen. A striking feature of this skull is that its
entire external surface is elaborately sculptured. This charac-
ter, hitherto unknown in the Zestwdinatu, has suggested the
name proposed. |

In its general features, this skull resembles that of Chelydra
serpentind, Lin. It is wedge-shaped in form, when seen from
above, as shown in figure 1. The orbits are small, and well in
front. The nasal opening is directed upward, rather than for-
ward. The premaxillaries project downward in front into a
tooth-like beak. The nasals appear to be distinct. The max-
illaries are deeply grooved below, but show no indications of
true teeth. The skull is roofed over posteriorly, as in Chelone,
and some other sea-turtles.

4

178 O. C. Marsh—Notice of some Extinct Testudinata.

Portions of two other skulls beside the type specimen are
preserved, and these afford several additional characters.
They belong apparently to the same species.

There is a post-temporal arch. The occipital condyle is
nearly round, and has a deep pit in the center. The condyle
is formed entirely of the basioccipital, as the thin exoccipital
plates do not reach the articular surface. The basioccipital
processes are prominent, and directed backward. The ptery-
goids separate the quadrates and the basisphenoid. At their
union with each other, they are much constricted, but expand
in front. The quadrate is stout and curved, and its articular
face is deeply notched.

The lower jaws referred to this species are slender and
much less sculptured than the skull. The dentary bones unite
at the symphysis by a short, open suture, and form a sharp
elevated point to meet the decurved tooth-like beak above.
The upper border is quite sharp, and fits well into the deep
alveolar sulcus of the maxillary.

The carapace, represented in Plate VII, figure 2, was not
found with the skull, and may possibly represent a distinct
form. It resembles the corresponding part in Dermatemys,
but the costals do not meet on the median line. It has the
complete number of oa neurals, and in this and some other
characters resembles /elochelys, von Meyer, from the Creta-
ceous Greensand of Germany, and Pleurosternon, of Owen,
from the English Purbeck.

The plastron of a third individual had mesoplastral bones,
an intergular plate, and inframarginals, as in the above genera.
The pelvis was not codssified with the carapace or plastron.
The senlpture of both carapace and plastron is similar to
that of the skull.

The present genus appears to be most nearly related to
Compsemys of Leidy, from the Cretaceous, but as the skull of
that genus is not known their more exact relations cannot at
present be determined.

The specimens here described are from the Atlantosaurus
beds of the Upper Jurassic of Wyoming, and hence are among
the oldest known American turtles. They appear to represent
a distinct family which may be called the Glyptopside.

Adocus punctatus, sp. nov.

The type specimen of this species is in part represented on
Plate VU, figure 8. The plastron belonging with the cara-
pace shown is also in excellent preservation. The skull is not
known. The structure of the carapace indicates that this
specimen is nearly related to that described by Leidy, under

O. C. Marsh— Notice of some Extinct Testudinata. 179

the name Hmys beatus,* but the present form may be distin-
guished by the deep distinct pits which mark the whole
external surface.

The plastron shows evidence of an intergular plate, and
inframarginals. There is no mesoplastron.

The nearest living form is probably Dermatemys, from
Central America.

The present specimen is from the Cretaceous of New Jersey.

Testudo brontops, sp. nov.

The present species includes the largest.American tortoises
known, living or extinct. The type specimen, represented on
Plate VIII, one-twelfth natural size, is not more than one-half
as large as some seen by the writer in the Miocene of Dakota,
near the base of the Brontotherium beds. They were sur-
passed in size only by the gigantic forms from the Pliocene of
India.

The present species is very nearly related to the recent
Testudo elephantopus, Harlan, from the Galapagos islands,
and to the huge forms from Madagascar. It differs from the
former in the presence of a nuchal plate, and from both, in
the long median suture between the first marginal plates.
The anterior portion of the plastron, moreover, projects con-
siderably in front of the carapace. Other distinctive features
are shown in the figures.

The specimen here described was secured by Mr. J. B.
Hatcher, from the lower Miocene of Dakota.

New Haven, Conn., July 18th, 1890.

KXPLANATIONS OF PLATES.

PuLatTe VII.

FieuRE |.—Skull Glyptops ornatus, Marsh; top view; natural size.
FIGURE 2.—Carapace of same species; top view; one-fourth natural size.
FIGURE 3.—Carapace of Adocus punctatus, Marsh; top view; one-eighth
natural size.
PuatEe VIII.
FIGURE 1.—Testudo brontops, Marsh; front view.
FIGURE 2.—The same specimen; top view.
FIGURE 3.—The same; bottom view.
All the figures are one-twelfth natural size.

* Cretaceous Reptiles, page 107, Plate XVIII, figure 1, 1865.

REPORTS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ARKANSAS.
JoHN C. BRANNER, STATE GEOLOGIST.

An act of the legislature of Arkansas directs that the reports of the State
Geological Survey shall be sold by the Secretary of State at the cost of printing
and binding. The Reports issued, and their prices by mail are as follows:

ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1888.

Vou. I. On the gold and silver mines, and briefly on nickel, antimony, manga-
nese and iron in western central Arkansas. Price $1.00.

Vou. Il. On the general mesozoie geology, chalk, greensands, gypsum, salines,
timber, and soils of southwestern Arkansas. Price $1.00.

Vou. Ill. On the coal of the state, its distribution, thickness, characteristics,
analyses and calorific tests. Price 75 cents.

Other volumes will soon be issued.
Address, Hon. B. CHISM, Secretary of State, Little Rock, Ark.

CA ee. Fe Ol His;
No. 6 Murray Street, New York,
Manufacturers of Balances and Weights of Precision for Chem-

ists, Assayers, Jewelers, Druggists, and in general for every use

where accuracy is required.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE

JOHN SOP MlINS UNIVER Sry.

BALTIMORE.

I. American Journal of Mathematics. 8S. Nrewcoms, Hditor, and T. Crate,

Associate Editor. Quarterly. 4to. Volume XII in progress. $5 per
volume.

Ii. American Chemical Journal.—l. Remsen, Editor. 8 Nos. yearly. 8vo.
Volume XI in progress. $4 per volume.

Tif. American Journal of Philology.—B. L. GILDERSLEEVE, Editor. Quar-

terly. 8vo. Volume X in progress. $3 per volume.

IV. Studies from the Biological Laboratory.—Including the Chesapeake
Zoological Laboratory. H. N. Martin, Editor, and W. K. BRooKs, Asso-
ciate Editor. 8vo. Volume IV in progress. $5 per volume.

VY. Studies in Historical and Political Science.—H. B. Apams, Editor.
Monthly. 8vo. Volume VII in progress. $3 per volume.

VI. Johns Hopkins University Circulars.—Containing reports of scientific
and literary work in progress in Baltimore. 4to. Vol. IX in progress.
$1 per year.

VII. Annual Report.—Presented by the President to the Board of Trustees,
reviewing the operations of the University during the past academic year.

VII. Annual Register.—Giving the list of officers and students, and stating
the regulations, etc., of the University. Published at the close of the Aca-
demic year.

ROWLAND’S PHOTOGRAPH OF THE NORMAL SOLAR SpPecTRUM. New edition now
ready. $20 for set of ten plates, mounted.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE HMBRYOLOGY oF INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS. By Adam
T. Bruce. 46 pp. and 7 plates. $3.00, cloth.

SELECTED MORPHOLOGICAL Monograpus. -W. K. Brooks, Editor. Vol. I. 370
pp- and 51 plates. 4to. $7.50, cloth.

THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROPAGATION OF THE OYSTER IN MARYLAND. By W.
K. Brooks. 193 pp. 4to; 13 plates and 3 maps. $5.00, cloth.

ON THE MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF Heat. By H. A. Rowland. 127 pp.
8vo. $1.50.

A full list of publications will be sent on application.

Communications in respect to exchanges and remittances may be
sent tothe Johns Hopkins University (Publication Agency), Baltimore,
Maryland.

CON TEN sk

; Page
Art. XJI.—Cheapest Form of Light, from studies at the Alle-
gheny Observatory ; by 8. P. Lanciey and F. W. Very. ‘
With Plates LI IV and Woe... 2 Oi,

XIII.—Contributions to Miner alovy, No. 48; by F. A. Genta 114
XIV.—Curious Occurrence of Vivianite; by Wu. L. DupLtey 120
XV.—Classification of the Glacial Sediments of Maine; by
GrorGE, Ho STONE. 2 see Se ae 122
XVI.-—The Direct determination of Bromine in mixtures of
alkaline Bromides and Iodides; by F. A. Goocu and
dese HINSIGN Ae obs Se a ee 145
XVII.—Some Lower Silurian Gaokas from Northern

Maine; by W. W. Dopes-__- - a ne 153 |
XVII.—Siderite-basins of the Hudson River Epoch; by
) JamMEs (Po KimBaun. With Plate Vil 2225 7 35 eee 155 |
XIX.—New variety of Zinc Sulphide from Cherokee County,
Kansas; by. J/Asrus. DD) “ROBERTSON. 2302 see 160
XX.—Two new Meteoric Irons; by F. P. VENaBLE____--- 161
XXI.—Aprenpix.—Notice of some Extinct Testudinata; by
O0.°C. Marsy...(With Plates Vill and Vill. 2233s em 177

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. .

Chemistry and Physics —Nature of Solutions, PIcKERING. 163.—Molecular-Mass
ot Lodine, of Phosphorus, and of Sulphur in Solution, BeckuANN: Conditions
of Equilibrium between Electrolytes. ARRHENIUS, 164.—Coincidences between
lines of different spectra, RUNGE: Hertz’s experiments, L. BoutzmAN: Station-

and W. C. SABINe, 166.

Geology and Mineralogy.—The American Committee of the International Congress
of Geologists, 166.—Professor Wm. M. Fontaine on the Potomac or Younger
Mesozoic Flora, 168.—Eruption of Bandai-san, 169.— Die Mineralien der
Syenitpegmatitea’nge der Siidnorwegischen Augit-und Nephelinsyenite, W. C.
BroeeGer, 170.—Catalogue of Minerals for sale by George L. English & Co., 171.

Botany.—Catalogue of Plants found in New Jersey, N. L. Brirron, 171.—List of
Plants: Preparation of sections for the study of the development of organs,
GoErTHART, 172.—Ascent of colored liquids in living plants, WreLeR: Analyti-
cal Key to the Genera and species of North American Mosses, C. F. BARNES:
Structural and Systematic Botany, D. H. CampBett, 173.

Astronomy.—Spectrum of the Nebula in Orion, W. Hueeins and Mrs. HUGGEINS,
173.—New Group of Lines in the Photographie Spectrum of Sirius, W. Hue-
GINS, 175.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—American Association for the Advancement of
Science, 175.—Hailstones of peculiar form, O. W. Huntineton: Oswald's
Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften, 176.

Obtivary.— Christian Henry Frederick Peters. 176.

HRRATUM.—Fig. 3, Plate III, has been omitted, hence the references to it. on
pp. 105, 106 are to be struck out.

|
|

Rae Ae Meh els Ce ate, eee eke ea ek

tae

co iE al are rs

oe

° Wea roa aL, Wanda BERR, ote aap SP gC HM Be re
Chas. D. Walcott, MOR WM on cak aaeMleds. Uayemen 30
__U.S. Geological Survey. 5

SEPTEMBER, 1890.

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

"| AMERICAN —
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

EDITORS
JAMES D. ann EDWARD 8. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS .
| Proressors JOSIAH P. COOKE, GEORGE L. GOODALE
anp JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Camprings.

Prorsssors H. A. NEWTON anv A. E. VERRILL, oF -
_ New Haven,

Prorrssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PaivapeEputa.

THIRD SERIES.
MOE: XL.fWHOLE NUMBER, CXL.]

No. 237.—SEPTEMBER, 1890.

> WITH PLATES IL AND IX.

NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. 8. DANA,
18:90:

TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET.

Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub-
_ seribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by
‘money orders, registered letters, or bank checks.

MINER AS

BLOWPIPE MINERALS.—Especial interest is shown at this time
of year in this department of our business. Our material is selected

with exceeding care and is supplied in good sized massive specimens as —
_ pureas wecan secure. We haveadded largely to our stock and promise

prompt and careful filling of all ors, which we especially request be
sent in as soon as possible.

Recent Additions of Cabinet Specimens:

Eudialyte from Arkansas, crystals, 50c. to $5.00; massive specimens,-

10c. to $2:00. Very rare.
Hiddenite crystals, terminated, choice, $1.50 to $5.00.
Gold, crystallized and leaf, from California, $2.50 to $85.00.
Phenacite, Mt. Antero, loose crystals, extra good, 25c. to $5.00.
Bertrandite, Mt. Antero, a few good gangue specimens, $1.00 to $3.50.

Salida Garnets, 1000, large and small, 10c. to $6.00. One large ‘group,

$17.50.
Celestite from W. Va. (described A. J. S., Mar. ’90), 15c. to $2.50.
Calcites from Dakota (new), choice groups, 10c. to $1.50.
Chiastolite Crystals, 10c. to $1.00.
Loose Pyrite Crystals, Leadville, 10c. to 50c.
Fergusonite Crystals, Texas, 50c. to $5.00. (The $25 specimen adver-
tised last month is sold).
Nivenite, Thoro-gummite, Cyrtolite, Allanite, from Texas.
Peristerite, good crystals, N. Y., 25c. to $1.00.
Spessartite in Rhyolite, Colorado, an extra fine lot, 50c. to $3.50.

Topaz, San Luis Potosi, finest ever secured in Mexico, both loose

crystals and splendid matrix specimens, 10c. to $25.00.

Hyalite, Mexico, extra good, 15c. to $2.50.

Apophyllite, Mexico: a very fine collection has just been purchased
by our Mr. Niven.

Valencianite in good specimens is in the same shipment.

Rhodochrosite.—Our Colorado collector has just secured the finest
lot of the beautiful transparent rhombic crystals of this mineral ever
found in the U.S.

Rare Species, a few just added: Native Tellurium, Hessite, Sylvanite,
Cosalite, Nagyagite, Coloradoite, Domeykite, Kobellite, Randite, Min-
‘ium, Stromeyerite, Linarite, De Saulesite, Microlite, Utahite, etc., etc.

The foregoing are only part of the almost countless very recent addi-
tions to our stock. It should be borne in mind that we have the largest,
finest and most varied stock in the U.S. The best. idea of it can be
obtained only by visiting our two stores, but if you cannot do this,

Send for our 100 pp. Illustrated Catalogue,
which is mailed free to anyone who mentions this Journal.

GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Dealers in Minerals,

1512 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 739 and 741 Broadway, New York.

bh 2, Waleils

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

a RDS Sea ISS:

a aa

Art. XXII.—RPocky Mountain Protaxis and the Post-Creta-
ceous Mountain-making along its course; by J. D. DANA.

Tue Rocky Mountain Protaxis, or Summit Archean range—
which includes the Front Range of Colorado and Montana,
and is continued in British America to the parallel of 522°,
and beyond this in some isolated areas—was described, in my
Toronto paper,* as having an eastward bend in Montana and
Wyoming through more than 250 miles of latitude. It was
stated that owing to this eastward shove of the grand line of
heights, the United States have a Rocky Summit area of great
breadth west of the protaxis, and that this summit area of the
protaxis is continued into British America cast of the axis.
The latter was proved to be the true continuation of the for-
mer by references (1) to its having, in the main, the same rocks
in the same succession to the top of the Cretaceous, as is shown
on a colored geological map by the course of the western out-
line of the green-colored Cretaceous areas, and (2) by the evi-
dence that both areas participated alike, and together, in the
Rocky-summit upturning closing the Cretaceous period, this
being sustained by the observations of the Canadian geologists.

it was further remarked that, aligned with the Canadian or
northern part of the Archean protaxis, there was, to the south,
its interrupted continuation, 10,000 to 12,000 feet high, for a
hundred miles along the Wasatch Mountains; and that this
range, which King showed to be near the eastern limit of the
Great Basin, was the true western limit of the “Rocky Sum-
mit” region.

* Bull. Geol. Soc. of America, i, 36.

AM, JOouR. Scl.—THIRD Series, Vou. XL, No. 237.—Sept., 1890.
12

182. J. D. Dana—focky Mountain Protaxis and the

I return to the subject to illustrate further the characters of
the Rocky Mountain protaxis and the results of post-Cretaceous
mountain-making along it, deriving the facts presented from
the U. 8S. Government Geological Survey and that of the
Canadian Dominion.

1. Comparative Features of the Eastern and Western Protaxes.

1. The bend in the Western Protaxis related in origin to
that in the EKastern.—In my paper on the Eastern Archeean
axis, in the last volume of this Journal, I point out the fact
that the Green Mountain protaxis had a landward bend oppo-
site the southern extremity of the Archeean continental nucleus,
the nucleal V; and, in a note to page 379, the great bend in
the Rocky Mountain protaxis is referred to as similarly situated
abreast of the termination of the V. This correspondence in
the two suggests similarity of origin; and we can hardly doubt
that the bends were there made because the V there termin-
ates; that the lateral thrust landward in direction which out-
lined the V, and later determined the existence and position
of the protaxis, encountered diminished resistance where the
nucleus loses its emergence, and that it hence shoved the line
of uplift farther inland.

As regards the eastern protaxis this origin of the bend is
recognized in the first edition of my Geological Manual (1868,
p- 787), where I say “The Azoic [Archean] nucleus of North
America, spreading southward, formed a peninsula in northern
New York. Even this bend in the nucleus continues in the
finished continent; for New England has the same outline.
Its east and south outlines are but a repetition of the east and
south coast-lines of the old Azoic peninsula. This exact copy-
ing of the nucleus by the growing continent proves, better
than all other evidence, the grand fact that the progress has
been through oscillating forces acting against the stable Azoic
nucleus.” The dependence of continental mountain-making
on Archean features was thus fully recognized.

Differences between the two protaxes.—The eastern or Green
Mountain protaxis is essentially simple in its course, notwith-
standing the bend; the western was made a divided chain in
consequence of the bend. The eastern protaxis is the eastern
or sea-ward limit of the geological formations of the Conti-
nental Interior from the close of the Lower Silurian onward.
But the main branch of the western protaxis, south of the
bend, that of the Front Range and its continuation southward
to Mexico, is not the western or sea-ward limit of any of the
geological formations, and even the Cretaceous, the Jast of the
Mesozoic series, extends west to the Wasatch line. This Wasatch
line may hence be well designated the western of two summit

post-Cretaceous Mountain-making along its course. 183

branches of the protaxis. The Rocky Summit region, men-
tioned above, is situated accordingly between two protaxial
branches, the Front Range branch and the Wasatch. Moreover,
the former, although much the higher and most complete, was
of least stratigraphica! significance. The Wasatch line reaches
a height between 11,000 and 12,000 feet; but the most of it
is under a cover of later rocks. The western ouline of the
Cretaceous areas shows its course, from the Wasatch range,
west of south, to the crossing of the parallel of 87° N. by the
meridian of 115° W.

2. The Mountain-making along the Rocky. Mountain Protazxis at
the close of the Cretaceous period.

1. In British America.—The results of the summit post
Cretaceous disturbance in British America for a few degrees
north of the United States boundary have been studied and
described by Dr. G. M. Dawson and Mr. R. G. McConnell, and
are reported upon in the Canada Geological Reports for 1885
and 1886. According to the accounts, a north-south belt
seventy to seventy-five miles wide, between the parallels of
49° N. and 52° N., was shoved up into flexures and as dis-
placed blocks. The western boundary of the disturbed region
is the protaxial Archeean mountains along the Columbia River ;
the eastern reaches out some miles into the great central Creta-
ceous area of the Continent. It comprises the region of grand
mountain scenery along the summit pass of the Canadian
Pacitic Railway which is there called the Rocky Mountains.

A transverse section along the parallel of 51° 15’, showing
the flexures and displacements, is described and figured by Mr.
McConnell. Through the western two-thirds of the range,
belts of Cambrian rocks, Lower and Upper Silurian, Devonian
and Carboniferous alternate, as a consequence of overthrust
flexures and an occasional fault. In the eastern third—about
twenty-five miles across—Cretaceous belts are comprised in the
series, and the strata are partly in flexures but mostly in steep
monoclinal uplifts along seven upthrust faults, the thrusts all
inland in direction of movement. One north-south Cretaceous
belt follows the course of the Cascade River Valley, or the
“Cascade Trough.”

The thickness of the Paleozoic formations in the region is,
according to Mr. McConnell’s estimates in the Bow and Wapta
Valleys, about 29,000 feet ; and to this the Cretaceous, to the
eastward, adds 5000, making in all 34,000. Out of the 34,000
feet of beds in the section at least a third is referred to the
Cambrian, and more than half is included within the Cam-
brian and Lower Silurian series. The Upper Silurian and
Devonian are relatively thin formations.

184 SJ. D. Dana—Rocky Mountain Protaxis and the

The rocks comprise, approximately, 10,000 feet of Lower Cam-
brian shales and quartzytes, in which have been found species of
Olenellus, 7700 feet of dolomites, the lower part affording Para-

doxides and the upper Lower Silurian fossils, 1500 feet of Lower

Silurian graptolitic schists, 1300 feet of Upper Silurian limestone
with Halysites, 1500 feet of Devonian limestone, 5100 feet of
Carboniferous limestones and shales, probably Devonian below,
and 5000 feet of Cretaceous beds anterior to the Laramie.

Figure 1 represents a portion of Mr. McConnell’s section east
of the Sawback Range crossing Cascade Trough. It represents

Case. Mt. 1k.
A Ee
LZ;
MTD s CELE.
tig SAIS

Cb? Cb?Cb'D = Cr Cr Cr Coleen: C
Section across the Cascade Valley Cretaceous, with the Cascade Mountains on
the west; Cb, Carboniferous; D, Devonian; C, Cambrian.

the Carboniferous formation and Devonian shoved up, along a
fault, over the Cretaceous of the Cascade Trough; while, to
the eastward the Cretaceous rests conformably on the Devo-
nian and Carboniferous; and then another great wpthrust fault
puts the Devonian above the Cambrian.

Figure 2 represents an overthrust synclinal in the Cretaceous
beds of the Cascade Trough, 25 miles south of Mr. McCon-

nell’s main line of section, the whole breadth of which is about
two miles. On the west side of the flexures, the Devonian and
Carboniferous rise at a very steep angle; and they appear to
have once stood as a great inclined anticlinal bending over the
Cretaceous.

EE

Oa
OLOLS LP oA Y Zz 3A
Ch, Che Ch, Ch, D Cc
Section of mountains along Devil’s Lake Valley, east of section in fig. 1.

In figure 3 a section is shown of the beds east of those of
figure 1, along Devil’s Lake Valley. The rocks of the whole

e

\

post-Cretaceous Mountain-making along its course. 185

Paleozoic series are here shoved up so as to bring the Cam-
brian, C, into view. The Cambrian extends eastward in a broad
anticline with the Devonian above, and is so continued
to and over the Cretaceous of the foot-hills, as is seen in the
following section, tigure 4, taken a little to the south, on the

Cot Ob! D @ Cruenies Or
Section across the Cascade Valley Cretaceous.

South Fork of Ghost River. The actually observed overlap in
this section made by the older beds amounts to nearly two
miles. ‘The vertical displacement is over 15,000 feet, and the
estimated horizontal displacement of the Cambrian beds is
about seven miles in an easterly direction.” The sinuous out-
crop of the plane of junction, says Mr. McConnell, is exactly
like the line of contact of two nearly horizontal formations.
The overlying Cambrian stratum is bleached and cracked from
the friction and “some enclosed argillaceous beds are con-
verted into schists”—a fact not surprising since more than
15,000 feet of strata had a long move eastward in the over-
thrust. At one point, fossils of the Benton Cretaceous were
found in the beds under the Cambrian limestone, while two
miles north the latter limestone yielded Cambrian fossils, so
that the demonstration of the overthrust was complete.

Mr. McConnell observes, in explanation, that in the Appala-
chian region, “the valley of East Tennessee presents an almost
identical structure, and Professor J. M. Safford’s interesting
section across this valley might almost be taken for an illus-
tration of the structure of this part of the Rocky Mountains.”
As in his section of fifty-two miles, with “eight great faults,”
and “no great flexures” crowded together, “the incipient
folds split open longitudinally and the southeastern side of
each heaved up, and over the northwestern,” so it is essentially
in the Rocky Mountain region described, except that the direc-
tion of up-thrust is reversed; and yet it is the same, since in
each it is landward. West of the Sawback Range, between it
and the valley of the Columbia, the facts are different in that
“ordinary and overturned folds play the most important réle.
The greater part of the district has also been subjected to
regional metamorphism, and all the beds except the purer
limestones are in a more or less altered condition.” The only
fault indicated in the section is a down-throw fault.

These concordances, or rather identities, with Appalachian
mountain structure are of the highest geological interest.

186 JS. D. Dana—Rocky Mountain Protaxis and the

Dr. G. M. Dawson (in his Report on the portion of the
Rocky Mountains between latitudes 49° and 51° 30’ in the
Canadian Geological Report for 1885, part B) describes similar
facts from the Cascade Trough, and the region just south
between it and the parallel of 49° N. Through much of the
distance there are two to three Paleozoic limestone ranges 6000
to 9000 feet in height, with intervening north-south Cretaceous
belts, and the Cretaceous beds are upturned, along with the
Paleozoic, through a belt 80 miles or more wide. As one of
several similar facts, we cite: The “ Misty Range [north of lat.
50° 30’ and east of long. 115°] is with little doubt a great com-
pressed anticlinal of limestone overturned eastward.” “The
Cretaceous shales and sandstones pass beneath the limestones
at an angle of about 40° and, to the east of them, are thrown
into a series of overlapping folds.” At the Crow Nest Pass
(lat. 49° 35’), the Carboniferous beds are represented, in a sec-
tion on his map, as having two steep eastwardly overthrust
flexures against the area of Cretaceous rocks; and in another
section, taken in the vicinity of the Kootanie Pass (lat. 49°
45) Np the Cretaceous beds of the foot-hills, along the South
Fork of Old Man River, are in a series of similarly overthrust
flexures. Both up- ‘thrust and down-throw faults are shown in
the sections.

The Cambrian beds are described as closely resembling those
of the Wasatch Mountains in lithological characters and rarity
of fossils, and also, even more closely, those of the Colorado
Cafion.

The thickness of the Cretaceous rocks of the Kootanie series

(Lower Cretaceous) at the north Kootanie Pass (lat. 49° 25’ N.)
is made about 7000 feet; and for the whole Cretaceous series
in the mountain region, about 21,000 feet, while east of the
disturbed region it is little over 8000 feet.

2. In the United States.—This upturned Rocky Maenmtain
belt extends far northwestward along the summit; but how
far has not yet been ascertained. Southward it is ‘continued
through Montana into western Wyoming, passing the eastward
bend of the Archean axis in lat. 45°-47° N. Sections of the
rocks of the Wyoming Range, on the west side of the Green
River Basin, and also of other ranges in the region, by Mr. A.
C. Peale, published in the Hayden Expedition Report for
1877, are very similar to some of Mr. McConnell’s in rocks,
flexures and upthrust faulting, and in thrusts of Carboniferous
beds from the west along a fault- plane to the top of the Creta-
ceous. The Cretaceous also is in flexures. The thickness of
the Paleozoic and Mesozoic beds is made about 31,000 feet.
Moreover, the sections from western Wyoming, in the Report
of Mr. O. St. John, in the Hayden Report for 1878, are of

a

post-Cretaceous Mountain-making along its course. 187

similar import as to flexures and as to the time of the disturb-
ance.

Thus the great bend of the protaxis is passed by the Paleo-
zoic and Cretaceous formations without essential change of
characteristics either in kinds of rocks, or in their disturbed
condition, or in time of disturbance.* It is of especial interest
therefore to compare these regions with the mountain region
farther south, that of the Wasatch and Uinta, very fully de-
scribed, and mapped in colors, in the reports of the 40th
Parallel.t In order that the facts and conclusions stated by
Mr. King in his “Systematic Geology” may be the better
understood, a copy of the map, but without the colors, is here
given reduced from the large map of the Atlas (21x27 in.).
But I would advise all readers to refer to the original map, if
possible, as it is the grandest exhibition of facts pertaining to
an individual case of mountain-making in all geological litera-
ture.

The following facts are from Mr. King’s description of the
region.

At Locks.—The series of rocks above the Archean involved
in the post-Cretaceous upturning included 13,000 feet of Cam-
brian (consisting of quartzyte 12,000 feet, with shales and
siliceous schists and containing fossils above the quartzyte ;
1000 feet of Sclurzan (the Ute limestone); 2400 feet of Devo-
nean (including 1000 to 1500 feet of Ogden quartzyte, and the
lower 1600 feet of the 7000 of Wasatch limestone); Carbondf-
erous series (comprising (1) the remaining 5400 feet of the
Wasatch limestone, (2) 5000. to 6000 feet of Weber quartzyte
or Middle Carboniferous, (3) 2000 feet of Upper Coal-measure
limestone, and (4) 650 feet of Permian) ; making in all about
30,000 feet of conformable Paleozoic beds. Above this series
follow contormably, 1000 to 1200 feet of Triassic beds, 1600 to
1800 of Jurassic, and just eastward, in the Green River basins,
the Cretaceous series 11,000 to 18, 000 feet thick comprising (1)
the Dakota beds 500 feet, (2) the ‘Colorado beds 1000 feet (in-
cluding Fort Benton, Niobrara and Fort Pierre groups of
Meek and Hayden), (3) the Fox Hill beds 3000 to 4000 feet,
and (4) the Laramie beds 5000 feet.

Heplanations of the map.—A portion of Great Salt Lake lies
on the western border of the map and Utah Lake on the southern,
within a valley of Quaternary deposits (lettered Q), which has

* The only prominent difference in the rocks is the absence or non-recognition
in the British America sections of the Triassic and Jurassic.

+ Geological Exploration of the 40th Parallel, under Clarence King: vol. i,
Systematic Geology by Clarence King, 804 pp. 4to, 1878, with many maps and
plates; vol. ii, Descriptive Geology, by Arnold Hague and S. F. Emmons, 890
pp., 4to, 1877, with 26 maps and many plates.

188 J. D. Dana—Rocky Mountain Protanis, ete.

a height above tide-level of 4200 to 4600 feet. The Union Pacific
R. R. crosses the country from near Evanston on the east to
Uinta, Ogden and Corinne, and the Denver & Rio Grande R. R.
goes southward from Ogden, by Salt Lake City to Provo and
beyond. The Wasatch Mountains range from north to south
east of the sites of Ogden, Salt Lake City and Provo, rise to a
height for the most part of 10,000 to 12,000 feet, and have an
abrupt front to the westward, the declivity on this side occupying
a width of but one to two miles. The Uinta Mountains, an east-
west plateau-like range, lie east of the southern half of the
Wasatch. They have a broad slightly arched back of Carbonif-
erous rocks, mostly 10,000 to 13,000 feet above tide-level. But
only a fourth of the long range comes within the limits of
the map. As is observed on the map, the Uinta and Wasatch
Mountains are connected by a broad neck, mostly under igneous
rocks (lettered 7, initial of fire) about 8000 feet in elevation.
The Oqwrrh Mountains, a short range having Carboniferous
rocks at summit, occupy the southwest corner of the map and
reach a height to the south (in Lewiston Peak) of 10,623 feet.
The large open area on the map east of the Wasatch Mountains,
and north of the Uinta plateau, lettered W, and mostly 5000 to
7000 feet in height, is that of the Wasatch Eocene Tertiary, a
southward extension properly of the Green River Eocene region
of Wyoming; and another similar area south of the Uinta Moun-
tains, lettered U, 9000 to 10,200 feet in elevation, is the Uinta
Kocene basin. On the east-middle margin of the map, there is
a small piece of the Bridger Eocene basin outlined and lettered B.

Besides the large Quaternary area, lettered Q, of the Salt Lake
region, there are two others in the Uinta Eocene basin; another
similarly lettered on the neck between the Uinta and Wasatch
Mountains; and another to the north by the side of a Carbonif-
erous area that extends north to the foot of Bear Lake.

In the northwest quarter of the map there is another Tertiary
basin lettered P, which is referred to the Pliocene Tertiary ; and
just south, a second similar basin, in Ogden Valley, “a depressed
area walled in by high mountains.” A small area of Quaternary
on the northwest corner of the neck between the Wasatch and
the Uinta is omitted.

The streams of the region having cafions of geological signifi-
cance (but with one exception not marked on the small map)
are: Jordan River, connecting Utah Lake and Great Salt Lake;
Provo River, entering Utah Lake near Provo and flowing
through Provo Valley from. the western Uinta slopes; Little
Cottonwood, which flows westward and reaches the western base
of the Wasatch Mountains at L. C.; Big Cottonwood, just north
of the last, at B. C.; Weber River, which rises on the northwestern
slopes of the Uinta Mountains and follows the railroad from Echo
to Ogden and reaches the lake west of Ogden; the Ogden Liver,
which drains Ogden Valley, and flows through a cafion on its
way to Salt Lake.

y q
OO Ny
Ny YY
J

Map OF THE WASATCH MOUNTAINS AND ADJOINING PART OF. UTAH.

Reduced from the large colored Plate of the Atlas of the Fortieth Parallel Survey
under Clarence King.

190) SJ. D. Dana—Rocky Mountain Protaxis and the

The style of marking for the several formations will be
learned by following the series of areas along the railroad
southeastward from above Weber to Echo Cafion and thence
to the Uinta Mountains: the Cambrian C, black with fine
white lines; S/urzan 8S, finely cross-lined (always adjoining
the Cambrian); Devonian D, dotted; Carboniferous Cb’, Cb’,
Cb’, corresponding to the divisions mentioned above except
that the Permian is included in Cb*; Ziassic Tr, marked by
Ts ; Jurassic J, finely lined, and crossed by heavy lines; Cre-
taceous, Cr’, Cr’, Cr’, Cr’, corresponding to the subdivisions of
the Cretaceous above stated, the last, which is the Laramie,
being finely cross-lined.

The Archzean areas are marked with small Vs; and regions
ot trachytic eruptions, by the letter,/ as stated above.

The only liberty taken with the original map by the writer
is the insertion of dotted lines to indicate the continuations
between the disjoined parts of areas. These on the neck
between the Uinta and Wasatch Mountains are indicated by
the section at the bottom of the original map as well as by the
outcropping areas within the neck; and the others are plain
followings of the map and the text, except for the Lower Cre-
taceous area north of the northwest part of the Uinta Moun-
tains. If regarded as doubtful beyond this, they are to be
taken as the writer’s suggestions.

We come now to the orographie facts. 1. Along the western
wal] and summit of the Wasatch, the larger Archean areas
are numbered 1, 2, 8,4; 1 is the most northern; 2 is east of
Ogden ; 8 commences abreast of Uinta and continues for about
25 miles; 4 has its summit in Lone Peak, 11,295 feet in
height. Just east of the last there is the isolated Clayton
Peak (inarked by Vs on the map) 11,889 feet high.

The Wasatch Mountains commence to rise on the north,
abreast of a broad synclinal of Paleozoic rocks from Cambrian
to Carboniferous, the east part of which is a continuation of
the Bear Lake Range, 9,000 to 10,000 feet in height. Other
isolated Archeean ridges occur north of and within Salt Lake.

The general dip of the Paleozoic formations in the moun-
tains is eastward from 60° to 25°. The line of strzke of the

outcrops is peculiar in having large in-and-out bends along the .

range, as is easily seen by following the black-lined areas of
the Cambrian ; there is a bend eastward to the Weber region,
and then a profound bend westward through the gap nearly
18 miles wide between the Archean ridges 3 and 4, abreast of
Salt Lake City, making a synelinal in the squeeze through the
gap, whose broken-off head overhangs and confronts the Salt
Lake Valley; then another eastward sweep of more than a
semi-circle around ‘“ Lone Peak” first the Cambrian and then

post-Cretaceous Mountain-making along its course. 191

the Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous belts, all which keep
their courses and widths, with southeastward and northeast-
ward dips of 45°, heeding but little Clayton Peak. Thus, as
the map shows, the formations under the mountain- making pres-
sure were zig-zageed about and among the Archeean heights.

The eastward bend abreast of Weber is deeper on the map
than in the actual bend, because of the erosion along the
Archeean part of the range which has there sunk the surface
level to 5090 feet. But the westward bend abreast of Salt
Lake City must have projected its head much farther eastward
than the map represents; any attempt to complete the curves
in the lines makes this evident. The dip of the beds in the
gap toward its center from the north and south is 50° to 60°.
The map also shows that in the range south of the Lone
Peak Archzean area, the Lower Carboniferous (Cb’) is doubled
on itself in an anticline having the strike of the mountains—
this being shown by the Devonian line along its center.

The dips of the strata and general facts are given on the
Analytical Geological Map between pages 760 and 761 of Mr.
King’s Report.

The enormous amount of warping undergone by the /u-
rassic and Cretaceous beds to the eastward is partly indicated
by the courses of the outcrops. [From the Cambrian outcrop
near Weber to Echo Cafion, the succession of formations on
the map inclades the whole conformable series from the Cam-
brian (C) to the Laramie (Cr*); and from Echo southeastward,
there is the reverse of the series, passing from the Laramie group
(Cr*), through the successive members in the series to the top
of the Uinta Range, as King states on page 586, where are
the beds of the Middle Carboniferous (Cb’*). The dip is east-
ward 25°, 45°, 75° to 70° at Cr’, and then 20° at Cr* where it
is reversed to northwestward in a syncline, and so continues
to the summit where it is 4° to 5°. Consequently the warping
has put in a syncline at Echo Station.

The rocks of the Uinta plateau were therefore involved in
the system of warping which eventuated in forming the
Wasatch Mountains. All the isolated areas of the Cretaceous
series over the Wasatch basin also show the warping; that of

.the Laramie near Evanston having eastward dips of 25° and
45°, and that south of Evanston being an anticline with dips
of 80° either side of Cr’; and that east of Evanston, the con-
tinuation of the anticline with dips of 60°. The small area
of Cretaceous (Cr’) south of Wasatch has dips of 80° west-
northwestward, the direction corresponding with that of the
beds just south.

The summit beds of the Uinta plateau dip slightly north-
ward and southward, and near the east margin of the map it

192 J. D. Dana—Rocky Mountain Protaxis and the

has the great height of 12,892 feet.* The Wasatch range is
lower than the Uinta, but also steeper and narrower, and in
the making it was far more roughly wrenched and broken, and
hence must have lost much more by erosion.

The great area of trachyte (85x9 miles) over the interval
between the Uinta and Wasatch Mountains and the two small
areas on the same northwest line in the low Eocene area, the
last just south of Weber, indicate that “the entire length of
this trachytic vent was about fifty miles.” This outflow is
described as an effect of the mountain-making movements—a
faulting according to King.

One of the great results of the 40th Parallel Survey brought
out by Mr. King is the establishing of the fact that the Great
Basin, between a line near the Great Salt Lake and the merid-
ian of 1174°, was raised above the sea-level at the close of the
Carboniferous, or simultaneously with the making of the
Appalachian Mts., it being proved that the Carboniferous
rocks were the latest marine formation. The Oquirrh Moun-
tains were part of the eastern margin of this Mesozoic dry
land. No Triassic, Jurassic, or Cretaceous beds are reported
from the eastern base of the Oquirrh or the western of the
Wasatch in any part of the Salt Lake region, or over the
region west until the meridian of 1173° W. is passed.

Tn discussing the origin of the Wasatch, Mr. King states the
principle, gathered from his observations, that in case of each
great mountain-making flexure, wherever an Archean moun-
tain range existed beneath accumulated sediments, there a fold
had taken place. He observes that “in the case of the
Wasatch, it is seen from the relations of the old Archean
underlying range, that this enormous mountain body deter-
mined the existence and character of the post-Cretaceous fold.”
He immediately adds: “In the case of the Uinta, it is Ee
sible to say how far underlying Archean rocks played a part.
The single limited outcrop of pre-Cambrian rocks at Red
Creek (in its northeastern side) is certainly at the most rup-
tured and actively dislocated point of the whole Uinta Range.”
Mr. King, although not adopting the contraction theory of
mountain-making to its full extent, still gives to tangential!

compression a prominent place in ‘the process. He observes |

(on page 752) that when a tilting of strata against an Archeean
ridge has taken place “it is ‘evident that the interval of
Archzean rock must have been compressed, and in yielding to
this force the Archzean bodies have developed an amount of
plasticity which, in view of their crystalline nature, is very
surprising.”

* This high region is continued eastward, and in the next quarter of the range

there are, among the heights, Gilbert Peak, 13,687 feet, and Emmons Peak,
13,694 feet. each near the meridian of 110° 20’ W.

post-Cretaceous Mowntain-making along its course. 198

Considering the extent and character of the displacements,
in part horizontal overthrusts, in the Canadian portion of the
Rocky Mountains described by McConnell, the conclusion that
tangential thrust has acted likewise in the case of the Wasatch
seems to be reasonable, although the results are in important
points different. And it can not be questioned that the force
which could compress and reduce to plasticity a resisting
Archean mass might make great movements of Paleozoic
strata over an Archeean surface, inclined or not, and probably
give plasticity where movement was effectually resisted.

The facts in the Wasatch and Uintah region come therefore
into harmony with others in the Rocky Mountain region, and
even into near likeness to those from the Appalachians. The
- movement manifested was either “a thrust upward and east-
ward of the whole Archzean body when the Paleozoic flexures
took place” (p. 48 of Mr. King’s Report), or its compression
and torsion (p. 752), or else, as another might suggest, a thrust
westward of the sedimentary strata against the Archean range.
Metamorphic action in the overlying limestones about Clayton’s
Peak is mentioned on page 45 as a “‘ mechanical” result during
the movements.

In the preceding explanations, the reported facts are made
to tell their own story. [or some inferences from them con-
tained in the report of Mr. King I am unable to find a sufii-
cient basis in the facts. Among these I question the follow-
ing: that a full section of the Mesozoic and Paleozoic series,
40,000 feet, more or less, then existed in the region of Salt
Lake Valley, as a westward continuation of like beds capping
the Wasatch Mountains; that along a fault-plane following
nearly the axis of the Wasatch Archean and of its “capping
arch of sediments,” the western mass dropped down to depths
equaling the thickness of the beds. It does not seem certain
that any great fault along this line was among the results of
the post-Cretaceous orographic disturbance.

The reason for doubting is, first, the absence of direct evi-
dence; for no outcrops of Mesozoic beds in the Salt Lake
Valley are reported, and no proof of their presence there as
buried deposits is mentioned or has since been observed,
although deep borings have been made. Again the Oquirrh
Mountains and Wasatch Range are but twenty miles apart, and
have similar Carboniferous rocks at summit at nearly the same
level; and without other sustaining facts it is hard to believe
that in the narrow space between such an enormous downthrow
and burial ever took place.

Nothing stated is adverse to the view that at the post-
Carboniferous disturbance, the Wasatch Range (not a line west
of it along Salt Lake as the Report suggests) became the

194 SJ. D. Dana— Rocky Mountain Protaxis and the

eastern margin of the emerged Great Basin, that is, the coast
region of the eastern Mesozoic seas, In which the Triassic,
Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks were formed; and if so, the
Wasatch Archean was not within the subsiding area over
which Mesozoic sediments were laid down, but part of the
more stable outside region, like the Archeean protaxis north of
the United States boundary.

While regarding with admiration the survey of the Fortieth
Parallel, and adopting many of the conclusions presented in its
Reports, it seems reasonable to hesitate here, so far at least as
to pass in review the bearings on the geological history of the
region of this modification of its views; and I therefore pro-
ceed to state the sequence of events which appears to be indi-
cated by the reported facts.

1. At or near the close of the Paleozoic, when the area of
the Great Basin lying to the east of the meridian of 1174° W.
emerged, placing its latest Carboniferous rocks more or less,
perhaps but little, above tide-level, the Wasatch was a low
Archeean range making part of the eastern lumit of the Basin.

2. In the shallow seas to the eastward, and beyond longitude
1173° W. westward, as explained by King, subsidence was still
continued ; and over the bottom, made of Carboniferous and
other older rocks (the Carboniferous of the Uinta area in-
cluded), Triassic and Jurassic beds were laid down. A fter-
ward on the east, Cretaceous deposition went forward over the
same area (but with probably somewhat contracted limits), the
subsidence still going on.

3. The Triassic and Jurassic formations, compared with
those of other regions, are thin, and hence no unusual source
of sediment was needed for their accumulation and no great
height in the bordering lands; but by the time the Cretaceous
period began, or during a post-Jurassic disturbance,* the dry
land had probably become more emerged and had received
some permanent additions.

4. During the post-Cretaceous epoch of disturbance, the sedi-
mentary formations to the top of the Laramie were thrust
westward against the stable Archean rocks of the Wasatch
Range, shoved up the Archean slopes, forced into tortuous
flexures among the Archzean peaks, and doubled up as _ they
were pushed through the gap. How much of the flexed
formations passed the summits cataclysmically into the Salt
Lake area of the time has passed out of record through denuda-
tion.

*T refer for facts with regard to such a disturbance to the important paper

of Mr. S. F. Emmons in the First volume of the Bulletin of the Geological Society
of America, ‘On Orographic Movements in the Rocky Mountains,” p. 245.

post. Cretaceous Mountain-making along its course. 195

5. This move of the accumulated formations from the Cam-
brian to the Laramie, in the latitudes of the Wasatch, was part
of a general movement that extended through a length of
1000 miles or more from north to south, it including the mak-
ing of the mountain flexures and faults in Canada described
by Mr. McConnell, and how much farther north, we do not
yet know.

6. If the uplifts were anywhere produced through lateral or
tangential thrust, the tangential movement was general. It
was thrust from west to east and the reverse, producing sur-
face movements according to resisting conditions, the oro-
graphic results being greatest where, as Mr. King’ states,
Archeean ranges resisted the movement and so loealized its
effects.

The above inferences appear to be warranted by the facts at
present known.

7. And so the Wasatch Range was essentially finished ;
seemingly an individual mountain range, but really polygenetic ;
first a lofty ridge of Archean make; then enlarged by Paleo-
zoic additions and changed in level by increased emergence, but
without so far as known, any upturning of the beds; finally
after further preparation by sea-border depositions through all
Mesozoic time, profound movements completing the process
of development, and that also of other ranges both of the
plicate and plateau kinds, the Uinta among the latter.

8. The new ranges and others older, then became the rela-
tively stable confines of Eocene lake-basins in the enclosed
Rocky Summit region of the United States, the Green River
basin, the Wasatch, the Uinta and others, over which subsi-
dence and deposition were still continued.

In the preceding observations on mountain-making along the
Rocky Mountain protaxis, I have referred, so far as the territory
of the United States is concerned, only to the western branch
of the protaxis, or that including the Wasatch Range. The
eastern branch, or that of the lofty Front or Colorado Range,
also resisted the tangential thrust, like the Wasatch to the
west; but the disturbance resulted only in making out of the
Cretaceous and inferior rocks on the east, little foot hills, 500
to 1500 feet in elevation over a breadth of 10 to 15 miles,

An excellent account of the flexures and faults in these hills,
illustrated by many transverse sections besides maps and views,
is published in the volume for 1873 of the Hayden Expedition
Reports, by Archibald R. Marvine, an accurate observer whose
early death was a serious loss to American Science. The sec-
tions described are from the eastern base of the mountains for
some distance north of Denver, between the parallels of 40°

196 Sheldon—Magneto-optical Generation of Electricity.

15' and 40° 30’. The sections, as exhibited on the plate acecom-
panying the article, indicate that the uplifting force, besides
flexmg the beds, made a series of faults im the formations, and
that these faults were upthrust faults of blocks that included
the Archean with the overlying rocks; that the upthrust was
in general westward. The disturbed region shades off east-
ward into the horizontal strata of the great plains. For
descriptions of the beds, and of the echelon character of the
flexures (a feature first mentioned, the author says, by Hayden
in his report of 1869) reference may be made to Mr. Marvine’s
report. The volumes of the survey of the 40th Parallel con-
tain other facts on the subject, which are discussed by Mr.
King.

The observations prove that although the Front Range, or
the eastern branch of the Protaxis, greatly exceeds in height
the western, the uplifts adjoining it were very small. This
high Front Range stands within the wide area of Mesozovre de-
position, within the area therefore of Mesozoic subsidence;
while the line of the Wasatch and the protaxis in British
America is to the west of this area and outside of it; and
this may be a reason for the feeble orographic effects at its base.

Art. XXUI.—TZhe Magneto-optical Generation of Hlectricity;
by SamMuEL SHELDON, Ph.D.

WHILE experimenting upon the effects of alternating cur-
rents of electricity upon the plane of polarized light, results
were obtained which made it feasible to try a series of experi-
ments, in which the Faraday arrangements were reversed.
Although the series is incomplete, yet the little that has been
accomplished seems worthy of publication.

It is well known* that if a beam of plane polarized light be
passed through a tube containing bisulphide of carbon, and if
the tube and beam lie in the direction of the lines of force of
an electromagnet about to be excited, the plane of the emer-
gent beam will be rotated upon exciting the magnet. The
direction of rotation will be the same as that of the exciting
current and the amount of rotation will depend upon the
strength of the current. If the current be reversed the plane
will be rotated in an opposite direction and by exactly the
same amount. Thus the rapidly alternating current would
produce a rapid swinging to and fro of the plane of light.

* Faraday, Exp. Res. 2146, vol. iii, p. 1.

Sheldon—Magneto-optical Generation of Electricity. 197

Now if a difference of potential, under these conditions, pro-
duces such a rotation of the plane, why should not a rapid rota-
tion of the plane under exactly the same conditions produce an
inverse difference of potential between the terminals of the coil ?
A continuous rotation should produce a continuous current of
electricity and an oscillating of the plane an alternating cur-
rent. The experiments which have been performed verity the
latter supposition.

The coil employed was wound upon a thin brass tube as a
core. This was closed at each end by plates of glass and was
provided with holes for filling with carbon bisulphide. Its
length was 175™" and its diameter 23™". Upon this was
wound the coil from double silk-covered copper wire of
0-85™" diameter. When wound the length of the coil was
150™™ and its diameter 45°". The resistance was 7-21 ohms.

A quantitative measurement of the Faraday effect was first
made and in the following manner: A beam of light from
an incandescent lamp, after passing through a large nicol,
was made to traverse the bisulphide of carbon in the coil.
Upon emerging the beam was brought to extinction by the
proper adjustment of an analyzing nicol. A measured current
of electricity was now passed around the coil. This necessi-
tated a readjustment and rotation of the analyzing nicol to re-
produce extinction of the beam. Within the limits tried this
rotation was proportional to the current strength. As a mean
of many measurements it was found that a current of 1 ampere
required a rotation of 78 minutes of the analyzer. Accord-
ingly 278 amperes would be required to rotate the plane
through 360°, providing the proportionality between current
strength and rotation remained unaltered.

Now, if we consider a plane polarized ray of light to be
made up of two opposite circularly polarized rays, then a parti-
cle of ether in the bisulphide of carbon describes a simple har-
monic oscillation ina plane. This motion in a straight line
is the resultant of the two oppositely directed, equiperiodic,
circular rotations of equal amplitude. If now a magnetic field
be created, the particle undergoes an instantaneous circular
electric displacement which results in the retardation of one
and the acceleration of the other component rotation. The ”
line of oscillation suffers rotation as a result, and assumes a
new position. The displacement must be instantaneous, for,
were it continuous, the line of oscillation would continue to
rotate and the analyzer could not be made to produce extinc-
tion. If now, instead of allowing the magnetic field to pro-
duce this circular displacement, we superimpose, by mechani-
cal means, a third rotation upon the two existing components,

\

Am. Jour. Scl.—THIRD Series, Vou. XL, No. 237.—SeEpt., 1890.
13

198 Sheldorn—Magneto-optical Generation of Hlectricity.

then a magnetic field should result and an electromotive force
be induced in a coil surrounding that field. Such a result
would be obtained by rotating the polarizing nicol. The
rapidity of rotation must be very great, and, if it requires 278
amperes (an impressed electromotive force of 2000 volts) to
rotate the plane through 360°, then to produce this electromo-
tive force the polarizer must be revolved with a frequency of
the same order as of the oscillations of light. But a nicol ean-
not be revolved much above 200 times per second. ‘The cen-
trifugal force resulting from a higher rate will, owing to the
strain produced, interfere with the performance of its func-
tions as a polarizer. This rate of 200 revolutions per second
would produce, in the apparatus employed, an electromotive
force of perhaps 0,000000001 volts, giving a current too small
to be detected by any gaivanometer in my laboratory. Hence
use was made of the extreme delicacy of the telephone as a
substitute, and a swinging of the plane instead of a revolution.

The arrangement of apparatus was as follows: Light from
an are lamp, after passing through a large nicol, was reflected,
at a very obtuse angle, from a small movable mirror and then
passed through the bisulphide of carbon in the coil before men-
tioned. The two terminals of the coil were carried to a room
three stories below and in another part of the building. Here
they were connected through a telephone and a switch. The
mirror (10x80™") was fixed in a brass frame free to rotate
about an axis nearly parallel with the ray of light. This frame
was connected by an eccentric and gears to the main shaft in
the work shop. By this arrangement the mirror was made to
oscillate through 45° about 300 times each second. The plane
of polarization was thus twisted through twice that amount, or
90°, in the same time. While this oscillation was going on in
the workshop, an ear placed at the telephone at the other end
of the cireuit could easily distinguish a tone, which, however,
was the octave above that made by the moving mirror. When
the cireuit was broken the sound ceased to be heard, but upon
again closing the tone became audible. With a rate of 200
oscillations per second the note was not so easily distinguished.
But upon closing the cireuit that peculiar sizzling noise so com-
mon in telephone circuits was heard.

During the experiments the mirror was frequently broken
by the high rate of vibration. But another was quickly sub-
stituted by my assistant, Mr. Baker, whom I have to thank for
this and the construction and management of the rotating ap-
paratus.

Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn,
June, 1890.

Genth and Penfield— Contributions to Mineralogy. 199

Art. XXIV.— Contributions to Mineralogy, No. 49; by F. A.
GENTH, with Crystallographic Notes, by 8. L. PENFIELD.

In the following paper we give the results of the examina-
tion of some superior specimens of the very interesting ferric
sulphates from Mina de la Compania near Sierra Gorda in the
Province of Tocapilla, about 125 miles interior from Antofa-
gasta, Chili. They were recently brought from this locality
by Prof. Henry A. Ward, and are now in the cabinet of Mr.
Clareuce S. Bement of Philadelphia, who very kindly placed
them in our hands for investigation.

1. Amarantite. A. Frenzel.*

The crystallization is triclinic, confirming the determination
made by optical tests on cleavage fragments by E. A. Wiilfing.+
The habit of the crystals, many of which are doubly termi-
nated, is slender prismatic, the vertical zone being composed
principally of the pinacoids a and 4,
while the ends are modified by a
number of brilliant faces. Individ-
ual crystals are frequently 10™" long
and 1™™ in diameter; some of them
have a nearly square cross section, fig.
1, others are flattened parallel to the
pinacoid a, fig. 2. The forms ob-
served are,

a, 100, @-2 d, 011, 1-% =, 101,—1-7
b, 010, 2-2 e, O11, 1-% p, 111,—1

c, 001, O f, 021, 2-% Op lelelemel4

M, 110, 7 h, 012, 4-7 n, 121,—2-3’.

The following measurements were chosen as fundamental :

cada, 0014100 88° 53” Gerson NOD As 57° 48”
cxb, 001.4010 84° 167 ane: LOOKNOI: 92° 48”
Cae, 001.4011 317-27

from which the be ee relations are calculated :
95° 38” 16" = 90° 237 42” Olea’
:¢ == 0°16915: 1: 0573 83

In addition to the above the following are some of the im-
portant measurements which were made:

* Tschermak’s Mittheilungen, ix, p. 398, 1888.
+ Tschermak’s Mittheilungen, ix, p. 402, 1888.

200 Genth and Penfield—Contributions to Mineralogy.

Measured. Calculated.
caM, 0U1 4110 92° 31’ 92° 48”
CAD, 001 4111 42° 457 42° 467
CAO, 001 , 111 40° 15’ 40° 18”
DAD, 0104111 72° 537 1B}. OF
pra, 111, 101 2525597 264404
Cad, 001.101 36R 264 367 254
BAN, 10] 4121 38° 24" 38° 26’
cx d, 001 . 011 AS) SH? 28° 337
Bralit, 001.012 16° 25/ 16° 307
OAIf 001 , 021 Be ie by eer ck
aad, cleavage 82° 397 82° 42/

The pinacoids a and 4 were vertically striated and in combi-
nation with vicinal faces so that no satisfactory measurements
were made in the vertical zone. The faces at the ends of the
erystals, although small, gave very good reflections of the
signal, the result of which can be seen in the very satisfactory
agreement in the above table between the measured and the
calculated angles. The cleavage is very perfect parallel to the
pinacoids a, 100 and 6, 010. The mineral also occurs in radia-
ting, bladed crystalline masses, with cleavage surfaces some-
times 35™ long and 8-10"" wide at the broadest portion.
The angle between the two pinacoids @ and 4, 82° 39’ in the
above table was obtained from this material, the reflection
from both cleavages being very sharp and distinct. Wiilfing
cives for two faces in the prismatic zone (he does not state
that they are cleavage) 81° 538’, 82° 11’, 82° 38’ and 83° 11’.

The color is a brownish red, amaranth-red. The optical
‘properties agree closely with the determinations made by
Wiilfing.* Crystal or cleavage plates parallel to the pinacoid
a, 100, show under the polarizing microscope a brownish red
color, and very little action on parallel polarized light, but
with convergent light an optical axis and a bisectrix can be
seen, slightly removed from the center of the field, also part of
the ring system of the other axis. The plane of the optic axes
makes an angle of about 38° with the vertical axis, its trace on
100 being from right above to left below. The pleochroism is
not very strong, the color being darker in the direction of the
plane of the optical axes than at right angles to it. One of
these cleavage plates was used in the axial angle apparatus, and
although it was not at right angles to the acute bisectrix, it
yielded a measurement of the apparent optic axial angle in air,
which is very characteristic,

2E for yellow, Na flame, 63° 3’
2E for red, Li flame, 59° 3’

The section was practically opaque to the green light of a thal-
lium flame. The strong dispersion of the optic axes p <v is

* Loc. cit.

Genth and Penfield—Contributions to Mineralogy. 201

noticeable. Sections parallel to the pinacoid 6, 010, show
under the microscope a strong action on polarized light, giving
an extinction at 16°-17° from the vertical axis in the acute
angle 8 above and behind. The pleochroism is very marked,
brownish red parallel to the extinction direction 16° from the
vertical axis and pale lemon-yellow at right angles to this. In
convergent polarized light this section yields no interference
phenomena. Hardness 2°5. Specific gravity 2°286.

Amarantite occurs associated with, and sometimes imbedded
in a finely fibrous orange-colored mineral, probably siderona-
trite, also small quantities of limonite and quartz. The mate-
rial for analysis was selected from the best bladed masses ; it
seems to have been slightly contaminated with traces of ferric
hydrate. The fine powder is gradually decomposed by. cold
water into a basic insoluble salt. The quartz was deducted from
the analysis, which is as follows:

Te Il. Ill. Molecular ratio. Calculated.
H.0 BJS INO? ey ) 63°45 28:29 UO). 2a 28°250
SO; 35°46 J peat 2. 0°443 2 35°875
Fe,0; 37°46 37:09 Boe 0°234 1:05 35°875
CaO trace 0:09 aie
N.O 0°59 bs, re
K,0 O11 el

These analyses give the formula: Fe,S,0,+7H,O. 3 mole-
cules of water were lost at 110°.

For comparison I give the analyses of A. Frenzel (loe. cit.),
J. B. Mackintosh (this Journ., III, xxxviii, 248), and L. Dar-
apsky (Neues Jahrb. f. Min., 1890, i, 55).

Frenzel. Mackintosh. Darapsky. Calculated.

ERs Os seers eee 27°62 [27°44] 28°33 28-26
Os eae en ee 35°58 36°15 36°20 35°87
(Hes Oe see 37:26 35°69 35°62 35°87
Al.O3 Soe opoeqe sa. 0-21
Na.O ena te aye as ote O51

Mr. Mackintosh states that at 110° 3°48 molecules of water
were expelled.

2. Sideronatrite, A. Raimondi.*

The material which we have examined consisted of masses,
sometimes 70-80™™ in thickness, of a fine fibrous mineral
with pale orange to straw-yellow color. The little splintery or
prismatic crystals when examined with the microscope seem to
lie on a cleavage face and show in polarized light an extinction
parallel to their longer axis. They show a slight pleochroism,
pale straw-yellow for rays vibrating parallel to the longer axis,
almost colorless at right angle to this. In convergent polarized

* Zeitschr. Kryst., vi, p. 633, 1882.

202 Genth and Penfield—Contributions to Mineralogy.

light the small splnters show indistinctly an obtuse bisectrix,
the plane of the optic axes being parallel to the longer axis. The
longer axis is, moreover, axis of least elasticity. These optical
properties indicate orthorhombic symmetry while Raimondi
regards the crystallization as probably monoclinic. Hardness=
15. Specific gravity 2°355.

Associated with the sideronatrite and sometimes forming
veins of about 10 to 20™™ in thickness is a grayish white lam-
inated mineral, ferronatrite, which is also often intermixed
through the whole mass of the sideronatrite, in minute white
particles. If it had not been for the difference in the color of
these two minerals it would have been impossible to obtain
sideronatrite in a state of sufficient purity for analysis.

Decomposed by cold water into an insoluble basie ferric sul-
phate. The analyses gave:

Raimondi’s
analysis
after de-
ducting
426 p.c.

i II. Il. IV. V. impurities.
H,0 at 110° 9°42.) 6) 44 Ue at 110° 9:47) 1.9, [1667] 1777 16:02
SO; 44:0 44 4] 45°16
Fe.Os 21°63 22> eal 21°24 21°66 22°55
CaO not det’d not det’d not det’d
Na.O 16°32 16°39 15:91 6:94 16°27
99°56 106-00 98-49 100-00 100-00
Mean. Molecular ratio. Calculated.
Fig Olen een ee 17-07 0:948 7 or 7 17:26
Oat hie Cena arate 44.22 0°533 3°92 4 43°84
Hee @)s sean tees Diet 0°136 ] 1 21°92
INE Onegai sate 16°39 0°264 1°94 2 16°98

giving the formula: 2Na. O,. Fe,S,0,+7H,0.. At 110° loses
about 4 molecules of water.

3. Ferronatrite, J. B. Mackintosh.*

This occurs in cleavage masses, white to grayish white in
color. No distinct crystals were observed, but from the cleav-
age and optical properties the crystallization must be hexago-
nal. The cleavage is ears perfect, the angle between
cleavages measuring 60° 2’, 59° 58’ and 60° 5’ where the sur-
faces were quite perfect and the reflections shar p; a number of
other angles were measured, all approximating to 60°. A sec-
tion cut at right angles to the vertical axis showed in conver-
gent polarized light the interference figure of a uniaxial min-
eral, and with a quarter undulation mica plate positive double
refraction. A prism cut with its edge parallel to the vertical
axis yielded with yellow light (soda flame) the following indices
of refraction, w= 1:558, e=1°613 indicating rather strong

* This Journal, IIT, xxxvili, p. 244, 1889.

Genth and Penfield—Contributions to Mineralogy. 203

positive double refraction. Some of the original material,
given us by Mr. Mackintosh for comparison, appears to be
identical with this in every respect except that it occurs in
radiating prismatic crystals reminding one of wavellite. Hard-
ness = 25 Specific gravity = 2°547 and 2°578.

The analyses of the purest mineral gave:

Te 100 III. Ve Mean. Molecular ratio.
HOM . a 11°62 WNL) 11°89 0°66 6
SOs 2825 eae Bee 51°27 d1E33 51°30 0°64 6
HerOsesoe. llas2 17°20 17°30 17°36 17°30 O11 1
OBO SaL2 3 OR anon cartel,
NasO sels E963) iis. ny 3
TO co irl 20-01 20°15 19°95 0:32 3

100°29

agreeing with the formula: 3Na,SO,. Fe,S,O,,+6H,O.

Mackintosh’s analysis

Calculated. for comparison,
JE OCU a ae ees eee 11°56 11°34
(SAO SAE ace SNR panera ae 51°39 50°25
HOS © aye tee Pere Mot eke 17-23
IN (ag OR es seh esa 19°92 18°34
INI Olena (Ree 0°43

SiO., ete. insoluble 2°00

99:79

Mr. Mackintosh states that his mineral lost at 110° C. 54 mole-
cules of water. The material above analyzed when exposed in
the state of a fine powder for two hours at 100° ©. lost only
0-28 per cent (0°72 gram lost 0:0020 grm.).

4, Utahite. ?

Among the minerals, collected by Messrs. Geo. L. English
& Co., at the Mimbres Mine near Georgetown, New Mexico,
were very minute, microscopic brownish white, apparently
hexagonal scales, which had the appearance of Utahite.

They were mixed with a very large quantity of quartz, van-
adinite and descloizite. After the vanadates and other impur-
ities were dissolved out by dilute nitric acid, the hexagonal
scales remained behind in a pretty pure state, but mixed with
a considerable quantity of quartz. The material thus obtained
was divided into two portions, weighing together 02792 grm.

01983 grm. gave 31°82 per cent quartz; deducting this, the
loss by ignition in the other portion was 26°85 per cent and
the ferric oxide, 55:10 per cent.

00809 grm. gave 29-03 per cent quartz, and after deducting
ete balance gave 27:16 per cent of SO, and 56°49 per cent

Oe

204 Genth and Penfield—Contributions to Mineralogy.

The loss by ignition is almost the same, as the amount of
SO, found in the second portion, which seems to indicate that
the mineral under consideration contains no water, but only
sulphuric acid. The ratios of SO,: Fe,O, would be

in the first portion, 0°336 : 0°344 or 1:1
in the second portion, 0°339: 0°353 or 1: 1

so that the composition of the iron sulphate would be
Fe,O,. SO, or Fe,SO,

What the other 17 or 18 per cent are could not be ascer-
tained on account of the minute quantity of material. We
hope to be able to secure more of this mineral from the
Mimbres Mine, and also a sufficient quantity of utahite for a
new analysis. At any rate, it is thought that the above data
should be placed on record.

5, Picropharmacolite, from Joplin, Mo.

Mr. Edward D. Drown of this city presented me with a speci-
men which he had received as coming from Joplin, Mo. It
occurs in incrustations upon a coarse-grained, cleavable dolomite
which are from 2 to 15™™ thick and are composed of radiating
silky fibers, forming botryoidal, globular or mammillary masses.
The appearance of this incrustation and the results of the
analyses indicate the probability of its being a mixture of sev-
eral varieties of the same mineral,—which I had no means to
separate.

That which is most uniform forms botryoidal erusts from 2
to he in thickness made up of radiating silky fibers in globu-
lar aggregations: the analysis I,aandb. In the cavities of
Hed net ustation there are often ver y delicate silky fibers 2 to
38™™ in length, or the globules are covered with very minute
acicular crystals. The analyses of botryoidal incrustations,
more or less mixed with acicular crystallizations, are given in
II, a, b, e. In analyses II, the radiating silky groups from
another portion of the specimen are given, after the powder
had been placed over H,SO, for about one month. The mate-
rial for each batch was carefully powdered, and thus uniform-
ity was secured.

Ik mccine gravity taken in alcohol was 2°583. The analyses
gave

a. b. Mean. Mol. Ratio.
Iimsolulble seen 0°17 0°16
ihossvat: 100g @s22 2252 11°60
Loss at ignition _..._ 11:44 23°17 Zerit 1284 6:2
CHOnm ese ok Se 22°40 22-44 22°42 0-404 1°95
AMI Oar stamens i ie 6°60 6°68 6°64 0164 0:79
Minn OG eee es ira 20 2 0°21 0°31
DATS © paeeapnie ete ater to 47°48 47°73 47:60 0°207 1:0

99°90 100°49 99°77

Genth and Penfield—Contributions to Mineralogy. 206

These results indicate the presence of a small quantity of basic
hydrogen, replacing calcium and magnesium ; taking this view,
the following closely agrees with the results of the analyses :
(H,CaMg),As,O,+6H,0, which is the composition of picro-
pharmacolite.

Gi Els Opes teers Ren gel le eNOS 22°34 per cent.
O22 Sie See aS 1 Cam tate oes Sage er 4:5 0°93
NAST ORO e ae AS eee eee eee 109°2 22°59
Os TORN ROM Neen eames se AD 31°6 6°54
TNS Oa oe ots = rm ie Oke 230° 47°60

483°3 100°00

II. Analyses of crusts mixed with globular aggregations:

a. Db. CG: d. Mean. Mol, ratio.
HeOe=s 24°38 24°11 24°25 24°58 1°35 6:5
CaO 20°29 19°78 19°27 19°22 19°64 3°51 Nee
MoOme= 8°35 8:15 8°67 8:48 8°41 2°10 ]
MnO. _- 0714 0°29 0-41 0°29
As,O5.. 47°74 ATT4 2°08 1
100°37

These analyses also show the replacement of calcium by
hydrogen like the first two, and also a larger percentage
of magnesia, while agreeing with the formula of picropharma-
colite.

Ill. The material of analyses III was, on account of being
interrupted with my work, placed for a month over H,SQ,.
It will be seen from the analyses given below, that it contained
a still larger percentage of magnesia, and that in drying, one of
the six molecules of water was lost.

a. b. Mean. Molecular ratio.
FS Oe eee 20°50 20°19 20°35 Weiss 5:14
CaQmesesi£2 17°31 16°87 17:09 0°31 1:4]
Wi Qeee =e ss 11°61 11°48 11°54 0:29 1°32
Winn -so6es2 0:29 0°34
IGOR Bee 50°60 50°51 50°56 0:22 a
100°28 99:39 99°54

6. Pitticite.

At the Clarissa Mine, Tintie District, Utah, a mineral has
been found occurring in cryptocrystalline masses, largely inter-
mixed with limonite, and forming coatings made up of minute
botryoidal groups, seldom over 1™™ in size, and having a lus-
trous crystalline surface. H=3-°5. Luster resinous to waxy,
color brown to dark yellowish brown. Only with great difh-
culty comparatively pure material could be selected for the
analysis which gave:

206 Genth and Penfield—Contributions to Mineralogy.

msolublev ie O22 2. 22 eee ee 4:08
SiQt 2 2s ee a ee ee

EL: Q} Sip ree acy a he 18°24

AS Ockxoe Se log 1S 39°65

SO shi. ee pes wb 1-14

Cases, Se eer cS iy

PetOi ois Meer: 33°89

100°09

It will be seen that this mineral does not represent a mixture
of ferric sulphates and arsenates, like the German varieties.
The small quantity of sulphuric acid which is contained in it,
is almost exactly required for the cupric oxide present to form
chalcanthite ; after deducting this, the quartz, and the insoluble
ferric oxide as limonite, the composition is:

Ratio. Calculated. Pure mineral.
5 O eee TOA: 0-98 Bye Oye 7453 17°46 19 40
INGOs SSeS ec 39°65 07172 1 4 38°80 43:11
WEHOK Sossac 33°89 0 212 ee} 5 33°74 37.49

Impurities 9°00

100°00

100°00

corresponding to: 4(Fe,As,O,). Fe,(OH),+20H,0.

7. The so-called Gibbsite from Chester County, Pa.,
a Phosphate.

Hermann (Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat., Moscow, No. 4, 1868, 496,)
publishes an analysis of a grayish pearly mineral, forming a
coating of thin delicate concretionary crusts on limonite from
the wavellite locality near White Horse Station, Chester Co.,
Pa., giving the following composition: AI,O, 63°84, H,O 33°45,
SiO, 150, P,O, 0°91 and traces of MgO and Fe,O,,.

From some preliminary tests which I have made, it appeared
that all the so-called gibbsite from this locality is a phosphate.
It forms fine pearly scales and very thin incrustations of pearly
scales upon wavellite and limonite. Unfortunately, although
very liberally furnished with material by numerous friends,
the quantities obtained from about half a dozen different speci-
mens, varying from 0:07 to 0°27 of one gram, gave such dis-
cordant results that I could not arrive at a definite conclusion
as to its composition. The quantities of the different constit-
uents gave, as follows:

Al,O, from 34°60 36°28 37°51 38°09 41°25 42°64

xO re 201-2851 29S 82 bile eon Ons amoS
H,O ee 26°82 27°77 28:40. 29°59" 30-2930

S. L. Penfield—Chalcopyrite from Chester Co., Pa. 207

From all this it is evident that the only conclusion which
ean be arrived at at present is that the White Horse Station
“Gibbsite” is a hydrous aluminum phosphate of an unknown
constitution.

8. Atacamite.

Together with the ferric sulphates mentioned under 1, 2 and
3, Prof. Henry A. Ward brought from near Sierra Gorda,
Chili, the most beautiful specimens of atacamite, both in per-
fect crystals and groups of thin laminated crystals, with cleav-
age planes as large as 15x10", and of a deep green color.
Prof. Ward kindly presented me with some of these groups
for analysis. Sp. gr. = 3-740. The analysis gave:

Ratio.
(0) ea ee ee NGAUS ore Cell, sass 5-8 30°58 0°228 1
CuO re tees celearss 73°93 CuORss eee yaS)IL 0°630 3
EG OR ase 13°58 ES OPE esata 13°58 0°754 3
103°69
Less O for Cl___ 3°64
100°05

This closely agrees with: CuCl,. 3Cu(OH),.

Chemical Laboratory, 111 8. 10th street,
Philadelphia, May 11th, 1890.

Art. XX V.—Chalcopyrite crystals from the French Creek
lron Mines, St. Peter, Chester Co., Pa.; by 8. L. PENFIELD.

DuRING the past year some very unusual and interesting
chalcopyrite crystals have been taken from the French Creek
mines which are so unlike any that have thus far been de-
scribed that they seem worthy of special notice. The author’s
attention was first called to them in the fall of 1889, by Mr.
James Matters, superintendent of the mines, who has kindly
furnished him with a number of interesting crystals, not only
of this mineral, but also of pyrite,* as well as with a descrip-
tion of their mode of occurrence. The author takes great
pleasure in acknowledging his indebtedness to Mr. Matters, and
also to Messrs. C. 8S. Bement and Geo. L. English of Phila-
delphia, Pa., for the loan of interesting crystals from their own
private collections.

The crystals which are frequently over one centimeter in
diameter are built out in all directions and occur either in cal-
cite, from which they can seldom be obtained without being
broken, or in a fine fibrous or compact scaly material.. The

* Curiously developed Pyrite crystals: this Journal, IIT, xxxvii, 209.

208 S. L. Penfield—Chalcopyrite from Chester Co., Pa.

fine fibrous mineral is insoluble in acids, fuses like hornblende
and is probably a variety of that mineral called byssolite; the
compact scaly mineral is soluble in hydrochloric acid, fuses
B. B. at about 3 to a black magnetic globule, contains only
traces of magnesia, gives abundant water in the closed tube
and is probably thuringite. The byssolite and thuringite
fill cavities or pockets in the magnetic iron ore and are at
times thickly beset with crystals of both chalcopyrite and
pyrite, while again large quantities of the material may be
examined without finding any. Most of the chalcopyrite erys-
tals have the characteristic brass-yellow color, while some show
a purple tarnish, and others are coated with a black oxide.
The crystal faces are always striated parallel to their intersec-
tion with the positive and negative unit sphenoids, frequently
causing a rounding or distortion of the crystals and entirely
unfitting them for exact measurement on the goniometer.

The simplest type of crystal is the sphenoid 7, 332, 3 fig. 1.
The angle of 7A 7, 832,332 measured approximately 130°, cal-
culated from c = 0:9856, 128° 52’. This same sphenoid 7 is at
times found with its solid angles modified by the faces of a
tetragonal scalenohedron a, fig 2. By placing the arms of a
contact goniometer along the longer pole edges of the scaleno-

hedron it was found that they made an angle of about 155°,
from which it was calculated that the sphenoid 116,-4, would
truncate the edges, while the vertical striations on the faces
indicated their probable oscillation with the unit sphenoid, 111.
By a combination of zones it was found that 576, 7—4,
would satisfy these conditions, and although it is not at all cer-
tain that this is the true symbol, fig. 2 gives one a fair idea of
the habit of the crystals.

A very common type is represented in fig. 3. The sphenoid
gy varies much in inclination in different crystals, in some it is
nearly vertical like a prism, in others inclined almost as much
as the 2 sphenoid 7. It is not at all certain, therefore,
whether it is a prism, which tapers owing to oscillations with

S. L. Penfield—Chalcopyrite from Chester Co., Pa. 209

the positive sphenoid, or not. The faces are usually very little
rounded or distorted by the striations and in the majority of
cases have an inclination of gAg = about 25° measured over
the base with a contact goniometer, agreeing closely with a 2
sphenoid, which is the inclination given in the figure. The
scalenohedron y is also much striated, and by placing the arms
of a contact goniometer along the longer and shorter pole
edges in a number of cases it was found that they made angles
of about 140° and 90°, agreeing with the form 122, 1-2, in
which the pole edges would meet at angles of 141$° and 874°,
and which is the symbol given to these faces in the figure. It
is possible, however, that the faces are really pyramids of the
second order which have been distorted by oscillatory combina-
tions with the positive unit sphenoid 111. A basal plane,
which is not shown in the figure, is frequently developed. <A
slight modification of this type is represented in fig. 4, where
the ~ and y faces are about equally developed. When the
basal planes, c, are present they are always striated parallel to
their intersection with the negative sphenoid 111 as in the fig-
ure. When the base is absent the crystals look almost exactly
like the hemihedral form of the isometric trigonal-trisoctahe-
dron z (122) 3(2), and there is no appreciable difference in the
appearance or inclination of the ¢g and y faces.

On some of the crystals the positive and negative sphenoid
p, 111, 1 and p’, 111, —1, are well developed and give sharp
reflections, while they also oscillate with other faces, giving rise
to striation. Fig. 5 is intended to represent these crystals, a
number of which were measured in hopes of finding definite
symbols for the sphenoids and scalenohedrons. Measuring from
p, \11 over the base on to p, 111, no distinct reflections were
observed except from p and ¢, but on continuing the revolution
of the crystal on the goniometer beyond p, 111, there immedi-
ately followed an unbroken band of signals without any interrup-
tion or prominent parts between p and m 110. From this it may
be assumed, that in all probability, the striated phenoids ¢ are

210 S. L. Penfield—Chalcopyrite from Chester Vo., Pa.

prisms which have been very symmetrically tapered by oscilla-
tions with the positive unit sphenoid. Measuring in the zone
between p, 111 and p’ 111, starting from p there followed an
unbroken band of signals which continued for about 35°, that
is, from p, 111 to a pyramid of the second order e, 101, after
which no reflection was obtained till p’ was reached. From
this it may be assumed that there is probably no definite
sphenoid in this zone and that y which we have assumed as
122, 1-2, results from the oscillations of e, 101 with p 111.
Some of the accurate measurements between p, p’ and ¢ are as
follows:

Times Limiting
measured. measurements. Average. Calculated.
pac 1114001 5 5° 47-5 4° 217 54° 197 54° 20”
joy Wat esa 5 70° 2’-70° 22/ 70° 10’ 70° 8”

Twin crystals are not rare, the twinning plane being always
a unit sphenoid. ‘'T'wo erystals with the habit shown in fig. 3,
if symmetrically twinned about 111, would appear as is fig. 6,
with one projecting through the other, while in reality all
which have been observed show a slight modification and
adaptation in that the shorter pole edge of one individual is a
continuation of the longer pole edge of the twinned erystal,
fig. 7. The striations and lettering are the same as in figs. 3
and 4. <A still more interesting twin is represented in fig. 8,
where the principal crystal is a combination of a unit prism, 7,
and a pyramid of the second order, ¢, equally developed. In
the upper, front, right hand octant three faces of a twinned in-
dividual occur, let into the principal crystal, as shown in the
figure, while on both individuals the basal planes are present.
To represent the crystal 111 has been taken as the twinning

Ue 8. 9.

plane. On the reverse side the crystals show no penetration,
and only three faces occur, one of which is a prism and two
pyramids of the second order, these are equally developed, are
striated parallel to their intersection with the unit sphenoid,
and have their angles slightly modified owing to this oscillatory
combination. These twins do not seem to be very rare and are

C. EF. Beecher—Koninckina and elated. Genera. 211

symmetrically developed. Looked at in the direction of the
twinning axis they have an hexagonal outline, showing a short
hexagonal prism of the second order in combination at one end
with a simple rhombohedron and at the other with two rhom-
bohedrons in twin position. This adaptation of a hemihedral
tetragonal mineral to hexagonal, rhombohedral symmetry is
certainly very remarkable and reminds one of the tendency of
the isometric copper to develop in a similar way.*

Fig. 9 represents a crystal with very remarkable habit, which
is in the Bement collection. It is striated, rounded and oxi-
dized, so that only a general habit is preserved, which reminds '
one at first of a complicated fourling. No twinning, however,
could be detected and a simple distortion or elongation of the
form shown in fig. 4 in the direction of the octahedral axes
seems to explain this curious development. For simplicity
sake the figure was drawn on isometric axes with a parameter
a:a:2a. A less symmetrical development of this same kind
gives rise at times to very curious forms.

Pyrite and chalcopyrite crystals occur intimately associated
with one another at the locality. Some of the latter are coated,
in part, with a very thin layer of pyrite crystals, but no definite
orientation of the two erystals could be detected. It is cer-
tainly very remarkable to find at this one locality pyrite erys-
tals imitating tetragonal and orthorhombic symmetryt and
chaleopyrite imitating isometric and hexagonal-rhombohedral
symmetry.

Mineralogical Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School,

New Haven, April, 1890.

Art. XX VI.—Honinckina and related Genera ; by CHARLES
E. BeecHer, Ph.D. (With Plate IT.)

DurinG the year 1864, Professor O. C. Marsh made exten-
sive collections from the celebrated locality, St. Cassian, in the
Upper Trias of the Tyrol. All these specimens he has recently
placed in the hands of the writer for investigation. They
have been examined at the present time with special reference
to the brachiopods, which form one of the interesting groups
of this remarkable fauna.

The series of specimens representing the peculiar genera,
Koninckina and Amphiclina are rich in numbers and complete,
in the later stages of growth, besides furnishing some younger
shells, which exhibit a few phases in development of consider-
able interest and importance. A critical study has resulted in

* This Journal, III, xxxii, 419. + Loc. cit.

212 CO. EF. Beecher—Koninckina and related Genera.

ascertaining for the first time, so far as known, the true char-
acter of the internal brachial supports. They have been quite
fully determined for Aoninckina, and their presence is here
first demonstrated in the genus Am uphiclina.

Koninchina Suess, 1853.—The general form and characters
of this genus, as represented in the type species (A. Leonhardi
Wissmann sp.), have been so frequently described by various
authors as to necessitate no restatement in this place. The
features which require further consideration are: the develop-
ment of the hinge and beak, the internal calcareous brachial
supports, the development of the spiral lamellee, and the interior
of the dorsal valve.

The beak has uniformly been described as imperforate and
the hinge without an area.* This statement has come from
the examination of fully mature individuals measuring 5™™ and
upwards in length, in which these characters are so obscure, or
involved, as to escape notice, without having previously eare-
fully noted the characters presented by the young. In speci-
mens 5™™ or less in length, the enrollment of the beak has not
proceeded so far, and a study may be made of its principal
features, proving ‘the existence of the parts said to be wanting,
and bringing the genus into more general harmony with the
articulates.

Figure 3 shows the umbonal and hinge characters which ean
be observed in a specimen about 4™ in length. The initial
dorsal valve is shaded in the figure, and is ‘the only convex
portion of the valve, as succeeding growth produces a concave
shell, making the concavity very pronounced in full-grown
shells. It is evident that the growth-stages between the con-
vex and concave form were much accelerated, as the line of
- demarkation is abruptly outlined with the completion of the
nepioni¢ stage.

The hinge i is narrow, extending to the cardinal extremities.
In the center is a triangular area, partially closed by a slight
deltidial growth or deflection at the mar eins, and the apex of
the ventral valve is perforate. The dorsal valve shows a much
narrower hinge, and under the beak a slight callosity extend-
ing into the openeates below. It will at once be noticed
that the young, or neologic, stages of growth in Koninckina
correspond to the adult, or ephebolic, conditions in Amphiclina

and HKoninckella.

* Classification der Brachiopoden von Thos. Davidson, E. Suess, 1856, p. 93,
‘keine Area; kein Deltidium; keine Durchbohrung am Schnabel.” Manuel de
Conchyliologie (Fischer) Brachiopodes by D. Cthlert,*1887, p. 1292, ‘Sans aréa
ni deltidium.”

aoe

O. E. Beecher—Koninckina and related Genera. 213

It is further evident that the extremely young, or nepionic
shell, in all these genera, was biconvex in form, and furnished
with a well developed area and opening for the protrusion of
the pedicle, thus agreeing with the conclusions reached by J.
M. Clarke and the author in a study of Silurian brachiopods.*

The perforation persists to maturity, but does not present
any increase in size, and is probably of little functional im-
portance. No additional increase takes place in the hinge area,
so that the final development of these parts may be considered
as completed in the early neologic period, subsequent to which,
the enrollment of the beak serves more or less to conceal them.

The calcareous spiral lamellee were first worked out. by
Professor H. Suesst (see fig. 1), but the vascular markings
and spiral impressions on the interior of
the valves had been well described and
illustrated before by Dr. Woodward.t

Nothing has been added since, except
the important discovery made by Herr
Zugmayer,$ that the Jamellze are double,
both in the type species and in another
form from the Hallstatt Beds.

The attachment of the primary lamelle
to the hinge plate is by two slender, diverg-
ing crure, rising from the cardinal pro- Figure 1.—Koninckina Le-
cesses nearly at right angles to the plane onhardi Wissm. Spiral
of the margin of the dorsal valve (see figs. [Amel and pee
8 and 9). From their distal ends, the He
primary lamelle originate and extend directly forward for a
short distance, and then are abruptly curved laterally, and
gently downward, forming the beginnings or bases of the
spiral cones. At the point of curvature, two processes are
given off, which are marked at their origin by a notch, thence
extending inward, they are united at the central line forming
the loop (figs. 5 and 8). The anterior portion of the loop is
supported or articulated with the median septum of the dorsal
to the apex of the cone. Both lamelle are free, and disposed
then closely follow the four volutions of the primary lamelle
the loop. They make an anterior curve in the middle, and
are apparently connected with, the center of the ventral side of
_ The secondary or accessory lamelle take their origin at, and
valve, making a distinct facet, indicated by a, fig. 7.

*Memoirs N. Y. State Museum, vol. i, No.1, Oct., 1889. The Development
of some Silurian Brachiopoda, p. 83.

+ Loc. cit., p. 83, tab. iii, fig. 250.

¢ Manual of the Mollusca, p. 231, 1854.

$ Noted by Davidson in British Fossil Brachiopoda. General Summary, p. 368,
1884. :

Au. Jour. Sct.—TuirpD Serius, Vou. XL, No. 237.—Sxrpt., 1890.

14

214. OC. EF. Beecher—Koninckina and related Genera.

at an angle of about thirty degrees with each other, opening
toward the ventral side (fig. 6), On account of the shallow
and deeply concave region occupied by the entire animal, the
coils necessarily are directed ventrally, and the height of the
cone is very slight. As actually measured in a specimen (fig.
6), the diameter of the cone of spiral lamelle is 3°6™™ and its
height is about 1™™.

Figure 10 illustrates a small translucent specimen, showing
the form and disposition of the spiral ribbon at this period of
growth. No fact of special consequence is exhibited, except
that the development of the spiral apparently agrees with that
adduced for other genera. It will be noticed also, that the
comparative area occupied by the simple coil of one and one-
half volutions is as great as that in a mature specimen in which
the number of volutions has increased to four.

The spiral impressions and vascular lines on the interior of
the body of the dorsal valve have been so often studied and
illustrated that there only remain for consideration the special
features within the beak and umbonal regions. On account of
the smallness of the specimens and the partial obscurity of some
of the markings, all the details which should be observed have
not satisfactorily been made out, and this is especially true of
the muscular scars, as no well-defined muscular areas can be
detected in the specimens examined. It is supposed, however,
that the poorly defined regions, indicated by a in fig. 7, at the
ends of the vascular trunks v, represent the adductor scars, but
they are so involved with the septum and vascular markings as
to be very indeterminable. The septum s begins at the beak,
and is angular over the umbonal region, and rounded over the
body of the valve, terminating in the anterior third of the
length of the shell. At « is indicated the articular indentation
for the loop, as previously mentioned. The two widely diver-
gent cardinal processes 7 become merged into the general sur-
face of the valve before reaching the hinge extremities. Under
their apices are situated the dental sockets 6, and on the sum-
mits above are the bases of the processes supporting the rib-
bons.

Some notice should be taken of the species described by
Swallow as Koninckina Americana* from the Kaskaskia
group, since it is the only American form which has been re-
ferred to the genus. Only the ventral valve was observed,
and was described as having a punctate shell structure, and a
“few short depressed spines near the borders,” neither of
which characters are found in Honinckina, but are so evidently
productoid in their nature that the species probably should be

* Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, vol. ii, p. 94, 1863.

~
_———

C. E. Beecher—Koninckina and related Genera. 215

placed with Productus. In the same paper, Swallow describes
a Productus with a like specific designation (P. Americanus),
and to avoid duplication, the name Productus Swallovi is here
proposed for the species described as Aoninchina Americana.

Amphiclina, Laube, 1865.*—This genus agrees very closely
in all its essential features with Aoninchina, so far as can be
observed from the material studied. The hinge and beak char-
acters, represented in fig. 2, differ little from those shown by
the young of Koninckina, except that the area is higher, and
the deltidial plates well developed. This last condition is ex-
plained by the erect position of the beak, which in that genus
is so much ineurved as to prevent the normal growth of delti-
dial plates.

Nearly ail well-preserved specimens, both of the type species
A. dubia Miinster and A. Swessi Laube show distinctly the
existence of spirals, and several sections have been made pre-
senting features similar to those represented in fig. 6 of
Koninckina, in which the primary and secondary lamelle and
the position of the apex of the cone are well displayed. Fig.
1 is of a young specimen in which the lamellee on the left side
have become displaced so that a double series of spirals results,
while on the right side they are superimposed in their usual
position. Fully matured individuals have four volutions in
the ribbon as in the preceding genus. The attachments of the
lamellze could not be made out distinctly, but they apparently
offer no peculiar features.

From the position and size of the spiral cones, it is evident
that the impressions described by Laube (loc. cit.) as muscular
sears, on the interior of the dorsal valve, must be otherwise con-
sidered ; and it is naturally inferred that they represent ridges
and furrows limiting the brachial regions, the diverging cardi-
nal processes, and the vascular impressions. The parts about
the interior of the dorsal beak agree with those represented in
fig. 7 for the preceding genus.

It is therefore apparently necessary to deal with Amphiclina
and Koninckina as very closely related forms, and undoubtedly
belonging to the same patronymic group.

The first consideration of genera related to this group
naturally deals with such forms as have previously been
grouped with the Koninckinide. Only the classifications pro-
posed by a few of the leading authorities need be discussed in
this place.

Davidson, in his Introduction to the Classification of the
Brachiopoda, 1851-54, p. 92, proposed the family Koninckin-

* Die Fauna der Schichten von St. Cassian, II Abtheilung, p. 28, 1865.

216 OC. E. Beecher—Koninckina and related Genera.

ide for the single genus Aoninchina. The same author, in
1884, published a tabular classification in the General Summary
to the British Fossil Brachiopoda, p. 354, in which, under the
family Spiriferacea, the sub-family Koninckinidee is given con-
taining the three genera Anoplotheca, Koninckina, and Kon-
inckella.

Woodward, in the Manual of the Mollusca (1854), placed
Koninckina as a sub-genus under Strophomena in the family
Orthidze, and also include Davidsonia in the same group.

Dall, in 1877,* included Koninckina, Anoplotheca, and pro-
visionally Davidsonia, in the family Atrypidee.

The classification of Waagent+ resembles that proposed by
Dall, but under the Atrypidee he includes Koninckina, Ano-
plotheca, and Koninckella in the sub-family Koninckinine.

Zittel{t arranges Anoplotheca, Koninckina, and Thecospira
under the Koninckinide, and also places Amphiclina and
Davidsonia with the Strophomenide.

Finally, Gthlert, in 1887 (loc. cit., p. 1291, et seq.), adopts
the family Koninckinide, putting it between the Strophomen-
ide and Spiriferidz, and including the genera: ? Davidsonia
Bouchard-Chautereaux, 1847; Aoninckina Suess, 18523; s. 2.
Anoplotheca Sandberger, 1856; Honinckella Munier-Chalmas,
1884; ¢ Amphiclina Laube, 1866; ? Thecospira Zugmayer,
1880; and ? Celospira Hall, 1863.

This grouping is the most comprehensive of those cited, as
it adopts all the genera which have previously been placed in-
timately with Honznchina, and besides, it includes the addi-
tional genera Amphiclina and Celospira, although the former
was thus correlated by Davidson, but not included in his gene-
ral tabular classification as the presence of spires had not then
been shown.

In treating the various members of this family as defined
and limited by Cthlert, we believe that the general idea of the
group, as expressed by the characters of the leading genus, is a
comprehensive one, but there are yet some discordant and un-
certain elements. Also, a more discriminating diagnosis may
now be given, and the relations of the family (or sub-family) to
other important groups become more apparent while its genetic
history is more or less clearly indicated.

Of course, much depends upon the taxonomic value which is
to be allowed to the various features of the shell, and in the
present instance we shall endeavor, in the main, to follow the
rank generally adopted by recent authorities.

* Bulletin U. S. National Museum, No. 8. Index to the names which have
been applied to the subdivisions of the class Brachiopoda, p. 78, 1877.
+ Geological Survey of India. Carboniferous fossils of the Salt Range, p. 447,

1883.
¢ Handbuch der Palzontologie, I Bd., p. 680, 1876-80.

C. E Beecher—Koninckina and related Genera. 217

_ Before discussing the position held by the genus Davidsonia,

attention is called to the development of the deltidium and
pseudo-deltidium, or pedicle-sheath. It has been shown by J.
M. Clark and the writer (loc. cit.), that all the species, so far
as examined, possessing a true deltidium in the adult state,
show that it was gradually developed in early stages of growth,
by conerescence along the lateral margins of an open triangular
area. Also that all species furnished with a_pedicle-sheath
have it fully developed in the earliest growth-stages which
have been observed for these species, and the subsequent
growth of the individual does not materially alter its general
characters, except that it is sometimes retrogressive, the parts
becoming atrophied or functionally obsolete. A feature of
such importance, and so intimately connected with the em-
bryonal growth of the shell, must be given considerable sig-
nificance in discussing the various genera in which it is present
or absent.

Davidsoniu has always been described as having the area
covered by a pseudo-deltidium, and this is the first objection to
the grouping of the genus with Aoninckina and Amphiclina.
So tar as known, the arms were not supported by a calcareous
ribbon, but were fleshy and perhaps movable, as in /?hyn-
chonella, and furthermore, no true spire-bearing form has yet
been shown to have a pedicle-sheath. With our present in-
formation, exception must be made for Zhecospira, but farther
investigation in that genus may result in proving it to have
deltidial plates, as has been accomplished in Spirifer and Spir-
iferina,* -although these genera have commonly been de-
scribed as having a pseudo-deltidium, as in strophomenoid
- shells. The muscular system of Davidsonia corresponds more
closely with the Strophomenide and Productide than with
spire-bearing genera, and in view of these facts collectively we
reject Davidsonia from the Koninckinine.

The genus Aoninckella should remain as placed, as all its
characters harmonize with those included in our present un-
derstanding of the leading genus of the group. Formerly the
presence of a well-developed hinge area and pedicle perfora-
tion in this genus did not agree with the characters ascribed
to Koninckina, but this objection is now removed.

Of the three remaining genera little of a positive nature
can be stated without further examination of material. The
descriptions and figures of Anoplotheca which have been given
are not sufficient to exclude the genus nor to show that it
actually belongs here. Coelospira, however, has been clearly
shown by Davidson to be closely related to Atrypa and Zygo-

* Development of some Silurian Brachiopoda, pp. 78-89.

218 C. F.. Beecher—Koninckina and related Genera.

spirda, and this position is further fortified by recent investi-
gation. TLhecospira has been mentioned as furnishing an
apparently abnormal character in the presence of a pedicle-
sheath, to which should be added its condition of fixation by
the ventral valve, and the punctate shell structure. Otherwise
the features described and illustrated by Zugmayer appear to
agree in all essential particulars with Honinckina.

Therefore, it is believed, that the genera Davidsonia and
Celospira should be omitted from the family, and that The-
cospira and Anoplotheca should be allowed to remain tenta-
tively until further information is obtainable.

The relations of the genus Aayserra (Davidson, 1882,) to
this group have previously been discussed simply with refer-
ence to the duplicate nature of the spirals,* but from what
has been shown regarding the attachments and the loop of the
primary lamelle, as well as the articulation with the dorsal
septum, and the additional hinge characters in Honinckina,
further important relationships may be adduced which it is
believed will remove Aayseria from the Athyrinee, and )lace
it with the forms treated of in the present paper. In a recent
study of Aayseria, the writer has found no particular in which
to change the details of the spirals so completely determined
by the Rev. N. Glass for Mr. Davidson.t The only additional
features to be noted are relative to the shell, and consist of a
collosity under the dorsal beak forming the median septum,
the well-developed cardinal processes, and the impunctate
structure of the test. A comparison in the light of those
facts reveals a striking similarity in most of the important
features.

The position of this group in the last systematic arrange-
ment of families and genera proposed by Davidson now seems
to belong, not at the end of the Spiriferacee as placed, but
immediately following the Athyrinee and preceding the Atry-
pine. It is not necessary in this place to discuss the merits of
these groups to rank as families, and the importance accredited
to them by Davidson is here retained.

Sub-family Honinchinine, emend.— Diagnosis. Ventral valve
perforate and with a hinge area, sometimes obscured by
the involution of the beak, with or without deltidial plates.
Dorsal valve with cardinal processes and median septum, upon
some point of which the loop of the primary lamelle articu-
lates. Brachial supports composed of two primary lamellee
connected by a loop from which originate two secondary
lamella, extending to the apex of the spiral and following its

* British Fossil Brachiopoda, General Summary, p. 369, 1884.
+ Ibid., Supplement to the Devonian Brachiopoda, pp. 22-23, 1882.

C. Barus—Kffect of Pressure on Conductivity, etc. 219

volutions. Shell in the principal generaimpunetate. Including
the genera: Koninckina, Koninckella, Amphiclina, Kay-
seria, ? Thecospira, ? Anoplotheca.

Yale University Museum, May 22, 1890.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II,

AMPHICLINA DUBIA Minster, sp.

Figures 1.—Ventral view of translucent specimen, showing attachments of prin-
cipal lamelle to hinge plate and spiral coils. On left side, prim-
ary and secondary lamellz have become separated, making double
spiral. x 6.

FIGURE 2.—Dorsal view, showing nepionic dorsal valve, dorsal callosity, and

hinge area, deltidium and pedicle perforation of ventral valve.
x O

KONINCKINA LEONHARDI Wissmann, sp.

Figure 3.—Cardinal view of portion of young specimen, showing nepionic con-
vex dorsal shell, dorsal callosity, area, and characters of ventral
peal exe Se

FIGURE 4.—Similar specimen, showing slightly different features. x 18.

FIGURE 5.—Dorsal view of bases of the two primary lamelle /, with loop. x 6.

FIGURE 6.—Transverse section through a shell retaining both valves in position,
showing cross sections of the lamelle of spiral ribbon. The con-
tinuous and separate character of the primary and secondary
lamellee, and their inclination to each other, are well represented.
x 6

FIGURE 7.—Posterior view of interior of dorsal valve showing teeth sockets, },
cardinal processes, j, adductor muscular scars. a, main trunk of
vascular impressions, v, septum, s, indentation or articulating sur-
face supporting dorsal edge of loop, # x 6.

FIGURE 8.—Ventral view. showing form and attachments of spiral coils. The
portion of loop and primary lamellee (/) concealed by secondary
lamellee (/’) are represented by dotted lines. x 6.

FiGURE 9.—Cardinal view of coils with ventral side uppermost. showing supports
and attachment of primary lamelle. Secondary lamelle are rep-
resented by heavy black lines. x 6.

FiGuRE 10.—Dorsal view of young translucent specimen, showing form of spirals
at this stage of growth. x 6.

The specimens figured are in the Yale University Museum, and are all from the
Upper Trias, of St. Cassian.

Art. XX VII — The effect of pressure on the electrical conduc-
tivity of liquids ; by C. Barus.

1. By subjecting commercial mercury to pressures between
10 atm. and 400 atm., isothermally, I found —d&/R=30 x 10-°
0P, where —d0R/f is the decrement of the specific electrical
‘ resistance /?, corresponding to the pressure increment dP.
If v is the symbol of volume, then from results of Grassi and
others,* —dv/v=3X10-*0P. Hence d&/R=10 dv/v.

* By using the later results of Amaury and Descamps, Amagat, Tait, I should
not materially change the remarks of the text.

220 C. Barus—Lifect of Pressure on the

If @ be the symbol of temperature, the following approxi-
mate results apply isopiestically, a ordinary temperatures
and pressures: 02’/R’=800X 10-6 00; dv/v=180x10-8 60.
Hence 0f’/R’=4- “4 dv/v, where 2’ ee to electrical resist-
ance considered in its thermal relations.

2. Again by subjecting a concentrated solution of zine sul-
phate to pressures between 10 atm. and 150 atm., isothermally,
I found less accurately, -OR/R=50 10-5 dP. The other
relations corresponding to the above must be estimated:
— 0v/v=50X10°* bP, —dL’/R’=04 00, and dv/v=200 08.
The chief magnitudes are here different in order and even in
sign from those applying for mercury. For this reason the
estimate made is sufficient for the following remarks.

3. The liquids were compressed in capillar y glass tubes, and
allowance made for the volume changes of lass. In ease of
mercury I used a tubular steel piezometer of special construc-
tion, contains filamentary glass tubes. In most of the ex-
periments the steel tube was surrounded by a jacket of ciren-
lating cold water; but this precaution was not found essential.

To save space I will lump my results in a graphic diagram.
With mercury I made eight series of measurements, using two
different Bourdon gauges s for pressure measurement. The first
of these was graduated between zero and 300 atm., and the
other between zero and 1000 atm. The chart, in which the

observations corresponding to the different series are num-
bered, shows the gauges to have been in satisfactory accord.
Otherwise there would be some obvious divergence between
the data of series 1 to 6 made with the first gauge, and those
of series 7 to 8, wade with the other gauge.

The ate is easily intelligible. The abscissas denote either
pressures in atmospheres, or volume decrements per unit of
volume. The ordinates are the corresponding decrements or
increments of electrical resistance per unit of resistance. The
curves for compression are in full lines and may be codrdin-
ated either with pressure, or with volume decrement. The
curves for thermal changes of resistance (0/’//’) are given in
broken lines and can only be codrdinated with volume decre-
ment. All the loci are nearly linear, seeing that the pressure
interval is less than 400 atmospheres.

4. An inspection of the chart shows at once, that to bring
the compression loci into coincidence with the thermal loci,
the former must be rotated around the origin in a direction
contrary to the hands of a watch. The angle of rotation is con-
siderably greater for zine sulphate solution, than it is for mer-
cury. From this follows the remarkable ‘result, that both in
the case of the metal and of the electrolyte, the effect of
isothermal compression is a decrement of resistance nearly pro-

Hlectrical Conductivity of Liquids.

(|

n s

Zz

— had:

007

700

000

300 x10°

- 0071

ae : 300 Mon 40

|
900 10° -6 wf 1200

— 002

- 003

— ool

— 010)

- ons

221

x10°

Decrements of electrical resistance, in terms of volume decremeuts.

222 O. Barus—kffect of Pressure on Conductivity, ete.

portional to pressure; and by deduction. that the immediate
electrical effect of rise of temperature, 02’/R’—dR/R, is a
decrement of specific resistance both in the case of the metal
(Hg) and of the electrolyte (ZnSO,+Aq.). This points out an
inherent similarity between the metallic and the electrolytic
conduction, in this instance.

5. In J. J. Thomson’s expression for specific resistance
R=c=(22 8/K) (¢/me«), suppose to fix the ideas, that PB, K
and g are constant; whereas m, the number of molecules split-
ting up per unit of volume per unit of time, and « the distance
passed over by the partial molecule moving at a mean velocity
c during the interval of freedom 7, are regarded variable.
Clearly « can not be independent of m. Taking active mole-
cules alone into consideration, supposing them to be symmetri-

eally distributed and to move parallel to each other, = V1/mdt.
It follows that R=(2z7 8¢/K) x’/c. This is in accord with the
above data. Reduction of volume, —dv/v, isothermally by
pressure, diminishes # only. Reduction of volume isopiesti-
cally by cooling, diminishes both « and c. Hence the greater
diminution of / in the former instance (pressure). Finally,
by partial differentiation under the given conditions (€d2/dm)
=—(4z2 Bg/3K) t/m*. From this it may be conjectured
(conjectured because ¢ and m are not independent of each
other), that the effect on “2 of an additional number of mole-
cules splitting up, decreases rapidly with the total number, m,
splitting up; i. e. that the numeric of the immediate electrical
effect of temperature, 0/?’/f’—d//e, is smaller for the metal
than for the electrolyte. This also is in accord with the above
data.

6. For solids I have only found available data in the case of
copper. According to Chwolson,* —éd&/A=13x107° OP.
From Everett’s tables —dv/v="6x 10-* dP. Hence 0&/R=
20v/v. On the other hand 02’/R’=-004 00, and dv/v=
52x 10-° 00, whence 0R’/f’=77 dv/v. Hence 0R/R—-OR'/L’
is negative in case of the solid metal. Comparing with $65 it
appears that d/#@/dm probably passes through zero into a nega-
tive region, in proportion as the number of paths which the
current can take is indefinitely increased.

* Chwolson: Carl’s Rep., xiv, p. 26, 1878. Jn case of mercury, the only

kindred results I found are due to Lenz (Stuttgart, 1882). But they are unfortu-
nately inaccessible.

E. FE. Howell—Meteorite from Hamilton Co., Texas. 223

Art. XX VIII.—WNotice of two new Iron Meteorites from
Hamilion Co., Texas, and Puquios, Chir, 8. A.; by
Epwin E. Howe...

1. Tar Hamitton Co. METEORITE.

In June of last year we secured from Professor Edgar Kver-
hart, of the University of Texas, an iron meteorite which,
he wrote us, was found in Erath Co. of that State. It appears,
however, that the iron was really found in the northern part of
Hamilton, the adjoining county.

Mr. J. D. St. Clair, of Alexander, Erath Co., who as agent
for the discoverer, sold the meteorite to Professor Everhart,
has kindly furnished me with the following facts. In April,
1887, while plowing in his field about five miles south of Oarl-
ton, "Hamilton Co., Texas, Mr. Frank Kolb struck with his
plow what he at first supposed was a stone, but which proved
to be the meteorite in question. Whether or not he had any
idea of its true nature does not appear, but he seems to have
kept it about a year before turning it over to Mr. St. Clair to
sell it for him.

Hamilton County Meteorite, $ natural size.

When the meteorite reached us it weighed 179 Ibs. (814 kilos),
and was entire with the exception of a few ounces cut off by
Professor Everhart for analysis, which he seems not to have
had time to complete. The thinner end had been pounded
considerably and some small fragments may have been detached
so that when found the weight might possibly have been 180
lbs. The two greatest dimensions are 17$ and 13 inches
(44 33 centimeters).

The general form is well shown in the accompanying cut,
the underside is smoother and less sharply pitted than the

224. EF. EF. Howell—Meteorite from Puquios, Chili.

upper side, which was probably the forward portion during
the latter part of its flight, but the iron although very little
oxidized shows none of the characteristic strize and ridges seen
in irons that have recently fallen.

The amount of troilite found in cutting the iron is not great,
and seems to be all distributed in comparatively thin narrow
plates, no nodules having been seen. The largest example is
6 inches in length and less than 4 inch in average thickness,
with an unknown width of certainly over 24 inches. It is
quite irregular in outline and terminates at one end in a star
with points about $ inch long. This form, which is very sug-
gestive of certain crystallizations of mareasite, seems to be quite
persistent, showing substantially the same in different sections
for 24 inches without any indication of coming to an end, any
more than the plate with which it is connected.

The Widmanstitten figures are brought out with remarkable
quickness on the application of very dilute acid, and are sur-
passed in beauty by no iron with which I am familiar. They
resemble somewhat the markings on the Trenton and Mum-
freesboro irons, but more closely those of the Descubridora.
The lines are thinner, however, and the inclosed figures smaller
and more elongated, being in many parts a mere thread 5 to 8™™
in length. In this respect different parts of the same section
vary greatly. Some of the inclosed figures are beautifully
marked with the fine lines noted by Dr. J. Lawrence Smith
first on the Trenton iron and called by him Laphamite mark-
ings.

The analyses of this and the following iron have been kindly
furnished by Mr. L. G. Eakins of the U. 8. Geological Survey,
through the courtesy of Professor F. W. Clarke, chief chemist.
Analysis by L. G. Eakins.

t= oes ee tenes ah argo Mpa eth Fee sai SP Soh av as Sets 86°54
AN Reese Pees eee ae Megan ne se a SR LT ne 12°77
(O(a peer cae ea eee Riese eS ed irre ath ae 0°63
OAD at Reams ie ose RPP MR eer Ts A er 0:02
lene Rene Sete pe NN eres RI POL ES AS Oh see Sg OS 0-16
ea ecg en ee eB eR EME cee Roget Fae Ls SL 0:03
(Sa aa ek ES Ga a Se re ey O11

100°26

Specific gravity 7:95 at 27°.
2. Tor Puquios, Caimi, MerTreorirte.

This iron was purchased by Professor Ward from the wife
of Enrique Ravenna at Copiapo, Chili, April 26th, 1889.
According to Sefora Ravenna’s statements it was found by her
husband four or five years before—probably in 1884, near
Puquios, and had been kept by them until secured for the
Ward and Howell collection. i

E. EF. Howell— Meteorite from Puquios, Chili. 225

The iron reached us in an absolutely perfect condition. It
had apparently lain for a considerable time half buried in the
soil with its upper surface exposed to the weather and drifting
sand which combined to bring out the structure of the iron
without oxidization, making an exceedingly interesting and
attractive object.

Puquios Meteorite, $ natural size. The line a, 0}, indicates where section was
made,

The general form of the meteorite is such as might result
from the wearing away of a rhombic prism, one end wearing
thinner than the other. (See accompanying cut.) The surface
is unusually smooth, showing only a few shallow pittings.
The two largest diameters are 10 and 54 inches (253 14 cen-
timeters), and the weight was 14 lbs. 7} ozs., or a trifle over 64
kilos.

Although the surface of this iron is unusually interesting,
the interior proves to be still more so. The etched sections
show that the mass has been subjected to fracture and disloca-
tion, resulting in a distinct and undoubted “faulting” of the
Widmanstiitten figures, and of the troilite. Most of these
faults are so small and faint that they cannot be reproduced in
an illustration, but are clearly seen with a pocket lens. The
following cut of one of the etched sections, # natural size,
and produced by photographic process, shows three of these
lines of faulting which is the especially interesting feature of
this meteorite. So far as | am aware these are the first faults
noted in an iron meteorite.

The novelty of this phenomenon and the exceeding tough-
ness of meteoric iron, making a sharp fault seem almost an
impossibility, require that the evidence of such a fault should
be clear and conclusive before its acceptance as a fact; and
such is fortunately the case. The largest fault is seen in suc-
cessive sections for 24+ inches, or as far as the iron has been
cut, and apparently extends the entire length of the mass, the

226 EF. &. Howell—Meteorite from Puquios, Chili.

throw of this fault is nearly $ of an inch (8™™). Careful ex-
amination reveals some crushing and branching along this line,

Section of Puquios Meteorite, ? natural size.

and other parts of this section and other sections show small
fractures with shght displacements.

These faults are clearly not produced by the impact of its
fall upon the earth, but are a part of its earlier history, and in
the light of some experiments made two years ago with Toluca
iron I would suggest the probability that they were made when
the iron was very hot—perhaps 1 in its passage near the sun. I
found that a piece of Toluca iron, although very tough when
cold would crumble under the hammer when heated to a white
heat. If we assume that the faulting of this meteorite took
place under similar conditions of heat it seems necessary also
to assume a contact with some other body.

The Widmanstitten figures call for no special remarks as
they are sufliciently shown in the illustration. Suffice it to
say that they are produced very readily with weak acid, that
the finer lines inside the figures are unusually well developed,
and are sometimes seen running parallel to the adjacent sides.

Analysis by L. G. Eakins.

RGR ages pupae OA lly aan Mais eer 88°67
Oy fr een ect pete em i RNs (NLA Ls a 9 83
Of0 eatin etna Rien tsa phan nes st sedlcr ORLA Ste Te os Ba or
ia Fa Ane RS es BA ea 04
Dna Ee ed Se Ue ca a a ‘17
Senet SPN Re MPR ew eer oe ume ROE ee “09
NS) Aa eae DORA B RN a eee tr. (2)
Oa eerie etnies. obey ia Meer NINO abet Tl 6k a “04

99°55

J. B. Tyrrell— Cretaceous of Manitoba. 227

Arr. XXIX.— The Cretaceous of Manitoba; by J. B.
TyrRELL, M.A., B.Sc., Geologist on the Geological Survey
of Canada.

STRETCHING northward through the western portion of the
province of Manitoba, the escarpment of the Pembina, Riding,
Duck and Porcupine Mountains has long been known as the
approximate eastern outcrop in that province of the Cretaceous
terranes that underlie the whole country westward to the foot
of the Rocky Mountains. The terranes have also been known
to consists of shales of more or less varied character, and most
of these shales have been considered as representing the Fort
Pierre shales of Meek and Hayden, or the Pierre shales of
the Canadian geologists.

During the summers of 1887 and 1889 the writer was en-
gaged in field work in northwestern Manitoba, and part of the
time was spent in studying the structure of this escarpment in
the few natural sections cut by the streams flowing eastward
into Lake Winnipegosis, and for a short distance in the banks
of the valleys of the Assiniboine and Bird-Tail Rivers. A few
sections in southern Manitoba were also hastily visited, and the
logs, with typical specimens, were obtained of the well bored
on the north side of the Riding Mountain by the Manitoba Oil
Co., and of the well that is now being drilled at Deloraine in
southwestern Manitoba.

Most of the natural exposures are comparatively low and
disconnected, so that it is rarely possible to obtain the exact
thickness of the different terranes, but the following notes will
give a general idea of the relationships of the different beds,
and an approximate idea of their thickness.

In northwestern Manitoba the Cretaceous rests unconform-
ably on a floor of Paleozoic limestones and dolomites, which,
wherever seen, were found to be of Middle or Upper Devon-
ian age. ‘These limestones are well shown around the shores of
lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis, and are always lying moder-
ately horizontal, but much broken by small faults. The pre-
Cretaceous surface of the limestone is everywhere uneven
having been very severely eroded between Devonian and
Middle Cretaceous times, and as is shown by these irregulari-
ties, the erosion was still in progress up to the time when the
country was immersed in the Cretaceous sea. Besides the
local irregularities the pre-Cretaceous floor is shown by borings
to have a general light slope toward the southwest or west.

The Cretaceous of Manitoba falls very well into the groups
that were first marked out by Messrs. Meek and Hayden, the’
Fox Hills Group being the only terrane that has not yet been

228 J. B. Tyrretl— Cretaceous of Manitoba.

recognized. The following are the groups with their approxi-
mate maximum thicknesses.

aramie ?cc2e Sa Ve a ues 2 rie eee

no eC Odian alia 2.8 seep tee eyes eres 500 feet.
Pleas ( Millwood 24s 2 Se eee HOO
INT OU PATA oes eee cee at nn me APs
Ben Om ee oa ene ee SO Re T(E
Dakotas Seen 5 Ae peke en ie oes eee 200i yes

The Dakotah Group, resting unconformably on the lime-
stones of the Devonian, is composed of white or reddish sand-
stones either cemented by a calcareous matrix or often quite
incoherent, being then an even-grained white quartzose sand.
This grades up into a light green and rather hard sandstone,
commonly interstratified with thin bands of shale.

Very few fossils have been found in this sandstone, and
what have been found are confined to the greenish upper beds.
They consist chiefly of carbonized fragments of wood and conif-
erous leaves; but the following animal remains have also been
collected, viz: Lingula subspatulata ? H. & M., Ostrea con-
gesta, Con., Modiola tenuisculpta, Whit. and eycloid scales of
fishes.*

The terrane can be seen in several exposures along: the foot
of the northern portion of the Cretaceous escarpment, and at
a small island known as Pemican Island in lake Winnipegosis,
forty-four miles east from the foot of the escarpment there are
evidences of the presence of this or the overlying group. The
exposures seen were altogether too few and small to allow of
any exact determination being made of the total thickness of
the group, but on account of the irregularities of the floor on
which it was laid down it certainly varies greatly even in short
distances. Near the northwest end of Lake Winnipegosis it
has probably a maximum thickness of two hundred feet, while
on the north side of the Riding Mountain, where it was passed
through in the Manitoba Oil Co’s well on Vermillion River,
it has, so far as can be determined from the few specimens at
hand, a thickness of fifty-five feet.

South of this point, which is almost on the line of the 51st
parallel of north latitude, these sandstones have not been
recognized in the province, but as they are again reported as
occurring in Dakota and farther south, they are in all prob-
ability continuous throughout the Cretaceous areas of Manitoba.

Overlying the sandstones of the Dakota, the Benton Group
occurs as a band of dark gray, almost black, shale holding a

* For the determination of all the fossils in the paper, except the Foraminifera

and Radiolaria, I am indebted to Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, the Paleontologist of the
Canadian Geological Survey.

J.B. Tyrrell—Cretaceous of Manitoba. 229

considerable quantity of carbonaceous material. This shale is
evenly bedded and breaks down readily into thin flakes, on
which account it generally forms sloping banks. With the
dark shales are associated thin beds of white soft sweet-tasting
magnesian clay. In the borehole on Vermilion River the Ben-
ton appears to be 130 feet thick, and farther north, on the
face of the Duck and Poreupine Mountains, it continues of
about the same thickness. It is easily recognized, even when
good naked exposures are absent, by its characteristic property
of breaking into more or less minute graphite-like flakes, and
not weathering immediately into a soft clay as usually occurs
in the less consolidated beds of the Pierre.

In the Deloraine well this terrane has been recognized in
specimens from a depth of about 1800 feet. Up to the present
it appears to be quite destitute of fossils, and ironstone or lime-
stone nodules were also only found in one or two localities.

The Niobrara Group conformably overlies and is an upward
extension of the Benton. The character of the rock, however,
instead of being a soft fissile shale with little or no admixture
of calcareous material, is a lighter gray calcareous shale or marl,
sometimes varying to a band of moderately hard limestone.
This is especially the case at the top of the formation where a
band of grayish chalky limestone is generally met with. This
band is often highly charged with pyrite.

The rock throughout is strongly marked by the presence of
a large number of Foraminifera belonging to such genera as
Globigerina, Teatularia, etc., and of the larger fossils a gigantic
Inoceramus is very common, while Ostrea congesta, Belemni-
tella Manitobensis, Ptychodus parvulus, Enchodus Shumardi,
and Cladocyclus occidentalis have also been recognized.

The outcrop of this terrane has already been recorded in
Manitoba by Dr. Dawson from the Boyne River, twenty-five
miles north of the 49th parallel of latitude. Dr. Selwyn has
recognized its occurrence on the Assiniboine River thirty miles
above Portage la Prairie, and Dr. Spencer also discovered it in
the valley of Swan River. South of the 51st parallel of lati-
tude, the Riding Mountain has not been examined, but from
the Ochre River northward, along the face of the Riding, Duck
and Porcupine Mountains, this formation is easily recognized
in the valleys of many of the streams that cut deep gorges
through the drift. It often weathers out in steep or vertical
cliffs and may easily be recognized as a gray calcareous shale
having a more or less mottled appearance from the presence of
large numbers of Foraminifera, and occasionally included bands
of chalky limestone.

Throughout the greater portion of the area it does not

Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XL, No. 237.—Srpr., 1890.
15

230 J. B. Tyrrell—Cretaceous of Manitoba.

exhibit any very great thickness, generally ranging from 100
to 150 feet. In the Manitoba Oil Co’s bore on Vermilion
River it appears to have a thickness of 130 feet. Its total
thickness is very rarely seen, but on North Pine Creek it is
less than 400 feet and possibly is not half that thickness, while
on Bell River on the eastern face of the Porcupine Mountain
it is probably less than 250 feet. In the Swan River Valley,
however, a total thickness of 470 feet in all was seen, and it is
not improbable that the lowest 70 feet was not seen, giving for
this locality a total thickness of 540 feet ; the strata are very
nearly or quite horizontal, and this must be regarded as a local
thickening of the formation.

Grading upward from the top of the Niobrara Group, the
Pierre shales are seen to occupy the summits of all the higher
lands of the Riding, Duck and Porcupine Mountains. In the
Riding Mountain and farther south the Pierre is found to be
moderately well marked off into two subdivisions. The lower
subdivision, which for convenience may be designated the
Millwood Series, is composed of dark gray soft clay shales
very similar to those already described by Dr. Dawson, Mr.
M’Connell and the writer from Alberta and Assiniboia. These
beds are well shown at the village of Millwood on the Assini-
boine River close to the crossing of the Manitoba and North-
western Railway, and here as elsewhere they include a con-
siderable number of septarian nodules of ferruginous limestone.
These nodules hold many beautiful specimens of typical Pierre
fossils, such as Scaphites nodosus var. quadrangularis, Lucina
occidentalis, Baculites compressus, Pteria linguiformis, Ino-
ceramus tenuilineatus, I. Sagensis var. Nebrascensis, Nucula
sp., Lntalis paupercula, Dentalium gracile? elytron of a
small beetle, and fragments of scales of fishes and tests of crus-
taceans. Professor H. Y. Hind has also recorded, probably
from this series, Anomia Hlemingt, Inoceramus Canadensis,
Leda Hindi, Lunatia obliquata, Cinulea concinna, and an
undetermined species of Ammonite.

On the face of the Duck and Porcupine Mountains in the
valleys of North Pine and Bell Rivers, a dark gray clay shale
is exposed about the base of this series, which also contains a
large number of beautifully preserved Radiolaria, chiefly of
the genera Dictyomitra and Sethocapsa? the former genus
being represented by LD). multicostata Zittel, described from
the chalk of Brunswick.

These dark gray clay shales are overlain by a great thickness
of light gray rather hard clay shales which are locally known
as “ slate,’ and which from their typical development at
Odanah, near Minnedosa, on the Little Saskatchewan River
may be called the Odanah Series. Throughout the series are

Bice

J. B. Tyrrell— Cretaceous of Manitoba. 231

many beds of septarian ironstone nodules, but very few of
these nodules are compact like those in the Millwood Series,
but are generally cut by numerous veins of crystalline calcite.
No fossils were found by the writer in these shales.

The cliffs of this terrane generally weather with a more or
less sloping surface, but in railway cuttings or by some streams
where erosion is very rapid, they rise almost vertically, present-
ing a general lead-gray appearance. The beds are also much
fissured, and iron-stains are everywhere seen along the lines of
fissure. On a fresh surface the shale can be readily cut, but it
quickly hardens on exposure to the atmosphere, and the streams
cutting through it have their banks strewn with lenticular peb-
bles derived from it. In some places, as in the valley of the
Little Saskatchewan River, alluvial beds of these pebbles are
being used as ballast for the railway.

The Odanah Series is of considerable economic importance
to the country, as, being very much fissured, it allows water to
flow readily through it, and is thus the source from which
many of the wells in western Manitoba obtain their supply of
water. It is well shown west of the escarpment on both the
Pembina and Riding Mountains, but probably on account of
the paucity of sections, it has not yet been recognized farther
north.

The whole thickness of the Pierre in Manitoba is about 1000
feet. The Millwood Series, as seen on the northern face of
the Riding Mountain, has a thickness of between 450 and 500
feet, while about 300 feet of the overlying Odanah series is
there also seen, reaching near to the summit of the mountain and
being immediately overlain by the drift deposits. The top of
the Odanah series is not seen in the Riding Mountain, but
farther south Dr. Dawson gives the thickness of the upper
portion of his Pembina Mountain group, which represents this
series, as at least 300 feet.*

At the village of Deloraine in southwestern Manitoba and
close to the northern face of the Turtle Mountain, the Tank-
well on the Pembina Mountain branch of the Canadian
Pacific Railway strikes the Odanah shales at a depth of about
90 feet, and a deep well close beside it does not strike the
Niobrara till a depth of 1000 is reached, giving a thickness for
the Pierre of 910 feet. At the foot of the Turtle Mountain a
band of hard gray calcareous sandstone crops out in various
places, and taking this to represent the base of the Laramie,
though no fossils have as yet been recognized from it, the
whole thickness of the Pierre would be given at a little more
than 1000 feet. Considering the Millwood Series as having a

* Report on the Geology and Resources of the 49th Parallel, by G. M. Dawson.
p. 85. Montreal: 1875.

932 L. V. Pirsson—Mordenite.

thickness of 500 feet, a thickness of about 500 feet would
remain for the Odanah Series.

The Laramie has nowhere been recognized in northwestern
Manitoba, the Cretaceous being there immediately overlain by
a great thickness of glacial and post-glacial deposits, and in
southern Manitoba the only place from which it has been
recorded is in Turtle Mountain,* and though the beds here
have since been hastily examined, their thickness has not been
determined. The sandstones of this terrane are associated
with beds of lignite that will furnish valuable local sources of
fuel-supply for Manitoba.

Ottawa, May 1st, 1890.

Art. XX X.—On Mordenite ; by Louis V. Prrsson.

UNDER the name of mordenite in 1864, Howt published a
description of a new zeolite, occurring at Morden and Peter's
Point, Nova Scotia. To this species he assigned the general
formula RO, R,O,, (SiO,), 6H,O. The correctness of this
formula has long been considered doubtful, owing to the high
ratio of silica to the bases and it is supposed ‘that How analyzed
a mixture of some zeolite with silica, more especially as his
mineral did not occur in distinct crystals. It will therefore
be of interest to announce the re-discovery of this interesting
species in a new locality, to present a new analysis of pure
material, proving the correctness of How’s work, together with
a discussion of its composition and a description of its crystal
form and other physical properties.

The material upon which the present work is based I col-
lected in October, 1889, while engaged in temporary field work
on the Yellowstone Park division of the U. 8. Geological Sur-
vey, in western Wyoming. The locality was one of the high
points of the ridge running eastwardly from Hoodoo Moun-
tain, and forming part of the divide between branches of Cran-
dall Creek whose waters run into Clark’s Fork and the head of
the Lamar River or east fork of the Yeliowstone. The locality
is several miles from Hoodoo Mountain. The mordenite
occurs lining the amygdaloidal cavities of a mass of decom-
posed basalt, one of the former inclusions in the basic breccia
forming the ridge. At the time it was unfortunately supposed
to be one of the commonly occurring zeolites and only a small
specimen was secured. Recently, while examining some ma-

* Dr. Selwyn, on Boring Operations in the Souris Valley. Report of Progress,

Geol. Survey of Canada, 1879-80, p. 114.
+ Journal of the Chemical Soc., II, ii, p. 100, 1864.

L. V. Pirsson— Mordenite. 233

terial obtained in that region, this specimen came to light and
as some tests failed to classify it, a complete investigation was
undertaken with the results here presented. In order to obtain
enough material for analysis nearly the whole of the specimen
had to be sacrificed. As the mordenite occurs in very small
erystals, one of average size measuring under the microscope
1°" in height and breadth by about -4™™ in thickness, it would
have been impossible to pick out sufficient pure material for
analysis.

A preliminary specific gravity determination showed it to

be about 2°14 and it was therefore determined to separate it
by means of the Thoulet solution, it being so much lighter
than the pyroxene and other minerals that might be expected
in the basalt. The specimen was therefore crushed fine enough
to pass through an 80 mesh sieve, washed free from dust and
twice separated by the Thoulet solution. In the last operation
the mordenite floated on a solution of 27179, and sank when
the density was lowered to 2°119. Its specific gravity is there-
fore between these two determinations. The density of the
Thoulet solution was taken with a Westphal balance.
' The material thus obtained after washing and drying, proved
on examination under the microscope, to be of exceptional
purity, consisting wholly of crystal fragments, showing charac-
teristic outlines and cleavage, and with no adherent particles
of any foreign substance. The greater part were perfectly
transparent and colorless, occasional fragments showed a very
pale brownish discoloration in spots, as if due to the infiltra-
tion and deposition of a minute amount of iron ore or organic
matter into cleavage cracks. In no respect as to appearance or
their action on polarized light did these latter differ from the
colorless pieces.

A test was again made with the Thoulet solution to ascer-
tain if any difference in specific gravity could be found
between the two. Very careful testing failed to show any
whatever. - Both floated and sank at precisely the same densi-
ties and in precisely the same proportion. Great confidence is
therefore felt in the purity of the material operated upon.
The perfect separation by the Thoulet solution was.no doubt
due to the heavy, crumbly nature of the basalt with which the
mordenite was associated and its own brittleness and low spe-
cific gravity. By this means about one gram of the pure min-
eral was obtained. It was thoroughly washed and dried at
about 70° F. It was then finely powdered and subjected to
analysis. A preliminary test showed that the mineral was
scarcely attacked by boiling hydrochloric acid. The material
was therefore divided into two equal portions and in the first,
which was brought into solution by a mixture of sulphuric and

234 L. V. Pirsson—Mordenite.

hydrofluoric acids, everything was determined except the silica.
The second portion was subjected to a sodium carbonate fusion
and everything determined save the alkalies.

The water was first determined in both portions by ignition.
It was given up and the weight became constant at a moderate
red heat. Before determining the water in No. J, it was found
that the powdered mineral lost about 3°6 per cent of water by
one hour’s exposure to a heat of 100°C. The process for
determining magnesia and the alkalies was as follows. After
separating in No. I, the alumina and ferric oxides -by ammonia
and the lime by ammonium oxalate, the filtrate was evaporated
and ignited gently in a platinum dish until all ammonium salts
were driven off. The residue was then dissolved in a little
water, and a roughly estimated amount of previously puritied
barium hydroxide added. By this means all the sulphuric
acid and magnesia present were thrown down and the alkalies
obtained in the filtrate in a form suitable for conversion into
chlorides and for determination, after the excess of barium
hydroxide had been removed by ammonium carbonate. The
trace of magnesia was then easily separated from the precipitate
of barium sulphate by hydrochloric acid, filtered off and deter-
rained.

The analysis was at all points carried on both as a qualitative
as well as a quantitative one. It yielded the following results.

le lie Mean. Ratio.
SiOn.) ees 266-10; Ges Om eneie nog 1106 9:00
OTE Wiese ey Ola a “1084 sto Se
Fe,O, 62 Be sort 0036
CaO 1:89 1:98 1:94 0346 |
MgO 20 14 17 0042 | ;
K,O S15 Bye eee 3-58 6379.0) tie
NO. Bh 2°27 0366 | 7
CO) Ie een ean 7394-7894 6-01
Motalk ss eses . oeal

From these ratios it will be seen that the mineral agrees
closely with How’s general formula RO, A1,O,(Si0,),6H,O and
if the slight amount of magnesia is taken as ‘replacing lime it is
evident that the protoxide | ‘bases are CaO: Na 50. KO ep ciepieale
The composition is then (4K,O, 4Na,O, 4Ca0) Al 0), (SiO,),
6H,O. In the type of mordenite ‘analyzed by How there was
only a slight trace of potash, and his composition showed
(4Na,O, 2Ca0) Al,O, (SiO,), 6H,O and in the present mineral
one molecule of K,O ‘replaces one of CaO in How’s type. The
ratios show a slight deficiency of the bases. For the sake of
comparison we give below the theoretical percentages calcu-

L. V. Pirsson—Mordenite. 935

lated for this formula and also present How’s analysis and
theory.

- Mean 3. Theory. How 2. Theory.

SiO, 66°40 65°72 68°40 66°73
Al,O, (Fe,O,) 11°74 12°53 12°77 12°74
CaO (MgO) 211 2°27 3-46 4°62
K,O 3°58 3°82 ay i BSCR
Na,O 2:27 2°52 2°35 2°56
H,O 13°31 13°14 13-02 13:35
Totals, 99°41 100-00 100-00 100-00

If, instead of accepting How’s formula we take the ratio of
the bases to the silica as found by my analysis, it will be seen
that they give with remarkable exactness RO: Al,O,: SiO,: H,O
as 1:1:10:6%. The formula becomes in this case (4K,0,
4Na,O, $CaO) Al,O, (SiO,),, 68H,O. This becomes in gen-
eral 3RALSi,,O,,+20H,O, the three Rs being replaced by a
molecule each of potash, soda and lime.

In 1886, under the name of ptilolite, Cross and Eakins* de-
scribed a new zeolite from Jefferson Co., Colorado, which,
like the mordenite, occurs as a secondary formation in a basic
lava. As the result of their investigations they assigned to the
mineral the general formula RAJI,S8i,0.,+5H,O, in which R
consisted of lime, potash and soda, not however in any simple
ratio. The similarity of these two formule is very striking,
and it seems evident that the two minerals belong to the same
group of zeolites, the ratio of bases and silica being the same
in each, the chief difference being that the ptilolite contains
one-quarter less of water. In the crystal form and optical
properties, however, the two zeolites are entirely unlike.

While this formula for mordenite confirms the work of
Cross and Eakins in the existence of these very acid hydrous
silicates, which can no longer remain doubtful, and the theo-
retical percentages calculated for it agree with very great
closeness with the given analysis, it will be best, however, to
retain the composition given by How on account of its greater
simplicity and because it differs but slightly from the above.

In the symmetry of its crystal form mordenite is monoclinic
and also isomorphous with heulandite. The crystal habit is
shown in the figure and is remarkably similar to heulandite
from Jones’ Falls, near Baltimore, Md. The only forms
observed were ¢, 001, O; 0b, 010, 2-2; 0, 450, 2-8; ¢, 201, -2-2,
and s, 201, 2-7. The measurements were made on a Fuess
goniometer, using the 0 ocular of Websky. From the small
size of the crystals and poor reflections, owing to dullness of

* This Journal, vol. xxxii, pp. 117, 1886,

236 L. V. Pirsson—Mordenite.

the faces and to striations due to a repetition of the erystal
form in parallel position, a considerable series had to be examined
before any sharp reflections could be ob-
tained. No sharp reflections could be ob-
tained from any clino-pinacoid, since from
the separation of cleavage plates it was in-
variably too rough to reflect well. Finally
one crystal was found which gave very fair
and distinct reflections in the prismatic
zone and from the orthodomes. Another
gave good reflections in the zone of symme-
try. From these the following (supple-
mentary) angles were taken as fundamental :

ye

i

'

'

t

'

'

1
A

ext = 001.201 = 63° 40’
(Si n20ll 200 —2508 12
sal = 201,450 = 36 07
and from these we calculate the axial ratios
a:b:c:: ‘40101: 1: °42623, angle B=88° 304’;
and for heulandite we have,
a:6:c¢:: ‘40347: 1: 42929, angle B=88° 344’;

adopting the orientation given the latter species by Des
Cloizeaux. Only one other satisfactory measurement could be
made:

Calculated. Measured.
La d= 450 2.450 = 53° 15! 52° 447
522 33%

The only difference then between the mordenite and the
Jones’ Falls erystals of heulandite is that the prism occurring
on the latter if taken as I (110) requires the similar prism on

the mordenite to be (450) 23.

The crystals occur attached at one end upon their prismatic
faces. They form groups from growth parallel to the elino-
pinacoid and are also somewhat radially disposed. The cleav-
age is eminently clino-diagonal and the luster of the clino-
pinacoid is pearly, so that cleavage fragments resemble small
nacreous fish scales. Under the polarizing microscope, using
cleavage plates of the mineral which furnish sections parallel
to the clino-pinacoid, it was found that the plane of the optic
axes is normal to this face. The direction of extinction is
negative, according to the scheme adopted for the plagioclase
feldspars and inclined about 15° to the clino-diagonal axis.
This axis of elasticity = cand =a. The optic angle is large
and it is uncertain whether c or ais the acute bisectrix; the
double refraction is weak, high polarization colors being shown

D. W. Langdon— Geology of Mon Louis Island. 287

only by the thickest sections between crossed nicols, while
thin sections show gray of the first order. The hardness of
mordenite is about 8. How gives 5 for his mineral. While it is
difficult to ascertain the exact hardness of a species occurring
in such small brittle crystals it was certainly not so hard as 5,
and 3 is believed to be more correct. Before the blow-pipe
mordenite does not exfoliate; it gives off its water readily,
practically without changing its form, and melts with some
difficulty to a white enamel.

The writer desires at this place to express his obligations to
Mr. Arnold Hague of the U.S. Geological Survey, to whose
kindness the collection of this mineral was due, and to Prof.
S. L. Penfield for valuable assistance and advice.

Mineralogical Laboratory, Sheffield Scientific School, April 14th, 1890.

Art. XX XI.—Geology of Mon Louis Island, Mobile Bay ;
by DanreL W. Lanepon, JR.

Ty 1855 Tuomey* was handed some fossiliferous, ferruginous
sandstone from the western shore of Mobile Bay, containing
impressions of Cardiwm magnum, Ostrea Virginica and a Mod-
iola resembling M. demissa, but was unable to fix definitely
the locality. In 1885 Dr. Geo. H. Taylor, of Mobile, gave the
writer a small box of shells obtained from the mud dredged in
the channel of Mobile Bay, some ten miles from the Gulf.
From their physical appearance they were supposed to be fossil
—perhaps Pliocene or even Miocene, and with the idea of es-
tablishing this fact they were submitted to Mr. T. H. Aldrich,
of Blocton, Ala., who in turn forwarded them for identification
to Mr. W. H. Dall, of the National Museum. Mr. Dall decided
that they were recent shells now living in the deeper waters of
the Gulf and probably washed in the bay by submarine currents.
Some time later Dr. Taylor submitted another lot of shells con-
tained in the same matrix, an impalpable blue mud, and said to
have been found on the Mon Louis Island, some fifteen miles be-
low Mobile. A trip to the island proved its identity with Tuo-
mey’s locality, ‘““ Yellow Jack” being a creole patriarch whose
descendants still inhabit Mon Louis. As was stated by Tuomey’s
informant, this fossiliferous stratum was found to be about
three feet above mean tide, and was clearly the oxidized and
lithified phase of the shell-bearing blue mud occurring at
various elevations along the coast of the island to within about
four miles of the Gulf, and found in the dredged channel of
the Bay. These blue mud deposits are sometimes filled with

* 2d Bien. Report on Geol. of Ala., pp. 149-150, 1859.

238 C. E. Beecher—Leptenisca, a new genus of

shells, at others free from organic life, at times taking the form
of extensive oyster beds, at others having more marine charac-
teristics, containing WVatica duplicata, Arca transversa, Car-
dium magnum, Pecten sp.?, et als.

Wells dug in the vicinity demonstrate the continuity of this
bed inland, and Hilgard* has noted its occurrence farther west-
ward. These wells reveal, too, a substratum of fetid black clay
containing cypress logs, what seems to be the remains of a sub-
merged cypress swamp. An interesting fact is that these same
fetid clays have been encountered in wells dug in the suburbs
of Mobile, but so far as the writer has been able to ascertain,
the shell bed has never been found so far north.

Overlying these shell beds on Mon Louis Island and making
the surface soil through south Mobile County are series of
eross-bedded sands and loams usually very light colored and
devoid of clay or pebble beds. These beds are about fifteen
feet thick and are quite similar to the beds of sandy loam found
in the western part of the city of Mobile. McGee* has deter-
mined these last named loams as belonging to his Appomattox
group, and should his identification prove correct it would
change the age of the Appomattox to a more recent date than
he now seems to suppose.

It establishes, however, a further extension inland than
that marked by the present coast line and a fluctuation in the
elevation of the floor of the Gulf in post-Tertiary times, which
fact is believed to have not been previously noted.

Cincinnati, O., June 30, 1890.

Art. XXXII —On Leptenisea, anew genus of Brachiopod
Strom the Lower Helderberg group; by CHARLES E. BEECHER,
PhD. (Wath: Pilate Px.)

THE species which is here proposed as the type of a new
genus has long been considered as belonging to Leptewna, and
was thus described in 1859.+ In general external appearance,
both forms agree very closely, but on careful examination, some
differences may be detected and a comparison of the internal
features reveals marked distinctions which cannot be included
within the limits of a single genus.

The probability of a needed separation was significantly in-
dicated by Professor James Hall, in a reference to figures of
this species published in the Report of the State Geologist for
1882,t where it was designated as Leptwna ? (sub-genus ?) con-

* Agric. and Geol. of Miss., pp. 154-156, 1860.
+ Pal. N. Y., vol. iii, p. 197, Pl. XVIII, fig. 2, 1859.
¢ Id. explanation of plate (xv), 46, figs. 30, 31, 1883.

Brachiopod from the Lower Helderberg group. 239

cava Hall. Mr. J. M. Clarke has also called the writer’s
attention to some of the peculiarities of this group, and to
one or more new and interesting associated species which he
has recently discovered, and which are congeneric.

As the type species is amovg the rarer forms from the
Lower Helderberg strata, it is probable that lack of material
has prevented any one from determining its principal charac-
ters. Up to this time, no dorsal valve has been described or
illustrated, and the features of the ventral valve have not been
considered of sufficient moment or determination to warrant
a separation from Leptena.

The material studied by the writer comprises six specimens,
three of which are separate valves, one ventral and two dorsal.
Also, the original types in the American Museum of Natural
History in New York City have been examined, and it is now
evident that we have enough knowledge of the species to
remove it from Zeptena, and to draw some interesting com-
parisons with forms which hitherto have had no appareut rela-
tionship to it.

LEPT#NISOA, gen. nov.

Shell conecavo-convex, attached to foreign objects by calcare-
ous cementation of the ventral beak. Valves articulated by
teeth and sockets. Dorsal or socket valve (figures 4, 5) con-
cave; interior with a broad, more or less defined, spiral im-
pression on each side of the median line, making a single
volution. Adductor impressions small. Cardinal line narrow,
bearing in the center two prominent, bilobed, cardinal pro-
cesses, separated to admit the vertical septum in the opposite
beak (figures 2, 3).

Ventral valve (figure 1) convex, area elongate, triangular,
fissure covered with a pedicle-sheath. Cardinal muscular scar
supported on or limited by two elevated lamelle. Cavity of
beak divided by a vertical septum, on each side of which, in
the anterior half, is a small adductor scar. Shell structure
punctate. Type Leptena concava Hall.

Besides the foregoing essential characters presented by the
type species, there are others which are mainly of specitie in-
terest. Both valves are strongly papillose on the interior, and
the dorsal has a low ridge within the margin, impressed by the
vascular lines. The surface ornamentation consists of fine
alternating interrupted radiating striz, very closely resembling
the sculpture of many species of Leptwna.

There appears to be little in common between this species
and Leptena of the L. transversalis type, except in the articula-
tion of the valves, the punctate shell structure, and the general

240 C. E. Beecher—lV. A. Species of Strophalosia.

form and surface ornamentation. The more important internal
characters, such as the cardinal muscular lamellee, small! dorsal
adductor scars, spiral impressions, attached ventral valve, and
cleft dorsal callosity, are incompatible with that genus as ex-
pressed by the species Leptena transversalis Dalman,

The muscular sears and hinge characters are similar to the
strophomenoid group, but on the other hand, the Productide
possess many elements which find an expression in Leptenisca,
and it is evidently genetically related to that family and may
be considered as an ancestral form of Strophalosia.

With this view, the spiral markings on the interior of the
dorsal valve represent the common reniform impressions of
the Productide, and not true brachial impressions, such as
occur in Honinckina. Compare figure 5 with typical Stroph-
alosia represented in figures 6 and 16.

Yale University Museum, May Ist, 1890.

Art. XX XIIL.—Worth American Species of Strophalosia ;
by CHarues E. Beecuer, Ph.D. (With Plate IX).

THE little shells described in this paper from Carboniferous
and Devonian formations of North America are always found
attached to some other organism, and none have yet been
noted which reach the size and spinoseness of their Permian
congeners. They were evidently derived from free ancestral
forms, as they all exhibit.a pedicle-sheath, although from their
habit of fixation a pedicle would be functionally useless. It is
natural to suppose, however, that in their extremely early
stages, the shells were unattached, and simply anchored by a
pedicle, as in ordinary brachiopods, and after a brief free ex-
istence, they fixed themselves to some foreign object by their
tubular spines, and by calcareous cementation of the ventral
valve. In many cases the specimens are found gregarious, as
many as twelve having been seen on the shell of a single gas-
tropod, which itself was commensal with a crinoid (see fig. 24).

The first specimens discovered by the writer were found
upon individuals of Platyceras equilaterale Hall; among some
collections made by Professor F. H. Bradley and Rey. D. A.
Bassett, from the Keokuk shales, at Crawfordsville, Indiana.

Subsequent search resulted in determining that the species
described as Crania radicans Winchell, belonged to the genus
Strophalosia. Soon after this, Mr. Charles Schuchert kindly
called my attention to a third and minute species, which he
had discovered among some specimens of larger brachiopods,
collected by Mr. R. R. Rowley from the Choteau limestone of

ieee

CU. FE. Beecher—lV. A. Species of Strophalosia. 241

Missouri. Besides-these three species, others from various
formations have been described and referred to different genera
which, it is believed, will eventually be included under Stroph-
alosia, and others thus determined may ultimately be placed
elsewhere. Several will require the reéxamination of the type
specimens, and the study of additional material, before any
fixed conclusions can be reached, so that they ‘will be but
briefly noticed in this place.

Productella truncata Hall,* from the Marcellus shale, uni-
formly shows a truncation or cicatrix of the ventral beak, indi-
cating an early condition of attachment which is very sugges-
tive of Strophalosia. This relationship was recognized by
Professor Hall in 1857 (loc. cit.), where he says in some
general remarks on the “ Producti of the Hamilton and Che-
mung groups:” ‘‘ Among these are several forms which ex-
ternally have the form of Strophalosia.” J. F. Whiteaves,
F.G.S.,¢ recently again recognized these relations, and refers
to the species as Productella (Strophalosia?) truncata. He
also illustrates a specimen of Strophalosia productoides Mur-
chison, from the Devonian (Hamilton) rocks on the Athabasca
River, identified by Thomas Davidson, and this, so far as
known, is the first unqualified recognition of the genus in
North America. Chonetes muricatus Hall,t offers about the
same amount of evidence as Productella truncata, and may
tentatively be placed with Strophalosia.

Dr. Shumard in 1858§ described a species from the Permian
of Texas as Avwlosteges Guadalupensis, and in a subsequent
-paper in the same volume, he again refers to it as Strophalosia
(Aulosteges) Guadalupensis, giving two figures in illustration.
The writer is unable, either from the figures or description, to
express any definite opinion as to its generic relations, and
doubts whether it will go into either of the two genera men-
tioned.

In 1864, Professor Winchell sravriclonnel referred a species
to Strophalosia| with the specific name of nwmmularis, which
apparently belongs to this genus or to Productus. In this
instance, again, further examination of specimens is requisite.

The principal object of these citations is to call attention to
the species which have been referred to Strophalosia, and to
suggest others which may ultimately go with it. The two

* Tenth Ann. Rept. N. Y. State Cab. Nat. Hist., p. 151, 1857.

+ Contributions to Canadian Paleontology, vol. i, pt. II, p. 112, 1889.

t Pal. N. Y., vol. iv, p. 142, 1867.

S Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Science, vol. i, p. 292, 1858.
ee Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. xv, p. 4, 1864.

242 C. E. Beecher—W. A. Species of Strophalosia.

following species yield more positive evidence: Crania radi-
cans Winchell* and Awlosteges spondyliformis White and St.
John.+

The first is here illustrated by figures 14-17, Plate IX, and
is seen to agree with typical Strophalosia in every essential
feature. The second (Avwlosteges spondyliformis), from the
Upper Coal Measures of Iowa, in many respects, resembles the
species here described from the Keokuk, but in general form
it is more like the European Permian types. The authors
give the accompanying description, which well expresses the
characters in accord with Strophalosia.

“Shell minute, parasitic, subtriangular in outline, greatest
width near the front margin; posterior half of the lateral
margins straight; front broadly rounded, and slightly emar-
ginate. Ventral valve not very deep, attached to foreign
objects by its spines, which are numerous and rather long;
area not quite so high as wide, retreating from the hinge line
towards the beak ; pseudodeltidium small and not very promi-
nent.”

“ Dorsal valve slightly concave, a little more so toward the
front margin; surface marked by somewhat prominent con-
centric lines of growth, having always fewer spines than that
of the ventral valve, and sometimes none.’

The number of spines shown in the specimen figured by
them is eleven, and attention is called to the fact that the
specimens were found attached to Chetetes and Campophyllum.

From present information, therefore, the genus Strophalosia
may be considered as having the following American species,
some of which, however, are doubtfully included.

Strophalosia radicans Winchell. Hamilton group.
Strophalosia productoides Murchison. Hamilton group.
Strophalosia scintilla Beecher. Choteau limestone.
Strophalosia Keokuk Beecher. Keokuk group.
Strophalosia spondyliformis White and St. John. Upper
Coal Measures.
Strophalosia truncata Hall. Marcellus shale.
Strophalosia ? muricata Hall. Chemung group.
Strophalosia? nummulina Winchell. Marshall group.
Strophalosia ? Guadalupensis Shumard. Permian.

Several original illustrations of typical Permian species are
introduced on Plate IX for the purpose of comparison both
with the American Strophalosia, and with the genus Lepte-
Niscu.

* Rept. Lower Peninsula Mich., p. 92, 1866.
+ Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci., vol. i, p. 118, 1868.

C. E. Beecher—WN. A. Species of Strophalosia. 243

Descriptions of Species.

Strophalosia radicans Winchell, sp. (Plate LX, figures 14-17).
Shell broadly elliptical, or ovate, wider than long; greatest
width near the middle. Ventral valve conforming to the sur-
face of attachment, except at the elevated and free edges,
which are usually furnished with from ten to twenty tubular
spines extending downwards and adhering to the object of
fixation ; hinge with two strongly developed, slightly oblique,
cardinal teeth; cardinal muscular impressions small, separated
by a slight ridge or septum. Dorsal valve convex at the beak,
flat or coneave below, marked by lamellose concentric lines of
growth, and by a row of oblique wrinkles along the cardinal
line; interior with a conspicuous, narrow, and elongate bifid
cardinal process extending beyond the hinge, and with deep
dental sockets on each side ; adductor muscular scars well de-
fined ; septum only developed in the central portion of the
valve; reniform impressions distinct, enclosing a comparatively
small and strongly pustulose area.

A ventral valve has a width, excluding spines of 7:5™™,
and a length of 55™™. The dorsal valve, figure 16, measures
8=" in width and 5™™ in length.

When well preserved, the spines are very rugose, and have
much the appearance of a minute annelid tube, as represented
in figure 17. They often extend 4™" beyond the edge of the
shell, but are not so numerous nor so elongate as in S. Keokwk.

A small ventral valve, growing in a cavity in the epitheca
of a coral, is attached only by the beak, and by spines from the
cardinal margin. The remainder of the valve is free, and the
whole form is very convex, with the surface marked by irregnu-
lar lamellose striee and by infrequent short spines, which
become stronger and more elongate near the surface of attach-
ment.

Geological position.—Shales of the Hamilton group, on spe-
cimens of Acervularia Davidsoni KE. and H., and Zaphrentis
Traversensis Winchell, Little Traverse Bay, Michigan. Pre-
sented to Yale University Museum by Professor Alexander
Winchell. :

Strophalosia scintilla sp. nov. (Plate LX, 10-18).

Shell minute, broadly ovate, widest across the middle. Dor-
sal valve convex at the beak, flat or concave below; beak in-
conspicuous ; interior with small adductor muscular sears ; pus-
tulose near the margins; reniform impressions not defined in
the single interior of this valve observed. Ventral valve
cemented to foreign objects; margin elevated and usually
furnished with a variable number of short procumbent. slender
spines, not exceeding six in the specimens examined; hinge a

244 C. £. Beecher—N. A. Species of Strophalosva.

little shorter than the width of the shell, with a narrow trian-
gular central fissure, covered by a pedicle-sheath ; teeth well-
developed; cardinal muscular sears small, obscure, confined to
the umbonal cavity.

A specimen of medium size measures 2°6™™ in width, and
1°6™™" in length.

Some examples, as in figure 11, are without marginal spines,
and none have shown them developed along the hinge, as is
characteristic of the other species here described. All the
individuals observed have been found attached to larger forms
of brachiopods of the genera Productella, Spirifer, Syringo-
thyris, and Oyrtina.

ecological position.—From the Choteau limestone, Pike

County, Missouri. Collected by R. Rk. Rowley, and loaned to
the writer by Charles Schuchert.

Strophalosia Keokuk sp. nov. (Plate IX, figures 18-24).

Sheil broadly elliptical or ovate, truncate along the hinge,
greatest width usually near the middle of the length. Ventral
valve attached by its central portion; margins furnished with
numerous, often crowded, spines serving as additional points
of attachment to foreign objects; area triangular, with a nar-
row fissure covered by the pedicle-sheath ; cardinal teeth well-
developed ; muscular scars faintly defined and separated by an
obscure median septum; interior finely pustulose and marked
about the margins by openings leading into the tubular spines.
Dorsal valve concave, convex on the umbo and beak; surface
smooth or marked by a few concentric wrinkles; cardinal pro-
cess present ; interior not observed.

The largest specimen observed has a width of 11™™, and an
individual of average size measures 65" in width and 4°8™™ in
length.

All the specimens which have thus far been found are on
shells of Platyceras. Many of the latter were attached to the
tegmina of crinoids, as they frequently occur at Crawfordsville,
Indiana. In a collection comprising about two hundred Platy-
ceras, twenty were found supporting Strophalosia, and sixty-
seven valves of this genus were observed on these specimens.

Mr. Charles Schuchert has called the writer’s attention to a
specimen of Productus horridus Sow., on which are one
mature and eight young individuals of Strophalosia Goldfussi
Miinster. The larval shells bear a very close resemblance to
the specimens of S. Aeokuk here described, and in their early
stages of growth both species are indistinguishable from each
other. S. Goldfussi, however, develops spines on the dorsal
valve at an early period, while none have yet been seen on
specimens of S. Keokuk.

C. FE. Beecher—lV. A. Species of Strophatosia. 245

Geological position.—In the Keokuk shales at Crawfords-
ville, Indiana. Collected by Professor F. H. Bradley and Rev.
D. A. Bassett.

Yale University Museum, May 27th, 1890.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

LEPTHNISCA CONCAVA, Hall, sp.

Figure 1.—Ventral valve, interior; showing cardinal area and teeth; cardinal
muscular lamelle,; adductor impressions, a; vertical septum.
Natural size.

FIGURE 2.—Posterior view of dorsal cardinal process. x3.

FiGurE 3.—The same; seen from above. x3.

Fi@ure 4.—Dorsal valve; side view in outline. x3.

Figure 5.—Dorsal valve, interior; showing cardinal processes, dental sockets,
adductor muscular scars, median ridge, and spiral impressions.
Natural size. Lower Helderberg group, Clarksville, N. Y.

STROPHALOSIA EXCAVATA, Geinitz.

FIGURE 6.—Dorsal side of internal mould; showing muscular scars, septum, and
reniform impressions. Natural size.

Figure 7.—Ventral view of another specimen, showing the adductor scars.
Natural size.

FIGURE 8.—Profile of same. Natural size. Permian, Poesneck, Germany.

STROPHALOSIA GOLDFUSSI, Munster.

FIGURE 9.—Internal mould of ventral valve; showing cardinal and adductor
muscular scars, and vascular lines. Natural size. Permian,
Trebnitz, Germany.

STROPHALOSIA SCINTILLA, Beecher.

Figure 10.—Specimen adhering to ventral valve of Productella pyxidata, Hall.
Natural size.

FiguRE 11.—Specimen showing no spines; growing on Spirifer Marionensis,
Shumard. x6.

FIGURE 12.—Specimen showing four spines; on Productella pyxidata, Hall. x 6.

FicguRE 13.—Interior of ventral valve, on Syringothyris sp.; showing cardinal
muscular scars, hinge area, teeth and six marginal spines. x 6,
Choteau limestone, Pike County, Missouri.

STROPHALOSIA RADICANS, Winchell, sp.

FiguRE 14.—Interiors of two ventral valves; showing hinge-teeth and spines.
x2. Specimens of Spirorbis became attached after death of
Strophalosia.

FIGURE 15.—Specimen preserving dorsal valve; showing cardinal wrinkles. x 2.

FIGURE 16.—Interior of dorsal valve; showing adductor muscular scars, reniform
impressions, cardinal process, and dental sockets. x 2.

Figure 17.—Spine enlarged to 10 diameters. Hamilton group, Little Traverse
Bay, Michigan. Specimens figured, growing on Acervularia
Davidson, H. and H.

STROPHALOSIA KEOKUK, Beecher.

Figure 18.—Interior of imperfect veutral valve showing muscular scars, septum
and numerous long slender marginal spines. x 2.

FIGURE 19.—Small specimen preserving dorsal valve. x 2.

Figure 20.—Profile of same. x 2.

Am. Journ. Scr—Tuirp Series, Vou. XL, No. 237.—Supr., 1890.

1¢
LO

246 Barbour and Torrey—Microscopie Structure of Oolite.

FIGURE 21.—Cardinal view of ventral valve, from right side of specimen figure
22. x2.

FIGURE 22.—Interiors of two ventral valves. Left specimen shows septum and
muscular scars. Center of right hand valve has been removed,
exposing shell of Plalyceras. x 2.

FIGURE 23.—Cardinal view of specimen, showing pedicle-sheath, dorsal callosity,
hinge area and numerous spines. x2.

FIGURE 24.—Shell of Platyceras equilaterale, H., on tegmen of Ollacrinus tuberosus
(nol represented) showing numerous attached specimens of this
species in various conditions and stages of growth. Natural size,
Keokuk group, Crawfordsville, Indiana.

Art. XXXIV.—Wotes on the Microscopic Structure of Oolite,
with analyses; by ERwIN H. Barzsour and JosePH
TORREY, JR.

WHILE making notes the past autumn and winter prepara-
tory to a thorough study of the oolite of Iowa, several points
were noted which seemed to the writers to be of sufficient
interest to be presented here. Ordinary oolite occurs in this
State in deposits of considerable extent, but it is not proposed
at this time to do more than to describe the microscopie strie-
tures and to give analyses of two forms. The following are
analyses of two varieties of the Iowa river oolite:

ie
Oolite with concretionary structure.

SMT tes eee erase 2°10
Oxide of aluminium _- 3-90
Oxidevotinrons= eee %
Calcium carbonate..-- 85°99
Magnesium carbonate. 8°52
99°81
Specific gravity ---- 2°619

2.
Oolite with brecciated granules.

Silica sues SS eee 4°56
Oxide of aluminium _-_ 3-40
Oxide ofaron= ===
Calcium carbonate _._ 84°33
Magnesium carbonate- 7°50
99:79
Specific gravity ._-- 2°632

Figs. 1, 2.—Micro-sections of Iowa River Oolite; magnified 10 diameters.

1. Showing concretionary structure.

2. Showing granular structure of spherules.

Barbour and Torrey—Microscopic Structure of Oolite. 247

The kind shown in fig. 1 is the familiar concentric type, the
other, shown in fig. 2, illustrates one with a sort of brecciated
spherule, each being composed of a mosaic of exceedingly
small fragments cemented together about a center. Though
differmg so widely under the microscope, these two are essen-
tially alike, showing only slight external and chemical differ-
ences. Other aspects of these and other specimens will be
fully considered at another time.

While examining these specimens, a s¢diceous oolite was
received from eastern Pennsylvania, which merits description.
Popularly the name oolite presupposes a calcareous rock, yet
we have at hand several characteristic oolites which are not
calcareous; these include an iron-oxide form, a strictly siliceous
kind, a silica-lime, and a lime-silica form. The last two seem to
be transitional forms between the true lime or calcareous oolite
on the one hand and the siliceous on the other. In the siliceous
oolite the roe and matrix are so intimately united, both being
nearly pure silica, that the conchoidal fractures, in the denser
sorts, pass alike through spheres and cement, as if it were a
homogeneous quartzite. In the more friable sorts the concre-
tions pull away intact from the matrix, and present to the eye
the familiar fish-roe appearance of oolite proper, for which it
could easily be mistaken by a careless observer. A second
glance, however, reveals certain superficial differences, in hard-
ness, color, etc. In the siliceous oolite, the concretions—which
are noticeably uniform in size and spherical in form—are con-
siderably darker than the surrounding matrix, being almost
black in some specimens. On the other hand, those in the
true oolite are generally of a much lighter color than the cal-
careous cement. A fractured surface of the siliceous variety
exposes the component spherules in section, showing their
concretionary structure—their concentric coats of alternately
lighter and darker color, deposited around real or imaginary
centers. In many, organic remains are the nuclei; in others,
erystals or fragments of inorganic matter.

A polished surface of this oolite slightly etched with hydro-
fluoric acid shows to perfection these agatized bands; and a
microscopic section brings them out to still greater advantage.
In such a section, under a low power, it is interesting to notice
the numerous rings of various widths and colors arranged
around their respective centers, and to further observe how
this concentric arrangement continues on into the matrix of
the interstices not unlike the coast lines on a map. Often the
interspaces are filled with aggregations of minute spherules
(not visible to the eye), which also show concentric rings (see
figs. 5 and 6). In several instances, lines of faults run through

248 Barbour and Torrey—Microscopie Structure of Oolite.

the specimens, pulling the spherules apart, displacing and dis-
torting them in an interesting manner.

One of our most suggestive specimens of this oolite—an
intermediate form between the lime and the siliceous varieties
—shows two distinct. bands, marked by a strong dividing line
line (see fig. 4).

Fia. 3.—Portion from which the micro-section of fig. 4 was cut, at a. Fie. 4.—
Pennsylvania Oolite, Lso, Lime-Silica Oolite; Slo, Silica-Lime Oolite magnified ten
diameters.

Analysis of Lime-Silica Oolite (Lso). Analysis of Silica-Lime Oolite (Slo).
Silica ee eens 3°70 Silica) =) 2S Se ee ee Gea
Oxide of aluminium _- 1°49 Oxide of aluminium -_- 1°50
Oxideiof iron es s25 5 Oxide of irons\22eeee 3
Calcium carbonate _.. 88°71 Calcium carbonate -__-_ 16°84
Magnesium carbonate. 8:09 Magnesium carbonate. 2°60

—— Water __.____._____-_- 12°54

100°92 —

Specific gravity... 2°654 99°88
Specific gravity ..-. _ 2°688

One band is a lime-silica oolite, the other, a silica-lime oolite.
The microscopic section of this piece shows the two bands
plainly (see fig. 4). The lime-silica band is distinguished by
spherules having a marked radiate structure. Crossing the
dark dividing line of granules, we find the silica-lime band
characterized by a lighter color, and by spherules having the
concentric structure, interspersed with occasional radiate strag-
glers. While there are indications of a different mode of
formation, it seems probable that the siliceous oolite is derived

from the calcareous by the replacement of lime particles by
me
silica.

Barbour and Torrey—Microscoprie Structure of Oolite. 249

Fies. 5 and 6.—Micro-sections of Siliceous Oolite from Pennsylvania, magnified
10 diameters.

The following is an analysis of the siliceous oolite :

Siliceous Oolite.

Oxi evoR Aron ee era ey aR ANN ae

AB Ve te Mean ee I les ya ee Rca hed om ate LN 1:93

Mince Siabia 2 ee Ese lia e ee kel oy Chace

100°69

SPeCmnekeravyitiyi= eye tees eee nee ce 2°63

Single granule from Pennsylvania Single granule from the Iowa
Siliceous Oolite. Fiver Oolite.

SLNVOR Lees ocean tea Sam 99. OO Silas eee ua Ny ORE? 2°54
LEROY > pss SR a otc MOTH ONDKO) Meitegs) Urata) a Rs Ser og Rat ule RU oD neen, ate trace
Calcium carbonate-_ .-_-- 97°44

99°98

These interesting specimens of siliceous oolite were sent us
by Mr. George R. Wieland of State College, Center Co., Pa.
Two miles west of this place there are three or four square
miles of light sandy soil, mostly uncleared, hence called the
“ Barrens,” where this oolite, associated with flint, occurs
scattered about in the form of surface bowlders weighing as
much as 400 pounds. The fact that these masses of siliceous
oolite are stained with iron oxide, and that they occur in an
isolated spot, may account for their having escaped more gen-
eral notice hitherto. It is said to occur also about fifteen miles
northwest of College Centre.

Iowa College, Department of Geology and Chemistry,
April 2, 1890.

250 Scientific Intelligence.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1 On a new Element occurring in Tellurium, Antimony and
Copper, belonging to Mendeléeff?s Kleventh Series.—In conse-
quence of a coincidence which he has observed between certain
of the lines in the ultra-violet spectra of tellurium, antimony and
copper, GRUNWALD argues the existence of a common impurity in
these three elements In his opinion, the substance in question
was originally present only in the tellurium, and that in the pro-
cess of reducing the other elements from their ores, a portion of
it has been transferred to these metals. On multiplication by
4} several of the above mentioned coincident lines are transformed
into lines belonging to the primary element “6” in the spectrum
of water. In accordance with the principle laid down some time
ago by the author, this fact indicates that the impurity spoken of
consists, to a large extent at least, of an element occurring in the
eleventh horizontal line in Mendeléeft’s tables. The character of
the spectrum itself shows that it cannot be any one of the known
elements in that series. Hence Griinwald believes it to be an un-
known element in the tellurium group with an approximate
atomic mass of 212, probably identical with the austrium of Brau-
ner. In general properties, therefore, it is an element closely re-
sembling tellurium and also antimony and hence will be difficult
to separate from these metals. On the assumption that copper is
an alkali-metal of low melting point, the new element probably
behaves in it as an electronegative constituent ; and hence copper
is ordinarly found combined with this difficultly-fusible and non-
metallic element.—J. Chem. Soc., lviii, 434, May, 1890. G. F. B.

2. On the Chlorides of the Compound Ammoniums.—LE BEL
has observed a new kind of physical isomerism occurring in the
compound ammoniums. Assuming that the atoms or radicals in a
substituted ammonia are capable ‘of movement about the central
nitrogen atom, and do not have fixed and definite relative positions,
the existence of two isomeric derivatives may be imagined with-
out introducing the hypothesis that they have been formed in
different ways, such as by the union of RCI] with NR’, or of R’Cl
with NRR’,. A remarkable group of cubic salts, formed from
chlorides of the type NRR’,Cl, exists among the platinochlorides
of the amines. To this group methyl- tripropyl-ammoniuin platino-
chloride and trimethyl-propyl-ammonium platinochloride belong,
but the limit is passed by the trimethyl-isobutyl ammonium salt.
As arule if a platinochloride does not differ from the cubie salts
by more than a single methyl-group, its crystalline form will be
so nearly a cube that very careful goniometric and optical exami-
nation will be necessary to prove that it is not cubic. Trimethyl-
isobutyl-ammonium platinochloride was first obtained in highly
bi-refractive needles, distinctly not cubic; but on recrystallization
octahedra were obtained, closely resembling regular octahedra

Chemistry and Physics. 251

and permanent, i. e., not convertible into the prismatic form.
On treating them with silver- oxide, neutralizing the filtrate with
hydrochloric acid and evaporation, the hydrochloride was ob-
tained partly in needles and partly in octahedra. Hence there
are two hydrochlorides of this compound ammonium as there are
two platinochlorides, the prismatic form of the hydrochloride
being the more stable—C. &., cx, 144, 1890; J. Chem. Soc.,
lvili, 475, May, 1890. Gu 8;

3. On the production of Ozone and the formation of Nitrites
in Combustion.—ILosvay has confirmed the observation of Leeds
that no ozone is formed by the action of concentrated sulphuric
acid upon potassium permanganate, the supposed reaction of
ozone being due to chlorine contained as an impurity in the per-
manganate, or even in the absence of chlorine, to the direct
action of the promanganic oxide in the form of a violet vapor.
With four or five grams of promanganate, the action proceeded
satisfactorily. But on attempting to use 20 grams, a strong de-
tonation resulted, due no donbt to the decomposition of the an-
hydride by the heat generated. Oxygen prepared by the action
of concentrated sulphuric acid on potassium dichromate also con-
tains no ozone.

The author has also explained the products of the combustion
of coal gas under modified conditions. In one case the Bunsen
flame was allowed to strike down, much air being mixed with the
gas; in a second, carbon dioxide was admitted to the Bunsen
flame; and in a third, a flame of air was obtained in the gas.
The products of combustion were carried through a dilute solu-
tion of sodium hydroxide and the presence of nitrous acid was
detected in four or five minutes in the first and second cases, and
in 25 or 30 minutes in the third. Oxygen and nitrogen dioxide
were then mixed with the air burning in the illuminating gas.
The flame was more brilliant and cyanogen was observed among
the products of the combustion. Since ammonia had also been
observed among the products of the combustion of air in coal
gas, the author regards these facts as proving the aftinity of
nitrogen at high temperatures for hydrogen and carbon as well as
oxygen.

In other experiments the author observed the production of
nitrites but not of ozone when air is passed over platinum heated
to 200° to 300°. In the case of platinum gauze the action begins
at 280° and continues up to 350°; but the property is lost after
an hour and a half. With platinum black the action begins at
180°, reaches a maximum at 250° and diminishes above 300°.
After repeating the experiment three or four times, the power of
effecting the combination is lost. With platinum sponge, the ac-
tion begins at 250° and is strongest at 300°; at 350° it becomes
feeble and in three or four hours disappears entirely. Since the
activity of the platinum when lost is not regained by heating in
hydrogen, the author concludes that the loss of its power is “due
to a change i in its molecular structure, and not to a condensation

252 Scientific Intelligence.

of nitrogen and oxygen on its surface. Moreover he has ob-
served that nitrites are formed where air is passed over finely di-
vided iron at about 200°; and that the resulting oxide when
washed, yields these nitrites in appreciable quantity.— Bull. Soc.
Chem. III, ii, 734, Dec., 1889. G. F. B.

Il. Grontogy AND MINERALOGY.

1. Clinton Group fossils with special reference to Collections
Jrom Indiana, Tennessee and Georgia; by A. F. Forrstr.—
This report contains descriptions of a large number of species,
many of them new, from localities in the States mentioned in the
title, and comparisons with the distribution of the species in more
eastern localities, with special reference to the condition at the
time of the Cincinnati anticlinal axis. We have in it the first
paleontological identification of the Clinton formation in Indiana
on the west side of this axis.

After the descriptions the author makes a comparison of the
Clinton fossils with regard to their distribution and states the fol-
lowing facts as to species absent from the anticlinal. These in-
clude Leptocelia hemispherica, which is common east of the
anticlinal from Anticosti to Tennessee and Alabama; S. obscura,
from New York and Tennessee; Cornulites Clintoni, from New
York to Alabama; Zilenus Zoxus, from New York and doubt-
fully Alabama, yet known from the Viagara of Indiana and Wis-
consin; Ceraurus insignis, from New York, and the Niagara of
Wisconsin; Homalonotus delphinocephalus, from New York and
Pennsylvania, and the Niagara of Indiana; Dalmanites limulurus,
from New York and Pennsylvania, and in the Niagara of Ohio;
Calymene rostrata, from New York and Georgia, and the Niag-
ara of Indiana as C. nasuta; Atrypa reticularis, from Anticosti
to Alabama, and the Niagara of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Wis-
consin; and so with several other species not found on the anti-
clinal. In the remarks on these facts the author observes:

“Two suggestions may be offered as to the peculiar distribution
of these forms in the Clinton. The first is that the fossils in
question favored certain localities in the sea possibly those nearer
the shore, and that these shore conditions did not occur at the
anticlinal until at a later period. The extreme variability of
shore conditions, however, implied by the character of the rocks
farther eastward and the probability that parts of the anticlinal
showed more shore action during the Clinton than did at least
Anticosti, leaves, however, scarcely any margin for such a suppo-
sition.

The second is that the species in question may have been mi-
grating toward the west at the time in question after the close
of the break of the paleontological record, between the Upper
and Lower Silurian periods, and that they did not reach the anti-
clinal until after the close of the Clinton period of that region. If
this could be established by further observations it would be an

ae

Geology and Mineralogy. 253

interesting point in paleontological research. But if they mi-
grated, where did the forms come from originally? As far as may
be determined from the character and thickness of the rock de-
posits now remaining from that time, the land of the Clinton sea
seems to have been nearest southeastern Pennsylvania, and thence
to have curved around toward the Atlantic, both on the north
and the south, perhaps more rapidly toward the north. This
land, judging from the contributions it made to sedimentary
strata, from the Clinton to the Upper Carboniferous periods must
have had decidedly continental proportions. To our knowledge
the sea deposits along the northwest of this paleozoic continent, at
present represented in part at least by the deposits of Anticosti,
was the only place showing comparatively no paleontological
break between the Lower Silurian and the Clinton rocks and very
likely was one of the sources from which certain of the Clinton
fossils of the anticlinal came. The distribution of such forms as
Pleurotomaria var. occidens, Holopea obsoleta var. elevata and
Spirifera rostellum make it probable that such continuous breed-
ing places for species existed also along the southwestern side of
the paleozoic continent.

No doubt intermediate localities occurred of which we have no
record and the position of which we cannot at present reconstruct.
The very great range of many of the Clinton fossils, from Anti-
costi and New York to Alabama, while at a short distance off the
line toward the westward they are absent for a time, or even per-
manently, make it probable that the species migrated north and
south, comparatively freely in the shallower waters off the shore
of the paleozoic continent, but that they found some physical ob-
stacle in reaching the anticlinal, This obstacle was not land,
since the well- -borings of Ohio show that the Clinton is, continuous
between these two regions. Perhaps it was deep water which
made the chances for migration over the short distance from the
anticlinal to the Alleghany axis less satisfactory than the oppor-
tunities for migration for hundreds of miles along the western
border of the old paleozoic continent.

That the anticlinal during the Clinton period was near land at
least, seems probable from ‘the occurrence of conglomerate in the
southern exposures of the Clinton in Ohio. But what formations
were then exposed, and where, seems not so certain. The pebbles
from the Clinton of Ohio near Belfast in Highland county do not
present recognizable remains in any of the specimens seen by us,
nor is their lithological character such as to present positive evi-
dence of any except their sedimentary origin. The cement bind-
ing the pebbles together contains very fresh specimens of Cyclo-
nema biliz and well-preserved specimens of the so-called corals
mentioned by the Ohio Geological Survey, but which are chiefly
species of branched forms of Ptilodictyw: Ptilodictya famelicus,
Ptilodictya rudis, Stictopora similis, Pheenopora fimbriata and
Phenopora magna. Cyathophyllum celator var. Daytonensis
was also found. Single specimens of Orthis biforata, with two

254 Scientific Intelligence.

plications in the mesial sinus. Orthis elegantula and a Ryncho-
nella resembling Rynchonella acinus var. convexa were seen. All
of the forms mentioned are common anticlinal Clinton forms.

The finding of the fossil tree, Glyptodendron, in the marine
Clinton of Ohio, if authentic, would be only suggestive of the
proximity of land, and the fact of its isolated occurrence would
make a considerable distance from this land more than probable.
Yet even if the existence of shallow water at the anticlinal be
conceded, the existence of deep waters off the shore, between the
anticlinal and the paleozoic continent on the east, can scarcely be
proved at present. Yet for the present we suggest this view asa
theory, perhaps to be compelled to withdraw it even ourselves
should the proof to the contrary arise.

2. Presidential Address before the Geological Society of London,
Feb., 1890.—Dr. BLaAnrorp discusses in his address the subject of
the phenomena of ocean-basins. The arguments considered are
(1) the supposed higher specific gravity of the earth’s crust
beneath the ocean, as inferred from pendulum observations, and
the further inference that these areas of greater density have
been the same since the original consolidation of the earth; (2)
the absence with few exceptions of stratified rocks from the lands
over the oceans, and the fact that nearly all these lands are vol-
canic; (3) the absence of deep-sea deposits in the rocks of conti-
nental areas; (4) the agreement between the distribution of
plant and animal-life and the present arrangement of land-areas.
Dr. Blanford’s work in India, as Director of the Geological Sur-
vey, has supplied him with facts that give great interest to the
discussion of the fourth of the above arguments, and the interest
is enhanced by the contrast in cotemporaneous life between
Europe and America on the one hand and India, Australia and
South Africa on the other. We cite a paragraph bearing on this
part of the subject:

“Tf, however, any geological evidence can be produced in favor
of the view that the Indian Ocean, between India and South
Africa, was bridged by land before either country was inhabited
by placental, or perhaps by any, mammalia, it is, I think, clear
that all the peculiar relationships of the Mascarene Islands would
be satisfactorily explained. I think that the requisite geological
evidence does exist. In the first place, attention must be called
to the remarkable flora that extended from Australia to India
and South Africa in Upper Paleozoic times. No doubt until
very recently the principal European paleontologists refused to
admit that this flora was Paleozoic, and even now the statement
1s occasionally made that the Carboniferous* flora of northern
lands had a world-wide range. But the mass of evidence now
available to show that the Newcastle flora of Australia and the
Damuda Talchir flora of India are really Upper Paleozoic, despite
the absence of European Paleozoic plants and the presence of
what are, in Europe, Mesozoic types, is so clear that I feel sure

* Dr. Blanford adds, in a note, that in the following remarks, Carboniferous
must be understood to include Permian.

Geology and Mineralogy. 255

any geologist who will examine the question will be convinced of
its truth. In Australia the facts have long been perfectly well
known, but in India they have only recently been fully cleared
up, chiefly by the progress of discovery in the Salt Range of the
Punjab. In South Africa the evidence is less perfect, though some
important additions to our knowledge have resulted from Dr. Feist-
mantel’s examination of the fossil plants, the account of which
he has been so good as to send to me. In this account, which
reached me only two days since, the representation of the peculiar
Damuda flora of India in South Africa is shown to be beyond
question, and much more complete than has hitherto been sup-
posed.

‘“‘ Now this flora is so strongly contrasted with the Carboniferous
flora of Europe that it is difficult to conceive that the countries
in which the two grew can have been in connection, and the
hypothesis of Gondwana-land, as it is termed by Suess,* a great
continent including Australia, India and South Africa, seems
more in accordance with facts than Mr. Wallace’s view that
‘fragmentary evidence derived from such remote periods’ is
‘utterly inconclusive.’+ For if each flora could be transported
across the sea, why are no European Carboniferous plants found
in the contemporaneous deposits of Gondwana-land and vice versa.
Carboniferous plants of the European type are not confined to
the northern hemisphere even, for they are found on the Zambesi
in Africa and in Brazil. The accounts of their occurrence in
Africa south of the Zambesi are as yet too indefinite for any clear
idea of their relations to be formed, and it remains to be seen
whether the Lepidodendron said to be found in Natal and the
Transvaal is not Lower Carboniferous or Devonian, as in
Australia.”

Dr. Blanford does not mention the argument the writer has
relied upon for evidence that continents were always continents
and which he has presented in publications, including his Geology,
for the past thirty-five years: That American geological history,
that is, the progress in rock-formations and in mountain elevations
through the successive periods, proves that there was through all
a continued succession of continental conditions and changes, and
thereby a uniform course of continental development. J. D. D.

3. Paleozoic Fishes of North America, by J. 8. NEWBERRY.
228 pp. 4to, with 53 plates. U. 8. Geol. Survey, Washington,
1889.—Prof. Newberry’s new volume, besides reviewing to some
extent the discoveries in the Paleozoic fishes of North America,
hitherto reported by himself and others, gives full descriptions of
many new specimens and species, and the author’s final opinions
on several debatable questions. The Pteraspids, Palewaspis Amer-
icana and P. bitruncata, discovered by Prof. Claypole in the
upper member of the Onandaga Salt Group of Pennsylvania, are
the only species of the Upper Silurian recognized as established.
The earliest Devonian species are from the Oriskany sandstone of

* Das Antlitz der Erde, Bd. i, p. 768. + Island Life, p. 398, note.

256 Scientific Intelligence.

Canada, north of Lake Erie, namely, spines of Machzracanthus
and tuberculate plates probably of Macropetalichthys. With
the Corniferous limestone, fishes begin to be well represented, 20
species having been thus far made out from the remains found in
it; and they include one, probably, three Cephalaspids, a Coccos-
teus, and the earliest species of the remarkable genus Dinichthys
of Newberry.

Speaking of the fishes of the following Devonian strata to the
top of the Portage, the author states that recent discoveries have
made known a closer relationship between Europe and America
in the early Vertebrate fauna than had been supposed to exist,
Canada haying afforded species of Pterichthys, Cheiroleps, Phan-
eropleuron and Glyptolepis, and Germany, species of Dinichthys,
Aspidichthys, Macropetalichthys and Macheracanthus. On the
question of the relations of Pterichthys and Bothryolepis, he
alludes to Prof. Cope’s reference of Pterichthys to the Tunicates,
and adds that “ with abundant proofs of the relationship of Pter-
ichthys to Bothriolepis, Aspidichthys, Holonema and the other
Pterichthide, it is evident that they must be grouped together ;
the ichthyic character of Pterichthys is settled by the preserva-
tion in many instances of a tail covered with scales connected
with the carapace.”

From the ‘Cleveland Shale,” which is made Carboniferous, and
the lower member of the Waverly, 28 species of fishes are enumer-
ated (including 2 of Titanichthys and 6 of Dinichthys) ; from the
Carboniferous limestone, 347; and from the Carboniferous of
Linton, Ohio, 27 species.

The plates illustrating this very valuable report bring out well
the marvelous character of the early vertebrate fauna of America.

4. Chert-beds of the Lower Silurian of Organic Origin.—Dr.
HinpE has examined the chert of beds in Lanarkshire and Pee-
bleshire, Scotland, of the age of the Llandeilo-Caradoe series of
Wales, and found it to consist, in the specimens examined, of
Radiolarian shells, sponge-spicules being rare. The minute
spherical bodies which make up the specimen were seen in some
cases to consist of simple or concentric lattice-like shells, some
with relatively long radial spines, precisely similar in character to
the shells of recent and fossil Radiolaria. Dr. Hinde refers the
Species mostly to described genera. A number of them are fig-
ured on a plate in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History
for July. The chert of the Carboniferous formation, which Dr.
Hinde has extensively examined, only in one case afforded him
Radiolarians. The Upper Silurian rocks of Langenstriegis, in
Saxony, has afforded Dr. Rothpletz a single species of Radio-
larian.

5. Hossils in the Taconic limestone belt at the west foot of the
Taconic Range in Hillsdale, N. ¥Y.—The town of Hillsdale is in
the latitude of Great Barrington, and the limestones of the two
regions are on opposite sides of the Taconic Range synclinal.
Prof. Wa. B. Dwiecur has recently examined a specimen of the

Geology and Mineralogy. 257

metamorphic limestone of Hillsdale, from among my collections
in the region, and finds, on slicing it, besides indistinct impres-
sions of shells, a small Gasteropod, probably a Maclurea related
to J. crenulata, though in some respects different from that
species. It appears to indicate that the beds are Calciferous.
The Millerton fossils, already described by Prof. Dwight, are in
the same limestone belt, but nearly twenty miles farther south,
Hillsdale being situated over the northern end of the belt.
J. D. Dz

6. [Revision of the Genus Araucarioxylon of Kraus, with
compiled descriptions and partial synonymy of the species ; by
F. H. Knowrron. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. vol. xii, 1889, pp.
601-617. Also separate, No. 784, Washington, 1890.—Professor
Knowlton has done a useful service in clearing up this knotty
subject, which is much broader than the title indicates, since it
includes the eleven species of.Cordaites founded on internal struc-
ture, and twenty-six species of Dadoxylon, all of which are Paleo-
zoic, but are shown to possess the araucarian type of structure
and therefore to have probably been the direct ancestors of the
thirteen species of Araucarioxylon from the Mesozoic and Ceno-
zoic. ‘The one Tertiary species of this last genus (A. Deeringii
Conwentz) is of special interest as coming from South America
where the genus Araucaria is native, thus seeming to complete
the connection of a type of plants that began in the Silurian and
still persists. Of Araucarioxylon Virginianum (p. 615) it should
be said that the apparent anomaly of finding a species of that
genus in the Potomac formation, characterized by the sequoian
type Cupressinoxylon, has recently been cleared up by the dis-
covery that the fossil wood found at Taylorsville, Virginia, occurs
in a modern deposit (probably the Appomattox formation) imme-
diately overlying the Older Mesozoic or Triassic (Rhetic or Keu-
per) from which its materials are taken, and to which the fossil
wood rightly belongs. L. F. W.

7. Ueber dei Reste eines Brotfruchtbaums, Artocarpus Dick-
soni n. sp., aus den Cenomanen Kreideablagerungen Grénlands ;
von A. G. Narnorst. Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens
Handlingar, Bd. xxiv, pp. 1-10, 4°, pl. i. Separate, Stockholm,
1890.—The large-lobed leaf figured here is believed by the author
to represent an Artocarpus of the type of the bread-fruit tree, A
incisa, but the details of nervation are wanting. The fruits asso-
ciated with it, as well as that from Oeningen which Heer called
A. Oeningensis, and of which Nathorst here gives a new figure,
appear without doubt to belong to the fig family, and if they are
not small bread-fruits they are probably true figs. There is no
present objection to regarding this leaf as that of Ficus. Nathorst
shows that it resembles several that have been found in American
deposits and referred to Aralia, Myrica, etc., and Lesquereux in a
work not yet published, figured similar ones from the Dakota
group under the names Liriodendron, Sterculia, etc. L, F. W.

8. Tertidre Pflanzen der Insel Neusibirien ; von J. Scumat-
HAUSEN. Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. de St. Pétersburg, 7° serie, tome

258 Scientific Intelbigence.

xxxvil, No. 5, 1890, pp. 22, pl. 2, 4to.—This paper forms the
second part of the series devoted to the scientific results of the
expedition sent out in 1885 and 1886 by the Imperial Academy
to explore Janaland and the New Siberian Islands, and contains
an introduction by Baron E. von Toll, who collected the fossil
plants on the Island of New Siberia which are here described by
Schmalhausen. They consist largely of well known Arctic Ter-
tiary forms, but contain several new species, including two of
fossil coniferous wood. There is no indication that this flora rep-
resents an age greatly different from that of the Tertiary plant-
beds of the mainland of Siberia (T'schirimyi on the Lena, Simon-
owa, Atschinsk, Bureja, etc.) or of the Island of Sachalin.
L. F. W.

9. La Flora det Tufi del Monte Somma, by Luie1 Mescut-
NELLI. Rend. R. Accad. Sci. Fis. e Mat. of Naples, April, 1890,
4to. Separate, pp. 8.—Dr. Meschinelli enumerates some twenty
species of leaf-prints preserved in the Geological Museum of the
University of Naples that have been collected in the tufas of
Monte Somma on the north flank of Mount Vesuvius. Most of
them he is able to identify with living species still found in Italy.
They are supposed to have been buried by the lavas prior to the
historic period. Ls FW

10. Remarks on some Fossil Remains considered as peculiar
kinds of Marine Plants; by Lro LesquerEvux. Proc. Nat.
Mus., vol. xiii, 1890, No. "799, pp. 5-12, pl. ii—This paper was
Professor Lesquereux’s last contribution to paleobotany, and de-
scribes certain very peculiar organisms collected by the Rev. H.
Herzer in the Upper Helderberg limestone at Sandusky and in
the Portage group on Lake Erie near Cleveland, Ohio. He gave
to these objects the names Halymenites Herzeri, Cylindrites stri-
atus, and Physophycus bilobatus, all of ‘which are figured. They
will form new material for discussion by those who are interested
in the problematical organisms of the ancient seas. L. F. W.

11. Brief notices of some recently described minerals.— AROMITE.
In a paper upon some of the minerals of Atacama, Dr. Darapsky
gives the name aromite to a magnesia-alum having the composi-
tion 6MgSO,. Al,(SO,),.54H,O. It occurs with other sulphates
at Copiapo, and forms fibrous masses of a yellowish color ; also
obtained from the Pampa de Aroma in the northern part of
Tarapaca. The name Ruprire is also used for a mineral having
the composition Fe,O,.2850,.3H,O, and occurring near the Rio
Loa in indistinct crystals ofa deep red color.—Jahrb. Min. ,i, 49,
1890.

Tamarueire.—Another article upon the Tarapaca sulphates by
Dr. Schulze gives a general account of the method of occurrence
and association and a detailed description of a number of species.
One of these is tamarugite ; this occurs in massive forms, color-
less, and with a radiated structure; hardness = 2; specific grav-
ity = 2°03. Its composition is expressed by the formula Na,SO,.
Al,(SO,),+12H,0, differing from ordinary soda-alum in the small
amount of water.— Verh. deutsch. Ver., Santiago, vol. 11, 1889.

Geology and Mineralogy. 259

QUETENITE, GoRDAITE.—In a paper upon the various ferric
sulphates from Chili, to which attention has been directed re-
peatedly of late, Frenzel, besides notes on other species, describes
two new ones. Quetenite occurs at the Salvador mine in Quetena,
west of Calama. It is massive, of a reddish-brown color, hard-
ness =3, specific gravity =2°08-2°14. An analysis gave:

SO, 37°37 Fe,0, 22°79 MgO 5:92 H,0 34:01=100

For this the formula MgSO,, Fe,S,0,+13H,O is calculated.
Gordaite occurs with sideronatrite and is related to it in compo-
sition. It is found in indistinct crystals, perhaps triclinic, and in
small foliated masses with fibrous structure. It is colorless to
white or light gray, luster vitreous, hardness =2°5 to 3.
Specific gravity =2°61. An analysis gave:
SO; 50°85 Fe.03 19°42 Na,O 22°36 Hie ONiG33=99;96

The formula is 3Na,SO,, Fe,S,O,+3H,O, which brings it near the
ferronatrite of Mackintosh.— Win. Petr. Mitth., xi, 214-223.

Lussatire.—A crystalline form of silica described by Mallard
as forming an envelope over colorless quartz crystals in the bitu-
men deposit at Lussat near Pont-du-Chateau. It has a fibrous or
fibrous-lamellar structure, the fibers being perpendicular to the
surface of the crystal. They are doubly-refracting in the direc-
tion of their length and have the opposite optical character (-+-) to
chalcedony. The specific gravity is 2°04 and the mean index of
refraction for D 1:446, in both points approximating to the char-
acter of opal. Chemically, it consists of pure silica for the most
part, but in part mixed also with amorphous silica or common
opal. Its occurrence at a number of localities, associated with
opal is noted.— C. &., vol. cx, 245, Feb. 3, 1890.

12. On the supposed occurrence of Phenacite in Maine—a cor-
rection ; by W.S. YEATES (communicated).—In the April number
of this Journal, I announced that I had identified phenacite from
Hebron, Maine; and that, among other planes, I had observed
the basal plane, O. This announcement was based upon a pre-
liminary examination, the angle between the adjoining planes of
a pyramid, 156° 46’4, being practically the same as that between
2-2 and 22 of phenacite, viz: 156° 44’. The apparent infusi-
bility of the mineral, when first examined, coupled with the strik-
ing resemblance of the crystal to phenacite in habit, served further
to mislead. A more careful examination, recently made by me,
disclosed the fact that the mineral was not phenacite; and a
quantitative analysis, by Mr. L. G. Eakins of the U.S. Geological
Survey, has proved it to be apatite. The plane, which was at
first taken for 2-2 of phenacite, is the pyramid $. The unusual
flat habit of these apatite crystals is well worthy of note.

U. 8. National Museum, Aug. 7th, 1890.

13. Tableaux des Minéraux des Roches, resumé de leurs pro-
priétés optiques, cristallographiques et chimiques par A. MicurL—
Levy et A. Laororx. Paris, 1889. (Baudry et Cie.)—These
tables form a useful supplement to the well known work of the

260 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

same authors recently published (this Journal, xxxvii, 414), giv-
ing the data therein contained in convenient tabular form. The
active investigations of the authors have served to fill out and
complete to a remarkable extent our knowledge of the optical
constants of many important species.

14. Index der Krystallformen der Mineralien, von Dr. Victor
GOLDSCHMIDT, vol. 11, pp. 335-546, Berlin, 1890 (Julius Springer).
—The Nos. 6 and 7 now published, of Goldschmidt’s great work,
include the species from Magnesite to Pyroxene, completing the
second volume. ‘The completion of the third volume and thus
of the entire work is promised before the close of 1890.

15. Report of the Royal Commission on the mineral resources
of Ontario, and measures for their development. 566 pp. 8vo.
Toronto, 1890 (Warwick & Sons).—This volume contains the
report of the Commissioners appointed to enquire into and report
upon the mineral resources of the Province of Ontario and upon
measures for their development. The Commissioners are J.
Charlton, Chairman, Robert Bell, Wm. Coe, Wm. H. Merrill,
Archibald Blue, Secretary. The report gives a sketch of the
geology of the Province with special reference to economic min-
erals, with notes on mines, locations and works visited; also a
statement of the influence of commercial conditions upon mining
industry, mining laws and regulations, on the smelting of ores in
Ontario, ete.

III. MisceELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. Report of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for 188%.
514 pp. 8vo, with 42 maps and sections.—This Report contains
among its appendices, the following reports: H. MircHeE t, on the
movements of the sands at the eastern entrance of Vineyard
Sound; C. A. Scuorr, Fluctuations in the level of Lake Cham-
plain; Lieut. J. E. Piruspury, Gulf Stream Currents along the
Florida Straits; C. A. Scuotrr, Magnetic work of the Greeley
Arctic Expedition; H. Mircwett, on the results of the Physical
Survey of New York Harbor; also a General Index to the pro-
gress sketches, illustrations, maps and charts, in the Annual Re-
ports of the Survey from 1844 to 1885, and a Bibliography of
Geodesy. The following facts are here cited:

Lake Champlain.—TVhe greatest depth of Lake Champlain
is 402 feet, “and consequently parts of the bottom of this lake
descend 300 feet below the level of the Atlantic Ocean.” The
lake is highest in May when it is 2°18 feet above the mean, and
lowest in September when it is 0°96 feet below it; it is above the
mean also in the months of March, April and June.

The Gulf Stream.—On a transverse section of the Stream
between Cuba and Yucatan (“section DD”) where the depth of
water at middle is over 1100 fathoms, the line of maximum veloc-
ity is situated about 5 miles east of the 100-fathom curve on the
Yucatan Bank, and the zero velocity is at or near the bottom;

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 261

and the zero to the eastward is at approximately the same depth,
300 fathoms.

On the transverse section between Havana (Cuba) and the Re-
becca Shoal, of the Florida reef, just east of the Tortugas (section
CC), the curve of zero-velocity two-thirds of the way across to
Cuba, at station 4, has a depth of more than 750 fathoms; at
stations 2 and 3 (on the Florida side of station 4), 200 and 380
nearly, and at 5, on the Cuba side, only 220.

The report states that the approximate volume of water flowing
through the section DD is 110 billion tons per hour; through the
section CC 103 billion tons, and the section A, which is that be- |
tween the Fowey Rocks, Florida, and the Bahamas, 95 billion
tons. It is added, ‘‘The evaporation from the Gulf of Mexico
and the eddy current would account for the excess at section DD,
At section CC, in the calculation, the directions have been taken
as flowing east, and this, of course, gives too great an amount;
the excess would probably be accounted for by this difference
and the eddy, leaving the volume actually flowing east equal to
that found at section A.”

Sections A and DD are alike in their northward flow, in the
general contour of the bottom, in the depth at which the current
reaches a zero velocity where it is not influenced by shoals (it
being 300 to 350 fathoms in each), and in having the axis of
velocity situated on the slope of the bank on the west side of the
Stream. The maximum velocity in section A is 5°25 knots per
hour, in section DD, 6°25 knots; the first was the monthly maxt-
mum without the effect of inertia, the last the monthly maximum
combined with the inertia of the stream. The idea of Lieut.
Maury that the middle of the stream is somewhat elevated re-
ceives support, if by middle the axis is understood, from the fact
that current bottles thrown overboard west of the axis invariably
bring up on the Florida Coast, and those east of it are never
heard from, they going into the broad Atlantic.

The American Magnetic Pole.—The Report of Mr. Scuorr
on the Magnetic Work of the Greeley Expedition closes with the
following words: “In close connection with the scheme of physi-
cal researches undertaken by the International Arctic Committee,
the desirability of a new determination of the American pole of
dip does not appear to have been urged. * * * From the
time of Hansteen, early in this century, to the present time, efforts
have been made to trace out the supposed motion of the intersec-
tion of the so-called magnetic axis with the surface. While some
physicists hold it to be fixed in position, others believe it to have
a slow secular motion of limited extent, and still others would
give to it a rapid motion with a path which would carry it clear
round the geographical pole. The time has certainly arrived
when in this matter facts should take the place of speculation.
The writer has the assurance of the willingness of three distin-
guished American Arctic explorers to undertake this task; the
one thing lacking is the necessary funds to sustain the explorer,

Am. Jour. Sci.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XL, No. 237.—Supr., 1890.
16a

262 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

say for two years. Here surely is a fine field open in which to
gain well-merited distinction.”

2. Aid to Astronomical Research.—Miss C. W. Bruce has
offered the sum of six thousand dollars ($6,000) during the pres-
ent year in aid of astronomical research. No restriction will be
made likely to limit the usefulness of this gift. In the hope of
making it of the greatest benefit to science, the entire sum will be
divided, and in general the amount devoted to a single object will
not exceed five hundred dollars ($500). Precedence will be given
to institutions and individuals whose work is already known
through their publications, also to those cases which cannot other-
wise be provided for or where additional sums can be procured if
a part of the cost is furnished. Applications are invited from
astronomers of all countries, and should be made to the under-
signed before October 1, 1890, giving complete information re-
garding the desired objects. Applications not acted on favor-
ably will be tegarded as confidential. The unrestricted character
of this gift should insure many important results to science, if
judiciously expended. In that case it is hoped that others will
be encouraged to follow this example, and that eventually it may
lead to securing the needed means for any astronomer who could
so use it as to make a real advance in astronomical science. Any
suggestions regarding the best way of fulfilling the objects of this”
circular will be gratefully received.

Harvard College Observatory, Epwarp C. Pick RING.

Cambridge, Mass., U. 8. A., July 15, 1890. ;

3. Construction of buildings in Earthquake countries.—V ol-
ume xiv of the Transactions of the Seismological Society of Japan
(1889) consists of a discussion by Joun Mirne of the subject of
suitable buildings for earthquake countries. It describes disasters
and the best ways of avoiding them in constructions, and illus-
trates the subject with plans and views.

4. A Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials and the indi-
cator and Prony Brake. For engineers and technical schools;
by R. H. Tuursron. 514 pp. 8vo. New York, 1890 (John
Wiley & Sons).—The author has given us here a standard work
of reference in a department of great practical importance in
civil engineering, and has thus filled a place not occupied before.
The instructions given for the application of the trials are practi-
cal and clearly stated, and the methods to be used are described
with precision and conciseness, and the engineer will find this
fresh and accurate handbook of great value to him.

5. The Science of Metrology ; or Natural Weights and Meas-
ures. A chailenge to the Metric System; by the Hon. KE. Noxt.
83 pp. London, 1889 (Kdward Stanford).—In this little book
the author has attempted to show that “by a little amending the
existing English measures can be evolved into a system scientif-
ically as well as practically superior to the Metric.”

Gesammelte mathematische Abhandlungen von H. A. Schwarz. Vol. i, 338
pp., with 4 plates; vol. ii, 370 pp. Large 8vo. Berlin, 1890 (Julius Springer).

REPORTS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ARKANSAS.
JOHN C. BRANNER, STATE GEOLOGIST.

An act of the legislature of Arkansas directs that the reports of the State
Geological Survey shall be sold by the Secretary of State at the cost of printing
and binding. The Reports issued, and their prices by mail are as follows:
ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1888.

Vou. I. On the gold and silver mines, and briefly on nickel, antimony, manga-
nese and iron in western central Arkansas. Price $1.00.

Vou. IJ. On the general mesozoie geology, chalk, greensands, gypsum, salines,
timber, and soils of southwestern Arkansas. Price $1.00. ~°

Vou. Ill. On the coal of the state, its distribution, thickness, characteristics,
analyses and calorific tests. Price 75 cents.

Other volumes will soon be issued.
Address, Hon. B. CHISM, Secretary of State, Little Rock, Ark.

BECKER BROTHERS,
7 No. 6 Murray Street, New York,
Manufacturers of Balances and Weights of Precision for Chem-
ists, Assayers, Jewelers, Druggists, and in general for every use -

where accuracy is required.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE

JOEUNS HOPKINS ee

BATLTIMORE(.

I. EP Ascoricati Journal of Mathematics, rey NEwcomes, Editor, and T. Crate,
Associate Hditor.. Quarterly. 4to. Volume XT in progress. $5 per
volume.

II. American Chemical Journal.—I. Remsen, Editor. 8 Nos. yearly. 8vo.
Volume XI in progress. $4 per volume.

Til. American Journal of Philology.—B. L. GILDERSLEEVE, Editor. Quar-
terly. 8vo. Volume X in progress. $3 per volume.

IV. Studies from the Biological Laboratory.—Including the Chesapeake
Zoological Laboratory. H. N. Marin, Editor, and W. K. Brooks, Asso-
ciate Editor. S8vo. Volume IV in progress. $5 per volume.

V. Studies in Historical and Political Science.—H. B. Apams, Hditor.
Monthly. 8vo. Volume VII in progress. $3 per volume.

VI. Johns Hopkins University Circulars.—Containing reports. of scientific
and literary work in progress in Baltimore. 4to. Vol. IX in progress.
$1 per year.

VII. Annual Report.— Presented by the resident to the Board of Trustees,
reviewing the operations of the University during the past academic year.

Vil. Annual Register.—Giving the list of officers and students, and stating
the regulations, ete., of the University. Published at the close of the Aca-
demic year.

ROWLAND’S PHOTOGRAPH OF THE NORMAL Sonar SpecTRUM. New edition now
ready. $20 for set of ten plates, mounted.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE HMBRYOLOGY OF JNSECTS AND ARACHNIDS. By Adam
T. Bruce. 46 pp. and 7 plates. $3.00, cloth.

SELECTED MORPHOLOGICAL MonoGRapHus. W.K. Brooks, Editor. Vol. I. 370
pp. and 51 plates. 4to. . $7.50, cloth.

THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROPAGATION OF THE OYSTER IN MARYLAND. By W.
K. Brooks. 193 pp. 4to; 13 plates and 3 maps. $5.00, cloth.

ON THE MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT. By H. A. Rowland. 127 pp.
8yo. $1.50.

A full list of publications will be sent on n application.

Communications in respect to exchanges and remittances may be
sent to the Johns Hopkins University (Publication Agency), Baltimore,
Maryland.

,

CONTENT S:-

Arr. XXII.—Rocky Mountain Protaxis and the Post-Creta-

ceous Mountain-making along its course; by J. D. Dana 181

X XIII.—The Magneto-optical Generation of Electricity ; by

SAMUEL SWELDON (Gr 8e lias ot oS ee 196

XXIV.—Contributions to Mineralogy, No. 49; by F. A.

GENTH, with Crystallographic Notes, by 8. L. Penrietp 199

XXV.—Chaleopyrite crystals from the French Creek Iron

Mines, St. Peter, Chester Co., Pa.; by S. L. Punrretp_ 207

XXVI.—Koninckina and related Genera; by CHaruzs E.

BEECHER, -(Wath Plate TI) 32 22500" 2) SS ee

XXVII.—The efiect of pressure on the electrical conductivity

of liquids: ‘by C) WAR US Se BO es aes | Soci eae 219

XXVIITI.—Notice of two new Iron Meteorites from Hamilton

Co., Texas, and Puquios, Chili, 8. A.; by Epwin E.
PROSE et RAE SN ae 2 AP ha a 293

XXIX.—The Cretaceous of Manitoba; by J. B. TyRRELL 227
XX X.—On Mordenite; by Louis V. Prrsson_-_-.--------- 232
XXXI-—Geology of Mon Louis Island, Mobile Bay; by

Danie: W 22 a NGDON; Rk eae Sa ae eee eee 237

XXXII—On Leptzenisca, a.new genus of Brechiopod from

the Lower Helderberg group; by Cuaries EK. BeEcuEr.
(WathePlates EXO) a. soir oo NOS Ce Oo Soe eee eae 238

XXXII! —North American Species of Strophalosia; by

Cuaries > Brncuer?’ (With: Plate [X) 253 seo see 240

XX XIV.—Notes on the Microscopic Structu.e of Oolite, with

analyses; by Erwin H. Barsour and Joszepu ToRREy,

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics.—On a new Element occurring in Tellurium, etc., GRUN-

WALD: On the Chlorides of the Compound Ammoniums, LE BEL, 250.—On the
production of Ozone and the formation of Nitrates in Combustion, ILosvAy, 251.

Geology and Mineralogy-=Cilinton Group fossils with special reference to Collec-

tions from Indiana, Tennessee and Georgia, FOERSTE, 252.—Presidential Ad-
dress before the Geological Society of London, BLANFORD, 254.—Paleozoic
Fishes of North America, NEWBERRY, 255.—Chert-beds of the Lower Silurian
of Crganic Origin, HinDE: Fossils in the Taconic limestone belt at the west
foot of the Taconic Range in Hillsdale, N. Y., Dwie@Ht, 256.—Revision of the
genus Araucarioxylon of Kraus, ete., KnNowLron: Ueber dei Reste eimes Brot-
fruchtbaums, etc., NatHorst: Tertiaére Pflanzen der Insel Neusibirien, ScHMAL-
HAUSEN, 257.—La Flora dei Tufi del Monte Somma, MESCHINELLI: Remarks on

some Fossil Remains considered as peculiar kinds of Marine Plants, LESQUE- —

REUX: Brief notices of some recently described minerals, 258.—On the sup-
posed occurrence of Phenacite in Maine, YEATES: Tableaux des Minéraux des_

Roches, etc., MicnEL-L&vy et Lacrorx, 259.—Index der Krystallformen der —

Mineralien, GOLDSCHMIDT: Report of the Royal Commission, ete., 260.

Miscelianeous Scientific Tnielligence.—Report of the U. S. Coast and’ Geodetic Sur-

vey for 1887, 260.—Aid to Astronomical Research, Bruce: Construction of
buildings in Earthquakes countries, Minne: A Handbook of Engine and Boiler
Trials, ete., THuRsToN: The Science of Metrology, NOEL.

ia-

ae eS

ey iy Oe Eo

Chas. D. Walcott, Roce. aid eek ie ee
. = .S: ee —" iP :

| _ VOL. ae - oe OCTOBER, 1890.

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

wap GD.WALOOTT.
AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, |

EDITORS
JAMES D. ann EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Prorsessors JOSIAH P. COOKE, GEORGE L. GOODALE
’ anp JOHN TROWBRIDGE, oF CAMBRIDGE.

PROFESSORS H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. Es OF
New Haven,

Prorressorn GEORGE BE. BARKER, oF PHILADELPHIA,

THIRD SERIES.

VOL. XL—[WHOLE NUMBER, OXI.

No. 238.—OCTOBER, 1890.

NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. 8. DANA,
1890.

TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET.

———

_ Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub-
' seribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by
_ money orders, registered letters, or bank checks.

”

SPAR na ere > at a * j wate” Pres ee ¥ ote far,
4 f vie ‘ ie 6 ss! ae A

MINERALS. ™

BLOWPIPE MINERALS.—Especial interest is shown at this time
of year in this department of our business. Our material is selected
with exceeding care and is supplied in good sized massive Specimens as.
pure as we can secure. We haveadded largely to our stock and promise
prompt and careful filling of all orders, which we especially request be
sent in as soon as possible.

Recent Additions of Cabinet Specimens :

Endialyte from Arkansas, crystals, 50c. to $5.00; massive specimens,
10c. to $2.00. Very rare.

Hiddenite crystals, terminated, choice, $1.50 to $5.00.

Gold, crystallized and leaf, from California, $2.50 to $85.00.
Phenacite, Mt. Antero, loose crystals, extra good, 25c. to $5.00.
Bertrandite, Mt. Antero, a few good gangue specimens, $1.00 to $3. 50. |

Salida Garnets, 1000, large and small, 10c. to $6.00. One large group,
$17.50.

Celestite from W. Va. (described A. J. S., Mar. 90), 15c. to $2.50.
Calcites from Dakota (new), choice groups, 10c. to $1.50.
Chiastolite Crystals, 10c. to $1.00.

Loose Pyrite Crystals, Leadville, 10c. to 50c.

Fergusonite Crystals, Texas, 50c. to $5.00: (The $25 specimen adyer-
tised last month is sold). €

Nivenite, Thoro-gummite, Cyrtolite, Allanite, from Texas.
Peristerite, good crystals, N. Y., 25c. to $1.00.
Spessartite in Rhyolite, Colorado, an extra fine lot, 50c. to $3.50. ,

Topaz, San Luis Potosi, finest ever secured in Mexico, both HOU
crystals and splendid matrix specimens, 10c. to $25.00.

Hyalite, Mexico, extra good, 15c. to $2.50.

Apophyllite, Mexico: a very fine collection has just been purchased
by our Mr. Niven.

Valencianite in good specimens is in the same shipment.
Rhodochrosite.—Our Colorado collector has just secured the finest.
lot of the beautiful transparent rhombic crystals of this mineral ever
found in the U.S.
Rare Species, afew just added: Native Tellurium, Hessite, Sylvanite, _
Cosalite, Nagyagite, Coloradoite, Domeykite, Kobellite, Randite, Min-
ium, Stromeyerite, Linarite, De Saulesite, Microlite, Utahite, etc., etc.
The foregoing are only part of the almost countless very recent addi-.
tions to our stock. It should be borne in mind that we have the largest,
finest and most varied stock in the U.S. The best idea of it can be
obtained only by visiting our two stores, but if you cannot do this,

Send for our 100 pp. Illustrated Catalogue,
which is mailed free to anyone who mentions this J ournal.

GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Dealers in Minerals,
1512 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 739 and 741 Broadway, New York..

OD.WALCOTT.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

PID TET 1D) ST TIT Sey

aa a

Art. XXXV.—A description of the “ Bernardston Series”
- of Metamorphic OUpper Devonian Rocks; by Brn K.,
EMERSON.*

1. Description of the fegion.—The terrace sands of the
Connecticut river are narrow upon its western side where the
river crosses the State line, and they continue with little increase
of width for four miles southwesterly, and then, as they enter
Bernardston, their boundary upon the older rocks turns abruptly
west, and runs for seven miles a little south of west, past the
village of Bernardston, and along the north line of Greenfield.
Bernardston village stands just in the middle of this line, and
at the mouth of a narrow valley, up which a lobe of the alluvial.

-sands reaches northwardly for nearly two miles. On the west,
this valley is bounded by the high ridge of West Mountain,
made up of the contorted argillite which stretches in a narrow
band far north, across Vermont, and disappears below the river

* The introductory part of this paper, giving a history of previous investigations
in the region, is here omitted. The publications mentioned in it, which are of
chief interest in this connection, are: Prof. Edward Hitchcock’s Report on the
Geology of Massachusetts, 1833, and 2d ed. 1835, the latter mentioning the dis-
covery of Crinoids and giving figures; the Report on the Geology of Vermont,
by E. and C. H. Hitchcock, i, 447 and ii, 598, 1861; the two papers of J. D.
Dana in’ this Journal, III, vi. 339, 1873, and xiv, 379, 1877; a paper by CO. H.
Hitchcock in this Journal, xiii, 313, 1877; also observations by C. H. Hitchcock
in the Geology of New Hampshire, 1i, 428, 1877; a short paper by R. P. Whitfield
on the fossils of Bernardston, based chiefly on specimens of new forms discovered
by Prof. Emerson, published in this Journal, xxv, 368, 1883.

The investigation by Ptof. Dana had in view the chronological canon with
regard to crystalline rocks—that kind of rock was a safe criterion of geological
age—and that, under it, “‘staurolite crystals were as good as fossils” for the
purpose. The metamorphic Taconic region of western New England, and the

Am. Jour. Sct.—THIRD Series, Vou. XL, No. 238.—Ooct., 1890.
17

MAP OF THE
ALTERED UPPER DEVONIAN
OF BERNARDSTON

ANO NORTHFIELD MASS,
AND S VERNON VT.

SS =e
eee EER VOW
ea

i}
ae, ae

Ni We tf? [FA oe
ASA Sa79 ae ia a
Sey } indie

<S. Een
SSS NS
NSSS g\ Ses =
ANS SS A de

yor

E==3 Tite.

TO Trias.

BS Amphibolite.
Mica Schist.

(} Limestone.
Quartzite.
Argillite.
E74 Gneiss. a OO

a. Main quarry; b. Thickest bed of magnetite; c. Excavation connecting lime-
stone with quartzite; d. Excavation exposing fauit of mica schist against lime-
stone; e. Same as d; f Contact of quartzite on argillite.

B. BK. Emerson— Bernardston Series,” ete. 265

sands on the north line of Greenfield, appearing again only in
the limited outcrop just west of the village of Whately, fifteen
miles farther south, and in one newly discovered at the mouth
of Mill River. Everywhere the slope of the West Mountain
shows only the black argillite, except in a single band back of
the house of Mr. Williams, a mile north of the village, where,
apparently resting upon the argillite, occurs the fossiliferous
series. The section has a width going up the hillside on the
line of dip, of only 1050™, and is nowhere exposed, on the
strike, more than a tenth of this distance. The outcrops of the
argillite to the north and south show that there can be only a
very limited amount of the newer series preserved upon the
hillside, while the heavy accumulation of till generally prevents
one’s seeing its limits or its contact. upon the rock below.
It approaches the argillite quite closely upon the west and in
the line of strike can not be more than 8000" long. Over
against the West Mountain on the east, across the narrow valley
of Fall River, rises a range of hills bounded on the south and
east by the terrace sands, which is composed of a similar series
of rocks ir similar succession. The principal difference between
the two is that on the east a dark hornblende rock, often massive,
takes its place in the series while the limestone and magnetite
bed of the typical section are wanting, and all the other mem-
bers are somewhat more metamorphosed. Staurolite occurs in
the schists, feldspar crystals and biotite in the quartzites, and
they are thrown into complex folds and greatly faulted. They
lie in fact along the center of the great synclinal of the Con-
necticut valley which is anarea of maximum disturbance of the
rocks quite across the State. These discrepancies become less
important when it is noted that hornblende exists in consider-
able quantity directly above the Williams farm limestone, and
the second bed of the same limestone in South Vernon is encased
in hornblende schist. Across the river in Northfield the white

Bernardston of central, being known to afford fossils, the former of Lower
Silurian age and the latter of Lower or Upper Helderberg, these were selected
as regions for ascertaining what kinds of crystalline rocks might be of these
different periods for comparison with Archean crystalline rocks. (The Lower
Silurian age of the Taconic system was hardly questioned in 1873 by any one.)
Prof. Dana’s papers on the Bernardston region describe among these rocks,
besides the limestone and quartzyte, garnetiferous mica schist, staurolite slate,
gneiss, and various hornblendic rocks, including quartz-syenite.

Prof. Emerson has given the region a thorough investigation, in which he has
removed the doubts as to the relations of the beds, made out, as far as possible,
the system of faults and flexures, studied the rocks as to their kinds and transi-
tions, and determined the age of the series to be Upper Devonian. The paper
will be accepted in America, and should be elsewhere, as putting the facts beyond
doubt that gneiss, dioryte, granite, and the other crystalline rocks described are
not always of Archzan or pre-Cambrian make; that dioryte and granite are not
always of igneous origin; and these conclusions are made sure on the well-estab-
lished criterion of age, that is, fossils—Crinoids, Corals, Brachiopods. J. D. D.

ZT opiite

3. S Quartete es
) (in MieaSohet
; afmefit
( eT stone th Se
F. Williams. 2s .

nae S
ARYL
SSS

Fig. 2. Map of Devonian rocks, Williams Farm; 3. Section of same; 4. Section at limestone
quarry, including a to ¢ of map, fig. 2; 5. corresponding to ¢, of fig. 2,—the brook, the course

of a fault, faulting the quartzyte.

B. K. Emerson—“ Bernardston Series,” ete. 267

saccharoidal quartzite extends to the base of the Northfield
Mountain and is there bounded by a north-south fault, while
only asingle outcrop of schist is exposed.

2. The relation of the Bernardston series to the Argillite.
—It was originally assumed by President Hitchcock that the
argillite and “the schists of this series were conformable. Pro-
fessor J. D. Dana,* finding the argillite about a half mile west of
the limestone to have a much higher dip, decided that they were
unconformable to, and much older than, the upper series, and
this conclusion was accepted by Prof. C. H. Hitcheock.¢ Ihave,
in tracing the distribution of the quartzite, given five localities
where the boundary of the quartzite and argillite is well exposed,
and I could increase the number, and in each ease there is
apparent conformity and a uniform passage from the common
argillite, into argillite with minute garnets and minute biotite
spangles, fine-grained black quartzite graduating into coarser
quartzite and conglomerate. Theargillite is extremely corrugated
and often cleaved, and observations of dip a rod from the contact
are of no value as settling a question like this.

3. The Williams Farm Section.—See maps 1 and 2 and
sections, figs. 3, 4,5. The long band of the rocks of the Ber-
nardston series along the lower slope of the West Mountain
has been brought into its present position by extensive dislo-
cations and is plainly cut by two transverse faults which run
approximately with the brook gorge north of the limestone and
with the larger gorge of Fox brook half a mile south. The
area between containing the fossiliferous limestone is the one
here described.

Passing up the hillside, back of Mr. Williams’s barn, the first
bed and the upper one on the section (fig. 3) is a dark musco-
vite schist, which is exposed in a single small quarry and sepa-
rated by a depression which runs with the strike, and which I
have supposed in the section to be occupied by the same schists
and to have been formed by their erosion. The outcrops are
almost continuous across the quartzite and limestone which
follow, to the second outcrop of schist, where a similar depres-
sion separates the latter from the second band of quartzite,
which I have in like manner supposed to be oceupied by this
schist. ‘The thicknesses given in the section are, with this
explanation, the result of careful measurement; and the eleva-
tions taken with two closely agreeing aneroids, and referred to
the sea level by means of the height of the railroad station
at Bernardston, corrected so as to agree with Gen. Ellis’s survey
of the Connecticut River.

* This Journal, III, vi, 343. + Geol. N. H., ii, 433, 1887.

268 B. Kk. Emerson—* Bernardston Series” of

Section of the Williams’ Farm Rocks.

ie Garneuienoussmircar schist esto. | | 52 aa ee 4 Oo") ann
2. Micaceous quartzite and conglomerate -.--.---.---- 1355"
Sh Macwetite: ma xImMuUI ns) Se. oe {lp
4, Lannesione PCT O dak SY On p ENG DUR AME REND Ge oi Ba) 0
Fault

1eeIMicac schists) bisc Sie tae Aeraay st oo en ha ea Byne |
2. Quartzite and conglomerate if conformable with the

MICA “SCHISGRES Sot sete eo erp reee sb) ne aa We

The beds below the fault are a repetition of those above.

The Argillite (fig. 38, A, west end).—Beginning nearly a
a northwest of the Williams house, and just north of the
point where the road over West Mountam bends sharply west, a
long ridge of the typical elaborately contorted argillite extends
norther ly. Going east a drumlin conceals its contact with the
newer rock, and T have represented beneath the till a comfor-
mable contact of the ar eillite and the quartzite as | have found
it everywhere in the region. (See fig. 2

b. The western outcrop of the mica schist.—W here the series
outcrops for the first time after crossing the drumlin, a small
area of the mica schist of this series has recently come to my
notice. It is a garnetiferous mica schist, like the more eastern
outcrops, and it lies plainly in a small synelinal of the quartzite.
It lies ten rods south of the western of a row of great chestnuts
which crown the hill.

c. The western exposures of the quartzite.—The discovery of
the schist just described makes plain the structure of these
quartzite outcrops with their western dip. As they lie in a
small synclinal the quartzite makes a corresponding anticlinal
before reaching the outcrop of the mica schist. The rock is
dark gray quartzite, at times conglomeratic, weathering very
rough, with strike and dip very irregular and uncertain, with
many slight slips and crushings, indeed, often completely
brevciated and recemented with limpid quartz. Locally it
passes into a black siliceous slate by the microscopical develop-
ment of biotite and the accumulations of coaly matter. A few
scales of the former mineral can be seen with the lens. Going
up the hillside from the hmestone along the line of dip, two
small ledges of the rock appear, as may be seen from the
section, widely separated from each other, and from the rocks
above and below.

It is not difficult to find, among the less crushed portions of
each ledge, pieces which agree exactly with the quartzite above
the limestone, especially that which outcrops a few meters
above the latter, and its peculiar appearance is largely due to
crushing and infiltration of quartz. ‘The same result is reached

ee

Metamorphic Upper Devonian Locks. 269

by examining the quartzite ledges along the strike north and
south from this point and comparing them with the “upper
quartzite.”

d. The mica schist west of the limestone.—This rock is a dark,
even-bedded, muscovite schist, so fine grained as to be almost
indistinguishable from the even-bedded varieties of the argillite
below, with its glistening surface pitted here and there by
minute hollows from which small red dodecahedral garnets
have fallen out. It is abundantly marked by small bodies,
which appear much like minute altered chiastolites just visible
to the eye. The minute chiastolite-like forms prove to be
made up externally of bands of quite large muscovite plates,
each normal to the long sides of very impure biotite erystals,
the latter placed transversely to the bedding of the rock.’
Under the microscope the rock shows a tine, scaly, colorless
ground mass, dotted abundantly with coaly matter, and made
up mostly of muscovite plates with some apolar niatter, appar-
ently opal. The constituents are a little larger than in the argil-
lite, and the coaly matter less abundant. No kaolin could be
detected. The much-fissured clear garnets are surrounded by
a black band from the repulsion of the coaly matter, within
which a broad decomposition band of chlorite in twisted scales
appears which often extends nearly to the center. They con-
tain large grains of quartz irregularly arranged. The biotite
incloses garnet, and the muscovite forms caps around the garnet,
and arranges itself symmetrically to the biotite, so the order of
crystallization is very generally garnet, biotite, muscovite.
The large amount of impurity in the biotite indicates that
when it formed the rock was more carbonaceous than at
present. Leucoxene occurs in yellowish white grains less
abundantly than in the argillite.

é. Lault between the schist and limestone, d, fig. 2—The bed
last described dips under the limestone apparently, with the
strike N. 70° E. and dip 25° to 35° E. But just opposite and
northwest of the largest excavation in the limestone, and under a
small apple tree where the schist seemed certainly to go under
the limestone, and where Prof. Dana and the writer dug away
and followed it for six_inches under the limestone, later I
had excavations made, having doubted the reality of the appar-
ent conformable superposition, because the bed of limestone
rested on the schist with abrupt transition and total want of
continuity. I found the two rocks to be faulted against each
other, the wall of the limestone bending under for a few inches
and then going down vertically, and the schists, so flat in the
exposures below, were here crumpled up sharply and ground
into shapeless masses against the limestone. I followed the
fault down more than a meter without finding the bottom of

270 BL. &. Emerson—* Bernardston Series” of

the limestone, but found mingled in the crunched schist frag-
ments of the chloritic rock, which les below the limestone
and is exposed in the bluff to the north. Ata later date I had
further excavation made, uncovering the northern bluff where
also the mica schist approached the lmestone at its northern
end, and I exposed here a zigzag fault line between the schist
on the west and the black, magnetite-pyrite-chlorite-limestone,
and below this with the white limestone itself, e on map, fig. 2.
The fault plane is nearly vertical. The relation of the beds at
this point are made plain by fig. 5. This latter excavation was
made by direction of the United States Geological Survey.

. The Limestone.—The limestone which forms the center of
interest of the section, is exposed in many old pits, extending
from the bluff overlooking the brook, to the largest opening
overhung by birches, where the rock is most fossiliferous ; and
the line of outcrops is continued, by more scattered openings,
farther southwest. It extends in all about 125 m. from
northeast to southwest, that is along the line of strike. It is
for the most part a coarsely crystalline, saccharoidal limestone,
at times so coarse that cleavage pieces of calcite 8 centimeters
across can be obtained from it. Below it is in thick beds with
stratification mostly obliterated, while the upper portion, for
about 2 meters, is thin-bedded, finer grained and micaceous.
The rock contains some pyrite, which with the more abundant
deposit of the same in the bottom of the quartzite, has been
the source of the great amount of porous limonite, which fills
broad veins and great cavernous spaces in the limestone. Its
modern formation is attested by the rootlets changed into
limonite enclosed in it.

It makes a strange impression to turn over a mass of coarsely
erystalline limestone, and find the weathered surface covered
with Crinoid stems or Corals. In masses showing no trace of
fossils, these are brought out equally well in thin sections ; and
I have even observed a fragment of the shell of a Terebratula,
preserving the punctate structure, the pores agreeing closely
in position and measurement with those of modern genera.

In the section fig. 4 all the fossils known are assigned to
their proper horizon so far as known to me. I would especially
note the fact, to which my attention was first called by Pro-
fessor J. M. Clarke, that the line of division between the two
paleontological horizons represented falls well down in the
limestone, and that the upper meter of the latter is thin bedded
and wants the forms found below, while it carries the peculiar
annulate crinoid stems found also very abundantly in the
quartzite above.

The shaly limestone is in places much fissured and cemented
at times with veins 5-10" wide of a completely granitoid

——

Metamorphic Upper Devonian Locks. al

mixture of quartz and muscovite, the plates of the latter
extending quite across the vein, while the cemented rock still
shows abundant crinoid stems. The limestone contains:

CaCO, 98:38 Fe,O, 062 ~~ SiO, 1:00

g. The Magnetite bed.—In the largest opening under the
main group otf birches the limestone for the upper three inches
is impregnated with magnetite and the quartzite above this is
fossiliferous. Following this boundary north 15 meters the
ferruginous horizon swells out to a thickness of one meter and
is here represented by a bed of porous limonite. At the same
distance farther north it is a bed of fine-grained magnetite,
often pyritous, and in one place garnetiferous, and nearly a
meter thick. It is of limited extent, but furnishes blocks
of ore not to be distinguished from Laurentian magnetites.
Analysis indicates phosphorus as well as sulphur.

A little farther north where the base of the quartzite is
exposed over the thickest magnetite, it is a dark gray quartz
schist, abounding in pyrite, much crushed, and the fissures
covered with small fresh rosettes of gypsum crystals, and with
drusy crusts of a mineral of earlier formation, now much
decomposed, which seems to be prehnite ; but from the small
size (5™") of the crystals, and their altered state, they could
not be certainly. determined. The form of the crystals is
peculiar, as if each were made up of half a dozen long square
prisms bounded above by a dome and placed side by side,
producing a form like a section of a thick saw blade.

At the point where the magnetite is thickest—one meter—
I exposed by digging, its contact with the limestone below and
with the quartzite above, and found it to pass gradually into
the white limestone below and to graduate above into a thick
layer (20™™) of a compact grayish black rock, rusting red and
glistening under the lens with fine biotite. Under the micro-
scope it proved to be a granular limestone with regularly dis-
seminated biotite scales, of so strong absorption that basal
sections are opaque except in the thinnest portions, and then
greenish brown. It is thus unlike all the micas of the region
and perhaps is phlogopite. The mica is abundantly and regu-
larly spread through the mass, exactly as in a whetstone
schist. A single crystal of hornblende, little coaly matter and
rust, the fragment of a punctate Brachiopod and the arm-piece
of a Crinoid occur in the slide. This rock graduates into the
black pyritous quartzite above; all the beds are so entirely
continuous, and undisturbed, that it is impossible to think
of faulting, or any irregularity at the junction, any more than
at the opening farther south under the birches, where the
junction is equally undisturbed. The paleontological evidence

272 B. EK. Emerson—‘ Bernardston Series” of

reinforces the stratigraphical for the continuity of the lime-
stone and the quartzite. At its northern end, overhanging
the brook in the most northerly digging, the magnetite layer
is a black, magnetite-pyrite-chlorite rock. Fig. 4, and e, fig 2.
This rock which caps the limestone contains amphibole, biotite,
chlorite and little pyrite, magnetite and hematite, and an
amorphous mineral resembling serpentine. The biotite is very
dark colored in basal sections and in places changing into
chlorite and passing at the edges into the serpentine- ike min-
eral. In the larger part of the section it has a fibrous
structure the fibers grouped into large elongate patches, at times
radiate and the whole resembling a fine hornblende schist. It
is of oil-green color, shows only in patches a trace of dichroism,
and with polarized light there is a faint predominance of
extinction at about 3° from the long axis of the fibrous groups,
which proceeds from the whole group; and this is overlaid as it
were by the aggregate polarization of the ser pentine-like mineral
in fine scales and needles. An analysis made for me by Mr. G.
H. Corey, of the class of ’88 in Amherst College, gave :

SiO, 42°56, Fe,O, 44:25, CaO 13°11 = 99°92.

The absence of magnesia from this analysis is puzzling, as the
product of decomposition of the hornblende resembles ser-
pentine strongly. It is possible that a highly ferruginous
amphibole has developed in the magnetite-calcite bed and this
has changed into a ferruginous mineral allied to chloropal.

h. The eastern bed of Quartzite.— Under the birches, as repre-
sented in the section, fig. 4, one meter of a thin, evenly lamin-
ated, light gray quartz. “schist caps the limestone, and is very
rusty especially at the base, and porous from the amount of
pyrite and calcite that has been removed. Two-thirds the way
up.a layer of about 10™ thickness is crowded with flattened
and distorted casts of Brachiopoda and of annulate Crinoid
stems; a large Spirifer, with septa like S. disjuncta, is
very abundant. Traces also of Rhynchonella and Orthis are
common, of WVucula and Platyostoma rare, and the ringed
Crinoid stems again very common. The material I have been |
able to obtain has been submitted to Mr. J. P. Whitfield and
discussed by him in this Journal.* The fossiliferous bed is of
very limited lateral extent, and I could trace it only about
three meters.

The next outcrops, 15 m. east, and about 2m. above the bed
just described, is a hard gray quartzose conglomerate, with
white flattened quartz pebbles, 10-25" across. Under the
microscope, the rock is seen to be made up of angular grains,
with large cavities filled with water, containing spherical

* Vol. xxv, page 368, 1883. rn

Metamorphic Upper Devonian Rocks. 278

highly refringent globules with moving bubbles. It carries
also carbonaceous matter in globules, magnetite, pyrite, a little
hornblende and muscovite, which latter forms the partings
between the pebbles. It ‘resembles much more closely the
quartzite described above, p. 268, c, than it does the rest of the
quartzite above and below it. The quartzite continues very
compact, vitreous and unevenly bedded for 20 m. down the
hill, and in its upper portion carries garnets. It then becomes
thin-laminated, separating into layers about 30"™ thick, which
are, in fresh cross section, white to bluish vitreous quartz, and
the surface of the plates is coated with muscovite. It is finely
jointed, and the surfaces of the broad plates are somewhat
warped, giving varying dips. Higher up it is eut by great
veins of quartz, and in the last outcrop before reaching the
upper schist it is again a compact quartzose conglomerate.
The strike of the rock averages N. 60° E., but varies between
N. 25° E. and N. 70°E. The dip is generally 30°-35° E. but
varies from 25° to 50°. At the large quarry a single surface
three meters square gave 25° above and 42° below.

z. On the conformity of the Limestone and the overlying
Quartzite.—Since the limestone, the magnetite band and the
ferruginous quartzites immediately overlying the latter are
visibly conformable, and all contain the same fossils as'several
times indicated above, there remained in this direction only
one question unanswered, namely, what was the relation of the
series exposed in the large quarry at the birches and mentioned
in the last paragraph, to the quartz conglomerate with flattened
pebbles exposed 15 .meters to the east and thus to the whole
mass of the quartzite. The latter seems much more metamor-
phosed and it might be urged that a fault intervened between
the two. On the other hand the conglomerate is typical of
that extending from this point northeast to South Vernon and
thence north nearly to Brattleboro, and the exact proof of their
conformity would greatly enlarge the value of the limestone
for fixing the age of the rocks. For this reason I had pits
dug three meters apart from the top of the rusty quartzite to
the nearest outcrop of the conglomerate to the east, and found
the quartzite apparently continuous and no indication of any
fault between the two.

As this did not wholly settle the question I had a trench
dug exposing the ledge the whole distance from the fossilif-
erous quartzite to the conglomerate. It exposed a continuous
surface of the black shaly quartzite for forty-seven meters and
conglomerate for three meters, with strike N. 50° E., dip 40° E.,
and each layer dipped confor mably beneath the succeeding one
and the possibility of any ee was wholly excluded. See sec-
tion 1. Fig. 3 and «, fig. 2

2774 B. K. Emerson—“ Bernardston Series,” ete.

j. The upper outcrop of the Mica schist.—This outerop
occurs 50 meters distant from the uppermost outerop of the
quartzite, in a single small ridge 40 meters long and 20 meters
wide, with strike N. 48° E. (41° to 51°) and dip 80° E. (25° to
34°). Figure 3, east end.

It is a dark gray fissile muscovite schist, splitting into thin
slabs. Its surfaces are pimpled with small garnets and biotite »
erystals, or pitted by the cavities left when the crystals
remained in the adjoining slab of schist; and it carries abund-
antly small dark brown biotite crystals, long prisms with
rounded angles 1°5x25™", and placed generally with their
broad cleavage face at a large angle to the bedding plane of
the rock, and so visible only as dull black lines on the latter
plane, and as shining black scales when the slab is broken across.
In tracing the same rock across the valley, still another curious
uniformity of position was observed. The great majority of
the scales lie with their flat surface, the face OV, normal to the
line of strike, and the longer diagonal, here oveatly elongated,
parallel with the dip, a phenomenon entirely comparable
with the “stretching” of gneiss, and indicating a pressure and
an incipient structure at right angles to the pr esent one.

Microscopically the rock shows exactly the same scaly coal-
dusted mass, consisting largely of muscovite plates irregularly
bounded, as does the schist adjoining the limestone, d, p. 269,
only on a slightly larger scale. The biotite crystals are also
bordered in the same way by a layer of larger and purer mus-
covite scales, but not so constantly, nor is the layer so broad
and regular.

The. mica crystals are true biotite (meroxene, o<v), as proved
by study of cleavage scales. Some slides show in abundance
grains of opaque black ore with some grains partly changed to
an opaque white; others, in place thereof, are grains of exactly
similar size and ‘arrangement of an opaque yellowish white
material; I judge therefore the former to be menaccanite, the
latter leucoxene. Limpid dodecahedral garnets, magnetite and
pyrite also occur. The only microscopical distinction between
the upper and lower schists is in the somewhat larger size of
the constituents, and a slightly greater clearness of erystalline
texture in the upper, so that one can affirm more certainly the
absence of any clayey matter. Macroscopically the upper
schist is somewhat thicker bedded, of more uneven surface.
A lens is hardly needed to see the muscovite scales on the
surface of the slabs, and the biotite and garnet are conspicuous
and abundant accessions, instead of being only minute and, in
the case of garnet, also rare.

4. The synelinal north of the brook in the Williams pasture.
North part of map, fig. 2— Within the area just described the

J. H. Long—Polarization of Tartrate Solutions. 275

rocks dip mostly to the east, while north of the brook the struc-
ture is decidedly different. A section east and west through
the woods shows a great synclinal of the quartzite in the argillite.

Following down the brook from the limestone to where the
woods end and then skirting the latter for a few rods north
to where the first wood road enters them, a little way in and
at the first outcrop on the south side of the road, there is a
well exposed contact of the argillite beneath and the quartzite
above; strike N. 20° E., dip 20° W.; the argillite flat fissile,
with few chloritized garnets; the quartzite a dark gray indu-
rated sandstone becoming coarser higher up. The two beds
seem to be plainly conformable. The argillite can be followed
north to a point in the bluff opposite C. Frary’s house with
uniform westerly dip beneath the quartzite, and on the west of
the latter the argillite is found dipping easterly beneath it,
though the junction is covered. I imagine this synclinal is cut
off on the north by a fault along the bed of Fall river, but the
rocks are covered here. Directly opposite the limestone across
the brook the quartzite contains dodecahedral garnets 10 to
11™™ across, bordered by chlorite.

5. The outcrop along Kou Brook to the south of the
Williams section.—Behind the first house on the road over
West Mountain, after leaving the village, there is seen from
the road a bare bluff of blue till, and below this an outcrop in
the brook of Triassic sandstone; twenty rods above, the quartz-
ite rests conformably upon the argillite, which contains a few
garnets just below the junction. It strikes N. 60° E. and dips
20° K., and the boundary is thus pushed east by the whole
width of the Williams section, though the fault which separates
them can not be exactly located.

[To be continued. |

Art. XXX VI—On the Circular Polarization of certain
Tartrate Solutions—ll1; by J. H. Lone.

In the number of this Journal for October, 1889, I described
certain peculiarities of solutions of potassium antimony tartrate
when mixed with carbonates, borates, phosphates or acetates
in amounts insufficient to produce immediate precipitation.
The specific rotation of this tartrate is very high, being, (for
C = 5) [a], = 141°-278. No other metallic tartrate approaches
this rotation. It was shown in the paper referred to that the
addition of sodium carbonate in small amount decreased the
specilic rotation to 55°°795, and this without precipitation of

276 J. H. Long—Polarization of Tartrate Solutions.

the antimony. Other salts produced a marked decrease, but
less than that by the carbonate.

As a problem of chemical dynamics this phenomenon pos-
sesses considerable interest as bearing on the general question
of the nature of solutions, and I concluded to make it the
special subject of an investigation, the chief points of which
are given below.

Experiments with sodium carbonate.

For each test five grms. of the tartrate were dissolved in about
70 ce. of water by aid of heat and then cooled to 20° ©. or
below. Definite amounts of the carbonate, pure and dry, were
dissolved in water and added to the tartrate, the mixture being
then diluted to exactly 100 ce. at 20° C. By careful work it
is possible to prepare clear solutions containing, with the five
grms. of the tartrate, a gram, or more, of the anhydrous car-
bonate. With much greater amounts precipitation usually
takes place before the polarization can be observed.

In the table below the solutions numbered 1 to 5 inclusive
remained perfectly clear during several hours and were polar-
ized in two to four hours after preparation. Numbers 6, 7 and
8 became slightly turbid and finally deposited a precipitate.
The rotations were observed after twenty-four and forty hours.

In nearly all cases some differences were observed in the tests _

made twenty-four hours apart. Such differences became very
plain when the first test was made as soon as possible after the
preparation of the solution. In order to show this I made
cold solutions of the tartrate and carbonate, brought them to
20°, mixed and diluted quickly with the small amount of water
necessary to make 100 ac. After gentle shaking, the mixture
was poured into a 400™ tube, kept at 20° by water, and polar-
ized within five minutes. The results found were very singu-
lar and interesting. They are given under numbers 9, 10 and
11. The three solutions remained perfectly clear during
several hours. At the end of twelve hours number 9 had
deposited nothing, but after twenty-four hours an unweigh-
able trace separated out. Number 10 deposited nothing until
after twenty-four hours. Number 11 was clear during two
hours but in twelve hours a precipitate settled out, leaving the
supernatant liquid perfectly clear. In all the above cases the
precipitate appeared very much less than called for by the
equation :

2KSbOC,H,O,.H,0 +Na,CO,=2KNaC,H,0,+S8b,0,.H,0+C0,

Analysis of the precipitate showed it to have the composi-
tion given when dried at 100°. For the five grms. of the

J. H. Long—Polarization of Tartrate Solutions. 277

tartrate taken, 0°7982 orm. of the carbonate should be required
for complete precipitation. Analysis of the supernatant liquid
showed in all cases much of the antimony in solution.

It was noticed that a slight elevation of temperature pro-
duced a copious precipitation with escape of CO,, in cases, and
to test fully the action of heat, solutions were made and mixed
hot. The mixture was kept one hour on the water bath and
then filtered, the cool filtrate being made up finally to 100 e.c.
at 20°. The results found in these tests are given below
opposite numbers 12 to 18 inclusive.

| | |
| | oe | pace ie for com-
| | : ete pre- |
No. | Na.CO; Gn in | KSbOT + Gein |
| 100cc. | ENal. py Na,00s..
iar lerm.) 25°170 | 4:496grm.| 27°-941 95°°132
Dia 3 20°690 | 4:226 - | 24-417 Bla
3 5 16628 | 3482 | 20-764 | 12°853 |
4 7 13535 | 2838 | 17-624 sel
5 9 10-250 | 2-023 | 13-607 3-767
6 1-2 6136 | 1-458 | 10°870 3-767
7 1°5 3510 | °689 eu 09400 Meee Grate
8 2-0 B:30NN e209, ie 45824 3167 ©
9 1 25°582 | 5-000 | 28°20, 25°132 (5 minutes.
9 1 | 25°580 | 5:000 WeZS:20 sie ae 25e1 3 2s SO pace
9 | ‘J 24-480) 1" 5:000 | 28:207 25°132 |12 hours.
10 5 | 18-620 5000 | 28-207 12°853 (5 minutes.
10) | 5 | 14-930 5:000 le 28-2077 12°853 |30 =
10 | 5 UGG Om 4-0 1G | 26814 12°853 40 hours.
11 9 11570 | 5-000 | 28-207 | 3-767 |5 minutes.
11 9 | 11°500 5-000 28:20 Tia Meo Grans iLOM mn’
11 9 Pose 5000 | 28-207 S51 Gilg | Ou ace
11 9 (oe 0-5 50% 1925:000 | 28-207 3-767 |65 “%
11 9 | 10-339 3-569 21-188) 3767, 12 hours.
12 1 24-185 4-442 ES TS ORR
13a 5 | 10500 | 2°360 152245 6 112-853
14 8 ee 4:5 80ie |p) 1057 | 8:908 3-767
15 1-0 foe 3568m 160634 [iaG:B 26a S 16h
To, fees (eens: 4o5eel) 317 5-297 3-767 |
raed nie 22-0. | BAI Tati see. | nha EOI 7,
18 5:0 | 3-380 BA ee 3-167

From the table, and more readily from the curve marked A,
in which the ordinates represent rotations and the abscissas
amount dissolved, it will be seen that with the increase in the
amount of carbonate added there is a decrease in the rotation.
At first the decrease is nearly directly proportional to the
amount of carbonate, but later, after the addition of enough to
produce precipitation, the change in the rotation is less rapid.
If we consider the first tests made with solutions 9, 10 and 11
it will be seen, as shown by.curve Bb, that the decrease in the

278 SJ. H. Long— Polarization of Tartrate Solutions.

angle of rotation varies regularly with the amount of added
carbonate, the reaction not being at all obscured by precipita-
tion. A molecular re-arrangement of some sort, undoubtedly
an interchange of bases, must take place here. In the solu-
tions prepared at the boiling temperature the decrease in the
rotation is rapid until we pass the one containing °8 grm., of
the carbonate, which is theoretically sufficient for complete
precipitation. In the solutions with larger amounts of the
carbonate the change in the rotation is slow, as shown in the
curve ©. In the fourth column of the table above I give the
amounts of potassium antimony tartrate left im solution, as
determined by precipitation of the antimony as sulphide, and

calculated on the assumption that it is held as tartrate and not
as antimonite or other compound. In column five are given
the rotations caleulated for these amounts of the antimony
potassium tartrate plus that of the sodium potassium tartrate
formed corresponding to the decrease in the other. In column
six are given results calculated on the assumption that the
added sodium carbonate precipitates antimony in the propor-
tion given in the equation above. On this assumption for ~
solutions containing more than °7982 grm. of the carbonate the
rotation should be that of the Rochelle salt equivalent to 5
erms. of the antimony compound taken. In the values given I
have not taken into consideration the slight decrease in the

J. H. Long—Polarization of Tartrate Solutions. 279

rotation of Rochelle salt in presence of excess of sodium ear-
bonate.

But the calculated rotations approach those of actual obser-
vation only in the cases of the solutions with 0-1 grm. of
carbonate, and in those with very large amounts of the latter,
observed after long standing or boiling. No simple relations
ean therefore be traced in this way, and it is evident that a
part of the antimony must be held in solution in some other
way than as tartrate.

In mixing the solutions at a low temperature no precipitate
was formed and no CO, given off. It is well known that the
addition of acids to tartrate solutions decreases their rotation,
mainly perhaps, from formation of bitartrate, and the idea
suggested itself that this may be the action of the carbonic acid
in the present mixture. An experiment tried with Rochelle
salt after saturation with the gas failed to show, however, a
lowered rotation. Slightly lower results were found by mixing
the Rochelle salt with sodium bicarbonate.

That an important reaction takes place in solution can, how-
ever, be shown in another way. I prepared several solutions
of the potassium antimony tartrate containing exactly 5 grm.
in something less than 100 ¢.c. of cold water. To one of them
a little litmus was added, after which a solution of sodium
carbonate of exactly 2 per cent strength was run in froma
burette. An alkaline reaction did not appear immediately, but
the final change of color was not sharp enough for an accurate
determination. Another solution was tried with phenol-
phthalein, and here good results were found. In several trials
between 74 and 78 ¢.c. of the carbonate solution were required
for coloration. If the assumed equation of decomposition is
correct, for 5 grms. of the tartrate we need practically 0°8 gram
of the carbonate. This amount is contained in 40 ¢.¢. cf the
solution used and it required nearly double that volume for
coloration, which reaction suggests the formation of a bicar-
bonate if we bear in mind that such salts are neutral to
phenol-phthalein. [If it is also taken into consideration that in
our titration a little gas is readily lost by agitation, it will be
seen that practically the proper amount of alkali is added to
complete the reaction above. From these tests it is apparent
that a reaction between the tartrate and carbonate begins
immediately on the addition of the latter, and also that the
liberated CO, is held as bicarbonate or in other form with
metal and neutral to the indicator. The following equation
may express what takes place:
2KSbOC,H,0,+2Na,CO,+ 2H,0O=2KNaO,H,0,+S8b,0,. H,O+

2HNaCO,; or =2K NaC,H,0,+2SbONaCO, + 2H,0.

AM, JouR. Sc1.—THIRD Serizs, Vout. XL, No. 238.—Ocr., 1890.

18

280 SJ. H. Long—Polarization of Tartrate Solutions.

If we calculate the theoretical rotation from this equation
much closer results will be obtained than are given in column
six of the above table, where only half as much carbonate was
supposed to take part in the reaction. These equations would
suggest an explanation of the behavior of solutions 9, 10 and 11,
on standing. We may suppose at first a condition of equilib-
rium reached in which H NaCO, or SbhONaCoO, exists in solution.
This equilibrium is destroyed by standing or by slight change
of temperature so as to liberate CO, and permit the Na,CO,
formed to react on a fresh portion of the tartrate, giving fur-
ther reduction in the rotation. When the rotation finally
becomes constant quite different amounts of antimony may be
left in solutions of the same original strength, as shown in the
fourth column of the table, opposite numbers 5 and 11. The
amount of antimony finally precipitated and the rapidity with
which it precipitates seem to depend to some extent on the
mechanical agitation which the solution receives.

Further light is thrown on the question of decomposition by
the experiments next to be explained.

Experiments with sodium acetate and phosphate.

As I have before shown, acetates decompose the potassium
antimony tartrate solution slowly in the cold but rapidly when
heated. A solution containmg 5 grms. of crystallized sodium
acetate with 5 grms. of the tartrate in 100 ¢.c. gave, at 20°,
a = 25°°745, while one with 10 grms. of the acetate gave
a = 24°-676 instead of 28°°207. Later tests made with solu-
tions mixed at the boiling temperature gave these results for
the filtered solutions, represented by the curve D, where the
abscissas have ten times the value they have in the others:

In 100 c.e.
Tartrate. Acetate. ap
5 grms. 5 grms. (222125
5 10 18°-140
5 15 14°°892

These solutions were found to be strongly acid and by sub-
jecting them to distillation I obtained a small amount of acetic
acid. The precipitates were analyzed and were found to have
the same composition as produced by the carbonate, viz:
Sb,O,. H,O. The reaction taking place is probably this :
2KSbOC,H,O,. H,O + 2NaC,H,0,=2K NaC,H,O,+S8b,0,.H,O +

2HC,H,0,.

As a further test I prepared a solution with 10 grm. of the
acetate and 5 of the tartrate and heated it for one hour on the
water bath. It was then filtered. The filtrate, after addition

J. H. Long—Polarization of Tartrate Solutions. 281

of phenol-phthalein, was titrated with half normal KOH, of
which exactly 30 ¢.c. was required to give color. This is the
volume needed to neutralize the acid or precipitate the anti-
mony of the last equation. The solution remained quite clear
until about 12 ¢.c. of the alkali had been added, when it be-
came opalescent and finally turbid before the color reaction ap-
peared. In an experiment with 5 grms. of the tartrate in coid
solution without the acetate exactly the same amount of alkali
was required for coloration, but an opalescence appeared im-
mediately, and no actual precipitation occurred until all the
alkali had been added. This experiment amounts, of. course,
to a titration of the tartrate :

2KSbOC,H,0,+2KOH=K,C,H,0,+8b,0,. 0,0.

Finally, the experiment was varied in this way. 5 grms. of the
tartrate and 10 of the acetate were dissolved and mixed at a
low temperature. Phenol-phthalein was added and then alkali
to coloration. Now, as before, 30 ¢.c. was required to give color,
but the reaction took place in a different manner, as a precipi-
tate formed immediately and grew heavy as more alkali was
added. This behavior seems to indicate that the antimony is
held in a peculiar manner, partly at least, in the solution con-
taining the acetate. Possibly a preliminary reaction is this :

KSbOC,H,0,+ NaC,H,0,=KNaC,H,0,4+SbOC,H,0.,

ihe last being stable in cold dilute solution but decorhposed by
heat or alkalies,

2SbOC,H,0,+-2KOH=2KC,H,0,--Sb,0,. 0.

If the above equations express the truth we can readily
account for the polarization phenomena. In fresh solutions
prepared in the cold the rotation is decreased because of the
abstraction of a part of the antimony to form acetate. In the
boiled solutions, or in those prepared cold, after long standing,
the rotation may be still further reduced by the action of free
acetic acid on the tartrate. Some results obtained with solu-
tions of sodium phosphate are given below:

In 100 ce. ap ap

Tartrate. Phosphate. 3 hrs. 72 hrs.
5 grms. 0:2 grm. cold. 27°°350 27°°345 no ppt.
O°4 26°-700 QO 72h,

.
.

Or OT

Dio 25°°690

249-755 24°°850
boiled 21°-3038

19°°448

112-502

Or Or Or Or Or
onwnetRKo
oo WSO =

282 J. H. Long—Polarization of Tartrate Solutions.

These results are illustrated by the curve E. The solutions,
after boiling, were strongly acid. Several tests were made
with borax solutions in the same manner. They gave tests for
free boric acid while the precipitate formed had the composi-
tion observed in the other cases.

From a consideration of the behavior of the several mixtures,
I think it is plain that the explanation of the decrease in the
rotation must be the same for all cases. This explanation is
one which at first sight would scarcely be expected because of
the practical silence of the literature on the subject of carbon-
ates, acetates and phosphates of antimony. The last two have
been described as stable in some of the older works. If we
may assume that in these combinations the metal is held as
SbO’ the polarization phenomena can be readily accounted for.
By mixing solutions of alkali phosphates, acetates, carbonates
and borates with the tartrate in the cold there is probably first
formed a temporarily stable antimony salt with corresponding
amount of alkali tartrate. The observed rotation is due to this
plus that of the unchanged potassium antimony tartrate. After
decomposition by heat a small amount of free tartaric acid or
bitartrate, with low rotation, must exist in the cases where
acetic and phosphoric acids had been liberated in the reaction.
In the solutions with large excess of carbonate the total anti-
mony found probably exists in combination with sodium, the
decomposing action of the carbonate being much greater than
that of the phosphate, acetate or borate.

Huperiments with potassium ammonium tartrate.

I have already shown that the rotation of solutions of potas-
sium sodium tartrate is in general increased by addition of
salts of potassium or ammonium and decreased by those of
sodium and lithium. I have since carried out a similar
investigation, using potassium ammonium tartrate as the
active substance. This salt was freshly prepared from pure
KHOC,H,0, and NH,OH8 and erystallized. In the following
table I give a few of the results obtained which illustrate all.

20 grms. of KNH,C,H,O, in 100e.c. gave at 20° a = 24°-680,
or [@|=30°'850, which is somewhat lower than the value given
by Landolt. In presence of inactive salts the rotation is
altered as here shown.

In 100 ce. with Deviation
20 germs. tartrate. Ay [@]p in [a].
5erms. NH,Cl Qa 30°°656 —0:194
10 NH,Cl 24°-480 30°-600 : —0:250
5 KCl 24°-710 30°°888 +0:088
10 KCl Dis NEY | Bil 4) +0°570
5 NaCl 23°°790 29°:963 —0°887
10 NaCl 22°°806 28°°-508 ==2-349

Gooch and Brooks—Rapid method for Detection, ete. 288

The molecular rotation of the several tartrates which come
into consideration here are, (from Landolt’s results and my
own): :

K,C,H0, = 64°-42 KNaC,H,O, = 62°°34
(NH,),C,H,O, = 63°-04 KNH,C.H.O, = 63°-24
— Na,C,HO, = 59°85 NaNH.C.HO, = 61°71

On the general hypothesis of replacement in the tartrate mole-
cule by excess of inactive salts these numbers show why the
addition of NH,Cl should produce but a slight change, while
that of NaCl must produce a much greater one in the rotation
om NEN EO;

These results, like those obtained with the antimony com-
pound, suggest the value of the polariscope method in the
study of problems of chemical affinity. This method has been
applied in a limited number of cases but the experiments
above detailed indicate a direction in which it may be devel-
oped. That a certain interval of time is necessary to complete
these reactions, even where no precipitates are formed, is
shown by experiments 9,10 and 11. The polariscope affords
us a ready method, possibly the only method, of following
these changes, which are of sufticient importance to merit
further study.

Chicago, July 10th, 1890.

Art. XXXVII.—A Rapid method for the Detection of
Llodine, Bromine, and Chlorine in presence of one
another; by F. A. GoocH and F. T. Brooks.

[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale College—V.]

THE conditions under which iodine may be set free and sepa-
rated quantitatively from hydrochloric and hydrobromice acid by
the action of nitrous acid upon the acidulated solutions of the -
haloid salts have been recently studied in this laboratory.*
We have endeavored in the work which is here described to so
modify the quantitative process that the same principles of
action may be applied rapidly and easily to the qualitative de-
tection of iodine, bromine, and chlorine, without decreasing to
too great a degree the delicacy of the indications. It was
found in the work referred to that when sulphuric acid is
added to the aqueous solution of a soluble chloride, bromide,
and iodide, with care to keep the proportion of acid within
certain limits and the dilution of the liquid sufficient, no very

* This Journal, xxxix, 293, and xl, 145.

284 Gooch and Brooks—LRapid method for the

appreciable volatilization of bromine or chlorine takes place
during the complete expulsion of the iodine by boiling. For
the quantitative separation of the iodine of 05 grm. of potassium
iodide from asolution containing 0-5 grm. of potassium bromide
and 0°5 eum. of potassium chloride it was found best to use
from 1 to 2 em’ of strong sulphuric acid, and to introduce into
the solution, measuring approximately 700 em® in volume, 0°5
erm. of potassium nitrite, or its equivalent in nitrous fumes It
is obvious that work upon this seale is undesirable in rapid
qualitative testing. For such purposes it is not a matter of
moment that a portion of the substances looked for escapes
the reaction, provided enough is left to furnish the indication
sought. We planned, therefore, to attempt the separation of
iodine from bromine and chlorine by applying the reaction
just mentioned to small amounts of liquid in test-tubes, in the
hope that the known losses of chlorine and bromine under the
conditions would be proportioned to the strength of the solu-
tion, or in other words, that when the amounts of bromine and
chlorine were very small they would escape volatilization, or
that when large a sufficiency would remain to give strong tests.
The detection of the iodine is, of course, simple. We chose
for this purpose the reaction with sulphuric acid and potassium
nitrite. If the amount of iodine present is large it shows at once
in this test, and the same portion may be tr eated further to sepa-
rate the iodine. If the amount of iodine is small it may be
found, as usual, by shaking the liquid with chloroform, or car-
bon disulphide or other “appropriate solvent for iodine; or,
in this case also, the portion under test may be utilized, i if it is
desirable, for the separation of the iodine, and for the detection
of this element recourse may be had to the exposure of red
litmus paper to the fumes of the boiling solution according to
methods prescribed in the work referred to above upon the
quantitative separation of the iodine,—the paper taking on a
oray blue color when exposed to very minute traces of the
vapor of iodine, and a proportionately deeper color as the
amount of iodine increases. After the iodine is separated, bro-
mine and chlorine are easily found if present. We selected as
the most available method for detecting bromine the aetion of
sodium hypochlorite upon the acid solution and shaking with the
proper solvent. For the detection of chlorine we make use of
a modification of the well known chlorochromic anhydride test.
As a preliminary step to the investigation of the relability
of our method of separating iodine from bromine, tests were
made, for the purpose of securing definite points of compari-
son, upon the degree of delicacy of the hypochlorous acid test
for bromine. In these tests measured amounts of a solution of
potassium bromide were drawn from a burette into test-tubes.

Detection of Lodine, Bromine, and Chlorine. 285

To each portion were added a few drops of sulphuric acid, the
liquid was diluted with distilled water to the level of a mark
upon the tube indicating a volume of 10 em’, 0°5 em* of
chloroform, or of white carbon disulphide were introduced, and
the whole was shaken after the addition of a drop of a dilute
solution of sodium hypochlorite. The results of these tests are
as follows :—

Color test
KBr Total Ratio of KBr Color test in carbon
taken. Volume. to total volume. in chloroform. disulphide.
0°0010 erm. 10 em.? 1: 10000 Strong.
0°0005 10 1: 20000 Pronounced.
00004 10 1: 25000 Pronounced. Strong.
0:0003 10 1: 33000 Faint. Pronounced.
9-0002 10 J: 50000 Trace. Faint.
0:0001 10 1: 100000 Doubtful. Trace.
0:0001 10 1: 100000 None. Trace.
0:00007 10 1: 140000 Doubtful.
0:00007 10 1: 140000 Doubtful.
070004 5 Le t25 00) Strong.
00003 5 1: 16000 Strong. —-
0:0002 5 1: 25000 Pronounced. ae
0-0001 5 1: 50000 Trace.
0700007 a 1: 70000 None. Faint.
0:00003 5 1: 140000 Doubtful

From these results it is plain, as Fresenius has pointed out,
that clear white carbon disulphide is the more sensitive reagent,
the delicacy of the test extending distinctly to one part in fifty
thousand when chloroform is the solvent for bromine and to
one part in one hundred thousand when carbon disulphide is
employed.

In the following series of tests the bromide was subjected to
the same treatment which it must undergo were iodine actually
present and expelled as we proposed.” To the solution of the
bromide in a test-tube were added a few ‘drops of dilute sul-
phuric acid and a few drops of a solution of potassium nitrite.
The liquid was boiled, cooled, and treated with sodium hy-
pochlorite as in the former tests, excepting that even after
boiling for some time it was found to be necessary to introduce
more of the hypochlorite than before to overcome the nitrous
acid remaining in solution and to set free the bromine.

KBr Total Ratio of KBr Color test in

taken. Volume. to total volume. Carbon disulphide,
0°0010 grm. 10 cm.? 1: 10000 Strong.
0:0005 10 1: 20000 Pronounced.
0°0004 10 1: 25000 Pronounced.
0°0003 10 1: 33000 Faint.
00002 10 . 1: 50000 Faint.
0-0001 10 1: 100000 Doubtful.
000007 10 1: 140000 None.
0°00007 5 1: 70000 Trace.

286 Gooch and Brooks—Rapid method for the

Evidently the presence of nitrous acid and the treatment by
boiling do not interfere seriously with the delicacy of the test.
The experiments of the following series were made similarly
excepting that potassium iodide was added in varying amount
to the solution of the bromide. In these tests a spiral of pla-
tinum wire was introduced into the test-tube to prevent too
violent ebullition, and at intervals during the boiling the nitrite
was added in solution, drop by drop, until the iodine was en-
tirely expelled, care being taken to add a little more sulphuric
acid toward the end of the separation to ensure completeness
of action. The colorlessness of the liquid in the test-tube after
this treatment is a fair indication of the entire expulsion of
iodine, but when large amounts of bromide are present free
bromine will color the liquid. Salts of iron or other substances
which possess color naturally interfere likewise. In such cases,
and indeed in all cases, the action of the escaping steam upon
red litmus paper is decisive. In the experiments here recorded
this test was applied to determine the absence of iodine from
the liquid. The residue after the expulsion of the iodine was
treated as usual with sodium hypochlorite and shaken with
carbon disulphide.

KI KBr Total Ratio of KBr Color in

taken. taken. Volume. to total volume. Carbon disulphide.
0°1000 grm. 0:0010 grm. 10 cm.? 1: 10000 Pronounced.
071000 0:0004 10 1: 25000 Pronounced.
0°1000 0:0003 10 1: 33000 Pronounced.
0°1000 0:0002 10 1: 50000 Faint.
0.1000 0:0002 10 1: 50000 Faint.
0.1000 0:0001 10 1: 100000 None.
00500 0°0005 10 1: 20000 Pronounced.
0:0400 0°0004 10 L: 25000 Pronounced.
0:0300 0:0003 10 1: 33000 Pronounced.
00200 0'0062 10 1: 50000 Faint.
0°0100 00001 10 1: 100000 None.
071000 0:00007 - Bye 1: 70000 Trace.
00070 0:00007 5 1: 70000 Trace.

These results indicate obviously that although the bromine
is volatilized to some extent with the iodine it is nevertheless
the case that the proportionate amount of bromine removed is
dependent upon the absolute amount present, and that enough
bromine always remains to permit correct inference as to the
quantity originally present, the color test being more or less
marked according as much or little bromide was in the solution
at the start. The delicacy of the test is a trifle less than that
in which the bromide is alone present and not subjected to the
treatment which we employ to remove iodine, but the detection
of one part of potassium bromide in fifty thousand is certain,
and that of one part in seventy thousand possible. It appears,
furthermore, that the ineréase in the amount of iodine
present is without effect upon the sensitiveness of the test ; for
the bromine in 0:00007 grm. of potassium bromide was as

Detection of Iodine, Bromine, and Chlorine. 287

easily found in the residue remaining after the expulsion of
the iodine from 0-1 grm. of potassium iodide as in that left
after the expulsion of the iodine from 0:0070 grm. of the same
salt, and the indications in the experiments in which the ratio
of the iodine to the bromine remained the same while the ab-
solute amounts of both varied are precisely the same as those
of the experiments in which the maximum amount of iodine
remained unchanged throughout the variations in the amount
of bromide used. The maximum amount of potassium iodide ‘
employed in these tests was 0-1 grm., but there is no reason to
suppose that this amount is not far below the maximum which
may be successfully handled in this process.

For the detection of chlorine we modified the well-known
chlorochromic anhydride process so that the distillation may be
performed in an ordinary test-tube. The substance to be tested
is, if solid, placed in a large test-tube—15™" x 2™ is a good size
—and treated with sulphuric acid and potassium dichromate in
the manner to be described. The substance, if a liquid, is ren-
dered alkaline, if necessary, by sodium carbonate and evapo-
rated to dryness in the test-tube with care to remove all mois-
ture from the sides of the tube. This operation is effected
without trouble if the tube is inclined, as much as is possible
without spilling the liquid, and agitated continually while the
flame is applied to the higher parts. The evaporation effected,
a little powdered potassium dichromate is introduced through
a funnel with care to prevent its touching the upper parts of
the tube, two or three cubic centimeters of strong sulphuric
acid are added, and a trap consisting of a straight two-bulbed
drying-tube cut off about an inch from the large bulb is hung
in the mouth of the test-tube, the precaution having been first
taken to moisten the interior of the bulbs with water without
wetting the wide, straight portion which hangs within the test-
tube. If a chloride is present the evolution of chlorochromie
anhydride begins as soon as this sulphuric acid touches the dry
salts in the bottom of the tube, and gentle heating, with a little
agitation, quickly completes the evolution of the chlorine com-
pound. It is the function of the moisture in the bulbs to de-
compose the fumes of the chlorochromic anhydride and to re-
tain the chromic acid thus produced. When more than a mere
trace of chlorine is present the yellow drops produced in the
moistened bulbs are, in the absence of a bromide, sufficiently
indicative of the presence of chlorine in the original substance,
but the delicacy of this test is much increased by washing out
the bulbs with a little distilled water and adding to the solu-
tion, as Wiley recommends,* a few drops of a solution of lead
acetate, which precipitates the yellow chromate or intensifies
the color of the solution according to the amount of chromic

* Am. Chem. Jour., ii, 248.

288 Gooch and Brooks—hapid method for the

acid acting. It often happens, when the temperature of the
liquid in the test-tube rises a little higher than need be, that
fumes of sulphuric acid pass into the bulbs to such an extent
as to produce a white precipitate of lead sulphate when the
lead acetate is subsequently added. In such cases the lead sul-
phate is easily dissolved by the addition of a little ammonic
acetate in saturated solution, and gentle heating, and, on cool-
ing, the yellow chromate is either precipitated or simply colors
the liquid. It is advisable, however, as our experience proved,
not to employ more of the ammonic acetate than the occasion
requires, as it undoubtedly exerts some solvent action upon the
lead chromate as well as upon the sulphate.

. We proceeded to test in the manner described the applica-
bility of this process by first testing the action upon solutions
of pure potassium chloride.

KCl taken. Final volume. Reaction obtained.
0:0030 bem Marked precipitation.
0°0020 5 Marked precipitation.
0:0010 5 Distinct precipitation.
0:0005 5 Distinct color.

0:0004 5 Faint color.
0:0003 5 Faint color.
0:0002 5 Faintest color.
0:0001 5 Doubtful.
0-0001 5 None.

0-0001 5 None.

It appears, therefore, that the chlorine in 0:0005 grm. of potas-
sium chloride is found certainly, and that indications of chlo-
rine in amounts of the chloride ranging as low as 0-0002 grm.
are fairly evident in tests made upon the pure substance taken
in solution, evaporated, and treated as described.

The effect of submitting the solution of the chloride contain-
ing also a known amount of potassium iodide to the process
previously described for liberating the iodine, of then neutral-
izing the solution with sodium carbonate, evaporating to dryness,
and treating with sulphuric acid and potassium dichro mate, is
shown in the following record. The potassium iodide used in
these tests was prepared free from chlorine by the action of
resublimed iodine upon iron wire and subsequent treatment
with pure potassium carbonate. The nitrite was freed from
chlorine by adding to its solution a little silver nitrate, faintly
acidulating with nitric acid, and filtering off the chloride pre-
cipitated with a small amount of the nitrite.

KI taken. KCl taken. Final volume. Reaction obtained.
0-1 grm. 0:0020 grm. 5 em.? Distinct precipitation.
O01 0-0010 5 Distinct color.

01 0:0005 5 Faint color.

01 0:0004 5 Faint color

01 0:0003 5 Faintest color.

0'1 00002 5 Faintest color.

01 00001 5 None.

Detection of Lodine, Bromine, and Chlorine. 289

The distinctness of the color obtained in this process seems
to be diminished a little by the process of liberating the iodine,
but the lowest reach of the test is not very materially different
from that made upon the pure chloride. In the following sim-
ilar tests made with mixtures containing beside the chloride
potassium bromide alone, or the bromide as well as iodide, the
phenomena observed were the same, excepting that the fumes
of the bromine evolved when much bromide is present rise
with the chlorochromie anhydride and, dissolving in the film
of moisture in the trap, give to it their own characteristic color,
and so obseure the effect of chromic acid. in these experi-
ments, therefore, the washings of the bulbs were first rendered
faintly ammoniacal and gently heated to destroy the free bro-
mine, and then the solution was acidified with acetic acid and
tested as described with lead acetate and ammonium acetate.

KI taken. KBr taken. KCltaken. Final volume. Reaction obtained.
— 0-1 grm. 0:0030 grm. 5 em.3 Marked precipitation.
— O01 0:0020 5 Distinct precipitation.
— 01 0:0010 5 Distinct color.
— 0-1 0:0005 5 Faint color.
—_— 01 0:0005 5 Faint color.
— C1 0:0004 5 Faintest color.
— 01 0:0003 5 Doubtful color.
ae 01 0°0002 5 Doubtful color.
— 01 0:0001 5 None.
0-l grm On 0:0010 5 Distinct color.
071 0-1 0:0010 5 Distinct color.
0-1 0-1 00010 5 Distinet color.

_ The evolution of considerable amounts of bromine appears,
therefore, to diminish the delicacy of the test in some degree,
but 0:0005 grm. of chlorine—the amount in 0:0010 grm. of po-
tassium chloride—is indicated unmistakably in the presence of
0-1 grm. of potassium bromide, and 0-l grm. of potassium
iodide, and the test may probably be relied upon to show half
that amount of chlorine. The potassium iodide, as already
mentioned, was specially prepared for the work, and contained
in the amounts which we used no recognizable trace of chlorine.
The potassium bromide contained of chlorides enongh to show
an indication in 0°5 grm. of the salt. We were unable to find
the chlorine in 0-2 grm. of the salt, and so considered it safe
to empioy half this latter amount in our experiments as being
sufficiently free from chlorine for the purpose.

The process which we propose for the rapid qualitative de-
tection of the halogens in presence of one another may be sum-
marized briefly, as follows:

To detect iodine, the solution of the substance under exami-
nation is acidulated with dilute sulphuric acid and treated with
a drop or two of a solution of sodium or potassium nitrite free

290 Gooch and Brooks—Rapid method for Detection, ete.

from chlerine. Unless the amount present is small, the iodine
shows itself in the color of the solution and in the vapors which
escape. Small amounts may be found by shaking the liquid
with carbon disulphide in the usual manner, or, when economy
of material is desirable, by gently heating the prepared solu-
tion and testing the escaping fumes with red litmus paper, ©
thus utilizing the same portion of material for the detection of
the iodine and for its separation preparatory to testing for
bromine and chlorine.

To remove the iodine previous to making the tests for bro-
mine and chlorine, a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid and a
like amount of a dilute solution of sodium or potassium nitrite
(prepared free from chlorine as described) are added to the solu-
tion of the substance in a test-tube, and the liquid is boiled
with constant agitation. When the color of iodine disappears
from the fumes and the solution, a drop or two more of sul-
phuric acid, and of the nitrite, are again added, and the boiling
is repeated. When the escaping steam no longer gives to red
litmus paper the characteristic gray blue color due to the
action of iodine, the process of separation is complete.

A portion of the solution thus prepared is tested for bromine
by cautiously adding a dilute solution of sodium hypochlorite
and shaking with colorless carbon disulphide.

The test for chlorine is made in a second portion of the solu-
tion from which the iodine has been removed. The liquid is
neutralized with sodium carbonate or hydrate free from chlo-
rine, evaporated to dryness in a test-tube and treated as de-
scribed with sulphuric acid and potassium dichromate, the
fumes of the chlorochromic anhydride which arise on gentle
warming being condensed and converted to chromic acid by
the film of moisture upon the interior walls of the trap.
The trap is washed out with a very little distilled water (5 em.°
are enough), and the washings made slightly ammoniacal to de-
stroy free bromine, if necessary, and after gentle warming
again acidified, are tested with lead acetate. If the yellow
chromate is precipitated the presence of chlorine in the origi-
nal substance is proved. If the precipitate is white, as is very
likely to be the case, a few drops of a saturated solution of
ammonium acetate are added with caution, and the whole is
gently warmed to dissolve the white sulphate. On cooling the
solution and shaking (or immediately if much chromie acid has
been formed), the yellow chromate falls, or gives color to the
solution according as the chloride was originally present in
large or small amount.

The process is rapid and sufficiently exact for qualitative
testing in general. |

W. H. Melville—Metacinnabarite from California. 291

Art. XXX VIII — MWetacinnabarite from New Almaden, Cal-
ufornia ; by W. H. MELVILLE.

AN excellent specimen of metacinnabarite was recently
found in the quicksilver mine at New Almaden, Santa Clara
County, California, and a portion of it was given me for ex-
amination. Metacinnabarite was never before known to occur
in these deposits, although in neighboring cinnabar localities
the amorphous mineral has been met with. This specimen
earries finely developed and brilliant erystals which are admir-
ably adapted for measurement on the goniometer.

In the ore seam where cinnabar has been deposited, there
appears an argillaceous mass which has resulted from sediments
derived from the decomposition of the country rock by sol-
fataric action. This mass is not homogeneous but consists of
gray and green particles, the former evidently a mixture of
clay and partially decomposed rock constituents with a small
amount of carbonates, the latter a silicate the composition of
which is shown in the following analysis.

Analysis of the Green Silicate.

BS Oe tN NUE oe ape ae Le 67°59
Cr BOA as cease Sie Boe oe 5°31

ROR)
RO ieee 12-24
(Oetiker ce ae pe ap 9 4°57
CAa@Qee ies: ata ee ee REA 0°73
MeO ete ox surge sey sh lt 2h fs 7°84
PAN cathe pita sets ag a ae very little
98°28

In justice to these figures it should be said that only 01225
gram of substance could be obtained in sufficient purity for
study, and the little impurity which this sample contained
could not be removed by Thoulet’s solution; also alkalies could
not be determined.

Throughout this sheet of soft argillaceous matter, or selvage,
large quantities of metallic quicksilver easily seen by the
naked eye are distributed, and bright red cinnabar often deeply
coloring small areas of quartz has crystallized. Cinnabar is
found mainly deposited on this selvage—on the specimen at
hand about an inch thick—intimately mixed with quartz, thus
forming a hard compact mass upon which have grown cinnabar
erystals, and these in turn are coated with minute quartz crys-
tals. To this quartz the acute apex of the metacinnabarite
erystal is attached and consequently is always broken. The

292 W. H. Melville—Metacinnabarite from California.

genesis of this metacinnabarite was certainly subsequent to the
deposition of the cinnabar, and groups of flat rhombohedrons
of white semi-transparent calcite appear to have formed at the
same time. Crystallized dolomite is common among the ores
of New Almaden and to this a fibrous silicate, undoubtedly
chrysotile, firmly adheres. Fine bluish opal and occasional
spangles of pyrite complete the list of associated minerals.

One other brittle substance was discovered while picking
out metacinnabarite for analysis. It forms almost perfect
spheres of a brilliant black color, which volatilize at a high
temperature in yellowish vapor with a strong bituminous odor.
The substance is organic matter and curiously mereury does
not enter into its composition. These spheres can be detected
under the microscope imbedded in the faces of the crystals of
metacinnabarite (fig. 2.) and some were obtained by sharply
rapping the specimen.

The rather low specific gravity of metacinnabarite is thus
accounted for in part. Again the presence of minute particles
of quartz was unavoidable, and therefore the given value was
also influenced to a slight extent by this cause. The crystals
used for the determination of the specific gravity contained
far less impurity than is recorded in the analysis which follows.
The specific gravity was in two cases 7-095 and 7-142, or mean
=7'118 almost identical with that of guadalcazarite, 7°15.

Analysis of Metacinnabar ite.

At. Ratio.

Bees atom ek ena en RS ee 13°68 0°855
1 (epee eee ison tenes 78:01 S corresponding=12'48 % 0:7801
[eta aie Eee ea 0°61 0:34 0-0218)
(Cove Peale 2 etree ee cares a trace Sal.
Tie Ay a We ea carte 0-90 0:44. 00277 (9 024?
Mn ee eee ae 0-15 0:09 00054 J
CAG Oar ess are aie 0-71 13.35
Residue, quartz____--_---- 4:57 Sufound eae eee ae 13°68
Volatile organic matter_-_.. 0°63

99°26

For analysis 0°6237 gram of substance was available, and
both the qualitative and quantitative study proceeded contem-
poraneously. The small errors of analysis are distributed
between the sulphur and organic matter, where the sulphur is
as usual a trifle too high An uncertainty naturally exists in
-the determination of the organic matter. Selenium was looked
for but its presence failed to be established.

The crystals belong to the rhombohedral system (Miller) and
consist of two poles differently modified. The following
forms were observed :

W. H. Melville—Metacinnabarite from California. 293
Analogue Pole.
Miller. Bravais- Miller. Naumann.
(hk 1m)
BES jakMasoseetse tess see. aU) k(0001) CIDA: OA: ne
Positive hemi-rhombohedron _.- «(100) (1101) C2 G30) 2,
Negative rhombohedron ----~-- K(332) K(0554) qe: Eg8 Iho al
Hemi-sealenohedron.. -_------ «(211) K(1322) Sore oycmlases:
Antilogue Poie.
Negative hemi-rhombohedron__- «(33,.17, 17,) «(50,°50, 0, 1) 50c:1:1:0
Hemi-scalenohedron .---___---- K(31, 17, 15) (48,46, 2,1) 48c:1: $4: 24
Hemi-scalenohedron_________.- OND) ay, 12), ANS Be By 1D) Paes al eee ee
Angle of axes (Miller)=118° 117 20"
Axial ratio c: a = 0°2372: 1 (Naumann).
Measurements.
Measured. Calculated:
111 4 100 = LG}. NEY
100 4 010 26 29
LOO POUL 4 15
MLE eee Lia Wi 94 10 94° 10’ 36"
TMV SENG Tethys 94 31 94 33
Ban 26y 15, 12 94 42 95 17
SouMinele Im, 33,1 IG 3 9 ie Be
S3,107,1N 4315 17, 15 BG
Zorg. line 26), Udy 12 3 55
The poles of the scalenohe- ‘8 !-
drons in the negative hemi 4.

sphere almost belong in the zone
circles passing through any two
poles of the negative rhombo-
hedron, therefore, as shown in
the figures the planes of the for-
mer do not exactly bevel the
terminal edges of the latter.
The faces of the former
x(26, 15, 12) are tectonic and con-
tain series of re-entering angles
(fig. 2) which indicate the build-
ing up of that portion of the
erystal rather than twinning.
Otherwise striations are absent, and owing to the brilliancy of
the plane surfaces sharp reflections of the signals on the goni-
ometer were obtained. Fig. 2 was drawn with the aid of.
ceross-hair and graduated stage of the microscope and in such
position that the face (83, 17, 17) is parallel to the plane of pro-
jection. The following plane angles were read: a=86° 20’,
p=82°45, 7=39, 0=85° 30’, 7=24°. The relations of these
angles with the elements of the crystal have not been made
out. With the exception of (332) all the observed forms are

294. W. H. Melville—Metacinnabarite from California.

represented in fig. 1, and actually occur on one erystal with
equal regularity. Fig. 2 is the combination of x(111) with the
plains of the antilogue pole tabulated above. The distances of
the poles of all the rhombohedral faces from the pole of (111)
were measured on the same crystals and no doubt can possibly
exist as to the system of crystallization. Viewed as they are
implanted on the rock, the crystals present much similarity to
tetrahedrons, but examination shows that the face of the nega-
tive rhombohedron in combination with the basal plane forms
an isosceles and not an equilateral triangle. Besides_ the
measured angle §=82° 45’ the plane acute angle of (33, 17, 17)
=14° 29’ 40” was calculated from the fundamental angles,
The crystals vary in length from 1:24™™ to 2°3"™ and in width
from 0°59™" to 0-97"™"5 possess a high metallic luster, black
color, black streak with slight reddish tinge; are brittle with
hardness about 2; and give the reactions for zine and sulphide
of mercury.

This mineral I consider metacinnabarite since the atomic
ratios give a very improbable formula. Its specitie gravity is
much below that given to the species by Mr. G. E. Moore*
770—7-75 for the reasons stated above. On the other hand its
somewhat close resemblance to guadaleazaritet in chemical
and physical properties—for Castillo mentions rhombohedral
erystals of this mineral—might point to its identity with this
species. But it must be acknowledged to be metacinnabarite
in composition with a small percentage of impurity of other
sulphides such as would be naturally expected on precipitation
and crystallization from solution. Again the erystals of
metacinnabarite, many of which I have examined from loeal-
ities in California as far back as 1882, are very indefinite and
although they appear to be rough cubo-octahedrons, might
really consist of the combination of basal plane and rhombo-
hedron. Mr. 8. L. Penfield{ has described metacinnabarite
crystals from California, and determines them to be hemihe-
dral isometric forms. One measurement is there given, viz:
322 .322=86° 5424’ (mean of three) which approximates the
angle (111). (83, 17, 17)=85° 50’, the supplement of which
appears in the table above. It is possible that these two planes
may form the combination I have indicated. No angle occurs
on crystals in my possession near that of 211. 112=33° 15’ to
36° 54’ which Mr. Penfield found. It is barely probable that
metacinnabarite is dimorphous. If it should happen that bril-
liant crystals of metacinnabarite from the Knoxville quick-
silver district should be found, I firmly believe that their habit

* Dana’s Mineralogy, App. I, 10. + Ibid, App. IT, 25.
t This Journal, June, 1885, p. 452. ;

C. H. Gordon— Keokuk Beds at Keokuk. 295

could be reconciled with the symmetry of the crystals from
New Almaden, the southern district.

It is through the kindness of Mr. Waldemar Lindgren of
the U.S. Geological Survey and Mr. I’. Von Leicht, the super-
intendent of the New Almaden quicksilver mines, that the
material was available for this study.

Laboratory U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., June, 1890.

Art. XXXIX.—On the Keokuk Beds at Keokuk, Iowa; by
C. H. Gorpon.

THE exposed area of the Keokuk Beds is nowhere extensive.
Their relations to the adjoining beds—the Burlington below
and the St. Louis above—are everywhere marked by strict
conformity, their separation being based solely upon lithologi-
eal and faunal distinctions. Of these, the faunal characteris-
tics especially are of such a nature as to mark this formation
as one of the most important of the Lower Carboniferous
group. The exposure at Keokuk is limited, being entirely due
to the erosion of the Mississippi river and its small tributaries.
Along the borders of these the limestone of the lower division
usually presents a bold and smooth escarpment.

Outside of the Keokuk region where the beds were first
studied, the most notable exposures occur at Crawfordsville,
Indiana, and in southwestern Missouri. At the former locality
they are 280 feet thick with a distinctively crinoidal and mol-
lusean fauna.* In Missouri they contain valuable deposits of
lead. ie

The general dip toward the south and west carries these beds
from sight just below the mouth of the Des Moines, but a
change of dip again brings them to view in the vicinity of _
Quincy, Ill., and at other places to the south. In some eases
their appearance is due to faulting.

At Keokuk these beds consist of two well-defined divisions
—the Lower or Calcareous and the Upper or Geode division.

Il. Geode Bed or Division.

13. Fine, blue sandy layer. Crinoid bed No. 3. Resem-
bles the arenaceous layers of the crinoid bed at Craw-
fordsville, Ind. Seldom seen. Seventeen species of
Poteriocrinide, Batocrinus laguneulus Hall, B. inter-
medius W. and 8., B. similis Hall, B. originarius W.
and §., B. mundulus Wall, Taxocrinus Wortheni Hall.
AIC CS Stes oye te fe ee) Be PRR ges ore cy 6 in.

* American Geologist, vol. ii, p. 407.

AM. Journ. Sci.—TuirD SERIES, VoL. XL, No 238.—Ocrt., 1890.
19

296 OC. H. Gordon—Keokuk Beds at Keokuk.

12. Soft, gritty shale, readily decomposing on exposure to
atmospheric influences. Filled with geodes varying in
size {rom one to four inches in diameter. Thickness__15 ft.
11. Shales, more calcareous, with occasional bands of lime-

stone. Geodes fewer but larger. Thickness ._--~__-_- 20 ft.

10. Limestone, hard, in thin variable layers. Thickness ___- 2 ft.
9, Dark blue argillaceous shale. Contains no geodes.

Thickness’ 2222-52 e5 See ee

I. Calcareous Division.

8. Limestone, light gray, changing to light brown or yellow
on exposure. Crinoid bed No. 2, sometimes called the
Dorycrinus bed. Batoerinus Nashville Troost, B.
biturbinutus Hall, Dorycrinus Mississippiensis Remer,
Agaricocrinus Worthent Hall. A. Americanus, var.

? Barrycrinus tumidus Hall, Archimedes Oweni-

ana sal seter es inickmessin smn oe ae areas fo) Zot

Lenticular layers, prolific in crinoids, are sometimes found in-
tercalated between 7 and 8.

7, Hard blue limestone; layers thin. Thickness_-.--. 3 to 5 ft.
6. Heavy dark blue limestone with nodules of chert. Fish
beduNions 2.25 JBbhicknes sists) 5s. ae oe ee ee DAO ashe

5. Blue subcrystalline limestone in layers 6 to 12 inches
thick, alternating with similar layers of shales. Single
valves and casts of Spirifer Keokuk Hall, abundant.
(Bhickniess 2/224 5256 oy 00s ot tue tte a eye eae 8 to 15 ft.

4, White or light gray massive limestone called White
Ledge by the quarrymen. Fish bed No. 1. Thickness. 4 ft.

At this point the partings frequently contain crinoids, while in
some places a thin crinoidal layer is found resting upon the roll-
ing cherty surface of the layer below. <Actinocrinus, Agarico-
crinus Americanus Remer, Barycrinus magister Hall, ete.

3. Impure shaly limestone with occasional bands of chert.
Contains pockets of calcite in large beautiful crystals.
Thickness, #222). Sus a) 2a EO 6 ft.

2. Light gray comparatively soft limestone. Crinoid bed
No.1. Speciesnumerous. Agaricocrinus Americanus
Remer, also two varieties. Actinocrinus pernodosus
Hall, A. Zowei Hall, Batocrinus laguneulus Hall,
Platycrinus Sayordis Linicknesse=s ee 6 in. to 1 ft.

1. Massive blue or drab suberystalline limestone. Occa-
sional specimens of fish teeth belonging to the genus
Chitonodus., Mhickness 35222552 =e 3 ft.

The parting between this and the beds below filled with stems
and joints of Hucladocrinus.

Transition Beds.

Limestone in thin layers; cherty. ‘Thickness exposed 6 ft.
Platyceras fissurella Hall, P. equilatera Hall, Palecis obtusus M.
and W., Batocrinus planodiscus H., ete.

i

C. H. Gor -don—Keokuk Beds at Keokuk. 297

The Caleareous division consists of forty to sixty feet of
limestone in layers varying from three inches to four feet, and
separated by one to six inches of clay or shale partings. The
thicker beds and those furnishing the best building stone
occur in the lower portions of the division. One of these (No.
4), a very pure white, subcrystalline layer from three to four
feet thick, called the White Ledge by the quarrymen, supplied
the stone for the noted Mormon temple at Nauvoo. Another
lower bed, separated from the White Ledge by six feet of
shale and rotten limestone, sometimes furnishes an equally
good if not better stone for weneral use. Below this the layers
of the transition beds are thin and abound in chert.

Cherty bands occur at various intervals throughout the
division. They have a coneretionary structure, and vary in
color from a dark drab to white, though usually more or less
mottled. They are sometimes quite prominently discolored
by included fossil fragments. The limestone layers often
become cherty above with an uneven rolling surface. The
more important chert masses have the general appearance of a
sedimentary deposit. Nodular masses, however, frequently
occur in various forms in the limestone beds. In some casés
the siliceous material is distributed about some fossil fragment.
In others they present the appearance of having taken the
place of a cavity in the stone. The surface of contact is often
distinet, the chert separating freely from the limestone, but
adjacent parts of the latter are more or less altered to a cherty
condition. These nodules have an eel-like form with often
one or more bends and are not always parallel to the plane of
bedding. A section shows a mottled, grayish white chert on
the outside distributed in bands about an inner core of granu-
lar material made up principally of fossil fragments in a com-
minuted condition.

The chert beds, aggregating forty feet, which immediately
underlie this division were included in it in Hall’s Report* but
subsequently removed to the Burlington by White.t

The appearance of these bands of chert at varying inter-
vals from the Lower Burlington to the St. Lonis limestone
inclusive has been commented upon by White, though no
explanation of their origin has been attempted.t Worthen

* (eological Survey of Iowa, 1858, vol. i, part 1, p. 94.

+ Geological Survey of Iowa, 1870, vol. i, p. 203 (note).

¢ The investigations of G. I Hinde, of the British Museum, on various cherts
over the world led him to the conclusion that they are of organic origin. ‘‘ The
chert from the Carboniferous limestones of Ireland was all made chiefly from the
siliceous spicules of sponges and the silica of silicified fossils has the same source.”
—This Journal, II], xxxiv, 405. See also vol. xxxyi, 73. Dr. M. C. White, of
New Haven, made the earliest observations upon chert of the “ Subcarboniferous
limestone of Illinois,” and the hornstone of the Corniferous and Black River beds.
His paper will be found in this Journal (1862) II, xxxiii, 385. Dana also dis-
cusses the subject in his Manual on pages 267, 261, and 305.

298 C. H. Gordon—HKeokuk Beds at Keokuk.

a

attributed them to the intrusion of water charged with sili-
ceous material from below. The accession of siliceous material
to the waters of that epoch, however caused, resulted in the
more or less complete extermination of the life char acterizing
the preceding epoch. Upon the restoration of normal condi-
tions, however, a profusion of forms again appears though
marked by variations in type andform. This tendency toward
extinction may be observed in the smaller as well as the more
important chert beds. The crinoidal facies of the first crinoid
bed is essentially different from that of the second, while that
of the third is unlike either. The destructive effect of excess
of siliceous material represented in the Geode bed is especially
noticeable in the paucity of species that were able to survive
it. The almost complete extinction of the Actinocrinide is
especially remarkable.* Not only is this true of erinoidal life
but it has been remarked that a profusion of fish remains is
nearly always accompanied by greater or less quantities of
chert. The obvious connection existing between the presence
of the chert and the extinction of previously existing species
is certainly of great interest both from dynamical and evolu-
tionary standpoints, though at present little understood. _

At some of the partings in this division the upper surface
of the lower stratum shows decided evidences of erosion. The
limestone matrix has in some eases been worn away, leaving
the fossils projecting one-half to one inch above the general
surface. The rock-surface is usually, in these cases, much
discolored and altogether its appearance seems to indicate
changing submarine currents.

The upper division or Geode bed consists principally of
argillaceous shale varying to an impure shaly magnesian lme-
stone. The lower portion is more calcareous, sometimes
including thin layers of tolerably pure limestone. An abun-
dance of siliceous matters occurs here in the form of goedes
which, with the exception of a few feet in the lower part, are
disseminated throughout the formation. They are generally
smaller and thicker in the middle and upper portions of the
bed, while in the more calcareous layers below the geodes
are large and contain more perfectly formed crystals.

The formation contains three crinoid beds quite clearly
distinguished from each other in the character of their
forms. Outside of these horizons crinoids sometimes occur,
but sparingly.

The third bed, No. 13, of the section has not been found out-
side of a single ‘locality i in the lower part of the city discov-
ered by Mr. The Cox. Most of the species obtained from
this bed were new’ and belong to the Poteriocrinide, evi-

* Keyes, American Naturalist, March, 1890, p. 243.

C. H. Gordon—Keokuk Beds at Keokuk. 299

dently allying this stratum with the crinoid bed at Craw-
fordsville, Ind., while the resemblance is still further enhanced
by the lithological character of the stratum. At the above
locality there are twenty-five feet of fossiliferous shale under-
lying the crinoid beds and followed downward by two hundred
feet of limstone and shale.* Now while at Crawfordsville the
beds are marked by the Poteriocrinide, at Keokuk the fauna
of the lower division is essentially Actinocrinoidal in aspect.
The most common forms occurring in the lower division at
Keokuk, viz: Batocrinus Nashville, B. biturbinatus, Actz-
nocrinus pernodosus and Agaricocrinus Worthent, are absent
at Crawfordsville, while even the ubiquitous Agaricocrinus
Americanus is not recognized in the corrected lists of fossils
from that locality.

We are disposed therefore to consider it as not improbable
that the ecrinoid beds at Crawfordsville and the associated shale
are the stratigraphical equivalent of the Geode bed and its
associated layers at Keokuk.

The second crinoid bed is known as the Dorycrinus Bed,
from the abundance of a single species of that genus, D. JMis-
SUSSIPPLENSLS.

The interest attaching to these beds centers largely in their
Radiates of which the Crinoidea are the most prominent. The
following table gives approximately the genera and number of
species and their relations at Keokuk and Crawfordsville:

Total At At Craw-

Genera. Species. Keokuk. fordsville. Species common.
Actinocrinus,
Agaricocrinus,
Batocrinus,
Barrycrinus,
Caleeocrinus,
Catillocrinus,
Cyathocrinus,
Decadocrinus,
Dichocrinus,
Dorycrinus,
Eretmocrinus,
Eucladocrinus,
Eupachycrinus,
Forbesiocrinus,
Goniasteroidocrinus,
Graphiocrinus,
Onychocrinus,
Parisocrinus,
Platycrinus,
Poteriocrinus,
Rhodocrinus,
Scaphiocrinus,
Scytalocrinus,
Stemmatocrinus,

B. Indianensis.

eH

KH BOHR WoOHPWHNNrFPRr OR OW HEN ROW aAD
boo Too or

4
Ree rowrR we bp!

Noe wee poWHs

Dz Ficus.

1 FF, Worthent.
L

ot

2 O. ramulosus.

P. hemisphericus.

ra
—

* Beachler, Am. Geol., vol. ii, p. 407.

300 O. H. Gordon—Keokuk Beds at Keokuk.

Total At At Craw-
Genera. Species. Keokuk. fordsyille. Species common.
Symbathocrinus, 3 3 ae
Taxocrinus, 3 2 J
Vasocrinus, 1 Se 1
W oodocrinus, 6 3 2
. Zeacrinus, 1 an aM
Number genera, 29 128 69 32 5

From this it appears that over one-half of the species of the
formation occur at Keokuk, while at Crawfordsville the pro-
portion is about one-fourth with only five species common.
Out of the sixty-nine species observed at Keokuk, however, a
large portion are rarely met with, while the hardness of the
limestone matrix renders the collection and cleaning of fossils
a comparatively slow and difficult process.

The collection of fish remains made here is an extensive
one and may be grouped as follows :

Total Species | Total Species
Species. at Keokuk. | Species. at Keokuk.
Cochliodonts, 26 20 Psammodonts, 1 it
Hybodonts, 17 17 | Ichthyodorulites, 16 13
Petalodonts, 20 14 — —
Total, 80 65

It is generally maintained against the evidence tor the con-
trary from Coral Islands, as illustrated by Professor Dana, that
limestone is a deep-sea deposit. The appearance of the
Keokuk limestone in places shows very decided evidences of
having been subjected to shallow water conditions. That
littoral conditions are productive of arenaceous deposits alone
would seem to necessitate the further proof that the debris
derived from the neighboring land surface is distinctively
arenaceous in character. That this is generally so is readily
seen, but that it is always so can hardly be admitted. The
presence of crinoids in the Keokuk limestone has been accepted
as conclusive of a deep water origin, since existing forms of this
order are usually obtained far below the surface. Nevertheless
we are disposed to consider the Keokuk beds in the vicinity of
Keokuk as essentially a shallow water deposit. Toward the
east. where it impinges upon the Cincinnati axis it becomes
decidedly arenaceous, but along its northern border in Lowa no
such change is observed, its calcareous character being as
marked as farther toward the south. Moreover the discovery
of a piece of fossil wood in this formation at Keokuk would
seem to imply (1) an adjacent shore line and (2) shallow water.
This interesting specimen was obtained from No. 5, about 10
feet below the base of the Geode bed. It is a portion of a
Sigillarian trunk.

Keokuk, Iowa.

C. A. Perkins— Vapor-tension of Sulphuric Acid. 301

Art. XL.—WNote on the vapor-tension of Sulphuric Acid,
with the description of an accurate Cathetometer Micro-
scope; by Cuas. A. PERKINS, Ph.D., Associate in Physics,
Bryn Mawr College.

In the physical laboratory it is frequently necessary to meas-
ure small differences in the height of two objects, such as two
columns of liquid, ete., and especially to measure changes of
height ; and several forms of apparatus have been designed for
this work. The cathetometer is accurate for this purpose only
when provided with two telescopes and when the objects to be
measured are in the same vertical line, and then is not readily
used if the points are less than about 10°" apart Desiring to
make some measurements of this nature, I made use of the
following apparatus: A microscope of rather long focus is
mounted upon a rigid vertical brass column and is carried by a
vertical micrometer screw, reading to 31,"™". Immediately in
front of the object glass and covering one-half of it, is placed
a small total reflecting prism, so adjusted that when the micro-
scope is focussed upon one object, the prism throws into the
field the image of an object vertically above or below the
second, but on a level with the first. If the objects to be
measured are situated upon the same level, they will thus be
superimposed ; if not at the same level, they will come suc-
cessively to the center of the field, by moving the micrometer
through the necessary distance. With this apparatus, measure-
ments may be made in which the probable error of a single
setting is considerably less than ,1,™™ and in which the motion
is a simple vertical one as if the two objects were in the same
vertical line. The principal difficulty encountered is to bring
both objects into focus at the center of the field. For this it
is desirable to have one of the objects movable and to perform
the adjastment by moving this object, but it is quite possible
to make the adjustment when the objects are connected, as
the two legs of a U-tube.

I have made use of this apparatus to measure the vapor
tension of sulphuric acid. This liquid has some properties
fitting it to be used in pressure gauges, either by itself or in
connection with mercury.* I desired to use it for this purpose
in a place where its vapor tension if appreciable would be
injurious.

The only experiment, so far as I know, upon the vapor
tension, was made under the direction of Sir Wm. Thomson,

* Callendar, On the practical measurement of Temperature, Phil. Trans., vol.

clxxyili, p. 161; and Bottomley, On a practical Air Thermometer with constant
volume, Phil. Mag., ser. V, vol. xxvi, p. 149.

302 C. A. Perkins— Vapor-tension of Sulphuric Acid.

and consisted in proving that the tension does not change
much between 20° and 100° C.: the column of acid, by which
the change of tension was measured, being 3" in diameter
and terminated at one end by a vacuum and at the other by a
bulb of gas which was kept as nearly as possible at the same
temperature while the acid at the vacuum end of the tube was
heated.*

My own plan originally was to take a U-tube, half filled with
mercury, and after drying and exhausting the air from both
legs, to observe the depression of mercury in one leg, when a
drop of acid was introduced. In every case an elevation was
observed, due to moisture leaking in through the cocks, or
remaining on the glass and evaporating as exhaustion ad-
vanced ; a form was therefore adopted which was free from
cocks and in which the mercury could be
boiled to drive off all moisture. It consists
of two barometers. One is an ordinary cis-
tern barometer (I), the other is an inverted
U-tube with mercury in both legs. One end
() dips into the same vessel as the tube I,
the other (a) is recurved to prevent the ad-
mission of air, but allowing the acid to be
introduced by a curved pipette or medicine
dropper. The height of the column (4) in U
is compared with that in I, before and after
admitting acid into U through a. The inter-
nal diameter of the tubes is about 0-8°". In
filling the U-tube, it is exhausted by a Sprengel
pump and heated strongly. When cool, a
little EOD is introduced and boiled and this operation is
repeated till the tube is full. Unless this precaution is taken,
the acid in rising through the tube, carries up air, which causes
- a depression of the mercury.

The acid was purchased of Queen & Co. as pure concentrated
acid, but not absolutely anhydrous.

In making the measurements from three to five readings
were made of the position of the meniscus in U and the same
number for I: then acid was introduced into the other leg of
U and the readings were repeated in the same order. The
mercury column is illuminated from behind and a ring of
black paper, sliding on the tube, is adjusted as near as possible
to the top of the meniscus, allowing only a thread of light to
pass over the top of the column. Unless this is done, reflec-
tions will make the top of the column uncertain. Where it is
possible, the method of using the image of a black point and

* Encyce. Brit., 9th ed., Article ‘‘ Heat.”

Clarke and Schneider

Experiments, ete. 303

its reflection, as done at Breteuil, leaves nothing to be desired ;
but I could not work with large enough tubes, and errors of
setting were not my principal errors.

Measured in this way, my three best measurements gave for
the vapor tension :

Difference of U and I in 200ths ™™.

Before admitting acid. After. Difference in ™™.
31 33 +01
3 Tell +°01
—12 —13 —°005

This result is considered to be purely negative, as errors due
to the change of the height of the barometer during the experi-
ment and those introduced by irregularities in the capillarity
of the mercury (in spite of shaking the tube) would be sufficient
to account for the measured tension. <A larger tube, would
have avoided some of the trouble, but would have increased
very much the labor of manipulation.

In several other experiments, attention was carefully fixed
upon the tep of the mercury column in the tube 4 just as the
acid rose through the other tube (a), in order to observe any
instantaneous movement of the column. The movement, if
any, was very slight—certainly not in excess of the above
measurements. I therefore conclude that the tension is not
greater than about -01™™.

Arr. XLL—Eaxperiments upon the Constitution of the Nat-
ural Silicates; by F. W. CLARKE and K. A. SCHNEIDER.

DURING the past six years the constitution of the natural
silicates has received a good deal of attention in the laboratory
of the United States Geological Survey. A number of papers
have been published by one of us, partly theoretical and partly
analytical; but the evidence so far considered has been drawn
only from careful analyses of various minerals, and a study of
their obvious relations, their associations, and their alteration
products. Within certain limits the results obtained have been
satisfactory and suggestive; but in several cases it was found
that ordinary analysis failed to discriminate between possible
alternative formule; and it was plain that the uncertainties
could only be cleared up by new lines of experimental investi-
gation. With such investigations the present paper has to do.
Sixteen minerals, including varieties, all of the magnesian
group, have been examined ; and it has been found quite pos-
sible to separate some of them into distinet fractions of definite

304 Clarke and Schneider—Experiments upon the

character in such a way as to shed much light upon their inner
chemical structure. In general, the methods which have been
employed by us are not new, except in their application to the
silicate problem; but in their analogies to the processes used
for the elucidation of organic compounds, we believe that they
will be found interesting.

In brief, our mode of procedure has been as follows: First,
each mineral, selected and purified with great care, has been
completely analyzed; and in each case enough material was
ground to a uniform sample to suffice for all subsequent exper-
iments. Secondly, each mineral has been subjected to the
action of dry hydrochloric acid gas, under quantitative condi-
tions. For this purpose a quantity of material was weighed
out in a platinum boat, which was then placed in a glass tube
and heated in a stream of the dry gas until, after repeated
weighings, constant weight was attained. The sample was then
treated with water and a drop or two of nitric acid, and the
soluble constituents of the mass were determined by the usual
methods of analysis. In every instance a sample was thus
treated at a temperature between 883° and 412° C., but in
some cases other temperatures were studied also. For heating
the tubes an ordinary combustion furnace was used; and the
temperature was kept within the indicated range by placing
on one side of the platinum boat a sealed capillary tube
containing lead iodide, melting point 383°, and on the
other side a tube containing zinc, which fuses at 412°. The
flames of the furnace were then so adjusted that the iodide
fused, while the zine did not. Fora higher range of temper-
atures, which was employed in some eases, the indicators simi-
larly used were lead chloride, m. p 498°, and silver iodide, m.
p. 527°. These melting points are given according to Carnel-
ley. As arule, in each series of experiments the sample under
treatment was weighed every two hours; and before reheating
it was stirred with a fine platinum wire in order to expose a
fresh surface to the action of the acid. By this mode of treat-
ment different minerals are very differently affected; there
being almost no action in some cases, and very notable action
in others. With this action of gaseous acid, the action of
aqueous hydrochloric acid upon each mineral was carefully
compared, and some points of great importance were thus
brought out. As a rule, one gram of mineral was treated
with 75 ce. of fuming hy drochloric acid on the water bath, and
the mixture was evaporated to dryness. When decomposition
was not complete, the mineral was further treated with hydro-
chloric acid of sp. gr. 1:12 for three days or even longer, and
the amount of action was ascertained and recorded. In several
instances this treatment with aqueous acid was repeated after
strong ignition of a mineral, and it was sometimes found that a

Constitution of the Natural Silicates. 305

species previously soluble could be thus split up into a soluble |
and an insoluble part. In a number of cases ignition of a min-
eral caused the liberation of silica, which could afterwards be
dissolved out with soda solution and quantitatively determined.
For this purpose a solution of sodium carbonate, 250 grams
to the liter, was emploved. Finally, in almost every case the
nature of the water in a mineral was investigated, by a study
of the temperatures at which its several fractions were expelled.
For low temperatures, an ordinary air-bath was used; for
higher temperatures the minerals were heated in a stream of
dry air, between indicators of known melting points, just as in
the treatment with gaseous hydrochloric acid.

So much for the methods of research, which will be more
clearly understood from a study of the details to be given pres-
ently. On the theoretical side we have adhered to the work-
ing hypothesis that the more complex silicates are substitution
deri es of normal salts, as,has been suggested by one of us in
several earlier publications. From this point of view the nor-
mal ortho-silicate of magnesium is the fittest starting point for
discussion, and this salt 1s approximately represented by olivine.
The purer forsterite was not available.

1. Olivine.

For this species the only material at hand was a supply of
the chrysolite pebbles from near Fort Wingate, New Mexico.
The mineral from this locality, we believe, has not been pre-
viously analyzed; and as it is rich enough in color and is suffi-
ciently clear it is often cut asa gem. It has the characteristic
color of the peridot, and is apparently quite free from inclu-
sions. ‘The analysis gave the following results:

SiOiee SURI ly at 41-98
IO Festi eter tom cen une Ne "51
J ONEAO)) 23 aca tal A Cheap RES aad A Uae One abaerhS 5°71
INST O piataihe 2. Ry 8 a cael 49
IN Tint @) sepia 8) 2 ON EE HL eS De hi 10
Te Wed © Jee aa Ring ede neh Pecan Pea 51°11
ETO) eee eet) ee Ch aL 28

100°1]

Only 0:05 per cent of the water was lost at 105°.

1:1027 grams of the mineral were heated in gaseous hydro-
chloric acid for twenty-two hours, and gained in weight 0°0157
grm. On leaching with water and a drop of nitric acid the
following percentages of material went into solution :

AVI eee ih is Be Sor eee aa ee 1°47
IN, © 0) rie aks oss NA NS SE eB UT 43

306 Clarke and Schneider— Experiments upon the

Hence olivine, at the temperature of 383°-412°, is hardly
attacked by dry hydrochloric acid; and the slight action here
recorded may possibly be due to incomplete drying of the gas.
The aqueous acid, on the other hand, decomposes olivine with
great ease. On this mineral no other experiments were neces-
sary for our purposes.

Dale:

The mineral studied was a typical, apple-green, foliated tale
from Hunter’s Mill, Fairfax County, Virginia. Analysis as
follows :

SiO. coke Se | aa one a eee ope 6252
IN OP GE Sai 3 De A oe Cane 1
IB CS OFe irae eo etl aera nee yep 95
MoO (oe aC sti leony ee one 30°95
abel 0 Diabet iced Raraieae nad =o Rane, Ot eim, ad Me Da LY is 85
IME O te ee ere eg ree eee ee trace
JOO Mais ein Gantt al on ale ag eral Sea 4:9]
100:08
In detail, the water determination was as follows:
TeOSSVAt LOD Sess oere Gee eee 07
WOsshat 25 02=3 0 Omer eyes same pere 06
IGOSS Gin medllnemi. ooo see ee ee ee eee lls
IDO ANE OIKYS: le YRee 2 oo ee 35

Hence the water is practically all constitutional.

Heated in dry HCl gas to 383°-412° for fifteen hours, the
tale underwent inappreciable change of weight. Upon leach-
ing, only 0°23 per cent of magnesia went into solution. By
rapid evaporation with 75 ec. of fuming aqueous HOl, 1:05
per cent of MgO and 0°16 of (FeAl),O, were dissolved. Upon
ae days’ digestion on the water bath with acid of 1:12 sp.

, 1:94 MeO and 0-28 of sesquioxides were removed. By
doeine in like manner for thirty-two days, 3°94 MgO and
0-41 of “sesquioxides were taken out. Tale, therefore, Is, as
should have been expected, remarkably stable in presence of
hydrochloric acid, both aqueous and dry. This fact has a very
important bearing upon the constitutional for sane of the min-
eral.

In empirical composition the tale analyzed agrees quite
sharply with the accepted formula Mg,H,8i,0,,. This is com-
monly interpreted as an acid metasilicate, Me,H, (SiO,),; but
Groth has lately proposed to consider tale as a basic salt of
pyrosilicic acid, H,Si,O,. On this supposition its rational for-
mula becomes Mg(Si,O,),(MgOH),. Between these two for-
mule, experiment is able to decide.

Constitution of the Natural Silicates. 307

Against Groth’s formula the stability of tale towards acids
tells very strongly. The univalent group — Mg— OH ought
to be soluble in hydrochloric acid; and evidence, to be pre-
sented later, goes to show that that particular group is easily
removable by the dry, gaseous HCl. In fact, our experiments
make it highly probable that all the magnesia taken from a sil-
icate by pertectly dry HCl, was originally present in the
hydroxylated form. As regards the constitution of tale, how-
ever, other evidence is even stronger.

If Groth’s formula is correct, then, upon ignition, tale should
behave according to the equation
Tei Si,0,—Mgw 0.
-—Meg—OH Si,0.—Mg
In other words the loss of water should produce but little
change, and no silica should be liberated. If, on the other
hand, the acid metasilicate formula is true, tale should split up
into 3Mg8iO,+8i0,+H,0; that is, one-fourth of the silica
should be set free; which, in the present instance, would
amount to 15°57 per cent. This actually happens; and a
weighed quantity of talc, ignited very intensely for half an
hour over a blast-lamp, gave up 15°36 per cent of SiO, upon
subsequent boiling with a solution of sodium carbonate. Upon
longer ignition, as might be expected, a part of this silica re-
verts to the insoluble form, and somewhat lower results are
obtained. Upon the unignited tale, boiling with soda solution
for twenty-four hours produced little or no effect ; soda was not
taken up, nor was silica removed.

In brief, both lines of evidence, the liberation of silica and
the stability toward acids, confirm the ordinary formula for
tale and controvert the views of Groth; and no other formula
out of several which are possible, satisfies both of the experi-
mentally established conditions. The mineral, therefore, must
be regarded as an acid metasilicate; although its ultimate
structural formula can be written only when we have a bet-
ter knowledge of metasilicic acid. It is a noteworthy fact,
that no normal metasilicic ether is yet certainly known; for
Ebelmen’s results have not been confirmed by later observers.
. Troost and Hautefeuille, however, prepared an ether having
the composition (C,H,),Si,O,,. Possibly enstatite may be the
normal magnesium salt corresponding to this ether; in which
ease tale would be a substitution derivative having H, in place
of one atom of Mg.

Si,O
Mec Si'0 —H,O = Mg<

3. Serpentine.

On account of the importance of this species, its variability
in external characteristics, and its manifold relations to other
minerals, several distinct samples were investigated.

308 Clarke and Schneider—EKxperiments upon the

A. Dull-green serpentine from Montville, New Jersey, de-
rived from pyroxene by alteration.

B. Dark-green serpentine from the well-known locality at
Newburyport, Massachusetts.

C. Silky, fibrous chrysotile from Montville.

D. Grayish-green picrolite from Buck Creek, North Caro-
lina.

E. A grayish green mineral from Corundum Hill, North
Carolina, which was supposed at first to be deweylite. It is
an ordinary, massive serpentine.

Analyses. as follows, with the itemized water determinations
subjoined.

A B C D E
S1Oe es 42505 41°47 42°42 42°94 41°90
EO) eee 14°66 15°06 15°64 13°41 16°16
MoO 222 (42°57 41°70 41°01 36°53 40°16
He@ eas "10 (09 vomundets 1°88 undet.
CaOmeeee 05 none trace Ee rage
INiOge= a2 fae ECE 23 ‘61 "10
MeO), 8 30 nee 62 3°33 ‘91
AT @ ae aiee. ne 63 1°72 ak
99°73 100°05 100°55 100°22 99°94
leLO) eye MOR eh es eo ‘96 1°20 2°04 1°58 2°26
H,O Ea iy PS Oeste ces 2S D5 D5 il "44 1:01
HOw 8e8c=4 107 Se o7 ( ---- Di 62 ‘98
BLO) ene AO a Say Eh 5G) runes “42
H,O at red heat___.12°37 ! 13°01 11-81," 10°58) tes
H,O at white heat_. 28 "30 "25 ‘04 IT

From these data it is clear that practically all the water in
serpentine is constitutional, and that none of it can be fairly re-
garded as crystalline. The small, variable amount lost below
250° is mainly hygroscopic and enclosed water, since the anal-
yses refer to air-dried material. It is hardly necessary to state
that in each fractional determination the material was heated
to constant weight.

Upon heating in dry, gaseous, hydrochloric acid all of these
serpentines were strongly attacked; differing essentially in this
particular from olivine and tale. The bases thus taken out as
chlorides at 383°-412° were as follows:

A B C D E
No. of hours heated_.-. 54 68 54 78 41
MeO extracted ..2-=-- 10°14 16°73". (9:98 ess ta 2

RAO sextracted =a tener mare Da Ha Wien ses "66 ‘51

Constitution of the Natural Silicates. B09

In the last determination the soluble magnesia was accident-
ally lost; and the value given was estimated by difference. A
duplicate determination on the Newburyport mineral, at the
same temperature, with 39 hours’ heating gave only 14°43 per
cent of magnesia removed as chloride. The different times re-
quired for obtaining constant weight and so fixing the limit of
the reaction vary considerably.

Similar experiments upon serpentines A and B at the tem-
perature 498°-527° gave similar results.

A B
Hiourstheatedmkas = ae 18 18
MgO removed --.--- 10°83 14:28
iy. Ow removed 222 ‘10 16

3

In duplicate determinations at the same temperature, A
yielded 14:17 and B gave 17°36 per cent of magnesia converted
into chloride.

Now these data, although not satisfactorily concordant, have
nevertheless some significance. They show first that the action
of the gas is much the same at both of the temperature inter-
vals, except that the limit of change is reached more quickly
in the hotter series. They show, also, that the magnesia of
serpentine is probably combined in two ways; one part being
affected, the other unattacked by the acid. That part which
is converted into chloride, and so rendered soluble, we may re-
gard provisionally as represented by the group —Mg—OH;
even though our estimate of its amount may not be so sharply
accurate as might be desirable. No other hypothesis as to the
nature of the dissolved magnesia seems to be practicable, or to
account in any way for the results of the experiments. Roughly
speaking, a maximum amount of about one-third of the mag-
nesia In serpentine is extracted by dry HCl under the condi-
tions of our experiments, the other two-thirds being more
stable.

By aqueous hydrochloric acid all of the five serpentines were
easily and completely decomposed. In three instances this fact
was determined quantitatively ; by evaporating the acid to dry-
ness with the mineral, extracting with weak acid, and weigh-
ing the residue.- In each case this residue agreed in percen-
tage with the silica found by actual analysis. The data are as
follows :

A C D
Insoluble in HCl 42°32 49°92] 42°55
Silica found 42°05 49°49 42°94

By very weak hydrochloric acid, however, these three ser-
pentines are but partially decomposed ; the picrolite being the

310 Clarke and Schneider—Experiments upon the

most stable of the series. A microscopic examination of the
picrolite by Mr. Waldemar Lindgren showed no inclusions
which could account for this difference in behavior, and it is
probably due to merely mechanical conditions.

Upon boiling directly with sodium carbonate solution, none
of the serpentines were attacked. By sharp ignition, however,
a little silica was sometimes liberated ; which, as in the case of
the tale, could be dissolved out and estimated. The quantities
of silica thus set free were as follows:

A B C D E
Per cent 6°28 2:00 9°98. - none 6°05
6°34 2°63 4:93

These results cannot easily be interpreted. At most, only
about one seventh of the total silica is thus taken out; and
this may represent either impurities in the minerals or secon-
dary reactions of an undetermined kind.

When serpentine is heated to the point of fusion it is split
up, as Daubrée has shown,* into a mixture of olivine and
enstatite.

H Mg Si,O,=2H,0+ Me,SiO, + MeSiO,,

Upon ordinary ignition, however, this breaking up of the
molecule does not always take place ; and when it does occur,
it is as a rule only partial. In three experiments the serpen-
tines A, C, and D, were strongly ignited over a blast lamp for
an hour each, and then treatea with strong hydrochloric acid.
By this treatment, olivine, if formed, should be decomposed ;
while enstatite would remain unattacked in the residue. After
evaporation to dryness and extraction with weak acid, the
insoluble material was boiled with sodium carbonate solution
to remove free silica, washed, dried, and weighed. The resi-
dues were as follows:

A C D
Per cent 4°39 20°80 39°96

The residue from the massive Montville serpentine contained
43°28, and that from the chrysotile 41°34 per cent of magnesia,
thus agreeing nearly with enstatite in composition. The picro-
lite residue was composed of—

Mig Quo Sv es Meee 36°31
SiOj Sis 2a een ee 54:88
ROM. eS he as Eee 9-26

10045

* Compt. Rend., lxii, 661, 1866.

Constitution of the Natural Silicates. 311

showing it to be an impure enstatite, the impurities being anal-
ogous to those of the original mineral. In the last case the
_ splitting up seems to have been practically complete; in the
chrysotile it went fully half way, while in the ordinary serpen-
tine it barely began. The conclusion is obvious. When ser-
pentine is simply dehydrated, the molecule Mg,Si,O0,, decom-
posable by acids, remains; and this on further heating splits
up in accordance with Duabrée’s observations. The salt
Mg,S8i,O, corresponds to certain well-known silicic ethers, and
is probably a definite compound.

Now, bearing upon the constitution of serpentine, we have
several lines of evidence. First, its empirical formula,
H,Mg,Si,O, is well-known, and in this all the water is con-
stitutional. Second, upon dehydration it yields the salt
Mg,Si,O,. Third, a part of the magnesia is less stably com-
bined than the remainder of the base, and is presumably pres-
ent as —Mg—OH. If one atom of magnesium, or one-third
of the total, is thus combined, the excess of one atom of
oxygen over the normal orthosilicate ratio in the formula is
accounted for, and the conditions imposed by our experimental
results are satisfied.

Taking all these considerations into view it seems highly
probable that the constitutional formula of serpentine may be
written Mg,(SiO,),H,(MgOH). In ultimate structural form
‘this may be interpreted in several ways, any one of which will
admit of a linking together of the two orthosilicic groups,
after dehydration, with elimination of one oxygen atom, to
form the acid group Si,O,. Between the several possible
structures, however, we are not as yet prepared to decide, and
further investigation covering other hydro-magnesia silicates is
necessary. Bearing in mind the very common derivation of
serpentine from olivine, and the obvious relations of both
species to chondrodite, the following formule are highly sug-
gestive; the first one representing olivine with double its
simplest expression :

Mg,Si,0, Olivine.
Mg,Si,0,(MeF), Chondrodite.
Mg,$i,0,H,(MgOH) Serpentine.

In the chondrodite formula of course, the group -Mg—O-Me—
to a certain extent replaces the two univalent Mgl groups.
Although these formule are not absolutely proven, they are
at least highly probable; and they conform perfectly to the
general working hypothesis that the more complex silicates
are substitution derivatives of normal salts.

Am. JouR. Scl.—THIRD SERIES, VoL. XL, No. 238.—Ocr., 1890.
20

312 G. F. Kune—New American Meteorites.

One other formula for serpentine, MgSi,O,MgOH),H,, is
reconcilable in part with our data. But such a compound
ought to be acted upon more strongly by gaseous hydrochlorie
acid, and two-thirds of the magnesia should be removable.
This limit was not even remotely approached in our experi-
ments, although in two cases the one-third limit was definitely
exceeded. It is a legitimate question, however, whether there
may not be two isomeric serpentine molecules, corresponding
to these two formule ; and this question ought to be kept in
view in future investigations.

[To be continued ] cole

SE
GY

Art. XLIL—On jive new American Meteorites ; by GEORGE
FF. Kunz.

1. On the group of Meteorites recently discovered in Brenham
Township, Kiowa County, Kansas.

AxouT four years ago, the farmers of Brenham Township
ploughed up a number of heavy objects, which they used to
weight down haystacks and for other like purposes, as they
would have used boulders. It was discovered in March last
that these were not common “rocks,” but an interesting group
of meteorites, numbering over twenty in all, weighing together
about 2,000 pounds, and individually from 466 pounds down
to one ounce. They were found imbedded at a slight depth in
the soil, which here, for about one hundred feet deep is formed
of Pleistocene marl, originally the bottom of an ancient lake ;
they occurred scattered over a surface more than a mile in
length, principally, however, in a square of about sixty acres.

What is now Kiowa County, Kansas, five years ago formed
parts of Edwards and Comanche counties, and was occupied
by large ranges and cattle ranches. Brenham Township, or
Township 27, as it was then called, is in the northwestern part
of Kiowa County, consists of high prairie with some areas of
sand-hills, and has an altitude of about 220 feet above sea-level.
Some drains of the head-waters of the Medicine River and its
tributaries, farther south, become ravines and valleys; and there
a gravel occurs, the debris of Miocene “ Loup Fork” conglom-
erates. But on the high prairie not a stone of any kind is to
be found; hence the ranchmen and settlers were greatly sur-
prised at finding heavy “rocks” or stones projecting through
the prairie sod.

Several years ago, Mr. Davis, a lawyer at Greensburg, iden-
tified these as meteorites ; and although the farmers had thus

G. F. Kune—New American Meteorites. BBLS

known the fact for a long time, yet, strange to say, no impor-
tance was attached to them until Mrs. Kimberly applied to
Professor F. W. Cragin, of Washburn University, in the early
part of last spring. It was not until the 13th of March that
Professor Cragin secured four of these masses. They were
nearly all found by being struck by mowing-machines, plough-
shares, corn-cultivators, or other farm implements. Over
twenty distinct masses have been reported; but it is very
evident, from the weight and other facts, that some have been
noted-several times over. The townships are reckoned from
the base-line, the 40th parallel; and the ranges, from the 6th
principal meridian, which crosses Kansas about longitude
97° 30’ west of Greenwich. Brenham Township [27] is made
up of thirty-six sections, each one mile square, numbering
from No. 1 to No. 36. The meteorites seem to have covered
an area over one mile in length. Some of them fell on the
east half of the northwest quarter, Section 27, Township 28,
Range 17, west of the 6th principal meridian.

The history of some of the pieces is remarkable. The
35°72-pound piece, found on the Evans place, was lost, and
again found in a hole made by hogs under a barbed-wire fence.
The 75-pound mass was used by Mrs. Kimberly to hoid down
a cellar door or the cover to a rain-barrel. Mass No. 3 was
used to keep down a stable-roof. The 466-pound mass [called
by the farmers the “moon meteorite” ] was covered by only
three inches of soil, and broke a ploughshare when first struck.
Apparently none of the masses were buried to a greater depth
than five or six inches.

The 101:5-pound, the 71:5 pound, and the 55-pound masses
were found four years ago by a cow-boy, when the ranch had
not yet been occupied by settlers, being simply used as a cattle-
range. He was unable to move them to the “Green’s Stage
Station,’ now Greensburg, eight miles distant, and so buried
them in the gulch a mile northwest of the Kimberly farm on
the “ Francisco Claim.” About a year afterward he became
ill, and died; but before his death he communicated the burial
of the “three strange rocks,” as he called them, to two of the
settlers, who succeeded in finding them and bringing them to
the new town of Greensburg about a year later. The 55-pound
mass was carried over by a neighbor, who used it to weight
down his haystack.

Professor Snow, of Lawrence, Kansas, visited Kiowa County
several times, and the last time obtained the 101:5-pound mass
in the streets of Greensburg, the county seat, where it had
lain for several years in front of a lawyer’s real estate office.

The exterior of all the masses shows the characteristic
pitting. The surfaces have all been more or less oxidized by

314 G. F. Kunz—New American Meteorites.

exposure to the elements, showing that the fall is not recent,
and that the original mass was made of er ystalline iron as well
as of iron filled with erystals of olivine; in other words, the
masses show two distinct groups. Of these, the 346- pound
and the 75-pound ones are nickeliferous iron of highly octahe-
dral structure and cleavage, and are caillites, while the others
are meteoric iron containing olivine, and belong to the group
known as pallasites.

The largest mass, a pallasite, weighs 466 pounds, or 211-818
kilos. It is thick, sightly flattened, triangular in form, some-
what heart-shaped, and measures through the longest part 61
centimeters, or 244 inches; across the widest part 48 centime-
ters, or 19 inches ; and in the thickest part, 87 centimeters, or
144 inches. It is covered with large indentations measuring
10x6x3 centimeters. The coating is more or less oxidized, but
the olivine is perceptible in all parts of the mass. The dimen-
sions of the 345 pound mass [158°818 kilos] are 60x37x29 cen-
timeters, or 233x145x11} inches. It is slightly arch-shaped, is
an iron with many pittings, and shows the characteristic mag-
netic oxide of iron crust. The 219-pound mass [99-535 kilos]
measures 51x41x26 centimeters [205x165x10$ inches; in form
like a three-sided pyramid. The 211-pound mass [95-909 kilos]
is somewhat rounded, with a circular depression on one side.

There are two masses weighing 125 pounds [58°863 kilos}
and 54°96 pounds [25-084 kilos] respectively. The 1015-pound
mass [46°136 kilos] is almost round, measuring 35x26x27 cen-
timeters [1383x104x10# inches]. The exterior is evenly pitted,
and the center of each pitting is occupied by an olivine erys-
tal. The 75-pound one [34:09 kilos] is an iron, and measures
32x224x15 centimetres [12$x83x5¢ inches], in shape like a
pear or ham covered with pittings. The crust has been
changed somewhat by ere The 71:5 pound mass
[32-485 kilos] measures Y7x23x22 centimeters [104x9x83
inches|. It is a jagged, irregular square, and shows olivine
erystals all over the exterior. The 60- pou mass [27-272
kilos] measures 86x21x17 centimeters [14¢x8x62 inches]. It
is an elongated, rounded piece, with one large flat side show-
ing large spaces filled with olivine. The 40-pound [18-181
kilos] measures 22x21x13 centimeters [83x83x5¢ inches], of
irregular shape, with one large projecting point. The 36-
pound mass [16363 kilos] measures 22x22x16 centimeters
[84x84x64 inches. It is a flattened spheroid, containing some
olivine, but almost entirely iron, showing large pittings like
the 75-pound or the 345-pound masses.

There are seventeen or eighteen small masses weighing 18,
12, 7, 6,5, 8 and 1 pounds respectively, and a few weighing
only one ounce each. The 211 and 6 pound masses belong to

G. F. Kune—New American Meteorites. 315

the University of Minnesota; the 125-pound mass, to Harvard
University ; the 1015 to Yale University; the 2184 and the
54:96-pound masses, to the University of Kansas; the others
are in the collection of the writer.

The specific gravity of the pieces is very variable, and was
found to be as follows :—of the 6-pound mass, 5:17; 40-pound
mass, 6°41; 71'5-pound mass, 5:22; 75-pound mass, 7°27;
345-pound mass, about the same density as the last ; 466-pound
mass, about the same density as the 715-pound mass. The
following analvses of the Kiowa meteorites were made by
Mr. L. G. Eakins in the laboratory of the United States Geo-
logical Survey :

Tron. Olivine. Dark Outer Zone of Olivine.
Berea ty S840 SiON e a. & AO HO) SiO ee naee 34°14
ING Sire 10°35 FINO) an tr He Ore ui 23°20
(Oe ae ASNT Rel Oe Bs 18 NOD rece ne tr
(OU a eee 03 Me OR ers 10.79 CoO 2 03
IPS alee 14 NiO sas 02 MnQs 20. 09
Sees eh oe 08 Min @ See eee. 14 Mic Ome ee ass 40°19
C ee tr Mic, Ope a 48°02 Sass eg One:
PST ee ea pate tr —— ————

99°85 103°07
99°66 Less O for S 2°71
100°36

The specific gravity of the iron freed from olivine was found
to be 7:93 at 23°4° Celsius; of the olivine, 3:376 at 23-2°.
The iron is brilliant white, enclosing the troilite. and surround-
ing the olivine crystals. Occasionally smal] etched surfaces
show delicate figures like that of the Linnville Mountain me-
teorite. Troilite exists plentifully, in rounded grains from
one to five millimeters in diameter, and in thin tolia mixed
with and surrounding the olivine crystals, as well as running
into and filling small spaces in the body of the iron, either as
flat plates or rounded masses. Several flat circular plates
[erystals?] of graphite, two millimeters in diameter, were
observed.

The olivine crystals are very brilliant, and break out entire,
the faces on many of them being distinct enough to allow of
measurement of the angles. The spaces from which they
break are highly polished, showing every crystal face with a
mirror-like luster; and in-the center there is a coating of a
shining mineral that is jet-black in color, and crushes intoa
jet-black powder. Many of the olivine crystals are in two
distinct zones,—the inner half a bright transparent yellow, the
outer a dark-brown iron-olivine. In reality this dark zone is
an intimate mixture of troilite and olivine, as the analysis of

316 G. F. Kunze—New American Meteorites.

Mr. Eakins and a microscopical examination of the crystals by
Mr. J. S. Diller, of the United States Geological Survey, fully
prove.

This group of meteorites, which has recently come to me
for description, possesses more than ordinary interest, on ac-
count both of the peculiar composition and structure and also
of the undoubted ethnological relation, especially because of
its probable connection with the meteoric iron found in the
Turner mounds.

In the spring of 1883, Professor F. W. Putnam found on
the altar of mound No. 3 of the Turner group of mounds, in
the Little Miami Valley, Ohio, several ear-ornaments made of
iron, and several others overlaid with iron. With these were
also found a number of separate pieces that were thought to
be iron. They were covered with cinders, charcoal, pearls
[two bushels were found in this group of mounds], and other
material, cemented by an oxide of iron, showing that the
whole had been subjected to a high temperature. On remov-
ing the scale, Dr. Kennicutt found that they were made of
iron of meteoric origin.* One of the pieces weighed 28 and
the other 52 grains.

In the autumn: of 1883, a mass was found on the altar of
mound No. 4 of this same group, which weighed 767°5 grams
[27°25 ounces]. Dr. Kennicutt suggested that these were all
parts of some larger meteoric mass. The results of the inves-
tigation were published in connection with the description of
the Atacama meteorites, because in structure they approach
more closely to the latter than to those of any other occurrence
known at that time. In the Liberty group of mounds in the
same valley, Professor Putnam found a celt five inches long,
and in another of the Turner mounds an ornament five inches
long and three inches wide, made also of the same meteoric
iron.

* Sixteenth and seventeenth reports of the Peabody Museum of Archeology,
p. 382.

G. F. Kunz—New American Meteorites. 317

The Carroll County meteorite was found in 1880, about
three-quarters of a mile from Eagle Station, Carroll County,
Kentucky, ten miles from the mouth of the Kentucky River,
and about seven miles in a direct line from both the Kentucky
and the Ohio Rivers. The distance to the Turner mounds,
where Professor Putnam found the meteoric iron and the
ornaments made of it, is about sixty miles. The mass, which
weighed about eighty pounds, or 36°5 kilos, was rusted on the
surface to a depth, in some places, of 10 to 12 millimeters;
and deep pits, some two centimeters across, are observed in the
spots where grains of olivine have probably dropped out.
The meteorite was largely made up of fine yellow transparent
olivine resembling that of the famous Pallas iron, with a
specific gravity of 4°72.

Taking the specific gravity of the iron at 76, and that of
the olivine at 3°3, we find that the Turner mound meteorites
consist of about three parts of olivine to one of iron. Several
of the Kiowa masses have about the same constitution. For
comparison, see the analyses of the Kiowa meteorites, given
above, and of the olivine and iron from the Turner mound, *
here inserted, as follows :

Olivine. Tron.
SiOemckkene Nae 4.0): ODE ns Hees te tee 1 89-00
COR ee 14.06 ENG Ok ap eaianacies asp 10°65
Miri Oe apes 9 0:10 OG) Ang beeen mushied hip eseay ae 0°45
IMic: @ eee 2s Ss 24-60 (Cues see Ne clea t1

99°78 -100°10

When the Carroll County iron was described by the author
in this Journal (vol. xxxii, March, 1887), it was suggested
that the pieces found by Professor Putnam in the Miami
mounds had probably been taken from that mass, since no
other olivine meteorite had up to that time been found in
North America; while that of Carroll County contained a
large percentage of olivine, even greater than the mound
specimens. Very little cutting had been done on the Carroll
County mass; and it proved on being cut, not to be a pallasite,
but a brahinite variety of meteorite. In the Little Miami
valley meteorite are embedded circular grains or erystals of
olivine ; whereas that of the Carroll County consists of a mass
of olivine in which the iron serves as a filling between the
erystals. When a section was cut from the Kiowa County
material, however, there appeared no doubt as to the identity
of this fall with that from which the ear-rings were made that
were found in the mound. In both the Kiowa County and

* Kennicutt; 16th and 17th Reports of the Peabody Museum of Archeology,
p. 382.

318 G. F. Kunz—New American Meteorites.

the mound specimens the body of the meteorite is iron, in
which are imbedded circular masses or crystals of olivine.
The fact that in connection with the large Kiowa masses a
number of small portions, weighing from half a pound to six
pounds each, were found, makes it very probable that a small
mass, of perhaps three or four pounds, had been conveyed by
the Indians to the Ohio valley. Probably the two ear-rimgs in
the collection of Mr. Warren K. Moorhead, recently found by
him at Fort Ancient, Ohio, may have been made from a part
of the mass weighing 767-3 grams, which is now in the Har-
vard University collection.

I must here express my indebtedness to Professor F. H.
Snow for information, and particularly to Professor Robert
Hay for aiding me in procuring many of the meteorites and
assisting greatly to obtain exact data by visiting the place of
discovery, and to secure the illustrations; as also to Mr. L. G.
Eakins for making the analyses, and to Professor F. W. Clarke,
of the U. 8. Geological Survey, for his courtesy in having
them made at the Survey Laboratory.

2. On the Winnebago County, Iowa, Meteorite.*

On Friday, May 2, 1890, at 5.15 P. M., standard Western
time, a meteor was observed over a good part of the State of
Iowa. It is described as a bright ball of fire, moving from
west to east, leaving a trail of smoke which was visible for
from ten to fifteen minutes; it was accompanied by a noise,
likened to that of heavy cannonading or of thunder, and many
people rushed to their doors, thinking it was the rumbling of
an earthquake. Substantiated reports have been received
from DesMoines, Mason City, Fort Dodge, Emmetsburg, Al-
gonia, Ruthven, Humboldt, Britt, Garnet, Grinnell, Sioux
City and Forest ‘City ; the noise was also heard at Chamber-
lain, South Dakota. Some of these places were distant more
than a hundred miles from the point where the meteor fell.
It exploded about eleven miles northwest of Forest City, at
Leland, Winnebago County, in the center of the northern
ae of Iowa, latitude 48° 15’, longitude 938° 45’ west of

reenwich, near the Minnesota State line, and the fragments
were scattered over an area one mile wide and nearly two miles
long. Up to the present time, there have been found masses
weighing respectively eighty pounds, sixty-six pounds and ten
pounds, two of four pounds and about five hundred fragments
weighing from one-twentieth of an ounce to twenty ounces
each, while a part of the mass is believed to have passed over
into Minnesota. The pieces are all angular, with rounded —

edges.
* Read before the New York Academy of Sciences, May 12, 1890.

G. F. Kunze— New American Meteorites. 319

The meteorite is a typical chondrite, apparently of the type
of the Parnallite group of Meunier, which fell February 28,
1857, at Parnallee, India. The stone is porous, and when it is
placed in water to ascertain its specific gravity, there is a con-
siderable ebullition of air. The specific gravity, on a fifteen-
gram piece, was found to be 3°638. The crust is rather thin,
epaque black, not shining, and, under the microscope, is very
scorious, resembling the Knyahinya, Hungary, and the West
Liberty, Iowa, meteoric stones. A broken surface shows the
interior color to be gray, spotted with brown, black and white,
containing small specks of meteoric iron, from one to two
millimeters across. ‘Troilite is also present in small rounded
masses of about the same size. On one broken surface was a
very thin scum of black substance, evidently graphite, soft
enough to mark white paper; a feldspar (anorthite) was like-
wise observed, and enstatite was also present.

Results and analyses furnished by L. G. Eakins.

Approximate composition of the mass. Analysis of the Nickeliferous Iron.
Nickeliferous iron_._ _--- 19°40 1 BNC eae es a RO a NA 92°65
HEROIC e eee Neeser Weel srL 6°19 IND Tee cael A aN aN toe 6°11
Silicates soluble in HCl__ 36°04 Oost seam a RN Nata: eles 65
Silicates insoluble in HCI. 38°37 | BAU ky ae ae! a Uh ag tr

99°41

Specific gravity of the mass, 3°804 at 28°5° Celsius. .
Analysis of the siliceous portion, with the magnetic extracted.

; Cale. to
Soluble in HCl. |Calc. to 100 p. c.|| Insoluble in HCl. 100 p.c.
(1.) | (2) BB) (4) (5.)
SiO 7-82 | 17°82| 39-74/|Si0,_ .--- 26-49 55-51
{ 6:01 FeO, equiv. to } | IMMAO Rs See 2°59 5°43
FeO.... 1427-467 Fe, required 8726) 18:42 CroOge 22: oy) 25
by S to form FeS | ISO 2 Soe AAG) 9°45
NOEs eyo Lo oh PBYSIINGKO) ue tr
MnO __- tr | tr CaO pea I4oles 3500
CaOz2 52 BH 31) 69 MgO eon lela Olen 24-409)
MgO___ 18:28 y Ss2S eA Os Tiiliked Oieseene Og 5 = Ss
Alkalies tr tr Wad) ses 9 isl 2.12
Se eee 2°67 [2°678 to form FeS] | Be -—— _—-——
IP (Oe Eee tr tr 47°72) 100°00
53°52 44°84, 100-00
Ohori Seles: | | |
attack | |
52°18 | | |

The approximate composition of the mass was got by ex-
tracting everything possible by an electro-magnet, which took
out all the nickel iron and a little troilite, leaving the siliceous
part and most of the troilite. Then the amount of S present
in the magnetic portion, and that in the siliceous portion, was
calculated as eS; the silicates were split into two portions by

320 G. F. Kunz—New American Meteorites.

HCl, and by the weights found in each ease, the given approx-
imate composition was calculated. Under the head of analysis
of nickeliferous iron is given the analysis of the metallic
portion after allowing for a very slight amount of attached
silicates and troilite.

The analyses numbered from 1 to 5 are the residue left after
removing all the magnetic material. Column 1 is the part
soluble in HCl, column 4 that insoluble in HCl; these two
added together would give the analysis as a whole of the non-
magnetic portion. Column 2 is the same analysis as 1, after
removing the 2°67 per cent S and an amount [6-01 per cent]
of FeO equivalent to the Fe necessary to form troilite with
the S. Column 3 is the same as 2 calculated to 100 per cent.
Column 4, as stated, is the analysis of the insoluble portion,
and 5 is the same to 100 per cent. It is of course probable
that the Cr,O, represents chromite, and possible that the
alkalies and alumina with a little lime represent a soda-lime
feldspar.

The thanks of the author are due to Mr. L. G. Eakins for
the analysis and results furnished, and to Professor F. W.
Clarke for his courtesy and assistance by having the analyses
made in the U. S. Geological Survey Laboratory.

8. On the Meteoric Stone from Ferguson, Haywood County,
North Carolina.

Mr. W. A. Harrison, of Ferguson, Haywood County, North
Carolina, says: that about six o'clock on the evening of July
18, 1889, he noticed a remarkable noise west of him, and that
fifteen minutes later he saw something strike the earth, which,
on examination, proved to bea meteoric stone, so hot that he
could scarcely hold it in his hand five minutes after it fell.
Two-thirds of its bulk was buried in the earth when found.
This stone was sent to the writer and was unfortunately lost in
New York city during the month of December. The stone
was slightly oblong, covered with a deep, black crust, which
had been broken at one end, showing a great chondritic. strue-
ture with occasional specks of iron. Its weight was about
eight ounces: and it very closely resembled the meteoric stone
from Moes, Transylvania. It remained in the writer’s posses-
sion so short a time that it was not properly investigated,
but still the mere mention of a fall which had been so eare-
fully observed is thought to be well worthy of publication.

4. Meteoric Iron from Bridgewater, Burke County, North
Carolina.

The Bridgewater, Burke County, meteorite was found By a
negro plowman, two miles from Bridgewater Station, in the

G. F. Kunze—New American Meteorites. 321

western part of Burke County, near the McDowell County
line in North Carolina, latitude 35° 41’, longitude 81° 45’
west of Greenwich. The negro thought that it must be either
gold or silver, from its weight, and took: it to some railroad
laborers, who broke it in two pieces, one of which weighs
ten and a half pounds, and the other eighteen and a half pounds,
together 30 pounds, equal to 18°63 kilos. It measures 22$x15
x10 em. [9x6x4 inches.] [See fig. 1].

Traces of black crust very much oxidized are still visible on
the surface. The iron is highly octahedral in structure, and
the mass was readily broken by the laborers who found it.
Between the cleavage plates schreibersite is visible. On etch-
ing a polished surface of this iron with dilute nitric acid, the
characteristic Widmanstitten figures were
shown, (see fig. 2). The iron belongs to the
eaillite group and resembles those of the
Cabin Creek and Glorietta Mountain in
structure. The specific gravity of a frag-
ment was found to be 6-617. The following
analysis was kindly furnished by Professor
F. P. Venable of the University of North Carolina.

1 Sees abe ne Ne eR LA Ba A Sar te Se 88°90
SING ae et pe aes ine pt iy op Se Re ded 9°94
(OL a esa ae a i einen bt Ney Ca ee MO 76
SAS aris STN IE OAM ate RUBS t= 1 en aie RN a a AS 35
(Blac ih Me tg Nema eect SANK UL prey a eae ne 02

99°97

322 G. F. Kunz—New American Meteorites.

The nickel is the mean of two determinations, 9°74 and
10°14, on different parts of the sample: the cobalt also of
two determinations, ‘85 and ‘67. The iron is the mean of
four determinations, some of which were not very closely
agreeing, as the crust could not be entirely removed from the
samples taken. The phosphorus and chlorine are single de-
terminations. The author takes great pleasure in thanking
Mr. T. K. Brunner for his courtesy in obtaining the informa-
tion and the iron for him, and also Professor F. P. Venable
for furnishing the analysis.

5. Meteoric Iron from Summit, Blount County, Alabama.*

This mass of meteoric iron was found near Summit, Blount
County, Alabama, latitude 33° 41’, longitude 86° 25’ west of
Greenwich, in Fraction A, Section 2, Township 10, Range 1,
east, by a six-year-old negro girl who used it to crack hickory
nuts. ‘Its great weight excited some curiosity, and her brother
sent it to Mr. St. John, of Summit, and through the courtesy
of Professor Eugene A. Smith it passed into the possession of
the writer. It measures 12°5x5x75 centimeters [5x2x3 inches]
and weighs one kilogram [2 2 pounds].

This meteorite contains a large quantity of free chloride of
iron [Lawrencite] which from time to time has formed in beads
on the surface. It showed only a slight
trace of the original crust and was almost
completely oxidized; and on etching a
polished surface of this iron with nitric
acid no Widmanstitten figures were de-
veloped, but instead a fine marking
similar to that of the Linnville Moun-
tain, N. C., meteorite. The specific gravity of a fragment was
6-949. The following analysis was kindly given by Professor
F. P. Venable of the University of North Carolina’:

* Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sciences, Jan. 27, 1890.

A. M. Mayer

Determination of the coefficient, etc. 323

TER vet Sos Oe AP ACARI UE 93°39
ANG pene rien LOE I NSS e Nn a Lae aNt sv i NL 5°62
CGY ea aera eT A A AO Los RRS a 58
1S Siele NORA ca SOR OTARNUN EIA RPT a 31

99°90

The iron is the mean of three fairly agreeing determinations,
the nickel of two determinations, 5°61 and 5°68, the cobalt of
two determinations, and the phosphorus is a single determina-
tion.

We take great pleasure in thanking Professor Eugene A.
Smith for his assistance in obtaining the iron, and Professor F.
P. Venable for furnishing the analysis.

Arr. XLIII.—On the determination of the coefficient of cu-
bical expansion of a solid from the observation of the
temperature at which water, in a vessel made of this solid,
has the same apparent volume as it has at 0°C.; and on
the coeficient of cubical expansion of a substance deter-
mined by means of a hydrometer made of this substance ;
by ALFRED M. Mayer.

[Read before the National Academy of Sciences, at Washington, April 21, 1886.]

The curve W of Fig. 1 shows the absolute expansion of
water. The unit of abscissee of this and the other curves is
1° C., the unit of ordinates is z545, of the unit of volume of
the water, this unit of volume being at 0° 0. The curve
G shows the apparent expansion of water in a glass vessel, and
curves 8, C, B and Z are the respective curves of the apparent
expansion of water in steel, copper, brass and zine vessels.
The curve W cuts the axis of X at 8°4 centigrade; G at
eens atl Or Otmlanwa aati lonco syZlateedin ow Mnese
points of intersection correspond to the following coefticients
of cubical expansion; for G, 000025; for S, -0000338 ; for C,
00005 ; for B, 000056 ; for Z, -00009.

Let us consider the curve G. The curve goes below W be-
cause water contracts from 0° to 4°, and the glass vessel by
expanding adds to this fall of the water. Beyond 4° the water
expands more than the glass and at 11°-7 the expansion of
the water from 0° to 11°-7 equals the expansion of the glass
through the same range of temperature, and the curve G cuts
the axis of X at 11°°7. Therefore, to obtain the cubical
expansion of the glass, or of any other substance forming the
vessel, we have merely to determine the temperature at which
water has the same apparent volume that it has at 0° C., and

324 A. M. Mayer— Determination of the coeficrent
a eae
il. 0.D, WALLEY a
W
| ae |
|
=
Ea =
C
— | Ns B
apaiz
; |
- —_—
ines ag —
’ |
1 1
{
| me
Ne cls all

of cubical expansion, ete. 325

at this temperature on the axis of X we measure the ordinate
of the curve of the absolute expansion of water, and this
ordinate gives in volume the expansion of the vessel in the
determined range of temperature.

The second method of determining the coefficient of cubical
expansion is that of floating a hydrometer, formed of the sub-
stance whose coefficient we would determine, in water at 0° C.
and then gradually heating the water till the hydrometer floats
to the same depth it did when the water was at 0° O” Calling
W the weight of the hydrometer, and V >, Do, V;, and D, the
respective volumes and densities of the water at 0° and 7°, we
have V,D)»=W, and V,D,=W, and if V, and D, equal unity
we have V,=1/D, or, the volume at ¢° is the reciprocal of
the density at ¢°, which is the same as if we took V, directly
from the curve of the absolute expansion of water. Thus,
by having the true curve of the absolute expansion of water,
one may determine by either of the two methods just de-
scribed, the coefticient of cubical expansion of a solid without
measures of volume, of weight or of linear dimension.

We will now describe the apparatus
used, give some measurements made with it
and discuss the accuracy of the methods.

Fig. 2 is the brass vessel used. It is a
eylinder 25-4 cms. long and 6:147 cms. inte-
rior diameter. A glass tube -203 cm. diame-
ter of bore is connected with the interior of
the cylinder as shown in Fig. 4. Into a
brass tube shown black in the figure is ce- 2
mented the glass tube. The lower opening
of these tubes, A, is ground into acone. The
shoulder of this tube A rests on a thin leather
washer on the top of the tube B. A screw-
cap forces the tube A into close contact with
B. This manner of attaching the glass tube
to the cylinder was devised for convenience
in our experiments, but the glass tubes may
be directly cemented into the cylinder and
thus do away with the inner tube and screw-

cap.

Ahe cylinder is nearly filled with distilled
water and a rubber tube is led from the tube
of the cylinder into a vessel holding boiling
water. The water in the cylinder is boiled
for a half hour and then the heat is with-
drawn. As the steam condenses the vessel fills with water.
The apparatus is allowed to cool down to the temperature of
the room. ‘The cylinder and glass tube is now surrounded with

326 A. M. Mayer—Determination of the coefficient

ice, and when the level of the water in the tube has remained
stationary for 15 minutes it is marked by pasting on the tube a
piece of thin tracing paper on which is drawn in ink a very fine
line. This line is made tangent to the meniscus of the water by
the aid of acathetometer. The ice is now replaced by cold water
which is slowly heated. When the temperature had reached
8° C. the volume of water (in this special apparatus) had fallen
11 cms. below the level it had at 0°. It then slowly rose till at
15°°9 C. it reached the level it had at 0°. The temperature of
the air of the room was above 15° 9. When the water was
raised to 12° it was allowed, under constant agitation, slowly
to reach 15°°9. To be sure that this was the temperature of
the water inside the vessel the water outside was kept at this
temperature by adding from time to time small portions of cold
water. The water level remained the same for 10 minutes.

Referring to a curve of absolute expansion of water (drawn
to the scale of 1 mm. = zga'baq OF Unit of volume) we find that
the ordinate of 15°-9 is 1:0008538, which is the cubical expan-
sion of the brass caused by heating it from 0° to 15°-9, and
‘000853 divided by 15°-9 gives 00005364 the coefficient of
cubical expansion of brass of the following composition: cop-
per, 78°5 per cent; zine, 21°05; lead, 0:25; tin, 0°15.

The delicacy of the method depends on the relative dimen-
sions of the vessel and tube. In the apparatus just described
the interior diameter of the vessel is 6147 cms; its length
25'4ems; the bore of the tube is 203 in diameter; hence

6-147? Bb
= >< 25-4) + 1000=23°589, the length in ems. that the
level of the water changes for a change of ;,),, in the volume
of the cylinder, and a change of zy phaq0 Of the volume equals
023 em., or ‘23 mm., of motion of water in the tube. From
the curves of apparent expansion of water in vessels of the
following named materials we find that a change of 0°10 in
the water at the temperature when the water has the same
apparent volume as at 0° equals a change of volume given
opposite the respective materials forming the vessels as follows :
+ 0°-1 C. causes a change of apparent volumes of ‘000008 in a glass vessel.
“ oe oe “6 “000009 oe steel 73
at “ce ic “f “000010 ia copper ce
cc oe a ae ‘000011 be brass oe
vb 6c oc oc “000013 ce zinc 6c
From above data we compute that with a cylinder, or bulb,
and tube of the same dimensions as those of the brass vessel
and tube described,

+ 0° 1 C. causes a motion of 1°84 mm. in a similar vessel of glass.
ae ‘

Gs AG steel.
te ac 2°30 ia ae copper.
a3 ve 2°53 6 6c brass

as e 2°99 oy ce zinc.

of cubical eapansion. 327

The cathetometer readily detects and measures a motion of
= mm.; so it appears that a change of temperature of ;},°
causes a change in level of water in the tube which can observed.
The thermometer, however, was read only to 54°.

It remains to examine into the effect of the glass tube at-
tached to the metallic vessel. This tube is necessary in order
to observe the level of the water, but to get a rigorously correct
observation the vessel and tube should be of the same substance.
The effect of replacing the glass tube by a similar one of the
same material as that of the vessel is readily calculated and is
found to be a quantity that may be neglected. Thus in a brass
tube 50mm. long and 2:03mm. in diameter the level of the
water at the higher temperature of 16° will stand 014mm.
lower than in a glass tube of the same dimensions, and at 21°°5
the water will be ‘05 mm. lower in a zine tube than
in one of glass.

The coetticient of cubical expansion of glass was
determined by means of a spherical vessel of 12 cm.
diameter with a tube of 2°5mm. interior diameter.

The level of the water in this vessel was the same at
11°-75 and at 0°. The volume of water at 11°°75 is
1-00U3 and 50022 = 0000255 the coefficient of cubical 3
expansion of this kind of glass. Kopp gives -000024
and -000026 as the coeflicients for a similar soda glass.

The coefficient of expansion hydrometer was used
to determine the coefficients of expansion of brass
and of hard rubber, or ebonite. The hydrometer, fig.

3, was made of the same kind of brass as that form-

ing the cylinder used in the determination of this
coeflicient. The cylinder of the hydrometer is 25°5

em. long terminated by cones. Its diameter is 7:3

em. The stem of the hydrometer is a brass tube of

2 mm. exterior diameter. The hydrometer of hard

rubber is a cylinder 21°5 em. long and 6:5 em. in di-

ameter with a stem 2 mm. in diameter. To float

these hydrometers in water at 0° and at a higher
temperature, a pointed rod, as shown in the figure,

was used. This point, by just touching the surface

of the water, showed the depth of flotage. These
hydrometers were made to float in water at 0°, with

their index-points just touching the surface of the

water, by loading them with fine shot. The water was then
slowly heated and it was found that the brass hydrometers
floated to the same depth at 0° and at 15°-85, and the hard rub-
ber hydrometer had the same depth of flotage at 0° and at
38°55.

Am. Jour. Scl.—THIRD SERIES, Von. XL, No. 238.—Ocr., 1890.
21

328 A. WM. Mayer—Determination of the coefficient, ete.

The previous determination with the brass cylinder gave
0000536.

The volume of water at 38°°55 is 100697, and °°s897—
0001808, the coefficient of expansion of hard rubber. Mer-
cury has at 30° a coefficient of -0001805. Hard rubber has
the greatest coefticient of any solid. To show on the curve of
apparent expansion of water in a vessel of hard rubber its
points of intersection of the axis of , on the scale of fig. 1, the
axis of « would have to be extended +4 of its present length.

These determinations with the hydrometer have the advan-
tage of those made by observations on the volume of water
contained in a vessel, because the metal of the hydrometer
changes its temperature with that of the water, which is not
the case with the vessel filled with water, whose temperature
lags behind that of the outside water. This makes the obser-
vation on the upper temperature of the water in the vessel
tedious and not precise unless the precautions are taken which
we have already mentioned.

The accuracy of this method of determining the mean coef-
ficient of expansion of water, in the determined range of tem-
perature, depends on having the water in the vessel and the
substance of the hydrometer at the same temperature as the
water surrounding these bodies. This can be obtained to 515° C.
In the ease of a vessel filled with water we have already stated
the precautions necessary. The hydrometer is floated in water
at 0° by surrounding with ice a vessel holding water which has
already been cooled to 0° and from which the floating ice has
been removed.

The accuracy, however, of this method depends essentially
on having the true curve of the absolute expansion of water
between 0° and 30°. It is not possible to say to what approxi-
mation we have this true curve; but that it is quite close may
be inferred from the following account of how Rossetti pro-
jected a curve which is the best we have at present.

Prof. F. Rossetti describes his experiments and the manner
of obtaining the curve in the Atti dell’ Instituto Veneto, vol.
xiii, 3 series, 1868. Rosetti’s new determination of the volume
of water at various temperatures between —6° and 100° were
made with every precaution to ensure accuracy. He then
combines the results of his experiments in a curve projected
according to the method of Schiapparelli.* He then combined
his results, thus reduced, with those of Depretz (1839); Kopp

* Schiapparelli, Sul modo di ricavare la vera expressione dellé leggi della

natura dalle curve empiriche; Nuovo Cimento, Tomo xxv, 1867; e Tomo xxvi,
1867.

Physics. 329

(1847); Pierre (1845-52); Hagen (1855); and Matthiesen
(1866). These six series of determinations were also combined
by the method of Schiapparelli and the resultant curve Ros-
setti adopted as the most accurate attainable from existing
data. From this curve, in which 1 mm. of ordinate equalled
soos Of the volume of water at 0° C., he obtained the fol-
lowing formula which represents the curve quite closely.
V, =l+a(t — 4)?— d(¢ — 4)? +e(t — 4)

when
a@ = 00000837991 ; 6 = 0000003878702 ; ¢ = 0000000224329.

From Rossetti’s table of the relations of the volume, density
and temperature of water we extract the following data which
are all that will be required in their application to our method
of determining the coefficient of cubical expansion.

Temp. C°. Volume. Temp. C°. Volume. ~ Temp. C°. Volume.
0 1-000000 14 1:000572 28 1003553
1 *999943 15 1°000712 29 1:003835
2 999902 16 1:000870 30 1:004123
3 “999880 17 1:0010351 31 1°00442
4 “999871 18 1:001219 32 1:00473
5 “999881 19 1:001413 33 1:00505
6 “999901 20 1°001614 34 1:00538
U *999938 21 1:001828 35 1:00572
8 “999985 22 1:002049 36 1:00608
9 1:000047 23 1:002276 Bui 1:00645

10 1000124 24. 1°00251] 38 1:00682
11 1:000216 25 1:002759 39 1:00719
12 1:000322 26 1:003014 40 1:00757
13 1:000441 27 1:003278

Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

aR rySiess

1. Steam Calorimeter.—K. Wirtz has modified the steam
calorimeter of Bunsen and Jolly and has shown how the method
of these investigators can be employed to measure the latent heat
of vapor of substances with low boiling points. A weighed
amount, G, of the substance is vaporized in the steam of the
calorimeter. Heat is withdrawn from the steam and a portion of
the latter is condensed. Calling w the weight of the condensed
steam, A the latent heat of steam, the latent heat, Q, of the
vapor of the substance between the temperature before it is put

into the calorimeter and its boiling point will be Q=—- The

author discusses the sources of error. The results obtained by
him are in general smaller than those obtained by Regnault,
Person and Andrews. ‘This failure of agreement is attributed
by the author to the use of impure substances by the previous

330 Scientific Intelligence.

observers. As an illustration of the effect of impurity of sub-
stance he instances ethyl ether; distilling this substance over
sodium a loss of only 0°7 of one per cent resulted, whereas there
was a diminution of five per cent in the value of the latent heat.
—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 7, 1870, pp. 488-449. 5. 7.

2, A Mountain Magnetometer—O. E. Meyer has adapted
the method of observation employed by Kohlrausch with the
variometer to a new instrument. Both the movable needle and
the controlling magnet move in a vertical plane instead of in a
horizontal one. ‘The instrument is thus a species of dipping
needle or a vertical variometer. The author finds it well adapted
to observing the attraction of large masses of rock, and to not-
ing changes in the magnetic field in various parts of observatories
and laboratories caused by variations in the magnetic condition
of the materials of which these buildings are constructed. Ob-
servations with this new instrument show that large variations
frequently observed in buildings can be attributed as much to
change of direction of the magnetic force as to change in total
value. The instrument is constructed by W. Siedentopf, Univer-
sity Mechanic in Wiirzburg.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie,
No. 7, 1890, pp. 489-504. de, i

3. Velocity of Transmisison of Electric Disturdbances.—Max-
well’s theory of light demands that the velocity of transmission of
electric disturbances along a wire should be equal to the velocity
of light through the dielectric surrounding the wire. The velocity
is thus determined by the surrounding dielectric in which the
energy resides. Professor J. J. Taomson has made a number of
experiments upon this subject and finds that the velocity of elec-
tric disturbances along wires surrounded by air is 1°7 times the
velocity along the wire surrounded by sulphur. Experiments
showed also that the velocities along wires surrounded by air,
paraffin and sulphur are approximately proportional to the recip-
rocals of the square roots of their specific inductive capacities.
The velocity of propagation of a rapidly alternating current along
an electrolyte surrounded by air was found not to differ much
from the rate along a wire. Experiments with a vacuum tube
fifty feet long and a revolving mirror showed that the velocity
of discharge through the rarefied gas was comparable with the
velocity of light. The experiments on the rate of propagation of
electric disturbances lead one to regard the conductor as merely
guiding the discharge, “the correlation between the ether and the
conductor compelling ‘the discharge to travel along the latter with
the velocity of light.” Professor Thomson then discusses the
application of his observations to the theory of electric striz in
vacuum tubes.— Phil. Mag., Aug. 1890, pp. 129-140. Se IE

4. Phosphoro-photographs of the ultra red—K. Lome. has
taken up anew the method of Becquerel of observing the solar
spectrum in the ultra red by means of phosphorescent substances.
The spectrum is received on a surface covered with Balmain’s
paint. A dry photographic plate is then laid upon the phosphor- _

Geology and Mineralogy. 3381

escent image and a photograph can be taken as far as wave-length
X=950. Photographs were taken both by the prism method and
by Rowland’s concave grating.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie,
No. 8, 1890, p. 681. ie ay

5. Photography of Oscillating Electric Sparks.—-This has
been accomplished hitherto by a revolving mirror or a revolving
lens which spreads out the image of the spark. Professor Boys
employs six lenses placed on a brass disc, on different radii. The
disc revolves at a high rate of speed. ‘The spark is formed on
one side of the disc and a photographic plate is. placed upon the
other side.— Phil. Mag., Sept. 1870, pp. 248-260. Seen

6. Hlectrical Discharges in Magnetic Fields—The experi-
ments of M. A. Wirz upon the action of magnets on electrical
discharges in Geissler tubes leads him to believe that this action
is due to a variation in the capacity of the tubes. They become
true condensers and their illumination is the result of an oscilla-
tory discharge of the same order as that of a Leyden Jar, of
which the period T is a function of the capacity C of the jar, and
of the coefficient L of self-induction of the conductor of small

resistance, T=7»/CL. A variation of the capacity C would thus
modify the vibratory state of the gas and would be the cause of
the differences observed in the luminous phenomena in intense
magnetic fields —-Wature, Aug. 14, 1890, p. 384. aia

7. Molecular Theory of Induced Magnetism.——Professor Ew-
ING states In a summary to an article on this subject his convic-
tion of the truth of the molecular theory of induced magnetism,
which is Weber’s theory in a modified form. Perhaps the most
important conclusion drawn is this, “That magnetic hysteresis
and the dissipation of energy which hysteresis involves are due to.
molecular instability resulting from the intermolecular magnetic
actions, and are not due to anything in the nature of frictional
resistance to the rotation of the molecular magnets.”—— Phil. Mag.,
Sept. 1890, pp. 205-222. ie, 0s

8. Mote-——Error in Maxwell, vol. ii, § 544. Corrected by a
second fault so that final result is correct.—Wature, 35, p. 172,
1886.

9. The Hlements of Laboratory Work. A course of natural
science; by A. G. Harz, M.A., F.C.S. 177 pp. London, 1890
(Longmans, Green & Co.).—This is an introduction to work in
the physical laboratory, dealing with the fundamental phe-
nomena and laws. ‘These are taken up in such a manner and
order of sequence as to lead the student to a knowledge of the
principles involved rather than the details of manipulation.
Some of the chapters consider the measurement of quantity of
matter, observations of change of position, of changes of tempera-
ture, of natural changes exhibited by all kinds of matter and by
certain kinds of matter—the former bringing in the idea of
gravitation, etc., the latter of electric and magnetic stress. Fur-
ther, an investigation of various kinds of matter, observations
leading to the theory of the ether, etc.

332 Scientific Intelligence.

Il. GroLtocy AND MINERALOGY.

1. Notes on the meeting of the Geological Society of America
at Indianapolis. (From a letter to one of the editors.)—The
summer meeting of the Geological Society was held on Tuesday,
Aug. 19, Vice-President Alexander Winchell, in the absence of
Prof. Dana, taking the chair. Hight papers were read in the
course of the three sessions of the day. Mr. W J McGee gave
an account of the Appomatox formation in the Mississippi embay-
ment. He admitted that the formation traced to the Mississippi,
became identified with the Lagrange formation of Safford and
was equivalent also with a part of the Orange sand of Hilgard.
Dr. Safford, who was present, expressed his willingness to surren-
der the name Lagrange; but it was questioned by others whether
the law of priority should not hold.

Prof. C. H. Hitchcock gave an account of the Redonda phos-
phate occurring on Redonda, one of the Leeward islands of the ~
Caribbean sea—first described and analyzed by Prof. C. U. Shep-
ard (American Journal of Science for 1869 and 1870), making
it a hydrous iron-alumina phosphate. He stated that it overlies
and penetrates irregularly a basic lava, and is interstratified
with it. It was originally covered with a bed of guano. Prof.
Hitchcock expressed the opinion that it was of igneous origin,
which was contested by Mr. N. H. Winchell, who regarded a
guano origin as most probable. Mr. E. W. Claypole presented a
paper on “The Continents and the deep seas.’

Prof. C, L. Herrick discussed “The Cuyahoga shale and the
Waverly problem,” distinguishing three horizons in the Waverly
—the upper corresponding to the Keokuk and Burlington; the
middle, to the Kinderhook ;. and a lower represented by the Berea.
The Bedford shale was made Devonian.—N. H. Winchell pre-
sented a paper on the Taconic area of Minnesota and western
New England, making out five horizons of iron ores in Minnesota
—namely, in descending order, (1) The hematite and limonite of
the Mesabi, represented by the Penokee-Gogebic Range, the ores
originally iron-carbonate; (2) Titaniferous “magnetite, associated
with the great Gabbro range; (3) Siliceous magnetite, at the base
of the gabbro; (4) The hematite and magnetite of the Kewatin,
as at Vermilion Lake and Ely; and (5) The ores of the crystalline
schists.

Prof. H. S. Williams discussed the question—What is the Car-
boniferous System? Mr. A. Winslow described the Geotechtonic
and Physiographic geology of western Arkansas.

Mr. McGee read a paper by Lawrence C. Johnson on the Nita
Crevasse on the Mississippi. It was stated that this crevasse was
the most extensive that had been opened for many years. Through
it an immense volume of water escaped into the lakes—a volume
not yet accurately measured, but probably equal to that of the
Missouri during flood, or that of the Delaware, Susquehanna,
Potomac and James rivers. The effect of this vast volume of

Geology and Mineralogy. 333

fresh water was to transform the previously brackish lakes and
saline bays into fresh-water lakes and estuaries. But the result,
which it was the special purpose of the communication to bring out,
was the destruction of the salt-water fauna and the substitution
of fresh-water and mud-loving fauna over an immense area.
During the recent year an important industry of the gulf coast
about the outlets of the lakes mentioned was oyster fishing, but
the oyster beds all along the coast have been injured and in many
cases destroyed. The sea-fishery region has also been ruined, and
the pickerel and other characteristic fishes of the Mississippi may
now be taken where four months ago only salt-water forms were
found. This transformation in the fauna of the region is of im-
mense economic importance. Valuable industries have been de-
stroyed; prices of standard commodities in New Orleans and
other Southern cities have been affected. Of even greater scien-
tific interest is the transformation, for it illustrates a transition
from a marine to a fresh-water fauna over hundreds of square
miles effected within a few weeks. Hitherto the geologist em-
ployed in the lower Mississippi region has been puzzled to account
tor sudden transitions from fresh-water to salt-water deposits, and
vice versa; but there is here a modern example of as wide extent
as in all those which have hitherto embarrassed the student.

The reading of geological papers was continued before the
American Association then in session, A list of the papers is
given beyond, on pages 339, 340.

2. Making of fcebergs.—Mr. Henry B. Loomis, of Seattle, was
at the Muir glacier for nearly seven weeks this summer, with Prof.
John Muir. In a description of the visit (which mentions the
unfortunate feature of 20 days of almost continuous rain) he gives
the following account of the making of icebergs at the terminal
wall of the glacier.—Blocks of ice, some of them of enormous size,
fall off from this wall at frequent intervals. The falling of the
bergs is very irregular; at times a berg is discharged as often as
every five minutes, at another time you may wait an hour with-
out seeing one fall. On one day, during twelve hours, we counted
129 thundering reports, loud enough to be heard at camp, a mile
or more trom the falling bergs. During some days and nights,
especially during a heavy rain, we were reminded of a cannon-
ade or thunder-storm, and the ground beneath us seemed to trem-
ble. Sometimes a huge block breaks off, crumbles into a million
fragments, and, leaping like a catract, falls gracefully into the bay
with a long thundering noise, scattering around the white and
mealy spray which glistens in the sunlight, and making the water
below boil with foam. Another enormous block is discharged,
and, without breaking, sinks in an upright position into the water,
causing a low, thundering noise; then it rises again, sometimes
250 feet, even with the top of the wall of the glacier, while the
water rolls off its top like a cascade; then the berg topples over
gracefully on its side and plunges into the water with a heavy,
thundering roar, like the sound of artillery or of thunder, and the

334 Scientific Intelligence.

spray is shot in every direction, falling like a myriad of comets
or descending rockets—the spray itself often rises as high as the
top of the terminal wall; and frequently we have seen such an
iceberg, after falling, wallow about in the water among the other
icebergs like a huge monster. Now and then a bowlder falls
with a thud. When a large iceberg falls, a series of large
waves, like rings, spread themselves around the center of disturb-
ance, and soon gracefully roll or leap, in spiral form, upon the
beach close to our camp—a mile away; and when the inlet is
filled with floating icebergs there is great commotion.

3. On Sandstone dikes in California; by J. 8S. Ditter. Bull.
Geol. Soe. of America, 1, 411, 1890.—Mr. Diller describes in this
paper a number of dikes, resembling closely ordinary trap-dikes,
but consisting of sandstone, made chiefly of granitic material,
intersecting sandstones and shales of the Cretaceous group, on
the northeastern portion of the Sacramento valley. They have a
general parallelism, but vary in strike from N. 20° E. in the
southwestern part of the region in which they occur to N. 70° E.
in the northwestern. ‘They are from a mile to less perhaps than
a hundred yards in length, and occupy joint-fissures in the rocks.
Very beautiful engraved plates illustrate finely the forms and
positions of the dikes. The author discusses their origin at length
and attributes the fractures to earthquakes, and gives reason for
believing that they were filled from below. He observes that
if we regard these dikes as earthquake phenomena their gentle
curvature may indicate their relation to the center of disturbance
far to the southeastward in the Sacramento Valley.

4. Annual Report of the Director of the U. S. Geological
Survey for 1886-87, vol. viii in two parts, 1060 pp. with maps
and other illustrations.—Of the Memoirs’ that make the body of
this very valuable Report those of I. C. Russell, Lester F. Ward
and G. F. Becker have been already noticed in this Journal. The
others are on the Lassen Peak District, by J. S. DittEr; The
Fossil Butterflies of Florissant, by 8. H. ScuppEr; The Trenton
Limestone as a source of Petroleum and Inflammable Gas in
Ohio and Indiana, by Epwarp Orton; The Geology of Mount
Desert Island, Maine, by N.S. SHater. The Report contains 76
plates besides a large number of figures in the text.

5. Hawaiian voleanoes.—(1) Notes from Wu. T. Briguam, in
a letter dated Honolulu, August 26th, 1890.—I have just returned
from Puna, Kilauea, Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea. The latter
mountain has been covered with snow on the upper region to a
greater extent this summer than for many years : hence we found -
the tarn Waiu at the summit platform, or at the base of the
terminal cinder cones, quite full; indeed two springs were flowing
in on the northeast corner, while a brook of some volume flowed
out on the western side. The principal cone was bare externally,
except at the very base, but its crater was nearly filled with
snow. At Mokuaweoweo the steam and sulphur fumes are
abundant in many places. The vapor has been frequently visible

Geology and Mineralogy. 335

from the shore. At Kilauea I found Dana Lake had decreased
since last March about one-third, but was active, while fire has
appeared to the south but still in the area of depression. Several
sharp earthquakes have occurred at Hilo, and one of several dis-
tinct shocks was felt by me in northern Hawaii, at Waimea, as a
long continuous rumble: at Laupahoehoe on the eastern shore
the shocks were more distinct than at Kau in the southern part
of the island. The time of transmission from Hilo to Laupahoe-
hoe, four miles north, was estimated by telephone at 5”.

(2) Wotes from Ernest E. Lyman, on an ascent to the summit
of Mt. Loa, in a letter dated Hilo, August 20.—Since Mr. Lyman’s
former visit to the summit crater in 1888, part of the eastern
wall, near “ Pendulum Peak,” twenty-five yards wide and over a
hundred long, had settled thirty feet or more. His descent to
the bottom of the crater, on August 7th (Thursday) was here
made—the distance down by estimate about four hundred feet.
Steam was rising over the bottom from a number of spots not far
from the base of the western wall, through the length of the
crater, but the amount had diminished greatly since 1888. No
other marked changes were observed. Having made his descent
to Kau, he learned that on Wednesday night a dozen earthquakes
had been felt there, and more severely at Hilo and in Puna, where
stone walls were thrown down. At Kilauea three were felt and
changes took place in Halemaumau. On the summit, nothing of
the earthquake was felt by him, but his guide reported in the
morning his hearing ‘“‘a groaning in the ground.”

Mr. Lyman collected specimens from the layers of lava consti-
tuting the walls of the summit crater, which, after being studied,
will be reported upon by Professor E. 8. Dana, with further cita-
tions from his letter.

6. Brief notices of some recently described minerals.—N HOTE-
sirE.—A hydrous silicate of manganese and magnesium occurring
with tephroite at the manganese mines in Grythyttan parish,
Oerebro, Sweden. It is massive, cleavable and resembles red
orthoclase. Hardness=5-—5°5. An analysis gave:

SiO, 2950 MnO 40°60 Meg 20°05 FeO #. H.O 9:85=100

The general formula is R,SiO,+H,O, or a hydrated tephroite.
—L. J. Igelstrém in Jahrb. Min., i, 257, 1890.

CipLyTE.—A supposed silico-phosphate of calcium occurring in
the chalk at Ciply, and elsewhere in Belgium, associated with
phosphorite. It has not been fully described.—J. Ortlier, ref. in
Bull. Soc. Min., xiii, 160, 1890.

Puoripoure (Folidolit)—A mineral allied to the chlorites,
from Taberg in Wermland, Sweden. Occurs in small tabular
twinned crystals of a grayish yellow color and pearly luster.
Specific gravity 2-408. An analysis gave:

SiO. Al,O5 MgO FeO MnO K.0, H.0

49°78 6°31 27°94 4:08 0°12 5°93 549 = 99°65.

336 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

The formula deduced is K,O, 12(Fe, Mg)O, Al,O, 138i0,+5H,O.
—G. Nordenskiéld in Geol. For. Forh., xii, 348, 1890.
Kariporire.—A hydrous borate of magnesium and potassium
occurring with pinnoite, which it closely resembles, near Aschers-
leben, Prussia. It is massive with granular structure, and spe-
cific gravity=2°05. An analysis gave:
B20, 57°46 MgO 12:06 K,0 6-48 H.0 24-°00=100

—W. Feit in Chem. Zeitung, 1888, 1889.

PHOSPHOSIDERITE.—A hydrous ferric phosphate described by
W. Bruhns and K. Busz as occurring at the Kalterborn mine
near Hiserfeld. It is orthorhombic and appears in prismatie crys-
tals, tabular parallel to the brachy-pimacoid. Hardness=3°75,
specific gravity =2°76. Color peach-blosson red or reddish violet.
An analysis gave:

J210)s 38°85 Fe.03 44°30 H.O 17°26=100°41

This corresponds to 4(FePO,)+7H,O, which brings it very near
strengite, to which it is also allied in form, though the two
minerals appear to be distinct.—Zeztschr. Kryst., xvii, 555.

SIGTERITE.—Described by Rammelsberg as a new member
of the feldspar group. It occurs associated with the eudialyte
and albite of Sigteré, Norway. Structure granular; color gray;
cleavage like that of ortboclase, with polysynthetic twinning.
Extinction on (001) inclined + 33° to 44°, and on (010) + 16° to
their intersection-edge. Specific gravity 2°600—2°6222. An
analysis gave
SiOs 50°16, Al,Os 28°64, Na2.O 13° B3) K.O 3:96, FeO 1:97, CaO 0:98, MgO 0:16

ign. 0-42 = 99: 92.
Deducting a little admixed augite, this becomes
SiO. 50°54, AlsOs, 30°64, Na.O 14°58, KO 4-24 = 100,

which gives the formula (Na,IX), Al,Si,O
natrolite.— Jahrb. Min., ii, 71, 1890.

AKERMANITE.—A ee “magnesia silicate, containing no alu-
mina, and belonging to the tetragonal system like melilite,
with cvhieh it is closely related. It is not known in nature but
has been obtained by Vogt in connection with an important
series of experiments upon the formation of minerals from fusion.
—Arch. Math. Nat. Kristiania, xiii, 311, 1890.

or that of an anhydrous

10?

III. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. American Association for the Advancement of Science.—
The thirty-ninth meeting of the Association opened at Indian-
apolis on Tuesday, August 19th, nineteen years after the previous
meeting at this place, Professor George L. Goodale, of Cam-
bridge, President. The address of the retiring president, Prof.
Mendenhall, discussed in a forcible way some of the relations of
science to the general public.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 337

Washington was selected as the place of meeting in August,
1891. The officers elected were as follows: President, ALBERT
B. Prescorr of Ann Arbor. Vice-presidents of the Sections, E.
W. Hyper, Mathematics and Astronomy; F. E. Nipurr, Physics;
lash OR Kepzir, Chemistry ; THomas Grey, Mechanical Science
and Engineering ; J. J. STEVENSON, Geography and Geology ;
J. M. Courter, Biology; J. JAstROW, Anthropology ; 8S. Dana
Horton, Economie Science and Statistics.

The American Committee of the International Congress of
Geologists, appointed by the American Association, as explained
on page 166 of this volume, was discharged.

Sections A, Mathematics and Astronomy, and B, Physics.

E. H. Moore: The Problem, to cireumscribe about a conic a triangle which
shall be inscribed in a triangle which is itself inscribed in the conie, and a certain '
question concerning two binary cubics.

J. D. WarnER: A method of testing for primes.

J. A. BRASHEAR: Recent photographs of the moon by direct enlargement.
The great Lick Spectroscope. Recent studies in the ultra-violet spectrum. <A
new self-regulating photometer.

Frank H. BigeLow: Further study of the solar corona. Terrestrial magnetism.

C. H. RocKWELL: Some personal experiences on the expedition to Cayenne,
French Guinea, to observe the eclipse of 22d Dec., 1889.

CLEVELAND ABBE: Some results of observations made during the recent U.S.
expedition to the west coast of Africa. Aberration methods of determining the
altitudes and motions of the clouds. The marine nephoscope.

EK. D. Preston: Magnetic and gravity observations on the west coast of Africa
and at some islands in the Atlantic.

R. 8. Woopwarp: The effects of the atmosphere and oceans on the secular
cooling of the earth.

THoMAS Gray: Harthquake and volcanic action in Japan. A new transmission
dynanometer. Hxhibition of seismograph.

T. C. MENDENHALL: Use of the magnetograph as a seismoscope. - New metric
standards.

T. RUSSELL: Eredicnon of cold waves from Signal Service weather maps.

F. E. NipwHeR: Surface integrals in meteorology. Method of measuring the
electrical resistance of liquids.

J. TROWBRIDGE and W. C. SaBineE: Electrical oscillations in air.

A. EK. Do~BEAR: On maximum temperatures.

E. W. Moruey: Determination of the tension of the vapor of mercury at ordi-
nary temperatures.

O. T. SHERMAN: Exhibition of Verns’ photographs in natural colors.

H. W. Morury and H. T. Eppy: Report on the velocity of light in a mag-
netic field.

Wu. A. Rogers: Description of the equal-temperature room in the observa-
tory and physical laboratory of Coloy University. Is thermometry an exact sci-
ence? Exhibition of a combined meter with subdivisions to 2mm. and a yard
subdivided to tenths of inches, both being standards at 62 deg. Experimental
determination of the time required for water to pass from 42° to 72° in a constant
air temperature. [vyaporation as a distributing agent in a determination of the
temperature of water. Experimental determination of the rate of change in un-
derground temperatures at a depth of nine feet by means of a flow of water ata
constant level.

E. L. Nicnots and B. W. Swow: Radiation at a red heat; preliminary note
on the radiation from zinc oxide.

Hut W. Buake: Exhibition of plans and sketch of the new physical laboratory,
*“ Wilson Hall,” of Brown University, Providence, R. I.

338 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

H. 8. RopeGers and THomMAS FrencuH, Jr.: On certain electric phenomena in
Geissler tubes.

W. F. Duranp: Magnetic and electric phenomena viewed as manifestations of
strain.

E. B. Rosa: The specific inductive capacity of electrolytes.

G. W. HoucGH: Discussion of the formulas indicating the work of an electric
motor.

A. L. Arey: Plan for a resistance box.

J. EK. DENTON: On the specific heat of brine near 0° Fahr.

W. H. Hammon: Observations taken in four balloon ascents.

D. P. Topp: On a form of pneumatic commutator and its use in the automatic
operation of physical apparatus.

F. W. Very: On the phosphoric lamp.

P. H. Van DER WEYDE: On the advisability of applying the C. G. S. system
of modern electricians to the principles of elementary mechanics.

D. T. Smita: Flow and friction of fluids in open channels—theory of streams.

THos. FrencH, Jr.: Actinic action of electrical discharge.

Morris Lors: Is chemizal action influenced by magnetism ?

A. TUCKERMAN: Index to the literature of thermodynamics.

C. A. OLivER: Description of a series of tests for the detection and determina-
tion of sub-normal color-perception, designed for use in railroad service.

WELLINGTON ADAMS: Ampere-meter for feeble alternating currents: the
Farado-meter.

ERNEST Merritt: Note on certain peculiarities in the behavior of a galvanome-
ter when used with a thermopile.

Section C. Chemistry.

H. W. Witey: Knorr’s extraction apparatus. Some new forms of apparatus
for drying substances in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Apparatus for recovering
highly volatile solvents. Pine tree sugar (Pinus Lambertiana). Pine tree honey
dew and pine tree honey.

H. W. Wiuey and H. E. L. Horton: On the alkaloidal principles present iu
the seed berries of Calycanthus glaucus.

H. W. Winey and WALTER MaxweELt: Mucilaginous, nitrogenous and dys-
morphous carbohydrate bodies in the sorghum plant.

WALTER MAXWELL: On the nitrogenous elements present in cattle food pre-
pared from the cotton seed meal. On the method of estimation of the fatty bodies
in vegetable organisms and the behavior of the glycerides and lecithines during
germination.

G. L. SPENCER: Apparatus for evaporating in vacuo. The estimation of theine
in teas.

A. E. DoLBEAR: On chemism—an inquiry into the conditions which underlie
chemical reactions.

A. E. Kyorr: Apparatus for determining solubilities.

F. W. CLarkKe: Experiments on the chemical constitution of the silicates.

J. L. FLUELLING: Constant ratio between a reducing sugar and the amount of
copper set free, determined’ gravimetrically.

Hupert Epson: Preservation of sugar solutions and influence of basic and
normal lead acetate on analysis thereof.

H. E. L. Horron: Study of Fehling solution in estimation of sugars.

H. A. Huston: Action of ammonium citrate on high grade aluminium phos-
phate.

BS EI. BatLey: On the minerals constituting a meteorite found in Kiowa
county, nee

J. U. Nev: Constitution of Benzoquinone.

P. C. FREER: The action of sodium on acetone and “ine constitution of aliphatic
ketones.

EK. A. VON SCHWEINITZ: Study of the composition or Osage Orange leaves. A
new ptomaine. Preliminary stucy of the ptomaines from the culture liquids of
the hog cholera germ.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 339

W. E. Stone: Occurrence of the pentaglucoses. Reduction of Fehling’s solu-
tion by arabinose. Quantitative estimation of the pentaglucoses in the presence
of other carbohydrates.

S. B. NEwsury: Action of alcohol upon aldehydes. New chemical laboratory
of Cornell University.

CO. L. Spreyers: Some thoughts on electromotive force.

W. O. ATWaTeR and H. B. Gipson: Heats of combustion of certain organic
bodies.

H. A. Huston: Analysis of a Lycoperdon. Notes on certain reactions for
tyrotoxicon.

F. P. VenaBie: The proper standard of the atomic weights.

E. W. Mortny: Determination of the volumetric composition of water. Ratio
of the density of oxygen and hydrogen.

W. A. Noyes: Atomic weight of oxygen. Unit for the atomic weights.

T. H. Norton: Improved forms of gas generators. A constant and easily
regulated chlorine generator. Derivatives of dinitro-a-naphthol. A soluble com-
pound of hydrastine with mono-calcium-phosphate. Application of the potassium
chlorate method for the determination of sulphur to the analysis of horn. Ona
new method of preparing benzine-sulfonic-bromide, ete.

Section D. Mechanical Science and Engineering.

THoMAs GRAY: A new transmission dynamometer. Preliminary experiments
in the resistance of metals to cutting. Machine for testing tortional stiffness.
Diagramming apparatus for use in testing materials. Dynamometer for measur-
ing the resistance of cutting tools.

Wm. A. Rogers: Construction of a precision screw eight feet in length. Sim-

ple method of subdividing index wheels into 1,000 parts.
~ Wm. Kent: Standard formula for efficiency of steam engines.

O. T. Beate: New principles of mechanism shown by experiment with spiral
gears.

H. C. Jones: Efficiency of locomotive link motion compared to automatic cut-
off valve gear of modern high speed engines.

G. M. Bonn: Effect of internal strains in hardened steel.

OBERLIN SuitH: The principal element of waste in machine shops.

T. D. Parer: Money value of solid emery wheel.

J. K. Denton: Use of the locomotive as an apparatus for testing cylinder oils.
Results of test of performance of 75-ton ammonia-compression refrigerating
machine.

W. J. BEALE: Structure of woods as viewed in their cross sections.

H. F. Durann: Note on graphical construction of crank effort diagram.

M. A. Howe: Results of tests of strength of sewer pipe.

St. Joan Day: A vortex automatic lubricator for high speed shafts.

Section E. Geology and Geography.

H. T. FULLER: Preservation of glaciated rocks.

J. T. Scoveti: An old channel of the Niagara river.

G. W. Hoey: Niagara—a few last words in reply to Mr. G. K. Gilbert’s
history of the Niagara river.

J. T. CAMPBELL: Local deposit of glacial gravel found in Park county, Ind.
Topographical evidence of a great and sudden diminution of the water supply in
the ancient Wabash.

JOSEPH MooRE: Concerning some portions of Castoroides Ohioensis, Foster,
not heretofore known.

H. CaRRINGTON Botton: The ‘Barking Sands” of the Hawaiian Islands.
Occurrence of sonorous sand on the Pacific coast of the U. S.

EK. T. Cox: Floridite, a new variety of phosphorite found in Florida.

W J McGee: The Columbia formation in the Mississippi embayment.

: C. A. WHITE: Paleontological and geological relation of closely similar fossil
orms.

340 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

THEO. B. Comstock: Crystalline rocks of Central Texas. Geology of the
Wichita Mountains, Indian Territory. Silurian system and its geanticline in Cen-
tral Texas and Indian Territory.

P. H. VAN DER WeYDE: Glacial action considered as a continuous phenome-
non, having shifted from one locality to another.

R. T. Hitt and James §. STone: Geology of Indian Territory south of Cana-
dian river.

N. H. WincHetu: What constitutes the Taconic mountains ?

JAMES M. Sarrorp: The formations and artesian wells of Memphis, Tenn.

T. C. CHAMBERLIN: Progress in morainic mapping.

ARTHUR WINSLOW: Remarks on construction of topographic maps for geologic
reports. Occurrence of pegmatite in Central Missouri.

EDWARD ORTON: Amount of natural gas used in glass manufacture.

J. E. Stepet: Differentiation of subterranean water supplies.

C. W. Hatt: Some of the qualifying conditions of successful artesian well
boring in the northwestern States. A notable dike in the Minnesota River
Valley.

T. C. Hopkins: Topographic features of Arkansas marbles.

R. A. F. PENROSE, Jr.: The origin of the manganese ores of Northern Arkan-
sas and its effect on the associated strata.

L. 8. GriswoLtp: The Novaculites of Arkansas.

H. W. CLAYPOLE: Subsidence and deposition as cause and effect.

H. EK. Pickerr and EK. W. CnLaypoue: The recent explosion of natural gas in
Shelby county, Ind.

O. A. DerBy: The Bemdego (Brazil) meteorite. New method of searching for
rare elements in rocks. Genesis of certain magnetites. Nepheline-bearing rocks
in Brazil.

Section F. Biology.

SERENO Watson: Relation of the Mexican flora to that of the United States.

J. M. Covuuter: Distribution of the North American Umbelliferze. Distribu-
tion of North American Cornaceze.

STANLEY COULTER: Forest trees of Indiana.

J. N. Rose: Notes upon plants collected by Dr. Ed. Palmer at La Paz, Lower
California, in 1890.

W. P. Witson: The development and function of the so-called cypress-
“knees,” with a consideration of the natural habitat of the tree.

H. L. Boutey: Potato scab, a bacterial disease.

N. L. Brirron: Preliminary note on the genus Rhynchospora in North America.
Rusbya, anew genus of Vacciniaceze from Bolivia. Notes on a monograph of
the genus Lechea. The general distribution of North American plants.

Burt G. Witper: Lack of the distance sense in the prairie dog. Exhibition
of diagrams illustrating the formation of the human sylvian fissure.

G. S. Hopkins: Structure of the stomach of Amia calva.

T. B. Spence: Support for the Chorda tympani nerve in Felidee.

HERBERT OsBorN: External termination of the vrethra in the female of Geomys
Bursorius.

F. V. Covi~uE: Work of the botanical division of the department of Agriculture.

C. S. Mivor: Account of the marine biological laboratory at Wood’s Holl.
Differentiation of the primitive segments in vertebrates. Morphology of the
blood corpuscles. Disappearance of the Decidua reflexa.

A. J. Cook: Food of bees. _

C. L. Herrick: A case of morbid affection of the eye in a cat.

B. T. Gattoway: Life history of Uncinula spiralis. Preliminary notes on a
new and destructive oat disease.

THEOBALD SMITH: Variability of disease-germs.

Snron H. Gace and H. W. Norris: Notes on the amphibia of Ithaca.

Smion H. Gace and Susanna P. GaGE: Changes in the ciliated areas of the
alimentary canal of the Amphibia during development, and relation to the mode of
respiration.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 341

S. H. Gage: Combined aerial and aquatic respiration in Amphibia, and the
functions of the external gills in forms hatched on land.

J. K. Howetu: Trimorphism of Uromyces Trifolit.

CLARENCE M. WeeEp: Harvest spiders of North America.

E. D. Cope: Structure of certain paleozoic fishes.

L. H. PamMMEL: Seed coats of the genus Kuphorbia.

D. H. Campsett: Method of growth of the prothallia of the Filicineze, with
reference to their relationships. Contributions to the life history of Iszeus.

VY. M. Spatpine: Development of the sporocarp of Griffithsia Bornetiana.

Lucten M. UNDERWOOD: Distribution of Hepotiee of North America.

Byron D. Hatstep: The migration of weeds.

W. J. Beau: Geographical distribution of North American grasses.

H. E. Wititams: On the plates of Holonema rugosa.

W. J. Beat and T. W. TUOMEY : Continuity of protoplasm through the cell-
walls of plants.

J. B. Strpre: Distribution of land birds in the Phillippine Islands.

J. C. ARTHUR and H. L. Boutury: The specific germ of the Carnation disease.

W. P. Wison: Desirability of establishing a Biological station on the Gulf of
Mexico.

W. R. Lazensy: Crystals in certain species of the Arum family.

C. W. Hareirr: Lsopyrum biternatum. G

Section H. Anthropology.

H. W. HensHaw: Indian origin of maple sugar.

W. K. MooreweAD: Fort Ancient.

W. H. Hotmes: Aboriginal stone implements of the Potomac valley.

R. T. CoLtpurn: Suggestion for a Pan-American as precursor to an universal
language.

J. Muuuer: Dialectic studies in the Swedish province of Dalecarlia. Peculiar
effects of one-sided occupations on the anatomy and physiology of man.

F. W. Putnam: Notice of a sin ular earth-work near Fosters, Little Miami
Valley, Ohio. On an ancient hearth in the Little Miami Valley.

B. G. Witper: Exhibition of diagrams of the brains and medisected heads of
man and a chimpanzee.

C. C. ApsotT: Exhibition of a bone image from Livingston county, N. Y.
Exhibition of gold beads of Indian manufacture from Florida and New Jersey.

J. JASTROW: A study of mental statistics.

O. T. Mason: Arts of modern savages for interpreting Archeology.

H. D. Garrison: The form of the external ear.

H. M. Stoops: Preliminary steps to an Archzeological map of Franklin Co.,
Indiana.

EK. D. Core: The relation of mind to its physical basis.

J. W. Spencer: Remarks upon the mounds of Sullivan county, Indiana.

ZELIA Nutrauu: On the atbatl or spear-thrower of Ancient Mexico.

Anita Newcomsp McGeze: The evolution of a sect.

H. N. Rust: On obsidian instruments of California. The basket-mortar of
Southern California. The adze.

Section I. Economic Science and Statistics.

8S. Dana Horton: American money, past and ne eae Instruments of valua-
tion or the nature of money units.

Laura Ossorn TALBotT: Natural resources of Morden county, Va. Economic
value of the energy of neglected children.

B. E. FeERNow: The forest as a national resource.

M. Mites: Biological factors in nutrition of farm crops.

EDWARD ATKINSON: The right application of heat to the conversion of food
material.

Jacop REESE: Refrigerating power of trees.

Wm. 8. Hitt: Constitutionality of our national economic policy.

342 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

EpwarbD OrtoN: Municipal corporations and natural gas supply.

JAMES H. KeEeLLoGe: Utilization of surplus labor.

Mary Henman ABEL and ELLEN H. RIcHARDS: Hygienic advantage of the
sterilization of milk and its best methods.

Wm. H. Hate: Ethics of strikes.

Gro. W. Hotiey: Floods of the Mississippi and how to prevent them.

2. British Association at Leeds.—The meeting at Leeds com-
menced its sessions on the 3d of September. The inaugural ad-
dress of the President, Sir Frederick Augustus Abel, treated of
the practical achievements of physical science during the past 32
years—the interval since a former meeting at Leeds. -

The address of the President of the Association and those of
the Vice-Presidents, together with full reports of the papers pre-
sented at the meeting, will be found in the successive numbers of
Nature, commencing with that for September 4. This excellent
weekly Journal of Science shoutd be in the hands of all interested
in science and its progress. Its semi-annual volumes begin on
May 1 and Nov. 1.

3. An American Geological Railway Guide, giving the geo-
logical formation at every railway station, with altitudes above
mean tide-water, notes on interesting places on the routes, and a
description of each of the formations; by JamEs MacrarLane.
Second edition, revised and enlarged, edited by James R. Mac-
farlane. 426 pp. New York, 1890 (D. Appleton & Co.).—This
new edition of Dr. Macfarlane’s excellent hand-book for geologists
and tourists, on which he was working before his death in 1885,
has been edited by his son with much care, producing a valuable
thesaurus and compendium of information concerning the geology,
the mineral deposits, and the best localities for collecting fossils
and examining geological sections in Canada, the United States
and Mexico. The scope of the book is well seen from the title
page, as above quoted. Its reliability is guaranteed by the names
of the geologists of the several State, United States, and Cana-
dian geological surveys, who have supplied full notes of their
respective fields of investigation. Ww. U.

4. Royal Society of WN. S. Wales.—Vol. xxiii, Part 2, of the
Journal and Proceedings contain, covering 160 pages, a list of
the marine and freshwater Invertebrate fauna of Port Jackson
and the neighborhood, by I. Whitelegge; on the occurrence of
platinum in a feldspathic vein in the Broken Hill district ; on the
Australian Aborigines, and other papers.

5. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, no. 741: Index to
the Literature of Thermodynamics, by A. Tuckerman. 240 pp.
8vo. 1890.

6. Verzeichniss der Schriften tiber Zoologie von Dr. O. Taschen-
berg, of Halle.—The eighth “ Lieferung,” signatures 281-320, of
this important zoological bibliography has been issued by W.
Engelmann. It finishes the Hymenoptera and commences the
Coleoptera.

j
REPORTS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ARKANSAS.
JOHN C. BRANNER, STATE GEOLOGIST,

An act of the legislature of Arkansas directs that the reports of the State
Geological Survey shall be sold by the Secretary of State at the cost of printing
and binding. The Reports issued, and their prices by mail are as follows:

ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1888.

Vou. I. On the gold and silver mines, and briefly on nickel, antimony, manga-
nese and iron in western central Arkansas. Price $1.00.

Vou. If. On the general mesozoic geology, chalk, greensands, gypsum, salines,
timber, and soils of southwestern Arkansas. Price $1.00.

Vou. Iii. On the coal of the state, its distribution, thickness, characteristics,
analyses and calorific tests. Price 75 cents.

- Other volumes will soon be issued.
Address, Hon. B. CHISM, Secretary of State, Little Rock, Ark.

BHECKRHR fe Oe
No. 6 Murray Street, New York,
Manufacturers of Balances and Weights of Precision for Chem-

ists, Assayers, Jewelers, Druggists, and in general for every use

where accuracy is required.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE

TORN ELOPRKENS WNIVERSIINY.

BALTIMORE.

I. American Journal of Mathematics. S. Nrwcoms, Editor, and T. Crate,
Associate Hditor. Quarterly. 4to. Volume XII in progress. $5 per
volume.

II. American Chemical Journal.—l. Remsen, Hditor. 8 Nos. yearly. 8vo.
Volume Xl in progress. $4 per volume.

Til. American Journal of Philology.—B. L. GILDERSLEEVE, Hditor. Quar-
terly. 8vo. Volume X in progress. $3 per volume.

IV. Studies from the Biological Laboratory.—Including the oileaibesie
Zoological Laboratory. H.N. Martin, Editor, and W. K. Brooks, Asso-
ciate Hditor. 8vo. Volume IV in progress. $5 per volume.

V. Studies in Historical and Political Science——H. B. ApAms, Hditor.
Monthly. 8yo. Volume VII in progress. $3 per volume.

VI. Johns Hopkins University Circulars.—Containing reports of scientific
and literary work in progress in Baltimore. 4to. Vol. IX in progress..
$1 per year.

VII. Annual Report.—Presented by the President to the Board of Trustees,
reviewing the operations of the University during the past academic year:

VII. Annual Register.—Giving the list of officers and students, and stating
the regulations, etc., of the University. Published at the close of the Aca-
demic year.

ROWLAND’S PHOTOGRAPH OF THE NORMAL SouaR SpectruM. New edition now
ready. $20 for set of ten plates, mounted.

-OBSERVATIONS ON THE EMBRYOLOGY OF INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS. By Adam
T. Bruce. 46 pp. and 7 plates. $3.00, cloth.

SELECTED MORPHOLOGICAL MonogRApus. W. K. Brooks, Editor.. Vol. I. 370
pp. and 51 plates. 4to. $7.50, cloth.

THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROPAGATION OF THE OYSTER IN MARYLAND. By W.
K. Brooks. 193 pp. 4to; 13 plates and 3 maps. $5.00, cloth.

ON THE MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF Heat. By H. A. Rowland. 127 pp.
8yo. $1.50.

A full list of publications will be sent on 1 application.

Communications in respect to exchanges and remittances may be
sent to the Johns Hopkins University (Publication Agency), Baltimore,
Maryland.

a
pene rr

C ON EA DS’

: al pa ebaes let 4S
‘

Arr. XXXV.—Description of the ‘‘ Bernardston Series” of
Metamorphic Upper Devonian Rocks; by B. K. Emmprson 263
XXXVI.—Circular Polarization of certain Tartrate Solu-

Page

tons—TIT; “by. J.-H. Lome 2232062 1 oS ee 275
XXXVII.—Rapid method for the Detection of Iodine, Bro-
mine, and Chlorine in presence of one another; by F. A.
Goocrand ET eBROOKS - 47 eee \ eres 283
XXXVIII.—Metacinnabarite from New Almedens Califor- .
nas by Wi MeL VyIEEE ol oP ae tei 5 eee 291

XXXIX. —Keokuk Beds at Keokuk, lowa; by C. H. Gorpon 295

XL.—Note on the vapor-tension of Sulphuric Acid, with the
description of an accurate Cathetometer Microscope; by

CAMP MRICEN G72 eee als ee ee Ais By

XLIL—Experiments upon the Constitution of the Natural
Silicates ; by F. W. Cuarke and E. A. SCHNEIDER ._-. 303

XLIT.—Five new American Meteorites; by G. F. Kunz__-. 312

XLITI.—Determination of the coefficient of cubical expansion
of a solid from the observation of the temperature at
which water, in a vessel made of this solid, has the same
apparent volume as it has at 0° C. ; and on the coefficient
of cubical expansion of a substance determined by means

of a hydrometer made of this substance; by A. M. MayreR 323

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. :

Physics.—Steam Calorimeter, K. Wirtz, 329.—Mountain Maenetometer, 0. EH.
Meyer: Velocity of Transmission of Hlectric Disturbances, J. J. THomson:
Phosphoro-photographs of the ultra red, HE. LomMMEL, 330.—Photography of
Oscillating Electric Sparks, Boys: Electrical Discharges in Magnetic Fields,
M. A. Wirz: Molecular Theory of Induced Magnetism, Ewine: Hlements of
Laboratory Work, A. G. EARL, 331.

Geology and Mineralogy.—Notes on the meeting of the Geological Society of
America at Indianapolis, 332.—Making of Icebergs, H. B. Loomis, 333,—
Sandstone dikes in California, J. S. Dinter: Annual Report of the Director of
the U. S. Geological Survey for 1886-87: Hawaiian voleanoes, W. T. BRIGHAM,
334,—Brief notices of some recently described minerals, 335.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—American Association for the Advancement
of Science, 336.—British Association at Leeds: American Geological Railway
Guide, J. MACFARLANE: Royal Society of N. S. Wales: Smithsonian Miscella-
neous Collections: Verzeichniss der Schriften tber. Zoologie yon Dr. O.
Taschenber&, of Halle, 342.

nas D. Walcott, = |

U. §. Geological Survey.

meV NES RS.

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

THE

AMERICAN

. &
. ae
cor”

_ | JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

EDITORS

JAMES D. anv EDWARD 8. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Prorzssors JOSIAH P. COOKE, GEORGE L. GOODALE
ann JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Camere.

Prorrssors H. A. NEWTON anp A. EK. VERRILL, or
New Haven,

Prorresson GEORGE F. BARKER, or PamapDerputa.

THIRD SERIES.
VOL. XL._[WHOLE NUMBER, CXL]

No. 239.—NOVEMBER, 1890.

NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. 8. DANA.
1S.90.

TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET.

Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub-
seribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either bv
money orders, registered letters, or bank checks.

e

SPANG. COLLECTION OF MINERAIS

a 7
SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMENT,—We have just purchased the cele- —
brated collection of Mr. Norman Spang, of Pittsburgh, and offer it forsale entire —
for $10,000. If not sold by November 15th, we expect to break it up aud dispose
of it at retail. The collection contains between 5000 aud 6000 specimens filling
seventeen cases, 193 drawers and eight glass-front cases; the latter containing —_
many large, showy and magnificent museum specimens. Representing, as it
does, the pick of many celebrated European collections, as well as the result of
personal yisits to many of the best localities throughout the world during the past
thirty or forty years, it is uncommonly rich in extra fine examples of the old finds -
of minerals which it would be impossible to duplicate at the present time. The
complete collection will be placed on exhibition in our Philadelphia salesroom
about November lst, and we cordially invite all parties interested to call and~
examine it. ; Rah
Further information will be cheerfully given.

ARRIVALS DURING OCTOBER.

FROM MEXICO: Baie.

Topaz Crystals: The best we have ever had, some of them doubly-termi-
nated; a fine lot both loose and on the matrix, 50 cents to $5.00; afewat |
$7.50 to $15.00. eps ba

Hyalite equal to the best Bohemian, 25 cents to $1.59. ORES,

Apophyllite. No specimens have beeu found for about three years, but by
purchasing two collections we have secured about 300 choice specimens. Prices,

50 cents to $7.50. The Mexican Apophyllites are unquestionably the finest

known. ~ if 3
Calcites and Amethysts in rich profusion and great EET, 25 cents 10
$2.50. ae

Ruby-red Cassiterite in small, well crystallized specimens,, 25 cents to ©
$1.50. Stream Tin, good, 10 cents to $1.00.

Valencianite, Obsidian, Quartz Pseudomorphs after Barite, Native |
_ Wire Silver, Tridymite, Natron, Pyrargyrite, Barcenite, Bustamen-
tite, ete.

FROM ARIZONA:

Vanadinite. A small lot of very rich red, doubly-terminated crystals on the
gangue. We cut our own prices in half, 25 cents to $3.50.

Red Wulfenite. A number of good groups, 25 cents to $3.50.

The foregoing are but a portion of the new arrivals during the past month.
We now have Hangee

EN ROUTE FROM ARIZONA

Chalcotrichite, the finest ever found at any locality.

Cuprite of richest red in superb specimens.

Malachite from Pee a fine lot. <4

Vanadinite in the largest loose crystals ever found, and also a fine fo oe gy
gangue specimens. |

Red Wulfenite, the entire output of the Red Cloud Mine for the ae five
months, including a ‘large number of superb loose crystals.

100 pp. Illustrated Catalogue free, or bound in cloth,
25 cents.

GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Dealers in Minerals, :

1512 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 739 and 741 Broadway, New York

OD. WALCO TT.

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[THIRD SERIES.|

Art, XLIV.—Further Study of the Solar Corona; by
Frank H. BigELow.*

Ir was one of the proposed objects of the U. 8. Kclipse
Expedition to West Africa, in December, 1889, to make an
effort to secure some photographs of the Solar Corona on a
large scale, in order that certain measurements might be taken
which would test fully the validity of the equation that I have
assioned to the coronal curves. Inasmuch as we failed to
obtain the desired pictures, in consequence of the clouds that
prevailed during the minutes of totality, I have since my
return to the United States made a series of measures upon
photographs of the Coronas of 1878, July 29, 1889, Jan. 1, and
1889, Dec. 22, which have been generously placed at my dis-
posal by the Superintendent of the Naval Observatory, and by
the Directors of the Harvard College and the Lick Observato-
ries respectively. [ am also greatly indebted to Professor
William Harkness for allowing me to use the Transit of Venus
Measuring Engine, by Stackpole, and for all needful assistance.
Six pictures have been measured, two La Junta negatives of
July 26, 1878, taken by Professor Hall, two Creston negatives
of July 26, 1878, by Professor Harkness, one positive of Jan.
1, 1889, by Professor W. H. Pickering at Willows, Cal., and
one negative by Mr. Burnham at Cayenne, 8. America, Dec.
22,1889. As the computations are quite heavy the results of
only one are presented with this paper.

* Read before the American Association at Indianapolis, August 22d, 1890.
Am. JouR. ScIl.—THIRD SERIES, Von. XL, No. 239.—Nov., 1890.

344 FL H. Bigelow—Further Study of the Solar Corona.

The Equation of the Lines of Force.

The equation to be investigated may be derived as follows.
Without raising the question of the physical constitution of
masses of matter exhibiting the phenomena, we may under-
stand by a polarized sphere, one in which magnetic or electrical
potentials are to be referred to one general axis; or if not sym-
metrical, one in which the positive potential is distributed about
one pole, and the negative potential about another pole, the poles
themselves being the intersection of two nearly opposite axes
with the spherical surface. The potentials at any points in
space may be discussed as if the actual distribution of polarized
matter were replaced (1) by a small magnet at the center of
the sphere, the direction of the axes coinciding, or (2) by a
surface distribution whose density varies from a maximum at
the poles, with the cosine of the angle of the polar distance, to
zero at the corresponding equatorial plane. The former is the
result of bringing two equal masses of oppo-
site signs very near each other at the center
a of the sphere, and the latter is the lamellar
fs distribution. They each give the same

equations for lines of force and equipotential
surfaces respectively.

Let M,, M, be any two electrified masses
connected by an axis of reference; join any
point P with M, and M, by straight lines,
and with the axis A by any curve; across a
cylindrical surface generated by AP, the
flow of force from M, is N,, and from M, is
N,, the constant total force being N,+N,=N.

% Let PM, be the eurve formed by the locus
of the point that will keep N the same
while the position of P varies in a plane,
and let the tangent to this curve at the
point M, make the angle @ with the axis;
N is called the order of a line of force.

Equation of lines of Considering a single mass, the flow of force

force and equipoten- eorresponding to the circular zone whose

Tae angle at the summit is 20, is proportional to
the cap whose height is 1 — cos @.

N 1 — cos@
4nM so
Introducing this into the equation and limiting the case to
equal masses of opposite signs, we obtain,
22M, (1— cos 6,)4+27M,(1— cos 4,) = 27M(1— cos 4) =N;
whence, M, cos 6,+M, cos 6, = M,+M, cos 8.
and by our special case, ;

ie

45

N = 27M (1 — cos 9).

a,

I H. Bigelow—Further Study of the Solar Corona. 345

N
Are eos == 1 cose = wal
cos 0, — cos 0, = 1— cos onM
Now if these masses be brought infinitely near together, the
6, and @, will differ by an infinitely small amount, 4; we have,

646 6 —6.,
cos J,— cos 6, = 2sin +? sin +

f h A
= 2sind.> = sind. A.

where @ is the distance apart of the particles, and 7 the mean
distance of the point P from M,M,.

sin’
Hence, N = 27 (2Ma) soma!

which is the equation of a line of force.
Term 2a.M is the moment of the system, and if we choose

to deal only with the outside of a large sphere, it is equivalent

to the layers of gliding on a polarized sphere, and these again

to wa,, where wv is the volume of the sphere gtk", and o, of
the surface density at the poles. Therefore,

Sas a sine)
N=. (zR'o,) nae

From this equation we may draw typical lines of force by as-
suming zR‘o, equal to unity, and this is the best form for use
until we have the means of determining the value of o,; thus
we finally get,

82 sin’d
jy — . ;
3 a

The Equation for Equipotential Surfaces.
The potential of a mass M, at a distance 7, is, Nias and

M

2

of a Mass M.,, at a distance 7, is, Vasa If these masses are

equal and of opposite signs, at the point of intersection of 7,

and 7,
VV +V,=— = Ms = u(= — =)

1 ry r r,

These surfaces are of an ovoidal form, with a single sheet,
tending to merge into spheres in proportion as they approach
the centers of action.

346 EF. A. Bigelow—Further Study of the Solar Corona.

If the two points are located infinitely near together,

r—?, MT, _ yy 24: cos

r r

V=M. becomes V=M.

2

yom

2

An equivalent of the moment of the system 2aM is as

+ :
before, 2aM= 7 R's, and the value of the potential at any

: : : 6
point outside the sphere (7. @) is V=-7R's, : — ;
Typical forms of the curves may be found by employing

. ; cosd
simply the expression, V = :
aS

Gauss’ Theorem of Polar intercepts.

On the sphere whose radius
is R, construct a line of force
one of the points being (7. 6).
Through (7.@) draw a circle
with radius 7, a tangent to
this circle making an angle
m with the polar axis, and
also a tangent to the line of
force making the angle a
with the axis. The triangle
PTS will have the interior
angles /, m, n, at correspond-
ing vertices. Now,

PS. cos /= OS. sind
Bs sini =" DSiicose

For Gauss’ Theorem.

tan J
Hence, OS. tan 7 = TS. cot? = TS. ~

as can be proved by the discussion of the resolved forces.

Therefore,
ST = 208, and OT = 308.

The intercept from the center cut off by the force tangent
is one-third the intercept cut off by the circle tangent.

This formula is also convenient for computing the inclina-
tion of the line of force to the normal as it leaves the surface
of the sphere. If the lines are seen on the section of the
meridian plane perpendicular to the line of vision, it applies
directly, tan 7=2 cot 0=2 tan m. If the angle actually seen is
on any other meridian section, the projected value of the
angle must be converted from its oblique to the perpendicular
plane, by turning it through the angle a. Since / is the angle

FE. H. Bigelow—Further Study of the Solar Corona. 847

of the line of force with the tangent, 90—/ is its angle with
the normal.

If 7’ is the apparent measured angle of inclination of a line
with the radius extended, then tan /=tan /’ see a sec @.

In a preceding paper I applied this theorem to some photo-
graphs of coronal lines, finding a strong tendency to represent
the intercept ratio in the four quadrants, and yet with such
marked exceptions as might well lead to the interpretation
that the agreement was fortuitous between the graphical rep-
resentations of the mathematical formule: and the natural
phenomenon. It is now my object to carry out the comparison
with considerable accuracy, paying regard to the distortions of
the coronal lines as produced by the perspective effects. It
may be possible sometime to include the corrections due to
differential refraction, non-coincidence of the centers of the
disks of the Sun and the Moon with the axis of vision, and
such others as exist, but at present they must be omitted be-
cause the photographs used are too small to permit settings for
measures within these limits of precision.

The Negative here discussed is

Marked No. 16, July 29, 1878, La Junta, Col., by Professor
Asaph Hall. It was taken with a Dallmeyer’s patent portrait
and group lens, size No. 8 D3; effective focal length 37-89
inches, clear aperture 6°0 inches; the plates were the dry
washed emulsion ; the size of the image of the Moon’s disk is
0-362 inch, but the limb is not circular because of the Moon’s
motion in right ascension. ‘The measurements were made by
centering the image so that in revolving the table the edge of
the disk remained tangent to the micrometer thread. Having
selected the polar line of the corona by inspection, the read-
ings of the N. and S. poles respectively were taken; then as
many settings on individual rays as was practicable were made,
the polar angle and the distance in micrometer revolutions
read. The corresponding values of 7 and @ were made the
basis of the computation.

North Polar Setting 251° 40’.

South Polar Setting 244° 30’.

The angle from the N. Pole through the east to the S. Pole is
Woe BOY,

The North Pole lies 1° 10’ east of Sun’s Axis.

The South Pole lies 6° 0’ east of Sun’s Axis.

The reading for the North Pole is 7:55 divisions.

The reading for the South Pole is 7:45 divisions.

Correction for micrometer readings is for N. P. readings —1:00 ;
for S. P. reading —0'90. The diameter of the disk is 13:10
divisions. The factor for reduction to the unit radius is 6°55.

A complete record of the readings is given in table No. 1.

TABLE I.
S. W. Quadrant. S. E. Quadrant.
Ray. Radius. | Circle. | Ray. Radius. Circle.
d | d
1 1:55 pepe ee i) 155 250° 51’
gana. ||| Uo5atse aia 9:20 249 45
10°50 255 0 10°70 249 20
2 750 (2560 a1 2 155 950 33
9°45 | So5se aT | 8:90 248 «8
10:90 260 12 | 10°20 244 0
3 7:55 | 958 30 ) 2 7-58 942 33
9°45 2961 17 | 8-92 937 0
10°87 262 56 10°30 233 10
4 1-55 260 40 4 1-56 237 18
9:03 263 17 9-40 230 52
10-60 | 965 38 | 11°25 03S
| |
5 155 264 41 ests 157 233 26
9-00 272 23 9°55 925 49
10°12 eo Games | 10:80 220 36
|
6 7-60 276 52 Get 7-56 | 28074
9:40 | 985 147 10:00 220 8
10°52 290 41 11°80 | -213 50
7 aes Sada eZ Pane 58) 1 ih 2220me26
9:10 290 42 | | 9°69 213 48
10-28 299 8 11:18 | 208 12
8 ps a ean pe Sere oe 7-66 ee
9 60 299 10 | 9-62 208 6
11°10 307 38 ee are 1G 201 23
12°35 314 32 12°68 194 44
Caan 757 210 0
9°85 |: "201ems6
11°85 | 192 3%
N. E. Quadrant. | N. W. Quadrant.
d | d
1 145 70° 50/ te 7:50 63° 15!
9:00 73 38 | | 9:10 | 62 30
NOHO Oe | 10°45 | 60 0
2 145 "4 32 2 7-45 | 61 13
9°30 TT 52 9:20 59 «(OO
11:00 Silke 10 10°52 57 46
| |
Bp 1:45 78 8 3 1-45 | 59 10
| 9°33 81 36 9-20 | 55 629
| 10°50 83 26 10:95 51 29
4 745 81 20 4 7:45 55 32
9°33 87 51 9:44 50 25
10°72 91 12 10-94 45 6
5 1-45 SGunns Biel 145 51 48
9:20 90 57 | 9°30 44 16
10-80 95 58 fF auishh@) 35 aes
12°24 S)eeee
6 1-45 93 47 13°52 26 56
9-60 | 100 30
HOG 0y ue) | 105 eal |e uence ieee
| | | 9-20 | 26 56
7 1-45 10321 11°56 13 16
9°45 Wb as 13°10 5 2
10:91 115 48
8 OSS SSS) 2S
9-10 122 50 | |
10-71 130 39 |
|

S. W. Quadrant.

TABLE II.

S. E. Quadrant.

Ray. log r. | N. Ray log r. é. Ni
1 0:00000 | 2° 39%| 0-018 || 1 0-00000 0° 49”) 0-002
li ONOSSRI 2 ebGh ee 0:07 009757 15 On 0007
| 016148 | 3 20| 0-019 017053 2 20) 0:009
2 | 999667 | 4 21] o-o49 || 2 0:00066 Iara t02003
O-TMN0620 916.) 51 )/'0:092 | 0°08139 3 32 | 0-026
OpNT940) e-18) 432) |) 107122 0°14755 7 40 0°106
3 000000 | 6 50 | 0:119 3 0-00208 Siew 0,209
OMNOG2) (278 371 0-146 008249 14 40] 0-444
OOS VT GH) VORA 015224 | 18 30) 0-594
4 000000 «69 «00-205 4 000066 | 14 22 | 0-515
008848 | 1! 37 | 0-277 010804 | 20 48 | 0824
| 016603 | 13 58 | 0-333 019448 | 28 32] 1-229
5 000000 | 13 1) 0:425 5 000133 18 14 | 0-817
| 008685 | 20 43 | 0:858 ON15T3.. | 25) Bie) 1-220
I O;143755 24125) | 1-026 O05, esis 4s) 1G506
6 0.00330 | 25 12) 1-507 6 000066 20 42 | 1-200
010804 | 33 37 | 2-001 0713800 | 31 32) 1-670
0:16240 | 39 1] 2-284 O2NTNS) a) lS 0/1912
7 ae Pap tete ane 7 000199 | 31 14 | 2-242
0:09225. | 39 2 | 2°688 Q111826 )| 37 57 | 2-413
O1st3sh 47 (28) 37241 0°19150 | 43 28 | 2°557
8 ie idee, Pah ser 9:00723 | 34 38 | 2.655
011826 | 47 30) 3-469 || 0711927 | 43 34 | 3-024
ier OSS08esle55e 584i 3:73) 0719065 | 50 17] 3195
| 0:23876 | 62 52 | 3829 |! O-2512 00 Oe 260 u326)
N. E. Quadrant. | N. W. Quadrant.
l } 7
1 | 0-00000 340) 07034) |e) 000330), |f11 115) 70:199
| 009225 0 52] 0-001 00975) 120) 10:289
| 0717499 1 30] 0-004 || 016376 14 30 0-360
2 0:00000 0) 2) |)0:000 |) 2 000000 | 13 17 | 0-442
| 010804 3228 110,023)| 010284 | 15 30) 0-472
0°18808 6 30 | 0-069 016694 | 16 44 | 0:473
3 000000 | 3 38] 0-037 || 3 000000 | 15 20| 0-589
0°10959 Tae Gig; 099e I 0:10284 | 19 1 | 0-702
016603 | 8 56 | 0-138 | O;18593 im 23h a 0:835
AD 000000) N16). 50) | 0119) N04 000000 | 18 58 0:885
eO2U09595 0 13))'21y1| 0346) ||| O22 00 24 woul 1 056
nOalis Sie oli 4 2570: 5 "ral 018549 | 29 24 | 1°317
5 | 0-00000 | 11 35| 0-338 || 5 0°00000 | 22 42 | 1-248
} 010284 | 16 27 | 0-530 || 0-10804 | 30 14 | 1-657
| 017940, 21 28°) 0-742 | 0:19286 | 39 22 | 2-164
| 0°23837 Sie Gigli 2528
6 | 20000009) 19 72/2094 || 0-28825: | 47 34 | 2°347
| OSPR 1-28 OD I, ae |
Ke Onl S800Me | 30F e310 elon Qn ar6 aahee aera ee
| 0710284 | 47 35 37604
7 | 6-:00000 | 28 31] 1-909 || 02052) Gl 14) (3:956
O-11573 | 36 48 | 2-302 || 027012 | 69 28 | 3-940
018419 | 41 18) 2-388 ||
8 | -=-- | =2- == -- |
009757 | 48 20) 3-736 | |
0717543 | 56 99 | 3°849 | |
0:25688 | 61 40} 3-597 | |

350 / H. Bigelow—Further Study of the Solar Corona..

The first process was to substitute the resulting values of
7 .@ in the formula for the lines of force, N== ; a The
computed values are collected in table No. II.

It is observed that the values of N derived from measures
on the same ray are not equal. If all the circumstances are
fully accounted for, they would be alike and the angle @
would show the same polar distance for the beginning of the
line N. But it is seen that there is a marked progression in
these values, which indicates that some systematic error ad-
heres to the work. An inspection of the case suggests that the
projection of the ray from its position in space upon the appar-
ent plane of the disk must be taken fully into account, for it
is not probable that any large number of the visible rays start
from the body of the sun in the very plane of the disk. To
such rays the formula should have applied. The problem is
therefore to discover at what point of the sphere each ray
originates, and to assign angular codrdinates to the same.

The figure illustrates how a ray springing from the surface
of the sun is seen projected so as to lie across a series of true

3. N-lines represented as
proceeding from the
disk. What was com-
puted in the last opera-
ation is in fact the
particular N-line that
passed through the
point as measured in
its projected situation.
We must now discover
a means of determin-
ing through what angle
a the plane of the ray
N must be rotated in
order to be seen on
the plane of the disk.
Also we must carefully
distinguish between the
pole of the corona and
the selected pole on the disk, for although these two poles le
in the same plane whose position angle with the sun’s axis at
the center of the disk has already been given, yet the angular
distance of the coronal pole from the plane of the disk, being
at this time unknown, has an immediate effect upon the angle
athat is being sought. All the planes containing the rays
intersect in the coronal axis, and if this was in the plane of the
disk the rotation angle a would be the same for all measured
points on the ray; otherwise « measured at the pole on the

Ray projected across a series of N-lines.

F. H. Bigelow—Further Study of the Solar Corona, 351

disk will exhibit a progression of values as we pass along the
ray. As each quadrant has been considered independently, no
effort was made to generalize the angle a, but it is counted
from the plane of the disk to the plane passing through the
point on the ray, at the axis of intersection of the planes
through the center of the sun.
Nt 8x sin y
3 iB
Let w,=7,sin 0, and y, = 7, cos @,, the accents indicating the
first point that is measured on a ray.

Cees op? opt
= eity? sind =— = ——,.
ra=r/e'+y’ sin Br suey,
N= se . ea
1 (eae

As a first approximation, assume that the axis of the planes
of rotation lies in the plane of the apparent disk; hence by
rotating a ray from the edge of the disk to its actual position,
the values of y are unchanged, while those of ~ are reduced.
The radius of revolution is vw, = 7,sin 0,, therefore w = a, sec a.

ee 87 7,’ sin’0, sec’a
Substituting, IN ee re
3 (7,? sin’0, sec’a +7," cos’6,)*

Since the points are on the same ray, we take

7, 8in’6, r, sin’0,

: : : iaipnom wer i zu

(7? sin’6, sec’a +7,? cos’)? (7; sin’d, sec’aw +1,” cos’6,)
9 9 2\ 3 2

(a? seC?a+ Ys)? Be
F NBL pee

(ae sec’aty,’)? ZA

ae
L3Y, —Yy X

CO! == a
38 — 3,”

The application of this formula gives the values of a@ corres-
ponding properly to the mid-point between the two points
from which it was derived. They also have a progressive
value, indicating that the pole of the corona is not on the
plane of the disk. It will not be far wrong to assume that
value of « which is nearer the first a than the second, as would
be seen by inspection from the points on a sphere.

Now substituting these values of a in

i Sa x seca

By (ce sec’a + y?)*
we find that the ranging nature of the NS has ceased, and

that there remain only such irregularities as are occasioned
by the inaccuracy of the measurements themselves.

TABLE ITI.

S. W. Quadrant.

S. E. Quadrant.

Ray. sHopied é. Mean 6. Ray. a. see | 6. (Mean @.
eSeonG/). 87 S50) OF 1 | 88° 34” 88° 50’ | 31°41/
87 48 31 41 87 18 33 25
30 21 | 32° 41’ | 29 28) 31° 317
2/84 16 84 | 29 22 2/88 27/88 40 | 30 28
82 0 31 23 85 49 | 32 34
30 44/30 30 (22 23) 31 31
382 25 82 | 33 59 3/79 296} 79 |34 25
79 36 32 26 ie BS | 34 59
30 50 32 25 131 48 33 44
4|7% 40 78° 1-307 1% 4|%1 21 11 | 33 45
72 50 31. 25 65 «(10 |34 1
30 14, 30 38 | | 31 38 33 8
Bula s5)\" 15 9133 51 B | 65) 43 | 66s 4am
64 15 35 51 60 40 34 19
33 20/34 21 33 25 33 55
Salou ale 59! 8633 6 62 8) ~62 34 52
Bie A 36 35] 48° 6 34 54
| 35 41/36 16 | 32 381.34 8
| |
eleanor ve ial PUTO) ey eis 8
48 5] 48 | 38 59 | 34 33 | 35 13 |
| 38 57 38 58 |35 11) 35 11
8 |33 15 33 |41 6 8 140 20] ~ 40 139 2%
23 12 4. 1 |31 39 | 39.11 |
(40 30 40 54 | 28 16 | 38 39
| |37 26 | 38 18
N. E, Quadrant. N. W. Quadrant.
Ray. ASPs 6. |Mean 6. Ray. jaeouted 6. Mean 8.
Pi lepeetalae DP amet nines hee Mil Peuliicns a |e! OH
g9° 29/1 89° | 30° 48” eI Da BO a7.
28 35 | 29° 427/| | 30, 22) /silemaes
|
289m 8i 88) 507, ate | 2) 58.050) Inn 65) 28Naroe
88 53 28 32|28 32 || 160123 | 27 411 |
| | (19 27) | | 26 127 as
| | | | |
3/85 21| 85 28 43 | | 3/473 12 73 | 36 30
81 45 | 32 55 | 64 40 | 34 5
| |30 59/30 52/| | 132 5/34 40
4\'81° 20) 81. |31 81 A | 6% 55)| 68> >| 340 50K
74 38 | 33. 39 45 6 (33 30 |
| 30° 32/31 45 | 32 26| 383 36
Bua 505) 630. cl 5159 17| 59 | 34 24
(69 57 33h Ie (54 58 | 35 0
31,432,390 50)! 9) 390K, 134 23
| 28 10| [se 75
6 | 61 37| 64 33 25 | | |31 29| 33 37
68 32 33 18 Ie ake
34 34/33 46|| 6|30 16] 30 | 41 55
| | | 41 58
"148 59| 49 36 0 Nee 40 49 41 34
130 58 |. 136 23 | |
| | | 35 16| 35 53 ||
5 OR YD 98 Ay 95 | |
42 23 |
140 16141 41 ||

F.. H. Bigelow—Further Study of the Solar Corona. 353

Take the typical formula for N and compute sin’@ = — ANE

The angle @ derived from this is the distance from the coronal
pole at which the observed rays have sprung up from the
surface of the sun. The values may be slightly in error by
the small inaccuracy of the chosen a, but the changed projec-
tion resulting from this imperfection is not great.

This table shows that the coronal rays have their bases in a
zone about 84 degrees from the coronal pole, the belt being
about ten degrees in width, but its maximum density at the
parallel of 84 degrees. The conclusion is drawn that there are
no visible rays in the neighborhood of the poles, and hence the
appearance of the corona is similar to that of the terrestrial
aurora.

Position of the Coronal Poles.

We find the location of the north and south poles of the

corona in the following way.

Let 7,6, represent the measured p
coordinates of each point, with the
numerical suffix. c

a, = angle at pole of disk to the
point on the ray.

Pp, = angular distance from pole of
disk to point.

6’ = angular distance from coronal
pole to point.

r= radius of spherical surface
through point.

B=angle at coronal pole from
pole of disk to point.

¢=angular distance of coronal
pole from pole of disk.

P=projection of coronal pole c

Then 2, = r, sin G.. on a plane through the poles of
Y= 7 cos 6). the ecliptic.
2,=,tana, D,=~2, sec a..
tanp, = — = tan 0 sec a,
1
7? = 2)’ sec’a, + y;’.
87 sin’d : :
N=—. 2, where r = 1 for typical N, and 6, is the mean
3 r i
angle as computed.
: 3r
SiGe — ING
87
In the Spherical Triangle ABC we have given, a=06',b=p,,
i 90°—a..
Hence, sin B = sin p, cos a, cosec 6’.

cos3(A+B)
cos $(A—B)’

tan4c = tan $(p,+6’).

854 F. H. Bigelow—Further Study of the Soalr Corona.

TABLE IV.
S. W. Quadrant.
|
Ray.) log r’. 6’, |B. A, | Brea C. Mean c.
1 0°12501 | 38° 35/| 41° 297| 3° 07|176° 497] 2°51718"|
2 008771 |. 84 9 | 36 3/ 6 01173 42 | 1 58 4
3 OD Soa SIS A044 ss 0/171 29 2 56 34
4}, 0:09399)) 34: 36 |) 37 18") 12 0/167 11) 2 45 20
5 | 011606 | 40 10) 41 46 / 15 0/162 30). We 6
6 | .0:09166 | 41 Gmlea2ie 2 bea esil 0 148 Bil) lk &} 6.
7 0°17873 | 50 45 | 50 28 | 42 OF 138) 133/023 042
8 0716308 | 52 11 | 52 27 | 57 O22 415 | 30) 300345 elas se
S. E. Quadrant.
1 | O:08655 eon walhielles OU WS NOs Mies ay | eae BS |
2 | 0:0810C | 35 Bi) BY) Sy 1 20 |165 8 OPO OR
3 0711272 | 39 13.) 40 40] 11 0/168 48) O 51 38}
4 0:09148 | 37 24 | 38 11 | 19 0 160 39 | 0 49 34 |
5 0:08849 | 38 10 | 39 0 24 0 1155 32) O 54 26)
Bo OXON Bi BE aks MD) Be) 0/151 25 | 0 58 48 |
ORO) Bil DAL: |) SX 1B} <1) 24 OT L29R os Zoos el
8 | 0:05173.| 41 8 | 42 (2|50 0 |128 47 | 1 293 50) a Toss
Mean value of c for the south pole, 1° 277 58”.
N. E. Quadrant.
Ray.) log 77) 10! sae | A. B. | Mean c.
| | |
1 0:21388 | 39° 20’) 40° 557 112 0’ |178° 58/ V3 525104
2 009159 | 34 45-| 36 41 5 0 [174 50 1 20 14
3 009717 | 3 By] By By 9 0 |170 42 1 24 30
4 009678 3 19 | DOU e235 BLO 0 (164 38 1 5 16
5 0:08194 | 38 41 | 38 36) 26 0 |154 3 /—0 5 28
6 0°05725 | 38 46 | BAG) ves) || a bal 0 (138 4 e808
7 0°12036 |-49 48 | 50 53 | 66 Oa 53 2) AG 18) pelican note
N. W. Quadrant.
1 0095645935) Wh Soe Sr PS 0 \164 8 2 24 2
2 OsO5 2002920 E29) Salles 2 5 0 |155 7 |—0O 6 38
3 OR 2I2 SoA Oe 2 eA Se Opi els 0 (162 12 2 24 30
4 010837 | 38 49 |} 42 32 | 22 OF /156) Ona, 2034
5 0:07499 | 37 é} || (ese) By neil OS M42 Sin ee team
6 0°13909 | 51 Sl al BS), OO OOS 1y0r 325 2a Ome2 0
Mean value of c for the north pole, 1° 347 51”.

If @’ is smaller than p, ¢ is positive, and the coronal pole is
on the earth side of the plane of the disk.
This table is computed by taking the first point measured on
each ray, and selecting the values of 7, 0, from Table II, and

a, 0, from Table III.

As shown by the formula, 7’ @’ is the
computed point whose codrdinates of projection were meas-

FE. H. Bigelow—Further Study of the Solar Corona. 355

ured; p is the angular distance from the pole on the disk; A
and B the interior angles of the triangle at the respective poles,
and ¢ the required angular distance of the coronal pole from
the disk plane.

Now investigate the heliographic latitude over which these
coronal streamers appear to terminate as definite lines. By
many computations it is found that the 7 for the extreme
points measured is equivalent to the log 7r’ = 0°39800, of lines
which leave the sun at polar distance 6’ = 34°.

87 sin’6

N = elem where r= 1 at the surface; hence N = 2620.

‘ N. 37’
Then, sin’ = agen? amd) 1624 0)

The corresponding equatorial distance is 90°—62° 10’=27° 50’,
which is in the midst of the zone of the sun spots at the mini-
mum of the period.

The heliographie latitude and longitude of the north and
the south coronal poles, as seen on July 29, 1878, are obtained
as follows.

South Pole

DB

E

La

IB SN
oO
N oth. Pele.
Ss

Location of the coronal poles for July 29, 1878.

K Poles of the ecliptic.

S Poles of the sun’s axis.

E Poles of the plane of the equator.

C Poles of the corona.

D The center of the disk.

KP The plane through the poles of the ecliptic perpendicular to the radius
vector to the earth.

M The projection of poles of the corona on the disk.

N ins (75 “cb sun 73 3
P ‘c ob 6c equator 3 bb
O The direction of the ascending node at 74° longitude.

356 FE. H. Bigelow—Further Study of the Solar Corona.

The North Pole.

KN Position angle KDS=+ 4° 27'6 counted from N to W.
ki EDK=—14° 221 i INGE
PN is EDS =— 9° 54'5 ‘ NG:
NM Position angle of coronal pole=—1° 6’ counted from N
to E.
MC Angular distance of coronal pole from plane of disk, on
the side towards the earth=1° 34':8.

PM Position angle of coronal pole=—11° 0'5 counted N to E.
KS The inclination of the sun’s equator=7° 15’.
NKS= (270° + ©)—(270° + 74°) =126° 10/97 —74°=52° 10-9.
tan NK=cos NKS tan KS=8'89212. NK=4° 27'6.
sin SN=sin NKS sin KS=8:99866. SN=5° 4176.
ST=SN—CM=4° 68. CT=MN cos CM=1° 5'97.
cos CS=cos CT cos ST=9°99880. CS=4° 154.
cot CST=sin ST cot CV=0°57257, \ CST=14" 58/-8:
INKS = 527 1107-98 NSK= 3832.6. NSC 1458:
CSK=NSK—NSC=23° 38. OSK=90°.
OSC=OSK—CSK=66° 56"2. Heliographic longitude.
90—SC= RB° 441°6, hy latitude.
Codrdinates of the north coronal pole:

Long. 66° 56’:2

Lat. +85° 44/6

The South Pole.

KN=KDS=— 4° 27’:6 counted E from S.
KP=EDK= stale Doo. W S.
PN=EDS =4 9°54'5 ¢ Wesiseaanse
‘PM=EDC= 3° 545 cf VV arise

PKS= 52° 10'°9.

KS = “pe Ms

SN = Bo Zo, MUN SSO" OF

KN= abo Oey IMO 1 WIS} 20);

Si Hh BE Oot

cos SC=cos ST cos CT=9:99420. CT=5° 59'°88.
SC=9° 20'°5. :

cot CST=sin ST cot CT=0:07400.

CS — a4 Omi Sice

SKUN = 7522 10-9:

INS 38a e 2ni6:

CSN= 40° 85.

CSK = 78° 11:1. OSK=90.

OSC =168° 111. Heliographic longitude.

90—SC=80° 39'°5. latitude.
Coérdinates of the south coronal pole :
ones) Vessel Difference of longitude.

Lat. — 80° 39'5 101° 14’:9

F. H. Bigelow—Further Study of the Solar Corona. 357

It is interesting to compare these codrdinates of the polari-
zation of the sun with the similar codrdinates of the magnet-
ism of the earth, as given by Erman and Petersen for 1829,
from Gauss’ Theory.

North Pole, Long. 266°° 3'°8

Lat. Taro
South Pole, Lon. 150° 44'-9
Lat. — 72° 40':4

Difference of Longitude, 115° 18'°9

This fact of general agreement of the difference of longitude
may be purely accidental, or it may point to some fundamental
law of polarized rotating spheres.

This analysis of the solar corona suggests certain conclusions.

1. The force seems to be repulsive, the law of its action
being expressed by a transcendental equation of the second
degree. This agent is sufficient for the transportation of finely
subdivided matter, and harmonizes with the lack of density of
the sun’s atmosphere, as indicated by its failure to influence the
motion of comets passing within its limits.

2. The individual streamers are grouped in a zone about ten
degrees wide, whose maximum density is at 84 degrees from
the coronal poles. The number of such rays is not great, but
their actual dimensions are enormous. The average linear
visible extension is about one solar radius, and regarding the
residual propulsion and curve of the trajectory their extremities
are located normally above the sun spot belts. At this place
the incandescence of the material particles apparently ceases,
and if condensation sets in, there would exist the conditions
required for the precipitation of cool masses, whose fall
upon the surface of the sun is generally supposed to produce
the spots. It is at this zone of maximum for the coronal rays
that the deficiency of the prominences has been observed, and
there may well be a physical connection between these two
classes of phenomena. The re-entering form of the curves is
also consistent with the existence of atmospheric currents
flowing from the polar regions towards the equator, and a
study of the angles of inclination of the prominences relatively
to normals may develope some evidence on this point. The
condensed bodies of light, seen on two axes at 40 degrees from
the poles, are doubtless due to the perspective effects of the
maximum zone as it passes around the sides of the sun; and
the structureless equatorial wing is no doubt a floating mass
of matter, cooling in the process of preparation for precipi-
tation. This return of the ejected matter to the sun is consid-
ered necessary to account for the relation of the total flow of

358 | H. Bigelow—Further Study of the Solar Corona.

energy outwards and the rate of change in its volumetric
dimensions, as derived from theory.

3. The location of the coronal poles at successive eclipses
will afford a means of determining the period of the rotation
of the sun on its axis, in consequence of the large number of
revolutions occurring between such epochs. It would be
necessary to assume that the axis of polarization of the sphere
remains the same, as is probably the ease.

4. The accelerated angular velocity of the equatorial belts
as compared with the polar regions, would result from the
descent of cool matter from high altitudes above the surface
of the sun, each particle being considered as a satellite ap-
proaching its center of gravity. The motion of the spot belts
in latitude synchronously with the display of energy as re-
corded by the maxima and minima, may be due to a corres-
ponding motion of the maximum zone towards and from the
poles, with the accompanying elevation of the ends of the
coronal stream lines; or to changes in the relative energies of
propulsion, as a function of the time. It is possible that a
picture of the corona may be sometime taken which will show
these streamers distributed in two parallel belts a few: degrees
apart. It is a most interesting question in physics as to the
reason of the location of this coronal zone at the computed
distance from the poles, since it suggests also a problem similar
to that of the terrestrial auroras. At this place the linear dis-
tance across the greatest number of equipotential surfaces, is
apparently the shortest, hence it may be the path of least re-
sistance. There should also be a connection between the dis-
tribution of the actinic light of the corona and the equipotential
surfaces, and it is not unlikely that the light is simply propor-
tional to the potential.

This discussion suggests the importance of securing photo-
graphs of the corona sufficiently large to admit of ‘accurate
measurements; the necessity of studying the relation between
the position of the streamers and the spots at the moment of
the eclipse; and the possibility of deriving the period of the
sun’s axial rotation from the coronas of successive eclipses.

R.S. Tarr—Superimposition of Drainage in Texas. 359

Art. XLV.—Superimposition of the Drainage in Central
Texvas; by Raupy S. Tarr.

In the number of this Journal for last May the writer de-
scribed the general history of the drainage system of Central
Texas as far as it could be read with our present knowledge of
the region. In that paper it was shown that the present drain-
age is superimposed, having originated upon the Cretaceous
strata in Tertiary times and, after removing this covering from
the buried Paleozoic rocks, finding itself superimposed upon
these hard rocks. There is abundant proof of this; for the
central Paleozoic region is only partially uncovered and the
denudation of the Cretaceous is still in progress. One of the
chief effects of the superimposition is that the Colorado river,
one of the great arteries of eastern Texas, flows, in its middle
course, for many miles over hard Silurian marble containing
great quantities of flint. This barrier, accidentally discovered
in cutting through the Cretaceous, has retarded the river in its
down cutting.

Since writing the former paper two points connected with
the drainage of Central Texas, which then puzzled me, have
become clear; and as they are interesting confirmations of the
superimposition theory for the origin of the present drainage
of the region I give them below.

A. superimposed river, having selected its course with refer-
ence to a structure now no longer present, naturally finds itself
flowing without reference to the nature of the newly discov-
ered beds. Thus it is that the Colorado in central Texas is
now busy with a barrier of hard Silurian rock, and thus it is
that this river flows with a general course at right angles to
the strike of the Carboniferous rocks and in an opposite direc-
tion to the dip.

Not only the Colorado itself, but all its tributaries flow with-
out especial reference to structural weakness; but the smaller
branches take advantage of the structural peculiarities, show-
ing, in many cases, that they are more recent in origin than the
time of removal of the Cretaceous. Moreover, some of the
medium-sized streams, which in their upper and middle course
flow, perhaps on Cretaceous, quite regardless of Carboniferous
structure, have nearer their mouth partly readjusted themselves
to the new conditions. The number of strike valleys in the
lower course of such streams is quite astonishing since it shows
to how great an extent drainage is dependent upon structure
and how readily, even under great disadvantages, streams will
make use of such weaknesses. In the Carboniferous this is

Am. Jour. Scr.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XL, No. 239.—Nov., 1890.
23

360 L. S. Tarr—Superimposition of Drainage in Texas.

particularly noticeable in valleys carved in soft clays and shale.
For instance, the Waldrip Division of soft coal-bearing beds,
for a distance of more than 30 miles, is marked by a topo-
graphic depression. A single stream does not follow this line
of weakness continually as would very likely have been the
éase had the Carboniferous formed an original drainage-sur-
face, but small streams have their head-waters here and larger
creeks flow in it for some distance before leaving it to cross
the hard underlying limestone.

Everywhere may "be seen signs of attempts at rejuvenation,
but it was not until iately that I was able to see that the Colo-
rado itself shares this peculiarity. This river flows with a very
serpentine course through the Carboniferous, having a length
along the boundary of San Saba county of 50 miles, while at
the end it is only 30 miles from the first point. In one place
it makes a bend six miles long where a cut off would reduce
the distance to two miles. Several possible reasons suggest
themselves in explanation of this phenomenon which is quite
remarkable in a river with a fall of from two to three feet per
mile. Since the Colorado is a superimposed river flowing in
its present course chiefly by accident, it is possible that before
the Quaternary uplift the river may have been sufficiently old,
in this part of its valley, to have the serpentine course common
to such rivers. Thus the present form of valley may be in-
herited from that time. Another possible cause is that the
slow removal of the Silurian by retarding the down-cutting in
this part of the river-channel has induced a temporary old-age
condition. That this is the case to a certain degree is abund-
antly proved by the extensive flood plains of the Colorado and
its side streams; but whether this is a sufficient cause to ac-
count for the phenomenon at present under consideration is
doubtful. It may be that both these causes have had some
effect, but the chief cause is quite different and is to be found
in the futile attempt of the Colorado to adjust itself to the new
conditions which it has found in its enforced path, probably
_ aided somewhat by the Silurian barrier which has prevented

rapid down- cutting.

The evidence of this attempt at readjustment is that all the
main bends in the river have one, and generally both, of the
long sides of the loop parallel to the strike of the Carbonifer-
ous. This is the case in eleven distinct instances, and in one
ease the river flows northeast for four miles before turning and
cutting across the strike to resume its natural course. Above
Elliot Creek in Mills county there is a stratum of coarse, thick-
bedded sandstone, which has deflected the Colorado river south-
west along the strike for a distance of three and one-half miles

R.S. Tarr—Superimposition of Drainage in Texas. 361

before it cuts across it; and then the river flows northeast for
a mile before resuming its natural direction southeastward.
Another hitherto unexplained phenomenon in connection
with the drainage of Central Texas is that the divide between
the Brazos and the Colorado rivers is close to the latter, being
in places only six miles distant, while it is fully seventy-five
miles from the former. All along the entire course the Colo-
rado has almost no drainage area on the east side. The reason
for this, so long a puzzle to me, now seems plain—it is the
result of accidents, brought about by superposition. The
accompanying diagram illustrates this peculiarity of drainage.

te

aN

CARBONIF,
' Diy varialle®,

SILURIAN Pe ee,

It is probable that both the Brazos and the Colorado origi-
nated under practically the same eonditions, that is, upon the
new Cretaceous land elevated above the sea during the great
Tertiary mountain uplift. Their course was plainly chosen
with reference to conditions appearing on the surface then
existing without regard to what lay below. After cutting
through the soft, nearly horizontal Cretaceous rocks, the Colo-
rado came upon the buried Paleozoic and encountered not only
the Carboniferous for a considerable distance, but also the
much harder Silurian with which it has long been struggling.
The Brazos, on the other hand, by the accidental choice of a
more easterly course avoided these difficulties. To be sure
this river in its middle and upper course is superimposed upon
the Carboniferous rocks, but the removal of these is a very
simple task compared to that the Colorado had imposed upon
it. The consequence of this difference between the two rivers
is that while the Colorado in Mills county flows at an elevation

362 B. K. Emerson—“ Bernardston Series” of

of 1,200 feet above the sea-level, the Brazos in the same lati-
tude has cut down to within 600 feet of the sea-level in its soft
bed.

This fact has given the Brazos a great advantage over its
competitor, the Colorado, for drainage territory ; and this, in
the battle for conquest of head water ‘drainage area, has enabled
the Brazos to push the divide close up to the Colorado in terri-
tory, which, under more favorable circumstances, should belong
to the latter stream. The side streams of the Brazos having a
much lower plane to which it was possible to base level the
drainage area than those of the Colorado had were much more
powerful agents of erosion; and the result is that a tributary
to the Colorado from the east is rarely 10 miles long, while
Brazos tributaries, heading in the same divide, flow fully 75
miles before emptying into their mother stream.

A description of the “ Bernardston Series”
of Westone “phic Upper Devonian Rocks; by Brn K.

EMERSON.
[Continued from p. 275. ]

The position and extension of the basal quartzite was the
first clue to the complex stratigraphical arrangement of the
series in its eastward continuation. Beginning at the point
already described, east of the road to East Mountain (back of
“Mrs. Haley’s” on the map), with a strike due east, it has
bent round to N. 65° E. before it goes under the massive drum-
lin which lies east of the river, and on its emergence, it is
abundantly exposed, with the same strike, along the:southern
of the two northwest roads mentioned above, especially south
of A. G. Chapin’s house. Taking the direction of this road
across the valley of Dry brook, it can be followed readily, with
the same strike and low S.E. dip and physically unchanged,
through the chestnut woods N.W. of the end of Purple’ s blind
road, crossing the first north and south road in Northfield,
where a loop of the brook crosses the road; and eradually
bearing round to the north, it crosses the State line with a
strike N. 10° W.

(6) Lhe quartzite conglomerate.—Back of Mrs. Haley’s, on
the Fall River road, and just east of the Williams farm, across
the valley, ledges of the rock appear, and it outcrops abund-
antly along the second road running east from the Fall River
road (A. G. Chapin’s) to its end. Where the road begins it is
an obscurely bedded conglomerate of quartz pebbles, in a dark
paste containing inuch slaty material. The conglomerate here
toward its base is exactly like the same rock west of the lime-

Metamorphic Upper Devonian Locks. 363

stone on the Williams farm, and I have no doubt that they
were formerly connected across the valley. Higher up, the
rock is a pudding stone with rounded quartz pebbles up to
100™" in length, but mostly 20-30" long; the abundant
quartz sand paste, which wraps round them, cleaves into thick
layers coated with muscovite scales and iron rust, so exactly
like the upper quartzite of the Williams farm, especially the
conglomerate layer, that it is difficult to avoid ‘the conclusion
that they are also parts of a single stratum. Calculated upon
its average dip of 20° the thickness of the bed is 123 meters,
which is only a rough approximation.

In the field south of A. G. Chapin’s house is an interesting
outcrop. The rock is here jointed with almost mathematical
accuracy, into acute rhombs, the joint-planes passing through
the quartz pebbles ; and the latter are finely compressed, and
indented one by another. The rock here carries garnets 5™™
across. The rock is unchanged across Dry Brook for a long
distance to the northeast. when it crosses the last road; but
once over the range (J. M. Picket) at a point where the brook
makes a loop across the road, the pebbles are flattened out into
thin disks, resembling the small lenses of quartz common in
crystalline rocks, making it almost doubtful if they may not be
of secondary origin—a doubt which does not extend to the
range described above. In the woods, southwest of this point,
the rock in some beds is in appearance a fine-grained biotite-
gneiss, with large garnets surrounded by a broad annular color-
less space, in which the biotite is wanting; and in following
the band fartber north, the pebbles grow smaller, and where
it crosses the State line it is below a thin-bedded biotitic
quartzite, above a muscovitic quartzite; and in some layers
the muscovite becomes abundant and wraps around pencils of
quartz, so that the rock obtains a rude columnar or ligniform
structure. It has here an apparent thickness of 107 meters.

At the point already mentioned on the grist mill road (J. M.
Pickett) where the brook makes a short loop across the road,
at the south bridge is a fine section in a high bluff, west from
the bridge. The conglomerate strikes N. 45° E. and graduates
downward through fifty feet of quartzite into fine micaceous
quartzite and this into flat argillite with minute transverse
biotites. The whole is well exposed and plainly conformable.
Its dip increases from 22° at the south end to 45° at the north
end, where the upper portion of the bed has this high dip,
while the lower portion runs up on the argillite with the low
dip of 20°. It thus folds around and dips away from a great
promontory of the argillite ; and it is blackened in many places
by a remnant of the ar willitic material.

364 B. Kk. Emerson—* Bernardston Series” of

Just after crossing the State line into South Vernon it bends
sharply to the southwest, recrosses the Stateline and, at the
point where the grist-mill road (J. M. Pickett) crosses the
town-line, bends again northwest and swings in a great curve
north across Vernon. All this is well exposed just north of
the last house before crossing the line (M. Merrills), and the
argillite where it is nipped by the sharply bending quartzite is
greatly crushed and filled with quartz combs. This boundary
crosses the next road north—the old Bernardston- Vernon road
—at a small abandoned house (two houses below the school
house) where the brook comes nearest the road. Just behind
this house in the side of the brook is exposed a most interesting
junction of the conglomerate upon the argillite. Commencing
at a ruined dam perhaps 15 rods from the house we find typical
argillite which changes through a few feet of spangled schist
into thin fissile black muscovitic quartzite with some thicker
highly crystalline layers, and this graduates into a highly
muscovitic very vitreous quartzite, which is at one place a
conglomerate of rounded quartz pebbles 2 to 4 in. long. This
is where the water falls over a reef 3 to 4 feet high; it is
2 rods below a wooden bridge. Immediately below is a bed
of heavy hornblende rock, massive, in places showing a reticu-
lated structure: masses of this rock built into the piers of a
wrecked bridge just behind the house show pebbles, and con-
tain also much green mica, often quite coarse and resembling
the more gneissoid rock found out over the South Vernon
plain to the river and classed by Professor Hitchcock as Beth-
lehem gneiss. The series strikes N. 55° W. and dips 45° E.
The outcrop is continuous and shows a gradual passage through
a spangled argillite and tine-grained quartzite into conglom-
erate, often coarsely garnetiferous, the change being effected
within 50 feet and showing no trace of unconformity. Many
masses of a thin fissile pyritous magnetite occur here, but the
bed could not be found in place.

East of the boundary line just described, across Vernon to
the river, the whole area is underlaid by the basal quartzite
except where the West Northfield schist series extends across
the State line, west of the village of South Vernon ; and across
the brook it rises in the hill back of 8. Titus’s, where the road
to the lily pond branches from the Brattleboro road. It dips
for the most part to the east except east of the lily pond,
where a minor fold of considerable size occurs, caused by the
sharp bend of the quartzite on the State line, and here the beds
dip south. Followed eastward it becomes more and more
feldspathic and the muscovite is largely replaced by biotite,
forming a completely gneissoid rock. It is here not distinguish-

Metamorphic Upper Devonian Rocks. 365:

able from the feldspathic quartzite occurring east of the West
Northfield series and described below.

The Vernon limestone. —On the Lily Pond road above
mentioned and just east of E. G. Scott’s house occurs a band
of limestone. It is a coarse granular limestone, highly crys-
talline, of light color, containing some garnet, hornblende and
green mica. It contains what seem to be distinct traces of corals
and erinoids and in everyway closely resembles the Bernardston
bed with which I identify it without hesitation. Especially do
the weathered surfaces show a peculiar conglomerate-like struc-
ture common at Bernardston. Large rounded fragments of a
fine grained white limestone are cemented by a coarser and more
highly crystalline limestone, the latter in large amount, as if the
rock had been brecciated by pressure and then the fragments
rounded by percolating waters and re-cemented. This bed is ex-
posed about 80 rods and may have a thickness of as many feet,
but its boundaries are not well exposed. Toward the west it
graduates on the strike into a calcareous hornblende schist, and
above that, to the south, through an actinolitic quartzite into
a quartzite abounding in large garnets and blotches of a greenish
mica, while below it is succeeded by very coarse hornblende
schist in large force. The whole series is enclosed in the
eneissoid quartzite.

Description of the range from Bernardston to South Ver-
non.—Directly opposite the Williams farm and 200 rods dis-
tant, on the east side of Fall River, begins a range of low hills,
which runs northeast between the two towns named above.
This range of hills is backed on the northwest by a much higher
range of argillite hills—Bald Mountain, Pond Mountain—and
bounded on the southeast by the high terrace sands through
which one large area and many smaller islands, of the rocks of
the Bernardston series, emerge. I have called this the West
Northfield range, from the town in which it for the most part
lies. The road running along the east side of Fall River skirts
the range at its western end, and the main road from Bernards-
ton to South Vernon borders it on the south and east, while the
roads which branch from the latter and cross the range are
named from some resident upon each, as given in Beers’ atlas,
and as marked on the map on page 264.

The mapping of this area was difficult both because the rocks
are thrown into great confusion, many beds being in places
echeloned, so that the local strike regularly disagreed with the
general run of the bands, and because of the presence of several
large drumlins which effectually conceal the underlying rock.
The intervening areas are, however, so entirely free from drift,
up to the very foot of these hills, that, were it not heavily
wooded, the region would furnish abundant outcrops, and, as

366 BL. K. Emerson—“ Bernardston Series” of

it is, the fragments on the surface can be safely used to deter-
mine the rock below. The series wraps round the argillite,
and uniformly dips away from it, generally at low angles, at
first south, and then for a long distance southeast: then it
swings sharply round, crossing the State line with dips a little
north of east, making thus a great bend to the westward as it
crosses the town of Vernon. I have not been able to prove
the existence of folds or overturns, and the present position of
the beds seems to be best explained as the result of very
extensive faulting.

(a.) The Argillite—I have assigned to the argillite the
broad area marked ‘“‘Coos” upon Professor Hitcheock’s map,
to which he also assigns the slates of the Bernardston series,
because I have found that the boundary between it and the
argillite to the west, as given upon that map, has no justifica-
tion in any phy sical change in the character of the rock where
it is drawn, and the argillite can be traced unchanged up to
and dipping beneath the quartzite next described. It is true
that minute scattered garnets and very small staurolites are
found sparingly in the rock in some places in this area, and
these seem to have been relied upon by Professor Hitchcock
in making the assignment of the rocks to the Coos; but the
same garnets can be found at times in the undoubted argillite
in West Mountain, and these, and the same minute staurolites,
occur in the center of the Whately argillite, and both the
minerals are very different from their representatives in the
Coos group. Both in macroscopical and microscopical strue-
ture, the rock remains quite constant up to the quartzite, and
in its finer grain, its darker color, its excessive contortions, and
its abundant and large quartz veins, it is well distinguished
from the slates of the higher series.

(¢.) The mica schist and hornblende beds.—Resting on the
basal quartzite, and dipping from it with low angle to the
south, southeast and east successively, as it. folds around con-
formably with it, is a broad area of mica schist, with several
bands—probably tive—of hornblende rock, and a central band
of gneissoid quartzite. From the unequal rigidity of these
rocks, they are thrown into great confusion, and from the
similarity ‘of the rock in the separate bands, the tracing of
them is very difficult, and as they are placed upon the map, a
greater regularity appears than exists in the field, many bands
being made up of the slightly shifted portions ‘of what was
originally one, and many minor faults being of necessity
neglected.

In general the schist is, below, finer grained, more slaty,
with small development of the transverse mica, without stauro-

Metamorphic Upper Devonian Locks. 367

lite, and with quite small garnets, becoming, above, coarser, of
rougher surface, and knotted with large staurolites.

At the south end, nearest the Williams farm, the basal
quartzite dips beneath a very fine-grained flat fissile mica slate,
which dips 20° in the direction S. 10° E., its surface sparsely
pimpled with small garnets, and without other accessories and
closely like the underlying schist of the Williams farm section.

The lowest bed of hornblende rock, here thin and poorly
exposed, is followed by a second band of mica slate exactly
like the first, which passes with the same dip and strike beneath
a massive, dark gray to greenish-black hornblende rock, greatly
jointed, and this is exposed in a broad area nearly down to the
main road running east from Bernardston, and extending east
to the house of S. J. Green, 100 rods west of the locality men-
tioned by Professor Dana.* It contains a central band of
dark limestone at times 80™ thick. The hornblende rock is
capped by a thin layer, never more than a meter thick, of a
shining, white arenaceous mica schist, with scattered scales
of biotite, and a similar layer was found to cap a similar horn-
blende rock, in so great a number of instances between this
point and South Vernon that it attracted particular attention.
It was found to pass in every case up into the common dark |
gray mica schist, and to differ from it only in the entire absence
of coaly matter and magnetite; and it seems possible that the
former may have been discharged by the ferruginous matter of
the hornblendic band adjacent. It is, however, wanting below
the hornblende bands which rest directly on the dark gray and
finer mica schist. This makes it probable that none of the
hornblende bands are overturned.

The schists of the area just described are cut off, going east-
ward, by a great drumlin, though the quartzite can be followed
by the north end of it; beyond one finds sections which expose
the whole thickness of the schists and hornblende bands.

They are best studied in the area east of the Purple blind
road—see map—where, commencing in the chestnut woods
northeast of the end of the road, at the basal conglomerate, we
pass south over a broad area of the lowest mica schist, broad
because of the low dip, and come upon the lowest hornblende
rock, a band—about four meters thick—here, as always quite
ferruginous and pyritous. Fifteen meters beyond there is a
second bed of hornblende rock like the first, and both are
capped by the white mica schist layer described above. Going
on twenty meters to the top of the ridge, at a large chestnut
tree conspicuous in the open field, there is a third rudely
laminated layer of hornblende rock, thicker than the others
and distinctly laminated. This is capped by a bed one meter

* This Journal, III, vi, 342, 1873.

368 B. Kk. Emerson—“ Bernardston Series” of

thick, of a very rusty limestone, carrying abundantly light
colored garnet, in large shapeless masses, and light green
pyroxene. <A long slope follows with scanty outcrops of mica
schist, still fine-grained and without staurolite, but with no
trace of hornblende; and, at its foot, sueceeds a heavy bed of
hornblendic rock about twenty meters thick, which by the
quite abundant development of feldspar is in large part a
complete gwartz-diorite. Except for the appearance of feld-
spar, in small irregular white spots, it does not deviate from
the usual type of the hornblendic rock of the area. It is fol-
lowed almost immediately, though the exact contact could not
be found, by a bed about fifteen meters thick, of a fine-grained
granitoid quartzite, which is indeed, in its whole extent, a
complete granitoid gneiss, never fissile, and faintly laminated
only by the parallel arrangement of the biotite, or wholly
lacking this even, and becoming a fine-grained tough granite,
largely feldspathic, and with many streaked cleavage surfaces,
and light gray from the small amount of the biotite. It can be
followed here for a long distance, breaking off against a fault
in the northeast direction, and going southwest, across Dry
brook. Its place between the two heavy hornblende bands
seems to be taken by a very fine-grained massive quartz rock,
with abundant fine scales of muscovite, and with large round
plates of biotite set at every angle. It appears again farther
northeast at the last road across the range, and can be followed
thence continuously, over the high hill west of South Vernon
station and across the plain in Vernon, trending here directly
toward the point where the road to Vernon goes beneath the
railroad. It is unlike the quartz-conglomerate on the west, and
feldspathic quartzite to be described on the east; and conform-
ing in dip and strike with the mica schist, and making all the
curves with it, it must be looked upon as a separate band in
the mica schist, and cannot well be derived by folding or fault-
ing from the other quartzite.

On the section line it is separated by a small thickness of
mica schist from another heavy hornblendie bed, which latter
is itself parted by a thin layer of schist, and separated by a
heavy bed (80 meters) of a dark gray mica schist, much coarser
than the beds below, and carrying abundantly transversely
placed biotite, small garnets, and large staurolite crystals, the
latter in single crystals, and in twins according to both the
common laws. This greater coarseness of the texture, and the
great abundance of staurolite in the upper beds of the mica
schist, are the rule through the whole length of the range, and
militates against any attempt to make out repetitions in the
series now gone over. This band is capped by another heavy
bed of hornblende rock 20-25 meters thick, which rises in a

Metamorphic Upper Devonian Rocks. 369

prominent ridge overlooking an isolated house (W. Soudin’s),
and is followed by one more repetition of mica schist, before
coming toa fault, upon a broad area of feldspathic quartzite
—to be described later—which continues to the railroad at the
northwest corner of Gill; and if the section is continued
across Grass Hill to the Connecticut river, it cuts first a broad
continuation of this upper quartzite, followed by a complete
repetition of the mica-schist series, with five hornblendic bands,
one feldspathic, and the eastern sloping down the hillside
from the Moody school buildings to the river, and thus cover-
ing a large area. ;

Sections carried across the area anywhere from the quartzite
base southeastward, give substantially the same succession as
that detailed above, only for a distance east of the line there
chosen, there is a fault and a repetition of the beds; so that
starting from the same point as the one chosen for the begin-
ning of that line, and going directly east, to the saw-mill, on
the South Vernon road, nine distinct hornblendic bands are
passed, and in almost every case each band is found capped by
the whitish schist described above. Also along the State line,
and for a distance north and south; either by the thinning of
the beds of mica schist or by the slipping of the hornblendic
bands over them, the latter are unusually approximated, the
three bands below the middle quartzite coming into close prox-
imity to each other, and with the basal quartzite; it is sepa-
rated by a broad mica-schist valley from a prominent horn-
blende-rock ridge, just in the east edge of the woods looking
down on South Vernon, which is subdivided by only very thin
layers of schist. Still farther east, in the large pasture above
the South Vernon Hotel, the beds are greatly faulted as indi-
cated upon the map. It illustrates the abundant faulting of
the region that at the two short railroad cuts in these beds
there are in each case two marked faults, bringing quite distant
beds into contact.

Just south of the South Vernon station nearly horizontal
mica schist is faulted, on the north, against a dike like mass of
hornblende rock, about 10 meters wide; and on the south, an
equally distinct east-west fault-line separates the latter rock
from the feldspathic quartzite, also nearly horizontal.

At the next cutting, three miles farther north, near where
the road crosses the railroad, one band of the hornblende rock is
pushed over another and the quartzite over both, so that they
have a common dip of 25° S. 65° E.; but the fault planes are
distinctly visible, and both the hornblende rock bands are capped
by the whitish schist layer which marks their transition into
the common mica schist.

370 B. Kk. Emerson—“ Bernardston Series” of

The type of the hornblende rock, as seen in the area described
above, and in many bands stretching across the country to
South Vernon, a type from which there is little variation, is a
dark gray to black, fine grained, wholly massive rock, resem-
bling so exactly, especially in its jointing, an intrusive diorite,
that it was connected with the Mesozoic diabase in the first
work of President Hitchcock, and the occurrence of it faulted
between mica schist and quartzite at the South Vernon station,
was called trap, by so experienced an observer as Professor C.
H. Hitchcock in his latest work on the area.* The hornblende
is generally arranged in fibrous radiated tufts, just visible with
the lens, which aids in giving the rock its great toughness. It
is not prone to weathering, and stands up generally in long
ridges, the schists having been considerably lowered on either
side of it, but at the railroad cutting in South Vernon, its fis-
sures were coated with an abundant deposit of calcite and
- pyrite.

Because of its position in the hollows between the horn-
blende ridges, the mica-schist, which really occupies much more
of the surface than the former, seems, on casual inspection, to
be of subordinate extent and importance.

The thickness of the beds, calculated on the average dip of
22° is, quartzite 107 meters, mica schist 113 meters, hornblende
rock 158 meters; which is certainly far too Jarge judging from
the long line of outcrops farther northeast, and it is probable
that each is partially repeated several times by cross faults.

I have elsewhere suggested that hornblende bands of this
type are generally derived from limestone beds, and in fact the
hornblende bands are still locally quite rich in carbonates, as at
the locality first described above just east of Fall River, the
broad hornblende band contains layers of limestone 20-30™
thick; and farther northeast, at a large chestnut tree east of the
end of the Purple blind road, there occurs in the same associa-
tion a bed nearly a meter thick of impure limestone carrying
garnet and pyroxene.

The development of hornblende at the upper surface of the
crinoidal bed has been detailed above, and the large develop-
ment of hornblende in the quartzite in South Vernon points in
the same direction. The hornblende derived from calcite has
always a very low absorption.

The feldspathic Quartzite.—Reserving the question of the
identity of this rock with the basal conglomerate, I may first
eall attention to its curious distribution on the map. It occu-
pies a broad area along the eastern border of the schist series,
dips everywhere away from it to the eastward with apparent

* Geol. N. H., ii, 438.

Metamorphic Upper Devonian Rocks. 371

conformity, makes the same folds with it all the way from
the State-line, south to the point where the main South Ver-
non-Bernardston road crosses the railroad, even swinging round
to a N.-S. strike where the schists do. "Beyond this point it
occupies a broad area stretching from the railroad across to the
Purple blind road, and is plainly separated from the schists
on the north by a curvilinear fault. Thence it continues in a
broad band southeastwardly, a long distance, and can be followed
. inseattered outcrops across the sand plains into.the town of Gill.
_Beyond Dry Brook it seems to regain its conformity with the
schists. Across the narrow neck by which the West North-
field sands join those of Bernardston, the same quartzite
reappears in the northwest shoulder of Grass Hill, and is
apparently continuous under the sands with the larger area
west of the railroad. It dips under the hornblende rock
to the east.

It is everywhere a fine grained light gray fissile quartzite,
with small fresh feldspar crystals porphyritically disseminated
in it, often quite abundantly. These reach 1-2" in cross-
eeenon: are often but not always striated. They are much
larger than the quartz grains and have often sharp crystalline
outlines.

In the area south of the great fault at the Purple blind road,
and far west from here, it is marked by the abundance of the
grains of lavender quartz included in it, which appear to have
come from the Archeean gneiss of the Green Mountains. Mus-
covite, so abundant in the lower quartzite, is wholly wanting ;
rarely a small amount of biotite in fine scales, or, at one out-
crop, of hornblende in scattered needles appear.

The dips of the rocks and of the slates below are so low,
and, with the strike, vary so rapidly and irregularly within nar-
row limits, that I am left in slight doubt as to the exact con-
formity of the two for any long distance. Going north or
south from the northern road over the range, along the line of
junction for two miles, no contact of the two could be found,
but in the whole distance they seem exactly conformable, and
to have shared all minor disturbances together ; for instance,
although the rocks are tilted so that they strike N. 65° E. and
dip 40° S.E., they have also been subjected to an E-W.
thrust, as is seen on a large scale farther south, so that small
por tions placed irregularly among the rest have a N.-S. strike,
which is shared by both the schists and the quartzite.

The basal conglomerate often blackened by argillitic mate-
rial is a rock of very different habit from this fine grained
biotitic feldspathic quartzite ; but the description above given
of the passage of the beds across Vernon indicates that the
former passes into the other going eastward beneath the schists

372 B. K. Emerson—* Bernardston Series” of

and is then brought up by a fault along the eastern base of the
schist series, and in places thrust over the latter in apparent
conformity. The fault line must be an exceedingly tortuous
one, and on the east the Grass Hill series must be a repetition
of the West Northfield series.

The Bernardston Series east of the Connecticut.—The
adjoining area east of the river in Northfield, is unfortunately
so covered by the terrace sands, that only few outcrops appear.
I think that the rocks of the Bernardston series find their east-
ern limit through the whole length of Northfield, Ewing and
Montague, at the foot of the high ground which bounds the ~
Connecticut Valley on the east; that it ends without any
marked shore deposit; but with great crushing of the fine
quartzite, probably on a fault of great magnitude and extent,
and finally that the quartzite schists and amphibolite, which
succeed to the east in the Northfield Hills, though presenting
some points of similarity with the Bernardston rocks, are to be
associated rather with the series which lies west of the argillite
and which are presumably older.

The Quartzite in Northfield —N orth of this village, a por-
phyritic quartzite identical with the eastern band in the West
Northfield range, crops out along the eastern edge of the high
terrace, but is immediately followed on the east by an older
series mentioned above. It is much brecciated and abundantly
cemented by hematite. It appears also in the brook bottoms;
and just over the line in Winchester, a shaft has been sunk a
hundred feet in it for lead, which appears very sparingly in
narrow interrupted fissures of a few millimeters width, asso-
ciated with barite and fluorite in equally small quantities, and
at the bottom with beautiful druses of pale yellow, saddle-
shaped, dolomite crystals. Below the surface the quartzite is
snow-white, but otherwise unchanged. The rock is a hard
white saeccharoidal sandstone, regularly porphyritie with small
clear feldspars in stout rectangular cross sections for the most
part striated, and plainly of secondary growth since they en-
close sand grains. It is here everywhere massive. Outcrops
are seen in all brook beds in the north part of the town, and
it approaches nearest to the older series, in a lane running east
from the Moody homestead and along the Winchester road.
It is here greatly brecciated and full of quartz and hematite
veins. On the east of the boundary line several bands of the
older series abut obliquely against this line, so that the quartz-
ite on the west rests in manifest discordance, either due to
unconformability or faulting against the older series.

The Mica Schist east of the Connecticut River in North-
jield.—East of the river only a single limited outcrop of mica
schist occurs, a half mile below the village, just opposite Grass

Metamorphic Upper Devonian Locks. 373

Hill, and 200 rods from the nearest outcrop of hornblende
rock, on the west side of the river. It agrees in texture with
the lowest beds of schist on the west of the Connecticut, is
fine grained, and carries few accessions. It abounds in flat-
tened cavities, which seem to be the obscure traces of fossil
shells, but they are wholly indeterminable, if indeed they be
of organic origin at all. Upon the joint faces are abundant
weathered crystals of a flesh colored zeolite, apparently chaba-
zite. The exact locality is by the brook crossing, at a mill
pond near A. Billings’.

Conclusion.

The section below seems to me to represent the succession of
the beds represented, the newest above.

1. Mica schist, 9. Hornblende schist and
2. Hornblende schist, Magnetite,

3. Mica schist, 10. Limestone,

4, Hornblende schist, 11. Hornblende schist,

5. Mica schist, 12. Quartzite conglomerate,
6. Hornblende schist, 13. Argillite,

7, Mica schist, 14. Calciferous mica schist.
8. Quartzite,

Originally heavy beds of shale (a) graduated upward into a
great series of feldspathic sandstones (>) and conglomerates,
which contained a band of erinoidal limestone with a local de-
velopment of iron ore near its surface. Above this was an ex-
tensive series of shales (¢) with several intercalated beds of
impure limestone. The first series has changed into a crumpled
and cleaved phyllite to which the name argillite has been
for a long time appropriated. The second series has passed
through all the changes to a gneiss so complete that Professor
Hitchcock insists on associating it with the Bethlehem gneiss—
quartzite with flattened pebbles, muscovite quartzite, biotite
quartzite, feldspathic quartzite often porphyritic, and complete
biotite gneiss often becoming chloritic from superficial change.

The limestone has become most coarsely crystalline and the
lime and iron have been carried far out into the quartzites
above and below to form hornblende schists and complex horn-
blende-chlorite pyrite rocks.

The iron ore forms a bed of magnetite or a magnetite rock.

The upper series is changed to complete mica-schists span-
gled with transverse biotite crystals, often loaded with garnets
and staurolites; while the limestone beds are changed from the
surface toward the center into hornblende schist beds abstract-
ing the iron from an adjacent band of the shales.

374 B. Kk. Emerson— Upper Devonian Rocks.

The dips are all to the east and the beds are several times
repeated by monoclinal faulting and with each reappearance of
the quartzite it is finer grained and more feldspathic.

The whole series has a slight pitch to the south, so that in
Vernon the whole upper series tapers northward and disap-
pears; and then in going eastward from the argillite we pass
from the more quartzose conglomerates through muscovite
and biotite quartzites to complete gneisses, as in the successive
reappearances farther south.

The most abundant and characteristic fossils are Chemung
with several Hamilton forms, so that the limestone, magnetite,
and the base of the quartzite above the limestone may be
placed with certainty near the base of the Chemung. That
the whole series must go together is, I think, clear from the
map and the preceding discussion. The suggestion of Pro-
fessor Hitchcock, that the limestone was bounded on both sides
by faults* prove true for the west side, but is not true for the
east side, and the important deduction made by him that the
limestone was greatly newer than all the surrounding rocks is
also disproved.

The argillite, though the oldest rock, is least decomposed,
crumpled and cleaved with dull surfaces and full of coal grains
and kaolin, in its most eastern exposures showing minute
pustules on its slaty surfaces, and at last developing garnet and
biotite in some abundance. In the western exposures of the
mica-schist series, kaolin could scarcely be detected, and biotite,
garnet and staurolite were quite abundant, but almost micro-
scopic, while farther east the surfaces show clearly the musco-
vite sheen, and the above accessions are abundant and large.
In the ealciferous mica schist which lies below the argillite the
separate muscovite scales are clearly visible to the eye, and the
same accessories occur still larger and with a very different and
much more complex structure.

*e1O+ eps old.

+ The note in the former part of this paper at the foot of page 264 should be
transferred to page 266. It applies to figure 2.

_¥

Pai
A

ae P. EF. Browning—Analysis of Rhodochrosite. 375

Arr. XLVIL—Analysis of Rhodochrosite from Franklin
Furnace, New Jersey ; by P. E. BRownine.

THE specimen of rhodochrosite, an analysis of which is here
given, was collected for the Yale Museum some two or three
years since and was furnished to writer for examination by Pro-
fessor E. S. Dana. It has a massive, cleavable structure and a
bright pink color. Franklinite and willemite are immediately
associated with it. The method of analysis was, as follows:

A portion.of the mineral was dissolved in hydrochlorie acid,
evaporated to dryness to separate any silica present. The
filtrate from silica was treated either with sodic acetate or
ammonium hydrate and the iron separated and weighed. After
the separation of the iron, the zine was precipitated as sulphide
by hydrogen sulphide in acetic acid solution. The filtrate
from sulphide of zine was treated with bromine water, by
which method the manganese comes down as black oxide. In
two determinations ammonia was used with the bromine water
to bring about the same result. In all these cases the black
oxide was dissolved and reprecipitated to avoid any holding
back of lime. The black oxide in every case was dissolved by
sulphurous and hydrochloric acids, precipitated as phosphate
and weighed after ignition as pyrophosphate according to
Gibbs’s method. The amount of manganese being large, two
direct determinations were also made by Ford’s method, which
consists in boiling the mineral, after separating the silica, with
strong nitric acid and potassium chlorate until green fumes
cease to be given off. The black oxide is thus directly pre-
cipitated and may be treated as above by Gibbs’s method.
These results were satisfactory in their agreement. The filtrate
from black oxide of manganese was evaporated to about 300
or 400em*, made ammoniacal, and calcium precipitated as
oxalate, dissolved and reprecipitated in same manner. The
filtrate from both oxalate precipitations was evaporated (and
in two cases the residue was ignited to free it from great
excess of salts of ammonia) and precipitated as phosphate, dis-
solved in hydrochloric acid, and reprecipitated in same manner
with ammonia and a little hydrodisodic phosphate, ignited and
weighed as pyrophosphate. Each element was determined at
least three times. Five determinations of manganese were
made. . ‘'wo analyses of the mineral were carried through in
platinum dishes to avoid any contamination by silica in glass
or porcelain. The amount of iron in ferrous condition was
determined by dissolving a portion of mineral in sulphuric

Am. Jounk. Scl.—THIRD SERIES, VoL, XL, No. 239.—Nov., 1890.

376 P. HE. Browning—Analysis of Rhodochrosite.

acid and titrating with a standard solution of potassium per-
manganate. Three determinations of carbon dioxide were
made taking 0°5 gram portions, and a fourth in which 2 grams
were used agreed “closely with the others. In these determin-
ations the carbon dioxide was set free in suitable apparatus
by the action of hydrochloric acid and heating, and weighed
after absorption in potassium hydrate. The analysis is as fol-
lows:
Specific gravity = 3°47.

MnOR 2 Paka Gea sas 45°02 per cent.
Ca Ones hie ae eases 28
ZA ah ERIE IEE 2°32
Mio: On se Me fee Sea eens 1°76
Me Ovens ieee ieee 0°22
Mes OR sh ausiietainuan 0-16
SiO rhe Nekea paar tee ae OS 2
COs era tees aes erou

100°02 per cent.

The presence of silica suggested the possible presence of
zine silicate (Zn,SiO,) as impurity; accordingly there was
deducted from the ZnO found enough to balance the silica, and
the remaining constituents were calculated to one hundr ed per
cent. The result is given in I below.

I 10K
Min ORs Seer ees 45D per centa MnC Oy Sana a. 73°78 per cent
CAO (me eee yee 11°41 CaC Oe eee 20s8
ZnO Pipe eee S 1°48 LnC Ore. = 2°28
Mo Oi sire tinihe 1°78 Me COS te yas 3°74
HeOiees aa ee 0322 I re\ Of Oa aa 0°35
ex O ee bes a8 0°16 BL eA@ Rea eee) See SONG
CONG AREY. 39°40 ae
100°68
100-00

The hypothetical composition of the mineral, calculating the
bases as carbonates, is given under II above. Tt will be seen
that the amount of acid (CO,) required to supply the bases
exceeds the amount found by 0°68 per cent. The ratio of
Mn: Ca: Mg = 64:2: -44.

In concluding this paper, the writer would express his ap-
preciation of the valuable advice obtained from Professor
Gooch during the progress of the analysis.

Kent Laboratory, Yale University, July, 1890.

EF! A. Partridge—Atomic Weight of Cadmium. — 317

Art. XLVIUIL—A Re-determination of the Atomic Weight
of Cadmium; by Epw. A. PArTripGs, M.A., B.S.

THE atomic weight of cadmium has been determined by
Stromeyer, Von Hauer,* Lenssen,? Dumast{ and Huntingdon.§
With O=16 for the basis of calculation the values obtained
by these experimenters are the following: by Stromeyer 111-48,
by Von Hauer 111:96, by Lenssen 112-08, by Dumas 112-25, by
Huntington 112°24. From _ these results Clarke calculates
112-092 to be the most probable figure, and concludes his article
on the subject with this remark: “It will be seen that
Dumas’s and Huntingdon’s determinations both made with
haloid salts of cadmium agree with wonderful closeness and so

-econfirm each other. On the other hand, Von Hauer’s data
give a value which is much lower. Apparently Von Hauer’s
method was good, and the reason for the discrepancy remains
to be discovered. Until that is ascertained, I prefer to use the
above mean value rather than to adopt one investigation and
reject the others.”

This investigation was undertaken with the hope of arriving
at a value for the atomic weight of cadmium more reliable
than that given by former experimenters.

The following points were regarded as of first importance :

1st. The most scrupulous care in the purification of the mate-
rials used in every stage of the work.

2d. Avoidance of any method in which the reactions in-
volved were uncertain or doubtful.

3d. The utmost care and refinement in weighing.

4th. Use of a large number of determinations as the basis
of calculation.

At the outset much time was devoted to making a pure
cadmium salt by recrystallization of the sulphate, and much
work was devoted to accumulating a stock of this as the start-
ing point. This, however, was discarded in favor of the metal
obtained by distillation.

The literature upon this subject is interesting, though some-
what meager. Mercury has been purified by distillation for
years. Demarcay| in 1882 observed that zinc and cadmium
are volatile in vacuo at comparatively low temperature, and
suggests this as a means of purification. In 1884, Schuller

* Jour. tir Prakt. Chemie, xxii, 350,

+ Ibid., Ixxix, 281.

t¢ Ann. Chem. Pharm., ]xiii, 27.

§ Proc. Amer. Acad., 1881.

|| Comptes Rendus, xev, 183.

§] Ann. d. Phys., xviii, 320, and Jahresbericht 1884, 1550.

3878 «=F. A. Partridge—Atomic Weight of Cadmium.

stated that zine and cadmium can be distilled in vacuo, leaving
the impurities as a residue. This method has been employed
by Morse and Burton* for the purification of zine. One of the
means employed by Stas in his classical investigation upon
atomic weights was the purification of silver by distillation.
Whenever available, distillation ranks first among the processes
for purification at the disposal of the chemist. This was
affected in the case of cadmium in tube retorts of glass, about
30% in length and 20-25™™ in diameter.

The tubes were closed at one end and drawn down at a point
about 11° from the closed end, making a neck about 12™™ in
diameter. 100 grams of cadmium having been introduced,
the open end was drawn down to a size suitable for a connec-
tion with the mercury pump. The portion of the tube be-
tween the neck and the end connected with the pump serves
to condense and retain the distilled metal.

After having been supported on a combustion furnace, the
retort was exhausted as completely as a rapidly acting three-
fall mercury pump would effect in one hour. The gauge, then
standing only a fraction of amm. lower than the barometer. As
the pump was self-acting this degree of exhaustion was readily
maintained during the entire operation. Heat was then slowly
applied and so managed that the greater part of the metal con-
densed and ran down the sides of the retort, only the more
volatile portion passing beyond the neck of the tube. A frac-
tional distillation was thus effected, cadmium alone passing
over. In an hour 60 grams of cadmium had collected in
the receiver, the distillation was then stopped and when entirely
cold the metal was removed by cutting open the tube. The
greater part of it collected as a bar at the bottom of the
receiver, while the sides and. top were lined with crystals,
many of which were quite perfect. The residue in the retort
was covered with a brownish black scum, which was tested
spectroscopically and found to consist mainly of lead, iron and
thallium, with a little copper. The lines of zinc were once
very faintly seen.

The cadmium thus purified was distilled a second time in the
same manner. The residue from this distillation, which was
pushed no further than the first, remained perfectly bright to
the end and when tested with the spectroscope did not reveal
a trace of foreign metals. All the cadmium used in this inves-
tigation was thus purified by double distillation.

One of the methods used for the determination of the atomic
weight of cadmium is that of Lenssen which, although good,
was merely touched upon by him. His result was based upon
only three experiments, using very small quantities of material.

* Amer. Chem. Jour., x, 311.

E. A. Partridge—Atomic Weight of Cadmium. 879

The method consists in changing cadmium oxalate to cadmium
oxide, and observing the loss of weight from which loss the
atomic weight is calculated.

For working this method cadmium oxalate was made as
follows :

The perfectly pure metallic cadmium obtained by double
distillation was dissolved in pure nitric acid, prepared by care-
ful distillation, and the solution concentrated so far that on
cooling the cadmium nitrate Cd(NO,),+4H,O, separated in
long fibrous crystals. The latter were drained at the filter
pump, dissolved in water, and a solution of the theoretical
amount of pure oxalic acid added. Cadmium oxalate thus
prepared is a heavy crystalline precipitate which can be easily
washed. This was done several times by decantation. The
precipitate was then placed on a filter and washed at the pump
thirty times with distilled water, after which it was dried for
10 hours at 150°C. The salt thus obtained was tested for
nitric acid by the phenol test and showed not the slightest
trace. The pure cadmium oxalate thus obtained was subjected
to the following treatment :

About one gram of cadmium oxalate was placed in a
porcelain crucible and was then dried in an air bath at 150° C,
for five hours. This length of time was usually sufficient to
my the salt completely. When this had been accomplished,
1. @., when a constant weight had been attained, the crucible
containing the oxalate was covered with a watch class and very
cautiously heated. This operation required the greatest care,
since if the temperature became too high, reduction and con-
sequent volatilization of metal occurred. Four of the earlier
experiments were lost inthis way. That volatilization of metal
had taken place was made evident by a slight sublimate on the
watch glass. When the oxalate was completely decomposed
{this was shown by the uniform brown color of the resulting
cadmium oxide) it was allowed to cool and moistened with a
few drops of nitric acid in order to re-oxidize any reduced
metal. The nitric acid employed for this purpose was espe-
cially purified by very careful distillation. Ten ¢.c. of it evap-
orated in a piatouin dish left a visible but imponderable
residue.

The crucible was then very carefully ignited until all the
cadmium nitrate was decomposed, then placed inside a nickel
crucible 4 high by 4% wide and strongly ignited for half an
hour by means of a Fletcher’s improved Bunsen burner. In
all cases the ignition was repeated until a constant weight was

obtained. There was rarely, however, any loss of weiglit after
the first ignition. To prevent the possibility of any reducing
gases reaching the cadmium oxide, the nickel crucible inside

380 £. A. Partridge—Atomic Weight of Cadmium.

which the porcelain crucible was placed, was forced into a cir-
cular hole cut in a piece of asbestos board 138™ square. The
top of the nickel crucible was flush with the upper surface of
the board, the joint being air tight.

Ten experiments made by the above method gave the fol-
lowing results :

SERIES [.
Weight of Weight of
cadmium oxalate cadmium oxide Atomic
taken. found. weight.
PF ete ee OC OOSOS “70299 IIL ILS} LG)
Die eee Meri, 1°21548 717746 111°793
Doh Heep ae. 110711 “T0807 UM os
Pa ana ree ene yay 1:17948 "75440 SSO.
5) ee eh Mar ans 1°16066 ADT Ie Wee
Gece ne rane 1°17995 TO47 1 111°784
Tee ee Us 119332 7 "85864 111°829
Se FA can 1°43154 91573 INES 23
See eee Le baa yoy L(G) "98197 ILS
NORA Sa dios WALSH "90397 111°834
Totals =" 25) 19-66368) 810027 (1118027)
Mieangv aliens jee ee 111°8027

Ma xeimiunnsie. to vector weet reais 111°834

Miiiintinmec Rees ee eee eee ae ee ce 111°759

Ditlerencens soe ee 2a oe oar 075

JENROlaeHOls: ROE Go yy 010

Another method used for the determination of the atomic
weight of cadmium is that of Von Hauer. It consists in
reducing cadmium sulphate to cadmium sulphide in a stream
of hydrogen sulphide and observing the loss of weight. As
the result obtained by Von Hauer is considerably lower than
those obtained by other experimenters, doubt has been cast upon
its accuracy. The following possibilities have been suggested as
tending to make Von Hauer’s results low: Ist. That the cad-
mium sulphate as weighed by him contained hygroscopic mois-
ture. 2d. That the presence of metallic iron in the ferrous sul-
phide used in making the hydrogen sulphide would lead to the
generation of hydrogen and consequent reduction and volatil-
ization of cadmium. 3d. That some cadmium sulphide might
have been volatilized in the stream of hot hydrogen sulphide.

It was, therefore, determined to carry out a series of experi-
ments by this method in order to determine if any of these
objections were weli grounded.

In the experiments about to be described, the first danger
was overcome by weighing the sulphate in stoppered glass

E. A, Partridge—Atomic Weight of Cadmium. 381

tubes. The second was shown to be groundless, as in some
experiments the hydrogen sulphide used was prepared from
antimony trisulphide and in others from ferrous sulphide with
perfect agreement of results. The third objection was dis-
proved experimentally, as the highest heat that hard Bohemian
glass will withstand did not cause any volatilization of cadmium
sulphide. That there was no volatilization of sulphide was
proved by the weight of a sample of the same which was
heated in a stream of hydrogen sulphide to the extent just
mentioned, remaining absolutely constant, and also by the fact
that there was not the slightest sublimate on the tube.

The hydrogen sulphide employed in this and in the follow-
ing series of experiments was washed by passing it through
water and dried by passing through a long calcium chloride
tube. The carbon dioxide was dried by passing through a
wash bottle containing sulphuric acid and then over calcium
chloride By means of a three-way cock the carbon dioxide
could be run into the apparatus without changing the connec-
tions.

The cadmium sulphate was prepared in the following man-
ner: Cadmium nitrate, prepared as above described, was dis-
solved in water and a slight excess of pure sulphuric acid added.
Five c. ¢. of this acid were evaporated in a platinum dish, leav-
ing a visible but imponderable residue.

The solution was evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish
and heated long after fumes of sulphuric acid ceased to come
off. The sulphate was dissolved in water, recrystallized and
dried for six hours at 200°C. .

The following is a description in detail of the method used
in the experiments, the results of which are tabulated below.
(Series IT.)

The dry cadmium sulphate was placed in a porcelain boat
and heated for some time in an air bath to about 800° C.
While still warm the boat was placed in the weighing tube,
allowed to cool and weighed. Cadmium sulphate parts with
its hygroscopic moisture very readily at 300° OC. After weigh-
ing, the boat containing the cadmium sulphate was placed in a
hard glass tube, 50™ in length, supported over a small combus-
tion furnace. <A stream of pure dry hydrogen sulphide was
then passed through the tube and heat applied. It was heated
moderately for 45 minutes and to dull redness for as much
longer. By this time its reduction to sulphide was always com-
plete. It was then allowed to cool to about 200° C. in a slow
stream of the gas. When the temperature had fallen to this
degree the hydrogen sulphide was displaced by a stream of
pure dry carbon dioxide, and while still warm the boat contain-
ing the cadmium sulphide was placed in the weighing tube,

382 EF. A. Partridge—Atomic Weight of Cadmium.

allowed to cool and weighed. Ten experiments by this method
gave the following results :

Serizs II.

Weight of Weight of Atomic
cadmium sulphate cadmium sulphide weight.
taken. found.
barat ae eh eee ae 1°60514 1:1) 076 OS
DA Me pa es LA 1°55831 1:07834 111°789
SS ae No se ety A 1°67190 1°15669 111°790
AS Wo rel ap ee 1°66976 1°15554 111°818
Ea Saas epee ayes ar Se 1°40821 °97450 111°801
Gee eens 1°56290 1°08156 111°806
ee oN I 1°63278 1°12985 111°778
Sateen ee 1°58270 1°09524 111°797
Ore eure paw ta yin 1°53873 1°06481 111°796
QI ee ey eee 1°70462 1°17962 111°801
‘hotaleee = 15°93505 WL ala (111-7969)
Ma Via Ue are yk cory eee errata 111°7969
Miasxcimin mie yes See alpine eens 111-818
Mina araa tana y he ee pene a i Sy ieee lal 776s
DatterenGels ere ae pene 040
Prob alle menn Oise seein ee ‘008

In the course of the work the experiment of passing hydro-
gen sulphide over gently heated cadmium oxalate was tried.
This salt was completely transformed into the sulphide at a
temperature much below that, which is necessary for its con-
version into cadmium oxide. This reaction was then made the
basis of a new method for the determination of the atomic
weight of cadmium. The method used in the ten experi-
ments, the results of which are given below (Series III), was as
follows:

Cadmium oxalate was placed in a porcelain boat and dried at —
150° C. to a constant weight. It loses all of its moisture at
that temperature. While warm the boat was placed in the
weighing tube, allowed to cool and weighed. The boat con-
taining the cadmium oxalate was then placed i in a tube arranged
for passing hydrogen sulphide and supported over a. combus-
tion furnace as above described. The reducing gas was passed
through the tube and heat slowly applied. When the contents
of the boat had been completely changed to sulphide, the heat
was raised to incipient redness and kept at that temperature
for about one hour. The cadmium sulphide was allowed to
cool to about 200° C. in a slow stream of hydrogen sulphide
which was then displaced by a stream of pure dry carbon diox-
ide. While still warm the boat containing the cadmium sul-

E. A. Partridge— Atomic Weight of Cadmium. 383

phide was placed in the weighing tube, allowed to cool and
weighed. In every case the sulphide was reheated in the
stream of hydrogen sulphide. There was never any volatiliza-
tion of cadmium sulphide, as the weight always remained the
same, although in some experiments the sulphide was heated
three times as long as in others. Moreover there was never
any sign of volatilization either on the boat or on the tube.
Ten experiments by the above method gave the following
results :
Serres III.

Weight of Weight of Atomic
cadmium oxalate cadmium sulphide weight.
taken. found.
(| 50 ee eee 1°57092 1°18065 111°812
esi ay ee 1°73654 1°24979 111°786
Sree a 2°19276 1°57825 111°824
Aivee rgee Se 1:24337 °89492 111°828
{ite 8 pia eerie 1:18743 "85463 111°807
(Gpayeee sea 1°54038 1°10858 De ial
eee ee ae 1°38905 99974 111°806
yale Se sini: 2°03562 1°45617 111°833
O peane eae 2°03781 1°46658 beg
(Qk eos Br eS 1°91840 1°38075 111°814
MRotalessuae 16°85228 12°12906 (1 11°8050)
Micanpvalue esis baie. se ese re 111°805
Miasxcimuiimies ss see seed eee TS 33
Minimums see Sede eee Tae eal
Ditlerencepite sae se eee eee 062
Ob ablerernroreersc tyke ee 009

The mean of the three series gives 111-8015 as the atomic
weight of cadmium, with O = 16.

The following is a description of the methods and apparatus
used in the weighings: In the experiments by Lenssen’s
method two crucibles were used, one as a counterpoise. This
dummy was treated in every respect in the same manner as the
crucible containing the material operated upon. For weighing
the crucibles, small beakers, with glass covers ground on, were
provided. These beakers were adjusted so that their weights
were approximately equal. The balance being provided with
two riders, one of them was used to obtain adjustment with
the beakers on the pans, while the other was used in the actual
weighing after the crucibles were introduced. The beakers
were never touched with the hands, but were taken in and out
of the balance case by means of tongs, and the crucibles were
introduced into the beakers with platinum forceps. The adjust-
ment of the balance with the beakers on the pans was tested

384 LHillebrand— Occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite.

before and after every weighing, and during the entire series
of experiments the greatest variation was ‘0001 grams.

For weighing the boats used in the second and third series of
experiments, light glass tubes, with accurately fitting stoppers
of glass, were made. ‘Two boats were used in every experi-
ment, one as a counterpoise. The boats, while still warm,
were placed in the tubes and the tubes stoppered. When quite
cold the stoppers were momentarily loosened to restore the
atmospherie equilibrium inside the tubes.

The balance used was most accurate and highly sensitive, of
the short arm pattern, with an aluminium beam. With a
load of 30 grams in each pan the resting point was displaced
two whole divisions by ‘0001 grams. The weights were
adjusted with the utmost care, especially for this work. The
weighings in all experiments were reduced to the vacuum
standard.

University of Pennsylvania.

Art. XLIX.—On the occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite
and on the composition of Uraninite in general. Con-
densed from a forthcoming Bulletin of the U. 8. Geological
Survey ; by W. F. HILLEBRAND.

Tue following pages contain in much condensed form the
results of chemical work thus far done by myself on uraninite
from various localities in North America and Europe, of
which brief notices have already from time to time appeared.*
For various reasons it has been impossible to bring the investi-
gation as far forward as was expected, and the results are in
some respects incomplete and in others difficult of interpreta-
tion, but so much time has elapsed since the work was begun
that it seems advisable to make public now what has been
achieved, without waiting an indefinite and probably long
time for the sake of then presenting the subject in a more
finished and satisfactory form.

At an early stage of the work it was found that to the
North American varieties could by no possibility be appled
the formula obtained by Comstock+ for the Branchville
Conn., mineral, and by Blomstrand { for the Norwegian and
Bohemian varieties. Comstock’s analysis was shown to be
incorrect, he having found no thoria where about 7 per cent

* This Journal, IIT, xxxvi, 295, xxxviii, 329, and Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No.
G0, p. 13].

+ This Journal, III, xix, 220.

t Geol. Fér. Forh., vii, 59, and Journ. prakt. Chem., xxix, 191.

_—_

Hillebrand— Occurrence of Nitrogen im Uraninite. 385

existed and his UO, being moreover much too low. A re-
examination of the Norwegian mineral seemed desirable, and
thanks to Professors W. C. Brogger and A. E. Nordenskidld,
who kindly furnished material from several quarries about
Moss and from Arendal, this was rendered possible. The
results were surprising and established beyond question that
the formula found by Blomstrand was purely accidental, that
the mineral from different quarries varied in composition and
in such a manner that it was inadmissible to suppose that the
occurrence analyzed by him represented the pure material
from which the others might have been derived by alteration.
The most surprising discovery, however, was that nitrogen is
an integral component of most uraninites and possibly of all,
in quantities ranging from mere traces up to over 2°50 per cent.

The nitrogen is set free from the mineral as nitrogen gas by
the action of a non- oxydizing inorganic acid, and “by fusion
with an alkaline carbonate and probably also caustic alkalies in
a current of CO,. As obtained by the use of acids the gas is
colorless, odorless, a non-supporter of combustion, unchanged
by mixture with air, neutral to litmus papers, not absorbed by
caustic alkalies, and insoluble in water, at least its coefticient
of absorption is so small as to be inappreciable without
elaborate experimentation. When subjected in a eudiometer
to the ordeal prescribed by Bunsen* there results no aitera-
tion in volume, other than that caused by the union of the
hydrogen and oxygen added.

This evidence, while fairly conclusive as to the nature of
the gas, was purely negative, and proof of a more positive
character was sought. Nitric-acid is formed from a moist
mixture of the gas with pure oxygen by long continued
passage of the electric spark, and ammonia is produced by the
so-called silent discharge through a mixture of the gas with
three volumes of electrolytic hydrogen. The contraction
produced in the latter case could be measured by cubic centi-
meters, and water used as an absorbent of the ammonia
colored red litmus paper deep blue, besides giving a strong
ammonia reaction with Nessler’s reagent. With dilute hydro-
chloric acid as an absorbent there was obtained an abundant
precipitate of ammonium platinie chloride. In a Geissler
tube under a pressure of 10™™ and less the gas afforded the
fluted spectrum of nitrogen with great brillianey.

Special attention was paid to the estimation of UO,,
more properly of the oxygen required to effect cone
oxidation after solution of the mineral in sealed tubes with
sulphuric acid. It was found that concordant results were
only to be obtained when the tubes were filled with CO, from

* Gasometrische Methoden, 2d ed., pp. 73 and 74.

386 Hillebrand—Occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite.

a generator and not by the introduction of Na,CO, into the
tubes themselves. With the observation of this and other
precautions detailed in the unabridged article the results of
titration with KMnO, leave nothing to be desired as regards
accuracy.

The analyses which follow were with two exceptions—V and
XV III—made before recognition of the nature and import-
ance as regards quantity of the gas given off by acid, and

North American Uraninites.

Connecticut.
Glastonbury. Branchville. Bool eens

I Il III lv Vv v1 VII \WAboG || I<, Xe NGI
WO; -=._|° 22:08) 23:35] 22°22) 96-48! 23:03) 13:27) 21°54) 14:00) > 25:26 50:83), 44-1
WOs = =| 59°13) 58:01) 59°31 |— br-43)) 79°93) 2-25)" 645702)" 70:99 58°51) 39°31) 46°56
TiO ane trace
ZrOo? | | 33 7°59 |
TO eee L Ee ) | 949 } ; 7°20 6:93 \ 6°52 2°78) )
Cah Sa SsiHl Asie ere "25) | "22 XS) a.
(La,bi),0s 9°57 +10 31) 33 a 10 | | 30] 3-04
(Y,Er)0s | 1-46 | | -201) | 20 |
HesO3--__ Hea 733 67) “40 4S) otal "28 27 trace. |
IPO) aL oe 3°74 S72 Ss (ili oa O 3.08 4°35 4°34 4.35 “70 4:20 4:53
YANO) “2 a8 | "44
IO)! Soke 32
Mn@pae trace. 10 SO; 82 16 |
ORO) 2255 “08 undet. | “08 aL "18 “22, 30 “84 "85 23
Mr Oen=e | sai Neva. 3
ei | ees f 80){ 28
1EGX0) 22-8 ‘97 undet. undet. | “61 ‘43 68) /-mnOl 68. «1:96 = 1°21 undet.
ING ae undet. undet. undet. undet. 2°41 undet. undet. 2°63 “15 “37 undet.
SHO S455 1:06 a5) ‘16 16 “03 “1183 20 2-79 08) 13
POG ase 02 o2/2\ an
AEHOR LL | 43,
ili Ss 2 04
CuF eS, _- 12)
FeS. ___- 24
Cb.0; ye “96
Insol. "85 1:74 "42 “70 “89 “04 “14 1°40 10 “06
Total_... 99-05 96°91 96-25 99-49 101-49 98-21 99-37 101-49 99-95 100:99 98-91.
Spa Gua Iel39 9-051 9°587 9°622| 9°733, 9560} 9°348) 8-068) 9:086; 9:492

their object was chiefly to ascertain the relative percentages of
UO,, UO,, and rare earths with a reasonable degree of close-
ness. Unusual pains to secure very accurate summations were
therefore not taken except in analysis V, and this was un-
fortunate as will appear later.

Comstock and Blomstrand both assumed that the iron found
by them existed as FeO, but for reasons which cannot be

[Tillebrand— Occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite. 887

detailed in this paper I have preferred to consider it generally

as Fe,O,. The values given for UO, and UO, are therefore sub-
ject to a correction if this assumption should prove unwar-
ranted, but the amount of iron found is so small as to affect in
no way the conclusions drawn from the analyses. It is highly
probable from an experiment made on the material of analysis
V that none of the iron belongs to uraninite, but is simply de-
rived from foreign bodies from which it is practically impossi-
ble to free the mineral entirely. It is probable that in all cases
but V and XVIII the total percentage of earths is somewhat
too low. Ovxalic acid always leaves a portion of the earths with
uranium, and the remainder can only be recovered by pre-
cipitation as nitrates by ether from a neutral solution. This
was done only in the two cases mentioned, which in point of
time post-date all other analyses.

Norwegian Uraninites.

Anneréd. | Elvestad. Elvestad. Skraatorp. eee Tels | Arendal. | Arendal.
{|= — |
XII XIII. XIV. XV XVI. | XVII. XSVIELIS
Wi@Osps er ane 30°63 ANB || Deval 32°00 35°54 41°71 26°80
WO, tse 46°13 50:74 43°03 43°88 A 3 Sia ae alls, 44°18
LOR Res ees 06 08 |) |
TNO GA ue eee 6°09 848 | | 8°98 6°63 | } A415
CoOn seen 18 oil b 8:43 | sug "20 3°66 none
(Di,La)203 _- 27 22 Gane | 36 22/3) 67
(QZ 1Dy) Oy se = ie TOT 3) “97 1:03 9°76 9°05
Hes Ose 25 “ils | 30 09 3 03 “24
PBOe eels) 9°04 10°06 8:58 | 9-46 9°44 | 10°54 10°95
Min @psse)5 ee 06
CaQ eae ares 37 Bes | By 36 “41 | 1:06 “61
NOC see SSE! ) 1) VASAT A 10 04
ieee trace trace. | f 13 trace 13 93 1B
EO sae 4 o1/83. | A or ol) 2350 undet.
INGE eee eels erly 1:28 1°08 1:03 1:08 undet. | 1:24
SiO seen 5210 Bishi | "29 753 “49 ‘90 “50
Ee Oees ener are 02 04 trace. ? trace trace.
Insol. ___ 4°42 “45 15°45 1°54 "42 | 1°10 119
— ——— || | = |] —e
AMoyey| 2 100°61 100°21 100°44 100°14 100°09 | 94:50* | 99°77
aes |e pee ens oes vera TVET PURSES EGG | SS \erreet Sareea ers
Sp Gee = 8893 9°145 8320 8:966 | 8:930 | 7500 |

Want of space forbids reproducing in this article numerous
explanatory notes and the separate figures of which the above
are in many cases the mean, without which the accompanying
tables should on no account be used as a basis for criticism.

The Glastonbury material was all from Hales’s quarry in
the town of Glastonbury, a few miles N.E. of Middletown,

and was obtained through various channels.

That

from

* The loss in this analysis is supposed to be mainly accounted for by COs.

888 LLillebrand— Occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite.

Branchville was received from Professors Brush and Dana,
and was the residue of the material from which Comstock had
taken his for analysis. No. VI was by far the purest of any
material obtained from any locality. It is earnestly to be
hoped that more of this excellent material may be found for
closer investigation, since it possesses the greatest density and
the highest percentage of UO, and N of any known variety,
besides representing the extreme of perfection as regards
erystallization and purity.

The Colorado mineral differs from all other American oceur-
rences in that it is devoid of crystalline form and that thoria is
wanting, its place being apparently supplied by zirconia. It
moreover contains the least amount of lead of any known urani-
nite. The North Carolina material was analyzed mainly to
learn if rare earths enter into its composition. No. X represents
the composition of the purest sample available, and No. XI
of the residue after extraction of the yellow oxidation products
by very weak HCl. No really unaltered uraninite appears to
have been found in North Carolina.

Of the Norwegian specimens those analyzed under XII and
XIII were from Professor W. OC. Brégger, the remainder from
Professor A. E. Nordenskidld. XII is the original Bréggerite
of Blomstrand, while XIII is “so viel ich weiss von derselben
Stelle wie das Originalmaterial Lorenzens” (Brégger). Those
from Professor Nordenskiéld all bore erroneously, with excep-
tion of that from Arendal, the name Cleveite.

In the following table all the foregoing analyses of Norwe-
gian material have been re-calculated to the percentages found,
excluding the insoluble matter, in order that their true relations
may appear at a glance, whereby the sum of the rare earths
combined is given instead of each earth or group of earths by

XIl. XIII. XIY. axa IQVIG |) 20 XVIII.
WOsst-2552 32°04 25°48 26°04 32°50 35°69 42°11 27:12
WOT 2222s 48°25 50°97 50°83 44°57 43°56 | 24°51 44-71
Harths____- T97 10°18 9°96 10°64 8:12 13°57 14°03
Eb@Ossereee 9°45 10°11 10714 | 9°61 9°48 10°66 11-68
GaQere a= hy) Stee 45 36 “41 1:07 62
EG Ome te StH 3 tlh | “78 Ay 1:23 ?
Nee eae 1:23 1:28 1:28 1°05 108 | ? 1:26

itself. Only those constituents are tabulated which may be
considered unquestionably in whole or in part as belonging to
the uranium mineral.

An examination of analyses XII to XVI as re-caleulated
hardly allows of any other conclusion than that the specimens

HHillebrand—Occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite. 389

from the above four different quarries about Moss belong to
one and the same mineral species, just as may be said of the
mineral from the two Connecticut localities. While analysis
XII differs in some respects from Blomstrand’s analysis of
Bréggerite it simply serves to show that the mineral may vary
in composition in the same quarry. Leaving out of considera-
tion for the present the nitrogen, it is certain that the ortho-
uranate formula derived by him from his analysis cannot be
obtained from No. XII. A comparison of analyses XIII and
XIV with Lorenzen’s analysis,* coupled with Professor Brég-
ger’s words given above and the fact that not one of the speci-
mens from the neighborhood of Moss above analyzed contains
less than 8 per cent of earths, gives rise to the strongest possible
suspicion that that analyst has overlooked thoria altogether,
notwithstanding the fact that the present material is from
Elvestad and Lorenzen’s was from Huggeniskilen. The pos-
sibility of a mistake as to the source of Lorenzen’s material is
suggested by the totally different ratio between UO, and UO,
in the specimen from Huggeniskilen sent by Professor Nor-
denskidld (No. XVI).. [f it should prove that Lorenzen over-
looked thoria, another of Blomstrand’s supports in favor of the
ortho-uranate formula for all uraninites, including Broéggerite
and Cleveite, is knocked away, the first being the earlier and
as shown incorrect analysis of Branchville uraninite.

The oxygen ratios calculated for analyses XII to XVI,
counting all earths as thoria, whereby the comparison is very
little affected, since the percentages of other earths are almost
alike in all analyses, are as given below, as also the ratio for
Blomstrand’s Broggerite, in which FeO has been changed to
Fe,O, and a corresponding change made in the UO, and UO,
in order to compare properly with the others.

| | | |
| Mol. Wt. | XCTIS | XIIL& XI1v. oXaVE XVI. | Broggerite.
| | | |

|

| | |
Osea p28. :5:36 1 | 4-31 1| 5-44 1 5:96 1 6-07 1
WO oa Ziel | 5:10 6°01 ) 18) 514 | 5°15 1
Earths ..| 266 ‘96 } 1°37 | 1-21 + 1-85 | 1-28} 1°33 | -98 } 1-14) 1-02. 1-11
PbO _...| 223 | -68 cat \ aceon) oe | -60))

It is seen that none of the ratios conform even approximately
to that for Blomstrand’s analysis except that of the mineral
from Huggeniiskilen. A re-caleulation of all with Fe,O, instead
of FeO and consequent changes in UO, and UO, and separation
of the earths would give the normal ratio 1:1 for Blomstrand’s
analysis, but the others would differ from it more widely than
in the above exhibit.

* Nyt Mag. f. Naturv., xxviii, 249. UO; 38°23, UO. 50°42, PbO 9°72, FeO 25,
CaO °21, H20 °70, SiOs °31 (99°84).

390 fHillebrand— Occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite.

The correctness of the ortho-uranate formula for Bréggerite
itself having been invalidated by the difference between his
own and analysis XII above, it is hardly worth while to disenss
its applicability to the Bohemian and Saxon uraninites of which
no complete and reliable analyses have been made except perhaps
the single one by Ebelmen in 1848, which on re-caleulation b
Blomstrand was found to conform to his view. It can hardly
be doubted that had Blomstrand been able to analyze material
from more than one quarry about Moss he would have seen
the impossibility of reconciling the discrepancies in composition
so as to admit of the application of one general formula.

It is apparent notwithstanding the deficiency of earths
and one or two other discrepancies, that analysis X VII was
really made upon Cleveite as the label indicated. The den-
sity too corresponds exactly with that found by Nordens-
kiold.* From a comparison of analyses and reasoning which
cannot be here set forth for want of space, it is in the
highest degree probable that the Cleveite of Nordenskidld, the
Nivenite of Hidden and Mackintosh,t and the material of
analysis X VII are identical or represent slightly different stages
of alteration of one and the same original species. What this
species is is pretty clearly indicated by analysis X VIII where
the earths are in about the same proportion as in X VII, but
the UO, and UO, stand in a very different ratio. The mate-
rial of this was likewise from Arendal and presumably from
the precise locality of that of analysis X VII, since the pieces
were in one package without distinguishing labels. Its ex-
treme solubility{ compared with the other Norwegian uranin-
ites is shared by that of analysis X VII, by Cleveite, and by
Nivenite, and is to be explained probably not so much by ad-
vanced decomposition as by the preponderance here of a more
soluble yttrium-uranium compound. Whether this last Aren-
dal material is the same whence Cleveite and its American
representative have been derived by alteration, as seems most
probable, or not, it is in any event a true uraninite of more
basic character than any of the Norwegian thorium-uraninites,
and consequently conforms still less than those to the ortho-
uranate formula.

Only traces of nitrogen were found in uraninite from Przi-
bram, Joachimsthal, and Johanngeorgenstadt. None of the
specimens contained zirconia, thoria, or other rare earths.

* Geol. Fér. Forh., iv, 28, and Zeitschr. f. Kryst., iii, 201.

+ This Journal, III, xxxvili, 481.

t In this connection it may be remarked that the greatest difference exists be-
tween the solubility of the Norwegian and the American uraninites. While 12
hours is more than sufficient to effect complete decomposition of any of the

former by very dilute H.SO, at 100° C., nine days is insufficient for the Con-
necticut mineral.

Hillebrand— Occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite. 391

Owing to the uncertainty of being able to determine with any
close approach to truth the proportions of UO, and UO, in the
presence of sulphides and compounds of arsenic and vanadium,
no quantitative analyses of specimens from those localities have
as yet been made.

Hitherto the analyses have been considered without reference
to the nitrogen. It has been sought to show on grounds which
would be valid even without its presence that the ortho-uranate
formula is capable of no general application to uraninite, and
that in the one or two cases where it does seem to apply this
agreement is probably accidental. Taking into account the
low atomic weight of nitrogen as compared with uranium,
thorium, and lead, it is plain that it must play an important
part in the constitution of the molecule, and that therefore its
discovery without other evidence furnished by the analyses is
sufficient to invalidate entirely the practically identical formule
of Comstock and Blomstrand. Throughout the whole list of
analyses in which nitrogen has been estimated the most striking
feature is the apparent relation between it and the UO,. This
is especially marked in the table of Norwegian uraninites re-
ealeulated, from which the rule might almost be formulated that,
given either nitrogen or UO, the other can be found by simple
calculation. The same ratio is not found in the Connecticut
varieties, but if the determination of nitrogen in the Branch-
ville mineral is to be depended on, the rule still holds that the
higher the UO, the higher likewise is the nitrogen. The Colo-
rado and North Carolina minerals are exceptions, but it should
be borne in mind that the former is amorphous like the Bohe-
mian and possesses the further similarity of containing no
thoria, though zirconia may take its place, and the North Car-
olina material is so much altered that its original condition is
quite unknown.

In the absence of all positive knowledge as to the réle which
nitrogen plays in the mineral it would be idle to speculate at
present upon the proper position of the latter in mineral classi-
fication. Much remains to be done before this question can be
elucidated.

But two explanations seem possible to account for the wide
differences in the oxygen ratios for UO, and total bases, vary-
ing as they do, from 1:4°37 for the Branchville material of
analysis VI to 1:1 for Blomstrand’s Broggerite and even to a
ratio indicating acidity for Nivenite. Either all the others are
alteration products of a mineral having the composition of the
Branchville occurrence, or even of some unknown body entirely
free from UO,; or they are mixtures of two or more substances.
Fractional solution indicates this prettly clearly without decid-

Am. Jour. Sc1.—THIRD SERIES, VOL. XL, No. 239.—Nov., 1890.
25

392 Hillebrand— Occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite.

ing between them, for when Glastonbury uraninite was sub-
jected to the action of sulphuric or hydrochloric acids for dif-
ferent periods of time the residue was found to be enriched in
UO, and likewise in nitrogen, and this enrichment was more or
less according as much or little of the mineral had been dis-
solved.

Whatever may be the eventual conclusion it ail be found
that the small amount of water afforded by all analyses must
be carefully considered. Small as this quantity is, in conse-
quence of its low molecular weight as opposed to uranium,
thorium, and lead, it must play an important part in the min-
eral as a homogeneous whole or in one of its parts if a mixture.
In the latter case it will unquestionably be found to belong to
the more soluble component.

Attention must be called to one difficulty presented by the
analyses for which no satisfactory explanation presents itself.
Analysis V was made partly in duplicate with all possible re-
finements in order to ascertain whether or not the almost con-
stant plus in the summations of those preceding analyses in
which all constituents had been determined, or in which it was
evident that an excess would result by the estimation of the
one or two failing members, was due to impure reagents or to
faulty manipulation. The excess still appears, and it seems as
if some one of the weighings in all analyses must have been
uniformly too high. The cause cannot be sought in a replace-
ment of oxygen by nitrogen in combination with uranium as is
often allowable when fluorine is present in a mineral, for since
the nitrogen is freed as a gas by sulphuric acid it is immaterial
so far as the summation is concerned, whether the proportions
of UO, and UO, as found by titration are correct or not. A
certain amount of oxygen has been used, and it does not alter
the result whether this has been employed to oxidize a sub-
oxide of uranium to UQ,, supposing nitrogen to have replaced
a part of the oxygen in UO,, or only in oxidizing UO, to UO,.
In the former case the actual percentage of UO, in the mineral
would be increased, but the oxygen consumed would be the
same. This matter will be further looked into.

Other very mystifying points have been observed which
were revealed in a series of supplementary experiments on
Glastonbury uraninite which ean here only be outlined in the
briefest manner. Experiment having shown that no nitrogen
could be obtained by H,SO, or by fusion with an alkaline
carbonate after sufficiently long ignition of the mineral in air,
it was sought to learn if the final change in weight by such
ignition represented the difference between loss of water plus
all nitrogen and gain of oxygen from oxidation of UO,. All
experiments made showed a considerable gain in weight,

Hillebrand— Occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite. 898

whereas there should have been a large /oss if the nitrogen
had been expelled. No other explanation seems possible than
that the nitrogen has entered into some other state of combi-
nation from which it is not set free by the usual means. A
somewhat similar change seems to result from heating the min-
eral in hydrogen. All UO, is reduced to UO, and the usual
tests show that the percentage of nitrogen decreases very slowly
as the heating is prolonged, but the total loss is by no means
equal to the sum of water plus oxygen of UO, reduced to UO,
plus the nitrogen that has disappeared; it is slightly, if any, in
excess of water and oxygen from UO, alone. Ammonia is not
formed. Practically no loss in weight occurs on heating the
mineral in CO, beyond that representing the water.

Briefly summarized the conclusions are as follows :

first. Nitrogen exists in uraninite in quantities up to over
2-5 per cent, and seems generally to bear a relation to the
amount of UO, present. This is the first discovery of nitro-
gen in the primitive crust of the earth.

Second. The condition in which the nitrogen exists is un-
known, but it is entirely different from any hitherto observed
in the mineral kingdom.

Third. Analysis of uraninite from various localities has
shown that, with in general the same constituents, the mineral
varies widely in composition, and that its physical character-
istics and its behavior toward certain solvents are often as dis-
tinct as the chemical differences.

Fourth. The formule of Comstock and Blomstrand are inap-
plicable to the zirconia, thoria, and yttria uraninites of North
America and Norway, among which are to be reckoned
Brégegerite, Cleveite, and Nivenite, and probably to the varie-
ties free from earths.

Fifth. Extended and most careful examination of uraninite
specimens from all possible localities is necessary before any
conclusion worthy of acceptance can be reached as to the char-
acter of the chemical combination or combinations represented
by them. The work in this direction should likewise cover a
study of the nitrides aud oxynitrides of uranium and thorium,
with synthetical experiments aiming at the artificial produc-
tion of uraninite.

Work will continue in this laboratory as opportunity may
offer. It is earnestly to be hoped that those possessing or in a
position to secure uraninite specimens will take the trouble to
examine them on the lines suggested in the foregoing pages,
or if unable to do so, will kindly contribute material for exam-
ination here. The interest in the matter is not confined
merely to a solution of the composition of this one mineral;
it is broader than that, and the question arises, may not nitro-

394 S. L. Penfield—Anthophyllite from Franklin, NV. C.

gen be a constituent of other species in a form hitherto unsus-
pected and unrecognizable by our ordinary chemical manipu-
lations? And if so, other problems are suggested which it is.

not now in order to discuss.
al
¢ |

ee
pe

Laboratory of the U. 8. Geological Survey,
Washington, D. C., June 30th.

Art. L.—Anthophyllite from Franklin, Macon Co., N. C.;
by 8S. L. PENFIELD.

As an orthorhombic member of the hornblende group of

minerals anthophyllite is of special interest, being a magnesia-
iron silicate without calcium, and standing thus in the same
relation to hornblende as the orthorhombic enstatite, bronzite
and hypersthene do to the monoclinic pyroxene. As far as the
author can learn it has never been fully identified from any
locality in the United States. Many specimens which may be
seen in collections labeled anthophyllite will be found, when
examined with the microscope, to be fine fibrous or radiated
varieties of hornblende. The material which will be described
in the present paper was collected at the dump of the Jenks
Corundum Mine, Franklin, Macon Co., N. C., by Mr. Norman
Spang, where it is said to occur abundantly, but as it was
supposed to be a common mineral only a small specimen was
taken away, which he generously gave to the author for
determination and investigation.

As anthophyllite is only known from a few localities and as
many varieties which have been referred to the species are,
according to the analyses, impure or more or less decomposed
(indicated by a high percentage of water), a full description of
the pure and w ell crystallized North Carolina mineral seems
desirable, especially as the crystals are transparent, rendering
it possible to make a fuller determimation of the optical prop-
erties than has yet been made. The mineral occurs in pris-
matic crystals, sometimes several centimeters long and nearly
5™™ wide in the greatest diameter, imbedded in a green foliated
pennine, which latter shows in convergent polarized light
under the microscope a uniaxial interference figure with weak
positive double refraction. The only forms observed on the
anthophyllite are the prism 110, Z and the brachy-pinacoid
010, 2-2. No terminations could be found, the crystals when
traced to the very end in the pennine becoming irregular and
much broken. The prismatic faces have a fine luster but are
slightly etched ; examined under the microscope they appear to
be covered with delicate markings with irregular and mostly

ry

S. L. Penfield—Anthophyllite from Franklin, NV. C. 395

eurved contours. They frequently show vertical striations,
especially that part of the prism which is nearest to the obtuse
angle, and this is frequently rounded off by the oscillatory
- combination. Nine of the best selected crystals were measured
on the reflecting goniometer, but the reflections were somewhat
uncertain owing to the striations and surface markings on the
prismatic faces. The two best measurements were /A J,
110A 110 = 125° 37’ and 125° 38’, while the average of fifteen
measurements each of

110 4 110, varying from 125° 25’ — 125° 417 = 125° 357

1104110, varying from 54° 12’— 54° 347=— 54° 257
If we take therefore 125° 37’ as the best measurement, it is
very close to the average given above and will certainly very

nearly represent the true value. From this the ratio @:b =
‘513875:1. The above values vary somewhat from the deter-
minations of Des Cloizeaux* on the anthophyllite from Kongs-
berg in Norway, who gives for 7, / about 125°.

The cleavage is very perfect parallel to the prism, 110, and
brachy-pinacoid, 010; the latter is easily produced and yields
brilliant surfaces although it is always mentioned in the min-
eralogies as indistinct. The cleavage parallel to the macro-
pinacoid, 100, which is always mentioned as perfect was poor
and seareely perceptible.

The crystals are very transparent and have a delicate clove-
brown color, the largest ones affording good material for deter-
mining the optical properties. The plane of the optical axes
is in the brachy-pinacoid, as in all anthophyllites. Two plates
were cut, one parallel to the macro-pinacoid, the other parallel
to the base. The latter was small and considerable difficulty
was experienced in making it at right angles to the good
cleavages. rom these two plates the divergence of the optical
axes was measured on a large axial angle apparatus in the
potassium mercuric iodide solution whose indices of refraction
were n, red, Li= 16650; n, yellow, Na=1°6811; n, green,
Tl = 1:7086 with the following results:

Macro-pinacoid section. Basal section.
D) Vel avoye meell = Ble ail” 87° 24!
2 H for yellow = 85 45 88" 5
2H for green = 83 44 8&8 28

from which we ean calculate:

2 V red == OO andy (ENC 276
2V yellow = 88 46 f = 16353
2)V ereen = 87 28 f = 1°6495

* Manuel de Minéralogie, i, p. 75.

396 S. L. Penfield—Anthophyllite from Franklin, N.C. .

We see from the above that the optical axes are about at right
angles to one another. There is a marked dispersion about
the @ axis, which is o>», the brachy axis being the acute bisee-
trix for green and yellow but obtuse for red. One of the pris-
matic crystals after polishing the’ faces served as a prism for
determining two of the indices of refraction. The prismatic
angle after polishing measured 52° 55’. The minimum devia-
tion for yellow was 41° 0’ for rays vibrating parallel to the
vertical axis, and 40° 14’ for rays vibrating parallel to the
macro-axis, from which we calculate 7 = 1°6404 and 8 = 1°6301,
while # above was found to be 1°6353. From the values of
2V,7 and f for yellow we calculate a= 1°6288. The optical
orientation is therefore @=a, b=b6 and c=c. The double
refraction is negative for green and yellow, @ being the acute
bisectrix and positive for red, c being the acute bisectrix.

Hardness about 6. Specific gravity, by floating in the heavy
solution, 3:093.

The purest crystals were selected for analysis by hand-
picking which was easily accomplished as the mineral separated
readily from the matrix.

The results of analysis on the air-dry powder are as follows:

Ratio.
SiO, 57°98 966
FeO 10°39 144 |
MnO 31 005 |
MeO 28°69 NTO 3
CaO 20 004 |
H,O Gi 093 |

INO 63
Loss at 100° :12

69°99

The ratio of SiO, : RO (H,O being included) is -966 : -963
or almost exactly 1:1, giving the formula RSiO,, R= Mg,
Fe, H, and traces of Mn and Ca. The mineral when heated
in a closed tube over a Bunsen burner was found to be anhy-
drous and the analysis was made accordingly. After drying
the powder at 100° C,, the mineral was heated to faint redness
in a crucible and lost only 0°19 per cent. On summing up the
analysis, which was very carefully made and everything tested,
a deficiency of 1:50 per cent was found and moreover the ratio
of SiO, : RO = :966:-870, which indicated a large excess of
silica. In trying to account for this deficiency a second sample
of the mineral was heated over a blast lamp in a closed glass
tube when water was given off in perceptible quantities. The
H,O in the analysis was determined by loss of weight on
igniting in a current of CO, gas to prevent oxidation. A

Foshay—Preglacial Drainage of Western Pennsylvania. 397

second sample was ignited in a closed crucible without CO, gas
and gave almost the same result, 1°71 per cent. In this sample
the FeO was determined, after solution in hydrofluoric and
sulphurie acids, and after reduction the total iron. As the
mineral after such strong ignition was only slowly acted on by
the hydrofluoric acid and in the experiment only partially
dissolved, the results were not thoroughly satisfactory but they
proved conclusively that the FeO had only been oxidized toa
trifling extent and the loss on ignition will represent therefore
very nearly the exact percentage of H,O. That the tendency
of FeO, in this combination, to oxidize is not very great is more-
over proved by the fact that repeated ignition did not yield
any increase in weight. That the H,O is an essential con-
stituent of the mineral and is not the result of alteration, is
proved by the fact that it is very firmly united to the molecule,
requiring an intense heat to drive it off, and moreover it is
just sufficient to bring the ratio of protoxides to silica = 1:1.
The transparency of ‘the erystals would moreover prove that
the material which was analyzed was very pure and had not
suffered any alteration.

Mineralogical Laboratory, Sheffield Scientific School
New Haven, May, 1890.

Art. LL.—Preglacial Drainage and Lecent Geological
History of Western Pennsylvania ; by P. Max Fosmay,
MS., F.G.S8.A.

THE investigation into the preglacial drainage of Western
Pennsylvania, of which this paper is a partial record, was pri-
marily incited by a suggestion thrown out by Professor J. W.
Spencer, in a paper read before the Am. Phil. Soc., March 18,
1881. Professor Spencer there advanced the hypothesis that
the Beaver River, with part of the Ohio, had in preglacial
times constituted a stream which flowed up the modern Mahon-
ing through its now buried channel into the Erigan River
(Spencer) which then traversed the basin of Lake Erie. This
stream, now become parts of several modern rivers, I have
named Spencer River in honor of the investigator who first
suggested its existence and to whom is due so large a pro-
portion of our present knowledge of the preglacial drainage
of the region of the Great Lakes. Spencer River drained an
area nearly co-extensive with that of the Pennsylvania portion
of the modern Ohio with its tributaries, including the basin
of the Monongahela and part of that of the Allegheny, thus

398 Hoshay—Preglacial Drainage of Western Pennsylvania.

carrying off the rainfall of almost all Western Pennsylvania
and Eastern Ohio.

The preglacial drainage of Northwestern Pennsylvania and
Western New York was long since thoroughly worked out by
Professor John F. Carll, who was the pioneer in this field. In
the course of his survey in Northwestern Pennsylvania he col-
lected proof* of the existence of at least two northwardly

MAP OR WHE |) (0.

ANCIENT DRAINAGE °°

we OF ss
WESTERN PENNSYLV.

BY P. MAX FOSHAY:

uf $
oy Wy

\Z ( en
Yo s
} reg > Franklin aivet)
v a fh ~
oy ‘Warre e
& NileXe “> C = Wipes)
& v7 GH)
€ be J oe AS
a E dinburg =) oy “| \ OX
v ; AS rence Jc ‘ Mahon <G (>)
UN
Dace S (
*)\ Beaver Falls .
Beaver

We YEN a) Pittsburg au op BY
WE a ive)
© 3 2
|.Wellsburg ras & ee
‘ eo
/ Ay) -
/ a a4 fee
=
7) oF
Miles > ~
ess awe a
10 20 30 C SS) be
ae)

flowing preglacial streams which drained the northern part of
the present Allegheny basin and debouched, like Spencer
River, into the Erigan River. The Allegheny River, as we
now know it, did not then exist but was formed after the
glacial episode, during which time the mouths of the ancient
northwardly flowing streams had been blocked up. This
blocking up of the ancient drainage forced the post-glacial

* Report III, Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, pp. 330-366. John
F. Carll, Harrisburg. 1880.

Foshay—Preglacial Drainage of Western Pennsylvania. 399

rivers to overflow to the south and cut down their divides.
They united to form the modern Allegheny River and thus we
have the phenomenon of reversed drainage in the upper Alle-
gheny region. The story of the Beaver valley is to be told
in much the same words, but Professor Carll—not having
examined the region—did not see as clearly as Professor
Spencer the former drainage of this part of the State. He
says,* “I strongly suspect ‘that Big Beaver River is.a glacial
enlargement of a small ancient stream formed in the same
manner as those found in the summit basins and that anterior
to the Ice Age the Shenango and other headwater streams of
the Beaver, including the Connoquenessing, delivered north-
wardly through the Mahoning and Grand Rivers into Lake
Krie basin. : . . .” If he had placed the ancient divide, cut
through during the Glacial Epoch, in the present Ohio valley
somewhere between the mouth of the Little Beaver and Wells-
burg, W. Va., instead of placing it in the Beaver valley, he
would have been correct, as will be seen below.

The evidence that Spencer River, whose bed is now buried
beneath many feet of drift materials, once flowed northwardly
is to be found in a very complete series of measurements of
the depth of the drift filling taken from the records of oil and
gas wells drilled in the valleys during recent years. In the
table below I give only maximum depths at not too frequent
intervals but it must be understood that there is hardly a mile
of the distance covered in which there are not one or more
records showing the presence of the old channel.

Dist. from | Low Water. | Depth of Old Floor.
Pittsburgh. Place. eACulis Filling. A. T.
16 0° | Pittsburg. 699 ft. 44 ft. + 655 ft.
2. 10° | Coraopolis. ? 50 ft. ?
BY 19: | Aliquippa. 677 ft. 60 ft. 617 ft.
4. 25:2 | Beaver. 670 ft. +60 fit | —610 ft.
De 29°8 Beaver Falls. 700 ft. | +4100ft.§ | —600 ft.
6. 46°8 | Lawrence June. 760 ft. +150 ft] —610 ft.
Ue 51:4 Edenburg. (tel0) aes | 200 ft.4] 580 ft.

The figures in the fifth column of the table it will be seen
demonstrate a progressive deepening of the drift fillg as we
go northward and when reduced to tide-level prove that the
old floor at present dips slightly to the north.

* Report III, Sec. Geol. Survey Pa., p? 392—footnote.
+ An. Rep. Pa. Survey 1886, Pt. II, p. 730. Jones & Laughlin, Nos. 1 and 2.
} Rep. Q, Pa, Survey, I. C. White, 1878, p. “
Rep. Q, Pa. Survey, I. C. White, 1878, p.
|| Rep. Q, Pa. Survey, LC. White, 1878, p. re “quoted from Dr. J. S. Newberry
in Geology of Ohio.
4] Rep. QQ, Pa. Survey, I. C. White, 1879, pp. 19, 184, 202.

400 Foshay—Preglacial Drainage of Western Pennsylvania.

The elevation of No. 6 at the confluence of the Mahoning
and Shenango does not constitute an exception as the well
from which the record was taken went 150 feet through drift
and not having reached rock was abandoned. There is thus a
total fall of 75 feet in the 51-4 miles covered by the table,
reaching down to an elevation of only eight feet above the
present surface of Lake Erie.

The fact of a post-glacial elevation of the northern part of
the continent is now well established. The differential uplift
shown in the younger beaches about the overlapping ends of
Lake Erie and Lake Ontario is about two feet per mile.* Mr.
McGee’s survey of the rise of the older Columbian drift forma-
tion would make the Pleistocene and recent deformation
amount to about three feet per mile. Adding this dip to the
present profile of the floor of Spencer River we obtain an
abundant northward fall of the old bed. Well records at
Niles, O., show the presence of the old channel at that point.
A few miles north of this point the country falls away towards
Lake Erie and a number of country wells give depths of drift
filling almost sufficient to prove the fall of the old bed far into
Grand River basin. In addition to this the Grand River of
Ohio, along with the other Ohio Rivers, was shown by Dr.
Newberry’s survey to have a buried channel amply deep to be
a continuation of Spencer River.t

The accompanying figure (fig. 1)
shows in dotted line the outcrop of the
hard Conglomerate Series as drawn on
Orton’s geological map of Ohio. The
remarkable embayment in this out-
crop, heading at Youngstown, O.,
Yarren furnishes strong presumptive evi-
‘Astes \. dence of the existence of a reversed

drainage in this locality.. The Ma-
honing River after coming into the
bay at its side and flowing some miles in the normal direction
makes a sudden bend and flows at right angles to its former
course towards the head of theembayment. The great amount
and peculiar form of erosion which the Conglomerate Series
has suffered in the formation of this embayment could only
have been accomplished by a stream flowing northwardly
through the bay in a now deeply buried channel, i. e. Spencer
River.

Even disregarding the northward Pleistocene elevation the
only other possible outlet for Spencer River is through the
Ah The Iroquois Beach; by J. W. Spencer. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., 1889, p.

+t Geology of Ohio, vol. ii, p. 199.

Foshay—Preglacial Drainage of Western Pennsylvania. 401

valley now occupied by the Ohio below its point of meeting
with the Beaver. That this could not have been the outlet is
proved by the following facts :—at Smith’s Ferry, on the Penn-
sylvania-Ohio State line, two favorably situated measurements
give a maximum depth of drift fillmg of 30 feet* and at
Steubenville, O., the channel could not possibly have been
deep enough to drain Spencer River.t| ‘The conclusion is thus
made imperative, independent of the northward crust move-
ments, that this area must have drained northwardly into the
Erie basin. This ancient basin would then include the areas
now drained by the Lower Allegheny, Clarion, Redbank,
Mahoning, Conemaugh, Youghiogheny, Cheat, Monongahela
and Little Beaver Rivers. The Monongahela and Allegheny
are both known to have buried valleys, the formery as far as
its junction with the Youghiogheny and the latter§ to some-
where north of Parker.
The topography of the
Beaver Valley is shown
in fig. 2, which is an
ideal cross-section. It
consists first of an old

j AB, old base-level plain.
base-level plain (AB) CD, outer or rock gorge.

bounded on either side — EF, inner or drift gorge.
by slopes rising slowly to The shaded portion represents the drift filling

of the old rock gorge with its terraces of erosion.

the level of the table-land
which is the basis of the topography of the region; of a rock
gorge (CD) extending from 800 to 850 feet below the level
of the plain, which is completely filled with drift for the lower
100 feet and partially for the next 125 feet; and of an inner
gorge (EF) in the drift whose excavation by the modern
river gave us the drift terrace system.

The old base-level plain has more frequently been called tie
“fourth terrace,” though it was known to have no connection
with the other terraces. It is a mile or more in width and is
covered in all places south of the terminal moraine by a deposit
consisting of white or yellowish clay, of variable thickness up
to ten feet, which in places contains intermingled pebbles of
northern drift, and frequently has sand or gravel above or
below it, or both. The maximum observed thickness of the
whole deposit is twenty feet. This clay deposit is very con-
stant wherever the old base-level plain—a mere bench often—
is found. The plain has in all places, south of the moraine, a
rocky scarp on its river side and is always (in the Ohio and

* Report QQ, I. C. White, Sec. Geol. Survey Pa., 1879, p. 16.

+ Report QQ, I. C. White, Sec. Geol. Survey Pa., 1879, p. 17.

t Report K, Sec. Geol. Survey Pa., J. J. Stevenson, 1876, p. 20.

§ Report V, Sec. Geol. Survey Pa., H. M. Chance, 1879, ix, x and 19.

402 FHoshay—Preglacial Drainage of Western Pennsylvania.

lower Beaver valleys) at a higher elevation than any of the
Pleistocene terraces. It is most marked in the Beaver valley
on account of its being formed for the most part from the
more resisting rocks of the Conglomerate Series, but it is
easily made out in the Ohio valley from Pittsburg to Beaver
and also far up the Allegheny and Monongahela valleys.
South of Beaver, on the Ohio, it has not been observed. Ascend-
ing the Beaver the plain falls from 915 feet A. T. at Beaver
Falls to 890 feet A. T. at the mouth of the Connoquenessing—
a distance of ten miles. There can be no doubt that this was
once the bed of an ancient river at a time long anterior to the
First Glacial epoch, and, from its northward fall, the stream
must have flowed in that direction. The plain thus indicates
a long epoch, when the preglacial drainage had not yet cut the
deep | caflons which marked the topography of the later Ter-
tiary period. The clayey deposit over the plain belongs to a
Pleistocene epoch antedating that during which the terminal
moraine was formed as it seems to pass beneath the moraine
with its kames at the point of contact. It seems to record an
episode when the continent was lower than now. Possibly it
may be contemporaneous with McGee’s Columbia formation (?)

Following the period of the base-level plain came long ages
of high continental elevation—higher than the present—dur-

ing which all the streams of Western Pennsylvania cut chan-.

nels far below their present beds. This epoch (Pliocene ?) was
either one of slight precipitation or of comparatively short
duration as none of the tributary streams reached a base-level
of erosion but were flowing through V-shaped cafions of rather
rapid fall when the period of the terminal moraine with its
subsidence filled all these old channels with drift to nearly the
level of the old base-level plain. During all the foregoing
time Spencer River had drained the region in question, its
waters delivering into the Erie basin. After the deposit of the
drift in the valleys of Pennsylvania a divide was formed
across the old channel of Spencer River at Orwell, O., and the
drainage of the region became for the most part reversed—
the waters now finding their way into the lower Ohio and
thence to the Mississippi.

The northern elevation of the continent so thoroughly
worked out by Gilbert and Spencer in New York and Ontario
occurred at this same time and so confirmed the region in its
drainage to the south. The modern rivers now began eroding
their beds of drift and are still at work. That this process has
gone on uninterruptedly for a long period of time is shown by
the fact that many of the tributaries of the Beaver and Ohio
have flat flood plains, underlaid by the buried channels of the
former drainage level, extending two miles or more back from

F. W. Mar—So-called Perofskite from Arkansas. 403 -

the river. There is every indication however of a very modern
elevation (40+ feet) of the region, accompanied by a rapid
deepening of the main channels of drainage, in the fact that
these tributaries have but recently begun eroding their beds
near their mouths. This process has in no case extended more
than one-fourth mile. In thus eroding their beds the streams
in many cases have deepened their channels in lines which do
not correspond with their buried channels but lie to one side
or the other; and so we find them running over ledges of rock
near their mouths, which has led many observers to the conclu-
sion that the tributaries could not flow over buried channels.
In all cases that I have examined, however, I have found
strong evidence of the existence of such channels—of which
there is positive proof in many wells and excavations.

Beaver Falls, Pa., August 9, 1890.

Art. LIL—On the so-called Perofskite from Magnet Cove,
Arkansas ; by F. W. Mar.

In 1877, it was shown by Knop,* that the supposed perof-
skite of the Kaiserstuhl, contained besides titanium a consider-
able amount (28 p. ¢c.) of niobium and tantalum, and he accord-
ingly made it an independent species and named it very appro-
priately Dysanalyte. The analysis of the similar mineral from
Magnet Cove, Arkansas, the results of which are given below,
shows that it is also distinct from perofskite and is to be classed
with dysanalyte. or the material for analysis I am indebted
to the kindness of Professor E. 8S. Dana.

The method of analysis was as follows: 0°500 gram. of the
carefully selected mineral were placed with about |5em* of con-.
centrated sulphuric acid in a platinum crucible of 150cm* capa-
city and, the whole being covered with a watch-glass that the
progress of the decomposition might be easily observed, boiled
for ten or fifteen minutes. The cooled product was poured
into 600 or 700 em* of cold water and allowed to stand over
night or until the calcium sulphate was completely dissolved.
A small residue was usually found and this was put through
the same process. Any final residue is silica and sometimes
a little tantalum or niobium oxide. The former was deter-
mined by evaporation with sulphuric and hydrofluorie acids
and the remaining oxide was added to the main oxides.

* Zeitschr. fiir Kryst., i, 284, 1877.

404 FE. W. Mar—sSo-called Perofskite from Arkansas.

The solution of the mineral was then made slightly alkaline
with ammonia and the precipitated earth filtered off. The
lime was thrown out of the concentrated filtrate as oxalate
and after evaporation and volatilization of ammonia salts, mag-
nesia was determined in the residue. Alkalies should be found
at this point if present. There were none.

The weighed earths obtained as above were fused in sodium
carbonate, enough sulphuric acid added to the mass to bring
about a bisulphate fusion and then enough more to keep the
whole in the liquid condition even when cold. After cooling, the
mass was poured into 300 em* of cold water containing 1 grm.
of tartaric acid and after separating the iron, in alkaline solu-
tion, by hydric sulphide, the titanium, with which go the nio-
bium and tantalum, were separated by the acetic acid process of
Professor Gooch.* The greater part of the manganese was
separated by an ordinary acetate process and the acid oxides by
the strong acetate process. On neutralizing the filtrate from
this last with ammonia and boiling, only a trace of some earth
was found, showing absence of alumina. The titanium was
separated from the weighed oxides by Knop’s chlorinating pro-
cess, and finally the niobium was determined in the mixture
of niobium and tantalum oxides by reduction in hydrochlorie
acid and titration with permanganate after T. B. Osborne.t
Only a trace of titanium was found in the niobium and tanta-
lum oxides by the Osborne process with hydrogen peroxides,
and the titanium re-estimated by the same process gave practi-
cally the same result as before.

A portion of the oxides having been lost during the opera-
tion, having gone, as it appeared, with the manganese used to
decompose the tartaric acid, another portion of mineral was
treated in the same manner as far as this point, and the tartaric
acid was destroyed by evaporation in platinum and ignition.
No aluminum having been found, the titanium, tantalum and
niobium oxides were separated by boiling with dilute sulphuric
acid. By evaporation of this filtrate a quantity of earths was
obtained. To this was added another portion separated by
ammonia from the filtrate (in the same portion of mineral)
after separation of lime, evaporation and ignition and solution
in hydrochloric acid, and before the precipitation of the mag- -
nesia by microcosmic salt. The combined earths were pre-
cipitated in a slightly acid solution by oxalic acid in order to
separate from any uranium, the cerium and yttrium groups
separated by the sodium sulphate process and each precipitated
again as oxalate and weighed as oxide. As appears the main
portion of the rarer earths belongs to the yttrium group.

* Proceedings Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sci., N. S., vol. xii, p. 435.
+ This Jourual, vol. xxx, p. 329.

Clarke and Schneider—Constitution of the Silicates. 405

An attempt was made to take the atomic weight, but the
result obtained, 190, is probably too high, the color showing
that part of the sulphate was changed to a basic salt. This,
however, «with the color of the oxides, a reddish-brown, and the
fact that the solutions do not yield an absorption spectrum,
suggests that a chief portion of the earth is terbium oxide.

The result of the analysis is as follows:

Specific gravity = 418.

Molec. uantiy.
Ratio. tatio.
CaO 33°22 = 56a SOO Se es A 9 ) =f
MgO Dene et; er OS be a ee ee
FeO 0°23 ) {
0-50 § Fe;0, 1:52 or 3
Fe.0s 566 + 160 = “035 )
[Yt, Hr, Tr],0, 542 + 428 = 0124 050 or2 x 6 ‘300 J =
[Ce, La,DiJ20; 010 + 328 — -003)
Nb,0; 438 4 268 = 016) _, eT
Ta.0s SOR ey 0, a Gin fe No | 2°43 or 5
TiO, 44°12 > 82) == 5538) i ear =
SiO. 08 2) 60 = oon C222) x 4 P06
99°53

In conelusion I would express my thanks to Professor Gooch
of the Kent Laboratory for the valuable advice and assistance
freely given by him during the course of the analysis.

Kent Laboratory, Yale University, July, 1890.

Arr. LIUL—Haperiments upon the Constitution of the Nat-
ural Silicates; by F. W. CLARKE and EK. A. SCHNEIDER.

[Continued from p. 312.]
4. The Chlorite group.

In this interesting but very obscure group of minerals, three
species were examined. First, the dark-green, broadly foli-
ated, mica-like ripidolite from Westchester, Pennsylvania.
This mineral has been repeatedly analyzed, and our results
confirm the older data. Second, a dark-green, scaly-granular
prochlorite, found in excavating the water-works tunnel in
Washington, D. C. Third, leuchtenbergite from the Schis-
chimsk mine near Slatoust, Siberia. The last mineral was
kindly sent us by Mr. A. Lésch of St. Petersburg; but it
unfortunately contained inclusions which render our work
upon it of little value. The prochlorite was examined micro-
scopically by Mr. Lindgren of the U. 8. Geological Survey,
who found it to be quite homogeneous. Analyses as follows:

406 Clarke and Schneider— Eaperiments upon the

Ripidolite. Prochlorite. | Leuchtenbergite.
SiO, 29°87 25°40 32°27
ANI 14°48 22°80 16°05
Cr,O, 1°56 eee ee,
Fe,O, 3°52 2°86 4°26
FeO 1:93 Me ieta 28
NiO ONT Spe Ber
MnO pb ee 25 signee
MgO 33°06 19:09 29°75
CaO Baki See 6°21
H,O 13°60 12°21 11°47
F Seyi e trace as
100°19 100°38 100°29
HO at 105° eyes ‘80 °38
« 250°-300° 95 15 seal
ef 383°—412° “49 "62 eee
ie MVS) To as Sek 09 i
‘¢ -red-heat 11°74 10°55 10°69
‘¢ white-heat 42 Ns! 19

Here again we have to deal with water which is plainly consti-
tutional. Hence the suggestion put forward by one of us that
the chlorites are essentially micas plus water of crystallization,
must be abandoned.*

Upon treatment with dry hydrochloric acid gas at 883°—412°,
the three minerals differ considerably. The times of heating
and the bases converted into chlorides were as follows:

Ripidolite. _Prochlorite. Leuchtenbergite.

Hourssheated ==2==- 19 31 84
MgO removed _..__- 13°46 1°54 6°29
Jaq O, removed ____- 4°94 2°17 -42
SiO, Sremovedae 92 mph ORISA:

In a second experiment with the ripidotite 58 hours of heat~
ing were required before constant weight was attained, and
13°36 per cent of magnesia plus 1:20 of sesquioxides were ren-
dered soluble. In a third experiment the heating lasted 30
hours, and the percentages of MgO and R,O, removed were
11:10 and 3°31 respectively. Even at the ordinary temperature
of the laboratory ripidolite was decidedly attacked by the
gaseous acid, 4:66 MgO and 348 R,O, becoming soluble. In
this case the experiment lasted 100 hours. Im the ease
of the prochlorite the result obtained is.of very doubtful
significance. In a mineral containing so large a proportion
of ferrous iron, secondary reactions due to oxidation are possi-

* Clarke, ‘‘ A theory of the mica group,” this Journal, Nov., 1889.

Clarke and Schneider—Hxperiments, ete. 407

ble, and it is not practicable to determine exactly what changes
have taken place. The group —Fe—OH might behave like
MgOH, and yet subsequent alteration might prevent any esti-
mate of the extent of the reaction.

By digestion with strong, aqueous hydrochlorie acid, both
ripidolite and prochlorite were completely decomposed. Leuch-
tenbergite, on the other hand, left an insoluble residue, resem-
bling garnet, which was originally present as an inclusion in
the mineral. All of these minerals decompose with aqueous
acid more slowly than the serpentines.

By sharp ignition, ripidolite and prochlorite give up in the
free state small quantities of silica, which are determinable by
extraction with soda solution. The percentages were as follows:

Ripidolite. Prochlorite.
SiO liberated: 4222225 2°98 2°45

These quantities represent only one-tenth of the total silica
in the minerals, and have no evident significance in a discussion
of the chemical structure.

Although ripidolite is readily decomposable by aqueous
hydrochloric acid, it appears to be split up by prolonged igni-
tion into a soluble and an insoluble part. A weighed quantity
of the mineral was heated for nine hours over the blast-lamp,
and then digested for three days with hydrochloric acid of sp.
gr. 1:12. The residue amounted to 48-47 per cent of insoluble
matter, from which boiling with sodium carbonate solution ex-
tracted 28°73 of silica belonging to the decomposed silicates.
The final undissolved residue, 19°74 per cent, was analyzed ;
and, treated as an independent substance, gave as follows:

SOR eee Se cae ee Sis ces 6°32
Sesquioxides -..-.---.------- 67°81
SUCK Gres 3 EN Al Dia tater sto 25°67

99°80

If the small quantity of silica here found, only 1:25 per cent of
the original material, be neglected as non-essential, the remain-
der, 18°49 per cent of the Tipidolite, has exactly the composi-
tion of spinel. Like spinel it is quite insoluble, and in all.rea-
sonable probability it may be regarded as that compound, The
formation of such a magnesian aluminate, Mg A1,O,, is peculiarly
suggestive when we come to consider the structure of the chlo-
rites.

Similar experiments with the prochlorite gave similar but
not identical results. After long ignition, six hours, and three
days’ digestion with hydrochloric acid, 35°61 per cent of residue
remained, of which 18:16 per cent was insoluble in carbonate

Am. Jour. Sci.—TuHirRpD SERIES, Vou. XL, No. 239.—Nov., 1890.
26

408 Clarke and Schneider— Experiments upon the

of soda. This last residue, however, was rich in silica, and
therefore could not be spinel. The reaction deserves further
study; but the oxidizability of the iron in prochlorite intro-
duces elements of uncertainty which would render it very diffi-
cult to interpret the results.

In the case of the leuchtenbergite, little else wasdone. By
means of Thoulet’s solution 5°62 per cent of a yellowish garnet
were separated from the mineral, which accounts for part, but
not all, of the lime found in the analysis. On this species our
results are of little value, except as regards the character of the
water which it contains, and its comparative behavior towards
gaseous HCl.

Now, in order to discuss the formulee of the three chlorites,
we may reject as adventitious the small quantities of water
given up at or below 300°. ‘This leaves as essential water in
ripidolite, prochlorite, and leuchtenbergite, 12°65, 11:26, and
10-88 per cent respectively. Using these figures for water the
analyses give the following molecular ratios.

Ripidolite. Prochlorite. Leuchtenbergite.
STOR Baresi ls 498 423 538
ROL ne yea “186 241 185
TUOEE as hesarets, 2 855 ORT "858
TE ap LW ehh esus eH 626 604
Hence we have the following empirical formule :
ipidoliter 2 se se 19R,O,, 86RO, 70H,O, 50Si0,
Prochlorite 225-2 -— 24R,0,, 78RO, 63H,O, 43810,

Leuchtenbergite... 19R,O,, 86RO, 66H,O, 54Si0,

And these, reduced to an orthosilicate basis become

uipld olike tees =o Ri Ra (SiO: Or
Prochlorites: 22-222. 38558) 2 RE e(SiO)) tO
Leuchtenbergite -___----- eh Ee (SiO) Os

This excess of oxygen over the ortbosilicate ratio can only
be interpreted as basic hydroxyl; whence we get

Ripidolitem 3 9s Es. Saet Ry (S10) (OH)
Prochlonitem essere ns Ria Ree) (S105) 2 (Ola
Leuchtenbergite-----.--- RR”, .R",,H,,(810,),,(OH),,

The last of these formule is vitiated by the fact that the
mineral analyzed was impure; a fact which appears in the low
figure for the hydroxyl, which garnet does not contain. Other-
wise it is clear that in general leuchtenbergite and ripidolite
agree quite nearly with each other. ‘The question now to be
answered is, how shall the hydroxyl be apportioned between

* the bases ¢

Constitution of the Natural Silicates. 409

Taking ripidolite as the mineral of the three which has been
most completely examined, we may recall that two concordant
experiments with gaseous hydrochloric acid gave 13°36 and
13°46 per cent of removable magnesia, presumably representing
the group MgOH. In mean, these percentages correspond to
34 atoms of magnesia. Regarding this as an index of the
MgOH present, we may combine the remainder of the
hydroxyl with the sesquioxides to form the univalent group
A1H,O,, and the ripidolite formula now becomes (AIH,O,),,
(MgOH),,R”,.H,,(SiO,),.; with three oxygen atoms unac-
counted for and negligible. Generalizing this expression we
have

R”,,R’,.(Si0,) F
or almost exactly, R”,(SiO,),R’

Ae 4°

This is an olivine formula, with half of the R” replaced by
R’,, and is strictly comparable with the formula of serpentine. ©
It will be remembered that von Wartha* some time ago ad-
vanced the opinion that the chlorites and serpentines form one
continuous series of minerals, and his view is by this discussion
curiously supported. Furthermore, the probable juxtaposition
of the groups AlH,O, and MgOH in ripidolite accounts in
great measure for the apparent formation of spinel when the
mineral is decomposed by heat.

The ratios found by analysis between H, MeOH, and AlO,H.,,
indicate that ripidolite is probably a mixture of two isomor-
phous molecules; and the observed data are best satisfied b
assuming the compounds Meg.(SiO,),(MgOH),H and Mg.(Si0,),
(A10,H,),H in equal proportions. For a mixture of these
molecules in the ratio of 1:1, the composition is easily calcu-
lated; and the results agree well with the analysis. If, in the
latter, we recalculate the ferric and chromic oxides to their
equivalent in alumina, and compute the ferrous oxide as mag-
nesia, reducing the summation afterwards to 100 per cent, we
get the following direct comparison between analysis and
theory :

Found. ’ Theory.
810, 31°18 31°09
Al,O, 19°87 19°82
MgO 35°74 36°27
H,O 13°21 12°82
100°00 100:00

A closer concordance could hardly be expected.
For prochlorite, notwithstanding the uncertainty as to the
behavior of the ferrous iron, similar ratios appear. The ex-

* Groth’s Zeitschrift, xiii, p. 71, 1887.

410 Clarke and Schneider—Experiments upon the

pression R’””,,R’”,,(SiO,),,(OH),,, reduces to (A1H,O,),,(R”OH),,
R”,,(SiO,),.3 In which R”’OH is mainly Fe’OH and R” is
almost entirely Mg. This, generalized, becomes R”,,(Si0,),,.R’,,,
which is quite nearly the olivine-serpentine type of formula.
A mixture of such molecules in which f’ is satisfied by
MgOH, FeOH, and AIH,O, in the ratio of 1:3:6; would
have the subjoined composition ; which is comparable directly
with the results of analysis.

Found. Calculated.
SiO, 25°40 24°88
Al,O 22°80 ) bee
* Fe.0, 2°86 | ee
FeO leer 17-91
MgO 19°09 19°90
HO, essential 11°26 11°94
99°18 100°00

If the first column were recalculated to 100 per cent, with
the ferric iron reduced to its equivalent in aluminum, the
agreement would be even closer. In brief, prochlorite seems
to have a constitution strictly analogous to that of ripidolite ;
although, on account of its high proportion of ferrous iron it
behaves differently towards gaseous hydrochloric acid. The
leuchtenbergite evidently has a similar structure; but the im-
purities in the sample analyzed preclude us from discussing
this species more in detail. Just as the micas are derived by
substitution from normal aluminum salts, so the chlorites are
derived from normal magnesium silicates; and, in a very curi-
ous way the two series seem to approach each other. Thus a
compound having the chloritic formula Mg,(Si0,),(A10,H,)H,,
if halved, may be written as if it were a derivative of alu-
minum orthosilicate analogous to some of the more basic
hydromicas; and the close physical similarity between the
two groups is thus remarkably emphasized.

5. The micas.

In this group only three examples were studied, all of the
magnesian or ferro-magnesian class. A. Phlogopite from Bur-
gess, Ontario. The ordinary, slightly brownish, broadly foli-
ated mica, somewhat resembling muscovite. B. Phlogopite
from Edwards, St. Lawrence County, New York. The pecu-
liar, non-fluoriferous variety, superficially resembling brucite,
described by Penfield and Sperry ; whose analysis is thoroughly
confirmed by ours. ©. A nearly black, broadly-foliated iron
mica from Port Henry, New York. Commonly regarded as
a lepidomelane. Analyses as follows:

Constitution of the Natural Silicates. 411

Burgess. Edwards, Port Henry.

SiO, 39°66 | 45°05 34:52
TiO, 56 odie 2°70
Al,O, 17-00 11°25 13°29
FeO, OY Sago 7°80
FeO 20 14 DRT
MnO yee es 41
(Co,Ni)O pe/ks eth "30
CaO none eauees eh
BaO 62 eres Dingoes
MgO 26°49 29°38 5°82
Li,O pees 07 04
Na,O 60 “45 16
K,O 9°97 8°52 8°59
H,O 2°99 5°37 4°39
FE DD ey ethe 34
le O). trace aun trace
100°60 100°28 100°54

Less O 94 sal
99°66 100°40

The fractional water determinations gave—

Burgess. Edwards. Port Henry.

H,O at 105° "66 setae 87
5 250°-300° °35 73 "45
cs red-heat : 713 ‘
eS white-heat Be 3°91 eat

In all the analyses of this investigation, when much iron was
found, the total water was determined directly; so that the
figures for the higher temperatures do not represent mere loss
on ignition. In these micas the percentages of constitutional
water, to be used in the discussion of formulee, are 1:98, 4°64,
and 3°37 respectively.

In the Burgess phlogopite numerous inclusions were ob-
served, consisting of slender prisms, and at our request these
were examined microscopically by Mr. Waldemar Lindgren.
The mica, according to his examination, is made up of “ thin
folie, under the microscope colorless, dark between crossed
nicols; interference figure apparently a cross, not separating
into hyperbolas; seemingly uniaxial, but with better instru-
ments it would probably be found to be biaxial with a very
small axial angle. Shows excellent asterism, caused by inter-
positions arranged in three directions cutting each other at an
angle of 60°. The inclusions are prisms of a strongly refract-
ing and bi-refracting mineral, so thin as to show brilliant
Newton’s colors. In spite of the very small thickness, the

412 Clarke and Schneider—Experiments upon the

interference colors are near the white of the first order. Ex-
tinction takes place strictly parallel to the prismatic surface.
Terminal faces rounded, or unequally developed. Beside
prisms there are square or rhomboidal folize, probably of the
same substance. The inclusions were first observed by G.
Rose (Neues Jahrbuch, 1863, p. 91) who regarded them as
kyanite. tosenbusch describes them again, and determines
them as tourmaline (Physiog. der Mineralien, p. 486). The
prisms certainly correspond well in their optical characteristies
to this mineral. JK yanite and apatite are excluded from among
the possibilities. Probably, in spite of its apparent abundance
the mineral is but a very small fraction of the mica substance.
At Mr. Lindgren’s suggestion the mica was carefully tested
for boron, but none was found. Hence tourmaline, if present,
must be in exceedingly small quantities.

On account of the high proportion of titanium in the Port
Henry iron mica, this too was examined by Mr. Lindgren, who
reports as follows: “It is a dark-brown, unusually deep colored,
apparently uniaxial biotite, without inclusions, and especially,
as far as examined, free from any titanium mineral.” Hence
the titanium is to be regarded as a constituent of the mica itself.

The action of gaseous hydrochloric acid upon these micas, at
383°—412°, was almost insignificant. The data are subjoined.

: Burgess. Edwards. Port Henry.
Eiours heated y (222-2. 12 20 33
MgO removed ...._.- 40 1-00 trace

WV, At ser een oe ene none 2M “44
SiO, SANE wile ees Pal aby 2118) core

In the case of the Port Henry mica some iron was volatilized
as chloride. This was estimated; and it was found that the
total iron taken out, reckoned as FeO, amounted to only 1:62
per cent. An experiment on the Edwards phlogopite at 498°-
527°, lasting 18 hours, gave 1-41 per cent of removable mag-
nesia. This quantity has a possible bearing upon the formula
of the mineral.

By aqueous hydrochloric acid all three of the micas were
completely decomposed. Hence the Burgess phlogopite could
have contained little tourmaline, for that mineral is not soluble
in the acid. Moreover, the solubility of the micas prevents
us from assuming in either of them an admixture of a musco-
vite molecule, for muscovite also is insoluble. A careful com-
parison of the two phlogopites showed that the fluoriferous
variety was much more stable towards acids than the rarer
non-fluoriferous mineral; a facet which also appears in the
action of the gaseous acid upon them. When the two varieties

Constitution of the Natural Silicates. 413

are treated side by side with hydrochloric acid, the Edwards
phlogopite decomposes much more rapidly than the Burgess
mica.

After very prolonged ignition the Edwards phlogopite and
the Port Henry iron mica were, still completely decomposable
by aqueous hydrochloric acid. There was, therefore, no split-
ting up of their molecules which could be determined by this
method. The Burgess phlogopite, on the other hand, showed
a small amount of change. After eight hours of ignition over
the blast, treatment with strong hydrochloric acid for three
days, and subsequent leaching with soda solution to remove
free silica, 2°45 per cent of insoluble residue remained. This,
analyzed, gave

lO) ere nay oo ee cesta. eer a 80°94
LES © bias aise inleene ahs, RT et ea 48°06
MeO te come TW ABS ary ome] Maeyc eek 19°01
WMiewlice tne tg are Be SUTIN ets

98°01

This agrees quite nearly with the formula MgAl,SiO,, which is
the composition of a possible member of the clintonite group.

Now from the analyses of the micas we get the subjoined
molecular ratios; in which titanic oxide is thrown in with the
silica, the alkalies are united as potash, and only the essential
water, stable above 300°, is retained.

Burgess. Edwards. Port Henry.
LO) ayo Sis Penn aera! °668 fod 609
AO) se NU eeu 2 116.9 "110 plidid
Oe ee ai rae are 669 *736 464
ER) a st ee PALS) 098 ~ "094
EDR) iiene Sore eA IO 258 SS
aes SG asia Ma yniite als Jace 018

Hence we have the following empirical formule:

Burgess. __. -- 17R,0,.67RO .12K,0. 11H,0.67Si0,. 12F.
Edwards Bema sk 11R.0 .74RO.10K.0. 26H, Oe 75Si0,.
Port Henry_-- 18R, 0). 46R0. 9K, O. Del ‘O. 61SiO, . ORY:

Deducting oxygen equivalent to the fluorine we have—

Une essu ees tan oss Se Ripe ge Kee SiO Hy:
Walwardseeclt vit une! Ree a vies ‘He, ‘Si nO) ic
On tgllennyie c= = anaes ee Ray aR ‘K. ‘H, ‘Si, Oval

Tn all of these micas the silicon and oxygen are present in
almost the exact orthosilicate ratio; but in order to discuss the
expressions further it is necessary ‘to recall the theory of the
mica group which has already been cited. Upon that theory,

414 Clarke and Schneider— Experiments, ete.

all these salts should be substitution derivatives of normal
aluminum orthosilicate, from which the more definite micas
develop as follows:

Normal orthosilicate -...-.--_-- Al,(Si0,),.
MuScOyite 3 = Ss oss acces Al,(SiO,), KH.
Normal biotite 7225252522 5= ===) AlN(SiO)) mV oaks
INormaliphlogopitess a=. sae — Al (SiO,),Me,R’,.

Applying these formule to the expression given above for
the Burgess phlogopite, and regarding the fluorine as present
in a group —Mg—F, we have for the composition of that
mineral:

Al(SiO,),Mg,KH, +Al,(SiO,),Mg,K(MeF),
the two molecules being mixed in the ratio1:1. Recaleulat-
ing the original analysis to 100 per cent, uniting TiO, with
SiO,, Fe,O, with Al,O,, FeO and BaO with MgO, and Na,O

with K,O, we have this comparison :

Found. Calculated.
SiO aaa ee 41:04 41:09
TNO 5 a et riches Be Tl OSG) 17°46
Nic. Otani tee ats Rae 27°39 27°39
KE Ons Gan ae erate 10°62 10°73
ER Of se eet 2°03 BAO)
| a ae i Ng ha 2299 Pay

100°96 100°91
Less oxygen------ 96 ‘91

100°00 100-00

The results for the non-fluoriferous phlogopite from Edwards
are less satisfactory. Its formula, condensed a little from that
given above, is

RM”, R",.R,81,,0

in which the ratio between R’” and Si is 1:3°5 nearly. But
in this mica, three atoms of magnesia are removable by gaseous
HCl, corresponding to 3MgOH. If we assume that this rep-
resents a small admixture of a foliated serpentine, and deduct
proportionally, there remains

Al,,Mg,.H,,K,,$i,.O0

S65 69 ~ 266)

2939

which is very nearly Al(SiO,);Mg,K H., or normal phlogopite.
At first, as the mineral occurs in a tale mine, we suspected
that its anomalies might be due to intermingled talc; but its
complete decomposability by hydrochloric acid showed that
supposition to be incorrect. If the mica theory is correct, this

Chemistry and Physics. 415

mineral must contain a small amount of impurity; and a ser-
pentinous or chloritic molecule is the most probable admixture.
In the Port Henry mica the ratios are perfectly simple.

The formula, Big Rag Kg Hss( 8104) 1 O5 F,, if we neglect the
small amounts of fluorine and excessive oxygen, reduces easily
to a mixture of the three typical molecules:

Al,(SiO,),Fe’,.KH,

Fe’”,(SiO,), Fe’ KH,

Al (SiO,), Me, KH,,

in the ratio 2:1:1. This compares well with the analysis,
reduced as usual, thus:

Found Calculated.

Ney 1) Jp ep ame pl lea 37°02 37°41
PAN Ose ey te he ns Lect 13°39 13°34
Hes @)eehiy ees od eal 7-90 8°34
(He Orage are) RA we 22°56 DI
MgO Spree Se Na Ns, ec 6°30 6°26
Oy i hay 9°08 9°79
EE Oe yet eid ait 3°75 2°35
100°00 100°00

Here the theoretical water is too low and the potash too high ;
both outside the allowable range of error. Their reciprocal
replacements explain the slight discordance only in part; and
the nature of the mineral suggests a small excess of water due
to incipient alteration. Altogether the agreement between
analysis and theory is remarkably close.

[To be continued. |

SCLTENTIFEPIC OINTELEILGENC EE:
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. On an improved Vapor-density Method.—The method pro-
posed by Scuatn for determining vapor-density depends upon a
comparison of the pressure exerted by a certain known amount
of gas let into the bulb and measured under normal conditions,
with that exerted by the vapor of the substance itself produced
by heating this bulb. Originally a measured volume of air was
passed into the bulb; but he has now improved the method by
decomposing a weighed quantity of pure sodium carbonate within
the apparatus, and then comparing the pressure of the carbon di-
oxide evolved with that of the vaporized substance. The apparatus
consists of a long-necked flask, of 150 to 200em*. capacity, hav-
ing a lateral tube near its mouth. This flask is supported within
a beaker containing the heating material, by a cork surrounding
its neck and resting upon a plate of asbestos, serving as a cover.
The lateral tube, which should be 10cm. above the bulb, is con-

416 Scientific Intelligence.

nected first to a T tube, and by means of this to a vertical man-
ometer tube 73cm. long and 4 or 5mm. in diameter standing in
mercury. The vertical portion of the T tube is attached, by a
rubber tube furnished with a pinch-cock, to the evolution tube.
This tube is about 12mm. wide for a distance of 5 or 6cm. at its
lower end, and is drawn out at the upper to enter the rubber tube.
Its lower end is closed by a rubber cork. The neck of the flask
is closed above by a rubber tube anda pinch cock, this tube being
large enough to contain the glass tube in which the substance to be
examined is placed. In making an experiment, the beaker, stand-
ing ona metal plate and surrounded with the upper half of a
somewhat larger beaker serving to prevent cooling by the exter-
nal air, is heated until the vapor of the heating material—
diphenylamine for example—fills about two-thirds of its volume.
By exhausting the air through the rubber tube attached to the
vertical part of the T, the mercury is raised to a considerable
height in the manometer tube, the pinch-cock being then closed.
If the apparatus is tight, this height will remain constant. The
evolution tube, in which has been placed the sodium carbonate
contained in a small weighing tube, and also the sulphuric acid
necessary to decompose it, is then attached to this rubber tube,
the pinch-cock is opened and the height of the mercury in the
manometer tube is marked by means of a rubber ring. By inclin-
ing the evolution tube the acid comes in contact with the car-
bonate and evolves carbon dioxide, which depresses the mercury
column to a point marked with a second ring. The pinch-cock
above the flask is now opened and the substance allowed to fall
into the latter. Its vapor produces a still further depression of
the mercury, its level being marked with a third ring. Calling
the position of the first ring %,, that of the second #,, and that of
the third #£,, and taking the specific gravity of carbon dioxide to
be 1°529, the expression for the vapor-density D becomes
D= ~ «3-682 a Me is
s k,—k,

in which s and s’ represent the mass of the substance and of the

a
6

*the pressure-ratio of the
k.—k,

carbon dioxide to the vapor. If s be made equal to s’ so that the
mass of the sodium carbonate employed is equal to that of the

carbon dioxide respectively, and

k—k,
k,—-k,
used, it being necessary only to determine the pressure-ratio of
the vapor to that of the carbon dioxide evolved from the same
weight of sodium carbonate. Vapor-densities of benzoic acid,
napthalene, phenol, aniline, nitrobenzene and benzene determined
in this way are given which are quite satisfactory.— Ber. Berl.
Chem. Ges., xxiii, 919, Apr., 1890; J. Chem. Soc., lviii, 681, July,
1890. G. EB:

substance, then the simpler expression D=3-°682X may be

Chemistry and Physics. 417

2. On an improved form of Groves Gas Battery.—Monp
and Lanerer have experimented with the gas battery of Grove
with a view of utilizing it commercially. In its improved form
it consists of a flat porous diaphragm of non-conducting material
having transverse metallic strips let in to its surface at intervals,
and covered on both sides with thin platinum foil having 1,500 or
more perforations per square centimeter, this foil being covered
with platinum black. Several such diaphragms are placed together,
with non-conducting frames intervening so as to form chambers,
and immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. A current of air is passed
through one set of these chambers and a current of hydrogen
through the other set alternate with these, so that one side of
each diaphragm is exposed to one gas only. The best platinum
black for this purpose was obtained by reducing a boiling alka-
line solution ot platinic chloride with sodium formate; an elec-
tromotive force of 0:97 volt being thus obtained. In practice it
was found preferable to work the battery at 0°73 volt; in which
case a battery having 700 sq. cm. of active surface, covered with
0°35 gram of platinum foil and one gram of platinum black gives
a current of 2 to 2°5 amperes. It was observed that no less than
half the energy of combustion of the hydrogen is obtained as
electrical energy. No material advantage results from the use of
pure oxygen and hydrogen over that of air and water gas, the
latter obtained by passing steam over red hot coke. The tem-
perature should be maintained constant at 40° by regulating the
supply of air.—Proc. Roy. Soc., xlvi, 296; J. Chem. Soc., \viui,
841, Aug., 1890. G. F. B.

3. On the formation of Hydrogen Peroxide from Ether.—
Dunstan and Dymonp have studied the conditions under which
hydrogen peroxide is formed from ether. They find that con-
trary to the received opinion, no hydrogen peroxide is formed
when properly purified ether is exposed to light under ordi-
nary atmospheric conditions, either in contact with air or water ;
the results recorded by former observers having been due appar-
ently to the use of impure ether When prepared by the action
of sodium ethoxide in excess on ethyl iodide, and exposed to full
daylight for five months and to the electric light for two months
for three hours nightly, the ether showed no reaction with potas-
sium iodide, hydriodic acid or chromic acid. The ether produced
by the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol and purified with sul-
phuric acid and potash, however, reacted faintly with potassium
iodide and decidedly with hydriodic acid but not with chromic
acid ; while the ether prepared from methylated spirit and exposed
to ight contained a considerable amount of hydrogen peroxide.
The authors have not been able to ascertain the nature of this im-
purity in the ether, owing to its minute quantity. The impure
ether examined by them which was richest in hydrogen peroxide
contained only 0:04 per cent of this substance, although it had
been for many years exposed to the light. The authors find,
however, that ether absorbs the entire molecule of ozone prob-
ably, as turpentine does, and on shaking the ether afterward with

418 Scientific Intelligence.

water the latter gave with chromic acid the characteristic blue
color due to hydrogen peroxide. Moreover, they have proved
further that the slow combustion of ether in presence of water
produces hydrogen peroxide. A convenient apparatus for the
purpose consists of a large flask, containing enough ether to
cover the bottom, mixed with an equal quantity of water, and con-
nected with a wash bottle containing cold water. Through the
cork of the flask a wide tube passes, open at both ends, and also a
Spiral of stout platinum wire and a tube bent at right angles
which joins it to the wash bottle. By an aspirator connected
with this bottle, air is drawn into the flask by the wide tube.
Upon heating the spiral to redness and plunging it into the flask,
the current of air may be so regulated as to maintain the spiral
at alow red heat. Hydrogen peroxide is continuously formed,
the flask being from time to time shaken, the ether forming a
peroxidized product which is decomposed by the water producing
hydrogen peroxide which is dissolved in this water.—J. Chem.
Soc., lvii, 574, June, 1890. G. F. B.

4. On the action of Carbon monoxide upon Metallic Nickel.—
Monn, Lancer and F. QuINncKE have observed that when carbon
monoxide is passed over finely divided metallic nickel between
350° and 450° carbon dioxide is evolved and a black powder con-
taining a varying proportion of carbon and nickel is formed; a
small quantity of metal being able to decompose a large quantity
of carbon monoxide. A sample containing 85 per cent carbon
and 15 per cent nickel, when treated with sulphuric acid, gave
up about two-thirds of its metal; the remaining carbon being
readily attacked by steam, even at 350°, yielding hydrogen
and carbon dioxide only. On allowing the nickel to cool while
the carbon monoxide was passing over it, it was noticed that the
flame of a Bunsen burner into which the excess of gas was con-
ducted, became highly luminous; and on heating the tube
between the metal and the outlet a brilliant mirror of metallic
nickel was deposited, mixed with a minute quantity of carbon.
Further investigation showed that when finely divided nickel,
obtained by reducing the oxide at 400° by hydrogen, is allowed
to cool in a slow stream of the monoxide, the gas is very readily
absorbed as soon as the temperature has fallen to 100°, and a gas
is obtained which the authors call nickel-carbon-oxide, in amount
about 80 per cent of the escaping gases. This gas at 180° is
decomposed into metallic nickel and carbon monoxide again ;
four volumes of the monoxide being obtained from one of the new
gas. Hence it has the composition Ni(CO), The gay is not
acted on by alkalies or acids. It reduces ammoniacal solutions
of cuprous chloride and silver chloride. Chlorine decomposes it
with formation of nickel chloride and carbonyl chloride. When
cooled in a freezing mixture, the gas condenses to a colorless
highly refractive mobile liquid, boiling at 43°, having a specific
gravity of 1°3185 at 17° and solidifying at —25° in needle shaped
crystals. Since neither cobalt, iron, copper or platinum forms a
similar compound, nickel may be readily purified in this way.

Chemistry and Physics. 419

And the authors find that nickel thus purified has an atomic mass
of 58°58, agreeing well with that of Russell, 58°74.—J. Chem.
Soe., lvii, 749, August, 1890. G. F. B.

5. Waves in air produced by Projectiles—Macu and WEnNTzEL
employed photography to study the waves in air produced by
the motion of projectiles. In passing through the focus of. a
photographic lens the projectile caused a discharge from a Ley-
den jar placed in the axis of the lens, at a distance greater than
the point of crossing of the projectile. The illumination produced
by the spark served to take an instantaneous photograph of the
passage of the projectile. The photograph showed a wave of
condensation before the projectile provided that its velocity was
more than that of sound. When the velocity was sufficient
the wave which preceded the ball had the form of an _ hy-
perboloid, of which the summit was in advance of the ball, and
the axis of which corresponded to the direction of the ball.
There were also traces of conical waves, of which the axes were
also in the line of fire and which arose at the base of the ball.
Some traces of less distant waves were seen upon denser points
of the surface of the ball. All these waves made a less angle
with the axis of the projectile than the wave in front. When
the velocity was augmented, the angles made by the waves
with the line of fire were diminished. When the greatest veloci-
ties were attained, the space behind the projectile was filled
immediately with little clouds, there was no trace of a vacuum
behind the ball even when the velocity was 900 meters per
second. The waves produced in the air by the projectile at
higher velocities than that of sound progress more rapidly than
those due to feeble velocities, so that the compression in front of
the projectile is not sufficient to be depicted upon the photograph
under the form of waves.—Revue Scientifique, Sept. 13, 1890, p.
338.

6. EK. Macy and P. Saucer have extended the method of ob-
servation employed by Mach and Wentzel to the study of
streams of air blown from various orifices.—Ann. der Physik
und Chemie, xli, p. 144, 1890.

E. Maca and L. Macu have also employed the method for
studying the interference of sound waves of great excursion.—
Ann. der Physik, xli, p. 141, 1890. lo (as

7. Re-determination of the Ohm.—Prof. J. V. Jones read a
paper on this subject at the late meeting of the British Associa-
tion at Leeds. He reviewed the method employed by Lorenz and
by Lord Rayleigh, and suggested a direct determination of the
mercury unit by this method, instead of the employment of solid
conductors by the shunt method and afterwards a comparison
with a mercury unit. He points out “if the artificial B. A. unit
can be dropped out of one’s experiments as well as out of the
results, and the theasurements made directly on mercury, the
simplicity would seem to be a recommendation, and the argument
is perhaps enforced by the consideration that there is very nearly
as much divergence in the results of different observers for the

420) Scientific Intelligence.

specific resistance of mercury in B. A. units as there is in the
values obtained for the Bb. A. unit in absolute measure.” The
author therefore offered the following :—

(1) That the time is ripe for a new determination of the ohm
that shall be final for the practical purposes of the electrical
engineer.

(2) That such a determination can be made by the method of
Lorenz, the specific resistance of mercury being obtained directly
in absolute measure by the differential method described.

(3) That the standard coil should consist of a single layer of
wire, the coefficient of mutual induction of the coil and dise,
circumference being calculated by the new formula. ia ats

8. Alternating versus continuous currents in relation to the
Human body.—At the meeting of the British Association held
at Leeds, 1890, a paper was presented on this subject by H.
NEWMAN Lawrence and Arriur Harrms. They arrive at the
following conclusions :

A, When the human body, with the skin in its normal un-
moistened condition, comes into contact for an appreciable time
with base-metal conductors of a dynamo-generated continuous
current passing at 100 volts in such a way that the current
passes from hand to hand, and the total contact area is about 90
square centimeters:

(1) A current of about 0-016 Angeres will pass through it.

(2) This current can be borne without discomfort for 15 to 30
seconds.

(3) After about 30 seconds unpleasant burning sensations
become marked and increase.

(4) The subject is perfectly able to release himself at will
during any portion of the time of contact.

B. When the human body comes in contact with dynamo-
generated alternating currents, alternating at about 60 to 70 per
second under the same conditions as above.

(1) A current of about 0°075 Ampéres will pass through it.

(2) This current is six times greater than that which produces
discomfort.

(3) Instantly the subject is fixed by violent muscular contraction
and suffers great pain.

(4) The subject j is utterly unable to release himself, but remains
exposed to the full vigor of all the current that may be passing.

©. When circuit from electric light or power conductors is
accidentally completed through the ‘human body, the danger of
serious consequences is many times greater when alternating
than when continuous currents are passing at equal voltage, and
this is still to a large extent true if the voltage of the continuous
Oa be double that of the alternating.

(1) With both forms of current a ‘reduction of contact area
wees ially reduces the amount of current strength that passes.

(2) With the alternating current, if the rate of alternation
be reduced below 50 per second, the sensations of pain accom-
panying muscular fixation will be increased, while if the rate of

Geology and Natural History. 421

alternation be increased, the pain will be diminished. The authors
state in conclusion that mere statements in regard to voltage
unaccompanied by statements in regard to current are highly
misleading.—Llectrical Review, Sept. 12, 1890. splat

Il. GroLtocy AND NAtTuRAL History.

1. Phylogeny of the Pelecypoda, the Aviculide and their
allies ; by Rosprrt Tracy Jackson, 8.D., Mem. Boston Soc.
Nat. Hist., vol. iv, no. vill, pp. 277-400, pl. xxili-xxix, 53 figures
in the text, July, 1890.—Each time a familiar subject is studied
from a new standpoint, many novel and interesting results may
be expected. In the present instance, the author has employed
modern and approved scientific methods, and the results, while
both novel and interesting, are of the highest importance to a
proper understanding of the pelecypods. The leading method
which is here so fully applied is that of a study of the stages of
growth. The embryology and anatomy are constantly kept in
view and also the chronological history of each group in past
geologic time. If all these aspects of growth can be brought
into harmony, we have the strongest evidence of the accuracy of
our observations, and most reliable taxonomic data.

Professor Hyatt in his studies of the stages of growth and
decline among the cephalopods has constructed a model, and
indicated methods which may be profitably applied to all branches
of natural history. These principles have been followed by the
author, although some particulars have been slightly modified in
order to adapt them directly to the pelecypods. A new term is
proposed for a stage of growth between the typembryo of Hyatt,
which as re-defined is characterized in mollusks by a shell gland
with an initial plate-like shell, and the period showing a completed
protoconch. This intermediate period the author terms the
phylembryonic, or that in which the shell and anatomy are each
sufficiently differentiated to determine the class to which the
organism belongs.

The important discovery of the characters and relations of the
larval or embryonic shell named the prodissoconch was briefly
described in a previous paper by the author, but is here fully
treated in its relations and significance in the class. Its existence
is demonstrated in about thirty genera belonging to widely
differing families of pelecypods, recent and fossil, and is believed
to indicate a primitive ancestral condition common to the whole
class. The consideration of the oyster and allied forms com-
prises one of the leading features. The development of the
animal and shell is described and illustrated in over thirty pages
and three plates. It is shown that the ostreaform shell is due to
the cemented condition of fixation, and on this account is closely
simulated in other attached shells, in genera and families which
are not closely genetically related. In Pecten, the study of the
habits and anatomy at different growth-stages shows the intimate

422 Scientific Intelligence.

relationships and synchronous variations between the soft and
hard parts of the animal. his emphasizes the general truth that
the shell is not the mere covering or domicile of “the animal, but is
a highly specialized enveloping organ, subject to modification
from changes in the soft animal within, and to the varying condi-
tions of the environment. From the nuculoid prodissoconch,
Pecten passes through stages corresponding to Rhombopteria,
Pterinopecten, and Aviculopecten.

A genealogical table for the Aviculide and their allies is
proposed as a result of these investigations, based upon fossil
and recent forms. A nuculoid shell of Lower Silurian type is
taken as the radical. The new genus Rhombopteria is proposed
for a group of Aviculoids of which Avicula mira Barrande is the
type. It is considered as the prototype and ancestral form of
three distinct branches; one by direct descent through Leptodes-
ma to Avicula, with side branches to Pinna, Perna, Ostrea,
Malleus, etc., another doubtful side branch to Pterinea and
Ptychopteria, and the third diverging through Pterinopecten and
Aviculopecten to Pernopecten, Pecten, Plicatula, Anomia, Pla-
cuna, and allied genera. Cl. gB:

2. Revue des travaux de paléontologie végéetale, parus en 1888
ou dans le cours des années précédentes ; par le Marquis Gaston
DE SaporTa. Extrait de la Revue générale de Botanique, tome
II, Paris, 1890.—This exhaustive review of paleobotanical litera-
ture contains much that is original and goes far to settle a large
number of the more perplexing problems of the science. The
subject is treated by geologic eras, the author’s former classifi-
cation of Paleophytic, Mesophytic, and Neophytic, being em-
ployed. As ov former occasions he makes the Mesophytic extend
so as to include only the Lower Cretaceous, and the Neophytic
to begin with the Cenomanian and include the Upper Cretaceous,
this being the point in vegetable paleontology where the most
distinct line of demarkation occurs. Among the more important
points brought out may be mentioned the following: The great
difference between the Paleophytic and Mesophytic ferns and
those of modern times; the acceptance of the cryptogamic nature
of Sigillaria and Calamodendron, so long denied by the French
school; the announcement of the discovery of a Lower Creta-
ceous flora in Portugal containing dicotyledons, and similar to
that of the Potomac formation of Virginia; and the surrender of
the much discussed problematical organisms called Spirangium or
ge eee ys to the zoologists as of animal nature. L. FW.

3, Notes on the Leaves of Liriodendron ; by THEopor Hom.
Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., vol. xiii, 1890, pp. 15-35, pl. iy—ixs
Washington, 1890.—Mr. Holm is making a study of the oermina-
tion of plants and of the earlier leaves as they appear following
the cotyledons. In this paper he has described and figured a
large number of these early leaves of Liriodendron Tulipifera,
which prove to be very interesting and of special importance to
the student of paleobotany, since these early leaves are supposed

Geology and Natural History. 423

to show the stages through which the particular form has passed
in its development from earlier times. The genus Liriodendron,
as is well known, is a waning type only a single species, or pos-
sibly two, remaining in the present flora of the globe, while a
large number of fossil species have been described, many of
which have leaves which remind us strongly of these ‘embryonic
early forms figured by Mr. Holm. As these embryonic forms,
however, are “not likely to occur in a fossil state, Mr. Holm’s
contention that there has been an undue multiplication of species
by paleobotanists, and that many of the fossil species described
are only early forms of living species, is by no means sustained,
and he does not seem to understand that these modern embryonic
forms are more likely to represent the phylogenetic stages through
which the present living species has passed. Tae Wie

4. Contributions to the Tertiary Fauna of Florida ; by Wm.
H. Datt. Trans. Wagner Free Institute of Sci. , Philadelphia,
vol. iii, pt. 1, Aug., 1890. 178 pp-, 12 plates, —The excellent plan
of this series of publications, that of presenting memoirs on the
geology and paleontology of Florida, is well exemplified in the
present issue. It is aimed to produce a complete monograph of
the molluscan fauna of the Caloosahatchie beds, which shall serve
as a typical example of an American Tertiary fauna, and as a
standard for critical comparisons with other horizons. The
present number comprises the greater part of the gastropods, and
is to be followed by the second part, to include the remainder of
the gastropods, together with the pelecypods and scaphopods.
The material employed was collected by Mr. Joseph Willcox, the
the author, Mr. Frank Burns of the U. 8. G. S., and others.

An important discussion in dynamical evolution, relating to
the plications on the columella in the Volutidx, leads the author
to conclude that they are the strongest in those shells hav-
ing the most deep seated adductor muscles. Also, that the
plications are produced by the frequent retraction of the animal,
and consequent wrinkling of the large shell-secreting mantle
when withdrawn within the shell cone while enclosing the com-
paratively firm foot and body of the animal. Through an
extension of this principle the author also accounts, by similar
mechanical reasons, for the teeth and lire so common and char-
acteristic in many other groups. Ch HN Be

5. On Syringothyris Winchell, and its American Species ;
by CuarLes ScuucHERT, from the Ninth Ann. Rept. N. Y. State
Geologist. 12 pp. 1890.—The question as to what should consti-
tute the type species of Spirifer and Syringothyris is discussed
by the author, and considerable light thrown on the synonymy of
the American species belonging to the latter genus. Syr. Cartert
Hall is shown to be the same as Syr. typa Winchell, and therefore
becomes the type. Following Davidson and others Spirifer stri-
atus is accepted as the type of Sowerby’s genus, although Syr.
cuspidatus was the first species referred'to Spirifer. c. E. B.

6. Mineral Resources of the United States—Calendar year
1888, Davip T. Day, Chief of Division of Mining Statistics and

Am. JOUR. SCI.—THIRD SERIES, VOL. XL, No. 239.—Nov., 1890.
26a

424 Scientific Intelligence.

Technology. 652 pp. Washington, 1890 (U.S. Geol. Survey, J.
W. Powell, Director).—Another volume—the sixth—of this valu-
able series has appeared, under the able editorship of Mr. David
T. Day, and presents the condition of our mining industries for
1888. The volume opens with the usual concise summary for the
different metals, etc., and detailed chapters on each subject by
individual specialists follow. Some of these chapters are of great
fullness and interest as, for example, that in Coal (pp. 168-394) by
Charles A. Ashburner. As illustrating the effect of a special
demand (in this case, the manufacture of incandescent gas burners)
in creating a supply of substances hitherto supposed to be
extremely rare, it 1s interesting to note that during 1887-88,
25 tons of zircon were mined in North Carolina, 4 tons of
monazite, 1 ton of allanite, 600 pounds of samarskite and $500
worth of yttrium minerals.

7. Elements of Crystallography for students of Chemistry,
Physics and Mineralogy, by Grorck H. Witiiams. 250 pp.
12mo. New York, 1890, (Henry Holt & Co.).—The subject of
crystallography is often regarded by the student as somewhat
repulsive, but to those acquainted with its real simplicity it is
obvious that the difficulty is not so much intrinsic as to be found
in the way in which it is ordinarily presented. ‘The excellent
little volume which Dr. Williams has prepared can hardly fail to
do much to remove this reproach and to make the subject
thoroughly attractive. The explanations of the morphological
relations of crystals are so simple and full and the style so clear
that a conscientious student using it will find that the ordinary
ditficulties disappear while the mastery of the subject will fol-
low as a matter of course. A knowledge of crystals is obviously
of importance not only to the mineralogist but also to the chemist
and physicist and to the latter class especially this book will be
of great assistance.

8. Runpfite, a new mineral.—G, Frrtscu has given the name
Rumpfite, after Prof. J. Rumpf, of Graz, to a mineral allied to
the chlorites occurring in aggregates having a fine scaly to
granular structure in cavities in magnesite near St. Michael in
Upper Syria. It has a greenish-white color; the hardness is
1:5, and the specific gravity 2°675. Before the blowpipe it is
infusible. An analysis gave:

SiO» Al,03 FeO MgO CaO H.0
30°75 41°66 1°61 12:09 0°89 13°12=100°12

It was found that practically no water was lost up to 360°, but
at a dark red heat 9 per cent went off, while the remainder was
expelled at full ignition Ber. Ak. Wien, xcix, July, 1890.

9. Polybasite from Colorado.—Dyr. F. M. Enpuicu has iden-
tified the rare mineral polybasite at the Yankee Boy mine, Ouray,
Colorado. It occurs in tabular crystals, hexagonal in outline,
with pyrargyrite in cavities in a quartzose gangue. . The deter-
mination has been confirmed by Penfield who finds the prismatic
angle to be very nearly 60°; Miers gives 60° 10’ as the result of
recent observations,

Ceylon, Java, Borneo and New Guinea In- :
sects, especially Lepidoptera and Coleoptera,
singly or in lots; also Orthoptera and Dragon
Flies, land and fresh-water Shells, offered at
cheap prices. aha
H. FRUHSTORFER,

Noy. 6t. Care German Consulate, Soerabaia, Java.

—

ey @ ee be SS ee © Ee EA eo ee
No, 6 Murray Street, New York,
Manufacturers of Balances and Weights of Precision for Chem-

ists, Assayers, Jewelers, Druggists, and in general for every use

where accuracy is required.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE

_ JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.

BALTIMORE.

I. American Journal of Mathematics. 8. Newcomp, Kditor, and T. Crate,
Associate Editor. Quarterly. 4to. Volume XII in progress. $5 per
volume.

If; American Chemical Journal.—l. Remsen, Hditor. 8 Nos. yearly. 8vo.
Volume XIin progress. $4 per volume.

Milf. American Journal of Philology.—B. L. GILDERSLEEVE, Editor. Quar-
terly. 8yo. Volume X in progress. $3 per volume.

IV. Studies from the Biological Laboratory.—Including the Chesapeake
Zoological Laboratory. H. N. Martin, Editor, and W. K. BrooKs, Asso-
ciate Editor. 8vo. Volume IV in progress. $5 per volume.

V. Studies in Historical and Political Science.—H. B. Apams, Editor.
Monthly. 8vo. Volume VII in progress. $3 per volume.

VI. Johns Hopkins University Circulars.—Containing reports of scientific
and literary work in progress in Baltimore. 4to. Vol. IX in progress.
$1 per year. ;

Vit, Annual Report.—Presented by the President to the Board of Trustees,
reviewing the operations of the University during the past academic year.

Vil. Annual Register.—Giving the list of officers and students, and stating
the regulations, etc., of the University. Published at the close of the Aca-
demic year.

ROWLAND’S PHOTOGRAPH OF THE NORMAL SOLAR SPECTRUM. New edition now
ready. $20 for set of ten plates, mounted.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE HMBRYOLOGY oF INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS. By Adam
T. Bruce. 46 pp. and 7 plates. $3.00, cloth.

SELECTED MORPHOLOGICAL MonoGrapus. W. K. Brooks, Hditor. Vol. I. 370
pp. and 51 plates. 4to. $7.50, cloth.

THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROPAGATION OF THE OYSTER IN MARYLAND. By W.
K. Brooks. 193 pp. 4to; 13 plates and 3 maps. $5.00, cloth.

ON THE MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT oF HEAT. By H. A. Rowland. 127 pp.
8yo. $1.50. .

A full list of publications will be sent on application.

Communications in respect to exchanges and remittances may be
sent to the Johns Hopkins University (Publication Agency), Baltimore,
Maryland.

nf >as

‘Page |

Art. XLIV.—Further Study of the Solar Corona; by F. H.

BLGHEO Wi 2 2 SL SU es 2 343
XLV.—Superimposition of the Drainage in Central Texas;
iby. Rs: STARR sit Shere ee 359 |

XLVI.—Description of the “ Bernardston Series” of Meta-
morphic Upper Devonian Rocks; by B. K. EmMErson.. 362

XLVII.—Anualysis of Rhodochrosite a Franklin Furnace,

New Jersey; by: PH BROWNING 25220 28 oon ae 375
XLV ITI.—Re-determination of the Atomic Weight of Cad-.
migms by Ho A “PARTRIDGE GP 52s snes a ee eee 377

. XLIX.—Occurrence of Nitrogen in Uraninite and compo-
sition of Uraninite in general; by W. F. HizitEpranp_ 384

L.—Anthophyllite from Franklin, Macon Co., N. C.; by

SPE OPEN RIBEDS 22208 eS en re 394
LI.—Preglacial Drainage and Recent Geological History of
: Western Pennsylvania; by P. M: Poswayis:— 572 ee 397
LIT.—So-called Perofskite from Magnet Cove, Arkansas; by
BW VE Es ae ye gis 403
LIIL—Experiments upon the Constitution of the Natural

Silicates ; by F. W. Crarxe and HE. A. ScHNEIDER..-- 405

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics——Improved Vapor-density Method, Scuanu, 415.—Im-
proved form of Grove’s Gas Battery, Monp and LANGER: Formation of
Hydrogen Peroxide from Ether, Dunstan and Dymonp, 417.—Action of Car-
bon monoxide upon Metallic Nickel, Monp, LANGER, and F. QuIncKE, 418.—
Waves in air produced by Projectiles, MAcH and WeEnTzEL: HE. Mace and P.
SALCHER: H. Macu and L. Macw: Re-determination of the Ohm, J. V. JONES,
419.—Alternating versus continuous currents in relation to the Human body,
H. N. LAWRENCE and A. Harriss, 420.

Geology and Natural History.—Phylogeny of the Pelecypoda, the Aviculidz and
their allies, R. T. Jackson, 421.—Revue des travaux de paléontologie végetale,
parus en 1888 ou dans le cours des années précédentes, G. DE SAPORTA: Notes
on the Leaves of Liriodendron, T. Hoi, 422.—Contributions to the Tertiary
Fauna of Florida, W. H. Datu: Syrin othyris Winchell, and its American
Species, C. ScHUCHERT: Mineral Resources of the United States, D. T. Day,
423.—Elements of Crystallography for students of Chemistry, Physics and
Mineralogy, Gro. H. WinniamMs: Rumpfite, a new mineral, G. FIRISCH:
Polybasite from Colorado, F. M. Enpiicu, 424.

TEN-VOLUME INDEX.

An extra number of this Journal, containing a full index to volumes xxxi to
xi, will be ready in January. The publication of this number involves a large
extra expense to the editors, and it will be sent, therefore, to those only who
specially order it. The price is seventy-five cents per copy. Orders are solic;
ited, as the edition will be a small one.

Chas. D. Walcott, i gk asia Mid ae
U.S. Geological Survey. RC i aa .
Be vOL. cL): | DECEMBER, 1890.

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

THE
AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

EDITORS

JAMES D. ann EDWARD 8S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Proressors JOSIAH P. COOKE, GEORGE L. GOODALE
anp JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Campripes.

Proressors H. A. NEWTON anv A. E. VERRILL,.or
New Haven,

-Provesson GEORGE F. BARKER, or Pamapsrema.
Ae PY ; .
THIRD SERIES.
VOL. XL—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXL]
No. 240.—DECEMBER, 1890.

i!

1
;
‘
ye
4
Ms
met.
es
“|
x
3
Es
|
>
it

:

WITH A MAP, PLATE X.

NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. 8. DANA,
: 1890,

TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET.

Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub-
seribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either bv
ope money orders, registered letters, or bank checks.

a

eer S =
i sis 1891 THE LIVING AGE enters upon its forty-eighth year.
It has met with constant commendation and success. HORS ee
| A WEEKLY MAGAZINE, it gives fifty-two numbers of sixty-four —
| pages each, or more than Three and a
umn octavo pages of reading-matter yearly.
Sive form, considering its great amount of matter, with freshness, owin
to its weekly issue, and with a completeness nowhere else attempted,

irae Ore ye a yy he DS ‘
er Saat es ud

Me
“P

‘

ev
= Ty :

oA

Quarter Thousand double-col-_

The best Essays, Reviews, Criticisms, Tales, Sketches of Travel and Discovery, Poetry, Scientific,
Biographical, Historical, and Political Information, from the entire body sf
of Foreign Periodical Literature, and from the pens of x

The F'oremost LEaiwving Writers.

*

It presents in an inexpen- —

A

_ The ablest and most cultivated intellects, in every department of Literature, —
Science, Pélitics, and Art, find expression in the Periodical Literature of Europe, and si

especially of Great Britain.

‘The Living Age, forming four large volumes a year, furnishes from the great —
and generally inaccessible mass of this literature the only compilation that, while —
within the reach of all, is satisfactory in the COMPLETENESS with which it em-—
braces whatever is of immediate interest, or of solid, permanent value.

It is therefore indispensable to every one who wishes to keep pace with the —
events or intellectual progress of the time, or to cultivate in himself or his family general —

intelligence and literary taste.

OPINIONS.

‘““Tt is nearly half a century since the first volume of
this sterling publication came from the press, and to-
day it stands the most perfect publication of its kind
in the world. . There is but one LIVING AGB, though
many haye essayed imitations. While their intent
has no doubt been worthy, they have lacked that rare
discriminating judgment, that fineness of acumen, and
that keen appreciation of what constitutes true excel-
lence, which make LITTELL’S LIVING AGE the incom-
parable publication that it is. No one who has once
become acquainted with its educating and uplifting
qualities will eyer be induced to dispense with its

-Visitations.” — Christian at Work, New York.

“Tt is indispensable to intelligent people in this busy
day.” — New- York Lvangelist.

“Many other and deservedly popular favorites have
entered the periodical field, but none of them have
diminished the importance of THE LIVING AGE. .
Withits aid it is possible for the busy reader to know
something of universal literature. Indeed it may well
be doubted whether there exists any more ess@&tial
aid to cultivation of the mind among English-speak-
ing people; and its importance increases with the
ever-growing rush and hurry of modern times. . No
one knows its value so well as the busy man who
without it might well despair of keeping in any way
posted as to the trend of modern thought in this day of
immense activity.” Episcopal Recorder, Philadelphia.

“This periodical fills a place that no other occupies.
. Biography, fiction, science, criticism, history, poetry,
travels, whatever men are interested in, all are found
here.” — The Watchman, Boston.

“Tt contains nearly all the good literature of the
time.” — The Churchman, New York.

“Like wine, it only improves with age. . The same
amount of valuable reading cannot be found elsewhere
for so small a sum.”— Christian Intelligencer, New York.

“It would be cheap at almost any price.” — Califor-
nia Christian Advocate, San Francisco.

“Tt stands unrivalled.” — The Presbyterian, Phila.

*“No man will be behind the literature of the times
who reads THE LIVING AGE.”—Zion’s Herald, Boston.

“Tt is incomparably the finest literary production ~
of modern times. In its own peculiar sphere it has ~
no peer. It embraces within its scope the matured —
thoughts, on all subjects, of the greatest authors and ©
ripest scholars in Europe.” — Herald and Presbyter,
Cincinnati.

“There may be some things better than THE LIVING
AGE, but if so we have not seen them. . For the man
who tries to be truly conversant with the very best
literature of this and other countries, it is indispensa—
ble.” — Central Baptist, St. Louis.

“Tt retains the characteristics of breadth, catho-
licity and good taste which have always marked its.
editing. The fields of fiction, biography, travel,
science, poetry, criticism, and social and religious
discussion all come within its domain and all are well
represented. . The readers miss very little that is
important in the periodical domain.”— Boston Journal.

“Tt may be truthfully and cordially said that it never”
offers a dry or valueless page.”—New- York Tribune.

““No better outlay of money can be made than in sub=
scribing for THE LiyinG AGE.”—Hartford Courant.

“One who keeps up with THE LIVING AGE keeps
up with the thought of the day.” -— Albany Times.

“To read it is itself an education in the course of
modern thought and literature.”—Buffalo Commercial
Advertiser.

“Coming weekly, it has a great advantage over the
monthly magazines and reviews.” — San Francisco
Chronicle.

“Tt is one of the invaluables to those whose time is.
limited.” — Houston ( Tex.) Post.

“Tn it the reader finds all that is worth knowing in
the realm of current literature.” —- Canada Presbyte-
rian, Toronto. m

“It enables its readers to keep fully abreast of the
best thought and literature of ciyilization.”— Christian.
Advocate, Pittsburgh. x

“He who subscribes for a few years to it gathers a
choice library, even though he may have no other
books.” — New-York Observer. ;

PUBLISHED WEEKLY at $8.00 a year, free of postage.

2@- TO NEW SUBSCRIBERS for the year 1891, remitting before Jan. 1, the -
weekly numbers of 1890 issued after the receipt of their subscriptions, will be sent gratis. _

CLUB PRICES FOR THE BEST HOME AND FOREIGN LITERATURE. ~

[‘* Possessed of LITTELL’s LIVING AGE, and of one or other of our vivacious American monthlies, a
subscriber will find himself in command of the whole situation.” — Philadelphia Hvening Bulletin.) 2 We}

For $10.50, THe Living AGE and any one of the four-dollar monthly magazines —
(or Harper’s Weekly or Bazar) will be sent for a year, postpaid; or, for $9.50, TH.
Lrvine AGE and Scribner’s Magazine, or Lippincott’s Magazine, or the St. Nicholas.
Rates for clubbing more than one other periodical with one copy of THE LivING .

AGE will be sent on application.
ADDRESS

LITTELL

{

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

¢< a 4%

[THIRD SERIES]

A +O+

Art. LIV.—Long Island Sound in the Quaternary Era,
with observations on the Submarine Hudson River Chan-
nel; by JAMES D. Dana. With a map, Plate X.

THE charts of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey have
made Long Island Sound and the Atlantic border a means of
geological instruction in many ways. The recent issue by
the Survey after new soundings, of a chart which admits of
convenient photographic reduction, has afforded me the oppor-
tunity to illustrate with a map* some conclusions which I
deduced from them many years since; and I now take advan-
tage of it in order to sustain or modify the views before
presented as the new facts may seem to require. The subjects
are: first, The Condition of Long Island Sound in the Glacial
period ; secondly, The Origin of the channel over the sub-
merged Atlantic border attributed to the flow of the Hudson
River during a time of emergence.

*This map is reduced one-half from the Coast Survey Chart No. 8a,
entitled ‘‘ Approaches to New York: Block Island to Cape May; from surveys
of 1878 to 1883.” The omissions are a southern portion of the chart, the Light-
houses and the information to Navigators on the margin. The additions are
Cotidal lines for the Sound, taken from a map published by Prof. Bache, Super-
intendent of the Coast Survey, in the Report for 1854, and inscribed as prepared
by C. A. Schott, of the Coast Survey, from observations by Lieuts. C. H. Davis,
and J. R. Goldsborough, U.S. A.; additional bathymetric lines for the Sound,
and a strengthening of those over the Atlantic border to make them more readily
appreciated; and a few soundings from the larger charts of the Sound and of New
York Harbor. The larger charts of the Sound are three in number (Nos. 114,
115, 116), the scale gatoo. (They will be found to be of great value in the class
room for geological illustration of tidal and sea-shore action.)

The soundings on the map show the depth at mean low tide in fathoms up to
3 fathoms, and in the shallower dotted portion in feet.

Am. Jour. Sct.—THIRD Series, Vout. XL, No. 240.—Dec., 1890.
2

426 Dana—Long Island Sound in the Quaternary Era.

1. Tur Conpitrion oF Lone Istann SounD IN THE
GLACIAL PERIOD.

1. The southern of the Sound rivers im the Glacial period.
—In a memoir of 1869, on the “Origin of some of the
topographic features of the New Haven Region,” (read in
September of that year before the Connecticut Academy of
Sciences,)* I mention the fact that along the middle third of
the Sound, over the larger part of which the depth is 10 to
154 fathoms, there is near the southern shore a channel of 20
to 25 fathoms; and I further point out that this channel ends
with strange abruptness about a mile and a half from the
shore-line with a depth of 182 fathoms, the next soundings
beyond being 113, 10, 9 fathoms. This abrupt termination
occurs thirty miles short of the outlet of the Sound, and at a
point where the coast-line takes a N. 35° E. course, right in
the face of this east-west channel.

It was manifest that this channel could not be due to the
scour of the ebb current; for the deepest excavations of the
tide occur, as the map shows, at the narrowings of the Sound :
as for example, south of Norwalk, Conn., where a bank from
Eaton’s Point, L. I, stretches out nearly half way across the
Sound, and occasions an increase of depth from 10-12 fathoms
to 82, to return again just beyond to 12 and 13 fathoms; and
south of Stratford, where there is a like effect in consequence
of shoals; and still more strikingly at the eastern discharge of
the Sound, where the depth gradually increases (through the
20 miles of narrowing) from 12-15 fathoms to 50-55 fathoms
at the two sluice-ways between Fisher Island and Plum Island,t+
returning again to 12-18 fathoms in the 20 miles. The trough
along the south side of the Sound is deepened at the narrows
south of Stratford to 27 fathoms; but it continues on eastward,
with a depth exceeding 20 fathoms through the widest part of
the Sound and terminates before a narrowing begins. Since
the depth to the eastward of the termination is only 9 to 13
fathoms, there is here an abrupt rise in the bottom of 25 feet,
and this would have the effect of a dam, and reduce the ebb.
movement within the trough to a minimum.

In view of these facts, I suggested in 1869 that the south-side
channel or trough was the bed of a Sound river in the Glacial

* Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci., ii, pp. 42-112, 1870. An Appendix containing
extracts from this paper is annexed to the author’s separate copies of his paper
on the Phenomena of the Glacial and Champlain periods in the New Haven
region. This paper is published in vols. xxvi, xxvii (1883-4) of this Journal, but
without the Appendix.

+ The deepest areas at these sluice-ways are left blank on the map without
the soundings; the depths of the two at the northern sluice-way are 50 and 51
fathoms, of the two at the southern, for the western area 53, 55 fathoms, and
for the eastern 52, 54 fathoms.

AN

Dana—Long Island Sound in the Quaternary Hra.- 427

period ; that the river took the drainage from western Connec-
ticut, Long Island, and the glaciers direct ; and that the place
of discharge was not by the distant eastern exit of the Sound,
but across the narrow north Point of Long Island, in the
vicinity of Mattituck, into Peconic Bay.

Near Mattituck, as shown
on the accompanying cut,
there are inlets both from
the Sound and from Peconic
Bay which come within 400
yards of one another, and
the surface between is but
10 to 15 feet above tide-
level. A line of hills occurs
along the shores of the
Sound either side of the
inlet, but they are only 30
or 40 feet high (by the au-
thor’s estimate). The facts
thus appear to favor strongly
the conclusion that the
Sound river crossed the Point into the Bay. It was not
possible without digging or boring to prove that such a
channel, free from Cretaceous clays, lay buried beneath the
sands, so that the inference is not yet wholly beyond doubt.

2. A northeastern Sound river.—As the soundings indicate
the waters from the drainage east of New Haven, including
those of the Connecticut, passed out of the Sound at its east.
ve

The southern Sound river-channel cut off from Peconic
can by depositions of drift.—Other facts with regard to
the soundings throw light on the method by which the dis-
charge into Peconic Bay may have been stopped.

My paper, of 1883, on Glacial phenomena in the New
Haven region* points out that the ice of the Connecticut
valley trough, or that of the lower part of the great glacier, had
the course oH foe valley sor 150 miles (from New Hampshire
ed (1) by the abundant glacial
scratches over ae rocks, se @ ) by the fact that the drift stones
and bowlders of the valley in its southern part are 99 per cent
trap and sandstone, the valley rocks. It was observed further,
that the ice, as it was discharged from the confining valley
into the open way of the Sound at and west of New Haven
Bay, had to make there a turn of 40° to 50° eastward to bring
it into conformity of flow with that of the general ice mass.

* Phenomena of the Glacial and Champlain periods about the mouth of the

Connecticut Valley in the New Haven Region, Am Jour. Sci., xxvi, 341, 1883,
xxvii, 113, 1884.

428 Dana—Long Island Sound in the Quaternary Era.

The course of movement in the valley was 8S. 10°-15° W.; the
course outside of it, and that of the upper ice over it, 8S. 15°-
BO> Beye Ooe Le being the prevailing course over the higher
lands of western Connecticut.

It was stated also, and proved by glacial scratches, that the
south-westing which the ice had in the valley continued for 6
to 8 miles west of New Haven, over the Milford region,
and was increased there to S. 34° W.; and also that Round
Hill, west of New Haven, (R, on the map), an isolated hill 304
feet high and 110 feet deep in bowlder-clay or till, is situated
where the greatest crevasses would probably have been made
in the wrenched glacier.*

If then this change of course, bringing the bottom-ice in the
Conuecticut valley into line with the upper ice of the glacier
took place over the region from New Haven to Milford, a large
deposit of drift, 8. 20°-35° E. from there, should be looked for
in the Sound. This deposit is there. A line from Milford to
Mattituck has the course 8. 30° E., or that of the general gla-
cial movement, so that the Milford-New Haven and Northville-
Mattituck shore-lines lie in the course of the glacial stream.
Now all the way across the Sound between these shore-lines
there is shallow water, no soundings exceeding 16 fathoms.
This shallowed region passes by the east extremity of the south-
side channel. The work of deposition was mainly done in the
Champlain period, during the melting of the ice, and then, con-
sequently, the southern Sound river of the glacier period had
its channel cut off by sand deposits, like so many other streams
- of the continent.

This course of glacier movement and deposition is shown
further to have been a fact by the large quantity of red sand-
stone—mostly a soft shaly variety near
Northville, Long Island (north of Riverhead). The surface
covered is so extensive that it looked like an outcrop of the
Jura-Trias. The facts appear to indicate the position across the
Sound of the line of maaumui transportation. t

This south-side channel, if really that of a river carrying
fresh water in the Glacial period, required a more elevated con-
dition than now of Long Island and the Connecticut coast.
Evidence of such an elevation—estimated at 100 to 150 feet—
was found in the existence of pot-holes at the sea-level in the
gneiss or granite off the Connecticut shore, and in the depth at
which clay occurs in the stratified drift in the shore-deposits of
New Haven Bay. Decisive proof is afforded also by the bays
of the north side of Long Island, as suggested by Mr. E. Lewis

* A map of the Round Hiil region is given on page 358 of the paper, vol. xxvi,
1883.
+ On this point see further the paper of this Journal, 1883, xxvi, 355.

Dana—Long Island Sound in the Quaternary Era. 429

in 1877.* These bays are marvels for size and depth, consid-
ering that they have now no sufficient stream to make or keep
them open. Their varying courses and complexity of form are
unfavorable to the idea that they were made by the shove of
the glacier against the unconsolidated sand, gravel and clay-
beds of the island—an idea suggested by Mr. F. J. H. Merrill. +
The great bay east of Eaton’s Neck, called Huntington Bay,
has a “depth of 50 feet in its southwest part, and of 52 and 58
feet in its inner eastern section called Northport Bay. The
bay west of Lloyd’s Neck, called Oyster Bay, has a depth, just
south of the sand-bank that nearly closes its entrance, of 63
feet, and the inner western portion has soundings of about 50
feet.. These equal the greatest depth in New York harbor.
The narrow Hempstead Harbor, farther west, has a depth of
30 feet almost at its inner extremity. The depths of these
bays have been diminishing since glacial times by the west-
ward tidal drift, which has made shallow entrances, and by the
transporting action of waters draining the high sand and gravel
hills which border the bay. The most probable explanation
of so great size and depth, and of so complex forms for these
essentially riverless bays, is that of their excavation by under-
glacier streams when the island was enough higher to give the
streams the power of cutting; and of cutting not only 50 and
60 feet below the present surface but 60 plus the amount of
depth lost by subsequent depositions. An increase in height
of 100 feet seems therefore to be a reasonable conclusion.

But if the northern side bears such evidence of elevation, the
southern should afford some corresponding facts. We find
such apparently in the south side gravel plain and that at the
head of Peconic Bay. This south-side plain is two-thirds as
long as the island and nearly half as broad. To the north of a
middle east-west line—which is shown on the map, between
Jamaica on the west and Shinecock Bay on the east—the land
rises to 200 feet and beyond, reaching 3884 feet in the most
elevated part; and this higher land continues to the northern
coast, where the height is mostly 100 to 200. feet; and also
westward to Bay Ridge on the northwest coast of the island,
on New York Harbor and eastward to Montauk Point, the
southeastern cape.

These higher lands have a basis of Cretaceous or Tertiary
clays and other strata, which, in some places on the north side
of the island, have a height above tide level of 100 feet or more.
But the surface is everywhere, though often quite sparsely,

* Water Courses on Long Island, this Journal, ITI, xiii, 142.

My own study of Long Island was made in 1875, 1876, and at that time I
reached the conclusions here presented.

+ Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., iii, 341, 1886: a valuable paper ‘‘on the Geology
of Long Island,” :

430 Dana—Long Island Sound in the Quaternary Era.

sprinkled with bowlders; and below, there is usually a layer 10
to 1§0 feet thick of bowlder clay or till, which in some parts is
very stony, suggesting the idea to E. Lewis, Upham, Chamberlin
and others, that the island is the course lengthwise of a part of
the continental terminal moraine.

- But the south-side plain, which slopes from about 100 feet
to the sea-level, has no bowlders over it in any part; instead,
the material is a fine yellowish gravel nearly or quite to
the sea-level, as shown by facts from well-diggings.* The
Cretaceous or other clays are cut off short.

The long drainage-area at the head of Peconic Bay also, al-
though having a range of high land and “terminal moraine”
both on its north and south sides, and hence lying right in the
teeth of the ‘moraine,’ has similar characters—yellowish
gravel and no bowlders. All the bowlders and stones that
dropped over these regions, if there were any—and they may
have been as many and as large as elsewhere——-are now con-
cealed by the gravel.

The facts may be understood if we regard the drainage area
extending westward from the head of Peconic Bay as the course
of a large valley occupied by the river which now, in dwin-
dled form, empties into the bay, and that the gravel deposits
are Quaternary beds of the Champlain period (that of melting
and deposition), laid down over the earlier bowlder deposits.
The same explanation will answer also for the region of the
south-side plain where the ocean may have made at the time
large encroachments and thus chiselled off the Cretaceous or
Tertiary beds. Its yellow gravel is post-glacial, notwithstand-
ing its resemblance to New Jersey pre-glacial deposits, color
being here, as commonly, of no chronological value.

It is thus rendered probable that during the Glacial period
Long Island Sound, instead of being, as it is now, an arm of
the ocean twenty miles wide, was for the greater part of its
length a narrow channel serving as a common trunk for the
many Connecticut and some small Long Island streams, and
that the southern Sound river reached the ocean through Pe-
conic Bay. Under these circumstances the supply of fresh
water for the Sound river would have been so great that salt
water would have barely passed the entrance of the Sound.

* T am indebted to a recent letter from Mr. E. Lewis (dated Brooklyn, Sept. 11,
for the following facts:—

Wells have been dug or bored along the plains—near the old Central R. R.—
quite down to tide level. No Cretaceous, or any other deep beds of clay have
been found so far as I know. The earth passed through has been sand and gravel
in layers down as far as the wells have gone, except here and there some very
thin clayey beds, mere crusts which are, I believe, only isolated pockets. The
Bethpage bed does not extend southward beneath the plain, but northward. The
same is true of similar beds at Deer Park, some six miles eastward. These are
overlaid with drift. They form the front or southward edge of the hills and
occur some 15 feet down at the base of the hills.

Dana—Long Island Sound in the Quaternary Era, 431

During the subsidence of the Champlain period, the Sound
again became an arm of the ocean, and one exceeding some-
what the present in its dimensions. But the existing beaches,
outside of the long sea-border bays, could not have been formed
before the present level was attained as the Champlain period
closed.

2. THE SUBMERGED RiveR CHANNELS.

The map of the Atlantic border off New York and New
Jersey in my Manual of Geology, showing by bathymetric
lines the course of what had appeared to me to be the
submarine channel of the Hudson River over the shallow
border of the ocean, first appeared in the first edition of
the work, published in 1863, and I refer to it there (p. 441)
as proof “that the land was once above the water with
the Hudson River occupying the channel on its way to the
ocean.” On page 544 of the same edition, it is added, that
“the Connecticut River Valley is also distinct over the
same submerged pleateau, running southward east of Long
Island.”

The soundings on which the bathymetric lines affording
these deductions were based were those of the Coast Survey
Chart of 1852. But the lines on the chart only imperfectly
defined the so-called Hudson River channel. A little closer
following of the registered soundings brought out the long
loops in the lines, and these were inserted in my little map.for
the Manual, and also in a copy of the chart of the Coast
Survey sent at the time to Professor Bache.

Recently, in 1885, the facts bearing on the existence of the
submerged Hudson River channel have been presented in this
Journal by Mr. A. Lindenkohl, assistant in the U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey.* The author sustains the conclusion as to
the channel and presents others with regard to the “ sea-bottom
in the approaches to New York Bay,” illustrating his paper by
a map.

. My own further consideration of the facts bearing on the
subject leads me now to question some points in the conclusion.

1. Toe Connecticut River CHANNEL.—As regards the ex-
istence of a submarine Connecticut channel the evidence referred
to is certainly unsatisfactory. The bend in the bathymetric lines
on the accompanying map between Montauk Point and Block
Island looks right for such an origin, and strongly so. But
considering the effects of tidal scour during the ebb through
the narrow passages of the Sound, briefly referred to above
(page 426), it is plain that the channel is of this kind. Block

* Vol. xxix, 475, 1885. The article is entitled ‘Geology of the Sea-bottom in
the Approaches to New York Bay.”

432 Dana—Submarine Hudson River Channel.

Island and Montauk Point stretch out under water far toward
one another, and therefore the deepening (see map) from 12
fathoms to 27 and 30 over the narrow interval is a reasonable
result for scour. The loops farther south in the bathymetric
lines are too broad to be relied on for any conclusion. The
channel between Montauk Point and Block Island must have
been the course of the northern of the two water-ways of the
Sound, if Long Island stood 100 feet or more above its present
level in the Glacial period; but tidal scour accounts well
for the present condition of the region.

2. THe Hupson River CHANNEL.—The method of explana-
tion above suggested for the supposed Connecticut River Channel
does not meet the case of the supposed Hudson River Channel.
But still it may be that tidal scour has had much to do with
the present shape also of the latter channel. It may be that
the outflowing tide from New York Bay and from the adjoin-
ing parts of the shores of Long Island and New Jersey may
have combined their forces along a diagonal line crossing the
shallow Atlantic border region, and, by scour only, have given
the existing depth as well as course to the larger part of the
channel. The water, on the ebb, from this inner portion of
what Professor Bache named in 1858 the Middle Bay of the
American Coast (between Cape Hatteras and Nantucket) move
or settle away on more or less oblique courses toward the
lowest part of the bottom for escape, and there they flow most
rapidly and would erode most energetically.

Liffects of inflowing tidal and wind-made currents on depo-
sitions.—VTo appreciate the effect of the ebb on the channel,
the work earried on by the inflowing tidal wave and wind-
made currents should be in mind. The wave, moving toward
New York, the head of the great Middle Bay, gives the sands.
which the waters take up from the coast and in the shallow
waters a corresponding drift or set along the beaches. This
drift action on the New Jersey coast is carried on, as was long
since shown by Professor Bache, to the extremity of Sandy
Hook, at the very entrance to New York Bay; and on the
Long Island coast in like manner, as abundantly illustrated by
Lieutenant (ater Admiral) C. H. Davis, U. 8. N.,* it works.
even to Coney Island, by the north side of the entrance. The
course of tidal action in and out, producing the western set of
the sands and other materials at the inflow, is well shown by
the oblique loops in the bathymetric lines of 10 fathoms, south
of western Long Island. Wind-made currents, due to the
prevalent eastern storms, work in the same direction, perform-
ing much of the transportation.

* Geological action of the tidal and other currents of the Ocean, by C. H. Davis,
A.M., Lieut. U. 8. N., Mem. Acad. Arts and Sc1., new series, iv, 1849.

Dana—Submarine Hudson River Channel. 433

For this drift movement on the Long Island coast, sands are
contributed by the high gravel-made bluffs of the seacoast to
the eastward, toward Montauk Point, and thus the supply of
new material on the Long Island side is larger than on the
New Jersey side, notwithstanding the aid in deposition the
latter has from rivers. Accordingly, the work has not only
made the long lines of beaches off the Long Island shores up
to the New York entrance outside of a series of long bays or
sounds, but has probably widened the shallow region off the
western part of Long Island, that is, the area under 15 fathoms
in depth. If so, these drifted sands have been the means of
giving the so-called Hudson River channel a shove far toward
the New Jersey shore, and also the bend in it just south. In
the ebb, the waters from the coast of Long Island and New
Jersey would carry down shore sands and drop them over the
bottom on the way to the channel. The origin of the blue
clay or mud of the bottom of the channel, to. which Mr. Lin-
denkohl draws attention, is not certain. Recent borings on
the New Jersey coast at Atlantic City (lat. 39° 20’ N.) reported
by L. Woolman, reached a depth of 1400 feet without getting
below Miocene.* Clay and marl beds occur at intervals, which
are nearly continuous below 383 feet.

Description of the channel.—Turning now to the channel,
the conditions are found to be, in part, at least, legitimate
effects of scour.

The channel may be traced up to the mouth of the ‘“ East
Channel,” the central one of the channels intersecting the sand
bars at the mouth of New York harbor. The soundings, 44,
7, 84, 9 fathoms, lead down from it to the 10-fathom area
marked on the map; and this incipient trough has a depth of
1 to 13 fathoms below the surfaces adjoining.t The water
through the Swash and the Main Channels (the two southern)
pass into the trough or channel over dts side instead of by a
separate branch channel; and this fact suggests a reason for
the channel’s leading off from the central Fast Channel instead
of the deeper Main Channel: it is more remote from the New
Jersey coast near by, as well as from the Long Island coast,
whence sands drift to the sand-bars with the inflowing tide.

The pitch in the trough or channel from 5 fathoms to the
10-fathom line, a distance of one and two-thirds mile (statute),
has the mean rate of 15 feet a mile; from the same to a depth
of 15 fathoms, about 5 miles distant, 12 feet a mile; to a depth
of 20 fathoms, 10 miles distant, 9 feet a mile. The bottom of
the channel has thus a continuous but lessening pitch from the

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., March 25, 1890.

| These soundings are given on the Coast Survey Chart of New York Bay, (No.

120). They were inserted on the map for the plate accompanying this paper, but
are obscurely copied.

434 Dana—Submarine Hudson River Channel.

5-fathom area—which is an extended area on the outer side of
the sand-bars.

Following the trough outward: from the 20- fathom line to
the 30-fathom line, the distance 7% miles, the mean pitch is 8
feet a mile; and to the 35-fathom ‘line, about 11 miles, it is 8
feet a mile. At the 20-fathom line, the trough is 6 fathoms in
depth; at the 35-fathom, it has its maximum depth, 16 to 20
fathoms, that is, 16 to 20 below the level of the bottom outside
of it.

At the 35-fathom level the mean pitch outward becomes
slight. Through the 24 miles to the 40-fathom level it is only
15 inches a mile, and there the depth of trough is 13 to 16
fathoms. Then, from the 40-fathom level in the trough the
bottom is essentially level for the next 50 miles, three entries
of a depth of 41 fathoms being at the end of the 50 miles on
the map. <A depth of 41 fathoms exists between the first 40
and 42 fathoms registered on the map; and if put in half way
between, then the trough is absolutely level for 474 miles, ex-
cepting oscillations within a range of 18 feet in the course of
it. So long a level trough is hardly to be found over a conti-
nent except in the bed of some tidal stream.

According to the above, the trough has its greatest depth,
80 to 120 feet, where its bottom is 210 to 220 feet below the
surtace ; and this is at the bath ymetric line of 15 fathoms, so
that the deepest part is abreast of the bank having a 15 fathom
limit. This depth continues with little diminution until the
bathymetric line of 20 fathoms is reached, just beyond which
the channel begins its 47% mile level of 41 fathoms. Abreast
of this level it loses gradually its depth by the slope of the
general bottom outside of it, until the 40-fathom bathymetric
line is reached, where the channel disappears.

Liffects of scour.—lf the work is that of tidal action the
effects of scour decline greatly at the depth in the channel of
210 feet (85 fathoms), and cease entirely at that of 246 (41
fathoms, on the bathymetric line of 20 or 21 fathoms, only 35
miles off the Barnegat beach.

It may be urged that a river channel might vary in like man-
ner; and this cannot be denied. Prof. Bache’s map of cotidal
lines of 1854 and 1857, shows that the next incoming tidal waves
would have reached the outflowing current not far from, if not
inside of, the 20-fathom line. And it seems probable that
either this has occasioned a cessation of farther deepening by
scour, or else the depth alone, as a consequence of passing the
limit where the ebbing waters have abrading action. Obser-
vations on the currents may give a positive decision of the
question.

The breadth of the channel, according to the map, is mostly
1 to 2 miles; so that a cross section of the deeper part would

Dana—Submarine Hudson River Channel. 435

have a width of 5,000 to 10,000 feet. The best way to realize
the truth as to the form and pitch of the channel is to draw
diagrams with the actual proportions; not to refer to an exag-
gerated and deceiving plaster model.

Terminal part of the Channel, at the margin of the Atlan-
tic-border plateau.—The remaining part of the channel, but
25 miles long, is beyond question the work of river-erosion.
Only four miles from the last of the 41-fathom soundings, comes
the 52, indicating a mean slope between of about 163 feet a
mile; after the next 25 miles, comes an 183-fathom sounding,
showing a mean pitch off of 815 feet a mile; in 5} miles more,
a 277-fathom sounding, corresponding to a pitch of 103 feet a
mile; and then to others deepening the gorge a little more
slowly to 474 fathoms; and this depth exists about in a line
with the 80-fathom bathymetric line. The depth in the cut at
this point is hence nearly 2400 feet below the region adjoining.
This gorge cannot be pronounced cafion like without more
facts from soundings; for the pitch in the sides according to
the existing data does not exceed 1:5. Still it affords strong
evidence of river origin, and, therefore, that the whole of the
channel, up to New York Bay, was once the course of the
Hudson River. At the same time it makes it strange that the
river channel should have flattened out over the loose sands and
muds of the 40-foot to 45-foot level when so tremendous a
plunge was before it, unless the conclusion is a right one that
tidal scour is the cause of the present features from the outer
limit of the 41-foot level upward to the Bay.

Time of the emergence.—The remarks on the “submerged
Hudson River channel” in my Manual of Geology are intro-
duced in the account of the Jura-Trias formation of eastern
North America. The absence of marine fossils from the Jura-
Trias had led to the inference that the sea-border of the period
for some distance out was more or less emerged. It was not
inferred that there was then a great elevation of the Conti-
nental border—for the large size of the Jura-Trias estuaries
proved the contrary to be true; but that there was simply a
bending upward and emergence of the coast-region which car-
ried the sea-bottom above the water-level out to the 100-fathom
line, or farther. I have referred the emergence to a low
geanticline begun long before the Carboniferous era, for no
Carboniferous-Devonian or Upper Silurian rocks of Atlantic-
border origin are known. The Hudson River as it left the
Palisade Estuary (for the region from New York to Tomkin’s
Cove opposite Peekskill, appears to have been part of one of
the estuaries) flowed—slugegishly it may have been—across the
emerged sea-border, and thence emptied into the Atlantic. It
was long after the Jura-Trias period had passed, and even after

436 Dana—Submarine Hudson River Channel.

that of the Lower Cretaceous, that the clays of the Cretaceous
series in New Jersey were laid down, and still later, when salt
water again reached the present New Jersey shores, so that
Cretaceous marine life there abounded.

The above explanation does not account for the great depth
of the outer part of the channel; and nothing but a supposi-
tion with a perhaps can do it. And here is one such. Perhaps
when the Jura-Trias beds were nearly completed, the sea-border
region over a wider surface continued to rise until the height
was sufficient to allow of excavation to a depth of 2500 feet or
beyond.

This supposition has these facts in its favor:

(1) The closing part of the Jurassic period and the whole of
that of the Lower Cretaceous are unrepresented on this Atlan-
tic border by marine rocks.

(2) The Jura-Trias period ended in a semi-glacial era, as is
admitted by all who have studied the beds. The evidence con-
sists in thick deposits of stones and bowlders in which occur
masses 2 to + feet in diameter, and therefore such as ony ice
could have handled and transported. They are situated along
the western side of the areas in Virginia, Maryland and New
Jersey (where the dip of the Jura-Trias beds is eastward) and
on the eastern in Connecticut and Massachusetts (where the dip
is westward). Fontaine has found in Virginia and Maryland
that they are the later beds of the formation. Prof. Edward
Hitchcock, in his Massachusetts Geological Report (1841), de-
scribes the conglomerate as largely developed at Mt. Toby, and
at the mouth of Miller’s River on the Connecticut, north of
Auherst, and as containing many bowlders 3 to 4 feet in diam-
eter; and he refers the conglomerate to “the upper beds” of
the Jura-Trias series. At the mouth of Miller’s River the piles
of stones and bowlders brought down by the glacier of the
Glacier period are of like coarseness and character.

In Connecticut similar deposits occur on the east border of
the Jura-Trias in East Haven, within three miles of Long
Island Sound, as described in this Journal by E. O. Hovey, in
1889; and they contain bowlders of granite, gneiss, trap and
other rocks, of various sizes up to two and a half feet in diam-
eter. The source of the granite and gneiss is to the southeast-
ward, but a mile off; and over the two miles beyond to the
Sound, there are only low hills and hence no elevations for
making ice and glaciers.

The hypothesis suggested above supplies the elevation and is
elastic enough to give them whatever height was necessary for
the result.

If the time of the sea-border emergence for the formation of
a “submerged Hudson River channel,” is taken to be that of

Erratum in the paper by J. D. Dana on ‘ Long Island Sound in the
Quaternary Era, with observations on the Submarine Hudson River
Channel,” in the number of the American Journal of Science for
December, 1890. Page 486, line 22 from top, for eastward read west-

ward, and line 24 from top, for westward read eastward.

Gulick— Cross-infertility. 437

the Glacial period instead of the Jura-Trias, the query comes
up for explanation—W hy the eroding river did not cut through
the clays, and more deeply trench the sea-border region. It is
remarkable that there are no channels or trenches over this
border for the Delaware, Chesapeake and other rivers to the
south. This appears at first to be proof of no elevation in
the Glacial period. It may be good proof of this as regards the
southern part of the Atlantic border ; but it is incomplete for the
more northern, inasmuch as the Glacial deposits of the closing
Glacial and the Champlain periods would probably have oblit-
erated through the agency of ice and rivers any trenches that
had been previously made.

Art. LV.—The Preservation and Accumulation of Cross-
infertility ; by JOHN T. GULICK.

In his work on “ Darwinism” in a section entitled “The
Influence of Natural Selection upon Sterility and Fertility,”
Mr. Wallace reaches the conclusion that “If it [the cross-
infertility] was so closely correlated with physical variations or
diverse modes of life as to affect, even in a small degree, a con-
siderable proportion of the individuals of the two forms in
definite areas, it would be preserved by natural selection.”
(p. 178). That the infertility of an incipient species with its
nearest allies is often preserved and accumulated, no one can
doubt; but there are, it seems to me, very strong reasons for
believing that this can never be due to natural selection.
Natural selection is the exclusive breeding of those best adap-
ted to the environment of the species, through the failure to
propagate of those that are less adapted ; and the separate breed-
ing of those that are equally adapted introduces a wholly
different principle. In order to produce the cumulative modi-
fication of a variety, selection, whether natural or artificial,
must preserve certain forms of an intergenerating stock to
the exclusion of other forms of the same stock I may select
bantams as the object of my attention for a few years, and
then excluding them, raise only Shanghai fowls; but this is
not the form of selection by which these divergent races were
produced. Again, if rats should supplant mice in any country,
some persons might call it natural selection, but such natural
selection would modify neither rats nor mice. On the other
hand if certain variations of mice are better able than the rest
to escape their pursuers, they will leave the most numerous
offspring, and modification of species will commence. Now if
we turn to page 175 of Mr. Wallace’s book, we find, that in

438 Gulick—Cross-infertility.

the illustrative case introduced by him, the commencement of
the cross-infertility is in the relations to each other of two
portions of the species partially segregated from the rest by
occupying a definite part of the general area, and partially
segregated from each other by different modes of life. These
two physiologically segregated local varieties, being, by the
terms of his supposition, better adapted to the environment
than the more freely interbreeding forms in the other parts of
the general area, increase till they supplant these original
forms. Then, in some limited portion of the general area,
there arise two still more divergent varieties, with greater
mutual infertility, and therefore with still less commingling of
the two, and with power to prevail throughout the whole
area.*

The process here described, if it takes place, is not modifica-
tion by natural selection, but a supplanting which does not
produce modification, and which does not take place till a new
and complicated adjustment has arisen in a portion of the
species that is partially segregated, by occupying a definite
portion of the area. This new adjustment introduces two new
varieties, each with unabated fertility with the other variety ;
and the process, or principle, by which it is reached receives
no explanation in the section we are now considering; but
from what he says on page 184, we may judge that his only
explanation is an application of the principle of Intensive Segre-
gation, more especially that form of this principle which I
have described as the effect of isolation on unstable adjust-
ments, but which Mr. Wallace has rejected as untenable.
Moreover, in the supposed case pictured by Mr. Wallace, the
principle, by which the two forms are kept from crossing and
are preserved as permanently distinct forms, is no other than
that which Mr. Romanes and myself have discussed under the
terms Physiological Selection and Segregate Fecundity. Not
only is Mr. Wallace’s exposition of the divergence and the
continuance of the same in accord with these principles which
he has elsewhere rejected, but his whole exposition is at vari-
ance with his own principle, which, in the previous chapter,
he vigorously maintains in opposition to my statement that
many varieties and species of Sandwich Island land molluses
have arisen while exposed to the same environment in the
isolated groves of the successive valleys of the same mountain
range. If he adhered to his own theory ‘‘ The greater infer-
tility between the two forms in one portion of the area”

* This brief outline of the method by which Mr. Wallace thinks cross-infertility
has been produced and accumulated, though given, in another connection, in my ~
article on Utilitarianism as the Exclusive Theory of Organic Evolution (this Jour-

nal, July, 1890), is here repeated, that the correspondences and divergences in the
different theories we are here discussing may be better apprehended.

Gulick— Cross-infertility. 439

would be attributed to a difference between the environment
presented in that portion and that presented in the other por-
tions ; and the difficulty would be to consistently show how
this greater infertility could continue unabated when the varie-
ties thus characterized spread beyond the environment on
which the character depends. But, without power to continue,
the process which he describes would not take place. In order
to solve the problem of the origin and increase of infertility
between species he gives up his own theory and adopts not
only the theory of Physiological Selection but that of Inten-
sive Segregation through Isolation, though he still insists on
ealling the process natural selection ; for on page 183 he says,
“No form of infertility or sterility between the individuals of
a species can be increased by natural selection unless correlated
with some useful variation, while all infertility not so correla-
ted has a constant tendency to effect its own elimination.”
Even this claim he seems to unwittingly abandon when on
page 184 he says: “The moment it [a species| becomes separa-
ted either by geographical or selective isolation, or by diver-
sity of station or of habits, then, while each portion must be
kept fertile inter se, there is nothing to prevent infertility
arising between the two separated portions.”

Mr. Wallace adopts these two fundamental doctrines of the
theory of Divergent Evolution through Segregation, but he
does not apply them exactly as I would. Why, for example,
should he resort to the supposition that when the two diver-
gent varieties occupying the extensive area are everywhere
somewhat infertile with each other the increase of that charac-
ter is gained only in a limited portion of the area, and then
spreads by conquest? Would it not be simpler, and at the
same time truer to the facts of nature, to assume, that the
divergent variety can not arise except as it is aided by some
form of positive segregation, preventing free crossing with the
parent stock; and that in cases where this prevention is only
partial, any cross-infertility once introduced will diminish the
swamping effect of the crossing that occurs, and will every-
where tend to increase, because the majority of each generation
of the pure form will be the descendants of those whose cross-
infertility was above the average. There are, moreover, other
forms of negative segregation equally effective with cross-
infertility and Segregate Fecundity. It often occurs that when
segregation with divergence has once begun to show itself, the
variations that are most fully endowed with the new character,
(though less adapted to the new mode of life than the old
form is to the old mode of life) will best escape both the severe
competition with the rest of the species and the swamping
effect of crossing. In time the pressure for food becomes as

440 Gulick— Cross-infertility.

great with the new form as with the old, and escape from
competition ceases Under these circumstances either the mal-
adaptation or the infertility of the hybrids will be of the high-
est Importance in preventing swamping. But, is it necessary
to suppose, as Mr. Wallace does, that the infertility will dis-
appear in cases where the hybrids are as well adapted as the
pure forms? In such cases, during the preliminary period
when escape from competition is eained most fully by those
most fully segregated, there will naturally be a rapid aceumu-
lation of all segregative endowments; but, when that con-
dition ceases, there will still be a sufficient reason for the con-
tinuance, or even increase, of the cross-infertility in the fact
that more than half of each generation of the pure form will
be the descendants of those whose cross-infertility,and other
segregative endowments are above the average. This princi-
ple is one form of what I have called Self-Cumulative Segrega-
tion.

This law of self-accumulation does not seem to apply to
-cross-infertility (or to any other form of negative segregation)
that is not associated with positive segregation. Nor is it
quite clear that, when unassociated with negative segregatién
it applies to positively segregating characters (such as social
and industrial instincts that lead animals of one kind to pair
together, and the prepotency of the pollen of a given kind on
the stigma of the same kind securing a similar result for
plants). When, however, characters producing positive but
incomplete segregation are associated with those producing
negative segregation, both classes of characters must tend to
increase till the segregation becomes pronounced. As soon as
this point is reached, the Reflex Selection, by which the differ-
ent portions of the species have been kept in harmonious rela-
tions with each other, is suspended, and there is nothing but
the force of heredity to hold them in correspondence; but the
force of heredity, securing this correspondence, has itself been
created by the long continued Reflex Selection, and when this
is removed, it gradually fails, and divergences of all kinds
multiply, increasing the incompatibility of the two forms.
Thus arises diversity of habits, diversity of sexual and social
instincts, and diversity in the affinities of the male and female
elements; and in each respect this diversity tends toward the
point of complete incompatibility.

Positive segregation diminishes the amount of crossing, and
negative segregation diminishes the swamping effect of cross-
ing when it occurs. Negative segregation may be of the fol-
lowing forms: (1) lack of fertility of first crosses and of the
hybrids, which I call Segregate Fecundity; (2) lack of Vigor
in hybrids, which I eall ‘Segregate Vigor; ” (3) lack of adapta-

Gulick—Cross-infertility. 44]

tion in hybrids, which I call Segregate Adaptation ; (4) lack
of escape from competition in hybrids, as compared with pure
forms, which I call Segregate Escape from Competition. Of
these all but the 4th were considered in my paper on “ Diver-
gent Evolution through Cumulative Segregation,” where I
endeavored to show that in their codperation with positive
segregation they were parallel factors producing similar results.
Now in his supposed case (pp. 173-9), Mr. Wallace has treated
the Segregate Adaptation, or hybrid maladaptation, as if it
were the effective factor by which the hybrid infertility
is alone enabled to increase or even continue. I see no reason
why this should beso. The effectiveness of these negative fac-
tors in preserving a species must depend on their being asso-
ciated with positive segregation ; but the effectiveness of any
one of the negative factors is not destroyed by the absence of
the others; though Segregate Escape from competition is,
under ordinary conditions, confined to the preliminary stages
of divergence ; and may, in certain cases, be the necessary con-
dition leading to the other forms of negative segregation.

Mr. Wallace’s criticism of the theory of physiclogical Selec-
tion (pp. 180-3) is unsatisfactory; (1) because he has adopted
the fundamental principle of that theory, on pages 173-9, in
that he maintains that without the cross-infertility the incipi-
ent species there considered would be swamped ; (2) because
he assumes that physiological selection pertains simply to the
infertility of first crosses, and has nothing to do with the infer-
tility of mongrels and hybrids; (8) because he assumes that
infertility between first crosses is of rare occurrence between
the species of the same genus, ignoring the fact that, in many
species of plants the pollen of the species is prepotent on the
stigma of the same species when it has to compete with the
pollen of other species of the same genus; (4) because he not
only controverts Mr. Romanes’ statement that cross-infertility
often affects ‘‘a whole race or strain,” but he gratuitously
assumes that the theory of Physiological Selection excludes
this “racial incompatibility ” which Mr. Romanes maintains
is the more probable form, and bases his computation on the
assumption that the cross-infertility is not associated with any
form of positive segregation; (5) because he claims to show
that ‘all infertility not-correlated with some useful variation
has a constant tendency to effect its own elimination, while his
computation only shows that, if the cross-infertility is not
associated with some form of positive segregation, it will dis-
appear; and (6) because he does not observe that the positive
segregation may be secured by the very form of the physiolo-
gical incompatibility. Many species of plants may be pro-
miscuously distributed over the same area, and still be com-

Am. Jour. Sc1.—THIRD SERIES, VoL. XL, No. 240.—Dec., 1890.
28

442 Gulick—Cross-infertility.

pletely segregated by what I have called Potential Segregation.
In other words, if the pollen of each species is potent only
when falling on the stigma of the same species then the species
are completely segregated though growing in the same area.
Still further two species may be “fairly fertile when artificially
crossed, and yet be completely segregated while growing to-
gether, ‘thr ough the fact that the pollen of either species when
falling on its own stigma will be prepotent over the pollen of
the other species even though the alien pollen has fallen upon
the stigma considerable earlier. This I have called Prepoten-
tial Segregation. Now a variety that is segregated from the
parent ~ form by prepotential Segregation and cross-infertility,
will neither fail of propagating nor be swamped by crossing
though it is indiscriminately mingled with the parent form.
In my paper on “Divergent Ev olution” I have referred to
this special combination of positive and negative segregation,
produced by the incompatibility of the male and female ele-
ments, and have endeavored to show that when these charac-
ters occur together, they tend to increase in intensity accor-
ding to a law of self-accumulation. (Linn. Soe. Jour. Zool., vol.
xx, pp. 239-40, 259-60). Without here entering into. any
computation, it is evident that the prepotency of the pollen of
each kind with its own kind, if only very slight, will prevent
cross-fertilization as effectually as a moderate degree of instine
tive preference in the case of an animal, and if segregate
fecundity, (i. e. cross-infertility) is added it will tend to keep
the variety from the swamping effect of the little crossing that
occurs, and the variations that are above the average in “these
characters will have the largest influence on the pure form in
each successive generation.

I regard Physiological Segregation as including all kinds of
incompatibility between the male and female elements of
different groups, whether these groups are varieties of one
species, or species of one genus, or species of different genera,
or species representing still more divergent groups; “and I
maintain that the importance of this principle in the origin
and continuance of divergent groups, cannot be exaggerated
in the case of organisms whose fertilizing elements are freely
distributed by wind or water; for in these cases the segregate
compatibility and cross incompatibility of the male and female
elements may be the means by which the prevention of free
crossing is secured, as well as the means by ‘which the swam p-
ing effect of the crossing that oceurs is prevented. There is,
it seems to me, strong reason to believe that this principle is a
leading factor in the segregation of multitudes of water ani-
mals, as well as in the segregation of species of plants, whether
terrestrial or aquatic; and Mr. Romanes has rightly empha-
sized the importance of investigations in this line.

26 Concession, Osaka, Japan.

Spencer— Deformation of Iroquois Beach, ete. 4.43

Art. LVI.—TZhe Deformatin of Iroquois Beach and Birth
_ of Lake Ontario ;* by J. W. SPENCER.

Upon receding from the lake and ascending the high country
which bounds the Ontario basin, an observer is attracted to the
wonderfully plain shore-lines which record the former expan-
sion of the waters. The terraces, beaches, scarps, and spits
across the mouths of valleys clearly represent the deserted
shores. But they are no longer horizontal lines as when laid
down at the level of the former waters. As distinctive fea-
tures, the beaches were so striking as to attract the attention
of the aborigines, who used them as trails across an otherwise,
sometimes, muddy country. The early white settlers, in turn,
used them as highways and hence we find the “ridge roads”
about Ontario as well as about the upper lakes. But the recog-
nition of the shore-like characters of the raised beaches, by the
early writers,t did not contribute much to the solution of the
lake history.

Nearly fifty years ago, Professor James Hall observed that
the beaches in New York were not horizontal. But Mr. G. K.
Gilbert was the first who surveyed and measured the deforma-
tion of the beaches upon the southern and eastern margins of
Lake Ontario, and the writer upon the Canadian side of the
lake to beyond Trenton, whence the same beach swings around
towards the north and passes into a broken country. The
writer has further carried the survey of the same beach about
sixty miles beyond Watertown, the limit of Mr. Gilbert’s
observations.

There are wide-spread remains of old shore-lines at altitudes
so high above Lake Ontario, as to indicate that the same sheet
of water (Warren water) covered also the basins of the other
and higher lakes. After the dismemberment of this greater
sheet of water, the surface of that occupying the Ontario-St.
Lawrence valley was gradually lowered, and fell several
hundred feet, without pausing long enough to deeply cut out
or straighten its changing shore-lines. At last, this shrinkage
of the waters came to a pause lasting until the shore-line
became more pronounced than that of “the modern lake. It
is this shore-line that forms the basis of the present chapter,
and constitutes that water-margin which the writer has named

* The forerunner of this paper was—‘'The Iroquois Beach, a chapter in the
Geological History of Lake Ontario”’—was first read before the Philosophical
Society of Washington, January, 1888. Proc. Phil. Soe. for 1888, and was subse-
quently amplified and published in full in the Transactions of the Royal Society
of Canada for 1889.

+ For reference to early writers, see ‘‘ Iroquois Beach,” etc., Transactions Royal
Society of Canada, 1889, page 121.

444 Spencer—Deformation of Iroquois Beach and

the “Iroquois Beach,’* in memory of the aborigines who.
trailed over its gravel ridges.

The general structure of the ancient shore-lines is somewhat
fully described in ‘‘ Ancient Shores, Boulder Pavements, ete.”+
but let us here repeat some of the characteristics. Typically,
then ancient beach consists of a ridge of gravel and sand rising
sometimes to twenty-five
feet or more above the fron-
tal plain, which further de-
scends lakeward (as in fig.
1.) Back of the xdee:
which rarely exceeds a
width of 500 feet, and
usually less, with a very
narrow crest, there is often
a lagoon-like depression.
The beach may be broken into a number of ridges (b orc). The
summit marks the height of the wave action. This barrier ridge

2.

yy. le
Mars f Burlin Lg lore Bay N
is)
4 6

Lake

may become a terrace, or it may pass into the form of a spit
across some valley (A or b, fig. 2). Again the ridge may be
wanting, but the shore will
be represented as a cut ter-
race (fig. 8), in front of
which a bowlder pavement
may frequently be seen (P.).
This pavement is also often
found in front of gravel
beaches. In places where
the former waters were
gnawing away the drift
shores, or where rocky promontories rose out of deep water, true:
beach structure is wanting, or only represented by benches.

3.

* The name was first printed in Science, Jan. 27th, 1888, p. 49.
+ By the writer, in Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. i, 1879,
nosneele

Birth of Lake Ontario. AAD

In the survey of the Iroquois Beach, the shore-line has been
followed by one or another of its characteristics, even across
areas of broken physical features. The altitude of the highest
ridge, where the beach is broken up into a series of ridges, is
that which has been everywhere taken, for it is the one giving
most accurate results. No elevations have been adopted except
those of the summit of the crests (as in fig. 1), or of the spits
(at A or 3b, fig. 2). The measurements consequently represent
the maximum height of wave-action, in place of the mean sur-
face of the water, which was a few feet below. The writer’s
leveling has everywhere been done instrumentally.

The coast materials, ont of which the Iroquois shores have
been carved, are mostly bowlder clay, or stratified clays or
sands, deposited upon the floor of the lake when the waters
were at higher levels. At a few places the shores rest against
Paleozoic rocks, in which ease the materials of the gravel beach
are more scanty, as the pebbles were mostly derived from the
stony drift, or there may be an absence of the beach.

Except in spits across old valleys, the thickness of the sand
and gravel of the beach does not usually exceed 20 feet, but in
front of valleys it may reach a thickness of 100 feet (A, fig. 2).
The internal structure always shows stratification, with such
sloping and false-bedding as are characteristic of beaches.

There are frequent exposures which show that the Iroquois
Beach vests upon stratified stoneless clay—the silt washed into
the waters when the waves were encroaching upon older and
higher shore-lines, and assorting the bowlder clay, which, at
the higher elevations, formed the coast. Eastward of Water-
town, the beach rests upon stratified sand in place of clay, as
there was but little stony clay in the drift to furnish silt for the
older lake floor.

From near Trenton to the head of the lake, and thence
around the southern and eastern borders to near Watertown,
the [roquois Beach is not hard to follow; but eastward of that
point the features are more complex. The old coast of stony
clay is there replaced by stony drift sand, and hence there is
but little lithological distinction between the frontal plain and
the older sandy drift shores. Moreover, such a coast is apt to
be defaced by the sand being heaped into dunes. Again, in
the region beyond Watertown, the Iroquois Beach is inter-
rupted by promontories of Paleozoic limestones and shales,
rising out of deep water, upon which at most only benches
were cut. Farther, northeastward, the beaches trend among
bold headlands and islands of crystalline rocks. Wave action,
which carves broad terraces out of drift materials, can cut only
moderately well-marked benches out of limestones. But when
the same intensity of wave force is applied to hard crystalline

446 Spencer—Deformation of Lroquois Beach and

rocks, especially when interrupted by islands, the benches
become less conspicuous than when excavated out of limestones,
or they may become very obscure.. Still, upon the flanks of
the Adirondack Mountains, the Iroquois Beach can be followed
and identified by the remains of barrier ridges, terraces, bowlder-
pavements, benches,.and above all by the occurrence of spits
across old valleys.

Combining the surveys of Mr. Gilbert and the writer, the
position of the Iroquois Beach is shown on the accompanying.
map.

Opdensidty

ee
i thea nd
Mealeptestete ee ey Hingston egg ai
% 3

Elevations refer'to Beach above Sea.

Oswego
wae

ce engy lille

The following table gives the elevation at salient points
along the Irequois Beach. The elevations given are those of

Feet above the sea. ,

GEV! OhoRINO, SORES O oe et ee te Ce 247 (U.S. Lake Survey):
AFT ea ran TNE a gh a eee rey ee By CI OU Ace Bhai ag gee eae 363 (Spencer).
Inybnbbayerronat [Slowey e eu a ek eo keeeas 355 se
WEN poi tS Be ee ee le 365 a
Cooks willedStatro mello ou tease ee eee at ee erreur ee 400 Be
Carlton Static myiasis ua hc yee pyea sete pie or tts) Reem 417
Kingston Road, crossing railway 12 miles east of Toronto, 459 ok
Whitby, 6 miles north of lake, near_____._-_--------- 507 Mt
Colborme:Station\ 2 milesimorthvotss a2 22) eee 602 st
irentony station, 2+ milessnorthyofess ees eee 682 a
WAS TOMI IN 3 Veer) 20: a Lyte EAP oe ARG Se eae 385 (Gilbert).
IVOCIESTST Me sets eor ae ey sea a a eat ee ee 36 yy

@ aval to beater ess eke tule es aie, EINES ye ale acres ye 44] 8
Olena ave sr§ CG Siamese Ses ea atnie ear eri eee ta Ce oe 484 &
@onshambiarepesSie es ae cae bs eelee ses URIs tote edged ne 489 be

TRUK alley ie eal a aa oe PN TE Bir Ae eT Se 2 563
TANGLE SBC EMERG wt ie. cya ert Ce Le ep Cee oe ae 657 se
Prospect Farm, 4 miles east of Watertown_-____------ 730 (Spencer).
IN aU UT ATW ra eat Ae 5 aus STS 2 SUER ae Se 829
Hast Pitcairn, one mile northeast of _____.___-__-__-- 942 a

TERIOR a gr ie Cpe Llyn ak 972 ue

Birth of Lake Ontario. 447

the crest of the highest ridge, where the beach is broken into.
a number of ridgelets, having sometimes a vertical range of
twenty-five feet or more.

Thus we see that the Iroquois Beach has been deformed to
the extent of 609 feet, between the western end of Lake
Ontario and Fine, of which only 78 feet of rise occurs upon
the southern side of the present lake, while the great propor-
tion of the uplift is found west and northwest of the Adiron-
dack Mountains. Upon the northern side of the lake, the
eastern equivalent of uplift is more pronounced. At the
western end of the lake, the mean maximum uplift is 1°60 feet
per mile in a direction of N. 28° EK. This rate increases to-
wards the northeast. To give a mean rate of rise, at the eastern
end of the lake, does not convey a correct idea, for the uplift
increases in a progressive ratio. Thus in the region of Oneida
Lake, the uplift is 35 feet per mile, while in the region of
Watertown it amounts to 5 feet per mile; and farther north-
eastward the deformation reaches 6 feet per mile, in the direc-
tion of N. 60° E. This seems an extraordinary amount of
measurable terrestrial movement, but the records are inscribed

in the beach. It is not yet known where this upward move--

ment ceases.

Upon the Erie beaches, outside of the Ontario basin, Mr.
Gilbert found a considerable amount of warping recorded at
Crittenden, N. Y., over the horizon at the western end of the
same lake. I have traced the Erie beaches around to the
southeastern side of Lake Michigan. Combining our results, I
find the measured uplift between the two regions amounts
to 324 feet. But the beach, where last observed near Lake
Michigan, is 45 feet above its surface. Indeed, it is there difh-
cult to trace, owing to the druny character of the sandy country.
By the assistance of other beaches found in that region, the
conclusion is readily arrived at that the shore-line under con-
sideration must pass from 40 to 60 feet beneath the waters of
the lake at Chicago. It is then evident that the terrestrial
uplift, between Chicago and Crittenden, amounts to not less
than 410 feet. Crittenden is nearly on the line of strike of the
Iroquois beach (S. 62° E.), at its lowest point, with Hamilton.
The Erie beaches, eastward of the Niagara River, were de-
formed to the extent of 0-4 feet per mile before the Iroquois
episode, the remainder of their uplift having been synchronous
with that in the Ontario basin. But the pre-Iroquois differ-
ential uplift of the beaches farther west is reduced to almost
zero, for the beaches south and west of Lake Erie have suffered
very little deformation. Consequently a sufficient amount of
deformation of the beaches has been measured to allow for inac-
curacies when we take the elevation of the Iroquois Beach above

448 Spencer— Deformation of Iroquois Beach’ and

the sea level (863 feet), as the amount of movement that must
be added to the Iroquois plain in order to represent the terres-
trial uplift of the Ontario basin since the Iroquois shore was

formed. Therefore, it is apparent that the great Iroquois
' Beach was constructed approwimately at sea level. The total
amount of uplift since the episode will then be the height of
the beach, at By place, measured above the sea level, which,
at Fine, is 972 feet.

Were the ite beaches recognizable in the Adirondack
wilderness near Fine, they would be found at altitudes of 1600
feet and more above the sea. But this is a calculation outside
of our subject, which is based upon measurements.

The terrestrial movements recorded in the beaches have not
been those of subsidence towards the west, but of uplift to-
wards the east, in the same direction as those changes which
have left unquestioned marine remains deposited at high alti-
tudes in the St. Lawrence valley.

One focus of the warping about the western end of Lake
Ontario and about Georgian Bay appears to have been in the
region of lat. 48° N., long. 76° W. Another focus of uplift is
somewhere beyond the last point of rise measured in the
Adirondacks. Thus the axis between these foci appears to
_ coincide, more or less, with the old Archzean axis of the conti-
nent, as suggested by ‘Professor Dana.

The uplift of the Iroquois Beach has been since the episode
of the uppermost deposits of drift or till, for higher and older
beaches than the Iroquois rest upon the newest stony clays of
Ontario, Michigan and other slates. The Iroquois Beach rests
upon the mud floors of the earlier sheets of water which cov-
ered the till deposits. The rate of northeastward regional
uplift has been gradually diminishing, for we find other
beaches, lower than the Iroquois, whose rate of rise is much
reduced below that of the great beach. But the Iroquois plain
was the great event in the history of the Ontario basin.

In the rising of the land, after the Iroquois episode, there
were pauses, but not of such duration as to permit of the
formation of great shore-lines like that just described. After
the waters had fallen about two hundred feet below the
Iroquois plain, there was a conspicuous rest. This is recorded
in a terrace near Watertown at 535 feet above the sea. At
Oswego, we find a beach descending to near water level, at
about 185 feet below the great Iroquois beach. Farther west-
ward, it passes below the lake. The dip of the Iroquois Beach,
between the region of Oswego and the western end of the lake,
is about 78 feet ; and accordingly we should find the remains
of this younger shore-line (for a large proportion of the re-
gional uplift has been effected since its formation) submerged

Birth of Lake Ontario. 449

to 65 or 70 feet at the western end of the lake. Behind the
modern bars and beaches, the water of Irondiquois Bay (a
narrow river-like channel) is 78 feet deep; the Niagara River,
72 feet; and Burlington Bay, 78 feet. ‘hese conditions indi-
cate that the lake covering these channels was at one time
withdrawn, leaving only a few feet of water in the rivers
which flowed through the otherwise dry valleys. Here, then,
in front of the bays, submerged or buried by more recent accu-
mulations (upon. re-submergence), is the position of this lower
beach extending westward of Oswego, which was formed at a
level now 70 feet below the surface of the western end of the
lake. Indeed, the uniformly narrow Burlington Beach (é, fig.
2), with a leneth of five miles across the end of Lake Ontario,
is thus easily explained as having originated as a small barrier,
in front of the shallow river, flowing down the Dundas valley
and across the now submerged floor of Burlington Bay. With
the more recent backing of the waters of the lake, this bar
grew to the proportions of the modern beach, built out of
materials derived from the older shores and not from river
deposits.

At the time when this young beach—now beneath the lake
—was being formed, the waters had receded for only from
three to five miles from what are now the western shores of
Ontario, but they extended farther landward than at present
upon its northern side, as shown by the raised beaches, and by
the absence of submerged channels.

The Niagara River was about three miles longer than now,
cutting its way over a projecting point of shaly rocks. But
this channel is at present filled, and is again further submerged
beneath the lake. .

During the continued rise, the waters of the Ontario basin
may have been even somewhat further shrunken at its western
end, and the waves may have moulded some of the submerged
escarpments upon the southern side. The waters upon the
southern side could have nowhere been more than about 200
feet below the present level, even if that amount of shrinkage,
which represents most of the barrier holding the basin above
the sea, ever obtained. However, no important geographical
event is recorded in any of the possible coast-lines submerged
at levels below that just described.

With the regional uplift, the barrier across the St. Lawrence
valley eventually cut off free communication with the sea, at a
common level. This uplift has continued until the Iroquois
Beach now rests at 972 feet above the sea at Fine, and the
modern lake at 247 feet. Thus the modern lake had its birth.
This warping at the northeastern end of the lake, during the
later and since the Pleistocene period, has been enough not

450 Spencer—Deformation of Iroquois Beach and

only to account for the rocky barrier holding the lake above
the sea, but to account for all of the barrier across the St.
Lawrence valley closing the ancient basin of Ontario to a depth
of nearly 500 feet below sea level.*

In the Iroquois Beach no shells have been found. Only the
remains of mammoth, elk and beaver have been met with.+
Consequently, the question arises as to the freshness of the
waters. Not far from the eastern end of Lake Ontario, the
remains of a whale were found at 450 feet above the sea—at an
elevation which would admit of the free access of oceanic waters
into the Ontario basin.t Still no other marine or fresh-water
fossils have been found in the beaches. It therefore ap-
pears to me that the absence of such organisms speaks no
more in favor of fresh water conditions than of brackish or
even salt when the Iroquois shores were being formed; and
does not preclude the idea of free communications with the
sea any more than when the whale came landward in waters
200 feet higher than the present lake surface. Indeed, I look
upon the Ontario-St. Lawrence valley, during the Iroquois
episode, as resembling the Gulf of Obi, which is a sheet of
water from 40 to 60 miles wide, and 600 to 700 miles long,
into which so much fresh water is discharging as to render
even the Arctic Sea for sixty miles beyond the mouth of the
eulf so fresh as to be almost potable,$ and sufficiently fresh to
destroy marine life.

The only dam that has been hypothecated as filling the St.
Lawrence valiey is that of a glacier. As the Iroquois Beach was
at sea level, no dam ought to be required to hold up the water,
but at most only to keep out the sea. However, I have fol-
lowed the beach for sixty miles within the margin of the
hypothecated barrier without finding the traces of an ending
of the old shore markings upon the confines of the Adirondack
wilderness. Even the coincidence of the shallow and small
channel, discovered by Mr. Gilbert, connecting the Iroquois
waters with the sea, by the Mohawk valley, or of the broader
and lower valley of Lake Champlain, does not prove the neces-
sity of a former barrier across the St. Lawrence valley any
more than the narrow channels among the gigantic islands
north of Hudson Bay would prove the former presence of a dam
holding in the waters of that bay, were the whole country ele-
vated. Fora glacial dam to exist across the Adirondacks, even

* See Origin of the Basins of the Great Lakes, by J. W. Spencer, Q. J.G.S.,
vol. xlvi, Part 4. 1890. ;

+ Col. C. C. Grant of Hamilton has recently found other vertebrate remains,
but not vet determined.

¢ Sir W. Dawson. Can. Nat., vol. x, p. 385. The remains are in the Redpath

Museum at Montreal.
§ Nordenskjéld in ‘‘ Voyage of the Vega,” p. 140.

Birth of Lake Ontario. 451

at the narrowest point, it would need to be 50 or 60 miles wide.
If it had no greater depth than the water north of Fine used to
have, the ice would need to be thick enough to fill a channel
of 800 feet. But as the differential uplift probably continues
throughout the Adirondack region, we would need to be pre-
pared to accept a dam of at least 1300 feet in thickness, and a
hundred miles across. Apparent beaches in Vermont at 2100
feet above the sea (Hitchcock),* and the Post-Pleistocene emer-
gence of Mt. Desert, observed in the coastal markings to its
summit of 1500 feet (Shaler),t increase the probability of our
regional uplift continuing throughout the Adirondacks.

Any water-proof dam in front of the Iroquois Beach would
have had to endure throughout the long period of its forma-
tion. But all known glacial dams are small and evanescent.
Yet the one suggested as closing up the Ontario’s basin would
have had to restrain a greater sheet of open water than that of
modern Lake Ontario, receiving not merely the waters of the
then upper lakes, but ‘also those of the melting of the hypothe-
cated glacial dam. It is questionable what “thickness of ice
would hold in the waters, for the modern glacial dams of Mt.
St. Elias discharge beneath 500 feet of ice for a distance of
eight miles.{ As soon as the waters fell below the Mohawk
outlet, the discharge of the glacial lake ought to have melted
and lowered the ice on the one side and carved out terraces on
the other, unless the river were 5 to 100 miles wide. And there
are terraces upon the northern side of the Ottawa valley, as
well as upon the flanks of the Adirondacks.

There seem to me to be no phenomena in the later lake
history of Ontario necessitating the existence of a dam across
the St. Lawrence valley. In short, the Iroquois water was a
gulf. The Adirondacks and New England formed great
islands. The Iroquois episode commenced almost synchronous
with the birth of the Niagara Falls. And the history of Lake
Ontario records interesting and great changes which now form

a simple story.

* Geology of Vermont.

+ Geology of Mt. Desert. Eighth Annual Report of U. 8. Geol. Survey.
¢ Harold Topham in Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., 1889, p. 424.

452 Clarke and Schneider—KEaxperiments upon the

Art. LVIl.—LHiperiments upon the Constitution of the Nat-
ural Silicates ; by F. W. CLARKE and E. A. SCHNEIDER.

[Continued from p. 415.]

6. The Vermiculites.

Of this interesting group two examples were studied; the
well-known, typical jefferisite from Westchester, Pennsylvania,
and the kerrite from near Franklin, Macon County, North
Carolina. The latter, presented to us by Prof. F. A. Genth,
was part of his original sample, and the analysis agrees well
with Chatard’s. Analyses as follows, on azr-drzed material.

Jefferisite. Kerrite.
Si0, Jae LW dn BRIE Ele hee SN 34:20 38°13
AO Bee aye iy 16°58 119
Joe OU ee ep as Sere 74] 2°28
THe @). eatisetc ee et gael 15 18
INTO PE ae ae Ses ye ana et “48
WOO Ree nO cet eatery obs oe, trace
Mi Or Ssh Bec ae atys 20°41 27°39
POR Ge mition) en = 21:14 20°47

100°87 100°15
iE Oxoverse SO77 22a) 10:56 9°62
1EBO) YR MOG a Teale ‘24
HO at 250°-300°._. 4:20 4°10 |
H,O at red heat _-_-- 6°18 627
H,O at white heat -_- 20 24

Here the water falls into three sharply defined parts; one,
lost by drying over sulphuric acid, very loosely held; a second,
water of crystallization, lost below 300°; and the third, consti-
tutional water.

By dry hydrochloric acid gas the minerals were little affected.
The data are as follows, for 883°-412.°

Jefferisite. Kerrite.
Hours heated ..____-- 32 32
MgO removed.._.-.. | 3°98 S316)
R,O; removed__.---- 1:38 09

By aqueous hydrochloric acid both of the vermiculites were
easily and completely decomposed. By ignition, however,
with fusion in the case of the kerrite, they were split up into
soluble and insoluble portions. In the kerrite, after fusion,
only 10°64 per cent of magnesia and 3°75 of sesquioxides were
removable by aqueous hydrochloric acid, but nothing more
could be determined for want of material. The jefferisite,
after strong ignition, and subsequent digestion with the acid

Constitution of the Natural Silicates. 453

for three days, gave 51:08 per cent of insoluble residue. From
this, soda solution extracted 21°54 of silica, leaving 29°54 per
cent of an undecomposed silicate. This, analyzed independ-
ently, contained

SOR Mea Sart 2 oaee rae toe whe StS A ONS
ANUAD 3 esd ese eg es Reet eg UiegE er eI a 22-82
ALOR Oe Aiseas SpE DUE SENS tne PAN es 10°01
IN aX) fe esol eis etreh Nene a ae 21°48

99°39,

Hence the ratios SiO,: R,O,: MgO=75 : 29:54; which corre-
spond nearly to a mixture of Al,SiO, with Mg,Si,O,. As to
the real nature of this residue, we can only offer the foregoing
suggestion as a plausibility. Positive knowledge is lacking.
The vermiculites. however, are alteration derivatives of the
micas; and by their metamor phosis kyanite, fibrolite, or anda-
lusite may be generated naturally. Geologically, the sugges-
tion is worthy of consideration.

Now, from the two analyses we get the subjoined molecular
ratios.

Jefferisite. Kerrite.

SiO eee stg ey 570 635

RU OR en ee en TES 209 124

UBS) sitet Rn OS A ORR eee se ESS 5) 694

ERO over SO) eae s ss 587 524

EVO 25 Or 300m eee ee 233 *226

H,O, constitutional..-. °355 "363

Hence the empirical formulee

Jefterisites ee RR pHa le Oacs + 82,0 ©
Hex ite aie ene ee Re RY, ‘H. ‘Si,,0,.. + 75H, O

From the jefferisite gaseous hydrochloric acid removed 10
atoms of magnesia, and from the kerrite 8 atoms. Taking
this, an as MeOH, we have

Jefferisite._.. R’”,.R”,,(MgOH),,H,,(Si0,),,0,,+82H,O

Kerrite...... RR”. (MgOH),H, (SiO,),.O, + 75H,O
. The small excess of oxygen in these expressions needs to be
accounted for. To regard it as forming the group AlO, how-
ever, is impracticable; for then the residual aluminum atoms
would be less than one-third the silicic groups, which is inad-
missible under the mica theory. The simplest interpretation
is as follows: In the clintonite group the general formula

OW pr
RZ ork
SSO 8)

seems to apply. If we treat the excess of oxygen in the two
vermiculites as pertaining to molecules of this order, the com-

454 Clarke and Schneider— Experiments upon the

position of both minerals reduces to very simple terms; one
term being a normal hydro-mica. In the jefferisite we have
approximately AlO, MgSiO,R’,.3H,O + Al,(SiO,),Mg,H,.3H,O ;
or a mixture in equal ratios of a hydro-clintonite and a hydro-
biotite, the alkalies being replaced by hydrogen, and R’ being
in part, about one-third, MeOH. The greatest uncertainty is
in the loosely combined water, which is probably analogous to
the water in laumontite. Two-thirds of the 3H,0 is of this
type; the remaining one molecule being given off ‘below 300°.
Dried at 100° the salts become monohydrated. Reducing the
bases of the analysis to terms of alumina and magnesia we get
the following comparison with the formula:

Found. ~ Calculated.
SiO were an aap 34:97 34-00
Al Oye Mite als ot 21 Heo Ay ly han 21°91 21°67
MsO. Pk A eee ne nm iow 22°67
H,O constitutional -- 6°52 6°37
H 0, 2502300 cee ae 4°30 5:10
H 0, over, HESOR = 10279 10°19

100°00 100°00

The concordance here is less perfect than in the previous
eases, but for obvious reasons. First, the uncertainty in the
water has already been mentioned. Secondly, the actual ratio
between the clintonite and biotite molecules, as deduced from
the empirical formula, is not 1:1 but 18:15. Finally the ob-
served MgOH is a little less than one-third R’,. Still, consid-
ering the character of the mineral, the agreement between
analysis and theory is as close as could be expected.

For kerrite, uniting the univalent factors, the formula be-
comes

R’”, RB’ .B',(Si0,),0,. 75H,0
This, very nearly, is equivalent to
AlO,MgSi0O,R’,. 3H,0 + Al(Si0,);Me,H,.3H,0,

commingled in the ratio of 1:5, with two- name of R’, being
MgOH. The second term in this mixture is a hydrous phlogo-

Calculated.
Found. As given. Asa phlogopite.
SEO) ES Sod a eee ee 38°51 38°33 41°66
JANI ba @) Vere Reape ENaC h EC of st 12°79 12°38 11°84
MG OCS etd N eee 28-02 29°12 men
H,0, constitutional__. 6°61 6°55 6°25
HO, at 250°-300°___.- 4°35 4°37 4°16
EEO overgl:s Oster: Oe 8°75 8°32

100°00 100°00 100:00

Constitution of the Natural Silicates. 455

pite; and here again we have trihydration, with two molecules
of water loosely held and the third more firmly combined. In
this case we may compare the analysis, reduced to alumino-
magnesian form and 100 per cent, both with the formula given
above and with that of the hydrous phlogopite taken sepa-
rately.

This comparison, which is in the main satisfactory, makes it
perfectly clear that kerrite is essentially a trihydrated phlogo-
pite, with the alkalies replaced by hydrogen. The analogies
between kerrite and jefferisite are perfectly clear, and both
minerals become monohydrated by exposure over sulphuric
acid. It is our intention to examine several other vermiculites
in the near future, and we believe that all of them will be easy
to interpret with the aid of the evidence already gained.

Final considerations—In the foregoing pages we have
shown conclusively that gaseous and aqueous hydrochloric
acid differ widely in their action upon magnesian silicates.
We have also endeavored to show that in this group of
minerals, the gaseous acid attacks only that part of the mag-
nesium which is present as the univalent group —Mg—OH;
and although the proof is far from complete, the evidence in
favor of our view appears to be cumulative. In the first place
olivine, which cannot contain hydroxyl, is almost unattacked
by the gas in the range of temperatures studied. Secondly,
serpentine, which must contain MgOH, is attacked propor-
tionally to the excess of oxygen over the ortho-silicate ratio.
The results, to be sure, are only approximations to quantitative
accuracy, but they are uniform enough to warrant our conclu-
sion. Finally, ripidolite behaves like serpentine, and gives an
analogous formula; while the micas, which presumably contain
little or no hydroxylated magnesia, are but slightly affected.
All the evidence, so far, converges to the one conclusion;
which has at least the status of a legitimate working hypo-
thesis. All the hydrous silicates so far examined are not alike
in their behavior towards the reagent, but only those are
attacked by it in which there are strong reasons for assuming
the presence of the basic MgOH.

In the course of the investigation certain collateral questions
have arisen which have been the subject of experiment. For
instance, in the action of gaseous hydrochloric acid upon sili-
cates may not insoluble oxychlorides be formed, which would
escape notice in the analysis of the soluble portion? To
answer this question the residues were in several cases ex-
amined, and found to be practically free from chlorine.
Traces only of chlorine were retained, insufficient to modify
our ratios. Furthermore, precipitated and ignited magnesium
oxide, heated at 498°-527° in gaseous hydrochloric acid was

456 Clarke and Schneider—EKxpervments upon the Silicates.

almost quantitatively converted into chloride, showing the

stability of the latter in a stream of the dry gas. 94°13 per
cent of the required chlorine was taken up by the oxide, so
that the possible formation of oxychlorides in our experiments
may be fairly left out of account.

Similar experiments with brucite, however, gave apparently

anomalous results. The mineral examined was typical ma-

terial from Texas, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, which was
first analyzed and subjected to dehydration estimations. The
data are as follows:

His We @ Mss eal tee a al en i Aa as 67:97
FESO) EERIE EO Ae REEL ot ene eee undet.
TVET AEA NERS ESR De eet eee 97
G5 Oh NENG ERC EU alae) Siaigeetiep paras °39
ET Otel tit ua av tiee Lh ee ea 30°81
100°14

\NGhip kong NOs, eye ek ee 8D “18
“c (73 250° SRS iad oe eds are ly teil) ame a age “46

ss Se Gis 2a OF OURS Das Ga SL T57

oe cc ee Sipee MONKS Saoa — IGs7

c¢ 6c (44 9) 6G (79 ear "06

c AG QOL ON Tae sev cue oe 23

Gs < oe er iss more 2222. a, Mone

= Soot LU onitlONG a tetas eee 2°94

The greater part of the water, therefore, nine-tenths of it,
is lost at about 400° C., but is given off somewhat slowly.

Heated for 28 hours to 383°-412° in dry hydrochloric acid
gas, constant weight was not attained; but at this point the
experiment was stopped, and only 10383 per cent of the mag-
nesia had been converted into chloride, or a little less than one-
seventh of the total amount. Several other experiments, at
temperatures ranging from 200° to 500° gave similar results,
all low, and in no case was more than one-fifth of the
required chlorine absorbed. At the higher temperature, 498°
to 527°, the reaction went farthest, and the absorption of
chlorine was still going on at a very slow rate. In this case,
the brucite must have become almost dehydrated; but the
oxide so formed was different in its behavior from the precipi-
tated oxide previously examined. The difference may have
been due to physical causes, such as a different degree of com-
pactness in the material; but it is doubtful whether that sup-
position would fully account for the anomaly. Probably
magnesium hydroxide, like other hydroxides investigated by
Carnelley and Walker,* undergoes progressive dehydration
through a series of stages; each step being attended by a poly-

* Jour. Chem. Soc., liii, p. 59, 1888.

Williams—Eudialyte and Eucolite from Arkansas. 457

merization of the residue. An oxide so formed might con-
ceivably be more stable than the oxide with which we previ-
ously worked; at all events, the two are not necessarily
identical. As regards the bearing of these data upon our
silicate work, we can hardly offer satisfactory conclusions.
Still, magnesium saturated by hydroxyl is quite differently
combined from magnesium which is but half saturated with
that radicle, and in the mixed union in a silicate, the polymeri-
zation attending dehydration above referred to could hardly
occur. We are inclined to believe, on the whole, that MgOH
in a silicate has a lower order of stability towards gaseous HCl
than the compound Mg(OH),; but this point remains to be
proved. We hope to continue this investigation among other
silicates; and we feel confident that the data so far obtained
have value quite independently of our conclusions.

Laboratory U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, July 7, 1890.

Arr. LVII.—Hudialyte and Eucolite, from Magnet Cove,
Arkansas ; by J. FRANCIS WILLIAMS.

[By permission of the Geological Survey of Arkansas. |

Fudialyte.—As long ago as 1861 Professor C. U. Shepard *
discovered small nodules of a brilliant crimson mineral in the
feldspar of the eleeolite rock of Magnet Cove, Arkansas. He
at first supposed this mineral to be corundum, but after
testing its hardness (which he found to be less than 6°), and
observing that it gelatinized with hydrochloric acid, he decided
that it was eudialyte. From that time the occurrence of this
mineral in Arkansas has been mentioned in most text-books of
mineralogy + on Professor Shepard’s authority, but not until
very lately has the subject been revived. During the last
year William J. Kimzey of Magnet Cove has found a number
of good crystals and also a considerable quantity of the nodular
material. Hidden and Mackintosh have published a note in
this Journal,t in which they describe this nodular, rose-red,
nearly transparent mineral, and state that it is probably eudia-
lyte, and identical with that discovered by Shepard.

During a recent visit to Magnet Cove, in the interest of the
Geological Survey of Arkansas, I was fortunate enough to

* This Journal, II, xxxvii, 405, 1864.

+ System of Mineralogy, J. D. Dana. 5th edition, p. 249. Lehrbuch der Min-
eralogie, G. Tschermak. 2d edition, p. 522. Elemente der Mineralogie, Nau-

mann-Zirkel. 12th edition, p. 745, ete.
¢ Am. Jour. of Sci., II, vol. xxxviii, 494, 1889.

Am. Jour. Scl.—THIRD SERIES, VOL. XL, No. 240.—Dzc., 1890.
29

458 Woelliams—Eudialyte and Eucolite from Arkansas.

obtain some very good specimens of this rare mineral, several
of which were well adapted for crystallographic measurement.
Through the kindness of Messrs. W. E. Hidden of New York
and C. S. Bement of Philadelphia, I was enabled to measure
two other crystals from this locality, which were especially
interesting.

The erystals that I have seen from this region range from
3 to 18™ in diameter and are, for the most part, thick tabular
parallel to the base. They are transparent to semi-transparent
and in color vary from rose-red to deep crimson. Cleavage
parallel to the base is indistinct, and the crystals appear to be
traversed by irregular cracks in all directions. The cleavage
parallel to 4/2 and £, as noted in the Greenland eudialyte,
has disappeared almost eutirely from these erystals. The
surface of the crystal is in some cases covered by a yellowish
coating of altered material; this, however, does not appear to
diminish its brillianey, but when it occurs on the base increases
the luster to mother of pearl.

The erystals may be divided according to their form into
two classes: first, those in which the negative rhombohedrons
predominate, and second, those in which the positive ones are
the larger. In general, the crystals are terminated above and
below by hexagonal pacal planes, but these occasionally become
triangular or disappear entirely. The most satisfactory erystal
for the measurement of angles was one of only about 3™ in
its greatest diameter and of half that thickness. This crystal
belongs to that group in which Ee negative rhombohedrons
predominate, and is shown in fig. 1. The measurements from
eth: combined with those from several
—“\ other crystals, are given below, and after
--? each measured angle the extreme variation
from the mean is appended.

Lyn The axial ratio, as calculated from meas-
urements, made on three very good crystals, of the angle
between the base and the largest rhombohedron, —4A, is
found to be a:¢=1:2'1174. As this is deduced from a
mean of not less than ten angles, none of which varied more
than 25 seconds from the mean angle, 50° 43’ 6”, it is evident
that it cannot be far out of the way for the Arkansas variety
of eudialyte. Brégger in his splendid work, “ Die Mineralien
der Syenitpegmatitginge der Siidnorwegischen Augite- und
Nephelin-syenite,”* considers the latest measurements of von
Kokscharow + the most correct for eudialyte. Von Kokscha-
row gives @:¢=1:2°1129, which differs but little from the

* W. C. Brégger, Zeitschrift fir Kryst. und Mineral, xvi, p. 498, 1890.

+ Von Kokscharow, Verhandl. der kais. russ. min. Gesellschaft zu St. Peters-
burg, II, xiv, 205, 1879.

Williams—EHudialyte and Eucolite from Arkansas. 459

ordinarily accepted figures, @:¢ =1:2:1117, while the value
for the Arkansas variety is considerably larger.
The following faces have been observed and measured :
c = 0R (0001), a= « P2 (1120), R= +R (1011),
d= —4F (0112), n= —2F (0221).

Von Koksch.

Faces. Mean angle. Calculated. Variation, Calculated.

Cand, (0001): (0112) 50° 43% 6” HOF 43716! 0” 24” 50° 387
c: R, (0001): (1011) 67 53 48 67 45 24 3 12 67 42
c:7n, (0001): (0221) 78 25 78 26 35 10 30 78 25
¢: a, (0001): (1120) 89 56* 90°0 0 15 90 0
d: a, (1012): (1120) 4" 49 30 47 54 29 4 30 47 58
d: d, (1012): (0112) 84 21 84 11 2 1 reading’ 84 4

The variation of these angles and of the axial ratio from
those of von Kokscharow would suggest some corresponding
variation in the chemical composition, and it is probable that
an analysis on which Mr. Hidden is engaged will bring out
this difference.

An excellent example of that class of crystals in which the
positive rhombohedrons predominate is found in a small speci-
men—not more than 4”™" in its greatest diameter—loaned me
by Mr. C. S. Bement. This is shown in fig. 2. In this erystal
one face, +/ (1011), is so over-devel- <
oped that all the rest of the faces seem :
dwarfed by it. At the first glance, and
in fact until the crystal is carefully meas-
ured, this large face would be mistaken
for the base, and the fact that opposite
to it, the crystal is terminated by a six-
sided pyramid would seem to support this view.

The crystal is, in reality, to be placed as shown in the cut,
and the faces, which make up the front of the crystal, are des-
ignated by the same letters as in the preceding figure. The
faces forming the back are for the most part composed of
known forms in oscillatory combination. Besides these well
known faces a large number of new ones appear, of which,
however, only a few are large and sharp enough to be worthy
of special mention. The most important of these forms are as
follows : A 2 : i

—#,R (0.3.3. 11), £2 (1014), $F (1015) and --3R5 (2363).

The angles, measured as nearly as possible, were as follows:

Angle. Measured. Calculated.
OR: —3,R, (0001): (0°3°3°11) 33° 54” 33° 41’ 52"
OR: +R, (0001): (1014) &l 54 (+307) B26) el2
OR: IR, (0001): (1015) 25 959N 334 OX) 8) CRY

The faces at the back of the crystal lying in the vertical
zone and beginning at the top are: O/?, 0001; — 3-2, 3°0°3°11;

* Brogger, 1. c., measured this angle on Norwegian eucolite as 89° 58’ 30".

460 Wialliams—EHudialyte and Eucolite from Arkansas.

—4h, 1012 (large); —j;,, 101m; (point at back) 3 R, 101n;
1, 1014 (large but dull); +R, 1015 and OL, 0001 (bottom).

The right and left inclined zones at the back are made up of
the following faces; #2, 0111 and 1101; the prisms « P2, 1120
and 2110; (point at back) —3h, 1102 and 0113. The ‘small
zones lying back of a@ (a P2 , 1210 and 1210) are made up of a
recurrence of the prisms with the scalenohedrons —2 5, 2363
and 6323 (determinable only through zone relations.)

In order to make sure that the “erystal was properly placed
and the faces correctly determined, it was imbedded in a short
piece of glass tubing just large enough to hold it, and which
was filled with Canada balsam. This was then placed on an
object glass and a thin glass cover placed over it.* The out-
side of the glass tube was covered with black paint, in order to
eut off any side reflections, and the preparation was then exam-
ined under the polariscope. Owing to the thickness and irregu-
larity of the erystal, the black cross was not very plain, but it
was evident on revolving the stage of the polariscope that there
was no extinction such as was observed when the crystal was
placed in any other position.

The specific gravity is comparatively low and lies between
2804 and 2°833 at 15°C. These values were obtained from
those crystals which were measured, and the lowest was that
of the crystal figured in No. 2. The determination was made
by means of a cadmium-borotungstate solution, in which the
crystals were placed and which was then brought to such a
density that the mineral remained suspended, ‘neither. rising
nor sinking. The specific gravity of the solution was then
determined by means of a 12 ec. pycnometer.

Thin sections, cut at right angles to the vertical axis, show
in parallel hght a pink color, and between crossed nicols remain
perfectly dark durmg a complete revolution of the stage. In
convergent polarized light such sections show a wide black -
cross which sometimes opens a little owing to slight optical
anomalies, but no colored rings appear. “Both the double
refraction and the index of refraction are weak. The index is
lower than that of Canada balsam and the surface of the section
appears smooth. The character of the double refraction is
positive. By sinking the polarizer and the converging lens,
the irregular cleavage, which lies approximately parallel to
1P (1014), becomes visible.

The mineral is comparatively free from inclusions for a
erystal which was formed as late in the period of solidification
of the rock as this. Magnetite and egyrite or acmite are the

* Since making this experiment I have received Professor C. Klein’s exhaustive

paper on this method of examining crystals without cutting them. Sitzungsber.
d. k. Akad., Berlin, xviii, p. 347, 1890.

Williams—Eudialyte and Eucolite from Arkansas. 461

only inclusions which have been observed. It appears as if
sometimes eudialyte and sometimes orthoclase was formed
first, for first one and then the other is found in idiomorphic
erystals. On the whole the eudialyte appears to be the earlier
of the two. Decomposition takes place very rapidly.

Fucolite.—According to Brégger,* all those erystals which
have the form of eudialyte, and essentially its chemical compo-
sition, but negative double refraction in place of positive, are
to be considered ewcolite. It appears therefore that the yellow-
ish brown crystals, bearmg a great resemblance in form and
size to endialyte, but which are characterized by their negative
double refraction, are to be classed under this head. The
erystals which appear in the Arkansas rock are of a much
lighter brown or brownish yellow color than those from
Norway. The cleavage parallel to the base (0001) is much
more pronounced than in eudialyte, but that in other directions
is about equally poor with that already noted.

The following faces have been observed (fig. 3): ¢=0R
(0001), # = +f (1011), d= —4A# (0112), g = «P (1010), a=
«2 (1120). Some of the angles between these faces and the
base have been measured, but the poor
reflections prevent the obtaining of accu-
rate results. The angles recorded are
probably not nearer than from 15’ to 30’
to the true angles. Owing to these large
limits of error, it is impossible to caleu-
late any axial ratio for this mineral, but
the angles as measured do not differ very much from the cor-
responding angles on eudialyte.

Angle. . Measured. Calculated.
ce: d (0001): (0112) 50° 407 30” 50° 43” 6”
c: R (0001): (1011) 67 12 67 45 24
C: a4 (0001): (1120) 89 53 90
Caa0) (0001): (1010) 90 25 90

The specific gravity taken in the same way as that of eudia-
lyte gave 26244 to 2°6630 at 15°C. This is extremely low,
but even after bringing in a correction for adhering orthoclase
(sp. gr. = 255—2°62) the figures would not be much higher.
Hardness 5 to 5:3.

In thin sections this mineral appears semi-transparent, and is
of a white to a very light yellow color. In convergent polar-
ized light, a section perpendicular to the principal axis shows
a black cross which when tested with a mica plate establishes
the negative character of the double refraction very plainly.
The double refraction appears weaker than in eudialyte. Mag
netite and «gyrite appear to be the only inclusions. Some

* Lc. page 489.

462 Wéalliams—EHudialyte and Hucolite from Arkansas.

erystals were found which were made up of both pink and
yellowish brown material, and in these cases it was always
found that the former was positive and the latter negative.

Wilhelm Ramsay * in his ‘“‘ Geologische Beobachtungen auf
den Halbinsel Kola” has observed that, in the eudialyte of the
nepheline syenite, which he describes, both positive and nega-
tive as well as isotropic zones appear, but that no difference in
color nor in the indices of refraction between the various parts
was detectable. Ramsay’s observations were made by means
of a selenite plate on sections, which were slightly inclined to
the principal axis, while those on the Arkansas mineral were
made by means of a quarter-undulation mica plate on sections
parallel to the base.

From the low specific gravity and hardness, as well as the
want of complete transparency in the eucclite crystals, it may
well be suspected that these crystals are decomposed or weath-
ered eudialyte. To these facts may be added the observations
that, in cases where eudialyte has begun to weather, it is found
in the form of pink grains surrounded by a soft yellowish
brown powder, which resembles very closely the eucolite just
described. Moreover it is probable that the yellowish coatings
observed on the surface of the eudialyte crystals already
described are made up of this same brownish yellow mineral.
A determination of the amount of water in a specimen of the
eucolite would be of use in deciding the question of its origin.

Both eudialyte and eucolite occur in two places in Magnet
Cove; one, one hundred meters northeast of the point where
the Hot Springs turnpike crosses Cove Creek, and the other

a “the branch” about 150 meters east of where it empties
into Cove Creek. Indications of eudialyte have been observed
in the elzeolite syenite of Saline County, Ark., on the property
of Sol. Nethereutt, about seven miles (11 km.) N.E. of Benton.
(N.W. of 8.E. of Sec. 16, 28. 14 W.) At this point the min-
eral was so badly weathered that an exact determination was
impossible.

Besides the sgyrite, eleeolite and orthoclase of the rock in
which the eudialyte occurs, there are found as accessory min-
erals beautiful little idiomorphie titanites and apatites. As
decomposition products there appear ozarkite (thomsonite)
and manganopectolite,t which may be due in part at least to
the weathering of eudialyte as well as of the other constituents
of the rock.

Petrographical Laboratory, Clark University,

Worcester, Mass., June, 1890.

* Wilhelm Ramsay. Fennia, Bulletin de la Société de géographie de Finland,
iii, No. 7, pages 42 and 43.

+ J. F. Williams. Manganopektolit. Hin Neues Mineral aus Magnet Cove, Ark.
Zeitsch. Kryst. Min., xviii, 1890.*

T. Russell— Prediction of Cold-waves. 463

Art. LIX.— Prediction of Cold-waves from Signal Service
Weather Maps; by T. RUSSELL.

[Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at
Indianapolis, August 25, 1890, by T. Russell, Assistant Professor, Signal Service. |

IN addition to the regular fall of temperature that takes place
from day to night, there are irregular falls occurring from
time to time. The extent of country covered by these falls is
various at different times. When the fall of temperature in
twenty-four hours is twenty degrees or more and covers an area
of at least fifty thousand square miles and the temperature in
any part of the area goes as low as 36° it is called a cold-wave.
Answering to this definition, there have been in the United
States in the past ten years, 1880 to 1890, six hundred and
twenty-one cold-waves, as shown by the 7 A. M. weather. maps
of the Signal Service.

In Table I, is given the number of soll waves, of various ex-
tents, according to the area enclosed by the twenty-degree
temperature- -fall line, that have occurred in ten years, in the
months of October, November, December, January, Febr LER
and March.

TABLE I.
Number of cold-waves, 1880 to 1890, according to extent of twenty-degree temperature-fall areas.

, 50.000 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600.000 700,000 800,000 900,000 1,000,000 1,100,000
Aout 0 to to to to to to to to to to. to
AFONENS. —_ 490,000. 200,000. 300.000. 400,000. 500,009. 600,000. 700,000. 800,000. 900,000. 1,000,000. 1,100,000. 1,200,000.

January - 13 27 25 29 16 13 9 4 3 1 1 2
February. 23 26 19 24 13 10 6 5 2 2 2 1
March ___ 30 24 13 ll 12 i 2 i IL eh Begs ae
October __ 21 13 2) 1 1 ue wie. ae aD Be se a
November 32 14 12 10 8 5 1 ae i 2, aN ie
December Bl 30 Dil 16 14 5 1 5 1 es veh

Sums =. 150 134 92 Oi 64. 34 19 13 12 6 3 3

The greatest cold-wave was that of January 17, 1882. The
twenty-degree fall line included an area of 1,101,000 square
miles, and the ten-degree fall line an area of 2,929, 000 square
miles. There have been in ten years six cold-waves with the
area of the twenty-degree fall greater than one million square
miles. The magnitude of maximum temperature-fall in cold-
waves varies greatly at different times. The different curves
of temperature-fall lie one within the other, the twenty-degree
within the ten-degree, the thirty within the twenty and so on.
There is a oradual i increase of temperature-fall from the border
of a cold-wave area to the center which is the place of maxi-
mum-fall. There have been two cases in ten years where the
maximum fall was over sixty degrees, the greatest being sixty-
three. ‘There were sixteen cases where the maximum fall was
between fifty and sixty degrees; seventy-seven cases with the

464 TT. Russell—Prediction of Cold-avaves.

maximum fall between forty and fifty degrees; two hundred
and sixty-two cases between thirty and forty degrees ; and two
hundred and sixty-four between twenty and thirty.

The Signal Service weather-maps show that these cold-waves
always occur over the country covered on the preceding day by
an area of low barometric pressure, or over the country covered
by an area of high pressure. Where both occur, the cold-waves
attain their greatest extent. The cold-waves occur from the
center of the areas of low pressure towards the west. There
are a few cases where low pressure areas have not been fol-
lowed by a fall in temperature at their centers. There are
twelve of these in ten years where there have been rises in
temperature instead of falls around the centers of low pressure.
On the other hand, no cold-waves ever occur without the pres-
ence of an area of high or low pressure. Why there are
exceptions is not known.

The Signal Service observations made at 8 A. M. (at 7 A. M.,
previous to July 1, 1888) are given on the weather-maps issued
daily. The barometric pressure at the various stations reduced
to sea-level are generalized by the isobars. The temperatures
are shown by the isotherms drawn through places having the
same temperature.

A typical case of weather-map preceding a cold-wave is that
of February 9, 1885. The map shows a characteristic feature
of the isotherms pr eceding a cold-wave. They run from south-
west to northeast in the country covered by the low pressure,
and after passing the center bend towards the southeast and
east. To the west of the region of high pressure the isotherms
bend to the northwest. The general appearance of the isotherms
would seem to indicate that the air in the low pressure has pro-
gressed from the south, and that in the high from the north,
carrying with it the isothermal lines peculiar to those regions.
The temperature-falls on February 10, 1885, shown on a map
by lines joining the points of equal fall, give areas which are
quite regular, having usually the appearance of ellipses one
within the other. The total temperature-fall on a map has
graphically the semblance of a cone. The temperature-fall
lines are sections of planes with the cone. The maximum or
greatest fall of temperature in the center is the altitude of the
cone, and the area enclosed by the lines of no change is its base.

An examination of the maps preceding cold-waves shows that
the extent of cold-wave is dependent on the extent of the area
of low pressure and the area of high pressure on the day pre-
ceding it. The extent of cold-wave depends very greatly on
the density or sparseness of the isothermal lines in the region
of the low area and to the west of it. When they are numer-
ous and close together, the falls will be very great and will

T. Russell—Prediction of Cold-waves. 465

cover a wide extent of country. The maps preceding cold-
waves vary very much as regards isotherms. There is always
some diminution of temperature to the northwest of a low area.
Sometimes it is not more than twenty degrees in a distance of
500 miles from the center, and sometimes eighty degrees in the
same distance.

To show to what extent the amount of temperature-fall and
the area of fall depend on the variation of barometric pres-
sure and contrast of temperature, the means in a number of
selected cases are shown in Table II.

TABLE II.
Summary of Pressure and Temperature Gradients, and Mean Temperature Falls.
Mean Mean Mean Mean

Temperature Falls, Temp. Grad’nt Pres. Grad’nt extent of

per 500 miles. per 500 miles. cold-wave.

Inches.

53°°6 16 cases Downs 0°66 26°1
43°°3 60 cases 47° 0°56 15:1
Some 7 44° 0°59 10:0
24°-0 ue 34° 0°46 Bal
14°°3 x 2333 0°40

In forming the means in Table II, sixty cases each of falls
between thirty and forty, twenty and thirty, and ten to twenty
were selected, one from each month, October to March, during
the ten years. The changes less than twenty degrees do not
class as cold-waves, but are given, to show the dependence in
magnitude of the temperature-fall on the pressure and temper-
ature gradients in the case of small changes. The last
column of Table II, contains the extent of cold-wave, the unit
being a fall of twenty degrees over an area of 50,000 square
miles, or ten degrees over an area of 100,000. The extent of
fall in cold-waves, including all the fall greater than ten
degrees, but not inclnding any less than ten degrees, varies in
different cases from 5 to 60 on this basis. The temperature-
fall is computed as the contents of a rough cone. The areas
of the falls are measured with a planimeter and the altitude
expressed in units of ten degrees of the greatest fall in temper-
ature.

The shapes and relative positions of high and low areas of
pressure preceding cold-waves are very various. The principal
types most frequently recurring are as follows :

1. A low pressure without any accompanying high pressure.
Cold-waves with this type are not apt to be important or
extensive, unless the area is continental in extent. With a
central pressure as low as 29°3 inches, and a distance across the
thirty-inch isobar of 1,600 miles, the cold-wave is apt to be
considerable.

2. A low pressure area with a high to the northwest of it.
This is the most frequently occurring type. The cold-waves

466 T. Russell—Prediction of Cold-waves.

accompanying it may be of any extent from the smallest to
the largest.

3. A great area of high pressure, with a slight or very ill-
defined low pressure, irregular in shape to the southeast of it,
or very far to the east. The cold-waves are not apt to be
great in this case. The area of temperature-fall is a long nar-
row strip extending from southwest to northeast, and never
reaching more than 300 miles from the southeastern edge of
the hieh area.

4. An area of low pressure with an area of high: southwest
of it. The temperature-fall area is a long narrow strip in this
case. This type is usually a sequence of type 2 and always
follows after a severe cold-wave has prevailed the day before
in country farther to the west and north.

5. A double V-shaped area of low pressure, one in the region
of the Great Lakes open to the northeast, the other in Louisiana
or Texas and open to the southwest, a great area of high pres-
sure in between the two, to the northwest. The cold-waves of
greatest extent have occurred with this type.

6. A double low, one in the Lake Region and the oh on
the Atlantic coast. The cold-waves with this type are always
extensive, but keep well towards the north.

These varieties may be still further subdivided according to
the shape and position of the isobars in the area of low pres-
sure. The low may have closed isobars, or it may be open in
any direction. The closed isobars may be circular or elliptical.
When elliptical, the long axis may be from northeast to south-
west, from north to south, east to west, or northwest to scuth-
east. The latter variety is very unusual. The coid-waves
following each of these varieties have distinctive features.
These various types have distinctive features in the areas of
twenty-degree fall following them. The longer axis of the
area of temperature fall extends in the direction in which the
isobars are open, etc.

The method given here for the prediction of cold-waves,
does not give a correct result at all times. It represents very
fairly the average of cases that occur; though in a few eases,
it gives largely erroneous results. It is purely empirical.
What follows certain combinations of isobars and isotherms
is seen from past weather-maps, and it becomes a question how
to formulate the conditions and use them, for judging what
may occur in any special case in the future.

From an examination of the charts of temperature-fall in
connection with the weather-map twenty-four hours preceding,
it will appear that the extent of the cold wave depends on the
extent and depth of the area of low pressure. It likewise
depends on the extent and height of the area of high pressure.

T. Russell—Prediction of Cold-waves. 467

When both a low and high pressure occur together, the cold
wave is apt to be very oreat. The surest indication of a com-
ing great fall of temperature, both deep and extensive, is a
crowded condition of the isothermal lines to the northwest of
an area of low pressure. This condition is usually the result
of a great fall of temperature in the preceding twenty-four
hours, in a district to the west and north. Sometimes, how-
ever, this crowded condition of the isotherms is the result of a
slow cooling over a wide area of country, lasting several days.
Then a low area of pressure ae in an appearance to the
southeast of it, the next day there follows a great and exten-
sive fall of temperature, without any very g ereat fall the day
preceding. At times, there is a regular progression of the
areas of fall from west to east, or southeast. Areas of low
pressure appearing in the vicinity of Lake Superior, with a
high area to the west, have temperature-falls on the next day
at places east of the Missouri River and skirting along as far
south as the Ohio River.

One of the most important types of map is that of a low
area of pressure in Texas and a great high tothe north. Areas
of great temperature-fall always follow this type, with the long
axis extending north to sonth. The greatest falls occur in the
southwest. The areas of fall on the next day are farther to
the east, and later, falls follow to the north, in Maryland,
Pennsylvania, New Jersey and New York. ‘This is a type for
which it is possible, when the high and low areas are large, to
make successful predictioas of cold-waves for the eastern States
two days in advance.

Inasmuch as the extent and depth of temperature-fali depend
on the extent of the areas of high and low pressure, it was
decided to ascertain how far this was true, and to determine if
possible the numerical relation between them. The areas
enclosed by the temperature-fall lines of ten, twenty, thirty,
forty degrees, etc., in the various cold-waves were measured by
means ue a planimeter on maps of the United States on a scale
of zy,00c.090: Lhe. areas between the isobars of high and
low areas of pressure on the maps preceding cold-waves were
measured in the same way. The areas between the isothermal
lines in the region covered by the areas of high and low
pressure were also measured.

The method proposed for the prediction of cold-waye, is as
follows:

1. From the measured extent of the high and low area of
pressure always preceding cold-waves to determine what the
total extent of the fall in the cold-wave will be.

2. To determine the maximum fall of temperature that
is to take place in a cold-wave.

468 TL. Russell— Prediction of Cold-waves.

3. The extent of cold-wave being known, which is the con-
tents of a cone, and the altitude being known, which is the
maximum fall of temperature expressed in units of ten de-
grees, then from suitably prepared tables, the areas included by
the ten and twenty degree temperature-tall lines to be taken,
these Imes being the sections of planes with the cone.

4. The various shapes that the twenty degree temperature-
fall areas take with different types of high and low pressure
will be determined. The shape of the areas will be taken as
exactly elliptical, with varying ratio of axes in different cases.
This is not strictly the shape of temperature-fall areas in actual
cold-waves, but it is sufficiently near for practical purposes,
and the best that can be adopted. In more than 90 per cent
of the cases, a regular ellipse will represent actual temperature-
falls with errors not greater than six degrees.

5. The location of point of greatest temperature-fall will be
determined, and the position of the longer axis of the twenty-
degree fall area.

6. A previously prepared piece of card-board of the size
and shape of the twenty-degree fall area will be placed ona
map in its proper position and a line drawn around it. The
thirty degree, forty degree, ete., temperature-fall lines will be
drawn in with regard to this twenty degree fall line, and the
point of maximum fall.

7. From these curves the falls at various stations in the
region covered can be estimated, and the isothermal lines
drawn for the day on which the cold-wave is to prevail. The
isothermal lines in a region where a cold-wave prevails, always
have a certain smoothness.and definiteness of sweep. If the
predicted isothermal lines are crooked and irregular, some
slight adjustment can be made, and new isotherms put in, so as
to represent the average position of the ones first drawn.

. Extent of Cold- Wave.

The extent of a cold-wave has been taken, as proportional to
the extent of the area of low pressure multiplied by an
unknown factor, plus the extent of the high area multiplied
by another unknown factor, plus another term, composed of
the product of an unknown factor by the extent of low area
of pressure, and a number expressing the density of the iso-
thermal lines throughout the region of the high and low areas.
The unit of deficiency of pressure in the low area, below a
pressure of 80 inches and excess in the high, is taken as one
inch over an area of 100,000 square miles. In different cases
the number expressing this excess or deficiency of pressure
varies from a small fraction of a unit to as much as ten units.
Observation equations were formed on this plan, of the form,

T. Russell—Prediction of Cold-waves. 469

HA+L/4+1L7F—E=0. A, / and /, are the unknown quantities
and, KE, the extent of cold-wave; H and L, are the measured
extents of high and low pressure. As regards I, the number
expressive of the density of the isothermal lines, it was de-
rived in the following way.

Consider two contiguous areas, between three successive
isotherms. The tendency is for the wind to blow from the
high area towards the low, and carry the air from places of low
temperature to those where it is high. The mean temperature
of a strip between two isotherms as compared with a strip
adjoining it is ten degrees different, the one to the west and
north being the lower. If the area of higher temperature is
of less extent than the lower one, there is a possibility of all
the air from the lower one overflowing the higher, and that
the fall in temperature will be equal in extent to the area of
the higher multiplied by one, their difference of temperature
being ten degrees. If the area of lower temperature is less
than the higher one, it is not likely that it will change the
temperature any more than the area of the lower multiplied
by the difference of temperature unless there is cold air com-
ing from above. Consider a third area with respect to the
one of highest temperature. The fall of temperature pro-
duced by it may be taken in extent, as equal to the area of the
smaller one of the two areas multiplied by two, the difference
of their mean temperatures being twenty degrees, but some-
what less than this on account of the two areas being farther
apart than in the case of the first two considered. Part of the
low temperature is expended in lowering the temperature of
the intervening area. It is not known what the law is, accord-
ing to which this effect diminishes with distance of the areas
apart. There is some reason, however, for believing that it is
inversely as their distance apart. The effects of the areas, in
causing extent of fall, have been taken as inversely propor-
tional to their distances apart expressed in units of one hun-
dred miles. Considering all the other areas with respect to
the area of highest temperature, in a similar manner a series
of numbers will be obtained, expressive of the possible extent
of temperature-fall. The next area of temperature below the
one of highest temperature, will in like manner give a similar
series of numbers, and likewise a third area considered with
respect to all those below it will give a series, and so on, until
the last two areas are taken into account which give a single
number. The sum of all these numbers gives a total number
expressive of the possibility of temperature-fall, provided
there is sufficient of a low area to induce such a circulation of
the air, that the air from places of low temperature will reach
places where it is high. The more extensive and deep the

470 T. Russell— Prediction of Cold-waves.

area of low- pressure, the more this will be accomplished.
Accordingly, a term is included in the equation which gives
the temperature-fall, which is proportional to this number
multiplied by the extent of the low area and an unknown
quantity. This number expressive of density or sparseness of
isotherms in the case of different weniger unaine preceding cold-
waves varies from 5 to 95.

To establish the numerical relation between the extent of
cold-wave and the extent of high and low areas of pressure,
127 cases of cold-wave were selected from those that have
occurred in ten years. They were so chosen as to include the
greatest possible variety in extent of cold-wave from the
smallest to the largest, the greatest and least areas of high and
low pressure concerned in their production, cases in which the
“high” was in different positions with respect to the “low,”
and cases of the greatest diversity of the isothermal lines pass-
ing through the low area.

Normal equations were formed, and from them the values of
the unknown quantities derived :

i — Da vom 1 = 0:0547

From the residuals obtained by substituting the values of the
unknown quantities in the observation-equations, the probable
error in the extent of a cold-wave derived by this method was
found to be + 5. The average extent of cold-wave in the 127
cases was 20. The extent of different cold-waves varied from
5 to 60.

Several different forms of equation were tried. The one de-
scribed, gave more satisfactory values of the residuals than any
of the others. From a consideration of the residuals in the
various methods tried, it was inferred that the fall of tempera-
ture in a cold-wave must be composed of two parts. One part
depends on the presence of a high or low area of pressure, and
the other on the transmission of air from places in the north-
west, where it is cold, to places where the temperature is high,
in the vicinity of the low area. The first part probably re-
sults from the intermixture of air near the ground with that
from a great altitude, this intermixture resulting from a great
diminution of temperature upward in the air. In Winter, on:
account of the greater lengths of the nights, there is excessive
cooling of the upper layers of air. The determining factor of
a convective interchange, is the upward diminution of temper-
ature. The air over a wide area of country being in unstable
equilibrium, a circumstance, such as a slight excess of heating
at the ground may be the cause of an intermixture of the strata
throughout a great height. Intermixture would cause the air to
become nearly uniform in temperature, which would cause a fall

T. Russell— Prediction of Cold-waves. 471

at the surface of the earth, and a rise in temperature high up in
the air. This latter, however, would not be maintained long on
account of the greater radiation in the upper air, which would
cause the temperature to diminish rapidly to the normal pecu-
liar to the altitude and the time of the year. A mixture of the
air throughout a height of five miles, computation shows, would
cause a fall in temperature of forty degrees, if the temperature
_at the surface of the earth is 60°.

The change of temperature upward in the air is very slight
in a region covered by an area of high pressure. This is the
region where a cold-wave is prevailing and intermixture has
taken place. In fact, there is sometimes in such a region an
increase of temperature upward, which is, however, mostly due
to local causes, a ridge or peak radiating strongly into space
during the night, and the thin layer of air cooled by contact

with it, flowing down over the lower portions of the land into
valleys, and giving rise to an abnormal contrast of temperature
at slightly differing altitudes.

The fact that most of the severe cold-waves in the northwest
start in the afternoon, just after the occurrence of the maxi-
mum temperature, tends to strengthen this view. The higher
up in the air, the less the diurnal range of temperature. At
the time of maximum temperature at the surface of the earth
the rate of upward diminution of temperature must be greatest,
and consequently at that time the greatest tendency to an in-
terchange of the air above and below. The fact that the same
density of isotherms with same extent of high and low in dif-
ferent cold-waves, do not always produce the same extent of
temperature-fall proves conclusively that the fall is not due en-
tirely to progress of cold air from the northwest, or dependent
solely on temperature conditions at the surface of the ground,
but that part of it must come from above.

Cases can be shown on the Signal Service weather-maps,
where the fall of temperature certainly cannot be due to pro-
gress of air from places of low temperature to those of high
unless it comes down from the upper air, because there is no
lower temperature to the northwest to be carried by the winds.

In the high area, the main part of the cold-wave is due to the
convective action in high and low strata. The high is to some
extent merely the result of low temperature. The equation
will not admit of a term consisting of the extent of high area
multiplied by the factor dependent on the density of the iso-
therms. There are a few cases, however, where a slight term
of this kind would improve the residuals. An area of high
barometer no greater than 30-4 inches has very little power to
transmit or produce a cold-wave to the east or southeast of it.
Up to that limit, the high pressure is mainly the result of the

472 T. Russell— Prediction of Cold-waves.

low temperature over the area, and there is no appreciable cold-
wave without a very considerable low to the east. In the low
area, the fall of temperature is due both to the intermixture of
upper and lower air and the presence of cold air brought from
the northwest by the action of the typical winds around it.

The greatest fall of temperature.

An examination of the weather-maps in 217 cases preceding
cold-waves shows, that the greatest falls in 134 cases occurred
inside-of the iowest isobar of the low area of pressure or within
100 miles of the center of the low. In 62 eases, it was south
of the center of the low 200 miles or more. In 8 eases it was
north of the center; in 4, west of it; in 3, east of it; and in 6
cases so remote from the center as to have no apparent relation
to it. In at least 80 per cent of all the cases of cold-waves, the
place of greatest temperature-fall can be located twenty-four
hours beforehand somewhere on the map within a radius of one
hundred miles of its true place by taking it at the place of
highest temperature within 100 miles of the center of the low.

The magnitude of greatest temperature-fall is conspicuously
dependent upon the temperature gradient on the weather-map
preceding it. The values of maximum temperature-fall, pres-
sure and temperature gradients given in Table II. might be
used for deriving the greatest fall. Taking the fall as propor-
tional to the product of the temperature gradient by the pres-
sure gradients in five hundred miles, the mean greatest falls of
53°6, 43°3, 83°5, 24-0 and 14:3 degrees, give values for the factor
respectively of 1:49, 1°66, 1:29, 1°54, 1°55, the mean of which
is 1:48. This factor multiplied by the product of the 500 mile
pressure and temperature gradient in any case, will give an
approximate value of the maximum fall in a coming cold-wave.
The value found in this way would be good if the areas between
the isotherms were more regular than is usually the case.

A better method was found to be the following:

On a line drawn from the point of greatest prospective tem-
perature-fall, and perpendicular to the isotherms, about where
they are closest together on the map, measure the distances be-
tween the isotherms. The temperature at the place of greatest
fall after the cold-wave has prevailed, will be the weighted
mean of the meai temperatures of the various sections of the
line between the isotherms, the weights being taken directly
as the lengths of the various sections, and inversely as the dis-
tances of their centers from the point of greatest prospective
fall. The mean of the temperature from the point of greatest
fall to the first isotherm to the northwest of it, or for at least a
distance of 200 miles from the point of greatest fall when
there is more than one isotherm in the distance, is taken

T. Russell— Prediction of Cold-waves. 473

with a weight of one. The mean temperature of a section is
the mean of its bounding isotherms. When the decrease of
temperature towards the northwest in a distance of 500 miles
is not more than thirty degrees, the greatest fall may be taken
as not greater than five-sixths of the change in 500 miles.

The probable error of greatest temperature-fall by this rule
as derived from 201 cases of cold-waves is about +2°5 degrees
for falls of twenty degrees and +65 degrees for falls of fifty
degrees. Table III shows the distribution of errors.

TABLE III.

Errors in Computed Temperature Falls.

Cases. Error in degrees. Cases. Error in degrees,
14 0° 5 +10°
36 Sell 4 +11
24 + 2 3 +12
22 +3 7 +15
14 +4 3 +14
Lg) E5 i +15
19 +6 4 E16
10 +7 a +17
15 +8 2 aceite)

8 +9

“The computed fall is less than the observed. On the aver-
age it is less by one degree for falls of twenty degrees ; by two
degrees for falls of thirty; by half a degree for falls of forty ;
and by five degrees for falls of fifty degrees. The average of
all cases gives the computed fall two degrees less than the
observed.

This method of deriving the maximum fall can only be used
where the pressure gradient is at least 0-4 of an inch in 500
miles. It is worthy of note that the mean temperature
throughout the areas of high and low pressure, as derived
from the planimeter measurements of areas between isotherms,
agrees in most cases within a few degrees with the tempera-
ture at the place of greatest fall after the fall has occurred
as computed by this rule. Where the computed falls differ
greatly from the observed, probably correspond to times of
widely differing diminution of temperature upward in the air.

With the computed maximum fall derived in this way, and
the computed extent of temperature-fall, the areas of ten and
twenty-degree temperature-falls can be taken from suitably
prepared tables. The agreement of the computed and observed
areas is on the whole tolerably satisfactory. It is difficult to
estimate the accuracy of the method without a map for each
special case. There are two cases where the method fails

é Am. Jour. Scr.—TuirD SERIES, Vou. XL, No. 240.—Dec., 1890.
30

474 T. Russell— Prediction of Cold-waves.

badly, those of Dec. 5, 1885, and Dec. 20, 1887, when there
were twenty-degree fall areas of 863,000 and 728,000 square
miles and the method gives no twenty-degree fall. There are
twenty-four cases where the observed area being 300,000 square
miles or more, the computed is less than balf the observed and
may be classed as not good. There are four cases of over 300,000:
square miles where the computed area is more than twice as
great as the observed area. In the other cases the agreement
is tolerably good.

Shape and Position of Twenty-Degree Temperature-Fall Area.

In the case of areas of twenty-degree fall greater than
200,000 square miles when the “high” is to the northwest of
the low area, the ratio of the axes of the area in the average of
cases is 2°5 to 1-0 For the case of the high southwest of the
low, the ratio is 4:0 to 1:0. In double V-shaped lows and
exceptionally long areas of low pressure, the ratio is about 5:0
to 1:0. Lows accompanied by highs no greater than 30:3
inches in pressure have the fall areas of same general shape as
the isobars of the iow area.

Where the isothermal lines are close together, which is
always the case in a great cold-wave, the long axis is pretty
certain to be at least two and a half times the length of the
short one.

The position of the long axis is usually from southwest to
northeast. It is parallel to the long axis of the area of low
pressure or parallel to the general direction of the isotherms.
It is always sure to extend in the direction of the open end of
the low area of pressure. The shape of the ten-degree tem-
perature-fall area pretty generally conforms to the shape of the
twenty-degree fall area. The ten-degree falls very generally
overlap on successive days. The twenty-degree fall areas rarely
overlap and when they do, only slightly, not more than through-
out a strip fifty miles in width in the case of the very greatest
cold-waves. The larger the twenty-degree fall areas are, the
more likely they are to be just tangent to each other or slightly
overlap. When a well-defined area of twenty-degree fall has
already occurred, a consideration of its distance from the center
of low pressure, or point of prospective greatest temperature-
fall, is of service in determining what the length of one axis
of the twenty-degree fall may be the next day.

At the southern limit of a cold-wave, when there is doubt
about the position of the lower boundary of a temperature-fall
area, the wind direction is useful in locating its position. In
the lower Mississippi valley, when the winds having been
northwest, and there have been falls of temperature to the
north, and the winds turn to the northeast, no farther falls in
the vicinity need be anticipated.

T. Russell— Prediction of Cold-waves. 475

Tables and charts have been prepared showing the lowest
and highest 7 A. M. temperatures that have occurred in the
months of November, December, January, February and
March. These are of use in locating the areas of fall and
in estimating by differences the low temperatures that may
occur to the east, by comparison with what has already occurred
where a cold-wave is prevailing.

There is very little time for extensive or elaborate computa-
tions in the work of predicting cold-waves. This fact has
been borne in mind in devising the method. It will not
require more than half an hour to apply it in any particular case.
Planimeter measurements of the extent of high and low areas
of pressure were resorted to in the special cases used in deter-
mining the constants of the formula. But this is not
necessary in determining the extent of an area of low pressure
in the prediction of cold-waves. The area computedfrom the
measured lengths of the greatest and least axis of the outside
isobar of the area will be sufficient. Considering this area as
the base of a cone, and the altitude as the difference between
the outside isobar and the lowest barometer reading, its con-
tents can be computed with sufficient accuracy for the purpose
required. ;

The predictions of cold-waves according to this method will
be better than those of the past in that part of the country
south of the States of Missouri and Kansas and south of the
Ohio River. Not much improvement can be expected in the
far northwest, where there is no opportunity to measure the
extent of the “high,” where it is apt to be over a country not
covered by observation. Neither can the method give much
improvement in the New England States, where the “low” is
often out over the ocean and the “high” to the north of the
Dominion of Canada. The use of the rule for computing
maximum fall will, however, make some improvement in the
predictions for these regions. Though only adapted for giving
the temperature at the place of greatest fall, it can nevertheless
be used for other places, and will give a value for the fall that
will certainly not be exceeded.

Fuller details for the use of this method in prediction of
cold-waves will be found in the annual report of the Chief
Signal Officer for the year 1890.

476 J. S. Diller—Cretaceous Rocks of No. California.

Arr. LX.—On a peculiar method of Sand-transportation
by Rivers ; by JAMES C. GRAHAM.

Ir is usually stated that the transporting capacity of a stream
is dependent upon (1) the volume and velocity of the current,
(2) the size, shape and specific gravity of the sediment, and
(8) upon the chemical composition of the water. There has
recently come under my observation, however, a case which
does not come under the usual interpretation of these condi-
tions. It was a case of the transportation of siliceous sand
upon the surface of the water, due to capillary floating.

It is well known that a needle can be placed gently upon the
water so as to float, the force of capillary attraction producing
a surface tension so as to prevent its sinking. This same prin-
ciple was being used in removing sand from a bar jutting out
from an island in the Connecticut River.

The erosion was being carried on from the side of the bar
against which the current did not strike. It took place by
gentle ripple waves splashing up against the sand bar (which
was at an angle of about 150° to the surface of the water) and
upon the retiring of each, wave a little float of sand would be
on the water. At first these were about the size of a silver quar-
ter of a dollar, but by the union of a number, some floats would
be formed of about six inches square. These blotches were so
numerous as to be very noticeable in rowing up the river and
could be traced for half a mile or more below the bank, though
this bank from which the sand came was but a few yards long.

If one of the blotches was disturbed by touching or the too
violent action of the waves, it would immediately separate, the
particles at once falling to the river bottom.

The above facts seem to me interesting for several reasons.

(1.) It shows that coarse sand can be floated away by a cur-
rent of far less velocity than 0°4545 miles per hour.

(2.) It shows a method of removing sand from the lower side
of a forming bar which has gotten above high water mark.

(8.) lt indicates a possible explanation of the coarser particles
of sand occasionally found in otherwise very fine deposits.

Art. LXI.—Wote on the Cretaceous recks of Northern Cali-
Jorna; by J. 8. DILLER.

WHILE preparing a geologic map of the northern portion of
the Sacramento Valley, two sections about 30 miles apart of
the unaltered Cretaceous rocks upon its western border north

-J. S. Diller— Cretaceous Rocks of No. California. 477

of the 40th Parallel were measured by Mr. J. Stanley-Brown
and myself. The measurements were made with Green’s
square clinometer compass and a hundred-foot wire. Many
fossils were collected along the lines of the sections as well as
upon both sides. They have been identified by Mr. T. W.
Stanton, under the supervision of Dr. C. A. White, who
kindly furnished information concerning the age of the rocks.

Section on Hilder Creek, Tehama Co., Cal.

Thickness in feet.
Thin sandstone with a large portion of shales

3 wihichearerlocallystoldeds. 2940242 - ess 1115
& Massive sandstone with a few thin beds of shale 160
¢ Shales containing one bed of sandstone 25 feet
cS (LST) Cea VOTE a aa leet CAD tiny eae Pee 665
SP viassive sandstone 2 -stec eos t ar 555
Soft conglomerate containing Chico fossils - - -- - 20
Massive sandstone with thin conglomerates__-_ 397
GB" STON GS se sy Sar BU EDM era reba we ae aa IL 136
S Massive conglomerate containing some limestone
° Weblo ese re heck, eee Me ee eee ee ae reas 271
s Sandstone, some shale and thin beds of conglom-
oS Cy EER IT et Pe Pe PR Seer Mc ts Se Oo ete 320
Massiveconelomerates | 201 2425 en oamin)sugmues bie 43
Some sandstone and shale, but chiefly conglom-
erate with Chico fossils.........----- 235
5 Apparent thickness of Chico beds, 3897
« Shales with thin sandstones _.__......-.....-- 552
FS OCS ey teen nia et eo nla ei a OD
See SATUS to Cees 0 20k br ee OE BN iiceh 50
= Shales containing two beds of sandstone, one 8 ft.
& and the other 12 ft. in thickness__.._.___- 2090
2mShales and thinisandstones= sa.) 2.808 as0 1674
s Sandstones and shales, then shales only -- Erakta cate tt 1158
? Apparant thickness of Horsetown beds, 6109
« Shales, twisted and veined, containing Aucella_ 1795
S Shales with calcareous layers, (much covered)._ 4968
= CE aU Ue Ri aaa a Me ee ell Ys ask AL 5574
= Shales in belt 700 feet wide much folded... -_-
‘< Shales and shaly sandstones with calcareous
= WELW OTS Ay tae 2) wise ch sae acid a ple RA RLS eae ek 2002
= . Shales and shaly sandstones »—small sandstones
oe increase, contain Aucella BTA ieee ote 5G 33
34 Shales and ahin SANGStONe sie aes ann Ne ene re NN 1.7()9
AS Apparent thickness of unaltered Aucella beds, 1,9974
8 Apparent total thickness of unaltered Creta-
= COOUSTSUTA tae ays meremne mee enenC uC rdI ILLS 2,9978

478 E. D. Preston—Magnetic and Gravity ,

The top of the Chico beds was not exposed. It lies beneath
the newer formations which occupy the middle portion of the
Sacramento valley. The apparent thickness of the series may
have been somewhat increased by faulting.

Section on North Fork of Cottonwood Creek, Shasta Co., Cal.

Shales containims: Chico fossilse 2 uaa 2e)) ae 621
Shalesiwathi this sand stomessam eee ay ee eee 180
SSL) (2a) A ee Pee ea mee UN LAIN ULE AGL VORA Su 1908
Conglomerates and sandstones with many Chico fos-
Sie Pee an Uy Rope OU RM aH) Qh A
Thickness of Chico beds, 3623
Shales including 10 feet of sandstone contains
numerous) HorsetowmOssilsuse sa 30) 4c ee ee 2870
Shales with some sandstones contains numerous
‘Elorsetowmitossilsi ye Ne iks Ge seals Ea a Mea
Sandstone with coarse conglomerates at base of series | 561———
Thickness of Horsetown beds, 5218
Apparent total thickness of unaltered Cretaceous, 8841

The top of the Chico as in the other section was not exposed.
The apparent thickness of the series may have been somewhat
increased by faulting, a condition suggested by the occurrence
of Chico fossils near the western limit of the Cretaceous rocks.
Aucella was not found in this section, and the basal member
of the series rests directly and unconformably upon the meta-
morphic rocks.

U.S. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C.

ArT. LXIL—Magnetie and Gravity Observations on the
West Coast of Africa and at some islands in the North
and South Atlantic; by E. D. Presron.*

THE value of certain magnetic observations depends on the
interval of time between the determinations: gravity observa-
tions, when their object is a more accurate knowledge of the
shape of the earth, depend for their value on the area over
which the stations are scattered. Coast, continental and island
stations, as well as those on mountains and plains, each have
their own particular evidence to furnish. It must be admitted
that this evidence is not always unanimous, but the lack of
unanimity may result from a real cause, inherent in the nature
of matter, or it may be only apparent and come from the dif-

* Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science,

Indianapolis Meeting, August, 1890. Published by permission of the Superin-
tendent of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Observations on the West Coast of Africa. 479

ference in instruments and in the interpretation of results.
Then again, if it may be assumed that the mean figure of the
earth is already known, as closely as the pendulum will give it,
research should be carried on by determining loca! variations
of the force of gravity.

It is evident that extended voyages offer exceptional facili-
ties for increasing our knowledge in magnetism and gravita-
tion and should be utilized when possible. Such an occasion
presented itself in the fall of 1889 when it was proposed to
send an expedition to Africa to observe the total eclipse of the
sun on December 22. The eclipse party was under the direc-
tion of Professor Todd of Amherst College. Through his
courtesy, and by authority of Commodore Dewey, Chief of
Equipment and Recruiting, U.S. N., the superintendent of
the Coast and Geodetic Survey sent one of the assistants to
make magnetic and gravity observations. Originally, work of
this nature was only proposed for the eclipse station in Angola.
It was noticed, however, that on the return trip, several impor-
tant stations might be visited without much loss of time, and
that these stations had already been occupied by earlier pendu-
lum observers. Permission was therefore granted by the Hon.
Secretary of the Navy, for the vessel to stop at the Cape of
Good Hope, St. Helena and Ascension long enough to enable
the Coast and Geodetic Survey representative, to make his de-
terminations. In addition to this, stops were made at Barba-
dos and Bermuda, and through the kindness of Captain Yates,
commanding the ‘ Pensacola,” full series of observations were
obtained. On the outward trip time was more valuable since
it was desirable to reach Angola as soon as possible. For this
reason only magnetic work was attempted at the coaling places.
There appear then as the result of the trip fourteen magnetic
and eight gravity stations, distributed as follows: Azores, Cape
Verde Islands, Freetown in Sierra Leone, Elmina on the Gold
Coast, St. Paul de Loanda, and Cabiri, in Angola, Capetown,
St. Helena, Ascension, Barbados, and Bermuda. On _ both
St. Helena and Ascension the force of gravity was measured
at the level of the sea and at the highest elevation practicable.
On the former island Jamestown was selected for the lower
point, and Napoleon’s residence at Longwood, for the upper.
The pendulum apparatus was set up in the kitchen of what is
known as Napoleon’s new house, now leased by Mr. Deason.
At Ascension the sea station was at Georgetown—the other
was on Green Mountain. Foster’s observations at the latter
place show a defect of gravity of two oscillations per day as
compared with the sea-level—that is to say, that having cor-
rected his oscillations on the summit, for elevation, and for the
effect of the mountain, on the supposition that it was solid, he -

480 E.. D. Preston—Magnetic and Gravity

found the result to be less than the number of oscillations,
actually counted at the sea-level. As some recent observations
on island mountains give results at variance with this, it was
desirable to repeat the Ascension work with modern instru-
ments. Indeed, it was to connect with Foster, and to verify
his result for Ascension, that an extension of our gravity work
was proposed. The entire voyage lasted eight months, of
which 123 days were spent on shipboard. The area covered
by the stations extends from Washington on the north and
west, to Capetown on the south and east, making a range of
73° in latitude and 96° in longitude. It so happens that the
most northern station is also the most western, and the most
southern the most eastern. The elevations range from 7 feet
at Bermuda to 2,250 at Ascension. The magnetic observations
at Azores, Cape Verde Islands, Freetown and Elmina were
shortened by lack of time, one, or at most two days being de-
voted to each place; but at all other stations the declination,
dip, and horizontal force, were determined on each of three
consecutive days, besides, at a few stations, making hourly ob-
servations on several other days. At Cabiri the needle re-
mained suspended during the total eclipse, but no abnormal
change was noticed. For the gravity work, at every station
about 30 swings were made with each pendulum—using them
in both positions, and continuing the observations through the
entire 24 hours. The pendulums used were Nos. 2 and 3, of
the Peirce Pee being of the invariable reversible type.
The length of the former between the knives is one meter,
that of the latter a yard. Besides having been employed at
numerous home stations, No. 3 has now been swung at 13 for-
eign ones; including several in the Pacific.

Of the 14 magnetic stations all but one have been occupied
by earlier observers. Determinations were made in the Azores
between 1497 and 1829; in the Cape Verde Islands between
1841 and 18538; in Sierra Leone between 1826 and 1842; at
Freetown, by Sabine, in 1822; at Cape Coast Castle, seven
miles from Elmina, in 1838 and 1841. St. Paul de Loanda
has a magnetic observatory, and issues published reports con-
taining results for declination, dip and intensity. The work at
the Cape of Good Hope between 1840 and 1850, is well known,
and Sabine’s account of five years’ observations at St. Helena
from 1841 to 1845, is one of our classic magnetic volumes.
The station at Sister’s Walk in Jamestown, was selected by
Sir James Ross in 1840, but as the values at this point are not
normal the Coast Survey station was chosen some distance
back from the mountain and midway between it and Ladder
Hill. Sister’s Walk is close against the foot cliffs of Rupert’s
Hill. The dip was measured at Ascension in 1822, and all

Observations on the West Coast of Africa. 481

three elements were determined by the Challenger Expedition
in 1876. Observations have been made eight times at the Bar-
bados between 1726 and 1844 and six times at Bermuda be-
tween 1831 and 1876. The Coast Survey determinations at
the latter place were made on Nonsuch Island at the extreme
eastern end of the group. They are, undoubtedly, the only
magnetic observations ever made at this place, and it is more
than probable that the station will never be re-occupied. This
is to be regretted ; but it was necessary to utilize the ten days
spent in quarantine in order to make steamer connection. The
work had to be done here, if it was to be done at all in Ber-
muda.

The gravity stations in common with other observers were
Capetown, St. Helena and Ascension. Foster’s celebrated
series includes all of these. Sabine determined gravity at
Ascension in 1822 and deFreycinet observed at the Cape in
his voyage around the world in 1819. Besides the idea of
verifying Foster’s result, that Ascension Island is too light, it
was highly desirable to connect his service with our own, which
now includes island as well as continental stations. But it was
assumed sufficient to have the series exactly coincident at two
points. Lemon Valley was therefore not re-occupied at St.
Helena. Moreover, the Ascension stations are practically iden-
tical in the two series, and St. Helena was occupied at the sea
as well as at the summit, which gives a third connection with
Foster, and supplies a check on his Ascension result.

In order that an approximate estimate might be made
for the matter lying above the sea-level at St. Helena, many
heights were determined barometrically by Professor Abbe of
the U.S. Signal Service. By using these, some idea of the at-
traction of the mountain may be had, and it will then be seen,
whether the islands in the Atlantic and Pacific differ essentially
as regards internal structure. Rock specimens were brought
from both St. Helena and Ascension. Their densities may
give an indication of what we should look for in the gravity
results, providing that both islands were subject to the same
laws of formation.

The “ Pensacola” staid at St. Helena but sixteen days, Dur-
ing this time two stations were selected, the pendulums were
swung through six consecutive days and nights at each place,
magnetic observations were made on six different days and the
instrumental outfit transported to and from the mountain top.
Equally rapid progress was made at Ascension, where the con-
ditions were similar in many respects. This amount of work
could not have been accomplished, however, without the able
and generous assistance of the naval cadets attached to the
“ Pensacola,” and of Professor Bigelow of the eclipse party, to
all of whom I wish here to express my obligations. I wish

482 E.. D. Preston— Magnetic and Gravity

also to tender thanks to Captain A. R. Yates, commanding,
and to Lieut. Commander Hanford, executive officer of the
* Pensacola.” The landing and shipping of the instruments was
always a matter requiring care, and was often done under diffi-
culty, yet in the numerous transfers nothing was ever broken
or lost.

An account of the trip would be incomplete without a due
acknowledgment of the services rendered by the government
officials at the different stopping places.

At Loanda the governor of the province of Angola gave us
free passes for alk railroad travel from the coast to Cabiri, where
the party went to observe the eclipse on December 22. At the
Cape of Good Hope every facility was given. Her Majesty’s
Astronomer, Dr. Gill, kindly furnished myself and aid with
quarters at the observatory, and made a special time de-
termination every night for pendulum work. The railroad
authorities gave passes for a trip to the diamond fields at Kim-
berly, 600 miles in the interior. As a week was necessary for
this, the kind offer could only be accepted by those unoccupied
with scientific work. At St. Helena Gov. Antrobus offered
the use of the public park for the magnetic observations, and
the library room of the police court for the gravity work.
The unique character of the island government at Ascension
placed us under more than ordinary obligations. As there are
no civilians at this place we were necessarily the guests of Her
Majesty’s Government. Capt. R. H. Napier, R. N., placed at
our disposition an entire building in Bunghole Square for the
observations at the garrison. The pier was built for the transit,
tents were erected for magnetic and astronomical work, and
guard duty performed by the marines. A ration per day from
the island stores was served to each member of the party dur-
ing the stay. At Barbados and Bermuda we were again on
English soil and received the usual generous welcome. At the
former place Governor Sendall came to Hastings and made a
personal examination of the instruments and methods of ob-
serving. At Bermuda General Newdegate kindly gave us the
use of the government launch for the transportation of the in-
struments from Quarantine Island to St. Georges, besides show-
ing other attentions of an unofficial character.

The definite results, from the observations on this voyage,
may be expected before the next meeting of the Association.
Whether they show the Atlantic islands to be light or heavy as
compared with the continental masses, they will at least add
considerable new material for the determination of the earth’s
figure.

The following table contains a list of the stations with their
approximate positions, date of occupation, kind of determina-
tions and initials of observers.

483

Observations on the West Coast of Africa.

‘MOTOS “H

‘WT 1ossejolg—"g “NS “A Vopen TeaeN ‘SUITTLA ‘d—M NSO Jopep [wavy ‘Tesnoqoryy ‘dq “M—oRN “NS ‘1 “ope [Ravn
‘coed “Gq L—’d “N ‘SD Jopen [waAtN ‘JoAIeN “Y H—W ‘“Aedang oyepooy puv ysvog ‘g Q ‘Aoulog ‘S—q oyNY ey ][—'d
“SUHAUHSAO

“AINE

‘ou?

“ACN |

“ABN

dy

“IBN

‘IVI

“qeu]

‘qo,y pue ‘user
‘0681

ic

sa)
iS)
oS
2
ate
a=)
OAL A,AL AA, ALA, ALA, A; A, AY AYA:

00d
00]
“AON
“AON |
“AON |
“AON |
400 pues ‘ydog)
“6881 |

a

eo

‘SIDALOSAO ‘yoody

“OTOUSVY
“AATAVAH pure oyousvyy
‘OIVOUSV IN
orjouseyy
‘OMOUSR I
‘OTIOUSR IL
APIABLD PUR OLYOTLSB IY

*suoly

“AYABLL)
“AQIABIE)

“OIOUSB IY
“ATAVIN pur oyouse fy
AUABIND PUB OIOUSVIV
“AUABID PU’ OLOUSL
“APABID PUB DTONSL]Y
“ATABID PUB DIJOUdE
“APABINH puB DIPOUSR

-BULULLOJAqY JO PULy,

|
|

FE [fe ate RRS SA MeN R Se ale ee ee ee en eater © Seer en ees UBIMOSTPLOAG ‘UOPLSUIYSB AA.
L Oia ar be Ose Nee eee Ben eee eee el sas10ey 49 ‘epnuldeg
GE GG, 0 etre elt Greed otra (Pe cet eee ee toe EE es puvysy Yonsuon ‘epnuwieg
09 Ont (SK allele oS hte alg eee keen Ses Tie eee Ra te uUMOJOSplUIg ‘sopeqaeg
(eA Seé met Se ls yee ee ee ee cet WIeJUnOW UddIH ‘WOIsueDS V
Cl Of ae Op ly Be eo ia aha age sc ee ee UM0}O31004 ‘WOIstaOS V
OGM OR Se ares eal | Rae a ee "7" pooMsuoy ‘euojey 49
&& Gi Ger OG GES Ge ee iia Nok er pan UMOJSOUBL ‘BUO[OF] “4S
LE Gee Silas G9 C ee CC eee eee A£iloyearasqg jeAoy wMojedeyg
|
OU Gae xGCi= Cli = ON peabeg ee oes a ar ipe So pe ee uiqeg ‘vposuy
OSI eet Gye Cereal een ane Re ie Netenige tans ee epuvoT ‘vposuy
Oller SO Cie ert: (G0 ha Cacies eemenepeeie es ke. Le giotee fe (BUrtI]H) FSBO PlOH
Ol SPA ascites tO Caer Seatac | ane ee a ee (UMojooI,T) OUOST BIIOIG
GI GG Gres | @G= Olah Paso Sere ceesssr (opuRdy) 0710q) SpuR[sy opie A ode
0€ GEIS CES | UGE Csi ene ae eo arts No Sota ne ae a ee (jedeq) sorozy
TE A chu +t |8¢ 08+ |77 7 Getuosyyturg pue soyjQ Aoamng ysvop ‘uojsurYyse A,
10S as SS ene i ae =
‘mor}Isog eyvuixoiddy "STONNRIS

484 = L. V. Pirsson—Fowlerite variety of Rhodonite.

Art. LXIIL—QOn the Fowlerite variety of Rhodonite from
Franklin and Stirling, NV. J.; by L. V. Presson.

THE zinc-bearing rhodonite of Franklin and Stirling Hill,
N. J., has long been known under the name of Fowlerite. It
was, so far as can be learned, first mentioned by Fowler* in
1825, who speaks of a red siliceous oxide of manganese, which
had been lately observed by Dr. Thos. Nuttall. It was also
described by Thomsont in 1828. Analyses also have been
published by Hermann,{ Rammelsberg§ and Camac.|

The crystal form and physical properties of this variety of
rhodonite have not been thoroughly investigated. It is, how-
ever, important to our knowledge of the species that this should
be done, in order to determine how far a departure from the
normal type, if any, the introduction of the zine has caused.
A new chemical analysis, upon some of the very fine material
which within a few years past has been brought to light also
seemed desirable. It is with these objects in view that the
present investigation has been made.

The mineral occurs imbedded in. calcite, in the outer walls
of the mines and it is when these are broken into, in the pro-
cess of working, that the best specimens have been obtained.
The erystals occur of all sizes, from four inches long by one in
width and thickness, to individuals of microscopic dimensions
and also in large masses erystalline in structure and possessing
characteristic cleavage but without crystal faces. Upon dis-
solving away the calcite covering these lumps, with hydro-
chloric acid, a side will often be found which is completely
covered with interlaced masses of small erystals. The larger
crystals also occur in these confused masses and during the
past few months, there has been a magnificient specimen of
this mineral on exhibition, in New York, consisting of a large
group of well formed crystals of the largest size.

The color in general is a beautiful rose-pink and in small
and perfect crystals the mineral is transparent. The smaller
ones are much more homogeneous than the larger individuals,
the latter being often pitted with inclusions of calcite and other
material. All specimens that have been observed are com-
pletely permeated with cleavage cracks, even those of micro-
scopic size. Asa result of this “the mineral is extr emely brittle.

Like most minerals associated with calcite, the luster of the
erystal faces is almost entirely wanting. When present it is
seen on the basal plane, the prisms and the 2 (221) pyramid ;

* This Journal, I, ix, 245, 1825. + Ann. Lye. N. Y.., iii, 28, 1828.

¢ Journ. pr. Chem., xlvii, 6. § Min. Chem., 459.
| This Journal, II, xiv, 418, 1852.

L. V. Pirsson—Fowlerite variety of Phodonite. 485

on the other pinacoids and on all other faces it is almost
invariably lacking, even though in many eases the flat surface
of the planes and the sharp edges between them are quite well
preserved. In other examples the edges also are wanting,
causing a rounding off of the erystal, especially in the zones
0014 100 and 001,010. This rounding is also more noticeable
in the smaller individuals which are much more highly modi-
fied than the larger ones.

All this made the erystallographic investigation of the
mineral a difficult matter and very accurate measurements an
impossibility. In examining a number of crystals, however,
some were found which gave reflections of the signal with a
fair degree of accuracy and from the best of these were chosen
the angles taken as fundamental. Some faces which had lost
their luster gave no reflections whatever, and not even an
approximate schimmer measurement could be made. ‘The
planes being often well preserved however, the expedient of
giving them an extremely thin coating of a varnish of mucilage
and water was adopted and by this means using the d ocular
of Websky tolerably accurate measurements could be made
upon them, particularly upon the larger crystals.

The following forms have been observed :

a, 100, 4-7 Ht, 401, —4-7 e*, 44), 4?
b, 010, 7-2 pte 20Nee2=1 Kees 22a”
= (KO, @O o*, 401, 4-7 PA OU ae
ily WAKO EY g, 221, —27 oy PRD)
M, 110, J

Of these planes ¢, o and gy are new. Also on some of the
smaller crystals the following new forms have been identified,
with only a fair degree of accuracy however, from causes
mentioned above: —4’ 445; —8’ 883; —6’, “661: on the
smallest crystals there are traces of macro- and brachy- pyra-
mids, which cannot be identified with even an approach to
accuracy.

The angles taken as fundamental were

0014100; 001.116; 1004110; 110. 001 and 001 4 221.

And from these we obtain the axial ratios and angles:
G:0:c=1-078: 1: 0°62627; a=103° 39’; B=108° 48’ 30"; y—810 55”
The crystal form of the rhodonite from Pajsberg and Langban
has been investigated by G. Flink.* He has made some errors

in his calculations and correcting these, we have from his
measurements the following ratios and angles:

&:b:c=1-0728: 1: 6217; a=103° 18’ 08", B=108° 44’ 15”, y—81° 39” 16”
which gives as close an agreement with the above as could be

* Zeitschrift fiir Kryst. 1886, pp. 506.

486 L. V. Pirsson—Fowlerite variety of Rhodonite.

expected, considering the degree of accuracy attained in the
measurements.

In the following table, for the sake of comparison the
calculated angles as presented by Flink are given in the first
column, in the second are the angles calculated from the
fundamental measurements mentioned above, and lastly those
measured on the fowlerite.*

Calculated. Measured.
Flink. uthor.

¢ ad, 001,100 72° 36730" *72° 307 72°30’, 72°35’, 12°95”
EL, OO NOLO 678 42\9300 9 78) a6
Mam, 110.110 92 28 36 92 49 30" 91 45

mab, 1102010 45 52 54 45 32 45 33 45 34
Mac, 1,0,.001 86 23 50 *86 41 86 40 +87 15 86 20 8637
mac, 110,001 68 44 56 #68025 68 28 68 24
IB DW. OO G2) PAD) *62 21 62 28 63 15

Maa, 110,100 43 55 30 44 19 30 43 15
mad, 110,100 48 33 6 *48 30

rinc, W1a001 46 9 27 46 41 46 22 445 20
Nene 221. 001 74) 423) 43 14 42 7402 7444 4 48 475
LAG; PRA OOM AB 0) OR) ABV SMe RYO Ay Zeya)
OG, CATACOMB tenon 53mrO2 53 41
DB sG, COUAOOIN “seeeeces 52) 21/320. 52/25) ) 525551 51e4 Ono oe
Oo AG BO Ode goose 5919 58 37
DG AOI NOOn bars 5 YR NB) ore BY 3
OOUA 45s ee aes Do 26 50
OO1GANGG Ieee ees 58 15 58 37
OOIRISS3 ye eeeeee 48 05 47 38

In general, it is to be noted that the more exactly a measure-
ment could be made, it was found to agree with greater
closeness with the calculated one for this variety, than with
that given by F'link and this is the only hint we have that the
introduction of the zinc has produced any change in the axial
ratios and angles. In order to determine this, however, much
more exact measurements must be made on better material
than is at present to be had.

In the figures Nos. 1 and 2 represent the ordinary habit of
the larger crystals. Almost invariably they are characterized
by a development in the direction of the prism M, 110. Fig.
3, however, shows one with a greater development of the prism

*Those measurements with a dagger (+) in front are the mean of a series of
approximations with a hand goniometer on lusterless faces of very large crystals.

L. V. Pirsson—Fowlerite variety of Ehodonite. 487

m, 110. Often instead of having a nearly equal breadth and
thickness, there is a greater development of the basal planes,
giving rise to flat, tabular forms. One of these is shown in
Fig. 4. This particular erystal was also characterized by the

pyramid —4’, For reasons already stated, the smallest crystals
could not be measured or figured with any exactness, to show
their more complex forms. In some the rounding off of the
planes is so great that they are nearly spherical in shape.

The cleavage is prismatic, perfect, like the normal type of
rhodonite ; the following were measured 001A 110 (cleavage)
SOn 405 calc. 86° 41’; 110,110, (cleavage), (cleavage) 92°
394’, cale. 92° 494’; 001. 110 (cleavage), 70°, cale. 68° 25/.

In the endeavor to ascertain whether this variety differed in
any degree, in its optical orientation from the normal type,
great difficulty was found in making thin sections. It was
nearly impossible to grind such a hard brittle material com-
pletely filled with cleavage cracks to any satisfactory degree of
thinness. After considerable search, however, a small trans-
parent tabular crystal was found which could be used for an
oriented basal section and on this the angle of extinction was
about 54° from the edge of the prism 110, in the acute angle
110,110. Flink gives 54° 26’ and from this it is inferred
that there is little or no difference in the position of the axes
of elasticity.

For the chemical analysis, only such small transparent or
translucent crystals or crystal fragments were chosen, that in
transmitted light, by the aid of a lens were seen to be pure
and free from inclusions and from any adherent material.
They were treated with weak hydrochloric acid to remove any
adhering calcite, washed and dried and their specific gravity
carefully taken with a pygnometer at about 65° F. It was
3°674. The material was then dried, powdered, dried at 100°
C. and subjected to analysis. A synopsis of the method used
is as follows: Silica was separated by the usual sodium ear-
bonate fusion. Iron separated as a basic acetate and tested for
silica. Zine precipitated in the filtrate as a sulphide and
determined by changing to a carbonate. The manganese was
then separated from the lime and magnesia by bromine and

488 8S. L. Penfield—Beryllium Minerals from Colorado.

converted into phosphate. In the filtrate the lime was sepa-
rated from magnesia as an oxalate and the magnesia determined
as a phosphate.

The analysis gave the foliowing results :

iL ee Mean. Ratio.

SiO pe 45596 46°15 46°06 “1676 ‘T7676 1:00
INO) 3= 24 3°56 3°70 3°63 0504 |

YognX0) 355 - USS) 7°28 (C3383 “0905 |

Mmi@) 225 34:45 34:11 34:28 "4828 } “7819 1:02
CAO Ree 705 7°03 7:04 125% |

WEKO) = = Tes 22 1°38 1°30 "0325 J

Notas 99563) 99°65 99°64

This gives the correct formula for a meta-silicate R SiO, It
does not show however that there is any definite ratio in the
isomorphous mixture of the molecules of the different silicates
present.

In closing, the author desires to express his thanks to Prof.
G. J. Brush for his kindness in affording the material upon
which this investigation was made and to Prof. §. L. Penfield
for valuable assistance and advice.

Mineralogical Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School,
New Haven, Conn., May, 1890.

Art. LXIV.—Some Observations on the Beryllium Minerals
Srom Mt. Antero, Colorado; by 8. L. PENFIELD.

DuRING the past few years crystals of beryl, bertrandite and
phenacite have been abundantly found associated with one
another at Mt. Antero and Mt. White, one of its spurs. They
are either implanted on granite or on crystals of the granitic
minerals quartz and feldspar, but to my knowledge no very
exact data regarding the occurrence of the minerals has been
obtained. Owing to the great number of specimens which
have been collected, the beauty of the crystals as well as the
interesting crystallization of the rare bertrandite and phenacite
these minerals have been of unusual interest to mineralogists.

1. Beryl.

It is almost certain that beryl is the parent mineral which
has furnished the beryllium for the bertrandite and phenacite
as both of these occur associated with and frequently implanted
on beryl crystals. The beryl occurs in transparent light green
and blue prismatic crystals of the aqua-marine variety. They
are usually very simple, combinations of the hexagonal prism
1010 and base 0001 being most common, while occasionally a
pyramid of the second order 2-2, 1121 and the dihexagonal

S. L. Penfield—Beryllium Minerals from Colorado. 489

prism 7-3, 2130 may be observed. The most interesting
feature of the erystals is that, while the material of the beryl
is perfectly fresh and transparent, the crystals have been
attacked by some solvent and partially dissolved. away with
the formation of very prominent etchings. The extent to
which the erystals have been etched, varies much in the
different specimens, while the character of the etching, com-
mon to all the crystals, is that the beryl substance is eaten
away so as to leave steep pyramidal forms. In all cases there
is left, not one single steep pyramid, but a number of them
grouped together in parallel position. The action of the sol-
vent has been most energetic at the ends of the crystals.
Frequently the whole top of a crystal will be eaten away
leaving a very irregular termination composed of groups of
fine needles sometimes massed together in a deep depression
at the end of a crystal; or some of the basal plane will still be
intact, reflecting the light perfectly, while deep pits will be
eaten into it, the walls of which represent the sides of the steep
pyramids. Again the solvent action seems to have started
somewhere along the sides of the prism when a cavity will be
eaten into the erystal, sometimes nearly or quite through it,
into which the little pyramidal points project. Again the
crystals have been almost completely removed from the matrix
leaving a hexagonal cavity containing a little cluster of fine
beryl needles. If the action has been less prolonged or energetic
the etching appears as simple elongated depressions eaten into
the prismatic faces.

The steep beryl pyramids, which are seldom 4”™ in length,
usually have faces and edges which are somewhat rounded
so that they appear like needle points, and it was some time
before one was obtained which would give in any way satis-
factory reflections on the goniometer. At last one was obtained
where the needles were unusually large and distinct, and
yielded faint reflections which were measured on a horizontal
Fuess goniometer, with the lowest ocular, combination 0 of
Websky.* The most prominent reflections, which occurred
twelve times in a complete revolution of the crystal, were
from the faces of a dihexagonal pyramid and yielded the
following supplement angles, the smaller alternating with the
larger: 12°, 474°, 124°, 47°, 124°, 46°, 13°, 464°, 18°, 464°,
124°, 464°. On close examination it was found that the ob-
tuse angle was above the edge of the unit prism, the two faces
making this angle appearing like one face of a pyramid of the
second order, for which the steep pyramids were at first taken.
Calculating from the average of the angles given above 12° 30’
and 46° 40’ we find that this pyramid has the symbol 12-3,
36°24°60°5. The obtuse and acute angles obtained by calcu-

* Zeitsch. Kryst., iv, p. 550.
Am. Jour. Sct.—TuHirp SERIES, Vou. XL, No. 240.—Dxc., 1890.

31

490 SS. L. Penfield—Beryllium Minerals from Colorado.

lation from the above symbol are 12° 52’ and 46° 15’ using
Kokscharow’s length of the vertical axis c=0-49886. A single
one of these pyramids, lettered X, in combination with the
hexagonal prism m, I, 1010, is shown in fig. 1. The
i. obtuse angle of this pyramid i is usually truncated by
a pyramid of the second order 12-2, 6-6:12:1, the
erystal which was measured giving five faint. re-
flections instead of the possible six, but the faces
which are very small are not represented in the
figure. Reflections were also obtained from other
steep pyramidal forms but they were always faint
and could not be referred to definite forms. In
addition to the above steep pyramidal forms some of
the etched crystals show very distinct facets of a
pyramid of the first order making, in two cases which
were measured, angles of 40° 31’ and 40° 58’ with the
prism and corresponding to the pyramid 2, 2021 the
calculated angle being 40° 573’. These do not ap-
pear as a single pyramid but as a group of pyramids
and they occur along with the steep dihexagonal forms on the
same crystal. After seeing these beautiful and undoubtedly
etched erystals from Mt. Antero there is little doubt that the
curiously developed beryl from Willimantic, Ct., previously
described in this Journal,* has resulted, as was suggested, by
the action of some solvent on a large beryl crystal. If so, the
forms thus far observed which have been produced by etching
in nature are as follows:

Mt. Antero. Willimantic, Ct.
12-5 36 24 60 5 6-3 4261
1D) 6 6121 3-3 2131
2 2 Oman 4-4 3141
1 1011

It is not possible at present to state what solvent has attacked
and etched the beryl crystals. The occurrence of octahedral
fluorspar with the beryl has suggested that perhaps some
fluorine compound has served as a solvent, but as beryl is
attacked with great difficulty by hydrofluoric acid this would
probably have expended itself on some more readily soluble
silicate.
2. Bertrand ite.

A description of the occurrence and hemimorphie erystalli-
zation of this rare silicate, 2Be,SiO,, H,O, has already been
given.t From the examination of a large number of speci-
mens it seems very probable that the beryllium of the ber
trandite was obtained from the decomposition and _ partial
solution of the beryl crystals. The growth of the bertrandite
before or along with that of the phenacite crystals is also a

*TII, xxxvi, p.318. + This Journal, xxxvi, 1888, p. 52, and xxxvii, 1889, p. 215.

S. L. Penjield—Beryllium Minerals from Colorado. 491

matter of interest. Mr. Geo. L. English of Philadelphia
loaned me from his private collection a beautiful phenacite
erystal, fig. 2, which had partially grown over and inclosed a
bertrandite and beryl crystal, showing that in this case at least
phenacite is a younger mineral than bertrandite.

The author would also acknowledge two corrections which
should be made in the first of the above mentioned bertrandite
papers. One, pointed out correctly by Carl Vrba,* is that
the observed twinning plane is the unit brachydome 1-7, 011
instead of the steeper 3-2, 031. This mistake must be attributed
to carelessness on the author’s part as seen by reference to his
note book. ‘The other is a mistake in the calculation of the
vertical axis caused by an error in copying one of the measured
angles. The length of the vertical axis should be 0°5993 in-
stead of 05953 as pointed out by C. Hintze.t

3. Phenacite.

In the present article the author desires to call attention to
the very beautiful crystal belonging to Mr. English, which was
just mentioned, in which a rather unusual habit is derived, fig.
2, from the almost equal development of the taces at the ends

of the crystal, the forms being the same as those already
identified and figured, m, 1010, 1; a, 1120, 7-2; v, 1011, +1;
x, 1322, —73-2; s, 2131, +7 3-2 and d, 0112, —3. A number of
twin crystals have also been observed in which the base can be
taken as the twinning plane and the two erystals, with parallel
axes, show reéntrant angles only between the rhombohedrons
at the ends, fig. 8. Some of these are of almost ideal
symmetry.
Mineralogical Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific
School, New Haven, March, 1890.

* Zeitschr. Kryst., xv, p. 470. + Handb. der Mineralogie, p. 413, | S8yu.
¢ This Journal, xxxiii, 1887, p. 133, and xxxvi, 1888, p. 321.

492 Scientific Intelligence.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. On the Action of Light on Chlorine water.—It is frequently
assumed that when an aqueous solution of chlorine is exposed to
light, the whole of the chlorine unites with the hydrogen of the
water setting free an equivalent quantity of oxygen. PErDLER.
has investigated this reaction, using the sunlight of Calcutta to-
effect it. He finds that chlorine and water have comparatively
little action on each other, even in tropical sunlight, when the
number of water molecules is not more than one hundred times
the number of chlorine molecules. When the number of water
molecules is 150 times that of the chlorine molecules, the action
may reach 50 per cent of that actually possible. And even when
it reaches 400 times, the reaction, while more rapid, reaches only
four-fifths ot the possible amount. In ordinary chlorine water,
saturated at 30°, there is about 0°5566 grams of chlorine in 100
ce. c. of water; or about 708 molecules of water to each molecule
of chlorine. So that with such a solution, the decomposition may
be expected to be both more rapid and more complete. Experi-
ments with this solution show that in full sunlight the main
reaction which takes place is that represented by the equation
(H,O), + (Cl,),=(HCl),+0,; while in feeble diffused light, the
reaction at first is probably H,O+Cl,=HCl+HCIO; this hypo-
chlorous acid being in its turn decomposed by light and yielding
chloric acid. So that the final reaction is (Cl,),+(H,O),=
(HCl),+HClO,+0. Hence the action of chlorine on water is, in
its first stages at least, quite similar to that of chlorine on cold
dilute solutions of potassium or sodium hydrate. In its second
stage, the action of chlorine on water is similar to its action on
hot concentrated solutions of these hydrates.—J. Chem. Soe.,
lvii, 613, July, 1890. G. F. G.

2. On the Action of Light on Phosphorus.—PEDLER has ex-
tended to phosphorus his investigations upon the action of light
upon chemical substances. A glass tube was filled with a nearly
saturated solution of phosphorus in carbon disulphide, sealed and
exposed to full sunlight. In a few minutes a yellowish red coat-
ing began to form on the sides of the tube, and continued until
the interior was covered. After about three weeks’ daily ex-
posure to sunlight, the tube was opened and the precipitate
examined. After washing with carbon disulphide, a bright red
powder was obtained, which under the microscope appeared to be
a mixture in about equal parts, of bright sulphur-yellow particles
and bright red particles. The powder remained unchanged in
the air, and was unacted on by water, alcohol, ether, benzene and
carbon tetrachloride. A warm dilute solution of sodium hydrate,
however, dissolved it readily with evolution of gaseous hydrogen
phosphide. On cautious heating, the yellow portion sublimed,
leaving the red portion. The sublimate was partially soluble in

Chenistry and Physics. 493

carbon disulphide, and the solution contained ordinary phos-
phorus. Moreover, the yellow undissolved portion burned in the
air like ordinary phosphorus. Similar experiments were made
with other solvents or in vacuo, with similar results. When
diffused daylight only was employed, the first precipitate was
sulphur-yellow, passing to orange and after some months to a
bright red. It was readily dissolved by dilute sodium hydrate
solution, on boiling. As the particles of allotropic phosphorus
grow larger, they appear to deepen in color. Formed at high
temperatures, the precipitate is darker in color. Comparing this
product with commercial red phosphorus, and with the so-called
metallic or rhombohedral phosphorus, the author concludes that
the term “ amorphous” is misleading since the great bulk of the
powder thus designated consists of transparent ruby-red, more or
less crystalline particles which polarize light. By elutriation, it
can be separated into a very fine red powder, and into almost _
black shining particles which under the microscope are crystalline
and transparent, transmitting a ruby-red light. Both are acted
on by sodium hydrate solution, the action being greater as the
particles are finer. Moreover, on heating the red phosphorus to
305°-310° for two hours or even to 826° or 357° no sign of any
change could be detected in it. But at 445°, the temperature of
boiling sulphur, a certain amount of vapor was produced which
was oxidized on contact with the air. In vacuo, about one-fifth
of the red phosphorus sublimed as ordinary phosphorus into the
upper and cooler portions of the tube, when heated at 445°. The
author believes therefore that no change takes place in red phos-
phorus below 358°, and that even up to 445° it is exceedingly
slow. Experiments upon the permanency of this variety of
phosphorus in the open air showed that so far from being the
inert and stable substance it is usually supposed to be, it is prone
to change, being easily oxidized even in the air, and readily
deoxidizing phosphoric acid. The so-called metallic phosphorus,
prepared either by dissolving ordinary phosphorus in lead at high
temperatures, or better by projecting red phosphorus on the
surface of melted lead, and then removing the lead with nitric
acid, was obtained as a crystalline powder consisting of rhombo-
hedrons, some darker and some lighter in color than the ordinary
red phosphorus. This variety of phosphorus polarizes light in
the same manner, is acted upon similarly with sodium hydrate
and behaves in a similar manner when heated. Hence the author
concludes that the metallic and the red are the same allotropic
form of phosphorus, and recommends that the term “ amorphous ”
be discarded.—J. Chem. Soc., lvii, 599, July, 1890. GF, B.

3. On the Action of Fluorine on Carbon.—Morssan has ob-
served that fluorine and carbon combine with great energy even
at ordinary temperatures. Lampblack, purified and dry, becomes
incandescent at once in fluorine and wood-charcoal takes fire in it
spontaneously. Denser forms become incandescent in fluorine
only on heating to 50° or 100°. Graphite from cast iron unites
with fluorine below redness and Ceylon graphite and gas carbon

494 Scientific Intelligence.

at a red heat. If the carbon be in excess, and the temperature be
not allowed to rise too high, the product is carbon tetrafluoride
CF, a colorless gas liquefying at 10° under a pressure of five
atmospheres. In contact with an alcoholic solution of potassium
hydrate, it yields potassium flnoride and carbonate. It is not
decomposed by the electric spark and is soluble in carbon tetra-
chloride, alcohol and benzene. At a red heat, the action of
fluorine on carbon yields a gaseous carbon fluoride which is not
absorbed by alcoholic potash and is almost insoluble in water
although it is dissolved by alcohol.—C. &., ex, 276; J. Chem.
Soc., lviii, 557, June, 1890. G. F. B.

4, On Selenic acid.—CamMERon and Macatian have prepared
pure selenic acid H,SeO, and have compared its properties with
those of sulphuric acid. The anhydrous acid was obtained by
evaporating the dilute acid on the water bath and then agitating
it in a vacuum at 180° as long as acid distilled over. On cooling
the residual acid, it crystallized in hexagonal prisms; and on
analysis it was found to contain 99°71 percent of H,SeO,. In the
solid form selenic acid has a density of 2°9508. It fuses at 58°,
giving a colorless oily liquid of density 26083. The presence of
a small quantity of water greatly lowers its freezing point, so that
it does not solidify until cooled to —51°5°. It attracts moisture
strongly, blackens organic matter and evolves acraldehyde by its
action on glycerin. A solid hydrate H,SeO,, fusing at 25°, is
obtained by boiling the dilute acid until the temperature rises to
205° and then dropping a crystal of the acid into the cooled
liquid. When heated in a vacuum to 200°, selenic acid decom-
poses into selenous oxide, oxygen and water. The acid dissolves.
sulphur at 63° with a deep indigo-blue color. Selenium when
thus dissolved gives a green solution and tellurium a purple-red
one, both solutions evolving selenous oxide after a time and
becoming colorless. Selenic oxide could not be prepared by
passing selenous oxide and oxygen over heated platinum sponge,
nor by the action of ozone on selenous oxide. But when pure
selenic acid was mixed with phosphoric oxide and heated to 100°,
crystals were obtained on cooling which on analysis gave results
agreeing with the formula SeO,.—Proc. Roy. Soc., xlvi, 13; J.
Chem. Soc., lviii, 688, July, 1890. G. F. B.

5. On the use of the Platinum Thermometer. KE. H. Grir-
FiTuHs describes the form of instrument used as follows: A coil
of fine platinum wire was wound on a roll of asbestos paper and
slipped into a thin hard-glass tube. Thick platinum wires ran
from this coil to the top of the instrument, and the unimmersed
portion of the stem was surrounded by the outer tube of a con-
denser, and kept at a constant temperature by a flow of tap-water.
The resistance of this stem was so small that the change im resist-
ance caused by the changes in the temperature of the tap-water
might be neglected. The diameter of these thermometers was
less than 53, of an inch, and their length about eighteen inches.
They were extremely sensitive, and could therefore be used to
trace the rise in temperature due to suffusion, the freezing points

Geology and Mineralogy. 495

of the metals experimented upon being determined by the limit
of this rise. These thermometers were graduated by the tem-
perature of the boiling points of water, naphthalene, benzophe-
none, and sulphur, and the freezing point of water. The chief
difficulties which presented themselves were: Variations in the
resistance of the connections between the thermometer coil and
the resistance coils; variations in the temperature of the resist-
ance coils themselves; the rise in temperature of the thermometer
coil due to the current used when measuring its resistance; the
presence of currents due to thermal effects ; superheating during
distillation, and radiation from the source of heat to the ther-
mometer; the changes in boiling points due to changes in the
barometer; oxidation of the metals when fluid.

The mean values obtained are as follows: boiling point of
aniline 184°°27, of methyl salicylate 223°°12, of mercury 357°°60.

The results given bear out the following conclusions: I. That
although the curves of platinum temperature obtained from ~
different thermometers vary considerably, intermediate tempera-
tures deduced from these curves are in practical agreement. II.
That thermometers made and graduated as described may be
used for the accurate determination of temperatures up to about
500° C.—Proc. Roy. Soc., No. 294, p. 220.

6. True weight of a cubic inch of distilled water. H. J.
Cuaney has obtained the following value for the weight of a
cubic inch of water, 252°286 + 0:002 grains, of which grains the
imperial pound contains 7000 grains, with ¢=62°, and the barom-
eter at 30 inches.— Proc. Roy. Soc., No. 294, p. 230.

7. Heat as a Form of Energy, by R. H. Tuoursron. 261 pp.
12mo. Boston and New York, 1890 (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
The Riverside Science Series, vol. ii1).—This is a very readable
presentation of the subject of Heat, particularly in its application
asamotor. It opens by developing the growth of the modern
idea of heat as a kind of energy, and goes on to explain the
science of thermo-dynamics. After this comes the subject of the
transformation of heat into mechanical work with an account of
gas and coal engines, their growth and present limitations, and
the possible directions of progress in the future.

8. Sound, Light and Heat. A class book for the elementary
stage of the Science and Art Department, 223 pp.; by J.
SPENCER. Magnetism and Electricity. 163 pp. By J. SPENCER.
London, 1890. (Percival & Co.)—These little volumes are exam-
ples of the many elementary science text-books called out by the
English system of examinations, but which are fitted to be useful
in a larger field. They include the fundamental principles in the
several branches of physics named, with numerous simple diagrams
and an abundance of exercises, for calculation and experiment.

Il Gkronocy AND MINERALOGY.

1. Geological and Paleontological relations of the Coal and
Plant-bearing beds of Pulwozoic and Mesozoic age in Eastern
Australia and Tasmania; with special reference to the Fossil

496 Scientific Intellugence.

Flora, by OrrokaR FristMantEeL, Mem. Geol. Surv. N. 8. W.,
Paleontology, No. 3. Sydney, 1890, 188 pp., xxx pl., 4°.—The
basis of this valuable memoir, by one to whom we are especially
indebted for knowledge of the fossil floras of the Paleozoic and
Mesozoic of India and Australia, is a translation of his contribu-
tions published in the third Supplement-volume of Palaeonto-
graphica, 1878-79. The entire work, including the complete
historical and bibliographic data, has undergone thorough revis-
ion and considerable enlargement. Numerous annotations are
added by Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, Director of the Geological Survey
of New South Wales, and Mr. R. Etheridge Jr., the editor of the
present memoir. The paleontological part of the work consists
chiefly of systematic descriptions of all the fossil fishes, amphibia,
and plants that have been described from the above epochs in
Australia, with a table of their distribution. Two new species,
Glossopteris gangamopteroides from the Newcastle beds, and G@.
spathulato-cordata from the same beds and the Mersey coal beds
(Permian ?) of Tasmania, are described. Much interest and some
controversy between animal and vegetable paleontologists have
been aroused in the determination of the age of the Australian
deposits, on account of the mingling of a Mesozoic flora with a
Paleozoic fauna for a period extending from the Lower Carbon-
iferous probably to the Jurassic. Dr. Feistmantel, agreeing sub-
stantially with the resident geologists, assigns the Goono Goono
and lower Lepidodendron beds of Queensland and Victoria to
the Devonian; the Smith’s Creek, Port Stephens and Bobun-
tungen beds with Calamites radiatus, Rhacopteris inequilatera,
Archeopteri is, and Lepidodendron Veltheimianum, to the Lower
[Sub- ?] Carboniferous ; the “lower coal measures” with Phyl-
lotheca, Glossopteris, Neeggerathiopsis, etc., the forerunners of
the Mesozoic flora, occurring between marine beds with a middle
and upper Carboniferous fauna, to the Upper part of the Carbon-
iferous ; the “ upper coal measures,” an overlying series of coal
beds and other fresh-water deposits, with Phyllotheca, Vertebraria,
Glossopteris, Gangamopteris and Urosthenes, a a heterocercal fish,
at Newcastle, are relegated to the Permian; while the Hawkes-
bury- Wianamatta Series, with heterocercal fish, which if alone
would be considered Permian, is placed in the Trias, the Clarence
River series being called Jurassic. Exception is taken by Mr.

Wilkinson to the definite correlation of the Baccus Marsh
‘“‘ Bowlder-bed” of Victoria with those in the marine series of
New South Wales almost entirely on account of the supposed
glacial origin of the bowlder-beds. The correlation of the Austra-
lian with the Chinese, Indian, Afghan, and South African plant
bearing terranes corr esponds for the most part with that published
in the’ Prag Sitzungsberichte since this memoir was prepared,

(1888). The descriptive text is illustrated by thirty plates of
plants and fishes. ‘he former are carefully re-drawn and re-
arranged from the German work with the addition of new mate-
rial. The latter include drawings of the three species of Paleo-
SEE Cleithrolepis, and Myr iolepis from the Hawkesbury-Wian-

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 497

amatta and a reproduction of Dana’s Urosthenes from the
Neweastle beds. D. W.

2. Jurassic Fish-Fauna in the Hawkesbury beds of New South
Wales. An abstract of a memoir by A. Smira Woopwarp
{Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Nov. 1890), mentions
the discovery of a large collection of fossil fishes in the Hawkes-
bury series of Talbralgar, New South Wales, which prove to
represent a typical Jurassic fish-fauna. The genera identified
include Coccolepis and Leptolepis, also new forms allied to Semio-
notus, to the Dapedioids and to Leptolepis, respectively. Another
paper describes an early Mesozoic fish-fauna discovered some
years ago in the Hawkesbury beds at Gosford, N.S. W.

3. On the state of Alpine glaciers in 1889, by F. A. Foret.
—In 1889 the commencement of a forward movement was
proved in the case of two glaciers of the first rank, the Rhone
giacier and the Glacier des Bois at Chamounix, as well as of two
or three small glaciers of the Ortler group. The number of
glaciers, now on the increase, has become 55 tor the whole Alps,
distributed as follows: all the glaciers of Mont Blanc; a large
proportion of glaciers in the Bernese and Valais Alps; some
isolated glaciers in the Pelvoux region (Dauphiné) and in the
Ortler (Tyrol). With the exception of the Ortler group, all the
glaciers of the Austrian and Grison Alps are still receding or are
stationary.— Bibl. Univ., II, xxiv, 87, 1890.

4. Cordierite as a contact mineral.—yY. Krxvucut has studied
certain cordierite rocks of Japan, from the bordering region of
the provinces Kédsuke and Shimotsuke, along the Watarase-
gawa. ‘The cordierite occurs here in slate as a product of con-
tact-metamorphism with granite. It shows various peculiarities
of form and structure, and is especially characterized by the
presence of symmetrically arranged inclusions of black carbona-
ceous matter. It is thus strikingly like the variety of andalusite
called chiastolite, and the author proposes to call it cerasite, from
nepacos cherry. This word alludes to the Japanese name
Sakura-ishi, or cherry-stone, locally given to the cordierite slate,
because the structure of the stellar aggregates of the cordierite
resembles a cherry-blossom, and also from the same resemblance
in a similar rock where the forms are now only pseudomorphs.
Journ. Coll. Soc. Tokyo, iii, 313, 1890.

5. Sanguinite, a new minerul.—Dr. Miers has given the name
Sanguinite to a mineral found upon specimens of argentite from
Chanarcillo, Chili. It occurs in minute hexagonal scales, optically
uniaxial. The color is dark red and the streak dark purplish
brown. Qualitative trials make it probable that the mineral is a
sulpharsenite of silver, allied to proustite, with which it is asso-
ciated, but with which it cannot be united.—Min. Mag., ix, 182.

III. MisceLnaANrous Scientific INTELLIGENCE.

1. Deep-sea Dredging in the Pacific.—Professor ALEXANDER
AGassiz informs the editors that he is to join the ‘ Albatross”

498 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

and superintend the dredging of the lines which had been laid
out for the Albatross at the time she was on her way from New
York to San Francisco. The work will begin at Acapulco about
the first of February, a line of soundings, temperatures and
dredgings being run to the Galapagos and one from the islands
to Panama. At Acapulco, the Galapagos and Panama a number
of short lines will be run from the 100-fathom line into deep
water. It is hoped also to devote some time to the unsettled
question of the vertical distribution of pelagic life, not only near
the anti-neutral slopes but also in the deep water halt way
between the Galapagos and the continent. Under so favorable
conditions, with a vessel so well equipped as the “ Albatross”
and with the benefit of the experience of earlier deep-sea ex-
plorers, important results may be anticipated from this work.

2. National Academy of Sciences.—The following is a list
of papers accepted for reading at the meeting of the Academy
held in Boston, Noy. 11-13:

R. H. CHITTENDEN: Primary cleavage products formed in the digestion of the
albuminoid, gelatin.

Epwarp ©. PICKERING: Classification and distribution of stellar spectra.

R. Catv: Relation of atmospheric electricity, magnetic storms and weather
elements, to a case of traumatic neuralgia.

Henry P. Bowpircn: Growth of children studied by Galton’s method of
percentile grades.

JOHN TROWBRIDGE: Electrical oscillations in air, together with spectroscopic
study of the motions of molecules in electrical discharges.

CHARLES R. Cross: Some considerations regarding Helmholtz’s theory of
dissonance.

W. A. Rogers: A critical study of a combined meter and yard upon a sur-
face of gold, the meter having subdivisions to two millimeters, and the yard to
tenths of inches; Evaporation as a disturbing element in the determination of
temperatures.

J. WALTER FEWKES: Use of the phonograph in the study of the languages of
the American Indians,

Francis A. WALKER: Probable loss in the enumeration of the colored people
of the United States, at the census of 1870.

H. A. Newton: Capture of periodic comets by Jupiter.

THoMAS B, OsBporNE: Proteids of the oat kernel.

S. C. CHANDLER: Present aspect of the problems concerning Lexell’s comet.

J. S. NewsBerry: Great Falls coal field, Montana, its geological age and
relations.

Wo.cortr Grpps: Separation of the oxides in cerite, samarskite and gadolinite.

THEO. GILL: Relationships of the Cyclopteroidea.

Amos K. DoLBEeaR: Origin of electro-magnetic waves.

3. Results of a Biological Survey of the San Francisco
Mountain Region and Desert of the Little Colorado, Arizona,
pp. 186. Washington, 1890. (North American Fauna No. 3).—
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Ornithology and
Mammalogy.— This volume contains papers by Dr. C. Hart
Merriam on the geographical and vertical distribution of species
with annotated lists of mammals and also a similar list of birds;
further a paper of Dr. Leonhard Stejneger giving an annotated
list of reptiles and batrachians. The memoirs:are accompanied
by a series of plates, and an interesting colored biological map of
North America (Jan. 1890) showing the principal life areas.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 499

4, Bulletin of the Scientific Laboratories of Denison Univer-
sity. Edited by W. G. Ticut, M.S. Vol. V. pp. 94. Gran-
ville, O., June, 1890.—This volume includes besides a series of
Laboratory notes, papers by W. F. Cooper on the Waverly
Group, with a tabulated list of fossils known to occur in the
Waverly of Ohio, and by C. L. Herrick and W. G. Tight on the
central nervous system of rodents; the last paper is illustrated
by 19 plates.

5. Royal Society of Canada. Memoirs for the year 1889,
Tome VII.—Contains in its geological and natural history sec-
tion, papers by L. W. Bailey, on New Brunswick geology, with
his Presidential Address; by Sir J. Wm. Dawson, on the sponges
of Little Metis and on some Mackenzie River fossil plants; J. F.
Whiteaves, on Lower Silurian fossils of Manitoba; A. H. MacKay,
on freshwater sponges of Canada and Newfoundland; A. P.
Coleman, geography and geology of the big bend of the Columbia ;
E. J. Chapman, on a new classification of trilobites, as influenced
by stratigraphical relations; G. F. Matthew, Cambrian organ-
isms in Acadia; J. W. Spencer, the Iroquois Beach; G. C.
Hoffmann, hygroscopicity of Canadian fossil fuels.

6. Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften, Leipzig,
1890 (Wm. Engelmann.).—Recent issues of this valuable series
include the following :

No. 13. Vier Abhandlungen tiber die Elektricitat und den
Maenetismus von Coulomb. (1785-1786).

No. 14. Die vier Gauss’schen Beweise fiir die Zerlegung
ganzer Algebraischer Functionen in reelle Factoren ersten oder
zweiten Grades. (1799-1849).

Nos. 15, 16. Chemische Untersuchungen iiber die Vegetation
von Théod. de Saussure (1804).

Dictionary of the Language of the Micmac Indians, pp. 286, by Rey. S. T.
Rand, Halifax, N.S. This volume, published by the Canadian government, is an
important contribution to philology. It is one of several important works in this
field by the late Dr. Rand (1810-1889), who was long a missionary among the
Miemac Indians, an aboriginal tribe of the Algonquin family inhabiting the
Maritime Provinces of the Dominion of Canada.

Index to the Literature of Thermodynamics, pp. 238, by Alfred Tuckerman,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 1890. (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions, No. 741).

Investigations of the New England Meteorological Society for the year 1889,
reprinted from the Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College,
Edward C. Pickering, director. Vol. xxi, Part II, pp. 107-273. Cambridge, 1890.

Proceedings of the United States National Museum, pp 686. Vol. 12, 1889.
Washington, 1890.

A Revision of the South American Nematognathi or Cat fishes, 508 pp., by
Carl H. Kigenmann and Rosa S. Eigenmann. Also—

Land Birds of the Pacific District, 274 pp., by Lyman Belding, San Francisco,
1890.—These valuable memoirs form Parts I and II of the Occasional Papers of
the California Academy of Sciences.

JDNED IDO AO) \WOIOIO IMS) 2X1

A

Academy, National, Boston meeting, 498.
Agassiz, A., Deep sea dredging, 497.
Association, American, tndianapolis
meeting, 175, 336.
British at Leeds, 342.
Astronomical research, aid to, Bruce,
262.

B

Barbour, E. H., microscopic structure of
Oolite, 246.

Barus, ©., Effect of pressure on elec-
trical conductivity of liquids, 219.
Beecher, C. E., development of shell in

the genus Tornoceras, 71; Koninckina
and related genera, 211; Leptzenisca,
new brachiopod from the Lower Hel-
derberg, 238; N. American species of
Strophalosia, 240.
Bigelow, F. H., Solar Corona, 343.
Bonaparte, P. R., Le Glacier de Aletsch
et le Lac de Marjelen, 95.
Botany—
Ascent of colored liquids in living
plants, Wieler, 173.
Catalogue of New Jersey plants,
Britton, 171.
Development of organs, preparation
of sections for study of, Goethart,

172.

Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien,
Engler and Prantl, Nos. 39, 40,
108 Wei

Genera and species of N. America,

analytical key, Barnes, 173.
Liriodendron, leaves of, Holm, 422.
Lists of plants, 172.

Structural and Systematic Botany, |

Cambell, 173.

Brogger, W. C., Minerals of Norway,

170.

Brooks, F. T., method for detection of
Iodine, Bromine and Chlorine, 283.
Browning, P. E., reduction of Arsenic
acid, 66; Analysis of Rhodochrosite,

Franklin, N. J., 375.

C

California, Mineralogical Report, 92.
Cambell, D. H., Structural and Syste-
matic Botany, 173.
Canada, minerals of, Hoffmann, 92.
Royal Society Memoirs, 499.
CHEMISTRY—
Arsenic acid, reduction of, Gooeh and
Browning, 66.
Beryllium, chemical character, Kriiss
and Moraht, 86.
Bromine, determination of, Gooch
and Ensign, 145.
Cadmium, atomic weight, Partridge,

Sills
Carbon monoxide, action on metallic
nickel, 418.

Chlorides of compound ammoniums
Le Bel, 250.

Chlorine water, action of light on,
Pedler, 492.

Colloids, estimation of
mass, Sabanéeff, 87.
Equilibrium between electrolytes Ar-

rhenius, 164s

Fluorine, action on carbon, Moissan,
493; color and spectrum, Moissan,
87.

Hydrazine, preparation from alde-
hyde-ammonia, Curtius and Jay,
88.

Hydrogen peroxide from ether, Duns-
tan and Dymond, 417.

Iodine. bromine and chlorine, method
for detection of, Gooch and Brooks,
283.

molecular

* This Index contains the general heads BoTANy, CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, MINE-
RALS, OBITUARY, ZOOLOGY, and under each the titles of Articles referring thereto

are mentioned.

INDEX.

CHEMISTRY—
Todine, phosphorus, and sulphur, mo- |
lecular mass in solution, Beckmann, |
164.
Nitrogen in uraninite, Hillebrand, 384. |
Ozone and formation of nitrates in
combustion, Ilosvay, 251.
Phosphorus, action of light on, Ped-

ler, 492.

Selenic acid, Cameron and Macallan,
494,

Silicates, natural, constitution of,

Clark and Schneider, 303, 405, 452.
Solutions, nature of, Pickering, 163.
Sulphuric acid, vapor tension, Perkins,

301,

Tartrate solutions, circular polariza- |

tion, Long, 275.
Tellurium, antimony and copper, new

element in, Grtinwald, 259.
Vapor-density method, Schall, 415.

Clarke, F. W., constitution of natural
silicates, 303, 405, 452.

Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.8., report,
260. |

Cold-waves, prediction, Russell, 463.

Corona, solar, Bigelow, 343.

Cross-infertility, in evolution, Gulick,
437. |

Crystallography, elements, Williams,
424,

D
Dana, EH. S., Selenium and Tellurium
minerals from Honduras, 78.

| Emerson, B. K.,

Dana, J. D., Rocky Mountain Protaxis |

and Post-Cretaceous Mountain mak- |
ing, 181;
Quaternary Era, 425.

Denison University Scientific Labora- |
tories, Bulletin, 499.

Diller, ij 8., Sandstone dikes in Califor-

nia, 334; Cretaceous rocks of north- |

ern California, 746.

Dodge, W. W., Lower Silurian Grapto- |

lites from northern Maine, 153.
Dredging, deep sea, Agassiz, 497.
-Dudley, W. L.,

vivianite, 120.

E

Karl, J. , Laboratory work, 331.
Earthquake countries, construction of |
buildings in, Milne, 262.
Electric conductivity of liquids, effect of
pressure on, Barus, 219.
currents, alternating and pontiac

ous in relation to the human body, |

Lawrence and Harris, 420.

discharges in magnetic fields, Witz,

331,

Long Island Sound in the

| Geologists
curious occurrence of |

501

| Electric disturbances, velocity of trans-

mission, Thomson, 330.
oscillations in ‘air, Trowbridge and
Sabine, 166. acid

Electricity, magneto-optical generation
of, Sheldon, 196.

“Bernardston series”
of metamorphic upper Devonian rocks,
263, 362.

Engine and Boiler Trials, Hand Book of,
Thurston, 262.

Ensign, J. R., determination of bromine,
145.

Evolution, cross-infertility in, Gulick,
437; utilitarianism in relation to, Gu-
lick, 1.

Expansion, determination of the coeffi-
cient of cubical, Mayer, 323.

Exposition Universelle, Paris, 96.

Eyerman, J., Determinative Mineralogy,
2

F

Feistmantel, Coal and Plant bearing beds

of E. Australia, 495.

Fontaine, W.M., the Potomac or Younger
Mesozoic Flora, 168.

Forel, F. A., Alpine Glaciers, 497.

Foshay, P. M., preglacial drainage of
Western Pennsylvania, 397.

| Fossil, see GEOLOGY.

G

Gas battery, improved form, Mond and
Langer, 417.
Genth, F. A., Contributions to Mineral-
ogy No. 48, 114; No. 49, 199.
| Geological Railway guide ‘for America,
Macfarlane, 342.
Society of America, Bulletin, 91;
Tndinvepols meeting, 332.
of London, presidential address,
Blanford, 25-4.
Geological survey, U.S., 8th Ann. report,
1886-87, 90, 334.
, international congress, Amer-
ican committee, 166.
| enone
Appomattox Formation, McGee, 15.
Araucarioxylon of Kraus, Knowlton,
251:
Bandaisan, eruption of, 169.
Bernardston Series of Devonian rocks,
Kmerson, 263, 362.
Brotfruchtbaums, tber die Reste eines,
Nathorst, 257.
Canadian fuels,
Hoffmann, 92.
Chert-beds, organic origin of, Hinde,
256.

hygroscopicity of,

502

GEOLOGY—

Clinton group fossils, Foerste, 252.
Cretaceous of Manitoba, Tyrrell, 227.
of northern California, Diller, 476.
Drainage in Central Texas, superim-
position of, Tarr, 359.
Flora dei tufi del Monte Somma, Mes-
chinelli, 258.
Fossil flora of Australia and Tasmania,
Feistmantel, 495.
Fossil plants, geographical distribu-
tion, Ward, 90.
remains, problematical, from Ohio,
Lesquereux, 258.
Glacial sediments of Maine, Stone, 122.
Goniolina in the Texas Cretaceous,
Hill, 64.

INDEX.

GrOLOGY—

Syringothyris, Winchell, and its Amer-
ican species, Schuchert, 423.

Taconic limestone, fossils in, at Hills-
dale, N. Y., 256.

Tertiare Pflanzen der Insel
birien, Schmalhausen, 257.

Tertiary fauna of Florida, Dall, 423.

Testudinata, extinct, Marsh, 177.

Tornoceras, development of shell in
the genus, Beecher, 71.

Trenton limestone, a source of petro-
leum and gas, Orton, 90.

Neusi-

Glacier, Aletsch, Bonaparte, 95.
Glaciers, Alpine, in 1889, Forel, 497.

See GEOLOGY.

| Goldschmidt, Index der Krystallformen,

Hawkesbury beds, Australia, Feist- |
| Gooch, F. A., reduction of arsenic acid,

mantel, 496, A. S. Woodward, 497.
Hudson River channel, submarine,
Dana, 432.
Icebergs, making of, Loomis, 333.
Troquois Beach and birth of Lake On-
tario, 443.
Jurassic Fish Fauna, New South
Wales, Woodward, 497.

Keokuk beds, Iowa, Gordon, 295.
Koninckina and
Beecher, 211.

Lassen Peak district, Diller, 91.
Leptzenisca, new brachiopod from the
Lower Helderberg, Beecher, 238.

Mon Louis Island, Langdon, 237.

Mountain making, post-Cretaceous,
Dana, 181.

Oolite, Jowa and Penn., 246.

Paléontologie végétale, Revue
travaux, De Saporta, 422.

des

related genera, |

|
|

|

[

etc., 260.

66; determination of bromine, 145:
method for detection of iodine, bro-
mine and chlorine, 283.

| Gordon, C. H., Keokuk beds, Iowa, 295.
Graham, J. C., sand-transportation by

rivers, 746.

Gulick, J. T., inconsistencies of utili-

tarianism as the exclusive theory of
organic evolution, 1; preservation
and accumulation of cross-infertility,
437.

H

| Hailstones, Huntington, 176.

| Heat as a form of energy, 495.

| Hertz’s experiments, Boltzmann, 165.

| Hill, R. T., Goniolina in the Texas

Paleozoic fishes of N. Amer., New-|

berry, 255.

Post-tertiary deposits of Manitoba,
Tyrrell, 88.

Potomac or younger Mesozoic flora.
Fontaine, 168.

Preglacial drainage of Pennsylvania,
Foshay, 397.

Cretaceous, 64.

Hillebrand, W. F., note of emmonsite,

81; nitrogen in uraninite, 384.

Hoffmann, Canadian minerals, 92.

| Howell, E. E., new iron meteorites from

|

Quaternary, Long Island Sound in, |

Dana, 425.
Rocky Mountain protaxis, Dana, 181.
Salt Range in India, Waagen, 91.

Sandstone dikes in California, Diller, |

334,

Texas and 8. America, 223.

Huggins, spectrum of nebula in Orion,

173; of Sirius, 175.
Huntington, O. W., hailstones of pecu
liar form, 176.

I

Iddings, J. P., fayalite in the obsidian

of Lipari, 75.
K

Siderite-basins of the Hudson River Kemp, J. F., minerals from Port Henry,

epoch, Kimball, 155.
Siluriau, Lower, graptolites
northern Maine, Dodge, 153.

from

Stones, building and ornamental in U. |) Knowledge.

Ss. National Museum, 91.

|
|

4

IN YEG 22

Kimball, J. P., siderite-basins of the

Hudson River epoch, 155.
illustrated magazine of
science. 96.

Strophalosia, N. A. species, Beecher, | Kunz, G. F., new American meteorites,

240.

|
I

312.

INDEX. 503
L MINERALS—

Laboratory work, elements of, Earl, | Akermanite, 336. Allanite, 118. Am-
331. | arantite, Chili, 199. Anthophy!-

Langdon, D. W., Jr., geology of Mon | lite, N. C., 394. Aromite, 258.
Louis Jsland, Mobile Bay, 237. Atacamite, Chili, 207.

Langley, 8. P., cheapest form of light, Bertrandite and Beryl, Mt. Antero,
Ne Col., 488.

Light, action on chlorine water, 492;| Calcite, Port Henry, N. Y., 62. Cera-
on phosphorus 492; cheapest form, site, Japan, 497. Chalcopyrite,
Langley and Very, 97. French Creek, Pa., 207. Chlorite

Light waves, stationary, Wiener, 165. group, composition, 405. Ohryso-

Liquids, electrical conductivity effected
by pressure, Barus, 219.

Long, J. H., circular polarization of tar-

trate solutions, III, 275.
Loomis, making of icebergs, 333.

M

Macfarlane, J., Amer. Geological Rail- |

way Guide, 343.
Magnetic and gravity observations, Pres-
ton, 478.
Magnetism induced molecular theory,
Ewing, 331.
Magnetometer, mountain, Meyer, 330.
Mar, F. W., perofskite, Magnet Cove,
403.
Marsh, O. C., extinct Testudinata, 177.
Mayer, A. M.,
Ohm’s law, 42; determination of the
coefficient of cubical expansion, 323.
McGee, W. J., Appomattox formation,
15.
Melville, W. H., metacinnabarite from
New Almaden, Cal., 291.
Metrology, science of, Noel, 262.
Microscope magnification, Stevens, 50.
METEORITES, IRON—
Alabama, Summit, Blount Co., Kunz,
322.
Chili, Puquios, Howell, 224.
Kansas, Kiowa Co., Kunz, 312.
N. Carolina, Bridgewater, Burke Co.,
Kunz, 320.

experimental proof of.

N. Carolina, Rockingham Co., Venable, |

161.
Texas, Hamilton Co., Howell, 223.
Virginia, Henry Co., Venable, 162.
STONE—
Iowa, Winnebago Co., Kunz, 318.
N. Carolina, Ferguson, Haywood Co.,
Kunz, 320.
Mineral resources of the U.S., Day, 423.
of Ontario, Report on, 260.
Mineralogia, Giornale di, 93.
Mineralogical Report, California, 92.

|

Mineralogy, determinative, Eyerman, 92. |

Minerals of Canada, Hoffmann, 92.

lite, anal., 305. Ciplyte, 335. Cor-
dierite, Japan, 497. Connellite,
Cornwall, 82.

Durdenite, 81.

Emmonsite, 81. Eucolite and Eudia-
lyte. Arkansas, 457.

Fayalite, Lipari, 75. Ferronatrite,
Chili, 202; Fowlerite, N. J., 484.
Garnet, Pa., 117; titaniferous, N. C.,

117. Gibbsite, so-called, Pa., 206.
Gold in turquois, New Mexico, 115.
Gordaite, 259.
Hambergite, 170.
Johnstrupite, 171.
Kaliborite, 336. Karyocerite, 171.
Lettsomite, Arizona and Utah, 118.
Lussatite, 259.
Magnetite, Port Henry, N. Y., 63.

Hiortdahlite, 171.

Metacinnabarite, Cal., 291. Mica
group, composition, 410. Morden-
ite, Wyoming, 232.

Neotesite, 335.

Oolite, calcareous, Iowa; siliceous,
Penn., 246.

Perofskite, Magnet Cove, 403. Phen-
acite, not found at Hebron, Me.,

Yeates, 259; of Mt. Antero, Col.,
Penfield, 491. Pholidolite, 335.
Phosphosiderite, 336. Picrophar-
macolite, Mo., 204. Pitticite, Utah,

205. Polybasite, Colorado, 424.
Pyrite, Penn., 114.

Quetenite, 259.

Rhodoechrosite, N. J., 875. Rhodo-
nite, N. J., 484. Rubrite, 258.

Rumpfite, Styria, 424.

Sanguinite, Chili, 497. Scapolite, Pa.,
116. Selen-tellurium, Honduras, 79.
Serpentine, composition, 307. Sider-
ite, N. Y., 155. Sideronatrite, Chli,
201. Sigterite, 336. Sphalerite,
amorphous, Kansas, 160. Stibnite,
Mexico, 115.

Tale, composition, 306. Tamarugite,
258. Tetradymite, Arizona, 114.
Uraninite, nitrogen in, 384. Utahite(?),

New Mexico, 203.

Vermiculites, composition, 452.

ianite, Tenn., 120.

Viv-

504

MINERALS——
Weibyeite, 176.
Zireon, N. C., 116.

Minéraux des roches, M. Lévy et La- |
Spencer, J. W.. deformation of Iroquois:

eroix, 259.

N

Newberry, Palzezoic fishes of N. A.,
New South Wales, R. Society, 342.

0)
OBITUARY—
Owen, Richard, 96.
Peters, C. H. F., 176.
Ohm, re-determination of, Jones, 419.
Ohm’s law, experimental proof, Mayer,
42.
Ostwald’s Klassiker der exakten Wis-
senschaften, 499.

P

Paris Exposition of 1889, 96. |
Partridge, EK. A., atomic weight of cad- |
mium, 377.
Peufield, S. L., fayalite in the obsidian |
of Lipari, 75; composition of connel- |
lite, 82: crystallographic notes, 199; |
chaleopyrite crystals from Chester
Co., Pa., 207; anthophyllite, Frank- |
lin, ’ Macon Co., N. C., 394; beryllium |
minerals of Mt. Antero, Col., 488. |

Perkins, C. A., vapor tension of sul- |
phurie acid, and Cathetometer micro- |
scope, 301.

Phosphoro-photographs, Lommel, 330.

Photography of oscillating — electric)
sparks, Boys, 331.

Pirsson, L. V., mordenite, 232; fowler- |
ite variety of rhodonite, New Jersey, |
484.

Preston, E. D., magnetic and gravity ob-
servations on the west coast of Africa,
ete., 478.

R

Robertson, J. D., zinc sulphide from
Cherokee Co., Kansas, 160.
Russell, T., prediction of cold-waves, 463. |

Ss

Sand-transportation by rivers, Graham,
746.

Schneider, H.
silicates, 303, 405, 452. |

Sheldon, S., magneto-optical generation |
of electricity, 196.

Solar Corona, Bigelow, 343.

Spectra, coincidence between lines of |
different, Runge, 165.

| Stone, G.

A., constitution of natural | ;

INDEX.

Spectrnm of nebula in Orion, Huggins,
173; of Sirius, 175.

Spencer, J., Sound, Light and Heat, 495 >

Magnetism and Hlectricity, 495.

Beach and birth of Lake Ontario, 443.
Steam calorimeter, Wirtz, 329.
Stevens, W. L., microscope magnifica-
tion, 50.
H., glacial sediments of Maine,.
122.

| Stone implement, New Comerstown, O.,

95.
T

| Tarr, R.S., superimposition of the drain-

age in Central Texas, 359.

| Thermometer, platinum, Griffiths, 494,
Thurston, Engine and Boiler trials, 262 >

Heat as a form of Energy, 495.

| Torrey, J., Jr., microscopic structure of

Oolite, 246.
Tyrrell, J..B., Post-tertiary in Manitoba,
88; Cretaceous of Manitoba, 227.

Vv

Venable, F. P.. new meteoric irons, 161.

| Very, F. W., cheapest form of light, 97.

Volcanoes, eruption of Bandaisan, 169.
of Hawaii, Brigham and Lyman, 335.

W
Water, weight of cubic inch, Chaney,,
495.
Waves in air produced by projectiles,
Mach and Wentzel, 419.
Wells, H. L., Selenium and Tellurium
minerals from Honduras, 78.

| White, D., notice of Feistmantel, 495.

Williams, G. H., Crystallography, 424.
Williams, J. W., Hudialyte and Eucolite,.
from Arkansas, 457.

Y
| Yeates, phenacite not found at Hebron,
Me., 259
| Z
| ZOOLOGY—

Biological Survey of San Francisco:
Mt., ete, C. H. Merriam and L.
Stejneger, 498.

Mollusks, deep sea, Dall, 94.

Pelecypoda, etc., phylogeny of, Jack-
son, 421.

Zoe, Biological journal, 93.

Zoologie, Verzeichniss der Schriften.
tiber, 342.

= kta Vile,

= INDEX TO VOLS. XXXI-XL.

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

AMERICAN :
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

JAMES D. anp EDWARD 8. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Proressors JOSIAH P. COOKE, GEORGE L. GOODALE
and JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or CampripcE.

Proressors H. A. NEWTON anv A. E. VERRILL, or
New Haven,

PROFESSOR GEORGE F. BARKER, or PaiLapDELpHta.

THIRD SERIES.
VOL. XL.—_[_WHOLE NUMBER, CXL.]

INDEX TO VOLUMES XXXI-XL.

NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E.S. DANA..
: 18: 9s.

TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET.

EEE LED DE EET TS ETT ERE IE ETS ELE TA OE EET DS RS
Index Number seventy-five cents per copy. Sent only to those ordering it.

"f

Fa

5 ath:

GaN ER AY IE, aN 1D i xe

OF

VOLUMES XXXI-XL OF THE THIRD SERIES.

(In the references to volumes xxxi to xxxix, only the numerals ito ix are

here given.

Norr.—The names of Minerals are inserted under the head of MINERALS: all
Obituary notices are referred to under OBITUARY. Under the heads Borany,
CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, RocKS, ZOOLOGY the references to the topics in these
departments are grouped together; in most cases, however, the same references
appear elsewhere, at least under the author’s name.

A

Aberration, constant of, A. Hall, v, 505.

Academy, National, meeting at Boston
1886, ii, 486; 1890, xl, 498: New
Haven, vi, 475; New York, iv, 319;
Philadelphia, viii, 498; Washington,
ili, 432; v, 424; vii, 420; ix, 412.

Memoirs, iv, 319; ix, 414.

‘Acoustical investigations, ili, 238.

Aerolites, see Meteorites.

Agassiz, A., sea-bottom deposits off H.
N. America, i, 221; Three Cruises of
the Blake, v, 495; notice of Biblio-
theca Zoologica, v, 420; Coral reefs
of Hawaiian Islands, vili, 169; deep
sea dredging, xl, 497.

Agassiz Associations, Magazine, ili, 246.

Agriculture in its relations to Chem-
istry, Storer, ii, 509.

Air, separation of liquefied, i, 148.
coefficient of viscosity, ili, 308.
Aitkin, dust particles in the air, v, 413.

Alabama, Geol. Report, iii, 78.

Alexander, J. M., Mt. Loa in 1885, vi,
30.

Alexander, W. D., crater of Mt. Loa, ii,
235.

Algebra, Graham, viii, 420; Lensenig,
viii, 420.

Algol system, Vogel, ix, 245.

Allen, A. H., Commercial Organic Anal-
ysis, vili, 490.

Alling, A. N., topaz from Utah, iii, 146.

Alloys, nickel and tungsten, magnetism,
Trowbridge and Sheldon, viii, 462.

Alps, see Geology.

American, see Association, Geological,
Museum.

American Anthropologist, v, 425.

Geologist, v, 84.

Naturalist, ili, 246, 326.

Annalen des Hofmuseums, Vienna, ii, 82.

Antigua, Geoolgy of, i, 226.

Ardissone, F., Phycologia Mediterranea,
i, 479.

Argentine Star Catalogue, iii, 84.

Arkansas, Geol. Report, v, 255, 264; vii,
All; viii, 413.

Neozoic Geology of, viii, 413, 468.

peridotite in, viii, 50.

Artesian well, St. Augustine, Fla., iv,
70; Long Island, Lewis, vii, 233.

Arthur, T. C., Plant Dissection, i, 477.

Ashburner, C. A., Pennsylvania Geol-
ogy, i, 227, 228; Geology of Natural
Gas, i, 309; Oil regions, i, 480.

Assayer’s Manual, Kerl and Garrison,
viii, 171.

Association, American, meeting at Buf-
falo, ii, 82, 319, 326; Cleveland, vi,
78, 297; Indianapolis, xl, 175, 336;
New York City, iii, 432; iv, 80, 234;
Toronto, vill, 80, 331.

Langley’s address, vil, 1.

British, meeting at Bath, vi, 396;
Birmingham, ii, 412; Leeds, xl, 342;
Manchester, iv, 315; Newcastle, viii,
419.

| Asteroids, Kirkwood, v, 345.

see Planets.

Astronomical Journal, Gould’s, ii, 326,

‘| 4863 ili, 428.

006

a
Astronomical Observatory, Yale, trans-
actions, Hall, ix, 245.
research, aid to, Bruce, x], 262.
Society medals, i, 408.

Chicago, reports, iv, 312.
Astronomy, History, Clerke, i, 406.
Atlantic Ocean, see Ocean.

Atlantis of ancient fable, vii, 200.
Atmosphere of ( Lyre, Sherman, iii, 126.
Aurora, spectrum, Huggins, viii, 75.
Austen, P. T., Chemical Lecture Notes,
vii, 409.
Australia, Tertiary flora, Constantin, viii,
493.
Coal and plant bearing beds, Feist-
mautel, xl, 495.
Jurassic fish fauna, x], 497.
Auxanometer and clinostat, Albrecht, v,
258.
Avogadro’s hypothesis, experimental de-
monstration, iv, 224.

Ayres, H. F., mineralogical notes, vii, |

235; crystallization of trona, vill, 65.
Ayrton, W. E., Practical Electricity, iv,
152.

B

Bacteria in normal stomachs, vii, 320.

Bailey, L. H., N. American Carices, ii,
412.

Bailey, S. C. H., meteorite from Renssel-
aer Co, N. Y., iv, 60.

Baillon, Dictionnaire de Botanique and |

Histoire des Plantes, i, 315; iil, 244.

Baker, E. P., notes on Mt. Loa, vii, 52. |

Baker, J. G., Handbook of the Amaryl-
hdeze, vii, 418.

Ball, J., Flora of Peruvian Andes, i, 231;
Notes of a Naturalist in S. America,
iii, 426.

- Ball, W. W. R., History of Mathematics, |

vii, 241.

Barbour,: E. H., tortoise (Chrysemys |

picta) with two heads, vi, 227; Iowa
meteorites, ix, 521; microscopic struct-
ure of oolite, xl, 246.

Barker, G. F., chemical and physical
abstracts, i. 57, 148, 216, 308, 389,

476; ii, 72, 159, 231, 476; iii, 67, 148, |
236, 303, 419, iv, 62, 152, 224, 394, |
480; v, 73, 248, 334, 410, 492; vi, |

60, 150, 383, 465; vii, 73, 221, 313,
406; viii, 74, 157, 324, 408, 486; ix,
65, 147, 230, 312, 397, 518; xl, 86,
163, 250, 415, 492.
Barrois, C., Faune du
vili, 164.
Barus, C., properties of iron carburets, i,
67; structure of tempered steel, i, 386;
strain-effect of sudden cooling on glass
and steel, i, 439.

GENERAL INDEX.

calcatre d’Erbray,

[2

Barus, C., strain-effect of sudden cooling
in glass and steel, ii, 181; hydro-elec-
tric effect of temper in steel, ii, 276;
viscosity of steel and its relation to
temper, ii, 444, ii, 20, iy, 1.

| effect of magnetization on viscosity
| and rigidity of iron and steel, iv, 175.
viscosity of gases at high tempera-
| tures, v, 407.
electrical relations of platinum
alloys, vi, 427; viscosity of solids, vi,
178; energy in permanent strains, vi,
468.
subsidence of fine particles in liquids,
vil. 122; electrical resistance of stress-
ed glass, vii, 339.
energy potentialized in permanent
changes of molecular configurations,
vill, 193; relation of volume, etc, in
case of liquids, viii, 407.
absolute viscosity of solids, liquids
and gases, ix, 234; fluid volume and
its relation to pressure and tempera-
ture, ix, 478.
effect of pressure on electrical con-
ductivity of liquids, xl, 219.
Bastin, E.S., Elements of Botany, iv, 496.
| Bathymetric map, J. D. Dana, vii, 192,
242,
| Battery, see Electric and Hlectrostatic.
| Baumhauer, H., Das Reich der Krystalle,
bg Be
Baur, G. Paleeohatteria, Credner, and the

priscus, ix, 156.

Bayley, W. S., rocks of Pigeon Point,

| Minn., v, 388; vii, 54; ix, 273.

| Beal, W. J., Grasses of North America,
iv, 493.

Beam, W., examination of water for san-
| itary and technical purposes, vii, 421.
| Beauregard et Gampe, Guide pratique

pour les travaux de micrographie, viii,
415.
Beceari, O., Malesia, iii, 82, 319.
| Becker, G. F., theorem of maximum dis-
sipativity, 1,115; new law of thermo-
chemistry, i, 120; Cretaceous meta-
morphic rocks of California, i, 348.
texture of massive rocks, ili, 50;

Washoe rocks, ili, 75; natural solu-
tions of cinnabar, gold, and associated
sulphides, iii, 199.

geological development of Pacific
slope, iv, 72.

silicic acids, viii, 154.

quicksilver deposits of Pacific slope,

ix, 68; metamorphism of California
rocks, ix, 68; proof of the earth’s
rigidity, ix, 336.

' Beddoe, J., Races of Britain, ii, 245.

Proganosauria, vii, 310; Kadaliosaurus-

3 | VOLUMES

Beecher, (. H., notice of Hall’s Paleon-

tology of New York, vol. vi, v, 498.
Brachiospongide, vii, 316.
Arthrolycosa antiqua of Harger, viii,

219.
development of some Silurian Bra-

chiopoda, 1x, 71.
development of shell in the genus

Tornoceras, xl, 71; Koninckina and

related genera, xl, 211; Leptzenisca,
new brachiopod from the Lower Hel-
derberg. xl, 238; N. American species

_ of Strophalosia, xl, 240.

Bell, L., ultra-violet spectrum of cad-
mium, i, 426; absolute wave-length
of light, iii, 167, v, 265, 347; effect
of magnet on chemical action, vi, 39.

Bennett, A. W., Handbook of Crypto-
gamic Botany, vili, 168.

Bennett, J. H., Plants of Rhode Island,
vi, 394.

Berkshire Historical and Scientific So-
ciety, Papers of, ili, 85.

Bermuda Islands, work on, Heilprin,
viii, 418.

Bibliographie de |’Astronomie, Houzeau
and Lancester, ix, 411.

Bibliotheca Zoologica, Chun and Leuck-

art, v, 420. :

Taschenberg, iv, 412, v, 505, vii,
80, ix, 163.

Biddle, H. J., surface geology of south-
ern Oregon, v, 475.

Bigelow, F. H., solar corona, xl, 343.

Binney, W. G., Land Shells, i, 157.

Birds, see Geology and Zoology.

Bishop, I. P., fossiliferous limestones in
Chatham, N. Y., and their relation to
Hudson R. shales and Taconic, ii, 438 ;
Lower Silurian fossils in Columbia
ComeNp aves x. 692

Blair, A. A., Chemical Analysis of Iron,
vi, 38%.

Blake, W. P., meteorite from Tennessee,
i, 41; gold in nature, i, 477; scheelite
from Idaho, vii, 414; mineralogical
notes, ix, 43.

Blakesley, T. H., alternating currents of
electricity, i, 154.

Blanford, W. T., Fauna of British India: |

Pt. I, Mammalia, vi, 297.

Bodewig, C., epidote and hanksite, viii,

164.
Bohm, A., Hochseen der Ostalpen, iii,
431. :
Bolometer, theory of, Reid, v, 160; Helm-
holtz, ix, 154.

Bolton, H. C., sonorous sands of Sinai,

roe, INE
Bolus, H., Flora of South Africa, ii, 164.
Orchids of the Cape Peninsula, vii, 417.

XXXI-XL. 507
Bonaparte, P. R., Le Glacier de Aletsch
et le Lac de Miarjelen, x1, 95.
Bostwick, A. E., absorption spectra of
mixed liquids, vii, 471.
Botanic garden, Java, vii, 322.
Botanical necrology, i, 12, 302, 316.
Botanical Society of France, vii, 503.
Botanische Zeitung, i, 406.
Boranicat Works Noticep—
Acta Horti Petropolitani, iii, 83.
American Woods, Hough, vi, 160.
Angewandte Pflanzenanatomie,.
Tschireh, viii, 254.
Annals of Botany, i, 409; vii, 419.
Atlas natiirlichen Meeresalgen, Schiitt,
Kuckuck, Reinke, viii, 416.
Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Oxidations-
Vorgange in lebenden Zellen, Pfef-
fer, viii, 166.
Bentham’s British Flora. Hooker, iti, -
Sg):
Biologia Centrali-Americana, Botany,
Hemsley, viii, 166. i
Botany of Japan, i, 478.
of the Northern United States,
Gray, ix, 240.
of Rocky Mountain region, Coul-
ter, i, 76.
British Moss Flora, Braithwaite, iv,
493.
Bulletin of Congress of Botany and
Horticulture, St. Petersburg, iii, 80. .
Bulletin de la Soc. Bot. de France, iii,
427.
Carices of North America, Bailey, ii,
412.
Catalogue of herbarium of University
of Tokyo, ti, 245.
of plants of Middlesex Co., Mass.,
Dame and Collins; vi, 392; near
Niagara Falls, Day, vi, 395; of
Nantucket, Mass., Owen, vi, 393;
of New Jersey, Britton, xl, WLS bt
Rhode Island, Bennett, vi, 394; of
Vermont, Perkins, vi, 394.
Catalogue provisoire des
Langlois, iv, 494.
Catalogus Bibliothecee Horti Imper-
ialis Botanici Petropolitani, Herder,
ili, 83.
Cayuga Flora, Dudley, ii, 245.
Check-list of N. A. Plants, Patterson,
iii, 244,
Contributions to American botany,
Watson, Nos. 14, 15, vi, 392; No.
16, vii, 415.
Diagnoses Plantarum novarum Asiati-
carum, vii, Maximowicz, vii, 417.
Dictionnaire de Botanique, Baillon, iii,
244,
des Plantes, Baillon, i, 315.

Plantes,

508

BotTanicaL Works Noticep—

Die natirlichen Pflanzenfamilien, Ene-
ler und Prantl, iv, 74; v, 259; viii,
HANGS: be 113) 8 adh) SB}.

Drugs and Medicines, Lloyd, i, 313;
i, 244.

Elements of Botany, Bastin, iv, 495;
Gray, iv, 495.

Enumeratio Plantarum Guatemalen-
sium, ete., Pt. I, Smith, vii, 419.
Erythreeze exsicceatee, Wittrock, i, 237.
Flora Brasiliensis, Hichler, i, 158;

Schumann, ii, 166; iii, 318; Cog-|

niaux, tii, 318.

of British India, Hooker, ii, 325; |
Coast islands of California, LeConte, |

iv, 457: of Hawaiian Islands, Hille- |
brand, v, 510; Italiana, vol. viii, vii, |

417; Italica, Caruel, ii, 165; South

Africa, Bolus, ii, 164; Washington, |

Knowlton, ii, 82; Wilmington, |

Wood and McCarthy, iii, 319.

Flora, oder allgemeine botanische, |

Zeitung, viii, 253.

Flowers, fruits and leaves, Lubbock,
ii, 411.

Garden and Forest, O. 8S. Sargent, v,
420,

Garnsey’s Translation of Sachs’s His-
tory of Botany, ix, 407.
Genera and species of N. America,

analytical key, Barnes, xl, 173.
Grasses of N. America, Beal, iv, 492.
Guide to museums of economic botany,

ii, 165.

Guide pratique pour les travaux de
micrographie, Beauregard et Gal-

lipe, viii, 415.

Handbook of the Amaryllidez, Baker,

vii, 418.
of Cryptogamic Botany, Bennett,
viii, 168.
of Plant Dissection, i, 477.
Herbaria, ancient, St.-Lager, ii, 79.

Herbarium, Lamarck’s, ii, 485; of Dr. |

Jos. Blake, vii, 419.
Historie des Plantes, Baillon, i, 315.

des Var. et Espéces de Vignes, |

etc., Millardet, i, 158.
Icones Plantarum, Hooker, ii, 166,
485; iii, 163, 244, 318.
Index to Botanical Gazette, 1i, 244.
of the Fungi of U.S., Farlow and
Seymour, vii, 79.
to Plant-Names, Daydon-Jackson,
iii, 320.

Jahrbuch des K. K. botanischen Gar- |

tens, Hichler, iii, 82.
Journal of Linnean Society, ii, 80.

of Michaux, 1787-1796, vii, 419. |

GENERAL INDEX. [4

BoranicaL Works Noricep—

Journey of A. Michaux to mountains

of Carolina, ii, 466.
Key to System of Victorian Plants, I,
Mueller, vii, 416.
| Leerboek der Planten-physiologie,
De Vries, i, 314.
Lists of plants, x], 172.
Malesia, Beccari, iii, 82, 319.
Memoirs of Torrey Botanical Club,
Vol. i, Nios 1h ix) 162%
| Monograpbize Phanerogarum Prodro-
mi, ete., Planchon, vol. vy, iv, 490;
DeCandolle, vol. vi, Andropogonez,
Hackel, viii, 253.

Orchids of Cape Peninsula, Bolus, vii,
417.

Outlines of Lessons in Botany, Pt. I,
Newell, vii, 419.

Paintings, Miss North’s, ii, 165.

Phycologia Mediterranea, i, 479.

Physiology of plants, Sachs, iv, 410;
Vines, ii, 411.

Pittonia, Greene, iii, 426.

Plants of Australia, Miller, iii, 163;
of Oregon, Washington and Idaho,
Howell, iii, 319.

Practical Instruction in Botany, Bower
and Vines, iv, 492.

Primer of Botany, Hooker, iii, 83.

Prodromus Faune Mediterranee, etc.,
congessit, Carus, ix, 410.

Revision of N. American Umbelliferee,
Coulter and Rose, vii, 417.

Scientific Papers of A. Gray, Sargent,
viii, 419.

Seedlings, forms of, Lubbock, ii, 485.

Structural and Systematic Botany,
Cambell, xl, 173.

Study of Lichens, iv, 75.

Synoptical Flora of N. America, Gray,
i, 238.

List of N. A. Species of Ceano-
thus, Trelease, vii, 418.

Tennessee Flora, Gattinger, ili, 426.

West American Oaks, Kellogg, ix, 79.

West Coast Botany, Rattan, iii, 319.

Works of George Engelman, i, 76.

Borany—

Abietineze, primordial leaves of, vii, —
238.

Absorption of coloring matters by liv-
ing protoplasm, ui, 486. :

Algee, agency of, in formation of sili-
ceous deposits of geysers, Weed,
vii, 351, 501.

American Desmidiez, i, 478.

Ampelideze, Planchon, iv, 490.

Andean Flora, Ball, i, 231.

Apetalee, Macoun, ili, 164.

5] VOLUMES

BoTany—

Ascent of colored liquids im living
plants, Wieler, xl, 173.

Assimilation, chemical nature of, vii,
237; by colored leaves, Engelmann,
vi, 159.

Balanophora and Thonningia, Fawcett,
iii, 82.

Bombacez, comparative anatomy, Du-
mont, vi, 75.

Botanical work in Minn., Report on, |

iv, +92.

Bryophyllum calcinum, multiplication
of, vii, 419.

Ceanothus, C. C. Parry, vii, 418.

Cell-waill, relations of, vii, 237.

Color granules in flowers and fruits,
vi, 472.

Compass plant, iii, 245.

Crocus, Maw, iii, 82.

Curtis’s Botanical work, i, 159.

Cyperus, Britton, iii, 83.

Cypripedium arietinum in China, ii,
244,

Dermatitis venenata, White, iv, 410.

Development of organs, preparation of |

sections for study of, Goethart, xl,
172.

Diatom beds of the Yellowstone Park,
“Weed, ix, 321.

Entomophilous flowers in Arctic re-
gions, iii, 318.

Filicinese, Burgess, iii, 82.

Flowering Plants, aluminum in ashes

of, iv, 482.

Fish-inebriating Plants, Radlkofer, iv, |

493.

France, plants naturalized in, i, 315.

Fungi, coloring matters in, vii, 320.

Glycerin and certain tissues, de Vries,
vi, 158.

Grafting, heterogeneous, ii, 81.

Growth, physiology of, Wortmann,
viii, 415.

Heather in Townsend, Mass., Ball, vi,
295.

Hepaticee Amazonicee, ete., Spruce, i,
238.

Histology as basis for classification,
ix, 407.

Hybrids, Saporta, ix, 161.

Jodes Tomentilla, stem structure, Rob- |

inson, ix, 407.

Laubblatter, der fixen Lichtlage der,
Krabbe, viii, 253.

Leaves, Juncaceze, Buchenauy, i, 237.

Liriodendron, leaves of, Holm, xl, 422.

Malvaceze, comparative anatomy, Du-
mont, vi, 75.

Nitrogen, fixation of by leguminous
plants, Bréal, ix, 163.

XXXI-XL. 509
BoTany— ‘
Nomenclature of fossil, Nathorst, i,
236.

Notarisia, i, 479.

Nutrition of higher plants, part am-
monia plays in, Mintz, ix, 162.

Orchid nomenclature conference, iii,
164.

Ostrich fern, Campbell, iv, 494.

Pear-blight, Arthur, iii, 82.

Das pflanzen-physiologische Prakti-
kum, Detmer, v, 87.

Phyllodium, nature of, viii, 495.

Pittonia, Greene, iy, 493.

Plants, descending water-current in,
WAU S318),

respiratory organs of, Jost, v,
528.

utilization of free atmospheric
nitrogen, vill, 253.

Plasmolytic studies, i, 157.

Primula conference, iii, 164.

Protoplasma als Fermentorganismus,
Wigand, vii, 77.

Protoplasm subjected to action of
liquids, Goodale, ili, 144.

Ranunculus, Freyn, ii, 83.

hybrids in, ix, 325.

Redwood Reserve, 11, 425.

Root, structure of the “crown” of,
vii, 322.

Sap, cause of ascent of, Boehm, ix, 162.

Saprophytes, roots, Johow, ix, 243.

Secretions, origin of canals and recep-
tacles for, LeBlois, vi, 76.

Serjania Sapindacearum Genus, Radl-
kofer, iv, 493.

Shortia, rediscovery, li, 472.

Sterculiaceze, comparative anatomy,
Dumont, vi, 75.

Studi botanici sugli Agrumi, etc., Pen-
zig, iv, 494.

Sugar beet, improvements in, vii, 238.

Sympetaleia, Gray, ili. 319.

Temperature-experiments on relations
of plants to cold, ix, 78

Tendril movements, Penhallow, i, 46,
100, 178.

Tentacles of Drosera, De Vries, i, 406.

Thalictrum, Lecoyer, i, 235.

Tiliacese. comparative anatomy, Du-
mon, vi, 75.

Trees, “ringed,” vii, 79.

Tropical plants, effects from a temper-
ature of 30° to 40° F., ix, 77.

Vegetable histology, vi, 75; physiol-
ogy, vi, 158.

Vegetable cell, recent knowledge of,
v, 341 (Zimmermann), v, 419 (Loew
and Bokorky); histology, recent
advances in, v, 503.

5

vw

10

BoTANX—
Volvox, Klein, viii, 252.
Woody tissues, disintegration of,
19.
Zellhaut, Entstehung und Wachsthum
der, Zacharias, viii, 252.
See further under GEOLOGY.
Bower, Practical Instruction in Botany,
iv, 492.
Boyden fund, iii, 325.
Brackett, R. N., peridotite of Arkansas,
viii, 56.
Brainerd, E., Calciferous formation in
the Champlain Valley, ix, 235.

1X,

Braithwaite, British Moss Flora, iv, 493. |

Branner, J. C., thickness of ice of Glacial
era in Pennsylvania, ii, 362.

Geology of Arkansas, 1887, v, 264.

geology of Fernando de Noronha,

vii, 145; Report Geol. Surv. Arkansas,

1888, vii, 411; Cretaceous and Tertiary |

Geology of the Sergipe-Alagéas basin
of Brazil, vii, 412.
peridotite of Arkansas, vili, 50;
Report Geol. Surv. Arkansas, vol. ii,
1888, viii, 413.
eeolian sandstones of Fernando de
Noronha, ix, 247.
Braun, F., electric currents from deforma-
tion, vii, 495.
Brazil, geology of, Branner, vii, 412.
Brigham, W. T., Kilauea in 1880, iv, 19;
Mt. Loa in 1880, vi, 33.
Brinton, D. G., Essays of an American-
ist, ix, 413.
British Fossil Vertebrata, catalogue,
Woodward and Sherborn, ix, 402.

Museum, Fossil Cephalopoda, vii, |

413.

Britton, N. L., Archean areas of N. J.
and aN Yi svi. 7:

Brégger, W. C., minerals of Norway, xl,
170.

Brongniart, C., Fossil Insects, i, 156.

Brooks, F. T., method for detection of
iodine, bromine and chlorine, xl, 283.

Brown, J. A., Palzeolithic Man in North-
west Middlesex, v, 255.

Brown, W. G., crystallographic notes, ii, |

Sill

Browne, D. H., phosphorus in Iron Mtn.,
Mich., vii, 299.

Browning, P. E., determination of iodine

in haloid salts, ix, 188; reduction of |

arsenic acid, xl, 66; analysis of rho-
dochrosite, Franklin, N. J., xl, 375.
Brush, G. J., minerals at Branchville,
Chin es, MOE
Building stones, decay of, ii, 243.
durability of, ii, 319.
of National Museum, Merrill, xl, 91.

GENERAL INDEX.

[6

| Burnham, 8. M., Precious Stones, iii, 84
| Butler, A. A., Tripyramid slides, i, 404.
| Butler, A. P., South Carolina, i, 73.

C
Cairns, F. I., crocidolite, Cumberland, R.
| desis OSE
California, Mineralogical Reports, i, 76;
iv, 159; vili, 166; xl, 92.
Flora of coast islands, LeConte, iv,
| 457.
| Geology of Northern, Diller, iii, 152 ;
x], 476.
quartzose lava in, 1ii, 45.
rocks, metamorphism, Becker, ix,
68.
sandstone dikes, xl, 334.
Calorimeter, ether, Neesen, vi,
steam, iv, 150; vapor, iv, 224.
Cameron, J., Soaps and Candles, vii, 242.
Campbell, D. H., development of ostrich
fern, iv, 494.
Structural and Systematic Botany,
dL Sy.
Campbell, J. L. and H. D., on Rogers’s
| Geology of the Virginias, i, 193.
Canada, Geol. Report of 1885, iii, 316;
1887-8, ix, 238.
minerals, Hoffmann, xl, 92.
nickel ore from, vii, 372.
Paleontology, Whiteaves, viii, 493.
Royal Society, ‘'ransactions, iii, 84;
| viii, 493; xl, 499.
| Canfield, F. A., catalogue of minerals of
| N. Jersey, ix, 161.
| Carbon, electrical resistance of soft, _
Mendenhall, ii, 218. :
See Chemistry.
| Carhart, H. S., direct and counter elec-
tromotive forces, i, 95; surface trans-
mission of electrical discharges, i, 256;
improved standard Clark cell, viii, 402.
| Carmichael, H., determination of arsenic,
ii, 129. :
Carpenter, H., Blastoidea in British Mu-
seum, ii, 409.
Caruel, T., Flora Italica, ii, 165.
| Caras, J. V., Faunze Mediterranez, i,
238; Prodromus Faunz Mediterranee,
| ete, ix, 410.
Cascade mountains, ascent of peak in,
| Ré6ll, ix, 80.
Catlett, C., nickel ore from Canada, vii,
372.
| Cavendish experiment, Boys, ix, 154.
| Challenger, magnetic results of voyage,
Xeae DAS
Chamberlin, B. B., Minerals of New
| York County, vi, 392.
| Chamberlin, T. C., the term Agnotozoie,
| y, 254; rock-scorings, vii, 502.

293;

7] VOLUMES

Chandler, S. C., Jr., the Almucantar, iv,
Uae

Charleston earthquake, see Harthquake.

Chatard, T. M., lucasite, a new vermic-
ulite, ii, 375; analyses of alkali lake
waters, vi, 146; determination of
water and carbonic acid in natural
and artificial salts, vii, 468; on urao,
viii, 59.

Chemical combination, heat of, ii, 73.
integration, Hunt, iv, 116.
literature, indexing of, v, 76.

CHEMICAL WORKS NOTICED—

Analytical Chemistry, Muter, v, 251.
Analysis of Jron, Blair, vi, 387.
Chemistry, Commercial Organic an-
alysis, A. H. Allen, viii, 490.
Dictionary of Applied, ix, 519.
Elementary, Fisher, vii, 75.
Mixter, vil, 409.
Inorganic, Richter, v, 251.
Modern Theories of, Meyer, vi,
60.
Text Book of Organic, Bernthsen,
viii, 491.
Treatise on, Muir, viii, 410.
Watts’ Dictionary of, new edition,
Morley and Muir, viii, 409.
Lecture Notes, Austen, vii, 409.
Organic Analysis, Prescott, v, 336.
Soaps and Candles, Cameron, vii, 242.

CHEMISTRY—

Acid, selenous, constitution, Mich-
aelis and Landmann, v, 76; uric,

synthesis of, Behrend and Roosen,’

viii, 160.

Acids. constitution of the thionic, |
Berthelot, vili, 327; silicic, Becker,
viii, 154.

Alcohol, magnetic rotation of, ii, 477. |

Alumina, phosphorescence of, ili, 303,
304
Vv .

Aluminum acetyl-acetonate, vil, 495. |
in ashes of flowering plants, iv, |

482.
chloride, vapor density,
and Crafts, vi, 465: ix, 313.
precipitation and separation, Pen-
field and Harper, ii, 107.
Ammonia,
nanini, ix, 518.
Anhydrite, formation of, ii, 233.

Friedel

Antimonous sulphide, thermo-chemis- |

try, iv, 65.

Apantlesis, Mallet, v, 249.

Arsenic, determination, Carmichael, ii,
NG).

acid, reduction, Gooch and Brown-

ing, xl, 66.
Austrium, new element, ii, 405.

emission-spectrum, Mag-

XXXI-XL. 511
CHEMISTRY—
Bacterium aceti, chemical action, i,
472: iv, 484.

Barium cobaitite, Rousseau, ix, 232.
Beryllium, chemical character, Kriiss
and Moraht, xl, 86.
Bismuth, new color reaction for, iv,
66; valence of, iii, 421.
Boric acid, determination of, iv, 222.
Bromine, determination of, Gooch and
Ensign, xl, 145.
Cadaverine, indentity of, with penta-
methylenediamine, ii, 479.
Cadmium, atomic weight, Partridge,
od B30 Ue
Calcium and copper, double acetate,
Rudorff, v, 411.
Calcium sulphate formation, ii, 233.
Capillary glass tubes, use in distilla-
tion, vii, .222.
Carbon, absorption of gases by, iii,
421.
atom and valence, V. Meyer and
Riecke, vi, 386.
heat of combustion, Berthelot and
Petit, viii, 324.
dioxide, in air, apparatus for esti-
mation of, iv, 396; detection of
minute traces of, iv, 481; in freez-
ing mixtures, Cailletet and Colar-
deau, vi, 465; refractive index of,
iit, U5.
disulphide, decomposition of, by
shock, Thorpe, ix, 65.
monoxide, action on metallic
nickel, xl, 418; combustion of, i,
392; and oxygen, combustion of, ii,
159; and water vapor, action of, i,
151.
Cellulose, colloidal, Guignet, viii, 408.
Cerebrose, identity with galactose,
Theirfelder, ix, 316.
Chemical reactions by means of elec-
trometer, Bouty, iv, 480.
Chloride, stannous, boiling point of,
Bilitz and Meyer, v, 410.
Chlorides of compound ammoniums
Le Bel, x], 250.
| heat of formation of, ii, 319.
Chlorine, determination in mixtures
| of alkaline chlorides and_ iodides,
Gooch and Mar, ix, 293.
gas, generation of, iii, 419.
monoxide, i, 57. 3
in oxygen from potassium chlor-
ate, v, 335
water, action of light on, Pedler,
x 492.
Chromium, atomic mass Rawson, viii,
74,

512 GENERAL INDEX. gee)
CHEMISTRY— CHEMISTRY—
Chromium chloride, vapor density, vii, Halogen hydrides, decomposition of,
73. Richardson, v, 73.
Chydrazaine, or protoxide of ammonia, Hesperidin, and Naringin, sugar
vii, 407. yielded by, iv, 65.

Coal, heat of combustion, Scheurer- |

Kestner, vi, 466.

Cocaine and its homologues, synthesis,
i, 153.

Colloids, estimation of molecular mass,
Sabanéeff, xl, 87.

Conine, synthesis of, i, 471; ii, 479.

Copper, higher oxides, Osborne, ii,
Doo:

Cyanogen, combination of, ii, 160; re-
fractive index of, ili, 151.

Decomposition by pressure, Spring, v,
493.

Dextrose, constitution, Skraup, ix, 235.

Diamide hydrate, Curtius and Jay, vii, |

493.
Diamide (Hydrazine), iv. 226.
Dysprasium, new element, ii, 406.
Earth Ya and mosandria, li, 76.

Earths, alkali-, and their hydrates, be- |
havior to carbon dioxide, ii, 478;
spectroscopic discrimination of rare, |

Crookes, vili, 486.

Elements, genesis of, Crookes, ii, 400. |

new, li, 405, 406.
and meta-elements, Crookes, vi, 63.

Equilibrium between electrolytes, Ar- |

rhenius, xl, 164.

Ethyl fluoride, vii, 408.

Ethylene, point of solidification, Olew-
ski, vill, 326.

Fatty acids, etc., with water, magnetic |

rotation of, ii, 477.

Ferric chloride, vapor density, Meyer,
v, 494; Friedel and Crafts, vii, 73.

Ferrous oxide, determination in sili-
cates, iv, 113.

Fluorine. action on carbon, Moissan,
xl, 493; color and spectrum, Mois-

san, xl, 87; density, ix, 397; produc- |

tion of, iii, 236; properties of, Mois-
san, v, 249.

Formic aldehyde, synthesis of, Jahn, |

viii, 159.

Fulmivating silver of Berthollet, ii, 232. |

Fusing points, determination, ii, 476.

Gadolinium, new element, ii, 406.

Gallium chloride, vapor density, vii,
13, 74.

Germanium, new element, i, 308; in
euxenite, Kriiss, v, 410; properties
and constants of, iii, 68.

Gnomium, new element, Miller, viii,
75.

Gold, atomic mass, Mallet, ix, 399.

Holmium, new element, ii, 406.
Hydrated salts, vapor-pressure of, iii,
148.

Hydrazine, preparation from aldehyde-
ammonia, Curtius and Jay, xl, 88.
Hydrocarbons of marsh-gas_ series,

physical properties, i, 471; poly-
merization, li, 76.
| Hydrochloric acid, preparation of pure,
ii, 480.
Hydrofluorie acid, vapor-density,
Thorpe and Hambly, vi, 385.
Hydrogen, combustion of, i, 392.
arsenide and hydrogen antimon-
ide, Brunn, ix, 398.
| chloride, decomposition of, Arm-
| strong, v, 74.
fluoride, ete., solidification of, iii,
| 149; vapor density, Thorpe and
Hambly, viii, 157.
| peroxide, action on chromic acid,
| Berthelot, viii, 74; from ether,
| Dunstan and Dymond, xl, 417
| sulphide, action on arsenic acid,

| Branner and Tomicek, vi, 62.

| Indium chloride, vapor density, vii, 73 ;
two new chlorides of, vii, 73.

| lodine, bromine and chlorine, method

| for detection of, Gooch and Brooks,

xl, 283; in haloid salts, Gooch and

Browning, ix, 188; phosphorus, and
sulphur, molecular mass in solution,

Beckmann, xl, 164.

Isomerism, geometrical, vii, 494.

Juglon, synthesis of, iv, 152.

Liquids, volatile, heat of vaporization,
vii, 225.

Lupanine, 1, 58.

| Magnesium carbonate, new, i, 57.

Magnesium and zine, Hirn, v, 414.

| Mercury, vapor pressure of, i, 218;

| volatility of, 1, 308.

Metallic oxides, Huorescence of, iii, 149.

Metals, lowering of freezing point,
Heycock and Neville, ix, 230.

Methane, density of liquid, iv, 224.

Molecular mass, determination by va-
por pressure, vil, 221; of dissolved
substances, Will and Bredig, viii,
325.

| weights, determination by freez-
ing-point, ii, 476; method for deter-
mining, Raoult, vi, 384.

Molecules, size of, v, 492.

| Nickel and cobalt, new metal in, vii,313.

|

9] VOLUMES

CHEMISTRY—

Nitrates in plants, ii, 75.

Nitrogen, atmospheric, fixation of by
soils, i, 391.

density of liquid, iv, 224.

dioxide, preparing, i, 151; and
tetroxide, density of, ‘at — 100°, iv,
395.

peroxide, molecular weight, Ram-
say, vi, 150.

in uraninite, Hillebrand, xl, 384.

Nitrosyl chloride, emission-spectrum,
Magnanini, ix, 518.

Nitry! chloride, existence of, i, 469.

Oil, paraffin, alkaloid-like bases in, iv,
398.

Organic compounds, absorption spec-
tra and composition, vii. 233.

Osmium, atomic mass, vii, 74.

Oxygen carriers, Lothar Meyer, v, 250;
percentage of, in air, Hempel, v, 76.
continuous production of, i, 391;
density of liquid, iv, 224; dissolved
in water, Thresh, ix, 398; evolution
of, iv, 225; spectrum, Janssen, Vi,
385; valence, Heyes, vi, 385; oxygen,
and nitrogen, combination in gaseous
explosions, vii, 225; oxygen, nitro-
gen and hydrogen, compressibility,
Vii, 225.

Ozone, boiling point, iv, 63, vili, 326;
production of, from oxygen, iv, 394;
ozone and formation of nitrates in
combustion, Ilosvay, xl, 251.

Periodic law, Mendeléeff, ix, 147.

Permanganates, ammonico-cobaltic, iv,
482.

Phenol constituents of blast furnace
tar, i, 220.

Phenylthiocarbamide, use ip optical |

work, Madan, vi, 388.
Phosphoric chloride, iii, 422.

Phosphorus, action of light on, Ped- |

ler, xl, 492; phosphorus, arsenic and
antimony at white heat, iv, 396;
phosphorus iv Iron Mt., Michigan,
Browne, vii, 299.
pentafluoride, iii, 305.
tetroxide, iii, 306.
Platinic fluoride, preparation, Moissan,
16:6, eulltsy
Potassium chlorate, decomposition, ili,
508.
chloride, decomposition by heat,
McLeod, viii, 158.
hydroxide, new hydrates of, iv, 64.
and sodium, combination with
ammonia, Joannis, ix, 315.
wave-length of red lines of, Des-
landres, v, 413; vi, 467.

9

A

XXXI-XL.

513

CHEMISTRY—

Raffinose in barley, i, 220.

Raoult’s molecular depression of the
freezing point, vii, 406.

Regnault’s weights of gases, correc-
tion of, vii, 495.

Seale, analysis of crystalline, ii, 318.

Selenic acid, Cameron and Macallan,
xl, 494.

Selenium chlorides, Chabrie, ix, 231.

Seminose and mannose, identity of,
Fischer and Hirschberger, viii, 159.

Silicates, natural, constitution of, Clark
and Schneider, xl, 303, 405, 452.

Silicium phosphate, hydrated, iii, 306.

Silicon, atomic weight of, iv, 397; in-
fluence on properties of iron and
steel, ili, 509.

Silico-carbonate, artificial, ili, 80.
Silver, allotropic forms of, Lea, vii,
476; viii, 47, 129, 237, 241, 476.

chloride, bromide, iodide, Lea, iii,
349; protosalts of, Lea, iii, 480,
489 ; chloride, combinations of, Lea,
iv, 384: silver chloride, darkened,
not an ‘oxy-chloride, Lea, vii, 356.

nitrate, heat produced by reaction
on solutions of metallic chlorides, ii,
uli).

silicate, formation, Hawkins, ix,
elite

Sodium carbonate, conversion
hydrate by lime, i PG)
electrolysis, ix, 232.

Solids, chemical action between, Hal-
lock, vii, 402.

Solubility and fusibility, Carnelley and
Thomson, vi, 383.

Solution, character of, iv, 483.

Solutions, concentration of, by gravity,
Gouy and Chaperon, v. 75; nature
of, Pickering, ix, 397, xl, 163.

Stalagmometer, Traube, v, 248.

Stannic acid, new, vii, 408.

Sugar yielded by hesperidin and nar-
ingin, iv, 65.

Sulphur, phosphorus, bromine and
iodine in solution, molecular mass,
vii, 74.

volatility of, i, 308.

Sulphuric acid, with water, magnetic
rotation of, ii, 477; vapor tension,
Perkins, xl, 301.

Suiphurous oxide, evolution of, iv, 225.

Synthesis of the glucoses and mannite,
vii, 493.

Tartrate solutions, circular polariza-
tion of, Long, viii, 264; xl, 275.
Tellurium, antimony and copper, new

element in, Griinwald, xl, 250.

into
made by

514

CHEMISTRY—

Tellurium, heat of combination of, iv,

482,
tetrachloride, vapor-density and

valence of, iv, 225.

Thermo - chemistry,
Becker, i, 120.

Thiophosphoryl fluoride, vii, 222.

Tin, atomic mass, vii, 314.

Tungsten, crystallized, Riddle, viii, 160. |

Valence, experiment to illustrate, Lep-
sius, vi, 62.

Vanadium, determination of, i, 471.

Vapor-density, below boiling point,
Demuth and Meyer, ix, 312.

Vapor-density method, Schall, xl, 415.

new law of,

Water and carbonic acid in salts, de- |

termination of, Chatard, vii, 468;
composition of, vii, 492.

Water, integral weight of, Hunt, v,
411.

Water of crystallization, ii, 231.

Xylose or wood-sugar, Wheeler and

Tollens, ix, 315.

Zine and sulphuric acid, interaction |
atomic weight, Reynolds |

of, v, 335;
and Ramsay, v, 250.
Zirconium, new oxide of, i, 470.
Chester, A. H., Catalogue of minerals, ii,
325; mineralogical notes, iii, 284;
crocidolite, Cumberland, R. I.,
Chicago astronomical society, reports of,
iv, 312.
China, Geology of, i,
Chittenden, R. H.,

ile

ii, 510; Vol. III, vii, 314.
Chun, C., Bibliotheca Zoologica, v, 420.

Claassen, E., analysis of biotite, ii, 244. |

Clark, W. B., new ammonite from Al-
pine Rheetic, v, 118.

Clarke, F. W., minerals of Litchfield, |

Maine, i, 262.

turquois from New Mexico, ii, 211;
lithia micas, ii, 353.

the mica group, iv, 131.

new meteorites, v, 264; nickel ores |

from Oregon, v, 483.
Constants of Nature, vi, 303.
nickel ore from Canada, vii, 372.
new occurrence of gyrolite, viii, 128;
theory of mica group, viii, 384.
constitution of natural silicates, xl,
303, 405, 452.

Clarke, J. M., Devonian faunas of New |

York, i, 404.

visual area in the trilobite, vii, 235. |

development of some Silurian Brach- |

iopoda, ix, 71; the Hercynian ques

tion, ix, 155; compound eyes of arth-|
ropoda, ix, 409.

GENERAL INDEX.

iv, 108. |

Studies in physiolog- |
ical chemistry, Vol. I, ii, 161; Vol. II, |

[10

| Clarke, L., and H. Sadler, Star-guide, i,
407

Clerke, A. M., History of Astromony, i,
406.
Climates, Croll’s hypotheses of, Woeikof,
| i, 162.
| Clouds, iridescence in, Stoney, iv, 146:
| summer, height of, iv, 233.
luminous night-, viii, 79.
Coal, of Canada, hygroscopicity of, Hoff-
| mann, xl, 92.
beds of Australia, plants of, Feist-
mantel, xl, 495.
of Rio Grande region, White, iti, 18.
Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1885 "Re-
port, iii, 429; xl, 260.
cruises of the “Blake,” v, 495.
Cold-waves, prediction, Russell, xl, 463.
| Collins, F. 8., Flora of Middlesex Co.,
|* Mass.; vi, 392.
| Color mixtures, iv, 67.
| photometry, Abney, vi, 292.
Colorado Scientific Society, ‘proceedings,
v, 88; vili, 255.
Colton, R. P., Practical Zoology, iii,
165.
| Colvin, V., Adirondack Land Survey, iv,
Pe AGO
Comets (Fabry) and (Bernard), i, 238;
story of Biela’s, Newton, i, 81; Comet
OC, 1886, spectrum, Sherman, ii, 157.
in 1886, iii, 428; in 1887, iii, 429;
| origin of, Kirkwood, iii, 60.
| Congress, International, of Electricians,
vii, 503; viii, 410.
of Geologists, see Geological Con-
gress.
| Constantin, Tertiary Flora of Australia,
vili, 493.
Convection, electr omagnetic effect of,
| Himstedt, ix, 153.
Cook, C. S., ‘mountain study of the spec-
| trum of aqueous vapor, ix, 258.

| Cook, G. H., Geology of New Jersey,
| 1886, iv, 71: vii, 232.
Cooke, J. P., chemical contributions of

Harvard laboratory, ii, 317.
| Cope, E. D., Upper Miocene in Mexico,
i, 301.
| Copper, electrolysis of, and electric cur-
| rents, v, 337.
See Chemistry.
Coral reefs of Solomon Islands, Guppy,
iv, 229.
elevated of Oahu, vii, 100; theory,
vii, 102.
of Hawaiian Is., Agassiz, vili, 169.
Corals, submerged banks in China Sea,
viii, 169.
Corals and Coral Islands, J. D. Dana, ix,
| 326, 410.

Heth VOLUMES

Cornish, R. H., Archzean rocks about
Norfolk, Ct., ix, 321; glacial scratches,
ix, 321.

Corona, solar, Bigelow, xl, 343.

Coulter, J. M., Manual of Botany. i, 76;
Revision of N. American Umbelliferee,
vil, 417.

Crafts, J. M., correction of Regnault’s
weights of gases, vil, 495.

Cramer, F., recent rock flexures, ix, 220.

Crew, H., rotation of the sun, v, 151;
viii, 204.

Crinoids, see Geology.

Critical pressure in solids, ii, 160.

Croll, J., hypotheses of geological cli-
mates, Woeikof, i, 161; Climate and
Cosmology, 1, 405; Stellar Evolution,
vii, 504; evidence of former Glacial
periods, vili, 66.

Crookes, W., on mosandria, etc., ii, 76;
genesis of the elements, ii, 400; ad-
dress to Chemical Society, viii, 486.

Crosby, W. O., Geological Collections,
Mineralogy, iii, 318; Geology of Black
Hills, Dak., vi, 153.

Cross, R. T., aquamarine from Colorado,
iii, 161.

Cross, W., topaz and garnet in rhyolite, i,
432; ptilolite, 11,117; slipping planes
and lamellar twinning in galena, Vii,
237; Denver Tertiary formation, vii,
261; secondary minerals of amphi-
bole and pyroxene groups, 1X, 359.

Cross-infertility, in evolution, Gulick, xl,
437. :

Crova, blue color of sky, viii, 491.

Crystals, force function in, i, 69.

Crystallographic transformations, zoe-
trope applied to, li, 164.

Crystallography, Baumhauer, ix, 75.

Chemical, Fock, viii, 494.

Index, Goldschmidt, ii, 485; v, 501;
vii, 162; viii, 494; xl, 260.

Elements of, Williams, xl, 424.

Curie, J. and P., electric dilatation of
quartz, vii, 495.

Currents, electric, see Electric.

Curtis, G. H., theory of the wind vane,
iv, 44.

Curves, isopycnic, iii, 148.

D

Dagincourt, Annuaire Géologique, i, 72;
v, 415.

Dakota, Geology of Black Hills, Crosby,
v, 153.

Dall, W. H., geology of Florida, iv, 161;
Gastropoda and Seaphopoda, viii, 254;
hinge of Pelecypoda and its develop-
ment, villi, 445.

Dame, L. L., Flora of Middlesex Co.,
Mass, vi, 392.

LOO. a hy, HLS

Dana, EK. S., crystallization of gold, ii,
132; meteorites from Utah and Mis-
souri, ii, 226; catalogue of meteorites
in the museum of Yale College, ii, Ap-
pendix; brookite from Arkansas, ii,
314; mineralogical notes, ii, 386;
crystallization of native copper, ii, 413.

crystalline form of pclianite, v, 243.

beryllonite, a new mineral, vi, 290.

new mineral, beryllonite, vii, 23;
contributions to the petrography of
the Sandwich Islands, vii, 441.

barium sulphate from Perkin’s Mill,
ix, 61; minerals of Branchville, Ct.,
ix, 201; tyrolite from Utah, ix, 271.

selenium and tellurium minerals
from Honduras, xl, 78.

Dana, J. D., Lower Silurian fossils from
the original Taconic, i, 241; Arnold
Guyot, i, 358; explosive volcanic erup-
tions, i, 395; eruption of Kilauea, i,
397; early history of Taconic investi-
gation, i, 399.

terms applied to metamorphism and
porphyritic structure, ii, 69; Forms of
Voleanoes, ii, 234; Taconic strati-
eraphy and fossils, ii, 236; Onus pro-
bandi left for others, ii, 240; A dis-
sected voleanic mountain, ii, 247.

on voleanic action, iii, 102; Manual
of Mineralogy and Lithology, iil, 243;
Taconic rocks and stratigraphy, ii,
270, 393; changes in Mt. Loa craters,
mons of the Taconic system, ili, 412.

changes in Mt. Loa craters; Pt. I,
Kilauea, iv, 81, 349.

Asa Gray, v. 181; changes in Mt.
Loa craters, Pt. I, Kilauea, v, 15,
213, 282; Cape Horn Geology, v, 83.

changes in Mt. Loa craters, Pt. IT,
Mokuaweoweo, vi, 14, 81, 167; brief
history of Taconic ideas, vi, 410.

Dodge’s observations on Halema’u-
ma’u, vii, 48; notes on Mauna Loa,
July, 1888, 51; geological history of
Maui and Oahu, vii, 81; deep troughs
of the oceanic depression, vii, 192,
242.

Sedgwick and Murchison, Cambrian
and Silurian, ix, 167, 237; work on
Characteristics of Volcanoes, with
facts from the Hawaiian Islands, ix,
323; Archean axes cf eastern N.
America, ix, 378; red color of some
sandstones, ix, 318; Corals and Coral
Islands, of, noticed, ix, 326, 416.

Rocky mountain protaxis and Post-
Cretaceous mountain making, xl, 181;
Long Island Sound in the Quaternary
era, xl, 425; submarine Hudson R.
channel, xl, 432.

516

Darton, N. H., Upper Silurian in Orange |
Co., N. Y., i, 209; lava flows and trap
sheets, N. iy viii, 134;
in central Appalachian Virginia, ix,
269.

Darwin, G. H., geological time, ii, 390; )
earth contraction and mountain mak- |

ing, v, 338.
Darwinism, Wallace, viii, 170.
See Evolution.
Daubrée, A., Les Eaux Souterraines, iv, |
403.
Davenport Academy, Proceedings,
82.

ii,

Davidson, G., submarine valleys on Pa- |

cific coast, U. S., iv, 69.
Davis, W. M., Earthquakes i in New Eng- |

land, i, 408.

notices of geological papers at Amer-
ican Association,
Connecticut valley, ii, 342.

notice of Hann’s meteorological
atlas, v, 263.

topographic development of Triassic |

formation of Conn. Valley, vii, 423.

rivers and valleys of Pennsylvania, |

viii, 414.

geographic development of northern
N. Jersey, ix, 404; trap sheets of
Connecticut Valley, ix, 404.

Davison, C., earth contraction and moun-
tain making, v, 338.

Dawson, G. M., earlier Cretaceous of N.
W. Canada, viii, 120; Cretaceous of
British Columbia, Nanaimo group, ix,
180.

Dawson, J. W., Saccamina Hriana, Vil,
318; notice of ‘‘ Fauna der Gaskohle,”’
etc., ix, 405: fossil plants from Mac-

kenzie and Bow Rivers, ix, 406; flora |
new

of Laramie of Canada, il, 242;
Krian plant, viti, 1, 80.
Day, D. F., Catalogue of Plants near

Niagara Falls, vi, 395.
Day, D. T., Mineral resources of U.S,
iii, 317; v, 257; vii, 162; xl, 423.

Daydon-Jackson, Index to Plant-Names,
iii, 320.

Day-light, penetration in water, Fol and |
Sarasin, vi, 67.

Deane, W., Morong’s journey in South
America, vii, 321.

DeBary, A., Comparative Morphology |
gi, Mycetozoa |

and Biology of the Fun
and Bacteria, iv, 411.

DeCandolle, A.,
Prod. vol. vi, Andropogonez, Auct.
K. Hackel, viii, 253.

Delgado, J. F. N., Bilobites, eic.,
Portugal, iv, 157; Supplement, vi,
154,

GENERAL INDEX.

basalt dikes

ii, 319; Triassic of |

Monographiz Phan. |

du

[12

Denison University Scientific Labora-
tories, Bulletin, i, 317; iv, 15) xi
499.

| Density pipette, 11, 231.

| Depths, see Ocean.

Derby, O. A., monazite in rocks, vii,
109.

| DesCloizeaux, A., crystallographic notes,

een O45

|Detmer, Das pfanzenphysiologische
Praktikum, v, 87.

| Dewey, C., on the Taconic, i, 399.

| Dickerson, E. N., Henry and the Tele-
graph, i, 69.

Dieterici, mechanical equivalent of heat,
Wa, title

_Dilatancy of media composed of rigid
particles in contact, i, 216.

| Diller, J. S., peridotite, iy WIS

from New Mexico, ii, 211.

| quartzose lava in northern California,
ili, 45; geology of northern California,

|) ahh, ae
mineralogical notes, vil, 216.
gold in calcite, ix, 160; basalt of
central Appalachian, Virginia, ix, 269.
sandstone dikes in California, xl,
334; Cretaceous rocks of northern
California, xl, 476.

Dinosauria, see GEOLOGY.

Dissipativity, theorem of maximum,
Becker, 1, 115.

| Déderlein, Die japanische Seeigel,
505.

Dodge, F. S., Kilauea after eruption of
1886, ili, 98; origin of cone in Kilauea,

iv, 70; observations on Halema’uma’u,
vii, 48.

| Dodge, W. W., localities of fossils in
Mass., vi, 56, 476; Lower Silurian
Graptolites from northern Maine, xl,
153.

Drake, 0. H.,
vii, 499.

Draper, Henry, memorial, ili, 429.

| Dredging, deep sea, Agassiz, xl, 497.

deposits from, Murray, i, 221.
Dudley, W. K., Cayuga Flora, ii, 245.
Dudley, W. TC, curious occurrence ot

| vivianite, xl, 120.

| Dumont, A., ‘comparative anatomy ot
Malvacez, Bombacee, ete., vi, 75.

Dunean, L., B. A. unit of resistance, viii,
230.

| Dunnington, F. P., deposits of oxides of
manganese, vi, 175.

| Dust, effect of electricity on, iv, 151.

in the atmosphere, Aitkin, ix, 316.

Dutton, C. E., Mt. Taylor and Zuni Pla-
teau, iv, 155; speed of propagation of
Charleston earthquake, v, 1.

turquois

Y;

composition of a brick,

13] VOLUMES

Dwight, W. B., fossiliferous Potsdam at
Poughkeepsie, i, 125; fossils from
Canaan, N. Y., i, 248.

clay-beds on the Hudson, ui, 241.

fossils of Canaan, N. Y., iii, 410.

Potsdam, and Pre-Potsdam near
Poughkeepsie, N. Y., iv, 27.

explorations in Wappinger Valley
limestones, N. Y., viii, 139.

fossils of Dutchess Co., N. Y., ix,

_ 1; of the Taconic at Hillsdale, N. Y.,

x15 256:

E
Hakins, L. G., ptilolite, ii, 117; on xan-
thitane, v, 418; two sulphantimonites,
Col., vi, 450; new stone meteorite, ix,
59; meteoric iron from N. Carolina, ix,
395.
Earl, J., Laboratory work, xl, 331.
Earth currents, iii, 307; iv, 399.
and luminiferous ether, relative mo-
tion of, Michelson and Morley, iv,
333.
mathematical theories of, Wood-
ward, vill, 337.
rigidity, proof of, Becker, ix, 336.

Earthquake countries, construction of |

buildings in, Milne, xl, 262.

Rarthquakes, American, Rockwood, ii, 7. |

of Andalusia, 1884, v, 313.

in California, Holden, vii, 392.

Charleston, ii, 71; Newcomb and
Dutton, v, 1.

Japanese, iv, 68.

magnetic effect, ili, 423.

observations of, methods for, v, 97.

intensity in San Francisco, v, 427.
in Switzerland, iii, 312.
Eaton, A., Geological work, i. 399.
Eaton, D. C., notice of Gray’s Manual,
ix, 240.

Eclipse, 1887, in connection with elec-

tric telegraph, Todd, iii, 226.
expedition in Japan, Todd, vi, 474.
Egleston. T., decay of building stones,
ii, 243; Catalogue of Minerals and
Synonyms, viii, 494.
Ehlers, E., Report on Annelids, v, 424.
Hichler, A. W., Flora Brasiliensis. 1, 158;
Jahrbuch des botanischen Gartens,
iii, 82.

Einhorn, A., force function in crystals, |

i, 69.

Eldridge, G. H., on grouping formations |

of middle Cretaceous, viii, 313.
Electric arc, compared with sunlight,
Langley, viii, 438.
batteries, internal resistance meas-
ured, Peirce and Willson, viii, 465.

CO OGE adh 517%.

Electric cell, standard, Clarke, Carhart,
viii, 402.
bichromate of soda, Harding,
ili, 61.
charges, negative, dissipation by
sunlight and daylight, Elster and
Geitel, viii, 411.
conductivity of liquids, effect of
pressure on,-Barus, xl, 219.
current, effect of magnetic force on
equipotential lines of, Hall, vi, 131,
277.
currents, alternating and continu-
ous in relation to the human body,
Lawrence and Harris, xl, 420.
measurement of, Kennelly, vi,
453.
direction and velocity, Nichols
and Franklin, vii, 103.
arising from deformation, vii,
495.
dilatation of quartz, vii, 495.
Directory, vii, 504.
discharges in gases and flames,
Wiedemann and Kbert, vi, 467.
in magnetic fields, Witz, xl,
Sollee
surface transmission of, Car-
hart, i, 256.
disturbances, velocity of transmis-
sion, Thomson, xl, 330.
field, effect of moving dielectric in,
Rontgen, vi, 467.
lights compared photometrically,
viii, 100.
oscillations in air, Trowbridge and
Sabine, xl, 166.
oscillatory discharge, ix, 519.
potential, measured by work, Mayer,
ix, 334.
radiation, viii, 75, 217.
ratio of electromagnetic to electro-
static units, vili, 289, 298.
resistance, B. A. unit, viii, 230; of
batteries, vill, 465.
of soft carbon, Mendenhall, ii,
218.
of stressed glass, Barus, vii,
339.
standards, iv, 399; the ohm, iv
228.
undulations, Sarrasin and De la Rive,
1x, 233;
units, names adopted, viii, 410.
vibrations, in rarefied air without
electrodes, Moses, ix, 400.
waves in conductors, viii, 246.
experiments on, vi, 387; vii,
227, 316, 409; ix, 233; xl, 166,
330.

?

518

Electricians, Congress of, vii, 503; viii,
410.
Electricity, Absolute Measurements in,
Gray, ix, 235.
atmospheric, effect of solar radia-
tion on, vili, 161.
from condensation of vapor, ili, 71.

disruptive discharges of, in gases, |

Wolf, viii, 162.

dissipation of fog by, vii, 226.

Elementary Lessons in, Thompson,
ix, 235.

and Light, Rayleigh, vi, 460.

magneto-optical generation of, Shel-
don, xl, 196.

in Modern Life, de Tunzelmann, ix,
401.

passage of through gases, Shuster,
viii, 492.

Practical, Ayrton, iv, 152.

ratio of electromagnetic to electro-

static unit of, Rowland, Hall, and)

Fletcher, viii, 289; Rosa, vili, 298.
sewage purification by, vili, 492.
transmission of, ii, 307.

of power by, Deprez, viii, 411.

Electrodynamic waves, Hertz’s experi- |

ments on, vil, 227, 316, 409.
Electrolysis by alternating currents,
Maneuvrier aud Chappuis, vi, 152;
of water, von Helmholtz, vi, 293.
Electrolytes, resistance of, vil, 228.
Electromagnetic waves,
Fitzgerald, vi, 387.
Electrometer, absolute, ii, 72
aperiodic, iii, 307.

calibration of, Shea, v, 204; capil-

lary, Pratt, v, 143.

pendulum, experiments with, Mayer,
ix, 327.

spring-balance, Mayer, ix, 513.

Electromotive force of voltaic are, iii,

237.
forces, direct and counter, Carbart,
9:
divergence from thermo-chemi-
cal data, vii, 315.
Electrostatic battery, i, 153.
and electromagnetic units, iil, 152

Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund, viii,
TO

Emerson, B. K., ‘“ Bernardstoa series” of
metamorphic Upper Devonian rocks,
xl, 263, 362.

Emerson, J. 8., Kilauea after eruption,
1886, ili, 87.

Emmons, K., at Williams College, i, 399;
work on Taconic, i, 241; views of
Taconic system, ili, 412.

Emmons, 8. F., Geology and Mining
Industry of Leadville, Col., v, 84.

GENERAL INDEX.

interference, |

[14

| Energy in permanent strains, Barus, vi,
| 468.
potentialized in permanent changes
of molecular configurations, Barus,
vili, 193.
radiant, history of doctrine of, Lang-
leyanvaly le
and electrical, Trowbridge, Viii, .
217.
of standard candle, Hutchins,
Xe OOAe
and vision, Langley, vi, 359.
| Engel, A., Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfam-
ilien, etc., iv, 14; v, 259; vill, 415;
Ibe 0S 2b, OB.
| Engelmann, G., Botanical Works, vi, 76.
| Hngine and Boiler Trials, Hand Book,
Thurston, xl, 262.
non-condensing steam, Nipher, viii,
281.
Ensign, J. R., determination of bromine,
xl, 145.
| Entomology for Beginners, Packard, vi,
2911.
_ Ericsson, J., moon’s surface, ii, 326.
Htheridge, R., Jr., Blastoidea in British
Museum, ii, 409.
| Ethnology, 6th annual Report of Bureau
| of, viii, 420.
Evolution, cross-infertility in,

Gulick,
| xl, 437; utilitarianism in relation to,
| Gulick; xl, 1; divergent, and the Dar-
winian theory, Gulick, ix, 21.
of the Arietidze, Hyatt, ix, 243.
| Exhibition of inplements against erypto-
gams and parasites, i, 160.
Expansion, determination of the coeffi-
cient of cubical, Mayer, xl, 323.
| Exposition Universelle, Paris, xl, 96.
Kyerman, J., Triassic foot-primts, i, 72;
| Mineralogy of Pennsylvania, vii, 501;
Determinative Mineralogy, xl, 92.

F

Farlow, W. G., botanical notices, i, 479 ;
iv, 75, 495; vii, 168, 416.

Index of the Fungi of U.S., vii, 79.

Fauna, see Zoology.

Feistmantel, Coal and Plant bearing beds
of EK. Australia, xl, 495.

Fernando de Noronha, Geology of, vii,
145, 178; ix, 247.

Ferrel, W , law of thermal radiation, viii,
3; Treatise on Winds, vill, 420;
Weber’s law of thermal radiation, ix,
USHte

Fewkes, J. W., new Rhizostomatous
Medusa, iii, 119; deep-sea Medusee,
v, 166. i

Fisher, D., meteorite from St. Croix Co.,

lh eWASsrivaws cule

15] VOLUMES

Fisher, W. W., Elementary Chemistry,
val, 0),

Fisheries and Fishing Industries of U.
S., Goode, viii, 169.

Flame, sensitive, as a means of research,
Stevens, vii, 257.

Fletcher, L. B., ratio of electromagnetic
to electrostatic unit of electricity, viii,
289.

Flight, W., History of Meteorites, v, 87.

Flora, see Botany.

Florida, Explorations in, Heilprin, iv, |

230; Geology of, Dall, iv, 161; State

Geol. Report, Kost, iv, 72; Miocene, |

Langdon, viii, 322; Mammalian re-

mains, Leidy, ix, 321; structure of, |

Johnson, vi, 230.

Fluorescence, Boisbaudran, ii, 481; Wal- |

ter, v1, 67

Fock, A., Chemische Krystallographie, |

viii, 494.

Foeerste, A. F., Cambrian from Nahant,
Mass., ix, 71.

Fontaine, W. M., Potomac Flora, ix, 520;
xl, 168.

Foord, A. H., Fossil Cephalopoda in |

British Mus., Pt. I, vii, 413.

Forbes, 8. A., diseases of insects, ii, 81.

Force, measurement of, by gravitation,
We PDax

Forces, electromotive, measurement of,
v, 252.

Ford, S. W., fossils from Taconic of!

Emmons, i, 248;°Silurian Brachiopod,
i, 466, 481; Billingsia, ii, 325; age of
Swedish Paradoxides beds, ii, 473.
Forel, Alpine glaciers, ii, 77; xl, 497.
Foshay, P. M., preglacial drainage of
Western Pennsylvania, xl, 397.
Fossil, see Geology.
Franklin, W. S., destruction of passivity

of iron in nitric acid by magnetization, |

iv, 419; electromotive force of mag-

netization, v, 290; direction and ve-|

locity of electric current, vii, 103;
spectro-photometric comparison of
sources of artificial illumination, viii,
100.

Frazer, P., Congress of Geologists, i,
154, 403, 481.

Fritsch, A., Fauna der Gaskohle, etc.,
ix, 405.

Fulgurites, Rutley, vii, 414.

G

Gaines, M. R., mineral localities in Litch- |

field, Conn., iv, 406.
Galvanometer, new form of, iii, 70.
mirror, mode of reading, Willson,
vi, 50.

OOM bp 519

|Ganong, W. F., economic Mollusca of

| New Brunswick, ix, 163.

/Garman, S., living Cladodont shark, i,

[Be

Garrison, F. L., Assayer’s Manual, viii,

| eae

Gas Analysis, Hand-book, Winkler, i,

153.

| battery, improved form, Mond and

Langer, xl, 417.
moisture in, after drying by phos-

phorus pentoxide, Morley, iv, 199.

| natural, v, 258; rock pressure on,

in Ohio, Orton, ix, 225.

| volumes, determination of, Lunge,

1b.e BISKG.

Gases, critical temperatures and pres-

sures of, i, 389; explosion of, v, 413;

law of flow, i, 468; passage of elec-

tricity through, Shuster, viii, 492;

Regnault’s weight of corrected, vii,

495; viscosity of, at high tempera-

| tures, Barus, v, 407, vii, 316.

| Gattinger, A., Tennessee flora, iii, 426.

Gee, W. W. H., Elementary Practical
Physics, vol. ii, v, 79; Practical Phys-

| ics, v, 336.

Geikie, A., Class-book of Geology, ii,

79; Teachings of Geography, iv, 490;

volcanic action, Tertiary, in British

| Isles, vii, 230.

Gems and Precious stones of North
America, Kunz, ix, 521.

Genealogical tree in paleontology, Judd,
vi, 154.

|Genth, F. A., contributions to Miner-
alogy, 1, 2293 iv, 159; vill, 198% ix,
47; No. 48, xl, 114; No. 49, xl, 199;
jarosite from Utah, ix, 73 ; lansfordite,
nesquehonite, ix, 121.

Geodesy, Bibliography of, Gore, ix, 80.

Geographic Magazine, National, No. 1,
vil, 242.

Geography, Teachings of, Geikie, iv,
490.

|

Geological Annual, Agincourt, ili, 159;
v, 415.

Congress, international, Frazer’s
report, i, 154, 403, 481; iii, 157, 511;
Gilbert on work of, iv, 430; at Lon- -
don, vi, 79, 389; American Report to,
vi, 469, 476a; American Organizing
Committee for the Philadelphia meet-
ing, vi, 468; Amer. Committee, vii,
499; do. at New York, xl, 166.

evidences of Hvolution, Heilprin, v,
256.

fund, Hayden memorial, vi, 79.

map of United States, iii, 77; of
Berkshire, iii, 393.

GEOLOGICAL REPORTS AND SURVEYS—

GEOLOGY—

520

GENERAL INDEX.

[16

Geological papers at American Asso- | GEOoLOo¢Y—

ciation, notices of, Davis, ii. 319. |
Railway guide for America, Macfar- |
lane, xl, 342.
Record for, 1879, v, 416; 1880-|
1884, ix, 324.
Reports, see below.
and Scientific Bulletin, vi, 154.
Society, American, vi, 294; vii, |
162, 503; viii, 328; ix, 158, 402; xl,
91, 332. |
of France, vii, 503. |
London, medals of, vi, 79; pre- |
sidential address, Blanford, xl, |
254; medals, i, 408. |
time, Darwin, ii, 390; Nomencla- |
ture, li, 406.

Alabama, iii, 78.

Antigua, i, 226.

Arkansas, 1887, v, 255, 264; 1888,
vii, 411; 1888, vol. ii, viii, 413. |

Canada, 1885, iii, 316; 1887-88, ix, |
238.

China, i, 71.

Florida, iv, 72.

India, ii, 78.

Kentucky, vii, 232.

Minnesota, 1885, ili, 159; 1886, v, 84;
1887, v, 500; vii, 231, 497; 1888,
ibe, Bs |

Missouri, ix, 72, 520. |

Nebraska, li, 321. |

New Jersey, 1885, iii, 79; 1886, iv,
71; 1887, vi, 71; final report, vol.
i, Cook, vii, 232. |

New York, i, 311; v, 85, 499; ix, |
155. |

Ohio, ii, 241; Economic Geology, vol.
vi, vi, 68.

Pennsylvania, i, 70, 227; ii, 162, 408;
v, 85, 415; vi, 153.

Portugal, vi, 154.

Rhode Island, v, 415.

Scandinavia, map of, ix, 521.

South Carolina, i, 73.

Swedish, i, 71.

United States, i, 229, 310, 401; maps
by, ii, 77; vol. vi, iv, 412; vol. vii,
vii, 502; Bulletins, Nos. 45-53, ix, |
72; vol. viii, xl, 90, 334.

Virginias, i, 193.

Washington and vicinity, i, 473.

Western Texas, ii, 73.

Agnotozoic, Chamberlain, v, 254.

Alkali-lake waters, Chatard, vi, 146.

Alps, Swiss, geological history of, v,
80

Ammonite, new, from Alpine Rheetic,
y, 118.

Animikie and Vermillion series, un-
conformability between, Winchell,
iv, 314,

Anticlinals, recent, ii, 324.

Antlitz der Erde, vol. ii, Suess, vi, 72.

Appomattox Formation, McGee, xl, 15.

Arachnidan, Carboniferous, i, 310.

Archean, areas of New Jersey and
New York, Britton, vi, 71.

axes of eastern N. America, Dana,
1b. Uitsk
of Minnesota, vii, 231, 497; of
Norway, vii, 498.
Penokee-Gogebic series of, Van
Hise, i, 453.
plant, Britton, vi, 71.
rocks, metamorphism of, Irving,
vill, 493.
Minnesota, Winchell, ix, 67.
Norfolk, Ct., Cornish, ix, 321.

Archeocyathus of Billings, Walcott,
iv, 145.5 vii, 234°

Arthrolycosa antiqua of Harger,
Beecher, viii, 219; ix, 166.

Atlantic basin, age of, Hull, ii, 407.

Atlantic slope, middle, three forma-
tions of, McGee,v, 120, 328, 367, 448.

Bermuda Islands, Heilprin, viii, 418.

Billingsia, Ford, ii, 325.

Bilobites de Portugal, Delgado, vi, 154.

Black Hills, Dak., Crosby, vi, 153.

Blastoidea in British Museum, ii, 409.

Blastoids, Crinoids and Cystids, Wachs-
muth and Springer, iv, 232.

Brachiospongidee, Beecher, vii, 316.

Brontops robustus, restoration, Marsh,
vil, 163.

Building Stone in N. Y., Smock, v, 500,

stones, decay of, ii, 243; dura-
bility, ii, 319.

Calciferous formation in the Cham-
plain Valley,.Brainerd and Seely, ix,
235.

fossils near Rhinebeck, N. Y.,
Dwight, viii, 150.

California, northern, iti, 152.

Cambrian, Bristol Co., Mass., Shaler,
viii, 76.

fossils from Stissing, N. Y.,
Dwight, viii, 139; from Nahant,
Mass., Foerste, ix, 71.

fossils, Walcott, vi, 161; ix, 159.

of N. America, Walcott, ii, 138.

in New York, ii, 322.

Olenellus fauna in, Walcott, vii,
Bide will, 29:

of Province of Quebec, Ells, Wal-
cott, ix, 101.

in Salt Range, India, Warth, ix,
159.

17] VOLUMES

GEOLOGY—
Cambrian tracks in the Animikie, beds,
' Selwyn, Matthew, ix, 145.
trilobites from Sardinia, Mene-
ghini, vi, 294.
and Silurian ; Sedgwick and Mur-
chison, J. D. Dana, ix, 167, 237.
Cape Horn geology, Belemnites, v, 83.
Carbonic and other gaseous emana-

tions at Death Gulch, Weed, ix, 320. |

Carboniferous
viii, 186.

corals, iv, 490.

flora and fauna, R. I., recent dis-
coveries in, Lesquereux, Packard,
Walk, AS). ZEN

formation in 8. E. England, Boyd-
Dawkins, ix, 401.

limestone, etc., in British Colum-
bia, ix, 238.

Lower, of Appalachian area,
Penn. and Virginias, Stevenson, iv,
37.

plants, Tubicaulis of Cotta, Sten-
zel, vill, 164.

series in central Texas, Tarr, ix,
404.

trilobites, Vogdes, v, 500.

Cephalopoda, Fossil, Brit. Mus., Pt. I,
Foord, vii, 413.

Ceratopsidze, additional characters of,
Marsh, ix, 418; skull of, Marsh,
viii, 501.

Ceratops montanus, Marsh, vi, 477.

Cervus Americanus, i, 72.

Chert-beds, organic origin of, Hinde,
iv, 405; xl, 256.

Chesapeake Bay, topography, ii, 323.

_Clay-beds on the Hudson, ii, 241.

Clay, blue, from Maine, Robinson, iv,
AOT.

Coal, of Rio Grande region, age of,
White, iii, 18.

Cobscook Bay, Shaler, ii, 35.

Cockroaches, fossil, Scudder, vii, 235.

Colorado, southwestern, ii, 320.

Conglomerates, origin of, ii, 324.

Joral reefs, elevated, of Oahu, vii, 100;
Darwin’s theory, vii, 102; forma-
tion of, Guppy. iv, 229; of Ha-
waiian Islands, Agassiz, viii, 169.

Corals and Bryozoa, Hall, v, 85.

Cortlandt series, Williams, v, 438; vi,
254; extension of, Kemp, vi, 247.

Coteau, Missouri. i, 69.

Cretaceous of British Columbia, Daw-
son, ix, 180.

in northwestern Canada, i, 155.

Dinosauria, Marsh, vi, 477; viii,
173; ix, 81, 418.

flora, Newberry, ii, 77, 322

3

echinoderms, Keyes,

XXXI-XL. 521
GEOLOGY—
Cretaceous fossils, Brazil, White, v,
255. j
history, North American, Hill,
Vii, 282.

Kansas, bird track from, ix, 166,
on Long Island, ii, 324.
Lower, of New Mexico, White,
ix, 70.
of southwest- N. America,
White, viii, 440.
Mammalia, discovery of, Marsh,
Pig Sil Pity via letets
Manitoba, Tyrrell, xl, 227.
metamorphic rocks of California,
i, 248.
Middle, method of grouping, Eld-
ridge, viii, 313.
northern California, Diller, xl,
476.
plants from Martha’s Vineyard, D.
White, ix, 93.
rocks of N. W. Canada, Dawson,
vili, 120.
Roemer’s Fauna der Kreide von
Texas, vii, 318.
of South America, north part,
Karsten, ix, 319.
Texas section of, Hill, iv, 287.
of Texas, invertebrate fossils,
GG ix 2D
Upper of eastern and southern U.
S., Hill, viii, 468.
and Yertiary, Brazil, Branner, vii,
412.
in Arkansas and Texas, Hill
and Penrose, vili, 468.
Cross-timbers, Texas, geology of, Hill,
ili, 291,
Deposits of vertebrates, making, i,
398.
Desmostylus, Marsh, v, 95.
Devonian, barnacle, viii, 79.
Bernardston Series of
Kmerson, xl, 263, 362.
Canada, Fossil Fishes of, Whit-
eaves, viii, 249.
Cayuga Lake,
321.
Connecticut Vally, ii, 324.
faunas of New York, i, 404.
plant, new, Dawson, viii, 1, 80.
plants, Ohio, Newberry, ix, 71.
problematic organism, Knowlton,
vii, 202.
system, N. America, v, 1; of De-
vonshire, H. 8. Williams, ix, 31.
Diatom beds and bogs of the Yellow-
stone Park, Weed, ix, 321.
Dinichthys from Ohio, i, 405.

rocks,

New York, ii,

Dinocerata, new, Scott, i, 303.

522

GEOLOGY—

Dinosauria of Europe and America,
comparison of principal forms of,
Marsh, vil, 323;
Marsh tivities ole ix Sill mew
Potomac formation, Marsh, v, 89.

Dislocations of earth’s crust, v, 500.

GENERAL INDEX.

new American, |

Drainage in Central Texas, superim- |

position of, Tarr, xl, 359.
Drift, Irish Esker, Kinahan, ili, 276.
sands in Maine, Stone, i, 133.
Dust particles in atmosphere, v, 413.
Earth, diatomaceous, Nebraska, v, 86.

Elements of Geology, Giimbel, v, 341. |

Eozoonal rock, Manhattan
Gratacap, ili, 374.

Eozoon Canadense, Dawson, vi, 390;
G. P. Merrill, vii, 189.

Erosion on Hawaii Is., vii, 91; on
Tahiti, Dana, ii, 247.

Fauna of British India, Pt. I.. Mam-
malia, Blanford, vi, 297.

Faunas and floras, fossil, White, iti,
364. -

Faune der Calcaire d’Erbray, Barrois,
viii, 164,

island,

Faults, normal, origin, Reade, ix, 51: |

Southwest Virginia, Stevenson, iii,

262: and structure of Basin Region,

LeConte, viii, 257.
Fernando de Noronha, Pt. I, Branner,

vii, 145; ix, 247; Pt. II, Williams, |

vii, 178.

Fishes, Devonian and Carboniferous,
ii, 322; Devonian, Whiteaves, viii,
249.

fossil, new, Newberry, v, 498.

Paleozoic, of N. Amer., New- |

berry, xl, 255.

Jurassic, Fauna, New South Wales, |

Woodward, xl, 497.
Triassic, Newberry, vi, 78.
Flexure, in rocks, recent, Cramer, ix,
220.
Florida, Dall, iv, 161; structure of,
Johnson, vi, 230.
Formes du Terrain, de la Noé, vi, 390.

Fossils in crystalline rocks of Nor- |
way, Reusch, vii, 235; Littleton, |
N. H., Pumpelly, v, 79; Hitchcock, |

v, 255;
476.

in Mass., Dodge, vi, 56, |

Fulgurites, Mt. Viso, Rutley, vii, 414. |
Gas, natural in Pennsylvania, i, 309; |

Gas-wells on anticlinals, White, i,
393.

Geologie, Hyades, v, 83.
des Minsterthals, Schmidt, v, 346.

Geology, vol. ii,
and Mining Industry, Leadville,Col.,
Emmons, v, 84.

Prestwich, v, 414; |

[18

GEOLOGY—

Gimbel’s Elements, v, 341.

Geyser waters, analyses, Gooch and
Whitfield, vii, 234.

deposits, formation of, Weed, vii,
351, 501; arsenic in, Hague, iv, 471.

Geysers, soaping, Hague, viii, 254.

Glaciers, see Quaternary below and
glacial, glaciers.

Goniolina in’ the Texas Cretaceous,
Hill, xl, 64.

“Grand-Gulf” formation of
States, Johnson, viii, 213.
Hallopoda, distinctive characters of

the order, Marsh, ix, 415.

Hawkesbury beds, Australia, Feist-
mantel, xl, 496; A. S. Woodward,
adh AGI '

Hudson River channel, submarine,
Dana, xl, 432. :
Huronian group, Irving, iv, 204, 249,
365; note on, C..L. Herrick, iv, 72;
origin of the name, Winchell, iv, 71;

original, Winchell, vii, 497.

Insects, earliest winged, i, 71.

Invertebrates, Eocene of Miss., and
Ala., Meyer, iv, 159; N.. A. Jur-
agsic. ili, 79.

Iron ores of Michigan, ete., Van Hise,
vii, 32; Browne, vii, 299; origin
of, Irving, 255.

Tron — sulphides,
Julien, vi, 295.

Iroquois Beach and birth of Lake On-
tario, xl, 443.

Keokuk beds, Iowa, Gordon, xl, 295.

Koninckina and_ related genera,
Beecher, xi, 211.

Lake Agassiz. upper beaches of, Up-
ham, v, 86.

age in Ohio, iv, 490.
Bonneville, Gilbert, i, 284.

Lamellibranchiata, Devonian, Williams,
li, 192.

Laramie of Canada, flora of, ii, 242.

group, Flora of, Ward; iv, 487.
relation to earlier and later
formations, White, v, 432.

Lassen Peak district, Diller, xl, 91.

Lepteenisca, new brachiopod from the
Lower Helderberg, Beecher, xl, 238.

Limestone, Tully, ii, 320; of Chatham,
N. Y., and their relation to Hudson
R. shales and Taconic, Bishop, ii,
438.

Lingula with cast of peduncle, Wal-
eott, ix, 159.

Long Island, iv, 153.

Mammals, fossil, American Jurassic,
Marsh, ili, 327. (

British museum, Lydekker, v, 256.

Gulf

decomposition of,

19]

GEOLOGY—

Mammals, White River formation, v,
85.
new, Marsh, iv, 323.
Mesozoic, Osborn, vi, 390.
Triassic, iv, 70.
Manganese, deposits of, Dunnington,
val neliio:

Marls, New Jersey, Mollusea of, ii,

320, 324.

Marmots, geological work of, iv, 405.

Mastodon, llama, ete., from Florida, i,
403; with fragments of charcoal at |
Attica, Wyoming Co., N. Y., viii, |
249.

Metamorphic rocks of Alps, fossils in,
v, 80; S. HE. New York, Merrill, ix,
383.

Metamorphism in California Cretace- |
ous, Becker, i, 348; ix, 68.

contact, near Peekskill, Williams,
vi, 254.

facts bearing on, Winchell, vii,
497; Reusch, vii, 498; gradual
variation in intensity, v, 82.

terms applied to, Dana, ii, 69.

Mollusca of New Jersey marls, ii, 320,
324.

Mon Louis Island, Langdon, xl, 237.

Mountain making, v, 338, 415; post-
Cretaceous, Dana, xl, 181.

Mountain hmestones, Penn, iii, 158.

Mt. Taylor and Zufi Plateau, iv, 155.

Niagara, recession of, ii, 322.

North American Geology and Paleeon-
tology, Miller, viii, 328.

Nummulites up the Indus valley at a
height of 19,000 ft., vii, 413.

Obsidian cliffs, Iddings, vii, 502.

Olenellus (?) Kjerulfi, Matthew, i, 472.

Oolite, Iowa and Penn., xl, 246.

Ore deposits, 1, 474.

Oregon, surface geology of, v, 475.

Ostracoda from Colorado, i, 404.

Ovibos cavifrons from Iowa, McGee,
iv, 217.

Paradoxides, Acadian, Matthew, ili,
388, 390.

beds of Swedish, age of, Ford, ii,
473.

Paleeocrinoidea, revision of, i, 311; |
iii, 154.

Paleeohatteria of Credner, and the |
Proganosauria, Baur, vii, 310.

Paleolithic Man in Northwest Mid- |
dlesex, Brown, v, 255.

Palzeontology, Contributions to, Ul- |
rich, ii, 78; Miller’s American, 1x, |
67; New York, Hall, v, 85, 499;
work on, by Steinmann and Déder-

VOLUMES XXXI—-XL.

lein, ix, 240.

523

GEOLOGY—

Permian, Kadaliosaurus priscus of
Credner, notice of, Baur, ix, 156;
of Bohemia, Fritsch, notice of, by
Dawson, ix, 405.

Petroleum and gas of Ohio, ii, 241,

Phosphate of calcium, nature and ori-
gin of deposits of, Penrose, vii,
413.

Plants, fossil, Araucarioxylon of Kraus,
Knowlton, xl, 257.

Brotfruchtbaums, tiber die Reste
eines, Nathorst, xl, 257.

Calamites, fructification of, Wil-
liamson, vi, 71.

Coal Measures, Williamson, v,
256.

flora of Australia and Tasmania,
Feistmantel, xl, 495.

dei tufi del Monte Somma, Mes-
chinelli, xl, 258.

geographical distribution, Ward,
x90)

Jurassic from Japan, Yokojama,
vili, 414.

Leaves, determination of fossil,
Ward, i, 370.

in Staten and Long Island clays,
i, 403.

nomenclature of, i, 236.

Mesozoic, Newberry, vi, 70.

Palaophytologie, Solms-Laubach,
Wik U2

Paléontologie végétale, Revue
des travaux, De Saporta, xl, 422.

Potomac, Fontaine, ix, 520; xl,
168; Ward, vi, 119.

remains, problematical, from Ohio,
Lesquereux, xl, 258.

Rheetic, from Honduras, New-
berry, vi, 342.

tree-trunk in hydromica schist,
In elo Ss

Williamsonia angustifolia,
thorst, vi, 391.

Wood, silicified, Arizona, Knowl-
ton, vii, 77.

Platyceras, sedentary habits of, Keyes,
vi, 269.

Pleurocoelus, Marsh, v, 90.

Post-tertiary deposits of Manitoba,
Tyrrell, xl, 88.

Pot-hole of remarkable size, Penn., iv,
489,

Potsdam and Pre-Potsdam,near Pough-
keepsie, Dwirzht, iv, 27; Dwight,
i, 125.

Preglacial drainage of Pennsylvania,
Foshay, xl, 397.

Primordial fossils, Canada, Rominger,
iv, 490.

Na-

524

GEOLOGY—

Proboscidea in British Museum, Ly-
dekker, iv, 314.
Pteropod, St. Jobn Group, Matthew,
Ty, 4s
Puget Group, Washington, White, vi,
443.
Quartzite, formation of, Irving, 1, 225.
Quaternary, Champlain period, Con-
necticut lake of, iv, 404.
composition of brick from clay of,
vil, 499.
history of Mono Valley, Califor-
nia, Russell, ix, 402.
Long Island Sound in, Dana, xl,
425.
Mammals of Florida, ete., Leidy,
ix, 321.
shells near Boston, Upham, vii,
359.
of Utah, Gilbert, i, 284.
See Glacial.
Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific
slope, Becker, ix, 68.
Red color of rocks, origin of, Russell,
io lt) Dana wrx, 38:
River beds, California, LeConte, ii, 167.
Rivers in western N.S. Wales, water
received by, ix, 404.

and valleys of Pennsylvania, Mor- |

ris, vill, 414.

Rocky Mountain protaxis, Dana, xl, |

181.
Roth's Geologie, v, 257.
Saccamina Hriana, Dawson, vii, 318.
Salt Range in India, Waagen, x], 91.
Sand-drift rock-sculpture, vii, 413.
Sandstone, eeolian, of Fernando de
Noronha, Branner, ix, 247.
dikes in California, Diller, xl, 334.
Sauropoda, new genus, Marsh, v, 89.
Schists, origin of ferruginous, Irving,
li, 255.
Scorpion, fossil, i, 228.
Sediments, origin of American, Hull,
ii, 407.
Siderite-basins of the Hudson River
epoch, Kimball, xl, 155.
Sierra Nevada, elevation of, LeConte,
ii, 167.
Siliceous sinter, formation of, Weed,
Vals Soll SOME

Silurian Brachiopoda, Development of, |

Beecher and Clarke, ix, 71.
Brachiopod, Ford, i, 466.

Clinton group fossils, Foerste, xl, |

252.

GENERAL INDEX.

Helderberg, Lower, in New York, |

Williams, i, 139.

Lower, fossils in, Columbia Co., |

N. Y., Bishop, ix, 69.

[20

| GEOLOGY—

Silurian, Lower, in Dutchess Co., N.
Y., Dwight, ix, 69.
graptolites from northern
Maine, Dodge, xl, 153.

of Province of Quebec, Ells, Wal-
cott, ix, 101.

sponges, in the Chazy, Dawson,
ix, 320.

Upper: The Hercynian Question,
Clarke, ix, 155; of Hastern Maine,
Bailey, ix, 239.

in Orange Co., N. Y., Darton,
i, 209.

Sirenian, new fossil from Cal., Marsh,
v, 94. :

Slaty cleavage, i, 475.

Soil from Washington, analysis, Schnei-
der, vi, 236.

Stegosaurus, skull and dermal armor
of, Marsh, iv, 413.

Strephochetus, Seely, ii, 31.

Stromatopora, ii, 78. ;

Stones, building and ornamental in U.
S. National Museum, xl, 91.

Strophalosia, N. A., species, Beecher,
xl, 240.

Syringothyris, Winchell, and its Amer-
ican species, Schuchert, xl, 433.
Taconic of Emmons, Walcott, v, 229,
307, 394; Washington Co., N. Y.

Fauna of Upper, Walcott, iv, 187.

History of, Dana, i, 399; vi, 410.

Limestones, fossils in, at Canaan,
N. Y., Dana, i, 241; Ford and
Dwight, i, 248; at Hillsdale, N. Y.,
xl, 256.

relations of, Bishop, ii, 438.

relation to Cambrian, Dana, ix,
168.

rocks and stratigraphy, Dana, iii,
270, 393; and fossils, ii, 236.

system, Walcott, iii, 153.

Temperature in mines, Wheeler, ii,
125.

Tertiary and Grand Gulf, Meyer, ii,
20.

Butterflies of Florissant, Scudder,
ix, 414.

fauna of Florida, Dall, xl, 423.

flora of Australia, Constantin,
viii, 493.

formation, Denver, Cross, vii, 261.

on Long Jsland, ii, 324.

Mammals of Uinta formation,
Scott and Osborn, ix, 403; Notice
of new, Marsh, ix, 523.

Miocene, Florida, Langdon, Jr.,
vill, 322.

Mississippi and Alabama, Lang-
don, i, 202.

21] VOLUMES
GEOLOGY—
Tertiary Nummulites in the Himalayas,
vii, 413.

Pflanzen der Insel der Neusi-
birien, Schmalhausen, xl, 257.

Plants from Mackenzie and Bow
Rivers, Dawson, ix, 406.

Upper Miocene in Mexico, i, 310.
Testudinata, extinct, Marsh, xl, 177.
Theoretische Geologie, Reyer, vi, 389.
Titanichthys, Ohio, i, 405.
Tornoceras, development of shell in

the genus, Beecher, xl, 71.
Trap dikes, Appalachian, Virginia,
Darton, ix, 269; Diller, ix, 270.
range, Holyoke, ii, 323.
ridges of East Haven-Branford
region, Hovey, viii, 361.
and sandstone in gorge of Farm-
ington R., Conn., Rice, ii, 430.
sheets of Connecticut valley,
Davis, ix, 404.
Trenton limestone, a source of petro-
- leum and gas, Orton, xl, 90.

Triassic of Connecticut valley, struc- |
ture of, Davis, ii, 321, 342; topo- |

graphic development, Davis, vii,
493.

flora of Virginia, and age of beds,
D. Stur, vii, 496

Foot-prints, Eyerman, i, 72.

New Jersey and Conn. valley, |

Fauna and Flora of, Newberry, Vi,
COS vane, Wve
trap, sheets of Connecticut valley,
Davis, ix, 404.

Valleys, submarine, Pacific coast, Da-
vidson, iv, 69.

Vertebrate, fossil. of Great Britain,
Catalogue of Woodward and Sher-
born, ix, 402; fossil beds in Hon-
duras, Nason, i iv, 485.

Waverly group, Ohio, Herrick, vii,
317.

Wind-drift rock-sculpture, vii, 413.

Zinciferous clays of Missouri, Seamon,
ix, 38.

Gerland, G., Beitrage zur Geophysik, v,

344.

Geyser, see Geology.

Gibbs, J. W., notice of Astronomical |

Papers, i, 62; notice of Ketteler’s
Theoretische Optik, i, 64; elastic and

electrical theories of light, v, 467; |

comparison of electric theory of light
and theory of a quasi-labile ether, vii,
129.

Gilbert, G. K., scientific method and
geology of Utah, i, 284; special pro-
cesses of research, iii, 452; Congress
of Geologists, iv, 430.

FOOTED. 525

Glacial action in Australia, ii, 244.
bowlders at high altitudes, White,
iv, 374.
drift, deposit of, Hay, iv, 52.
ice, thickness of, in Pennsylvania,
Branner, li, 362.
moraines, terminal in England,
Lewis, iv, 402; in Comey v, 401;
in Maine, Stone, iii, 378.
periods, evidence of former, Croll,
viii, 66.
scratches near N oreiailte Ct., Cornish,
ix, 321.
‘sediments of Maine, Stone. xl, 122.
See Quaternary under GEOLOGY.
Glaciation, bowlder, vii, 233
studies upon, Lewis, ii, 433.
Glacier, Aletsch, Bonaparte, xl, 95.
Muir, Wright, iii, 1.

Glaciers of Alps, enlargement and dim-
IMUGOM Ail ol AOI:

Greenland, damming and erosion by,
iv, 312; moraines of, in England, iv,
402.

in United States. existing, i, 310.

Glass, strain-effect of sudden cooling in,
Barus and Strouhal, i, 439; ii, 181; de-
vitrified, ii, 78; decomposition of, by
carbonic acid, iii, 68.

Glow, residual, spectrum of, v. 334.

Goebel, K., Classification and Morphol-
ogy of Plants, iii. 427.

Goldschmidt, V., Index der Krystall-
formen, i, 475; ii, 485; v, 501; vii,
162: viii, 494; xl, 260.

Gooch, F. A., analyses of waters of Yel-
lowstone Park, vii, 234.

determination of iodine in haloid
salts. ix, 188; of chiorine in mixtures of
alkaline chlorides and iodides, ix, 293.

reduction of arsenic acid, xl, 66
determination of bromine, xl, 145:
method for detection of iodine, bro-
mine and chlorine, xl, 283.

Goodale, G. L., botanical notices, i, 157,
406; ii, 486; iv, 74, 409; v, 87, 258,
341, 419, 501; vi, 75, 158, 392, 472;
vii, 77, 237, 319, 415; viii, 252, 415,
495; ix, 75, 161, 243, 325, 407; xl, 93.

living protoplasm subjected to ac-
tion of liquids, iii, 144.

obituary notice of W. Boott, iv, 160.

Goode, G. B., Fishery Industries, i, 407;

| viii, 169.

Gold, atomic weight of, iv, 397.

Gordon, C. H., Keokuk beds, Iowa, xl,
295.

Gould, B. A., photographic determina-

| tions of stellar positions, ii, 369: Re-

sultados del Observatorio Nacional

Argentino, iv, 312.

|

526

Graham, J. C.,
rivers, xl, 476.

Gratacap, L. P., Hozoonal rock of Man- |
hattan island, ili 274.

Gravitation, v, 414; velocity of propaga-
tion, Van Hepperger, ix. 400.

Gravity, variations
Preston, vi, 305.

Gray, Andrew, Absolute measurements |
in Electricity and Magnetism, ix, 235. |

Gray, A., botanical necrology, i, 12, 312,
316; ili, 164; v, 260; botanical no-
tices, i, 76, 158, 231, 313, 477; ii, 79,
164, 224, 325, 411, 473, 485; iii, 80,
162, 244, 318, 425; iv, 490.

Synoptical Flora of N. A., i, 238.

Notice of Edward Tuckerman, ii, 1.

Elements of Botany, iv, 495.

Obituary notice of, v. 181.

list of writings and index, vi, Ap-
pendix.

scientific papers of, viii, 419.

Manual of Botany, new edition, ix,
240.

Greene, H. L., Pittonia, iii, 426; iv, 493.

Groth, P., Grundriss der Edelsteink unde,
v, 86.

Tabellarische Uebersicht der Miner-
alien, ix, 324.
Guadalupe Island, iv, 80.

GENERAL INDEX.

[22

sand-transportation by | Hall, J., Paleeontology of New York, i,

311: iyol. vi, v, 35; vol. vii, v, 499.

| Hallock, W., flow of solids, iv, 201, Va,
59: chemical action between solids,
Vii, 402.

_Hanks, H.G., Report of Mineralogist of

in Hawaiian Is., |

Guerne, J. de, Excursions Zoologiques, |

Omran tile

D2

Gulick, J. T., divergent evolution and
Darwinian theory, ix, 21; inconsist-
encies of utilitarianism as the exclu- |

sive theory of organic evolution, xl. |

1; preservation and accumulation of |
cross-infertility, xl, 437.
Giimbel, K. W. von, Geologie von Bay- |

ern, iv, 158; v, 341.

Gun-cotton. effects of detonation, Mun- |

roe, vi, 48.

Guppy, coral reefs of Solomon Islands, |

iv, 229.
Hackel, E., Andropogonee, vill, 253.
Hague, A.. volcanic rocks of Salvador,

ii, 26; deposition of scorodite from |

oeyser waters, iv, 171; leucite rock
in Wyoming, viii, 43.

Hailstones. Huntington, xl, 176.

Hall, A., Nova Andromedee, i, 299; con- |

stant of aberration, v, 505.

Hall effect in electricity, iv, 151.

Hall, E. H., effect of magnetic force on
equi-potential lines of electric cur rent,
vi, 131, 277; ratio of electromagnetic
to electrostatic unit of electricity, viii,
289.

| Hemihedrism

California, i, 76.
Hanksite mn California, vii, 63.
Hann, Meteorological Atlas, v, 263.
Harding, S. L., bichromate of soda cell,
ili, 61.

Harker, A., slaty cleavage, i, 475;
voleanie rocks, 1x, 406.

Harper, D. N., herderite and beryl, ii,
107; composition of ralstonite, ii, 380.

Bala

| Hastings. 0. S., law of double refraction

in Iceland spar, v. 60; secondary chro-
matic aberration for double telescope
objective, vil, 291.

Hawaiian Islands, coral reefs, A. Agas-
siz, viii, 169: flora of, Hillebrand, v,
501; variation of gravitation, vi, 305;
voleanie phenomena of, J. D. Dana,
vii, 48, 51, 81, 192. 242; rocks, HE. S.
Dana, vii, 441; temperature record at
Hilo, Furneaux, vii, 241; Artesian
borings on Oahu, vii, 95.

| Hawkins. J. D., plattnerite from Idaho,

viii. 165; minium from Leadville, ix,
42; formation of silver silicate,
310

ix,

| Hay, O. P., deposit of glacial drift, iv,
Gulf Stream explorations, Pillsbury, vi,| 52

Hayden memorial geological fund, vi, 79.
Hazen, H. A., thermometer exposure, i,
320; verification of tornado predic-
tions, iv, 127; relation between wind
velocity and pressure, iv, 241; pre-
vailing wind direction, iv, 461.
| Heat conductibility of bismuth, iv, 228.
Klementary Lessons in, Tillman,
vill, 492.
as a form of energy, xl, 495.
measurement, Helmholtz, vi, 292.
measurer, new, iv, 66; v, 251.
mechanical equivalent of, v, 77.
of moon, Langley, viii, 421.
of sun, Angstrém, ix, 316.

Heat-spectra, invisible, Langley, i, 1
83: vi, 397.

Heilprin, A, Distribution of Animals,
iil, 242; Explorations in Florida, iv,
230; Geological Evidences of Hvolu-
tion, v, 256; Bermuda Islands, viii,
418.

Heim, Les Dislocations de Veeorce ter-
restre, ete., v, 500.

in monoclinic system,
Williams, viii, 115.

Hemsley, W. B, Botany of Central
America, Vili, 166.

Hi,

a
ef a

23 | VOLUMES

Henry, Joseph, scientific writings, iii, 325.

Herman, D., devitrified glass, ii, 78.

Herrick, C. L., Bulletin of Denison
University, i, allits
vi, 317.

Hertz, waves of electric force, vii. 227,

316, 409; Boltzmann’s experiments, |

xl, 165. See electric waves.

Hicks, L. E., diatom earth in Nebraska,
v, 86.

Hidden, W. E., meteoric irons, i, 460.

contributions to mineralogy, ii, 204:
meteoric iron from Texas, ii, 304;
emeralds and hiddenite from N. Caro-
lina, ii, 483.

Mazapil meteoric iron, iii, 221;
tributions to mineralogy, ili, 501.

edisonite, vi, 372; mineralogical
notes, xeuotime, vi, 380;
461; sulphohalite, vi, 463.

minerals of Llano Co., Texas, viii,
474; eudialyte from Arkansas, viii, 494.

polycrase in N. and § Carolina, ix,
302; hamlinite, new mineral from
Maine, ix, 511.

Hilgard, K. W., concentration of some
California lakes, ix, 165.

Hill, R. T., geology of the cross-timbers
in northern Texas, iii, 291.

Texas section of Cretaceous, iv, 287.

Cretaceous history of N. America,
vii, 282.

Neozoic Geology of southwestern
Arkansas, viii, 413; relation of up-
permost Cretaceous beds of eastern
and southern U. §., vill, 468; Ter-
tiary-Cretaceous parting of Arkansas
and Texas, vili, 468.

check list of Cretaceous inverte-
brates of Texas, ix, 521.

Goniolina in the Texas Cretaceous,
xl, 64.

Hillebrand, W., Flora of Hawaiian Isl-
ands, v, 501.

Obituary notice of, iii, 164.

Hillebrand, W. F., minerals from Utah,
v, 298; analyses of descloizite, vii,
434; composition of uraninite, viii,
329, 495; tyrolite from Utah, 1x, 271;
note of emmonsite, xl, 81; nitrogen
in uraninite, xl, 384.

Hinde, G. J., organic origin of chert, iv,
405; chert of Spitzbergen, etc., vi, 73;
Archeeocyathus, vii, 234.

Hinman, R., Kclectic Physical Geogra-
phy, vi, 303.

con-

Hintze, C., bebvomele der Mineralogie, |
|

Vili, 251.
Hitchcock, OP alee

United States,

sils, v, 255.

geological map of

iii, 77; Littleton fos-

Waverly group, |

auerlite, vi, |

ROOD i, 5OT

Hobbs, W.,H., paragenesis of allanite
and epidote as rock- forming minerals,
viii, 223.

Hoffmann, G. C., uraninite and monazite
from Oanada, iv, 73; magnetite pseu-
domorphs, iv, 408; platinum in Can-
ada, v, 257; Canadian minerals and
fuels, xl, 92.

Holden, HE. L., elements in the sun,
451.

Holden, H. 8., earthquake-intensity m
San Francisco, v, 427; earthquakes
in California (1888), vii, 392.

Honduras, vertebrate fossil beds in, Na-
son, iv, 485.

minerals from, xl, 78.

iv,

| Hooke, R., law of densities of planetary

bodies, viii, 393.

Hooker, Sir J., Director at Kew, i, 77;
Icones Plantarum, ii, 166, 486; iii,
163, 244, 318; Flora of India, ii, 325;
Primer of Botany, iii, 83; Bentham’s
Handbook of British Flora, iii, 319.

Hough, R. B., American Woods, Rial
vi, 160.

Howell, E. E., new iron meteorites from
Texas and 8. America, xl, 223.

Howell, T., Plants of Oregon, ete., iii, 319.

Hovey, HE. O., cordierite-gneiss from
Conn., vi, 57; trap of Hast Haven
region, Vili, 361.

Hudson river channel, submarine, Dana,
Sh Abe

| Huggins, spectrum of nebula in Orion,

SP iseol sirius xd alo.

Hull, C. K., Pennsylvania Geology, i, 227.

Hull, K., age of North Atlantic basin
and origin of Eastern American sedi-
ments, ii, 407; sketch of Geological
History, iv, 405.

Hunt, T. S., Classification in Mineralogy,
ii, 410; Mineral Physiology, ii, 485;
chemical integration, iv, 116; Chem-
ical Philosophy, iv, 153.

Huntington, O. W., erystallographic
notes, i. 74; crystalline structure of
iron meteorites, ii, 284; Coahuila me-
teorites, iii, 115; Catalogue of Meteor-
ites, v, 86; hailstones of peculiar form,
>: EIUTICS),

Hussak, K., Rock-forming Minerals, i,
156.

Hutchins, C. C., new photographic spec-
troscope, iv, 58; oxygen in the sun,
iv, 263; carbon in the sun, iv, 345;
elements in the sun, iv, 451; new in-
strument for measurement of radia-
tion, iv, 466; notes on metallic spec-
tra, vil, 474; radiant energy of the
standard candle and mass of meteors,
1x, 393%

528

Hutchinson, C. T., B. A. unjt of resist-
ance, vill, 230.

Hyades, Mission Scientifique du Cap |
Horn, v, 83.
Hyatt, A., larval theory of origin of |

tissue, i, 332; Genesis of the Arietide,
ID 243,

I

Ice Age of North America, Wright, viii, |

412.
Period in Altai mountains, ili, 165;
of N. America, iii, 77.
Greenland, ‘damming and erosion
by, iv, 312.
Icebergs, making of, Loomis, xl, 333.
Iddings, J. P., column: ir structure in
igneous rock, i, 321; volcanic rocks
of Salvador,

gin of quartz in basalt. vi, 208; Trans-
lation of Rosenbusch’s Micr. Physio-
graphy of Rock-making Minerals, vi,
471;
in the obsidian of Lipari, xl, 75.

Ice, conductivity, etc., ii, 481.

viscosity, Main, iv, 149.

Illumination,
sources of, Nichols and Franklin, viii,
100.

Image transference, Lea, iv, 33.

India in 1887, Wallace, vi, 302; fauna, |

Blanford, vi, 297; flora, Hooker, ii,
325; fossils in Salt Range, ix, 159;

geology of, ii, 78; mineralogy of, v, |

GENERAL INDEX.

ii, 26; lithophysee and |
lamination of acid lavas, iii, 36; ori- |

Obsidian Cliffs, vii, 502; fayalite |

artificial comparison of |

[24

nod nickeliferous eaguails Ulrich, iii,
244,
| ores of Michigan aad Wisconsin,
| Van Hise, vii, 32.
phosphorus i in, Browne, vii, 299.

| silicon, influence of, on properties,
| ili, 509.

Irving, R. D., formation of quartzite, i,
| 225; origin of ferruginous schists and
iron ores of Lake Superior region, ii,
| 255; Huronian group, iv. 204, 249,
| BGR.
| Obituary notice of, vi, 80.

| J

| Japan, Amer. eclipse expedition, Todd,

vi, 474,

| botany sae48:

volcanic eruptions in, vi, 104, 293.

volcanoes of, Milne, ii, 233.

_Jerofeieff, Meteorit von Nowo-Urei, vi,
74.

_Johnson, L. C., structure of Florida, vi,

230; ‘“Grand-Gulf” formation, viii,

213.

| Jones, D. EZ, Examples in Physics, vii, 75.

| Jordan, D. §., obituary of S. Stearns, vi,
303.

| Joubert, J., Electricity and Magnetism,

[apivasGSe

| Joule, J. P., Joint Scientific Papers, iv,
229.

Judd, J. W., Eruption of Krakatoa, vi,
471; volcanoes of W. Isles, Scotland,
vii, 412; viii, 163.

416; wind-drift scratches in, vil, 413. |

Induction, magnetic, electrostatic field |

produced by, Lodge and Chaltock,
viii, 77.
neutralization of, Trowbridge and
Sheldon, ix, 17.
Insect Life, new periodical Bulletin, vi,
296.
Insulator, quartz as an, Boys, viii, 76.
Interference experiment, Michelson, ix,
216.
Iowa, meteorites, ix, 521; xl, 318.
Trelan, W., Mineralogical Report of Cali-
fornia, 1887, vi, 73; viti, 166; xl,. 92.
Tron, behavior of, under magnetic forces,
ili, 422.
carburets, properties, i, 67, 386.
destruction of passivity, Nichols
and Franklin, iv, 419.
effect of magnetization on viscosity
and rigidity, Barus, iv, 175.
in magnetic field, chemical behavior,
Nichols, i, 272.
magnetization of, vii, 226.
meteoric, see Meteoric
naturally reduced, Tyrrell, iii, 73.

|Kinahan, G. H., Irish Hsker drift,

K
Karston, H., Géologie de lAncienne
Columbia Boliva ienne, ete, ix, 319.
Kayser, H., iron spectrum, vii, 495.
Keep, J., West Coast Shells, v, 264.
Kelloge, A., Illustrations of West Amer-
ican Oaks; text by HE. L. Greene, ix, 79.
Kemp, J. F., diorite dike, Orange Co., N.
Y., v, 331; Rosetown extension of
Cortlandt series, vi, 247; barite from
Aspen, Col., vii, 236; porphyrite bos-
ses in New Jersey, viii, 130; minerals
from Port Henry, N. Y., xl, 62.
Kennelly, A. E., yoltametric measure-
ment of alternating currents, vi, 453.
Kentucky, Geol. report, vii, 232.
Kerl, B., Assayer’s Manual, viii, 171.

| Ketteler, E., Theoretische Optik, i, 64.

Keyes, C. R., sedentary habits of Platy-
ceras, vi, 269; Carboniferous Echino-
dermata, viii, 186.

Kimball, J. P., siderite-basins of the
Hudson River epoch, xl, 155.

iii,

276.

25]

VOLUMES XXXI-XL.

529

Kirkwood, D., origin of comets, iii, 60; | Lawson, A. C., geology of Rainy Lake

the asteroids, v, 345.

Knowledge, illustrated magazine of
science, xl, 96.

Knowlton, F. H., silicified wood of Ari-
zona, vii, 77: problematic organism
from the Devonian, vii, 202.

Koeing, G. A., mazapilite, vii, 501.

Kokscharow, N. von, Mineralogie Russ-
lands, iii, 424; vi, 74; viii, 494.

Kost, J., Report (1st) on Florida State
Geol. Survey, iv, 72.

Krabbe, G., Zur Kenntniss der fixen
Lichtlage der Laubblatter, viii, 253.
Kunz, G. F., mineralogical notes, i, 74;
iv, 477, 490; vi, 222, 472; viii, 72.

papers on meteorites, i, 145; ii, 311;
iii, 58, 228, 494; iv, 383, 467; vi, 275;
ado Bul

Gems and Precious Stones of N.
America, ix, 521.

Laboratory, physical, magnetic field in,
Willson, ix, 87, 456.
of Physiological Chemistry, New
Haven, Studies from, ii, 511.
proposed N. Hngland Marine Bio-
logical, iii, 512.
Scientific, bulletin of Denison, iv,
71: xl, 499.
Work, Elements of, Earl, xl, 331.
Lacroix, A., Les Minéraux des Roches,
vil, 414.
Lagerheim, G., Desmidieee, i, 478.
Lake Marjelen, Bonaparte, xl, 95.
Zug, slide at, iv, 405.

Lakes, the great N. American, Scher-
merhorn, iii, 278; Alpine, iii, 431.
Lamic, J., Plants naturalized in south-

west of France. 1, 315.
Lane, A. C., estimation of the optical
angle in parallel light, ix, 53.
Langdon, D. W., Jr., Tertiary of Missis-
sippi and Alabama, i, 202; some
Florida Miocene, viii, 322; geology of
Mon Louis Island, Mobile Bay, xl, 237.

Langley, 8. P., invisible heat-spectra, i, 1. |

unrecognized wave-lengths, ii, 83.
__ energy and vision, vi; 359, invisi-
ble solar and lunar spectrum, vi, 397.
history of a doctrine, vii, 1.
observation of sudden phenomena,
viii, 93: temperature of moon, viii, 421.
cheapest form of light, xl, 97.

Langlois, A. B., Catalogue des Plantes |

de la Basse Louisiane, iv, 494.
Latschinoff, P., Der Meteorit von Nowo-
Urei, vi. 74.
Lava, see Rocks.
Layvallée, A., Notes biographique sur, ii,
326.
4

region, iii, 473.

Lea, I., Bibliography of, i, 239.

Lea, M. C., red and purple chloride,
bromide and iodide of silver, iii, 349;
photosalts of silver and latent photo-
graphic image, iii, 480; photobromide
and photoiodide of silver, iii, 489.

image transference, iv, 33; combin-
ations of silver chloride with other
metallic chlorides, iv, 384.

allotropie forms of silver, vii, 476.

allotropic forms of silver, properties
of, viii, 47, 129, 237; ring systems
produced on allotropic silver by iodine,
viii, 241.

darkened silver chloride not an oxy-
chloride, viii, 356.

Leaves, see Botany.

LeBlois, A., origin and development of
canals and receptacles for secretions,
ViledGs .

LeConte, J., elevation of the Sierra
Nevada, shown by river beds, ii, 167;
phenomena of binocular vision, iv, 97 ;
flora of coast islands of Cal, iv, 457;
origin of normal faults and of struc-
ture of Basin region, viii, 257.

Lecoyer, J. C., Monographie du Thalic-
trum, i, 235.

Leffman, H., examination of water for
sanitary and technical purposes, vii,
421. ,

Leidy, J., mammalian remains of Florida,
ete tx. 32/1

Lendenfeld, R. von, Monograph of Hor-
ney Sponges, viii, 417.

Lens, focal length for different colors,
vii, 227.

Lesley, J. P., Pennsylvania Geology, i,
228.

Lesquereux, L., Ward’s Flora of the
Laramie group, iv, 487; fossil plants
of Coal-measures, R. I., vii, 229.

Obituary notice of, viii, 499.

Leuckart, R., Bibliotheca Zoologica, v,
420.

Lévy, A. M., Les Minéraux des Roches,
vii, 414.

Lewis, E., Jr., Woodham artesian well,
vii, 233.

Lewis, H. C., studies upon glaciation in
Great Britain, ii, 433; terminal mo-
raines of England, iv, 402.

Obituary notice of, vi, 226.

Light, action on allotropic silver, Lea,
vili, 129; chlorine water, xl, 492;
on phosphorus, xl, 492; on silver
salts, Lea, tii, 349, 480, 489, iv, 33,
384.

behavior of metals to, vii, 315.

530 GENERAL INDEX. [26

Light, cheapest form of, Langley and Liquids, subsidence of fine particles in,

Very, xl, 97. | Barus, vii, 122.
comparison of forms of artificial, viii, | surface tension, Magie, i, 189.
100. Lithophysze, origin of, Iddings, iii, 36.

elastic and electrical theories, Gibbs, Liveing, spectrum of magnesium, vil,
vy, 467; electric theory of, ete., Gibbs, 406.

vii, 129. Liversidge, A., Minerals of New South
electric currents produced by, vii,76.| Wales, viii, 166.
discharges, influence of, v, 337. | Lockyer, J. N., Chemistry of the Sun,
and electricity, Rayleigh, vi, 468; iv, 228; movements of the earth, v,
Righi, ix, 66. 346.
emitted by glowing solid bodies, iv, Loew, E., Blumenbesuch yon Insecten
484. und Frielandpflanzen, iii, 162.

by fire flies, Langley and Very, Lloyd, J. M., and C.G., Drugs and Medi-
xl, 97. | cines of N. America, i, 313.
from incandescent lamps, Merritt, | Long, J. H., circular polarization of tar-

vii, 167. | trate solutions, I, vi, 351; II, viii, 263;
and magnetism, Bidwell, viii, 76. | THI, xl, 275.
mechanical equivalent, Tumlirz, ix, Long Island geology, Merrill, i, 234;
153. | iv, 153.
penetration in water, Forel, v, 495; | Sound in Quaternary, Dana, xl, 425.
Fol and Sarasin, vi, 67. Loomis, E., contributions to meteorology,
radiated from moving molecules and) No. 22, iii, 247; No. 23, vii, 243.
limit to interference, vii, 410. memorial address by Newton, ix,
rotation of plane of polarization, by 427; list of papers, iv, Appendix.
discharge of a Leyden jar, vii, 409. Loomis, H. B., making of icebergs, xl,
spectro-photometric comparisons, 333.
Nichols and Franklin, viti, 100. Lotti, B., ophiolitic rocks of Italy, ete.,
standard wave-lengths of, v, 337. ii, 239.
velocity, Michelson, i, 62; Michel- | Loubat prize of the French Institute, ix,
son and Morley, i, 377. 413.

wave-length of, Bell, iii, 167; v, Lubbock, J., Flowers, fruits, and leaves,
265, 347; Rowland, iii, 182; of| ii, 411; forms of seedlings, ii, 485.
sodium, Michelson and Morley, iv, 427. Lydekker, R., Fossil Mammalia, i, 405 ;

zodiacal, Searle, i, 159; relation of, iv, 314; v, 256; Manual of Paleon-
to Jupiter, i, 318. tology, ix, 239.
See, spectrum, vision. M
Light-absorption and molecular struc- |
ture, i, 58. McCalley, H., Warrior Coal Field, iii,

Light-waves as the ultimate standard of) 78.
length, Michelson and Morley, viii, | Macfarlane, J.. Amer. Geological Rail-

181. | way Guide, xl. 343.
measurement of, Michelson, ix, McGee, W. J., Ovibos cavifrons from
Ia, Iowa, iv, 217; three formations of
stationary, Wiener, xl, 165. Middle Atlantic slope, v, 120, 328,

Lightning and the Hiffel tower, viii, 411. 367, 448; Chesapeake Bay, vii, 502;
_Lindgren, W., mineralogy of Pacific) Appomattox formation, xl, 15.

coast, vi, 73. | Mackintosh, J. B., on auerlite, vi, 461 ;
Linton, E., Entozoa of marine fishes, vii, on sulphohalite, vi, 463.
239. native iron sulphates from Chili, viui,
Liquids, action of magnets on, Moreland, 242; minerals of Llano Co., Texas, viii,
iv, 227. 474; eudialyte from Arkansas, viii,
compressibility and surface tension, 494.
ii, 481. polycrase in N. and §. Carolina, ix,
electrical conductivity effected b 302.
pressure, Barus, xl, 219. McRae, A. L., electrostatic battery, i,
heat of vaporization of volatile, 153.
Chappuis, vii, 225. | Magie, W. F., surface tension of liquids,
relation of volume, etc., in case of, i, 189.
Barus, viii, 407. | Magnet, effect on chemical action, Row-

solidification, by pressure, iv, 227. ' land and Bell, vi, 39.

27 | VOLUMES

Magnetic field, chemical behavior of iron
in, Nichols, i, 272.
in Jefferson Physical Labora-
tory, Willson, ix, 87, 456.
and gravity observations, xl, 478.
results of the Challenger Hxpedi-
tion, ix, 154.
Magnetism, diurnal variation in terres-
trial, Schuster, bey ZU
Magnetism. induced molecular HeOUy,
Ewing, xl, 331.
influence on bismuth, v, 252;
gases, v, 495.

of

of nickel and tungsten alloys, Trow- |

bridge and Sheldon, viii, 462.

Magnetization at different temperatures,
Dubois, ix, 400.

by electric discharge, i, 61.
electromotive force of, v, 290.

Magnetometer, mountain, Meyer, xl, 330.

Main, J. F., viscosity of ice, iv, 149.

Mallet, F. R., Mineralogy of India, v,
416.

Manitoba, ancient beaches of L. Winni-
peg, Tyrrell, viii, 78.

Mar, F. W., determination of chlorine
in mixtures of alkaline chlorides and
iodides, ix, 293; perofskite, Magnet
Cove, xl, 403.

Marcou, J. B., Bibliography of fossil: In-
vertebrates, li, 246.

Margarie, de, Les dislocations de l’écorce
terrestre, v, 500.

Marks, W. D., Relative Proportions in
Steam Engine, v, 88.

Marsh, O. C., American Jurassic Mam-
mals, ili, 327.

new fossil mammals, iv, 323: skull
and dermal armor of Stegosaurus, iv,
413.

new fossil Sirenian, v, 94; new ge-
nus of Sauropoda and other new Dino-
saurs from Potomac formation, v, 89.

new horned Dinosauria, vi, 477.

restoration of Brontops robustus,
vii, 163; comparison of the principal

forms of Dinosauria of Kurope and |

America, vii, 323; American
Dinosauria, vii, 331.

discovery of, Cretaceous Mammalia,
Pt. I, viii, 81; Pt. II, viii, 177; -gigan-
tic horned Dinosauria from the Cre-
taceous, viii, 173; skull of gigantic
Ceratopsidee, viii, 501.

new Dinosaurian reptiles, ix, 81;
distinctive characters of the order
Hallopoda, ix, 415; additional char-
acters of the Ceratopsidé, with notice
of new Cretaceous Dinosaurs, ix, 418;
new Tertiary Mammals, ix, 523.

extinct Testudinata, xl, 177.

new

XXXKI-XL. 531

Mascart, H., Electricity and Magnetism,
vi, 68.

Maximowicz, ‘C. J., Diagnoses plantarum
novarum Asiaticarum, VII, vii, 417.
Matthew, G. F., Pteropod, St. John
Group, i, 72; Olenellus (?) Kjerulfi, i,
472; Acadian Paradoxides, iii, 388;
Paradoxides (Olenellus?) Kjerulfi, iii,

390.

Mayer, A. M., well-spherometer, ii, 61.

experiments with pendulum-electro-

meter, ix, 327; electric potential

measured by work, ix, 334; spring-

balance electrometer, ix, 513.
experimental proof of Ohm’s law,

x], 42; determination of the coeffi-

cient of cubical expansion, xl, 323.

Measurements, potential strengthener
for, li, 481.

Meem, J. G., limonite pseudomorph
after pyrite, li, 274.

Melville. W. H., metacinnabarite from
New Almaden, Cal., xl, 291.

Mendenhall, T. C., electrical resistance of
soft carbon, ii, 218; seismological in-
vestigations, v, 97.

Meneghini, G., Cambrian trilobites of
Sardinia, vi, "994.

Obituary, vii, 422, vii, 336.

| Mercury, rotation of, Schiaparelli, ix, 245.

| Merriam, C. H., fauna of Great Smoky
Mts. ; and description of a new species
of red-backed mouse, vi, 458.

Merrill, F. J. H., Long Island Geology,
iv, 153; metamorphic strata of S. E
New York, ix, 383.

Merrill, G. P., composition of Pliocene
sandstone, ii, 199; enlargement of
augite in peridotite, v, 488; new me-
teorite, v, 490; Fayette county mete-
orite, vi, 113; ophiolite, Warren Co.,

N. Y., vii, 189; serpentine of Mont-
ville, N..J., vii, 237.
Merritt, E., light from incandescent

lamps, vii, 167.
Merritt, W. C., ascent of Mt. Loa, 1888,
vii, 51.
Metallic deposits by electrical discharges,
Lgl
Metals, index of refraction, Kundt, vi,
151.
selective reflection by, vii,
viii, 162.
Metamorphism, variation in intensity of,
v, 82.
See Geology.
Meteorites, Brazilian, Derby, vi, 157.
Catalogue of, in the British Museum,
i,476; Harvard University, Hunting-
ton, v, 86; in Museum of Yale Uni-
versity, li, Appendix.

410;

532

Meteorites, diamond in, vi, 74.
fall in Iowa, May 2, 1890, ix, 521.
gaseous constituents of, ii, 482.
History of, Flight, v, 87. |
iron, crystalline structure of, Hunt- |
ington, ii, 284. |
orbits of, and earth’s orbit, Newton,
vi, i.
See Meteors. |
METEORITES, IRON—

Alabama, Summit, Blount Co., Kunz, |
xl, 322
Arkansas, Independence Co., i, 460;

Johnson Co., Kunz, ui, 494; John- |
son Co., Whitfield, iii, 450.
Brazil, Bemdego, vi, 158; Santa Cata- |
rina, vi, 157. |
Chili, Puquios, Howell, xl, 224. |
Georgia, Chattanooga Co., iv, 471; |
East Tennessee and Whitfield Co.,
ly, 473. |
Kausas, Kiowa Co., Kunz, xl, 412.
Kentucky, Allen Co. iil, 500: Carroll

Co., iii, 228.

Mexico, ‘Coahuila, Lit ally

ili, 228 « Durango, new, Vil,
Mazapil, ili, 221.

Missouri, ‘Taney Co., iv, 467. |

» N. Carolina, Bridgewater, Burke Co., |
Kunz, xl, 320; Burke Co., vi, 275;
Rockingham Go, Venable, xl, 161;
Rutherford Co., ix, 395.

New Mexico, Glorieta Mite aie

8. Carolina, Laurens Co., i, 460.

Texas, Hamilton Co., Howell, xl, 223;
Maverick Co., ii, 304.

Tennessee, Green Mo, i, 41; Rock- |
wood, Kunz, iv, 476; Rockwood, | |
Whitfield, iv, 387; So Nit aldron Ridge, |
iv, 475.

Virginia, Amherst Co.,
Co., Venable, xl, 162.

West Virginia, Wayne Co., i, 145.

Wisconsin, St Croix Co., iv, 381.

Wyoming, Laramie Co., vi, 276.

|
Catorze, |
439; |

iii, 58; Henry

GENERAL INDEX.

METEORITES, STONE—
California, St. Bernardino Co, v, 490.
Iowa, Winnebago Co, Barbour
Torrey, ix, 521; Kunz, xl, 318.
Japan, v, 264.
Maine, Northford, v, 212.
Missouri, Cape Girardeau, ii, 229.
New York, Rensselaer Co., iv, 60.
N. Carolina, Ferguson, Haywood Co.,
Kunz, xl, 320.
Russia, Nowo-Urei, vi, 74.
Texas, Fayette Co., vi, 113.
Unknown locality, Eakins, ix, 59.
Utah, ii, 226.
Meteorological Atlas, Hann, v, 263.
Society, American, ix, 163.

and |

[28

Meteorology, contributions to, Loomis,
li, 247; vil, 243.
dynamical, recent contributions to,
Waldo, ix, 280.
facts in, at Eloriamea Islands, vii,
91, 24].
Work on Movioant ii, 246.

| Meteors, form of area in the heavens,

3/25.

mass of, Hutchins, ix, 392.

May 2d, 1890, orbit, ix, 522

of Nov. 27, 1885, Newton, i, 79,
409.

See Meteorites.

ii,

| Metrology, science of, Noel, xl, 262.

Meyer, O., Tertiary and Grand Gulf, ii,
20; invertebrates from Eocene of
Miss. and Ala., iv, 159; etching of
quartz, vii, 501.

| Meyer, L., Modern Theories of Chemis-

try, vi, 60.

Michelson, A. A., velocity of light, i, 62 ;
influence of motion of medium on ve-
locity of light, i, 377.

relative motion of earth and lumi-
niferous ether, iv, 333; wave-length
of sodium light, iv, 427.

feasibility of establishing a light-
wave as ultimate standard of length,
viii, 181.

measurement by light-waves, ix,
115; interference experiment, Tx, 26s

vcerscenme magnification, Stevens, xl,

50.
Microscope, new petrographic. v, 114.

| Middlemiss, metamorphic rocks of the

Himalayas, v, 82.
| Millardet, A., work on American grapes,
i, 158.
Miller, Hugh,
233,
Miller, S. A., North American Geology
and Paleontology, viii, 328; ix, 67.
Milne, J., Volcanoes of Japan, ii, 233.
Mineral Collection, Shepard’s, v, 248.
localities in Conn., Gaines, iv, 406;
in western U. S., iv, 315.
Resources of U. S., v, 257; vii, 162
od ZB.
of Ontario, Report on, xl, 260.
Mineralien, Tabellarische Uebersicht,
Groth, ix, 324.

bowlder glaciation, vii,

| Mineralogia, Giornale di, xl, 93.

Mineralogical Report of California, i, 76;
iv, 159; 188, vi, 73; 1888, viii, 166;
1889, xl, 92.

Mineralogie, Lehrbuch, Hintze, viii, 251.

Russlands, Kokscharow, iii, 424;
vi, 74; viii, 494.

Mineralogy, Determinative, Eyerman, xl,

92.

29]

VOLUMES

Mineralogy of India, Mallet, v, 416.

of Pacific Coast, Lindgren, vi, 73.
of Pennsylvania, vii, 501.

Minerals, artificial, i, 311.

of Canada, Hoffmann, xl, 92.
Catalogue of, Egleston, viii, 494.
of Llano Co., Texas, Hidden and

Mackintosh, vili, 474.

of New Jersey, Canfield, ix, 161.
of New South Wales, Liversidge,

viii, 166.

in Rocks, Lévy and Lacroix, vii,

414; Rosenbusch, vii, 414; Rutley,
vi, 295.

secondary, of amphibole and pyrox-

ene groups, Cross, ix, 359.
MINERALS— a
Abriachanite, iv, 111. Akermanite,

xl, 336. Albite, i, 265: iv, 391.
Allanite, paragenesis of, in rocks,
Hobbs, vii, 223; Texas, Hidden
and Mackintosh, viii, 485; Genth,
xl, 118. Anhydrite, formation, ii,
233. Amarantite, vi, 156; Mack-

intosh, viii, 243; Genth and Pen- |

field, xl, 199. Amber, Mexico, viii,
73. Amphibole, secondary, ix, 359;
St. Lawrence Co., N. Y., ix, 252.
Andalusite, Patrick Co.. Va., 1x, 48.
Annabergite, i, 230. Annite, viii,

390. Anthochroite, vili, 250. An- |

thophylite, N. C., x], 394. Apatite,

iii, 160, 503; vi, 223; vii, 413. |

Aquamarine, Colorado, iii, 161.

Aragonite pseudomorph, vi, 224. |
Argentobismutite, i, 229. Argyro- |

dite, i, 308; ii, 163. Arkansite, ii,

314. Arminite, ii, 163. Aromite, |

xl, 258. Arsenic, native, Colorado,
ix, 161. Arsenopyrite, i,229. Ar-
seniopleite, v, 416. Atacamite,
Chili, xl, 207. Auerlite. vi, 461.
Augite, enlargement of, iii, 385, v,
488; Aurichalcite, i, 75. Avalite,
i, 230. Awaruite, iii, 244. Axinite,
iv, 286. Azurite, i, 74, 75.

Barite, Col., vii, 236; hemimorphic

crystals, iii, 288. Barium feldspar,
Pa., vi, 326. Barium sulphate, Tem-
pleton, Quebec, ix, 61. Barkevikite,
v, 416. Barysil, v, 417. Beegerite,
i, 229. Belonesite, v, 417. Bemen-
tite, v, 417. Bertrandite, Col., vi.
52; Maine and Colorado, vii. 213;
and Beryl, Mt. Antero, Col, xl, 488.
Beryl, composition, ii, 107; iii, 159,
505; vi, 317. Beryllonite, vi, 290;
vil, 23. Biotite, ii, 244; iv, 135;
vili, 390. Bismutite, iii, 290. Bis-
mutospheerite from Conn., iv, 271.
Bournonite, Arizona, ix, 45. Bro-

SOOT by 533

MINERALS—
chantite, iii, 287; v, 306. Brookite,
Arkansas, i, 387; ii, 314. Brucite,
artificial, i, 3L1. Buckingite, vi, 156.

Cacoclasite, Genth, viii, 200. Calamine,
origin in Missouri, ix, 28. Calcio-
thorite, v, 416. Calcite, N. Y., vii,
237; pseudomorph after Glauberite,
ix, 45; Port Henry, N. ¥., xl, 62.
Cancrinite, i, 263. Cappelenite, i,
230. Caracolite, ili, 423. Caryopi-
lite, vii, 500. Cassinite, vi, 326. Ce-
lestite, Mineral Co., W. Virginia, ix,
183. Celestite, pink, ili, 286. Cerar-
eyrite, pseudomorphs, iii, 289. Cera-
site, Japan, xl.497. Cerussite, crys-
tallized, ii, 380. Chalcophyliite, v,
303. Chalcopyrite, French Creek,
Pa., xl, 207. Chert, Hinde, vi, 73.
Chloanthite, N. J., Koenig, viii,
329. Chlorite group, composition,
xl, 405. Chloritoid, Patrick Co.,
Was, ix; 505) (Chrysocollat vit ytd:
Chrysolite, v, 485; xl, 305. Cin-
nabar, natural solutions of, iii, 199.
Ciplyte, xl, 335. Cliftonite, iv, 232.
Clinoclasite, v, 303. Clintonite
group, Clarke, viii, 392. Cohenite,
ix, 74. Colemanite, iv, 282. Co-
lumbite, ii, 386; vii, 501. Connel-
lite, Cornwall, xl, 82. Copiapite,
Chili, viii, 242. Copper, artificial
erystals, ii, 377; Lake Superior
erystals, ii, 413; native, pseudo-
morphs after azurite, New Mexico,
Yeates, viii, 405. Coquimbite,
Chili, viii, 242. Cordierite, Japan,
xl, 497. Corundum, Ceylon, iii,
50m Patricks Con) Wak.) ix 4524.8:
Cosalite, i, 229. Cristobalite, iv,
73. Crocidolite, iv, 108. Cryphio-
lite, v, 417. Cryptolite, v, 86. Cu-
prite, artificial crystals, ii, 379. Cy-
anite, N. Carolina, vi, 224; Patrick
Co., Va., ix, 49. Cyrtolite, Texas,
viii, 485.

Dahllite, vii. 77. Danburite, iv, 285.
Datolite, iv, 285. Daviesite, Chili,
viii, 250. De Saulesite, N. J., viii.
329. Descloizite, vii, 434. Dia-
mond, Kentucky, viii, 74. Diamond,
N.C., iv, 490. Diamond in a me-
teorite, v, 86; vi, 74. Diaspore,
ii, 388. Dickinsonite, ix, 213. Di-
hydro-thenardite, v, 418. Dudgeon-
ite, Scotland, vili, 250. Dumortier-
ite, Norway, vi, 73; Harlem, N. Y.
and Arizona, vii, 216. Durdenite,
xl, 81. Dysanalyte, xl, 403.

Hdisonite, vi, 272; ix, 159. Eleeolite,
i, 262. Emeralds, North Carolina,

534

MINERALS—

ii, 483. Emmonsite, i, 476, xl, 81.
Kpidote, Bodewig, viii, 164; para-
genesis of, in rocks, Hobbs, viii, 223.
KHpigenite, Sweden, ix. 161. Erinite,
v, 299. Eucolite and Eudialyte,
Arkansas, xl, 457. Eudialyte, Ar-
kansas, vili, 494; xl, 457. Huxen-
ite containing germanium, v, 410.

Facellite, vii, 500. Fairfieldite, Branch-
ville, Conn., ix, 212. Fayalite, slag
with composition of, i, 405. Faya-
lite, Lipari, xl, 75. Feldspar, bar-
ium, vi, 326. Feldspars, triclinic,

iv, 390. Fergusonite, Texas, viii,
482. Ferronatrite, Chili, viii, 244; |
xl, 202.

Ferrostibian, Sweden, ix, 160. Fied-
lerite, v, 418. Fillowite, Branch-
ville, Conn., ix, 215.
den, viii, 250. Fluorite, N. Y., viii,
72. Fowlerite, N. J., xl, 484. Fuch-
site, iii, 284.

Gadolinite, Texas, anal., Genth, viii, |

Flinkite, Swe- |

GENERAL INDEX.

198; Eakins, viii, 479: occurrence, |

Hidden and Mackintosh, vili, 474.
Gahnite, Mass., vi, 157; vii, 501.
Galena, structure, vil, 237. Gale-
nobismutite, i, 229. Garnet in rhy-

olite, i, 432; Pa, xl, 117; titanifer- |

ous, N. C., xl, 117. Garnets, pseudo-
morphs of, ii, 307. Gehlenite in
furnace slag, vil, 220. Genthite,
Oregon, v, 483. Geyserite, forma-
tion of, Weed, vii, 351, 501.
ite, so-called, Pa., xl, 206.
erite, Verde Valley, Arizona, ix, 44.
Gold, crystallization, ii, 132; native,
in calcite, ix, 160; natural solutions
of, iii, 199; supposed occurrence in
turquois, New Mexico, xl, 115.
Gordaite, xl, 259. Griqualandite,
iv, 73. Gyrolite, Clarke, viii, 128.

Halite, Verde Valley, Arizona, ix, 44. |

Hambergite, xl, 170. Hamlinite, ix,
511. Hanksite,
63; Bodewig, viii, 165.
iii, 424. Haughtonite, Clarke, viii,
390. Heliophyllite, vii, 499. Her-
derite. anal., ii, 107; crystal, ii, 209;
Ural, iv. 490. Hiddenite, North Car-
olina, ii, 483. Hiortdahlite, xl, 171.
Hohmannite, vi, 156. Hornblende,
St. Lawrence Co., N. Y., ix, 352:

in rocks, Van Hise, ii, 385; Cross, |

ix, 359. Horsfordite, vi, 156. How-
lite, iv, 220. Hureaulite, Branch-
ville, Ct., ix, 207. Hydrogiobertite,
i, 477. Hydronephelite, i, 265.
Hydrophane, iv, 479. Hydroplum-
bite, viii, 250. Hypersthene, i, 33.

Cal., Hanks, vii, |
Harstigite, |

Gibbs- |
Glaub- |

[30

MINERALS—

Iceland spar, refraction in, v, 60; solu-
bility, v, 411. Indicolite, so-called,
from Harlem, N. Y., iv, 406. Ines-
ite, vii, 500. Iolite in gneiss, vi,
57. Iron sulphates from Chili,
Mackintosh, viii, 242.

Jarosite, ix, 73. Johnstrupite, xl, 171.
Joseite, i, 229. Kainosite. i, 476.
Kaliborite, xl, 336. Kaliophilite,
iii, 423. Kaolin, action of, on alkali-
chlorides, xl, 419. Karyocerite, xl,
171. Knoxvillite. ix, 73. Kobel-
lite, i, 73. Kotschubeite, vi, 73.

Langbanite, iv, 72. Lansfordite, vi,
156; ix. 121. Laubanite, v, 418.
Laurionite, v, 518. Lavenite, i, 230.
Lead silicate, artificial, ii, 272. Lepi-
dolites of Maine, ii, 353; viii, 387.
Lepidomelane, i, 265; iv, 133; viii,
390. Lettsomite, Arizona and Utah,
x], 118. Leucite, Wyoming, viii, 43.
Limonite, pseudomorphs after py-—
rite, i, 376; ii, 274. Lucasite, ii,
375. Ludwigite, iv, 284. Lussatite,
x29!

Magnetite, pseudomorphs, iv, 408;
Port Henry, N. Y., xl, 63. Mala-
chite, i, 75. Manganotantalite, iv,
73. Marcasite, vi, 295. Margarite,
Clarke, viii, 391; Genth, ix, 49.
Martinite, v, 418. Mazapilite, vi,
391: vil, 501; vili, 252. Melan-
ocerite, v, 416. Messelite, ix, 74.
Metacinnabarite, Cal., xl, 291. Met-
alonchidite, v, 418. Metastibnite,
vii, 499. Mica, analysis of, ii, 317.
Mica group, theory of, Clarke, viii,
384; composition, xl, 410. Micas,
analyses, Clark, iv, 131; iron lithia,
of Cape Ann, ii, 358. Michel-lévyte,
Quebec, Lacroix, viii, 249; ix, 61.
Minium, Leadville, ix, 42. Mirabil-
ite, Verde Valley, Arizona, ix, 44.
Mixite (?), v, 305. Molybdenite
crystal, ii, 210. Monazite, iii, 160;
Hidden, ii, 207; Canada, Hoffmann,
iv, 73; Genth, viii, 203; N. Caro-
lina, Penfield and Sperry, vi, 322;
in rocks, Derby, vii, 109. Mor-
denite, Wyoming, xl, 232. Mur-
sinskite, ili, 424. Muscovite, N.C.,
Clarke, iv, 131, viii, 387; Patrick
Co., Va., Genth, ix, 49.

Napalite, Napa Co., Cal., ix, 74. Na-
trophilite, Branchville, Ct., ix, 205.
Neotesite, xl, 335. Nesquehonite,
ix, 122. Nickel ores from Oregon,
v, 483. Nivenite, viii, 481. Nor-
denskidldine, v, 416.

Ochrolite, vii, 500. Oligoclase, opti-

31] VOLUMES XXXI-XL. 5385

MINERALS— MINERALS—

cal characters, iv, 391; Bakersville,
N. C., vi, 222, 324. Olivenite, v,
298. Oolite, calcareous, Iowa; sili-
ceous, Penn., xl, 246. Opal, Oregon,
yili, 73. Ore-deposits, theory of, i,
474. Orthoclase, iii, 243.

Pandermite, iv, 234. Paposite, vii,
501. Pectolite, iii, 287. Periclasite,
Sweden, iv, 490. Perofskite in
peridotite, Ky., vii, 219; in serpen-
tine, iv, 140; Magnet Cove, xl, 403.
Phenacite from Colorado, ii, 210, iii,
130, vi, 320; New Hampshire, vi,
222, 472; new localities, ix, 325;
not found at Hebron, Me., Yeates,
xl, 259; of Mt. Antero, Col., Pen-
field, xl, 491. Phlogopite, N. Y.,
vi, 329; composition, Clarke, viii,
389. Pholidolite, xl, 335. Phos-
phosiderite, xl, 336. Picrophar-
macolite, Mo., xl, 204. Pinnoite, i,
230. Pitticite, Utah, xl, 205. Plat-
inum, native, Canada, v, 257. Platt-
nerite, Idaho, Wheeler, viii, 79;
Hawkins, viii, 165. Pleonectite,
Sweden, viii, 251. Pleurasite, Swe- |
den; ix, 161. Plumbonacrite, Swe- |
den, viii, 250. Polianite, v, 243.
Polyarsenite, i, 230. Polybasite, i,
229; Colorado, xl, 424. Polycrase |
in N. and S. Carolina, ix, 302. Po-

lydimite, Canada, vii, 372. Priceite, |

iv, 283. Pseudobiotite, iv, 73.
Pseudo-chrysolite, 1, 75. Psilome-
lane, formation, vi, 175. Ptilolite,
ii, 117. Pyrite, Col., crystals, vii,
236; Pa., vii, 209; decomposition
ef, vi, 295; French Creek, Penn., |
x], 114. Pyroxene, hemihedrism of, |
Williams, viii, 115; N. Y., vii, 237;
secondary, 1x, 359; twin crystals,
iv, 275.

Quartz, iii, 507; with basal plane, ii,
208; compound crystals, i, 174;
Arizona, iv, 479; electric dilatation, |
vii, 495: etching, vii, 501; as an/|
insulator, Boys, vili, 76; origin of, |
in basalt, Iddings, vi, 208; pseudo-
morphs after spodumene, vi, 222; |
twin crystals, vi, 323. Quenstedtite,
vi, 156. Quetenite, xl, 259. |
Ralstonite, composition, ii, 380. Ra- |
phisiderite, ix, 74. Reddingite, |
Branchville, Ct., ix, 211. Redding- |
tonite, Cal., ix, 73. Rheetizite, Pat- |
rick Co., Va., ix, 49. Rhodochro- |
Sie, (ol, thy, CUO ING dias db aii
Rhodonite, N. J., xl, 484. Rhodo-
tilite, vii, 499. Riebeckite, vi, 391.

Roemerite, from Chili, viii, 243.

Rosenbuschite, v, 416. Rubrite, xl,
258. Rumpfite, Styria, xl, 424.
Rutile, iii, 161. 501. Rutile-Edi-
Sonite, ix, 159.

Sanguinite, Chili, xl, 497. Sanidine,

i, 484. Sarkinite, i, 230. Scapo-
lite, Pa., xl, 116; im rocks, N. J.,
ix, 407. Scheelite trom Idaho, vii,
414. Schorlomite, iil, 425. Schun-
gite, ili, 424. Scorodite, iii, 290;
iv, 171. Selen-tellurium, Honduras,
xl, 79. Serpentine, composition, xl,
307; formations in California, i,
348; Montville, N. J., vii, 237;
Syracuse, iv, 137. Siderite, N. Y.,
xl, 155. Sideronatrite, Chili, xl,
201. Siderophyllite, Clarke, viii,
390. Sigterite, xl, 336. Silicates,
formulas, Becker, viii, 154; consti-
tution of, Clarke and Schneider, xi,
303, 405, 452. Silver nugget, iv,
480; in voleanic ash, iv, 159. So-
dalite, i, 264. Spangolite, ix, 370.
Spessartite, i, 434. Sperrylite, anal.,
vii, 67; crystalline form, vii, 71.
Sphalerite, amorphous, Kansas, x],
160. Spodumene, Hidden, ii, 204.
G.vom Kath, iii, 160. Strengite, arti-
ficial, i, 311. Stibiatil, Sweden, ix,
161. Stibnite, vii, 501; xl, 115.
Stromeyerite, ili, 79. Stivenite, iii,
80. Sulphantimonites, Col., Eakins,
vi, 450. Sulphohalite, vi, 463. Sul-
phur, Dana, ii, 389. Sussexite, N.
J., anal., vi, 323.

Tale, composition, xl, 306. Tamaru-

gite, x], 258. Tephrowillemite, N.
J., Koenig, viii, 329. Tetradymite,
Arizona, xl, 114. Tetrahedrite, i,
229. Thenardite, Verde Valley,
Arizona, ix, 44; Cal., vii, 235.
Thoro-gummite, viii, 480. Topaz,
Mexico, ili, 507; in rhyolite, i, 432;
of Utah, iii, 146. Tourmaline, iii,
160, 506; analysis and composition
Ol Ve cone lack seiNan Chan iins Obi:
brown, N. Y:, vii, 237; locality in
Maine, i, 75. Trona, see Urao.
Turquois, New Mexico, ii, 211.
Tyrolite, v, 300; Utah, ix, 271.

Uintahite, i, 231. Ulexite, anal., iv,

264. Uraninite, iv, 73; vi, 295;
composition of, Hillebrand, viii, 329,
495; xl, 384. Urao, anal., viii,
59; (Trona), crystallization, viii,
65. Utahite (?), New Mexico, xl,
203.

Vanadinite, i, 230; Arizona and New

Mexico, ii, 441. Vermiculite, ii,
375. Vermiculites, composition, xl,

536

MINERALS—
452. Wesuvianite, Mass., vi, 157.
Viyianite, Tenn., xl, 120.

Warrenite, ix, 74. Washingtonite,
Conn., iv, 407. Webskyite, iv, 72.
Weibyeite, xl, 176. Wulfenite,
Sing Sing, N. Y, ix, 159. Wurtzil-
ite, ix, 160.

Xanthitane, anal., v, 418. Xenotime,
ji, 206, ili, 161; New York City, |

vi, 380; N. C., vi, 381, 382.
otime-zircon, N. C., vi, 381, 382.
Yttrialite, viii, 477.
Zincite, 1, 388.
Zircon, N. Carolina, vi, 73; xl, 116.

Minéraux des rocnes, M. Lévy et La- |

croix, xl, 259.

Minnesota, geo]. reports, 1885, iii, 159 ;
1886, v, 84; 1887. v, 500; vii, 231,
AO TMS SSimxt Oils

Mirror, method of rotating,

\ bey) BIL((c
Mitchell Scientific Society, i, 480.

Missouri, geol. report, ix, 72, 520.

Mixter, W. G., Elementary Chemistry,
vii, 409.

Oettingen,

Molecular structure and light-absorption, |

1, D8:
Molecule, silver, size of, iv,
Molecules, size of, Jager, v, 492.
Moler, G. 8., vibrations of cords,

228.
G. 5S
vi, 337.

Moon’s surface, ii, 326.
temperature, Langley, viii, 421.
Moraine, see Glacial.
Moreland, 8. T.,
liquids, iv, 227.
Morley, E. W., influence of motion of
medium on velocity of light, i, 377.
moisture in a gas after drying by
phosphorus pentoxide, iv, 199; rela-

tive motion of earth and luminiferous |
wave-length of sodium

ether, iv, 333 ;
light, iv, 427.
feasibility of establishing a light-

wave as ultimate standard of length,
viii, 181.

Morley and Muir, Watts’s Dictionary of
Chemistry, vili, 409.

Morphological monographs, iv, 76.

Morphology, Journal of, ili, 84: iv, 411;
vi, 395; vii, 502.

Morong, T., journey in S. A., vii, 321.

Mountain slides, Tripyramid, i, 40-4.

Miller, F. von, Myoporineous Plants of
Australia, iii, 164; Key to the System
of Victorian Plants, vii, 416.

Munroe, C. E., effects of detonation of
gun-cotton, vi, 48.

Muir, Treatise on Principles of Chemis-
try, vuli, 410.

GENERAL INDEX.

Xen- |

Zinkenite, iii, 287. |

ete., |

action of magnets on |

[32

'Muter, J., Analytical
2511:
Murray, J., bottom deposits from Blake
dredgings, i, 221.
| oe of Comp. Zoology, Bulletin, iii,
of Natural History, American, Bul-
letin, iii, 83, 423; viii, 78.
National, proceedings, vol. x, vii,
421; viii, 498.
Musical sand, Sinai, Bolton, ix, 151.
tones by means of unlike formed
waves, K6nig, ix, 399.

N

Nason, F. L., vertebrate fossil beds in
Honduras, iv. 485; localities of New
York minerals, vii, 237; camptonite
from Vermont, viii, 229.

Nathorst, Nomenclature of fossil Leaves,
1, 236.

Natural History Society, New Bruns-
wick. Bulletin, No. vii, vi, 160; Tren-
ton, Journal of, vi, 160.

Nebraska, geol. report, ii, 321.

Nebula, Nova Andromedee, Hall, i, 299;

| in the Pleiades, i, 318.

| Orion, spectrum, Huggins, viii, 170;
Sadly 1/33

|Neumayr, M., Die Stamme der Thier-
reichs, Bd. it Vil, 235.

| Obituary, ix, 326.

| Newberry, J. 8., adaptation in Cicada, i,

ie aili6s:

Cretaceous Flora, ii, 77.

N. America in Ice period, iii, 77.

new fossil fishes, v, 498.

Fauna and Flora of N. J. and Conn.
Valley Trias, vi, 70; Rheetic pleas
from Honduras, vi, 342,

Fossil Fishes and Fossil Plants of
the Triassic Rocks of N. J. and Conn.
Valley, viii, 77.

Devonian plants from Ohio, ix, 71;
notice of Woodward’s British Verte-
brates, ix, 402.

Paleeozoic fishes of N. A., xl, 255.

Newcomb, S., velocity of light, i, 62;
speed of propagation of Charleston
earthquake, v, 1

Newell, J. H., Outlines of Lessons in
Botany, Pt. I, vii, 419.

New Jersey, geographic development of
northern, Davis and Wood, ix, 404.

geol. reports, 1885, iii, 79; 1886,
iv, 71; 1887, vi, 71; final report, vol.
Ts vai, 232:

plants of, Britton, xl, 171.

New South Wales, publications of Royal
Society of, i, 155; iii, 85; xl, 342.

See Geology.

Chemistry, v,

33 | VOLUMES
Newton, H. A., astronomical notices, i,
78, 159, 318, 406; Biela’s comet, i, 81; |
Biela meteors of Nov. 27, 1885, i, 409. |
astronomical notices, iii, 428.
relation of orbits of meteorites to
the earth’s orbit, vi, 1.
astronomical notice, viii, 170. |
memorial address of Elias Loomis, |

ix, 427; orbit of Iowa meteor, ix,
522. |

New York, geol. reports, i, 311; v, 85, |
499; ix, 155.

Nichols, EK. L., chemical behavior of iron
in magnetic field, i, 272.

destruction of passivity of iron in |
nitric acid, iv, 419.

electromotive force of magnetiza-
tion, v, 290.

direction. and velocity of electric |
current, vii, 103.

spectro-photometric comparison of
sources of artificial illumination, viii,
100.

electrical resistance of alloys of
ferro-manganese and copper, ix, 471.

Nicholson, H. A., Manual of Paleeontol- |
ogy. ix, 239.

Nipher, F. E., isodynamic surfaces of
compound pendulum, i, 22; theory of
magnetic measurements, iii, 84; non-
condensing steam engine, vili, 281.

Nitrification of ammonia, Schilcesing, ix,
162.

Noé, G. de la, Les Formes du Terrain,
vi, 380.

Norway, Geology of, Reusch, vii, 498.

Nystrom, Pocket Book of Mechanics and
Engineering, iv, 412.

0
OBITUARY—

Abich, Herman, ii, 246.
C. A., ix, 166.

Baird, Spencer F., iv, 240, 319. Bar-
nard, F. A. P., vii, 504. Boissier,
Edmond, i, 20. Booth, James C.,
v, 346. Boott, Wm., iv, 160; v, 262.

Campbell, John L., i, 240. Chamber-

Ashburner,

EXUXIE XE: 537

OBITUARY—

Fischer, Heinrich, i, 320.

Goldie, John, vy, 260. Gosse, Philip
Henry, vi, 304. Gray, Asa, v, 181.
Guyot, Arnold, i, 358.

Hager, Albert D., vi, 226. Hance,
Henry Fletcher, iii, i65. Harding,
Selwyn L., iii, 166. Harger, O., iv,

496; v, 425. Hayden, Ferdinand
V., v, 88, 179. Hillebrand, Wm.,
ii, 164.

Irving, Roland D., vi, 80.

James, U. P., vii, 322. Joule, J. P.,
viii, 500.

Kellogg, Albert, v, 261. Kirchhoff,
G., iv, 496. Kjerulf, Theodor, vii,
422.

Lasaulx, A. yon, i, 320. Law, Annie
K., vii, 422. Lea, Isaac, iii, 85.
Lesquereux, Leo, viii, 499. Lewis,
Henry Carvill, vi, 226. Loomis,
Elias, vili, 256; ix, 427. Lyman,

Chester Smith, ix, 245.
Meneghini, Giuseppe, vii, 422; viii,
336. Michener, Ezra, v, 2€3. Mitch-
ell, Maria, viii, 172. Morren, Edou-
ard, iii, 164.
Neumayr, Melchior, ix, 326.
bould, Wm. W., iii, 164.
Oppolzer, Theodor von, iii, 166. Or-
phanides, T. G., iii, 165. Owen,
Richard of Indiana, 1x, 414; xl, 96.
Percy, John, viii, 172. Perry, Stephen
Jeoixe 246s abeterss Olwrlair eax]:
176. Phillips, John Arthur, iii, 326.
Planchon, Jules- Emile, v, 425.
Proctor, Richard A., vi, 304.
Quenstedt, F. von, ix, 326.
Rath, Gerhard vom, v, 506. Ravenel,
Henry William, v, 263. Roeper,
J.C.) 1, 22:
Shepard, C. U., i, 482. Stearns, Silas,
vi, 303. Stevenson, James, vi, 226.
Tolmie, W. F., iii, 244; v, 260. Tuck-
erman, He) /306% iy a5.
Tulasne, L. R., and Charles, i, 312.
Whittlesey, Charles, ii, 412, 487.
Wright, Charles, i, 22; Wigand, J.
W. Albert, iii, 165. Worthen, A.
H., vi, 80, 161.
Youmans, KH. L., ili, 166.
Zepharovich, Victor von, 1x, 326.
Objectives, secondary chromatic aberra-
tion for double, Hastings, vii, 291.
Observatories and astronomers, list of,
iv, 160.

Observatory, Argentine, iv, 312; v, 346.
Harvard, annals, iv, 79; v, 346.
Lick, publications, v, 346; vi, 78.

New-

lin, Benjamin B., vi, 396. Clarke,
Alvan, iv, 322. Clausius, R., vi,
304. Clinton, George W., i, 17.
Coffin, J. H. C., ix, 246. Cook,
George H., viii, 336, 498. Crane,
Johu Huntington, ix, 246. |

Debray, Henri, vi, 302. Dechen,
Heinrich von, vii, 422. Deslong-
champs, Eugene H., ix, 326. Dra-
per, John C., i, 80. Duby, Jean-
Etienne, i, 312.

Kichler, A. W., iii, 427. Ericsson,

John, vii, 422.
5

Morrison, publications, iv, 79.
Yale, transactions, iv, 76; ix, 245,

538

Ocean, bottom deposits off American
coast, Murray, i, 221.
bathymetric map, Dana, vil,
242,
crater in bottom, near the Canaries,
1, 226.
depths of South Pacific, ix, 412.
Oceanic depression, deep troughs and
topography of, Dana, vii, 192, 242;
near Tongatabu in the Pacific, vii, 420.
Ohio, geol. reports, ii, 241; vi, 68.
Ohm, changes in the, iv, 228; re-deter-
mination of, Jones, xl, 419.
Ohm’s law, experimental proof, Mayer,
bd Hae
Oldham, wind-drift scratches in India,
vii, 413.
Oliver, Treatise on Algebra, ili, 325.
Oppolzer, C. d’, Traité de la détermina-
tion des orbites, i, 480.
Optical angles, estimation, Lane, ix, 53.
Optometer, spectroscopic, i, 60.

192,

Oregon, surface geology, Biddle, v, 475. |

Ores, see Geology.
Orton, E., petroleum and gas of Ohio, ii,
241; rock pressure of natural gas of

Trenton Limestone of Ohio and Indi- |

ana, ix, 225.

Osborn, H. F.,
tion of the Mesozoic Mammalia, vi,
390; Mammalia of the Uinta forma-
tion, ix, 403.

Osborne, T. B., higher oxides of copper,
il, DOO.

Oswald’s Klassiker der exakten Wissen-
schaften, Nos. 1-3, viii,

Owen, M.L., Plants of Nantucket, Mass.,
vi, 393.

iP

Packard, A. 8.. Entomology for Begin-
ners, vi, 297; recent discoveries in

Carboniferous flora and fauna of R. [., |

vii, 411.
Pacific Ocean, see Ocean.

Palaontologie, Klemente, von Steinmann |

und Déderlein, ix, 240.
Paleontology, Manual, Nicholson and
Lydekker, ix, 239.
and Geology, American, Milier, 1x,
67.
See Geology.
Panebianco, R., Rivista Min. Crist. Ital- |
iana, vol. i, v, 86.
Paraliax of a Tauri, iv, 79.
Paris Exposition of 1889, x1, 96.
Parry, C. C., Ceanothus, vii, 418.
Partridge, H. A., atomic weight of cad-
mium, xl, 377.
Patterson, H. N., Check-List of N. A.
Plants, iii, 244.

GENERAL INDEX.

structure and classifica- |

256; xl, 499.

[34

Pax, F., Species of Acer, i, 237.

| Peck, W. G., Analytical Mechanies, vy,
346.

| Peirce, B. O., measurement of internal

| resistance of batteries, viii, 465.

| Pendulum, isodynamie surfaces of com-

pound, Nipher, i, 22

_ nearly perfect simple, iii, 238.

| Penfield, 8. L., brookite crystals, i, 387.
herderite and beryl, ii, 107; mete-

orites from Utah and Missouri, ii, 226;

pseudomorphs of garnet, ii, 307; com-

position of ralstonite, ii, 380; vana-

dinite from Arizona and New Mexico,

ii, 441.
phenacite from Colorado, iii, 130.
composition of howlite, iv, 220; tri-

clinic feldspars with twinning stria-

tions on the brachypinacoid, iv, 390.

| polianite, v, 243.

bertrandite, Mt. Antero, Col., vi, 52;

mineralogical notes, vi, 317.

rite crystals, French Cr., Pa., vii, 209;

| crystallized bertrandite, Me. and Col.,

vii, 213; etching of quartz, vii, 401.
lansfordite, nesquehonite, new min-

erals, ix, 121; spangolite, new copper

mineral, ix, 370; hamlinite, new min-

eral from Maine, ix, 511.
fayalite in the obsidian of Lipari, x1,

75; composition of connellite, xl, 82;

crystallographic ‘notes, x], 199; chal-

copyrite crystals from Chester Co.,

Pa., xl, 207; anthophyllite, Franklin,

Macon Co., N. C., xl. 394; beryllium

minerals of Mt. Antero, Col., xl, 488.

| Penhallow, D. P., tendril movements, i,
46, 100, 178.

Pennsylvania, geol. reports, i, 70, 227;
ii, 162, 408; v, 85, 415; vi, 153.

Penrose, R. A. F., Jr., nature and origin
of deposits of phosphate of lime, vii,
413; Tertiary and Cretaceous of Ar-
kansas and Texas, viii, 468.

Penzig, O., Studi botanici, etc., iv, 494.

| Perkins, C. A, vapor tension of sul-
phuric acid, and cathetometer micro-
scope, x], 301.

Perkins, G. H., Catalogue of the Flora
of Vermont, vi, 394.

| Personal equation machine, new, Win-
terhalter, vii, 116.

| Peruyian are, measurement of,

| ix, ile

| Peters, E. D., Modern American Meth-

| ods of Copper Smelting, v, 88.

Petrography, see Hocks.

| Pfeffer, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Oxi-

dationsvorgange in lebenden Zellen,

viii, 166.

Preston,

crystals of sperrylite, vii, 71; py- —

35 | VOLUMES

Phosphoro-photographs, Lommel, xl, 330.
Photographic dry plates, effect of stain-
ing upon. vii, 76; figures produced by
electric action on, vii, 226.
halos, suppression of, ix, 520.
lens, Zenger, viil, 491.
Photography applied to flight of birds,
iv, 399.
Chemistry of, Meldola, viii, 255.
instantaneous, ii, 481.
of oscillating electric sparks, Boys,
sd) Seslle
orthochromatic, vii, 229.
by phosphorescence, iii, 307.
pin-hole, Rayleigh, vii, 491.
relation of silver salts to, see Silver
uuder CHEMISTRY.
surface tension studied by. ix, 519.
by vital phosphorescence, iv, 311.
Photometer, Pritchard’s wedge, iv, 401.
Piano, time of contact between hammer
and string in, Weed, ii, 366.

Pickering, E. C., maps of ultra violet |

spectrum. ii, 223; temperature and
heat of chemical combustion, ii, 173;

spectrum of ¢ Ursee Majoris, ix, 46.

Pillsbury, J. E., explorations of the Gulf)

Stream, vi, 225.

Pirsson, L. V., mordenite, xl, 232: fow- |

lerite, New Jersey, xl, 484.

Pitcher, F. B., absorption spectra of |

blue solutions, vi, 332.

Planchon, J. H., Ampelideze, iv. 490.

Planetary bodies, law of densities, viii,
393.

Planets, discovery of small, v, 505.

relation of asteroid orbits to those

of Jupiter, i, 318.

Platinum, action of, on gases, iv, 64;
and silver, comparison of radiations
from melting, iv, 227.

Polar expedition to Point Barrow, Re- |

port, i, 319.

Polarization, circular, of tartrate solu-
tions, Long, I, vi, 351; II, viii, 264;
TIT, xl, 275.

by double image prisms, iii, 237.
galvanic, Warburg, ix, 66.
Portugal, geology, vi, 154.

Poulton, HK. B., gilded chrysalides, ii, |

321.

Powell, J. W., Report of Bureau of Eth- |

nology, i, 320.

Power, transmission of, by alternating |

electrical currents, v, 252.
Prantl, K., Die natiirlichen Pflanzen-
familien, v, 259.

Pratt, J. H., Jr., capillary electrometer, |

v, 143.
Prescott, A. B., Organic Analysis, v,
336.

COME. 539

Preston, E. D., deflection of plumb-line
and variations of gravity, Hawaiian
Is., vi, 305; measurement of the Per-
uvian are, ix, 1; magnetic and gravity
observations on the west coast of
Africa, etc , xl, 478.

Prestwitch, J., Geology, i, 311; v, 414.

Pritchard, C., Uranometria, i, 317.

Probst, J., Klima und Gestaltung der
Erdoberflache in ihrer Wechselwir-
kung. v, 345.

Pumpelly, R., fossils of Littleton, N. H.,
v, 79.

Purves, EK. C., Geology of Antigua, i,
226.

Q

Quicksilver pump, new, iii, 151.

R

Radiant energy, history of, Langley, vii,
1. See Energy.

Radiation in absolute measure, v, 77.

electric, concentration by lenses,
Lodge and Howard, viii, 75.
measurement of, Hutchins, iv, 466.
from melting platinum and silver,
iv, 227.
solar, influence on electrical phe-
nomena in atmosphere of earth, Ar-
rhenius, viii, 161.
thermal, law of, Ferrel, viii, 3; ix,
EG
| Radiophone, electro-chemical, Chaperon
and Mercadier, vi, 153.
| Radlkofer, L., Serjania Sapindacearum
Genus, monographic description, iv,

A935

Rath, G. vom, N. Carolina minerals, iii,
159. :

Rattan, V., West Coast Botany, iii, 319.

Rayleigh, Light and Electricity, vi, 468;

| composition of water, vii, 492.

Rays, ultra-violet, disintegration of sur-
faces by means of, Lenard and Wolf,
vili, 247.

See Light, Spectrum.

Reade, T. M., submarine crater in the
Atlantic near the Canaries, i, 226;
Origin of Mountain Ranges, iii, 240;
mountain making, v, 415; origin of
normal faults, ix, 51.

| Reed, A. Z., Evolution versus Involu-

tion, i, 317.

| Refraction, double, in Iceland spar, Has-

| tings, v, 60.

| produced by metallic films, i,

390.
on electrical theory, Gibbs, v, 467.
Refractive indices, variation with tem-
| perature, i, 50.

540 GENERAL INDEX. [36

Reflection and refraction, apparatus to |
illustrate, v, 332.
selective of metals, Rubens, viii,
162.
Reid, H. F., theory of the bolometer, v, |
|

160.
Renevier, fossils in the Alps, v, 80.
Resistance of alloys of ferro- manganese
and copper, Nichols, ix, 471.
B. A., unit of, Duncan, Wilkes and)
Hutchinson, viii, 230.
electrical, of antimony and cobalt, |
iv, 151. |
internal, of batteries, measurement |
of, Peirce and Willson, viii, 465.
measurements of, Feussner, ix, 317.
unit of, see Ohm.
Reusch, H., Bomeléen og Karméen, vii,
498.
Reyer, E., Theoretische Geologie, vi,
389.
Rhode Island, Geology, v, 415.

Rice, W. N., trap and sandstone in gorge
of Farmington River, Conn., ii, 430.
Richards, R. H, zoetrope applied to
crystallographic transformations, ii,

164.
Richter, V. von, Inorganic Chemistry,
v, 251.
Richthofen, F. F. von, Atlas von China.
it, ike
Riddle, R. N., crystallized tungsten, viii, |
160. |
Riggs, R. B.. meteoric irons, iv, 59; so-
called Harlem indicolite, iv, 406; com-
position of tourmaline, v, 35.
Robertson, J. D., zinc sulphide from
Cherokee Co., Kansas, xl, 160. |
Robinson, F. C., clay from Farmington, |
Me., iv, 407; supposed meteorite of
Northford, Me., v, 212. |
Robinson, B. L., stem structure of Iodes |
Tomentilla, ix, 407.
Rock-forming minerals, Rutley, vi, 295.
Rocks—
allanite and epidote. paragenesis of
in rocks. Hobbs, viii, 223.
andesites, il. 28.
Archean and Huronian, Winchell, |
vill, 497. |
augite-syenites, Irving’s, Bayley, vii,
54. |
basalt, ii, 27.
of dikes in central Appalachian
Virginia, Darton, Diller, ix, 269.
basaltic lavas of Sandwich Islands,
E. 8. Dana, vii, 441.
camptonite of Hawes, new locality, |
Nason, vili, 229. |
columnar structure, N. Jersey, Id- |
dings, i, 321. |

Rocks—

conglomerates, origin of, ii, 324.

cordierite gneiss, Conn., Hovey, vi, 57.

Cortlandt series, G. H. Williams, i, 26,
iii, 135, 191, 243, v, 438, vi, 254;
Kemp, vi, 247.

crystalline, of Rainy Lake Region, iii,
473.

dacite, i, 29.

diorite dike, N. Y., Kemp, v, 331.

diorites, ‘‘Cortlandt Series,” N. Y.,
Williams, v, 438.

eruptive Tertiary, granitic structure in,
litjwollios

of Fernando de Noronha, Williams,
vii, 178; Branner, ix, 247.

fulgurite, Mt. Blane, i, 75; Mt. Viso,
vii, 414.

hudsonite, Williams, i, 29.

Hussak, on determination of, i, 156.

gabbros, ‘‘ Cortlandt Series,” N. Y.,
Williams, v, 438.

Igneous, Great Britain, Teall, vi, 154.

of Krakatoa, Judd, vi, 471.

lavas, lamination of acid, Iddings, iii,
36.

leucite-phonolite in Wyoming Ter.,
Hague, viii, 43.

Lévy-Lacroix, Minéraux des Roches,
vii, 414.

metamorphic origin of California Cre-
taceous, etce., Diller, i, 348.

metamorphism, Dana, ii, 69; Irving,
viii, 493.

Microscopical Physiography, Iddings-
Rosenbusch, vi, 471.

minerals in, Lévy, vii, 414.

monazite as an element in, Derby,
vii, 109.

norites, near Peekskill, N. Y, Wil-
liams, iii, 135, 191, 243.

ophiolite, N. Y., Merrill, vii, 189.

ophiolitic and basic, of Italy, ete., ti,
239.

peridotite, augites in, Merrill, v, 488 ;
Arkansas, Branner and Brackett,
vili, 50; of Kentucky, Diller, ii,
121; vii, 219; near Peekskill, Wil-
liams, i, 26.

of Pigeon Pt., Minn., Bayley, vii, 54,
ix, 273.

porphyrite bosses in N. J., Kemp,
viii, 130.

porphyritic structure, Dana, ii, 71.

quartzite consolidated by enlargement
of grains, i, 225; spotted, from
Minn., Bayley, v, 388.

quartz-keratophyre, Minn., Bayley,
vii, 54.

quartzose basalt, Northern California,
Diller, iii, 45.

fino

37] VOLUMES

Rocks—

Rosenbusch’s tables, vii, 414.

rhyolite, topaz and garnet in, Cross, i,
432.

Rutley, rock-forming minerals, vi, 295.

sandstones, pumiceous, Pliocene, Mer-
rill, ii, 199: eolian, Fernando de
Noronha, Branner, ix, 247.

scapolite-rock in N. J. Archean, Na-
gon, ix, 407.

Smith, E. G., translation of Hussak, i,
156.

soda-granite of Pigeon Point, Bayley,
thse, PAs

texture of massive, Becker, ili, 50.

volcanic of the Bala series, of Caer-
narvonshire and associated rocks,
Harker, ix, 406.

of Salvador, Hague and Iddings,
it, 26:

Rockwood, C. G., American earthquakes,
ii, 7; Charleston earthquake, iii, 71;
Japanese seismic survey, iv, 68.

Rocky Mountain protaxis, Dana, xl, 181.

Roemer, F., Fauna der Kreide von Texas,
vii, 318.

Roileston, Forms of Animal Life, v, 504.

Rominger, C., Primordial fossils, Canada,
iv, 490.

Rood, O. N., notice of Einhorn’s Force
function in Crystals, i, 69.

Rosa, EH. B., determination of the ratio
of electromagnetic to electrostatic
unit, viii, 298.

Roscoe, H. E., polymerization of hydro-
carbons, ii, 76; on the Daltonian
atoms, iv, 315.

Rose, J. N., Revision of N. A. Umbel-
liferee, vii, 417.

Rosenbusch, H., Microscopical Physio-
graphy, translation by Iddings, vi,
471; Hiulfstabellen zur mikroskopi-
schen Mineralbestimmung in Ges-
teinen, vu, 414.

Roth, J., Geologie, i, 405; v, 257.

Rowland, H. A., relative wave-length of |

lines of solar spectrum, iii, 182;
battery, ili, 147;
chemical action, vi, 39; ratio of elec-

water |
effect of magnet on |

tromagnetic to electrostatic unit of |

electricity, Vill, 289.

Russell, I. C., Glaciers in U. Sha th 310;
Geological ‘History of Lake Lahontan,
iii, 242; subaerial decay of rocks and
origin of red color of certain forma-
tions, ix, 317; Quaternary history of
Mono Valley, Cal., ix, 402.

Russell, T., prediction of cold-waves, x1,
463.

Rucker, velocity of sound, v, 252.

Runge, C., iron spectrum, vil, 495.

Seely, H. M., Strephochetus, ii, 31;

TOO PGbp 5AL

Rutley, F., devitrified glass, ii, 78; Rock-
forming Minerals, vi, 295; fulgurite
of Mt. Viso, vii, 414.

ots)

Sabine, W. C., steam in spectrum analy-
sis, vii, 114.

Sachs, J. von, Physiology of Plants, iv,
410.

Saint-Lager, ancient herbaria, il, 79; no-
menclature, ii, 485.

Salisbury, R. Dy, terminal moraines in
Germany, v, 401.

Salt, rock, dispersion of, iv, 67.

Sand, sonorous, of Sinai, Bolton, ix, 151.

Sand-transportation by rivers, Graham,
xl, 476.

Sandmeyer, hypochlorites of ethyl] and
methyl, ii, 74.

Sandwich Islands, see Hawaiian.

Sargent, C. S., journey of A. Michaux
to the mountains of Carolina, ii, 466;
Scientific Papers of A. Gray, viii,
419.

Saussure, H. B., monument to, ii, 246.

Scandinavia, geological map, ix, 521.

Schermerhorn, L. Y., physical character-
istics of the Great Lakes, iii, 278.

Schmidt, A., Geologie des Miinsterthals,
v, 346; ix, 72. -

Schneider, E. A., analysis of soil from
Washington Terr., vi, 236; constitu-
tion of natural silicates, xl, 203, 405,
452.

Schott, C. A.,

magnetic dip in N. Amer-
ica, iii, 430.

| Schulten, A. de, artificial minerals, i, 311.

Schumann, C., Flora Brasiliensis, ii, 166.
Schumann, M., criticism of Morley on
the amount of oxygen in air, iv, 67.

| Schuster, A., diurnal variation of terres-

trial magnetism, ix, 411.

Scientific method, inculcation of, Gilbert,
i, 384.

Seudder, N. P., Isaac Lea Bibliography,
i, 239.

Seudder, 8. H., Carboniferous Arachni-
dan, i, 310; Uebersicht der fossiler
Insecten, i, 403.

Scott, W. B., new Dinocerata, i, 303;
Mammalia of the Uinta formation, ix,
+403.

Seamon, W. H., zinciferous clays of
southwest Missouri, ix, 38.

Searle, A., zodiacal light, i, 159.

| Sedgwick and Murchison, Dana, ix, 167,

235.

Cal-
ciferous formation in the Champlain
Valley, ix, 235.

Seismic survey, Tokio, iv, 68.

O42

Seismological investigations, v, 97.
See Harthquakes.

Selwyn, A. R. C., tracks in rocks of the
Animikie group, ix, 145,

Seymour, A. B., Index of the Fungi of
10 Ss, vat

Shaefer, A. W., Pennsylvania Geology,
1, 2277.

Shaler, N. S., geology of Cobscook Bay,
ii, 35; fluviatile swamps of New Eng-
land, iii, 210; Cambrian of Bristol Co.,
Mass., vii, 76; Martha’s Vineyard,
vii, 502.

Shea, D. W., calibration of an electrom-
eter, v, 204.

Sheldon, S., magnetism of nickel and
tungsten alloys, viii, 462; neutraliza-
tion of induction, ix, 17; magneto-

optical generation of electricity, xl, |

196.
Shepard, J. H., Inorganic Chemistry, i,
221.

Sherburn, C. D., Bibliography of Foram- |

inifera, vi, 295.

Sherman, O. T., spectrum of comet OC,
1886, ii, 157; atmosphere of 6 Lyre,
ili, 126.

Shufeldt. R. W., Outlines for a Museum
of Anatomy, i, 408.

Silver in voleanie ash, iv, 159.

See Chemistry.

Sky, blue color of, Crova, viii, 491.

Slag having composition of fayalite, i,
405.

Smith, E. G.. Rock-forming minerals, 1,

156; pseudomorphs of limonite after |

pyrite, i, 376.
Smith, J. D,
Guatamalensium, ete., Pt. I, vil, 419.
Smith, R. H, Graphics, vii, 504.
Smith, 8, list of dredging stations in N.
American waters, from 1867-1887,
vil, 420.

Smith, S. I., obituary notice of O. Harger, |

v, 425.

Smith, W. B., crystal beds of Topaz |

Butte, ili, 134.

Smithsonian Institution, Annual Report, |

Wala Thor
Snow, conductivity. ete., of, ii, 481.
Soil, nitrifying organisms in, iii, 420.
Soils, fixation of nitrogen in, 1, 391.
Solar corona, Bigelow, xl, 343.
See Sun and Spectrum.
Solids, flow of. Hallock, iv, 277; v, 78;

vi, 59; criticism of Hallock, v, 78; |

powdered, compression of, Spring, vi,
286; viscosity, Barus, vi, 178; chem.
action between, Hallock, vii, 402.
Sohms-Laubach, G. zu, Hinleitung in die
Palaophytologie, etc., vi, 72.

GENERAL INDEX.

Enumeratio Plantarum |

[38

| Solubility and fusibility, vi, 383.
Solutions, blue, absorption spectra,
Pitcher, vi, 332; character of, iv, 483 ;
| xl, 163; concentration by gravity, vy,
75; tartrate circular polarization,
Long, vi, 351, viii, 264, xl, 275.
Sound, diffraction of, Stevens, vii, 257.
velocity of, v. 252, 495.
| South America, geology of northern,
Karsten, ix, 319.
Carolina, geol. report, i, 73.
Spectra, absorption, v, 412.
of blue solutions, Pitcher, vi,
332.
of liquid oxygen and liquefied
air, lv, 63.
of mixed liquids, Bostwick, vii,
A471.
of chemical elements, structure of,
Rydberg, ix, 400.
coincidence between lines of differ-
ent, Love, v, 252; Runge, xl, 165.
heat-, invisible, Langley, i, 1.
of hydrogen, oxygen and water va-
pors, iv, 399.
influence of light-producing layers
upon, v, 253.
metallic, Hutchins, vii, 474.
| photographic study of stellar, i, 407.
ultra violet, of metalloids, Deslan-
dres, vi, 388.
See Spectrum.
Spectral lines, distinction between solar
, and terrestrial, iii, 70.
Spectro-photometric comparison of light,
Nichols and Franklin, viii, 100.
| Spectroscope, Index to Literature of,
Tuckerman, vi, 303, 388.
new photographic, Hutchins, iv, 58.
new universal chemicai, ili, 67.
| Spectroscopic optometer, i, 60.
| Spectrum, absorption of oxygen, vii, 224.
analysis, Grunwald’s hypothesis, vi,
67.

steam in, Trowbridge and Sa-
bine, vil, 114.

use of interference fringes, v,
495.
| of aqueous vapor, mountain study
of, Cook, ix, 258.

“aurora, wave-length of principal line
in, Huggins, vili, 75.

of cadmium, i, 426.

carbon, Kayser & Runge, vili, 411.

of comet ©, 1886, Sherman, ii. 157.

of cyanogen and carbon, vii, 227.

of gases at low temperature, Koch,
vili, 491.

of hydrogen, Thomas and Trepied,
viii, 491.

infra red solar, Abney, vi, 291.

39]

Spectrum invisible solar and lunar, Lang-
ley, vi, 397.
of iron, vii, 495.
of magnesium, vii, 406.
maps of ultra violet, Pickering, ii,
223.
nebula in Orion, Huggins, vili, 170;
sd, NS},
of oxygen, Janssen, vi, 385; vii,
224,
potassium, wave lengths of red-lines,
v, 413; vi, 467.
of rare earths, Crookes, viii, 486.
of Sirius, xl, 175.
solar, i, 319.
light, intensity in, v, 77.
oxygen lines in, vii, 75.
photographic map of, vii, 240.
photography of invisible por-
tions of, Zenger, viii, 411.
relative wave-length in lines of,
Rowland, iii, 182.
ultra red, i, 150.
unrecognized wave-lengths, Lang-
ley, ii, 83.
of ¢ Ursa Majoris, Pickering, ix, 46.
use of induction sparks in studying,
i, Als,
See Spectra.

Spencer, J., Sound, Light and Heat, xl,
495; Magnetism and Electricity, xl,
495.

Spencer, J. W., deformation of Iroquois
Beach and birth of Lake Ontario, xl,
443.

Sperry, EH. S., composition of howlite,
iv, 220; mineralogical notes, vi, 317.

Sperry, F. L., pseudomorphs of garnet,
ii, 307; triclinic feldspars, iv, 390.

Spherometer, well-, Mayer, ii, 61.

Spring, W., criticism of Hallock on flow
of solids, v, 78; compression of pow-
dered solids, vi, 286.

Springer, F'., Revision of Paleeocrinoidea,
ii, 410; morphological relations of
summit-plates in Blastoids, Crinoids
and Cystids, iv, 232.

Spruce, R., Hepaticee Amazonice, i, 238.

Squinabol, S., contribuzioni alla Flora
Fossile dei Terreni Terziarii della
Ligurio: I-II, ix, 72. ;

Stalagmometer and quantitative analysis,
v, 248.

Stammer, K., Chemical Problems, i, 221.

Stars, fixed, parallaxes of, viii, 329.

photographic determinations of posi-
tions, Gould, ii, 369.
Uranometria Oxoniensis, i, 317.
See Spectrum.
Steam calorimeter, Wirtz, xl, 329.
electrified, vii, 316.

VOLUMES XXXI-XL.

543

Steam engine, output as a function of
speed and pressure, Nipher, viii, 281.
Steel, behavior of under magnetic forces,
iii, 422; viscosity and temper of, Barus
and Strouhal, iii, 20, 308.
effect of magnetization on viscosity
and rigidity of, Barus, iv, 175.
effect of silicon on properties of, iii,
509.
‘hydro-electric effect of
Barus and Strouhal, ii, 276.
strain-effect of sudden cooling, Barus
and Strouhal, i, 439; ii, 181.
structure of tempered, Barus and
Strouhal, i, 386.
viscosity and its relation to temper,
Barus and Strouhal, ii, 444.
viscosity and relation to tempera-
ture, Barus, iv, 1.

Steen, A. S., Beobachtungs-Ergebnisse
der norwegischen Polarstation Bos-
sekop in Alten, v, 345.

Steinmann, G., Elemente der Palaontol-
ogie, vii, 235; ix, 420.

Stellar, see Star and Spectrum.

Stenzel, G., genus Tubicaulis of Cotta,
viii, 164.

Stevens, W. L., apparatus for demon-
stration of reflection and refraction, v,
332; sensitive flame as a means of
research, vii, 257; microscope magni-
fication, xl, 50.

Stevenson, J. J., faults in southwest
Virginia, iii, 262; Lower Carbonifer-
ous groups of Appalachian area in
Penn. and the Virginias, iv, 37.

Stewart, B., Elementary Practical Phys-
ics, vol. ii, v, 79; Practical Physics.
v, 336.

Stoddard, J. T., improved wave appara-
tus, ix, 218.

Stokes, G. G., Beneficial Effects of Light,
iv, 401. ,

Stone, G. H., wind action in Maine, i,
133; terminal moraines in Maine, iti,
378; glacial sediments of Maine, xl,
122.

Stone implement, New Comerstown, 0.,
xl} 95.

Stoney, G. J., cause of iridescence in
clouds, iv, 146.

Storer, F. H, Agriculture, iii, 432, 509.

Strains, energy in, Barus, vi, 468.

Strouhal, V., structure of tempered steel,
i, 386; strain-effect of sudden cooling
in glass and steel, i, 439.

strain-effect of sudden cooling in
glass and steel, ii, 181; hydro-electric
effect of temper in steel, ii, 276; vis-
cosity of steel and its relation to tem-
per, li, 444.

temper,

544

, strouhal, V., viscosity and temper of
steel, iii, 20.
Stur, A., Triassic flora of Virginia, vii,
496.

Suess, E., water level in enclosed seas, |

iv, 313; Das Anlitz der Erde, vol. ii,
vi, 72.

Sun, carbon in, Trowbridge and Hutch-
ins, iv, 345; Chemistry of, Lockyer,
iv, 228; elements in, Hutchins and
Holden, iv, 451.

heat of, iii, 423.

light compared with electric are, |

Langley, vili, 438.

oxygen in, Trowbridge and Hutch-
ins, iv, 263.

period of rotation of, Crew, viii,
204.

rotation of, Crew, v, 151.

See Spectrum.

Swamps, fluviatile, New England, Shaler,

ili, 210.

T

Tahiti, erosion of and rocks, Dana, ii, 247.

Tarr, R. S., topographic features of cen-
tral Texas, ix, 306; Lower Carbonif-
erous limestone series in central Texas,
ix, 404; superimposition of the drain-
age in central Texas, xl, 359.

Taschenberg, O., Bibliotheca Zoologica,
Il, iii, 245; iv, 412; vii, 80.

Teall, J. J. H., British Petrography, vi,
y54.

Technological Quarterly, iv, 80.

Telephonic vibrations, Frohlich, viii, 76. |

Telescope objectives, Hastings, vii, 291.

and scale reading, simple modifica- |

tion of method, Dubois, ix, 66.
Temper, hydro-electric effect of, in steel,

Barus and Strouhal, ii, 276; viscosity |

of steel and its relation to, Barus and
Strouhal, ii, 444, ili, 20.
Temperature, influence of, on magnetiza-
tion, v, 253.
See Heat.
Tension, superficial, studied by photog-
‘raphy, ix, 519.

Texas, central, topographic features of,
Tarr, ix, 306; Lower Carboniferous
of, ix, 404; drainage of, xl, 359.

Geol. report, iii, 73.
minerals in Llano Co., viii, 474.

Thermo-electricity, DeCoudres, ix, 317.

Thermometer bulbs, effect of pressure
on, iv, 67.

platinum, Griffiths, xl, 494.

Thompson, S. P., Hlementary Lessons
in Electricity and Magnetism, ix, 235.

Thorpe, T. E., Dictionary of Applied
Chemistry, ix, 519.

GENERAL INDEX.

[40

Threads of glass, ete., production of very
fine, iv, 311.

| Thurston, Engine and Boiler Trials, xl,

262; Heat as a form of Energy, xl,

495.

| Tillman, 8. E., Elementary Lessons in
Heat, viii, 492.

Todd, J. E., Missouri Coteau, i, 69.

Todd, D. P., observations of eclipse,
1887, in connection with electric tele-
graph, ili, 226; Amer. Eclipse Expe-
dition in Japan, vi, 474.

Topaz Butte, crystal beds of, Smith, ii,
134.

Tornado predictions, verification of, Ha-
zen, iv, 127.

Torrey, J., Jr., lowa meteorites, ix, 521;
microscopic structure of oolite, xl, 246.

Torsion, resistance of bars to, Dewar,
vi, 152.

Trelease, W:, Synoptical List of N.
American Species of Ceanothus, vii,
418. :

Trenton Natural History Society, Jour-
nal, i, 406.

Trowbridge, J., physical notices, ii, 480;
iii, 70, 151, 237, 307, 422; iv, 66, 150,
227, 309, 399, 484; v. 77, 251, 337,
412, 495; vi, 66, 151, 291, 387, 467;
vii, 75, 226, 315, 409, 495; viii, 75,
161, 246, 410, 491; ix, 66, 153, 233,
316, 399, 519; xl, 165, 329.

oxygen in the sun, iv, 263; carbon

in the sun, iv, 345.
steam in spectrum aualysis, vii, 114.
radiant and electrical energy, viii,
| 217; magnetism of nickel and tung-

sten alloys, vili, 462.
neutralization of induction, ix, 17.

| Tschirch, A., Angewandte Pflanzenanat-

| omie, viii, 254.

| Tuckerman, A., Index to the Literature

| of the Spectroscope, vi, 303, 388.

Tuckerman, F., gustatory organs of

| Lepus Americanus, vili, 277.

| Tuckerman Memorial Library, vi, 476.

|Tunzelmann, G. W. de, Electricity in

| Modern Life, ix, 401.

| Tyrrell, J. B., naturally reduced iron, iii,

| 73; map of Duck and Riding Moun-

tains, Manitoba, vili, 78; Post-tertiary
in Manitoba, xl, 88; Cretaceous of

| Manitoba, xl, 227.

v

| Ulrich, E. O., Paleeontology, ii, 78.

_ Ulrich, G. H. F., metallic iron, New

| Zealand, iii, 244.

| Upham, W., upper beaches and deltas

| of Lake Agassiz, v, 86: marine shells

in the Boston till, vii, 359.

a

41]

VOLUMES XXXI-XL.

| VOLCANOES—

Valleys, submarine ‘on Pacific coast, |

Davidson, iv, 69.
Van Hise, C. R., mica-schists and black

mica-slates of Penokee-Gogebic series, |

i, 453; enlargements of hornblendes
and augites in rocks, ili, 385; iron ores
of Penokee-Gogebic series, vil, 32.

Van Slyke, L. L., Kilauea after eruption |

of 1886, iii, 98.

Vapor density below boiling point, ix, |

312; method, xl, 415; tension of
sulphuric acid, Perkins, xl, 301.
Venable, F. P., new meteoric irons, xl,
161.
Very, F. W., cheapest form of light, xl,
97

Vibrations, experiments with Hertz’s,
G. F. Fitzgerald, ix, 233. See also
under Electric.

telephonic, Frohlich, viii, 76.
transverse, of cords and wires,
Moler, vi, 337. .

Vilmorin, H. L. de, Alphonse Lavallée,
li, 326.

Vines, S. H., Physiology of Plants, ii,
411; Practical Instruction in Botany,
iv, 492.

Viscosity, pyrometric use of, Barus, v,
407.

of solids, liquids, gases, Barus, ix,
234.

Vision, binocular, phenomena of, Le

Conte, iv, 97.

Volcanic action, Dana, iii, 102; Tertiary,

in British Isles, Geikie,
Judd, vii, 412.
eruption in New Zealand, ii, 162.
glass changed to pumice, iii, 76.
mountain, dissected, Dana, ii, 247.
soils, Italian, Ricciardi, ix, 404.
VOLCANOES—
Characteristics of, with facts from the
Hawaiian Islands, Dana, ix, 323.
Barren Island, i, 394.

vii, 230;

Hawaii, Alexander, ii, 235, 236;
Brigham and Lyman, xl, 335.
Mauva Loa, in July, Merritt,

1888, vil, 51; Baker, vii, 52.
eruption of, ili, 316.
Mokuaweoweo, 1880, 1885, Brig-
ham and Alexander, vi, 33.
Kilauea, Dana, v, 15, 213, 282; Dodge,
vii, 48; Emerson, v, 257.
elevation of cone in, by inflowing
lavas, Dodge, iv, 70.
eruption of, i, 395.
after eruption 1886, Emer-
son, Van Slyke and Dodge, iii,
87; Dana, iii, 102, 239, 433.
history of, Dana, iv, 81, 349.
6

545

Kilauea in 1880, Brigham, iv, 19.
and Mt. Loa (Mokuaweoweo),
Dana, vi, 14, 81, 90, 167.
relation of, to Vesuvius, Dana,
iii, 102.
Maui and Oahu, Dana, vii, 81; oceanic
depth about, vii, 192.
Japan, ii, 233; Baldaisan, eruption of,
Manstield, vi, 293; Kikuchi, viii,
247; xl, 169; Nina-fu, eruption of,

ry BUI:
Krakatoa, lavas of, v, 341; Judd, vi,
471.
and in New Zealand, Dana, vi,
104.

submarine in Atlantic, i, 226.
Western isles of Scotland, Judd, viii,
163.
Voltaic balance, vii, 229.
Vries, H. de, Planten-physiologie, i, 314;
glycerin in its relations to certain tis-
sues, vi, 158.

WwW

Wachsmuth, C., and F. Springer, Palzeo-
crinoidea, i, 311; Revision of PA&leeo-
crinoidea, ii, 410; morphological rela-
tions of summit-plates in Blastoids,
Crinoids and Cystids, iv, 232.

Wachsmuth’s Palzocrinoidea, review of,
iii, 154,

Wadsworth, M. E., Ore-deposits, i, 474.

Walcott, C. D., Cambrian of North
America, 11, 138.

Taconic System, iii, 153; Cambrian
Faunas of N. America, iii, 158.

genus Archeocyathus of Billings,
iv, 145; fauna of Upper Taconic of
Kmmons, Washington Co., N. Y., iv,
187.

Taconic of Emmons, v, 229, 307,
394.

Cambrian fossils from Mt. Stephens,
161.

Olenellus fauna in N. A.
Kurope, vii, 375; viii, 29.

review of Dr. R. W. Klls’s Report
on Geology of portion of Province of
Quebec, ix, 101; notice of N. Y. Re-
port, including Clarke on the Her-
cynian Fauna, ix, 155,

Waldo, C. A., Descriptive Geometry, v
345.

Waldo, F., recent contributions to mete-
orology, 1x, 280.

Wallace, A. R., Darwinism, viii, 170.

Wallace, R., India in 1887, vi, 302.

Ward, L. F., determination of fossil
dicotyledonous leaves, i, 370.

Flora of the Laramie Group, iv, 487.

vi,
and

?

546

Ward, L. F., notice of W. C. Williamson
on fossil plants, v, 256.
fossil plants and the Potomac form-
ation, vi, 119; geological notices, vi,
71, 391.
geological notices, villi, 414, 493.
notice of a paper on fossil plants of
British America, ix, 520; of Fontaine’s
Potomae Flora, ix, 520.
Washburn Observatory, publications, 1,
480.

Washington, H.S., contributions to min- |
eralogy, iii, 501; minerals from Utah,

Vv, 298.
Watson, S., Contributions to American
Botany, vi, 392; vii, 415

Water, analyses of geyser, iv, 174; level |

in enclosed seas, variations in, lv, 313.
battery, Rowland, iii, 147.
composition, Rayleigh, vii, 492.

electrolysis, von Helmholtz, vi, 293. |

freezing of aerated, ili, 306.

latent heat of evaporation, Die-
terici, vi, 152.

spectrum of, v, 337.

weight of cubic ich, Chaney, xl,
495.

Watts’s Dictionary of Chemistry, viii,

409.

Wave-length, of red lines of potassium, |

Deslandres, vi, 467.
Wave-lengths, absolute, iv, 400.
See Light.
Wave-motion apparatus, Stoddard, ix,
218.
Wave, velocity of explosive, i, 149.
Waves in air produced by projectiles,
Mach and Wentzel, xl, 419.
electrical, in conductors, Hertz, viii,
246; see also Electric.
electro-magnetic, interference, Fitz-
gerald, vi, 387.
Weber, instrument for measuring heat,
v, 251:
Websky, M., Crystallography, iv, 408.
Weed, C. K., time of contact between
hammer and string in piano, il, 366.
Weed, W. H.,
sinter, vii, 351, 501;
and other gaseous emanations of Death
Gulch, ix, 320; Diatom beds and bogs
of Yellowstone Park, ix, 321.

Weisbach, A., new minerals, ii, 163.

Weiss, E., comets (Fabry and Bernard),
i, 238

Wells, H. L.,
Conn., iv, 271.

new mineral, beryllonite, vii, 23;

sperrylite, new mineral, vii, 67.

bismutospheerite from

GENERAL INDEX.

[42

| Wells, H. L., selenium and tellurium
minerals from Honduras, xl, 78.

Whale, fossil in Quebee, Kalm, iii, 242.

Wheatstone bridge, generalization of,
ili, 238.

| Wheeler, H. A., temperature at Lake
Superior mines, ii, 125; artificial lead
silicate, ii, 272; plattnerite from Idaho,
vill, 79.

White, C. A., age of coal in Rio Grande
| region, iii, 18; relation of contempo-
raneous fossil faunas and floras, ii,
364; review of Palseocrinoidea of
Wachsmuth and Springer, iii, 154.

geological abstract, iv, 232.

notice of Wachsmuth’s Crinoids. iy,
232.

contributions to Paleontology of
Brazil, v, 255; relation of Laramie
group to earlier and later formations,
v, 432.

Puget Group of Washington Terr.,
vi, 443.
| Lower Cretaceous of the Southwest,
| viii, 440.

White, D., Cretaceous plants from Mar-
tha’s Vineyard, ix, 93; notice of Feist-
mantel, xl, 495.

| White, I. C., gas-wells on anticlinals, i,
393; Pennsylvania Geology, i, 228;
bowlders at high altitudes along some
Appalachian rivers, iv, 374.

White, J.C., Dermatites venenata, iv, 410.

Whiteaves, J. F., Fishes of Canadian
Devonian, Pt. II, viii, 259.

Contributions to Canadian Paleeon-
tology, vill, 493.

Whitfield, J. E., analyses of meteoric

irons, ili, 500.
analyses of natural borates, etc., iv,
281; Rockwood meteorite, iv, 387; of

| meteoric irons, iv, 472.

Fayette Co. meteorite, vi, 113.
analyses of waters of Yellowstone

Park, vii, 234; new meteorite from

Mexico, vii, 439.

|
|

| Whitfield, R. P., Fossil Scorpion, i, 228;
formation of siliceous |
earbonic acid |

Mollusca of clays and marls of New
Jersey, li, 324.

Whittle, ©. L., trap sheets of Connecti-
cut Valley, ix, 404.

Wigand, A., Das Protoplasma als Fer-
mentorganismus, Vii, 77.

Wilkes, G., B. A. unit of resistance,
viii, 230.

Willcox, J., identity of modern Fulgur
perversus with Pliocene F. contrar-
ius, Conrad, ix, 352.

| Willey, H., Study of Lichens, iv, 75.

analyses of Branchville phosphates, | Williams, A., Jr., Mineral Resources of

ix, 201.

the United States, i, 229; iii, 317.

43] VOLUMES

Williams, G. H., Peridotites near Peeks-

Tent, IN, Wien ah, BG

Modern Petrography, iii, 79; norites
near Peekskill, N. Y., iii, 135, 191;
orthoclase in norite, ili, 243.

serpentine at Syracuse, N. Y., iv,
137; minerals of Baltimore, iv, 160;
twin crystals of pyroxene, Orange Co.,
ING Gs live 2i25:

gabbros and diorites of ‘Cortlandt
Series,” near Peekskill, N. Y., v, 438;
petrographical microscope, v, 114.

contact-metamorphism near Peeks-
Tall) N. ¥., vi, 254.

petrography of Fernando de No-
ronha, vii, 178.

hemihedrism in the monoclinic sys-
tem, viil, 115.

celestite from Mineral Co., W. Vir-
ginia, ix, 183; hornblende of St. Law-
rence Co., N. Y., ix, 352.

Crystallography, xl, 424.

Williams, H. S., Devonian Lamellibran- |

chiata, ii, 192; Devonian system in
N. America, v, 51; of Devonshire, ix,
alle

Williams, J. W , eudialyte and eucolite,
from Arkansas, xl, 457.

Williams, 8. G., Lower Helderberg in
New York, i, 139.

Williamson, W. C., Fossil Plants of Coal
Measures, Pt. XIII, v, 256; Pt. XIV,
Waly, Ul

Willson, R. W., mode of reading mirror
galvanometers, vi, 50; measurement
of internal resistance of batteries, vili,
465; magnetic field in Jefferson Phy-
sical Laboratory, ix, 87, 456.

. eple ee |
Wilson, H. V., on Manicina areolata, vii, |

502.
Winchell, A., Elements of Geology, ii,
243; unconformability between Ani-

mikie and Vermilion series, iv, 314; |

Shall we teach Geology? vii, 319;

Geological Report on Minnesota, Ar-—
cheean rocks of the Northwest, vii, 497. |
Winchell, N. H., Geological and Natural |

History Survey of Minn., vii, 231, 497;
Geological Survey of Minnesota, 1888,
ix, 61.

Wind, prevailing direction of, Hazen, iv,
461; vane, theory of, Curtis, iv, 44;
velocity and pressure, Hazen, iv, 241.

Wind-action in Maine, Stone, i, 133.

Winds, Treatise on, Ferrel, viii, 420.

Wings of birds, movements of, iii, 422.

Winkler, C., Gas-Analysis, i, 153.

Winnipeg Lake, ancient beaches of, viti,

78.
Winterhalter, A. G., new personal equa-
tion machine, vii, 116.

OOM, 547

Wislicenus, geometrical isomerism, vii,
494.

Wittrock, Erythreeee Exsiccatee, i, 237.

Woeikof, A., Croll’s hypotheses of geo-
logical climates, i, 161.

Wohler memorial, i, 320.

Wood, J. W., Jr., geographical develop-
ment of northern New Jersey, ix, 404.

Wood, T. F.. Botanical work of M. A.
Curtis, i, 159.

Woodward, A. S., Catalogue of British
fossil Vertebrata, ix, 402.

Woodward, H. B., Geology of England
and Wales, iv, 158.

Woodward, R. 8., mathematical theories
of the earth, viii, 337.

Wright, G. F., Muir glacier, ili, 1; Ice
Age of North America, viii, 412.

Y

Yeates, W.S., pseudomorphs of native
copper after azurite, New Mexico, viii,
405; new localities of phenacite, ix,
325; phenacite not found at Hebron,
Me., xl, 259.

| Yellowstone National Park, formation

of geyserite deposits through the

agency of algze, vil, 351, 501.

| Yokoyama, M., Jurassic Plants from

Japan, viii, 414.

Z

Zoe, Biological Journal, xl, 93.
Zoetrope, use of, in crystallography, ii,
164.
Zoological bibliography, vii, 80; ix, 163.
Bibliotheca, Chun and Leuckart, iv,
412, 420; Taschenberg, v, 505.
excursions in Fayal and San Miguel,
Guerne, vi, 77.

Zoologie, WVerzeichniss der Schriften
uber, xl, 342.
ZOOLOGY—

Annelids, Khlers, v, 424.

Arthropoda, compound eyes of, Clarke,
ix, 409.

Astrangia Danze, vii, 503.

Biologizal Survey of San Francisco
Mt., etc, C. H. Merriam and L.
Stejneger, xl, 498.

Birds of Guadalupe Island, iv, 80.

Cicada, adaptation in, i, 316.

Chrysalides, gilded, iii, 321.

Fauna of Great Smoky Mts., Merriam,

vi, 458.
Fish Entozoa, Linton, vii, 239.
Foraminifera, Recent and Fossil, Bibli-
| ography of, Sherburne, vi, 295.
| Forms of Animal Life, Rolleston, v,
| 504.

548

ZOOLOGY—
~ Gastropoda and Seaphopoda of the
“ Blake,” Dall, viii, 254.

Insects, diseases of, ii, 81.

Japanische Seeigel, Déderlein, v, 505.

Lepus Americanus, gustatory organs
of, Tuckerman, vii, 277.

Manicina areolata, H. V. Wilson, vii,
502.

Medusa, rhizostomatous, N ew Eng-
land, Fewkes, 15 LO!

Meduse, deep-sea, Fewkes, v, 166.

Mollusea, economic of New Bruns-
wick, Ganong, ix, 163.

Mollusks, deep-sea, Dall, xl, 94; from
dredgings of the ‘‘ Blake,” Dall, viii,
254,

Pelecypoda. ete., phylogeny of, Jack-
son, xl, 421.

GENERAL INDEX.

ZOOLOGY— A) ind
- Pelecypods, hinge of, and its

ment, Dall, viii, AAB, 5
Pyrophorus noctilucus, light mitte
by, Langley and Very, xl, |
Red-backed mouse (Evotomys C
linensis), Merriam, vi, 458. ee
Seal, West Indian (Monachus oe
icalis), iv, 75.
Shark, living Cladodont, i, 73. +
Sponges, Monograph of Horney, Len-
denfield, viii, 417.
Tissue, theory of origin of, Hyatt, 1,332.
Tortoise (Chrysemys picta) with two.
heads, Barbour, vi, 227.
Trilobite, visual area in, CIRNES, Vil,
235.
West Coast Shells, Keep, v, 264,
See further under Geology.

Plate |.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XL, 1890.

ard

AY

t

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XL, 1890. Plate ll.

1, 2. AMPHICLINA. 3-10. KONINCKINA.

Sci., Voi. XL, 1890.

PYROPHORUS NOOCTILUCUS.

Plate III.

Am. Jour, Sci., Vol. XL, 1890. Plate IV.

pele

| -240

PHOTOMETRIC CURVES.
FOR EQUAL TOTAL AMOUNTS OF LIGHT.

ny

Dy)

So
[eae eel bee

—200 A—Sun-light.
| | B— Fire-fly light.
—1805 ABSCISSAE.—WAVE LENGTHS.
| ORDINATES.—LUMINOUS INTENSITIES.
|
I
| —160
ee
|
| I
—

I
@
fo)

!
a
°

i
h
Lo)

I
iy)
fo}

{
°o

Plate V.

Four Curves of Equal Areas, showing one unit of heat displayed
successively in heat spectrum of Gas, Hlectric Arc, Sun and
Fire-Fly.

ABSCISSAE. — WAVE LENGTHS.
ORDINATES. — ENERGY AS HEAT.
ENERGY CURVE.

Gas Flame Spectrum.

|
1
| LIMITS |
600—' One i
' VISIBLE | MAXIMUM AT 1°6.
$00 sPECTRUM:|
400—| 1 Fig. 1.
t |
300—| t
1
200—!
i]
100—!
| !
te}

ENERGY CURVE.
Electric Arc Spectrum,

014 06 0.8 1.0 L2 1.4 1.6 18 2.0 22 2.4 26 2.8 3.0
1
if
1
1
1
!
i
if
i}
i]
{
|
'
{
t

t
{
!
{
|
{
|
{
{
1
t
! |
1
1
i}
{
1
t
t
|
{
1
{
1

MAXIMUM AT 1/16.

Hoes

i
i}
1
t
|
|
{
1
{
|

800— ENERGY CURVE.
700— Solar Spectrum.
606—

fe
rae att MAXIMUM AT 062

Fig. 3.

300—
200—
100—}
i
o—
O14 0.6 08 1.0 1.2 \4 1.6 1.8 2.0 22 24 26 28 3.0
LIMITS \
OF
VISIBLE |
SPECTRUM ENERGY CURVE.

Fire-Fly Spectrum.
MAXIMUM AT 057.

Fig. 4.

Plate VI

. XL, 1890

Vol

Am. Jour. Sci.,

aN

‘7

= IN (ALINGOD Vien T09
“SNISWEG SLINAGIS

(== H

ry
Sinn Sa ees eae

e)

SYHOHL LWT ~ _ Sie,

2.unhea
er mis)
‘
‘

es a2)
= Sea) 3 00 0 ANI EONS. :
SSBy fo aan . ini
ie, - SIPs On ,
. IIx ~e a
@) yore PR sates
ee
NIS¥g Hinog Toso aNIW © ON ol
- 9 8 ,
EE = 40
< x SWWOHL UWA ~~ LL St
gt

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XL, 1890. Plate VII.

FIGURE 1.—G.yprtops, +; 2, Guyprops,1; 3, Apocus, +.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XL, 1890. Plate VIII.

TESTUDO BRONTOPS, Marsh, +)5.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XL, 1890.

1-5. LEPTANISCA.

6-

2

4, STROPHALOSIA.

Plate IX.

LONG ISLAND

SOUND
LONG ISLAND

a0 rm

AMPLANTIC BORDER.

Seale re

edused from = chart of the United States

Pits UO Lk Pee 4 Hr are

or

2s

a
i
i

>

INTERESTING MINERALS.

November has witnessed many large and important

accessions to our stock.

Chalcotrichite from Arizona. A splendid lot of the finest specimens ever
found at any locality: large surfaces covered with the richest ruby red and
scarlet needles, many of them termimated and stout enough to show clearly the
elongation of the cubical into the capillary form. Prices, for extra specimens,
$1.50 to $10.00. Smaller and inferior specimens, 25c. to $1.25

Hauerite, a few very large and fine loose crystals from Sicily at $4.00 to
$15.00 each. ;

Norway Minerals. A shipment is just in which includes fine crystals of
Glaucodote, Cleveite, Monazite, Cobaltite, Aeschynite, Axinite, Columbite and
Alvite.

Grossularites from Mexico in groups of erystals.

Pyrite in pentagonal dodecahedrons from same locality.

Fibrous Chalcanthite in broad veins in the rock, tine best we have had, 25c.
to $2.00.

Calcites from Wisconsin, large dog-tooth crystals covered with rhombs;
very interesting; 50c. to $2.00.

Smithsonite pseudomorphs after Calcite from Wisconsin; a choice lot,
$1.00 to $3.50.

Marcasites from Il]linois, a great variety of fine crystallized and stalactitic
specimens, 25c. to $2.00.

Chondrodite, a few good crystals from Brewster, N. Y.

Astrophyllite, Colorado, broad blades, 10c. to $1.00.

Zircon in single and twin crystals, good, 10c. to $2.00.

“Vanadinite and Wulfenite, a large lot just received, including a few extra
choice, at lowest prices, 25c. to $2.00.

Mexican Topaz, Hyalite, Apophyllite, Valencianite, Opals, Obsidian,
Tridymite, Calcite, Amethyst, Cassiterite, etc., etc., collected at the
localities during Mr. Niven’s tour of five and a half months, and, therefore, sold
at low prices and in choice specimens.

Gold crystals, California, several good specimens, one having a half inch
crystal of exceptional sharpness and brilliancy; price $1.00

Our Catalogue.—On and after December ist., we will charge 15c. for paper-
bound copies of our Catalogue. Notwithstanding the fact that we printed a very
large edition our supply is running low, owing to the enormous demand, and we
are compelled, therefore, to impose the above charge. We will, however, deduct
the price paid for the catalogue from all orders of one dollar or more. Bound
copies, 25c. as heretofore. These prices are less than the actual cost.

‘Blements of Ge ailing? by Prof. Geo. H. Williams of Johns Hopkins
University, (250 pp. 12mo., N. Y., 1890) is one of the most recent and valuable
additions to mineralogical literature. See A. J. S. Nov. Anticipating that many
of our customers will want this book, we have made arrangements to supply it at
$1.25 (postage 10c. extra), though the retail price is $1.50. Orders are solicited.

GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists,
1512 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 739 and 741 Broadway, New York.

ee

CONTENTS.

Art. LIV.—Long Island Sound in the Quaternary Era,
with observations on the Submarine Hudson River
Channel; by James D. Dana. (With Plate X) -_-.-- 425

LV.—The Preservation and Accumulation of Cross-infer-

tility; “~by Joun T. Gurion io) 2200 Se 437

LVI.—The Deformation of Iroquois Beach and Birth of

Lake Ontario; by J. W. SPENCER .....-.------.-20c- 443°

LVII.-—Experiments upon the Constitution of the Natural
Silicates; by F. W. CrarxE and E. A. ScuNEerpER -._ 452

LVIIL.—Enudialyte and Eucolite, from Magnet Cove, Arkan-

as: by, J. HRANCIS “WILLIAMS <i. 2 5.2 — S225 oe See 457
LIX.—Prediction of Cold-waves from Signal Service W eath-
er Maps ;:by: U2 RussBii oo solo ee ees ee 463
LX.—Peculiar method of Sand-transportation by Rivers; by
Jans CG RAWAM 22 34 SS coe Sh ae 476
LXI—Note on the Cretaceous rocks of Northern California;
bryos Sie Draw 2 ae Se es re 476

LXII.—Magnetic and Gravity Observations on the West
Coast of Africa and at some islands in the North and

South Atlantic; by: By Di PREston / 20222. a ee 478
LXIII.—Fowlerite variety of Rhodonite from Franklin and
Stirhng. Now. by ibs Vi. PIRsson ho eee 484

LXIV.—Some @Obser vations on the Ber yllium Minerals from

Mt. Antero, Colorado; by 8. L. PanFrenp.-.-._---=:- Ag8

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics —Action of Light on Chlorine water, PEDLER: Action of
Light on Phosphorus, PEDLER, 492.—Action of Fluorine on Carbon, 493.—
Selenic Acid, CAmMpRON and MAcauntaNn: Use of the Platinnm Thermometer,
E. H. Gripriras, 494.—True weight of a cubic inch of distilled water, H. J.
CHANEY: Heat asa Form of Energy, R. H. Taurston: Sound, Light and Heat;
Magnetism and Hlectricity, J. SPEN OER, 495.

Geology and Mineralogy.—Geological and Paleontological relations of the Coal and
Plant-bearing beds of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age in Eastern Australia and
Tasmania, etc., O: FEISTMANTEL, 495.—Jurassic Fish-Fauna in the Hawkesbury
beds of New South Wales, A. S. Woopwarp: State of Alpine glaciers in 1889,
HF. A. FOREL: ~ordierite as a contact mineral, Y. KIKUCHI: Sanguinite, a new
mineral, 497.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Deep-sea Dredging in the Pacific, A. AGASSIZ,
497.—National Academy of Sciences: Results of a Biological Survey of the
San Francisco Mountain Region and Desert of the Little Colorado, Arizona,
498.—Bulletin of the Scientific Laboratories of Denison University, W. G.

TigHt: Royal Society of Canada: Ostwald’s Klassiker der Hxakten Wissen-

schaften, 499,
INDEX TO VOLUME XL, 500.

¥ A
ale

yeaa
LLNaiee

a

=a

=

ge aha ary FS / Sea eG, : :
8 ahs Ar, pb Vy meade | Al

JERR, bpPiaehed bed td la b ake 3 | 1 :

yi mapapee? eal 7 Aare sar aan | NS yi } xy
aspen - Abe é ap anid aa Ey. al heat gs x va 1 | ; a ! WB yy pit n

ye 2 ers a. M59 ; | anne Li | 2 nes’ Ran tara. unl” il , Baas atten VK at, TY pele

K ERatemeaSaabaas BR en ear ie pa eR nn ) aha . fa ;
Wye yen a gy a a a : | | feted | | ALE Wit PEE Oo mat A. a) 0, \, by | Nie, : a. .
j s x yD , ' a E ; > Be ; 7 yy: r te " i 2 ». ; “kh q »' fe hole tof
lant hi ReinicQca, ARDabacrane A ‘ pes AS banner 44, Poae , Wy aun se wk

Vans 7
) 4... f

ye Fo] fag elas a) pi Re iy zB
Way araAr dn, Yas tt ODOM Aam LA ‘ive s ner - ee att | lalad a) LPNs VTE
SN aaa) Tren oY nr enti e POLARS pada escent AaRs on, 6 Dap Aline aaanany
EU | Teper ean ihll Cn abilio Ne Mian TAT ITT
ate a ( Oe ol oars ~a“2° ae ly F/ , Th)
Tapert ange nA RAMIMT TEP LeN UTADA CLULERIGRET BWSR #7 a ing OA SRNR aac

3 5 aaade eage ARENAS ARES So » A Ap > y_ 4
LT oer - no Nea ie eae 3 N : Tn Bh <a enn ana Naas: Ot ed ~ at ‘Why { {2 6 Vie 2 Raed
NL. 1¢4f)Rayp.. Mann, op ARR) Ne aia ne INVES) yg | jnde™ nasi

= Mann a
igpd O47! <5, Pails ty ry VY dpi wARBP aun ~

- . iq a : Urns War one CA. yawns » 4) ) ‘gpd OA" Som | | [
sr aes = Lene AA MPT TTY | | | AA LA wt
A r A iy Ryeye wy, Vero Rs! yy WI Salat ole .
Na Fidel \ ViVi , A oe ie aes : A|
Sy ie nA me 2 ASS rv Y We Manny Onn as anthne nnaill . | ~ at anuld .
| Rn Ang eme nana) CCUM ade Stat ae
ya NWN Ayes a YY x88 ny AN Das2 as el Se Oe GE es PAA ney bia,
hs \k UNUS AR Py ley Vans Aa EOERBERS PEPE ED ees eal gana MGs ah aye ga ii® ae api
eee Then! LU NAG NA Sanaatag, mann er VG ul a Aten, by plat ahamat Watt fe Ar KA
2 ban, @@@ane. oe By Dy OOOO ALL ae rt a NT Ee PRET
~~ Nore EEN er ae O ome Pe yl » aol ’ Ree EL

=~ | eos fee @ oe ry Oe Rm | Nal KON e @na.- ' Ao Seg kee Seo F ?

As Sh TDA

; tT pa i “gia ais: i i ii) Maren 4g MPRA 4

Jl
lets Tw. Avi

a4. ® w= Ah) Sai" phat Tit \ as
J nena aaa Ane gay~® nT a eMUeyeraA a: .. fitiiin
a2 5 s a SVAN ee | LF Lab) Lew | Whi nf TT
WPS gph | 222 Ceccsuiluyg |) 9 uA has teen a ggine
Renate cea) go MA CT RL
Dea Ninn yi Nil Paces ae
LAA, —" & send 4 | A Piieneeieihny ts a a4. F .

Pa Ss wu, )
| us ‘ain’ eee: Ws Aa Ve teagan =

aan il cree
pe aii HHT AAnnanan Wa ual Maia

Rin inetd : Me TTT TT ae HEEL
. Ywe , ‘a, ’ ceetertet net en ot sisi ritual Th iia neeae | A ee a Bs iu
: | TTT INF ae @ . bean
i Auta lie A eal : ANG aE Dan TY Per : d
Mas STAVE Cy. VT) Serer MARAE BR AO ye A ;
eu ore tel a YA. $y BIS 1 Ves |
F Nites
4;* NO rene

J TMH ot Oy walllipy ) Lela
gybuanell spemoaginannans &, Mite. vein ies =
LITO ee tata eon

| 1th an

ay NW heathaly olcalok f ¥: pa Ab, (as aL yl Wee acts f “y~NNIN ;
uig4 - Pegs } " Pm ididdae NT :

v AER ade lad ts pipe pid Psa =i Alla agli 4 ae “ten VG, ypaceowee |
aaa ea ae >; ' a layy y Ne, 2a Recetas \ é peel

7 +94 = Oo: j » A sea ayn? pt ays ¥) mareanelaa

2am Om het _— Tt toh ihe rey j
azvee \ Oi Re PS ee ee ee ee PT Sel to ag 1 ARs Lagi Mag & Oe RS Te A es ee Ps fb, \ ia a \

‘Wii NUT

01298 5412