w * ws alt ~ ” oo 7 a a a “
TREN Re SpE Se Se CD MIT RRC ASR ROE Le NON PMR Th MON ate oe! len at Cnr We Oa
Ae Bi RE ie atthe oely os hs atin DRE S - PRM T eT tal CTY Wily OMI MEM ERT og on
. ‘ 7 ae 2 7 ea a : Cor ae aaa
4 ‘ 4 { rt 4
THIRD SERIES. |
VOL. XLIX—[ WHOLE NUMBER, CXLIX.]
No. 292.—APRIL, 1895.-
WITH PLATE III.
NEW HAVEN, CONN:: J. D. & E. S. DANA.
1895.
TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET.
3 ‘ oe; Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign AB:
_ Seribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by
money orders, eeeered letters, or bank checks,
SEG
eg pace”
MCT N EA Lis.
The largest and most complete stock in ne. world.
For museums and advanced collectors :—Rare species as well as all ie
more common minerals, represented by the best examples obtainable. ;
For Schools and Colleges :—Systematic and special collections of char-
acteristic specimens arranged to illustrate the uses of minerals, their piyea =
properties, ete:, etc. :
For laboratory and experimental work :—Minerals in any quantity ion
lowest prices.
Especial attention paid to the selection of material ie investigators and
students of crystallography, microscopy, etc.
Catalogues and circulars free to intending purchasers. Send for Lak si
announcement of rare and interesting species received. ‘
RECENT ARRIVALS.
Diaspore! The historic locality at Chester, Mass. has long furnished
collectors with fine examples of massive and laminated Diaspore.. Occurring
most sparingly at this and the few other localities where it is found, it has
always been regarded as a rare species, and crystals especially have been
highly prized. We have recently obtained a number of specimens—groups
of bright amethystine crystals of great clearness and perfection—so totally
different from the type collectors have become accustomed to, that these will
soon find a place in the cabinets of Europe and America.
Manebach Twins of Amazon-Stone! A fine lot from the pocket
recently opened in Colorado. :
Perfect specimens illustrating the twinning, $2.00 to $7.50.
Lorandite! the new Thallium Mineral in monoclinic crystals.
Siberian Topaz! Fine clear blue crystals implanted on groups of Feld-
spar. $3.00 to $10.00.
Heulandite and Epistilbite in groups of pearly crystals. $1.00 to 85.00.
Cobaltite Crystals, Kylindrite, Realgar, Caswellite, Tourmaline,
ELGC.. (etc. Sar yes
Bastnasite in terminated crystals. 5c. to $2.00.
BOOKS.
The largest stock in America, embracing all branches of Medicine and
the Natural Sciences. Send for catalogues, mentioning subject of interest
to you.
~
RARE AND VALUABLE BOOKS.
Darlington, Memorials of Bartram & Marshall. $8.50.
Morgan, The American Beaver, 1868. $5.00.
Martyn T., Coleopterous Insects of England. 82 pp., 42 pl. Eng. andF.,
Ato, hef., 1792. $3.50.
Godman, Am. Nat. History. 2 vols., cf., 1842. 51 pl. $2.50.
Nuttall, Manual of Ornithology. 2 vols., mor., fine copy. $10.00.
Coues, Birds of Colorado Valley. $5.00.
Loudon’s Encyclopedia of Plants. $4.00.
Hudsoni, Flora Anglica. 2 vols., hef., 1778. $2.50. ~
Eaton's Ferns. 2 vols. $25.00.
Lindley, Flora Medica. $2.50.
Pursh, Flora of N. A. 2 vols., hef. $10.00.
DR. ALE. FOOTE, 1224-26-28 North 41st Street,
Philadelphia, Pa., U.S. A.
bi lem
THE
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
[THIRD SERIES.]
Oe
Art. XXI.—WMiagara and the Great Lakes; by FRANK
BURSLEY TAYLOR.
Introduction.
In the recent papers of Professor J. W. Spencer* and Mr.
Warren Upham + the post-glacial history of the Great Lakes
has been ably told according to two very different ideas of the
cause of Pleistocene change. Prof. Spencer on the one hand
levels all the higher abandoned beaches with the sea, and does
not distinctly recognize a single ice-dammed lake. Mr.
Upham, on the other hand, ascribes nearly all submergence
to ice-dammed lakes, and admits none as marine except that
which is proved by fossils. As often happens in such cases,
the probability is that the truth hes between these wide
extremes. Ice dams have played an important part, but not
to the exclusion of marine submergence even at high levels.
On the other hand, marine invasion is not available as an
explanation for some of the most important areas of. sub-
mergence.
The St. Lawrence river and the Great Lakes with their con-
necting channels are really all one stream. The lakes are
great reservoirs which feed the rivers below them, and because
they derive nearly all their supply from the lakes the rivers
*“ The Duration of Niagara Falls,” by J. W. Spencer, this Journal, Dec.,
1894; ‘‘A Review of the History of the Great Lakes,” Am. Geol., vol. xiv, Nov.,
1894,
+ ‘‘Late Glacial or Champlain Subsidence and Reélevation of the St. Lawrence
River Basin,” by Warren Upham, this Journal, Jan., 1895; Twenty-second
Ann. Rep’t Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minn., Part III, pp. 54-66; ‘‘ Depart-
ure of the Ice-Sheet from the Laurentian Lakes,” Bull. G. 8. A., vol. vi, 1894.
AM. Jour. Sc1.—TsIRD SERIES, VoL. XLIX, No. 292.—ApRit, 1895.
17
250 F. B. Taylor— Niagara and the Great Lakes.
themselves have almost no independent existence. If any-
thing happens to the lakes to turn their discharge in some
other direction the rivers go nearly or entirely dry. Niagara
is one of these rivers, and its history is inseparable from that
of the lakes above it. Prof. Spencer has described the salient
features of the Niagara gorge, and has also given many
important facts bearing on the lake history. But certain facts
which he does not take into account indicate a somewhat dif-
ferent lake history, and in consequence a different Niagara
history also. The lake history is recorded in the larger
characters, and it seems best therefore to study it first. Refer-
ence will be made in the following pages to six papers in
which the writer's observations on the abandoned shore lines
of the upper lakes are recorded.* Another paper discussing
the latest chapter in the history of the Great Lakes also
belongs to this series. It is entitled, “The Second Lake
Algonquin.”+ It precedes this paper in order, and relates to
the lake stages following next after those discussed here.
These two papers together cover, in a preliminary way, the
whole period from the final disappearance of the great Lauren-
tide glacier down to the present time. But they do not
include, except by incidental reference, the period of the
glacial recession with its lakes. The map which accompanies
this paper is designed to show within its limits the probable
distribution of Jand at the maximum of marine submergence,
and also the extent of that part of the first Lake Algonquin of
which shore lines still remain.
The Three Principal Beaches.
After the glacial recession the three principal critical stages
in the recent history of the upper Great Lakes are marked by
three great abandoned beaches. Two of these are lake beaches
and one is marine. The lake beaches mark the highest stages
of two independent epochs of Lake Algonquin, which had an
outlet on each oceasion eastward across the Nipissing pass at
North Bay, Ontario. One epoch of this lake existed before
the marine invasion and the other after. The latest one I
have called the second Lake Algonquin, and its highest shore
* 1. “Highest Old Shore Line on Mackinae Island,” this Jour., III, vol.
xliii, March, 1892; 2. ‘‘The Ancient Strait at Nipissing,” Bull. G. S. A., vol. v,
1893; 3. ‘A Reconnaissance of the Abandoned Shore Lines of Green Bay,” Am.
Geol., vol. xiii, May, 1894; 4. “A Reconnaissance of the Abandoned Shore Lines
of the South Coast of Lake Superior,” Am. Geol., vol. xiii, June, 1894; 5. ‘‘The
Limit of Postglacial Submergence in the Highlands Hast of Georgian Bay,” Am.
Geol., vol. xiv, Nov., 1894; 6. ‘‘The Munuscong Islands,” Am. Geol., vol. xv,
Jan, 1895. These papers will be referred to hereafter by number.
+ Am. Geol, vol. xv, Feb. and March, 1895.
F. B. Taylor—Niagara and the Great Lakes.
Yh
ara ee!
hee ree I,
Ly es satis
th 43°02°933)— a9
Kenpo mae 20° 36 408 || 20 $37 41-0) 1602" | 20-37-2233
Hanape see ae 20 45 38 °9 20 45 47-5 | 8°6 | 20) 45.2878 ee
Hawaii
Kohalavs ase DAN Ni YE) 98; 20 15:17 °T |+01°6 1:20 14 59P 0S eos
Kawaihae ___| 20 02 05:9 | 20 02 25°1 |—19°2) 20 02 06°4 |—00°5
Mauna Kea_.| 19 48 52°70 | 19 49 10°% |—18°7 | 19 48 52:0. )200-%0
Kalaieha .-_./ 19 42 026 19 42 33:°5 |—30°9| 19 42 14°8 |—12°2
Hillos s) ae e O44 lal 19 43 30:4 |—19.-2 ) 19 43 IE 1) — 00cm
Kailtaes ea 19 3852059 19 39 03°8 |—42°9| 19 38 45°] |—24-92
Ka aera ese. ees BIL O7 18° 55 17-7 |—86-0} 18 54 59 0 |=67-S
The astronomical latitudes were determined by myself in —
1883, 1887 and 1891-92, using the method of equal zenith
distances. The average probable error of a result for each
station was +0’"10. For the details of this work see Appen-
dix, No. 14, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1888.
Determinations of Latitude and Gravity for the Hawaiian
Government.
==
Chalmers— Glacial Lake St. Lawrence of Upham. 278
Art. XXIII.—On the Glacial Lake St. Lawrence of Pro-
fessor Warren Upham; by Ropert CHALMERS, of the
Geological Survey of Canada.
In an article in this Journal for January, 1895, entitled
“Late Glacial or Champlain Subsidence and Re-elevation of
the St. Lawrence River Basin,” Mr. Warren Upham continues
his discussions respecting hypothetical glacial lakes and glacial
dams, and in endeavoring to account for the raised beaches in
the region of the Great Lakes, etc., postulates still another
glacial lake in the St. Lawrence valley between Lake Ontario
and Quebec, held in bya glacial dam at or near the latter place.
To this sheet of water he gives the name of the St. Lawrence
Lake. Permit me to offer a few facts and inferences touching
the question of this ice-dam and lake.
(1.) There is no evidence of a thick mass of ice having occu-
pied the St. Lawrence valley at Quebec in the Pleistocene period.
For the last ten years the writer has, at intervals, been investi-
gating the glacial phenomena and the post-glacial shore lines,
etc., of the south side of the St. Lawrence valley, especially
between Métis and the Chaudiére river. During the past sum-
mer the work was revised and extended to the higher grounds
of the Notre Dame Mountains in Quebec, and also to northern
New Brunswick and northeastern Maine. The results do not
afford any proofs of the movement of a great ice-sheet over
this region at any time during the glacial period; on the con-
trary, the glacial phenomena on the slopes and higher grounds
seem to be entirely due to local sheets of land-ice, of greater or
less extent, moving in different directions, the course, on the
slope facing the St. Lawrence, being mainly northward. In
the bottom of the St. Lawrence valley, however, a northeast
and southwest set of strize occurs, which seems referable to the
action of floating ice.
The theory that the later ice movements obliterated the ear-
lier striz does not find any support from the facts obtained on
the south side of the St. Lawrence, so far as my examinations
have extended. The glaciated surfaces everywhere exhibit
criss-cross striz, in fact these are the rule rather than the
exception. The later sets, whether made by separate glaciers,
or by succeeding portions of the same sheet conforming more
closely to the minor topographical*-features as it decreased in
thickness, show that the earlier strize have not been effaced by
later ice, except, perhaps to a very limited extent on exposed
bosses.*
* In Mr. Upham’s review of the third edition of ‘‘ The Great Ice Age ” by Prof.
James Geikie (Am, Geologist, Jan., 1895, p. 52), he states that ‘‘the northward
274 Chalmers—Glacial Lake St. Lawrence of Upham.
The glaciation of the southern flank of the Laurentide Range
on the north side of the St. Lawrence river at Quebee seems to
be of much the same character as that of the south side of the
river. Mr. A. P. Low, of this survey, who has examined this
district in some detail, gives a list of strize in the Annual Re-
port of the Geological Survey of Canada, vol. v, page 48L,
from which it appears that the ice movements were quite
divergent in that particular locality. The Laurentide ice-sheet
does not seem to have descended into the St. Lawrence valley
there, unless as broken, detached glaciers. The smaller river
valleys and the slopes have also influenced the ice-flow on the
north side of the St. Lawrence as well as on the south side.
Some of the narrow valleys between the ridges which trend
along the foot hills, and are parallel thereto, have caused local
glaciers to move northeastwardly in certain places, in others
southwestwardly. No single dominant course was observed.
(2.) In Mr. Upham’s map (Plate I) he gives the direction of
the stries on the south side of the St. Lawrence below Quebec
as northeastward. Has he examined this region himself? If
not, on whose authority has he reversed the courses of the
strie there, these being shown on Sir Wm. Dawson’s map
(The Canadian Ice Age, page 150) as pointing southwestward,
and are supposed to have been produced by floating ice movy-
ing up the valley? The author’s information in regard to these
striae, from whatever source it may have been obtained, is
incorrect. No general sheet of land ice flowed to the north-
eastward in that part of the St. Lawrence valley. All the
striee 2n the bottom of the valley trending northeast and south-
west are regarded as due to floating ice, and were produced in
the last stage of the glacial period when the land stood at a
lower level. In a few instances the southwest sides of the
bosses are stossed by this, floating ice as it moved down stream
but the principal movement was up stream. This system of
striation is traceable along the St. Lawrence valley from Metis,
or lower down, westward to Montreal.
(3.) No lacustrine deposits have been found anywhere in the
St. Lawrence valley beneath the Leda clay, as far as investiga-
tions have been made.
glacial flow from northern New England towards the St. Lawrence, as suggested
by Chalmers, appears to have belonged only to a very late stage when the melt-
ing of the ice in the St. Lawrence valley, proceeding faster than.on the moun-
tainous area at the south, left there a large isolated remnant of the departing ice-
sheet.”” I have nowhere stated that I regard the northward ice-flow referred to
as belonging to a very late stage of the glacial period; on the contrary, I hold
that wherever the northward ice-movements occurred they belong to the maxi-
mum stage of the ice age as well as to the melting or later stage; but my own
observations have not extended further west than Lake Megantic.
Rayleigh and Ramsay—Argon, ete. 275
All the facts taken together, therefore, show that the
hypothesis of an ice dam at Quebec holding in a lake in the
St. Lawrence valley between that point and Lake Ontario, as
set forth by Mr. Upham, is untenable.
The glaciation of the St. Lawrence valley is exceedingly
complex, and cannot be explained by @ priori theories. The
problems it presents must be solved by actual field investiga-
tions. The region is a most interesting one, however, and I
invite glacialists to come and see the facts for themselves
before propounding any grand generalizations respecting its
Pleistocene geology.
Ottawa, Jan. 16, 1895.
ArT. XXIV.—Avgon, a New Constituent of the Atmosphere ;
by LorpD RAYLEIGH and Professor WILLIAM Ramsay.
[ Abstract of a paper read before the Royal Society; from advance sheets sent
to this Journal by the authors. ]
I. Density of Nitrogen from Various Sources.
In a former paper* it has been shown that nitrogen extracted
from chemical compounds is about 4 per cent lighter than
“ atmospheric nitrogen.”
The mean numbers for the weights of gas contained in the
globe used were as follows :—
ran niiticcOx1ge 5 sc es 2°3001
Wrom nitrous. oxide. 40 2°2990
From ammonium nitrite.______..-. 2°2987
while for “‘ atmospheric nitrogen” there was found—
by ne copper, §S92" Sooo so... 2°3103
Eagrtigierens ES93% 0s 2°3100
By ferrous hydrate, 1894 ._._..-.- 2°3102
At the suggestion of Professer Thorpe experiments were
subsequently tried with nitrogen liberated from wrea by the
action of sodium hypobromite. The hypobromite was pre-
pared from commercial materials in the proportions recom-
mended for the analysis of urea. ‘The reaction was well under
control, and the gas could be liberated as slowly as desired.
In the first experiment the gas ‘was submitted to no other
treatment than slow passage through potash and phosphoric
anhydride, but it soon became apparent that the nitrogen was
* Rayleigh, On an Anomaly encountered in Determinations of the Density of
Nitrogen Gas, Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. lv, p. 340, 1894.
276 Rayleigh and Ramsay—Argon, a New
contaminated. The “inert and inodorous ” gas attacked vigor-
ously the mercury of the Tépler pump, and was described as
smelling like a dead rat. As to the weight, it proved to be in
excess even of the weight of atmospheric nitrogen.
The corrosion of the mercury and the evil smell were in
great degree obviated by passing the gas over hot metals. For
the fillings of June 6, 9 and 13 the gas passed through a short
length of tube containing copper in the form of fine wire
heated by a flat Bunsen burner, then through the furnace over
red-hot iron, and back over copper oxide. On June 19 the
furnace tubes were omitted, the gas being treated with the red-
hot copper only. The mean result, reduced so as to correspond
with those above quoted, is 2°2985.
Without using heat, it has not been found possible to pre-
vent the corrosion of the mercury. Even when no urea is
employed, and air simply bubbled through, the hypobromite
solution is allowed to pass with constant shaking over mercury
contained in a [J-tube, the surface of the metal was soon
fouled.
Although the results relating to urea nitrogen are interesting
for comparison with that obtained from other nitrogen com-
pounds, the original object was not attained on account of the
necessity of retaining the treatment with hot metals. We
have found, however, that nitrogen from ammonium nitrite
may be prepared, without the employment of hot tubes, whose
weight agrees with that above quoted. It is true that the gas
smells slightly of ammonia, easily removable by sulphuric acid,
and apparently also of oxides of nitrogen. The mean result
from three fillings is 2°2987.
It will be seen that, in spite of the slight nitrous smell,
there is no appreciable difference in the densities of: gas pre-
pared from ammonium nitrite with and without the treatment
by hot metals. The result is interesting as showing that the
agreement of numbers obtained for chemical nitrogen does not
depend upon the use of a red heat in the process of purifica-
tion.
The five results obtained in more or less distinct ways for
chemical nitrogen stand thus :—
Nrom nitricvoxide: .- Gags oe ee ee 2°3001
From nitrous oxide _ > 233 ee ce ee oe 2°2990
From ammonium nitrite purified at a red heat _. 2°2987
Hrom urea. 202 so 5 eae oe eee ee ee .- 2°2985
From ammonium nitrite purified in the cold .... 2°2987
Constituent of the Atmosphere. 277
These numbers, as well as those above quoted for “ atmo-
spheric nitrogen,” are subject to a deduction of 0:0006 for the
shrinkage of the globe when exhausted.* If they are then
multiplied in the ratio of 2°3108:1:2572, they will express the
weights of the gas in grams per liter. Thus, as regards the
mean numbers, we find as the weight per liter under standard
conditions of chemical nitrogen 1°2505, that of atmospheric
nitrogen being 1°2572.
It is of interest to compare the density of nitrogen obtained
from chemical compounds with that of oxygen. We have
N,.: O, = 2°2984 : 2-6276 = 0°87471; so that if O,= 16, N, =
13-9954. Thus, when the comparison is with chemical nitro-
gen, the ratio is very nearly that of 16:14; butif “atmospheric
nitrogen ” be substituted, the ratio of small integers is widely
departed from.
To the above list may be added nitrogen prepared in yet
another manner, whose weight has been determined subse-
quently to the isolation of the new dense constituent of the
atmosphere. In this case nitrogen was actually extracted from
air by means of magnesium. The nitrogen thus separated was
then converted into ammonia by action of water upon the mag-
nesium nitride and afterwards liberated in the free state by
means of calcium hypochlorite. The purification was con-
ducted in the usual way, and included passage over red-hot
copper and copper oxide. The following was the result:
Globe empty, Oct. 30, Nov. 5-_-- 2°82313
Glove sels Octs sib 555.52 ess 0°52395
Weight of gas _._.---- 2°29918
It differs inappreciably from the mean of other results, viz:
2°2990, and is of special interest as relating to gas which at
one stage of its history formed part of the atmosphere.
Another determination, with a different apparatus, of the
density of “chemical ” nitrogen from the same source, magne-
sium nitride, which had been prepared by passing “ atmo-
spheric” nitrogen over ignited magnesium, may here be
recorded. The sample differed from that previously men-
tioned, inasmuch as it had not been subjected to treatment with
red-hot copper. After treating the nitride with water, the
resulting ammonia was distilled off and collected in hydrochloric
acid ; the solution was evaporated by.degrees, the dry ammonium
chloride was dissolved in water, and its concentrated solution
added to a freshly-prepared solution of sodium hypobromite.
The nitrogen was collected in a gas-holder over water which
* Rayleigh, On the Densities of the Principal Gases, Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. liii,
p. 134, 1893.
278 Rayleigh and Ramsay—Argon, a New
had previously been boiled, so as, at all events partially to
expel air. The nitrogen passed into the vacuous globe through
a solution of potassium hydroxide, and through two drying-
tubes, one containing soda-lime, and the other phosphoric anhy-
dride.
At 18°38° C. and 7544™™ pressure, 162°843° of this nitrogen
weighed 0°18963 gram. Hence,
Weight of 1 liter at 0° C. and 760™™ pressure = 1'2521 gram.
The mean result of the weight of 1 liter of “ chemical ”
nitrogen has been found to equal 1:2505. It is therefore seen
that ‘‘ chemical” nitrogen, derived from “ atmospheric” nitro-
gen, without any exposure to red-hot copper, possesses the
usual density.
Experiments were also made, which had for their object to
prove that the ammonia produced from the magnesium nitride
is identical with ordinary ammonia, and contains no other com-
pound of a basic character. or this purpose the ammonia
was converted into ammonium chloride, and the percentage of
chlorine determined by titration with a solution of silver nitrate
which had been standardized by titrating a specimen of pure
sublimed ammonium chloride. The silver solution was of such
a strength that 1° precipitated the chlorine from 0°001701
gram of ammonium chloride.
1, Ammonium chloride from orange-colored sample of mag-
nesium nitride contained 66°35 per cent of chlorine.
2. Ammonium chloride from blackish magnesium nitride con-
tained 66°35 per cent of chlorine.
3. Ammonium chloride from nitride containing a large amount
of unattacked magnesium contained 66°30 per cent of chlorine.
Taking for the atomic weights of hydrogen H = 1:0032, of
nitrogen N = 14-04, and of chlorine Cl = 35-46, the theoretical
amount of chlorine in ammonium chloride is 66°27 per cent.
From these results—that nitrogen prepared from magnesium
nitride, obtained by passing “atmospheric” nitrogen over red-
hot magnesium has ‘the density of “ chemical” nitrogen, and
that ammonium chloride, prepared from magnesium nitride,
contains practically the same percentage of chlorine as pure
ammonium chloride—it may be concluded that red-hot mag-
nesium withdraws from ‘atmospheric nitrogen’’ no substance
other than nitrogen capable of forming a basic compound with
hydrogen.
Constituent of the Atmosphere. 279
II. Reasons for suspecting a hitherto Undiscovered Constituent
in Air.
When the discrepancy of weights was first encountered,
attempts were naturally made to explain it by contamination
with known impurities. Of these the most likely appeared to
be hydrogen, present in the lighter gas in spite of the passage
over red-hot cupric oxide. But inasmuch as the intentional
introduction of hydrogen into the heavier gas, afterwards
treated in the same way with cupric oxide, had no effect upon
its weight, this explanation had to be abandoned, and finally it
became clear that the difference could not be accounted for by
the presence of any known impurity. At this stage it seemed
not improbable that the lightness of the gas extracted from
chemical compounds was to be explained by partial dissociation
of nitrogen molecules N, into detached atoms.. In order to
test this suggestion both kinds of gas were submitted to the
action of the silent electric discharge, with the result that both
retained their weights unaltered. This was discouraging, and
a further experiment pointed still more markedly in the nega-
tive direction. The chemical behavior of nitrogen is such as
to suggest that dissociated atoms would possess a high degree
of activity, and that even though they might be formed in the
first instance their life would probably be short. On standing
they might be expected to disappear, in partial analogy with
the known behavior of ozone. With this idea in view, a sam-
ple of chemically prepared nitrogen was stored for eight
months. But at the end of this time the density showed no
sign of increase, remaining exactly as at first.*
Regarding it as established that one or other of the gases
must be a mixture, containing, as the case might be, an ingre-
dient much heavier or much lighter than ordinary nitrogen, we
had to consider the relative probabilities of the various possible
interpretations. Except upon the already discredited hypoth-
esis of dissociation, it was difficult to see how the gas of chem-
ical origin could be a mixture. To suppose this would be to
admit two kinds of nitric acid, hardly reconcilable with the
work of Stas and others upon the atomic weight of that sub-
stance. The simplest explanation in many respects was to
admit the existence of a second ingredient in air from which
oxygen, moisture, and carbonic anhydride had already been
removed. The proportional amount required was not great.
If the density of the supposed gas were double that of nitro-
gen 4 per cent only by volume would be needed; or if the
density were but half as much again as that of nitrogen, then
1 per cent would still suffice. But in accepting this explana-
* Proc, Roy. Soc., vol. lv, p. 344, 1894.
280 Rayleigh and Ramsay—Argon, a New
tion, even provisionally, we had to face the improbability that
a gas surrounding us on all sides, and present in enormous
quantities, could have remained so long unsuspected.
The method of most universal application by which to test
whether a gas is pure or a mixture of components of different
densities is that of diffusion. By this means Graham suc-
ceeded in effecting a partial separation of the nitrogen and
oxygen of the air, in spite of the comparatively small dif-
ference of densities. If the atmosphere contain an unknown
gas of anything like the density supposed, it should be possi-
ble to prove the fact by operations conducted upon air which
had undergone atmolysis. This experiment, although in view
from the first, was not executed until a later stage of the
inquiry ($6), when results were obtained sufficient of them-
selves to prove that the atmosphere contains a previously
unknown gas.
But although the method of diffusion was capable of decid-
ing the main, or at any rate the first question, it held out no
prospect of isolating the new constituent of the atmosphere,
and we, therefore, turned our attention in the first instance to
the consideration of methods more strictly chemical. And
here the question forced itself upon us as to what really was
the evidence in favor of the prevalent doctrine that the inert
residue from air after withdrawal of oxygen, water, and ear-
bonic anhydride, is all of one kind.
The identification of “ phlogisticated air” with the con-
stituent of nitric acid is due to Cavendish, whose method
consisted in operating with electric sparks upon a short column
of gas confined with potash over mercury at the upper end of
an inverted (Jj-tube.* |
Attempts to repeat Cavendish’s experiment in Cavendisn’s
manner have only increased the admiration with which we
regard this wonderful investigation. Working on almost micro-
scopical quantities of material, and by operations extending
over days and weeks, he thus established one of the most
important facts in chemistry. And what is still more to the
purpose, he raises as distinctly as we could do, and to a certain
extent resolves, the question above suggested. The passage is
so important that it will be desirable to quote it at full length.
‘As far as the experiments hitherto published extend, we
scarcely know more of the phlogisticated part of our atmo-
sphere, than that it is not diminished by lime-water, caustic
alkalies, or nitrous air; that it is unfit to support fire, or main-
tain life in animals; and that its specific gravity is not much
less than that of common air: so that though the nitrous acid,
* Experiments on Air, Phil. Trans., vol. xxv, p. 372, 1785.
Constituent of the Atmosphere. 281
by being united to phlogiston, is converted into air possessed
of these properties, and consequently, though it was reasonable
to suppose, that part at least of the phlogisticated air of the
atmosphere consists of this acid united to phlogiston, yet it
was fairly to be doubted whether the whole is of this kind, or
whether there are not in reality many different substances com-
pounded together by us under the name of phlogisticated air.
I therefore made an experiment to determine whether the
whole of a given portion of the phlogisticated air of the
atmosphere could be reduced to nitrous acid, or whether there
was not a part of a different nature to the rest, which would
refuse to undergo that change. The foregoing experiments
indeed in some measure decided this point, as much the greatest
part of the air let up into the tube lost its elasticity; yet as
some remained unabsorbed it did not appear for certain whether
that was of the same nature as the rest or not. For this pur-
pose I diminished a similar mixture of dephlogisticated and
common air, in the same manner as before, till it was reduced
to a small part of its original bulk. I then, in order to decom-
pound as much as I could of the phlogisticated air which
remained in the tube, added some dephlogisticated air to it,
-and continued the spark until no further diminution took
place. Having by these means condensed as much as I could
of the phlogisticated air, I let up some solution of liver of
sulphur to absorb the dephlogisticated air ; after which only a
small bubble of air remained unabsorbed, which certainly was
not more than ;4,th of the bulk of the phlogisticated air let up
into the tube; so that if there is any part of the phlogisticated
air of our atmosphere which differs from the rest, and cannot
be reduced to nitrous acid, we may safely conclude that it is
not more than ;4,th part of the whole.”
Although Cavendish was satisfied with his result, and does
not decide whether the small residue was genuine, our experi-
ments about to be related render it not improbable that his
residue was really of a different kind from the main bulk of
the “ phlogisticated air,’ and contained the gas now called
argon.
Cavendish gives data* from which it is possible to determine
the rate of absorption of the mixed gases in his experiment.
This was about 1° per hour, of which two-fifths would be
nitrogen.
Ill. Methods of causing Free Nitrogen to combine.
To eliminate nitrogen from air, in order to ascertain whether
any other gas could be detected, involves the use of some
* Phil. Trans., vol. Ixxviii, p. 271, 1788.
AM. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XLIX, No. 292.—Aprin, 1895.
19
282 Rayleigh and Lamsay—Argon, a New
absorbent. The elements which have been found to combine
directly with nitrogen are: boron, silicon, titanium, lithium,
strontium, barium, magnesium, aluminium, mercury, and, under
the influence of an electric discharge, hydrogen in presence of
acid, and oxygen in presence of alkali. Besides these, a mix-
ture of barium carbonate and carbon at a high temperature is
known to be effective. Of those tried, magnesium in the
form of turnings was found to be the best. When nitrogen is
passed over magnesium, heated in a tube of hard glass to
bright redness, combustion with incandescence begins at the
end of the tube through which the gas is introduced, and pro-
ceeds regularly until all the metal has been converted into
nitride. Between 7 and 8 liters of nitrogen can be absorbed
in a single tube; the nitride formed is a porous, dirty, orange-
colored substance.
IV. Early Experiments on sparking Nitrogen with Oxygen in
presence of Alkali.
In our earliest attempts to isolate the suspected gas by the
method of Cavendish, we used a Ruhmkorff coil of medium
size actuated by a battery of five Grove cells. The gases were
contained in a test-tube standing over a large quantity of weak
alkali, and the current was conveyed in wires insulated by
U-shaped glass tubes passing through the liquid round the
mouth of the test-tube. With the given battery and coil a
somewhat short spark or are of about 5™™ was found to be
more favorable than a longer one. When the mixed gases
were in the right proportion the rate of absorption was about
30% per hour, or thirty times as fast as Cavendish could work
with the electrical machine of his day.
To take an example, one experiment of this kind started
with 50° of air. To this oxygen was gradually added until,
oxygen being in excess, there was no perceptible contraction
during an hour’s sparking. The remaining gas was then trans-
ferred at the pneumatic trough to a small measuring vessel,
sealed by mercury, in which the volume was found to be 1:0*.
On treatment with alkaline pyrogallate, the gas shrank to 0°32.
That this small residue could not be nitrogen was argued from
the fact that it had withstood the prolonged action of the
spark, although mixed with oxygen in nearly the most favor-
able proportion.
The residue was then transferred to the test-tube with an
addition of another 50° of air, and the whole worked up with
oxygen as before. The residue was now 2°2°, and, after
removal of oxygen, 0°76".
Constituent of the Atmosphere. 283
Although it seemed almost impossible that these residues
could be either nitrogen or hydrogen, some anxiety was not
unnatural, seeing that the final sparking took place under some-
what abnormal conditions. The space was very restricted, and
the temperature (and with it the proportion of aqueous vapor)
was unduly high. But any doubts that were felt upon this
score were removed by comparison experiments in which the
whole quantity of air operated on was very small. Thus, when
a mixture of 5° of air with 7° of oxygen was sparked for 1}
hours, the residue was 0°47°, and after removal of oxygen
0:06. Several repetitions having given similar results, it
became clear that the final residue did not depend upon any-
thing that might happen when sparks passed through a greatly
reduced volume, but was in proportion to the amount of ar
operated upon.
No satisfactory examination of the residue which refused to
be oxidized could be made without the accumulation of a
larger quantity. This, however, was difficult of attainment at
the time in question. It was thought that the cause probably
lay in the solubility of the gas in water, a suspicion since con-
firmed. At length, however, a sufficiency was collected to
allow of sparking in a specially constructed tube, when a com-
parison with the air spectrum, taken under similar conditions,
proved that, at any rate, the gas was not nitrogen. At first
scarcely a trace of the principal nitrogen lines could be seen,
but after standing over water for an hour or two these lines
became apparent.
V. Early experiments on withdrawal of Nitrogen from Air
by means of red-hot Magnesium.
A preliminary experiment carried out by Mr. Percy Williams
on the absorption of atmospheric nitrogen, freed from oxygen
by means of red-hot copper, in which the gas was not passed
over, but simply allowed to remain in contact with the metal,
gave a residue of density 14°88. This result, although not
conclusive, was encouraging; and an attempt was made, on a
larger scale, by passing atmospheric nitrogen backwards and
forwards over red-hot magnesium from one large gas-holder to
another to obtain a considerable quantity of the heavier gas.
In the course of ten days, about 1500° were collected and
transferred gradually to a mercury gas-holder, from which the
gas was passed over soda-lime, phosphoric anhydride, magne-
sium at a red heat, copper oxide, soda-lime, and phosphoric
anhydride into a second mercury gas-holder. After some days
the gas was reduced in volume to about 200°, and its density
was found to be 16:1. After further absorption, in which the
284 Rayleigh and Ramsay—Argon, a New
volume was still further reduced, the density of the residue
was increased to 19-09.
On passing sparks for several hours through a mixture of a
small quantity of this gas with oxygen, its volume was still
further reduced. Assuming that this reduction was due to the
further elimination of nitrogen, the density of the remaining
gas was calculated to be 20-0.
The spectrum of the gas of density 19:09, though showing
nitrogen bands, showed many other lines which were not
recognizable as belonging to any known element.
VI. Proof of the presence of Argon in Air by means of
Atmolysis.
It has already (§ 2) been suggested that if ‘atmospheric
nitrogen” contains two gases of different densities, it should
be possible to obtain direct evidence of the fact by the method
of atmolysis. The present section contains an account of care-
fully conducted experiments directed to this end.
- The atmolyser was prepared (after Graham) by combining a
number of “churchwarden” tobacco pipes. At first twelve
pipes were used in three groups, each group including four
pipes connected in series. The three groups were then con-
nected in parallel, and placed in a large glass tube closed in
such a way that a partial vacuum could be maintained in the
space outside the pipes by a water pump. One end of the
combination of pipes was open to the atmosphere; the other
end was connected to a bottle aspirator, initially full of water,
and so arranged as to draw about 2 per cent of the air which
entered the other end of the pipes. The gas collected was
thus a very small proportion of that which leaked through the
pores of the pipes, and should be relatively rich in the heavier
constituents of the atmosphere. The flow of water from the
aspirator could not be maintained very constant, but the rate
of 2 per cent was never much exceeded.
The air thus obtained was treated exactly as ordinary air had
been treated in determinations of the density of atmospheric
nitrogen. Oxygen was removed by red-hot copper, followed
by cupric oxide, ammonia by sulphuric acid, moisture and car-
bonic acid by potash and phosphoric anhydride.
In a total weight of approximately 2°3 grams the excess of
weight of the diffused nitrogen over ordinary. atmospheric
nitrogen was in four experiments, 0:0049, 0:-0014, 0°0027,
»0:0015.
The mean excess of the four determinations is 0°00262 gram,
or, if we omit the first, which depended upon a vacuum
weighing of two months old, 0:00187 gram.
Constituent of the Atmosphere. 285
The gas from prepared air was thus in every case denser
than from unprepared air, and to an extent much beyond the
possible errors of experiment. The excess was, however, less
than had been expected, and it was thought that the arrange-
ment of the pipes could be improved. The final delivery of
gas from each of the groups in parallel being so small in
comparison with the whole streams concerned, it seemed pos-
sible that each group was not contributing its proper share,
and even that there might be a flow in the wrong direction at
the delivery end of one or two of them. To meet this objec-
tion, the arrangement in parallel had to be abandoned, and for
the remaining experiments eight pipes were connected in simple
series. The porous surface in operation was thus reduced, but
this was partly compensated for by an improved vacuum. Two
experiments were made under the new conditions, in which
the excess was I, 0:0037; LH, 0:0083.
The excess being larger than before is doubtless due to the
greater efficiency of the atmolysing apparatus. It should be
mentioned that the above recorded experiments include all
that have been tried, and the conclusion seems inevitable that
‘atmospheric nitrogen” is a mixture, and not a simple body.
It was hoped that the concentration of the heavier con-
stituent would be sufficient to facilitate its preparation in a
pure state by the use of prepared air in substitution for ordi-
nary air in the oxygen apparatus. The advance of 34 milli-
grams on the 11 milligrams, by which atmospheric nitrogen is
heavier than chemical nitrogen, is indeed not to be despised,
and the use of prepared air would be convenient if the diffu-
sion apparatus could be set up on a large scale and be made
thoroughly self-acting.
VIL. Negative Hxperiments to prove that Argon is not derived
Srom Nitrogen from Chemical Sources.
Although the evidence of the existence of argon in the
atmosphere, derived from the comparison of densities of atmos-
pherie and chemical nitrogen and from the diffusion experi-
ments (§ VI), appeared overwhelming, we have thought it
undesirable to shrink from any labor that would tend to com-
plete the verification. With this object in view, an experi-
qment was undertaken and carried to a conclusion on November
13, in which 3 liters of chemical nitrogen, prepared from
ammonium nitrite, were treated with oxygen in precisely the
manner in which atmospheric nitrogen had been found to
yield a residue of argon. The gas remaining at the close of
the large scale operations was worked up as usual with battery
and coil until the spectrum showed only slight traces of the
nitrogen lines. When cold, the residue measured 4°. This
286 Rayleigh and Ramsay—Argon, a New
was transferred, and after treatment with alkaline pyrogallate
to remove oxygen measured 3°3°. If atmospheric nitrogen
had been employed, the final residue should have been about
30°. Of the 3°3° actually left, a part is accounted for by an
accident, and the result of the experiment is to show that argon
is not formed by sparking a mixture of oxygen and chemical
nitrogen.
In a second experiment of the same kind 5660° of nitrogen
from ammonium nitrite was treated with oxygen. The final
residue was 375°, and was found to consist mainly of argon.
The source of the residual argon is to be sought in the
water used for the manipulation of the large quantities of gas
(6 liters of nitrogen and 11 liters of oxygen) employed. When
carbonic acid was collected in a similar manner and subse-
quently absorbed by potash, it was found to have acquired a
contamination consistent with this explanation.
Negative experiments were also carried out, absorbing nitro-
gen by means of magnesium. In one instance 3 liters of
nitrogen prepared from ammonium chloride and bleaching-
powder was reduced in volume to 4°5°, and on sparking with
oxygen its volume was further reduced to about 3° The
residue appeared to consist of argon. Another experiment, in
which 15 liters of nitrogen from ammonium nitrite was
absorbed, gave a final residue of 3°5°°. Atmospheric nitrogen,
in the latter case, would have yielded 150°, hence less than
gzth of the normal quantity was obtained. It should be men-
tioned that leakage occurred at one stage, by which perhaps
200° of air entered the apparatus; and, besides, the nitrogen
was collected over water from which it doubtless acquired some
argon. Quantitative negative experiments of this nature are
exceedingly difficult, and require a long time to carry them to
a successful conclusion.
VIII. Separation of Argon on a Large Scale.
To prepare argon on a large scale, air is freed from oxygen
by means of red-hot copper. The residue is then passed from
a gas-holder through a combustion-tube, heated in a furnace,
and containing copper, in order to remove all traces of oxygen;
the issuing gas is then dried by passage over soda-lime and
phosphorus pentoxide, after passage through a small U-tube
containing sulphuric acid, to indicate the rate of flow. It
then enters a combustion-tube packed tightly with magnesium
turnings, and heated to redness in a second furnace. From
this tube it passes through a second index-tube, and enters a
small gas-holder capable of containing 3 or 4 liters. A single
tube of magnesium will absorb froin 7 to 8 liters of nitrogen.
Constituent of the Atmosphere. 287
The temperature must be nearly that of the fusion of the
glass, and the current of gas must be carefully regulated, else
the heat developed by the union of the magnesium with nitro-
gen will fuse the tube.
Having collected the residue from 100 or 150 liters of atmos-
pheric nitrogen, which may amount to 4 or 5 liters, it is
transferred to a small gas-holder connected with an apparatus,
whereby, by means of a species of a self-acting Sprengel’s
pump, the gas is caused to circulate through a tube half filled
with copper and half with ‘copper oxide; it then traverses a
tube half filled with soda-lime and half with phosphorus pent-
oxide ; it then .passes a reservoir of about 300° capacity from
which, by raising a mercury reservoir, it can be expelled intoa
small gas-holder. Next it passes through a tube containing
magnesium turnings heated to bright redness. The gas is thus
freed from any possible contamination with oxygen, hydrogen,
or hydrocarbons, and nitrogen is gradually absorbed. As the
amount of gas in the tubes and reservoir diminishes in volume,
it draws supplies from the gas-holder, and, finally, the circulat-
ing system is full of argon in a pure state. The circulating
system of tubes is connected with a mercury pump, so that, in
changing the magnesium tube, no gas may be lost. Before
ceasing to heat the magnesium tube the system is pumped
empty, and the collected gas is restored to the gas-holder ;
finally, all the argon is transferred from the mercury reservoir
to the second small gas-holder, which should preferably be
filled with water saturated with argon, so as to prevent contami-
nation from oxygen or nitrogen; or, if preferred, a mercury
gas-holder may be employed. The complete removal of nitro-
gen from argon is very slow towards the end, but circulation
for a couple of days usually effects it.
The principal objection to the oxygen method of isolating
argon, as hitherto described, is the extreme slowness of the
operation. In extending the scale we had the great advantage
of the advice of Mr. Crookes, who not long since called atten-
tion to the flame rising from platinum terminals, which convey
a high tension alternating electric discharge, and pointed out
its dependence upon combustion of the nitrogen and oxygen of
the air.* The plant consists of a De Meritens alternator, actu-
ated by a gas engine, and the currents are transformed to a
high potential by means of a Ruhmkorff or other suitable
induction coil. The highest rate of absorption of the mixed
a yet attained is 3 liters per hour, about 3000 times that of
Javendish. It is necessary to keep the apparatus cool, and
from this and other causes a good many difficulties have been
encountered.
* Chemical News, vol. lxv, p. 301, 1892.
288 Rayleigh and Ramsay—Argon, a New
In one experiment of this kind, the total air led in after
seven days’ working, amounted to 7925°, and of oxygen (pre-
pared from chlorate of potash), 9137°. On the eighth and
ninth days oxygen alone was added, of which about 500° was
consumed, while there remained about 700° in the flask.
Hence the proportion in which the air and oxygen combined
was as 79:96. The progress of the removal of the nitrogen
was examined from time to time with the spectroscope, and
became ultimately very slow. At last the yellow line disap-
peared, the contraction having apparently stopped for two
hours. It is worthy of notice that with the removal of the
nitrogen, the are discharge changes greatly in appearance,
becoming narrower and blue rather than greenish in color.
The final treatment of the residual 700° of gas was on the
model of the small scale operations already described. Oxygen
or hydrogen could be supplied at pleasure from an electrolytic
apparatus, but in no way could the volume be reduced below
65°. This residue refused oxidation, and showed no trace of
the yellow line of nitrogen, even under favorable conditions.
When the gas stood for some days over water, the nitrogen
line reasserted itself in the spectrum, and many hours’ spark-
ing with a little oxygen was required again to get rid of it.
Intentional additions of air to gas free from nitrogen showed
that about 14 per cent was clearly, and about 3 per cent was
conspicuously, visible. About the same numbers apply to the
visibility of nitrogen in oxygen when sparked under these con-
ditions, that 1s, at atmospheric pressure, and with a jar con-
nected to the secondary terminals.
IX. Density of Aryon prepared by means of Oxygen.
_ QalGm
The last line in the table contains the results of measure-
ments on photographs of the primary spark instead of the
secondary. In this case the distance from the mirror to the
photographic plate was 311°5°". In spite of the fact that the
last value of the velocity is much nearer that of the velocity
of light, and of the ratio of the two systems of electrical units
than the average of the first five, we do not think it can be
relied upon, for two reasons. First because of the possible
error introduced by the fact that the two circuits had not
exactly the same period of oscillation ; and second because the
distances measured on the photographic plate were only about
"05, mstead ofL-00°".
The generally accepted value for the velocity of lght is
2°998 x 10° centimeters. At present it does not seem to us
likely, judging from the table as it stands, and from a considera-
tion of the possible errors in the various measurements, that the
total error in our determination can be as great as the differ-
ence between the average just given and 2°998 x 10”.
Whether this discrepancy is due to the fact that the cirenit
may not have been long enough in comparison with the
length of the waves to allow of their full development, or not,
we do not undertake to say. If the bends in the cirenit at
M and M’ have a retarding effect upon the waves, this
fact can be very easily discovered and allowed for. As yet
we have not had time to investigate the question. We there-
fore publish the results above tabulated as a preliminary
record, hoping to refine upon the measurements in several
important particulars, and to extend the investigation to
circuits of different sizes and shapes, one of which will
probably be a long circuit of some 300 meters running out of
doors, and at a considerable distance above the ground.
In the final paper, too, we hope to publish a great many
details of the method, together with some interesting phenom-
W. Upham—Epochs and Stages of the Glacial Period. 305
ena that have appeared in the photographs, of the primary
and secondary sparks.
If it appears, as theory seems to indicate, that electric waves
travel in air with the velocity of light, it may be that the latter
ean be determined more accurately by an electrical and photo-
graphic method than by the eye methods which have hitherto
been used.
Jefferson Physical Laboratory.
Arr. XXVI.—LEpochs and Stages of the Glacial Period ; by
WARREN UPHAM.
RENEWED studies of the origin and order in age of our
Minnesota drift deposits have led me to the results presented in
tne following table, which I think will contribute toward a
reconciliation and harmony of the lately opposing doctrines
(1) of unity and (2) of duality or greater complexity of the Ice
age. Unity or continuity of our Pleistocene glaciation, with
fluctuations of the ice margin, much greater in the interior of
the continent than eastward, appears to me the most acceptable
view and statement, when the whole period and the whole
drift-bearing area are considered. The evidences of a recession
of the ice-sheet in Minnesota about two hundred miles backward
from the nearest portions of its former boundary, followed by
growth again nearly to its previous limits, are to be found in
The Geology of Minnesota, final report, volumes I (1884) and
II (1888), by index references for “ Interglacial formations,
drainage and water-courses,”’ ete.
The two stages of growth of the ice-sheet may have been
due, aside from their principal dependence on the high eleva-
tion of the land, to the last two passages in the precession of
the equinoxes, with accompanying nutation, bringing the win-
ters of the northern hemisphere 1 in aphelion about 30,000 years
ago and again about 10,000 years ago. The intermediate time
of the earth’s northern winters in perihelion would be the stage
of great retreat of the ice margin in the upper Mississippi
region ; but eastward, from Ohio to the Atlantic coast, there
appears to have been little glacial oscillation.* This explana-
tion accords with Prof. N. H. Winchell’s computations from
the rate of recession of the falls of St. Anthony for the Post-
glacial or Recent period,+ and with his estimate of the duration
* J. D. Dana, this Journal, IIT, vol. xlvi, pp. 327--330, Nov., 1893.
+ Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minnesota, Fifth Ann. Rep. for 1876, pp. 175-
189; Final Report, vol. ii, 1888, pp. 313-341, with fifteen plates (views showing
recent changes of the falls of St. Anthony, and maps). Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.,
London, vol. xxxiv, 1878, pp. 886-901.
306 W. Upham—Epochs and Stages of the Glacial Period.
of the interglacial stage from the now buried channel which
appears to have been then eroded by the Mississippi river a
few miles west of the present gorge below these falls.*
Adopting the helpful new nomenclature proposed by Cham-
berlin,t we may provisionally formulate the minor time divis-
ions of the Glacial and Champlain epochs as follows. The
order is stratigraphic, so that for the advancing sequence in
time it should be read upward.
Champlain Epoch.—(Land depression; disappearance of
the ice-sheet ; partial reélevation of the land.
WISCONSIN sTaAGE.—(Progressing reélevation.) Moderate
reélevation of the land, advancing as a permanent wave
from south to north and northeast; continued retreat of
the ice along most of its extent, but its maximum advance
in southern New England, with fluctuations and the for-
mation of prominent moraines; great glacial lakes on the
northern borders.of the United States; slight glacial oscil-
lations, with temperate climate nearly as now, at Toronto
and Scarboro’, Ont.; the sea finally admitted to the St.
Lawrence, Champlain, and Ottawa valleys; uplift to the
present height completed soon after the departure of the ice.
(The great Baltic glacier, and European marginal moraines.)
CHAMPLAIN SUBSIDENCE.—Depression of the ice-covered
area from its high Glacial elevation; retreat of the ice
from its former Iowan limits; abundant deposition of loess.
Glacial! Epoch.—(lce accumulation, due to the culmination
of the Lafayette epeirogenic uplift.)
IowAN STAGE.—Renewed ice accumulation covering the
forest beds and extending south nearly to its early bound-
ary. (Third European glacial stage.)
INTERGLACIAL STAGE.—Extensive glacial recession in the
upper part of the Mississippi basin; cool temperate climate
and coniferous forests up to the waning ice-border; much
erosion of the early drift.
KANSAN STAGE.—Maximum extent of the ice-sheet in the
interior of North America, and also eastward in northern
New Jersey. (Maximum glaciation in Europe.)
UNDETERMINED STAGES of fluctuation in the general growth
of the ice-sheet.—Including an early glacial recession
and reidvance shown by layers of interglacial lignite on
branches of the Moose and Albany rivers, southwest of
James bay. (First glacial stage in the Alps.)
* Am. Geologist, vol. x, pp. 69-80, with three plates (sections and map), Aug.,
1892.
+ In two chapters (pp. 724-775, with maps forming plates xiv and xv) of J.
Geikie’s ‘‘The Great Ice Age,” third edition, 1894, Prof. T. C. Chamberlin pro-
poses a chronologic classification of the North American drift under three forma-
tions, named in the order of their age, beginning with the earhest, the Kansan,
East Iowan, and Kast Wisconsin formations.
Beecher—Structure and Appendages of Trinucleus. 307
Art. XX VII.—Structure and Appendages of Trinucleus ;
by CHARLES E. BEEcHER. (With Plate III.)
TRINUCLEUS departs so widely from the common type of
trilobite form, that any contribution of new facts regarding its
structure and appendages is a matter of interest. Moreover,
this added information will be of assistance in interpreting
some peculiar and striking features in the natural group of
genera of which Z7inucleus is evidently a member.
For the present, it is convenient to consider in this group
such forms as Zrinucleus, Harpes, Harpides, Dionide, and
Ampyz. Most of these have the genal angles extending to or
beyond the pygidium, with a broad, finely perforated or punc-
tate margin around the head. They are further characterized
by the absence or obsolescence of visual organs, while the facial
sutures are either peripheral, as in Harpes, or in addition
include the genal spines, as in Z7vinucleus, Dionide, and
Ampyz. Several other genera have been recognized as having
affinities with those mentioned, but they are imperfectly
known, and will be merely noticed here. Harpina, Novak,
based upon the features of the hypostoma, is probably of only
subgeneric value under Harpes. Arraphus, Angelin, is appar-
ently based upon a specimen of Harpes denuded of the punc-
tate border. Salterza of W. Thompson, and Andymionia of
Billings, both generally considered as closely related to Lo-
nide, were founded upon too imperfect material to afford
decisive data as to their affinities. Angelin’s sub-genera of
Ampyz (Lonchodomus, Raphiophorus, and Ampyx) are based
upon the length of the glabellar spine, and the possession of
five or six free thoracic segments. Similar characters in
Trinucleus are not considered as worthy of such marked dis-
tinction.
In 1847, Salter* illustrated and described an eye-tubercle on
each cheek of Z7rinucleus, from which there was a raised line
extending obliquely upward to a punctum or spot on each
side of the glabella. He considered this line as a discontinuous
facial suture, but the true suture was afterwards correctly
determined by Barrande,t and in well-preserved specimens,
may easily be observed, extending around the entire frontal
and lateral border of the head, and including the genal
spines. The “eye-line” was further recognized by McCoy, t¢
* On the structure of Trinucleus, with Remarks on the Species, Quar. Jour.
Geol. Soce., vol. iii. pp. 251-254.
+ Syst. Sil. Bohéme, I., 1852.
$ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 2d Series, vol. iv., 1849.
308 Beecher—Structure and Appendages of Trinucleus.
and made one of the bases for a division of the genus into
two sections or genera—TZrinucleus proper and Tetraspis.
These divisions were accepted by Salter, but later were thor-
oughly discussed, and rejected by Barrande (/. ¢., p. 617), upon
valid grounds. Nicholson and Etheridge,* in 1879, reviewed
these facts at some length, and gave original figures illustrat-
ing the ocular tubercle and eye-line. They also agree with
Barrande in recognizing them as clearly adolescent char-
acters.
The justice of these conclusions is substantiated, and
additional results are reached, from the study of a series of
Trinucleus concentricus Eaton, found associated with Z77rzar-
thrus Becki Green, in the Utica slate, near Rome, New York.
The remarkable preservation of the fossils at this locality,
has already afforded a means of determining all the principal
details of the ventral structure of the trilobite genus Z7rzar-
thrus, and there is now distinct evidence as to the nature of
_ the appendages in another type—Z7inucleus, as well as to the
probable significance of the so-called ‘“ eye-tubercle.”
As compared with Zriarthrus, specimens of Trinucleus
are not very common at this locality, and, although more than
fifty individuals of the latter have been obtained from the
collections presented to the Yale Museum by Professor Marsh,
not more than half a dozen of these are adult specimens, and
but three show any appendages. Young specimens of all
ages occur, from about 1™™ across the cephalon upwards, and
in all the eye-line and eye tubercle are present until a width
of nearly 5™™ is attained, when in the present species these
features dwindle and disappear, leaving no discoverable traces
in the adult.
Two cephala of young individuals, without the free cheeks,
are shown enlarged in figures 1 and 2 of Plate III. Figure 2
represents a specimen before the appearance of the perforate
border, and figure 1 gives a later stage, having two rows of
perforations around the head. On both specimens the eye-
line is clearly shown, extending somewhat obliquely backward
from the anterior lobe of the glabella to the central area of the
fixed cheeks, enlarging slightly, and terminating in a rounded
node or tubercle (a, a, figure 2).
In seeking for homologous features in other trilobites, the
genera Harpes and Harpides are immediately suggested, since
they have similar ocular ridges extending from the sides of
the glabella, and ending in a tubercle, which, in Harpes, con-
tains from one to three eye-spots, as determined by Barrande.
They further agree in having these visual organs on the
* Monograph of the Silurian Fossils of the Girvan District in Ayrshire,
Fase, II., 1879.
Beecher—Structure and Appendages of Trinucleus. 309
fixed cheeks, while in all other trilobites with distinct eyes,
the free cheeks carry the visual areas. This type of eye is
thus quite different in its relations to the parts of the cephalon
from that of Phacops or Asaphus, and more nearly resembles
the eyes of some of the Merostomata (Lellinurus), as do also
the triangular areas in the young Z?nucleus, so distinctly
marked off from the fixed cheeks on each side of the glabella
behind the eye-line. Adult Zrenucleus and Llarpes have
these areas much reduced, and often obsolescent. A spot or node
in the median line on the glabella has been noticed by many
observers, and although its nature has not been demonstrated,
it has generally been called an ocellus. It is more clearly
preserved in adult specimens, though it can be detected in
young examples, as indicated in figures 1, 2, Plate ITI.
An eye-line occurs in many early trilobite genera, and is
well marked in Conocoryphe, Olenus, Ptychoparia, and Are-
thusina. At least four-fifths of the Cambrian forms preserve
this feature, which is almost entirely eliminated before Devo-
nian time. It differs in extent, but not necessarily in nature,
from the eye-line of Zrinucleus and Harpes in running
entirely across the fixed cheeks to the free cheeks, ending in
the palpebral lobe in eyed forms. It is evidently a larval
character in the trilobites, as shown from its geological history
and the ontogeny of Zrinucleus. From the direction of the
optic nerve in Limulus, and its relations to the surface features
of the cephalothorax, the eye-line probably represents the
course of that nerve, and is of much less morphological im-
portance than the different types and arrangement of visual
organs.
The pygidium of young 7. concentricus (Plate ILI, figure 3)
is remarkable for the lack of definition between the axis and
pleura. In later and adult stages the number of ridges on the
pleura and axis do not correspond, and from figures 4, 5, and 6,
it is evident that in this genus the number of pleura is no indi-
cation of the number of pygidial sezments or pairs of append-
ages, which, however, may be shown, as in this case, by the
annulations of the axis. In this respect, the pygidia in Aneri-
nurus, Cybele, and Dindymene, are of the same nature.
Figure 6 also shows a narrow, striated doublure, a character
generally overlooked in descriptions of Zrznucleus.
Appenduges.
Three specimens have thus far been observed which show
the nature of the appendages in Z7rinucleus. Two of these
are illustrated in figures 4, 5, and 6, of Plate III. Figure 4
represents the thorax and pygidium viewed from the dorsal
310 Beecher—Structure and Appendages of Trinucleus.
side. In this specimen the pyrite which replaced the chitinous
remains of the animal has decomposed, and the dorsal crust
weathered away, exposing below the stems of the exopodites,
with their fringes extending over the entire pleural areas on
both sides. A pygidium, with three attached thoracic segments,
from another entire specimen (figures 5 and 6), preserves the
details of the appendages in the most perfect and satisfactory
manner. As both halves showed essentially the same extent
and disposition of the fringes on the dorsal side, the specimen
was cut in two along the center of the axis, and the left side
was then imbedded in paraffine. by careful preparation the
appendages were exposed from the ventral side.
The cephala of the three specimens described are considerably
compressed, and from them a very imperfect knowledge of the
mouth parts could be obtained, so that this information must be
left to future discovery.
Lindopodites.—The three posterior thoracic endopodites are
very similar, and in a general way closely resemble those of
Triarthrus from the same region of the thorax. They are,
however, comparatively shorter and stouter, and could not be
extended beyond the ends of the pleura. The two distal
joints are cylindrical, with well-marked articular surfaces and
ridges. The joints preceding these proximally become much
wider, flattened, and produced into transverse extensions which
carry large tufts of sete at the end, as also does the end of the
last joint of the limb (dactylopodite).
The endopodites on the pygidium offer no conspicuous dif-
ferences from those just described, except that a gradual
change in form is manifest as the terminal limbs are reached.
The separate endites become more and more transversely cylin-
drical, until the whole limb appears to be made up of eylindri-
cal segments transverse to its length. A similar condition was
observed in the young of Zrzarthrus.*
Kxopodites.—These seem to be composed of slender joints,
the distal exites being long and slightly curved outwards.
They carry very long, close set, overlapping, lamellose fringes,
which evidently had a branchial function. Some of the lamel-
lz are spiniferous. The exopodites become shorter on the
pygidium, and apparently are represented near the end of the
series of limbs by the oval plates indicated at c, figure 6. If
this interpretation is correct, the posterior exopodites are simple
flabella attached to the limbs, as in Apus. |
Both Professors A. E. Verrill and 8. I. Smith agree that
the characters of the appendages in Zrinweleus indicate an
animal of burrowing habit, which probably lived in the soft
* This Journal, vol. xlvii, Pl. VII, fig. 3, April, 1894.
Chemistry and Physics. 311
mud of the sea bottom, much after the fashion of the modern
Limulus. In addition to its limuloid form, the absence of
eyes seems to favor this assumption. So does the fact that
many specimens have been found preserving the cast of the
alimentary canal, showing that the animal gorged itself with
mud like many other sea-bottom animals.
Yale Museum,-New Haven, Conn; March 15th, 1895.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.
Trinucleus concentricus Eaton.
FIGURE 1.—Cephalon of young individual without genal spines; showing ocular
ridges and two rows of perforations around anterior and lateral
borders. x40. .
FIGURE 2.—Cephalon of younger individual before the growth of the perforate
border; showing distinctly the clavate ocular ridges, a,a. x40.
FIGURE 3.—Pygidium of young individual; showing the indistinct limitation of
axis and the elevated transverse ridges of the pleura and axis. x 40.
FIGURE 4.—Thorax and pygidium of an entire specimen from which the dorsal
test has been removed by weathering, exposing below the fringes of
the exopodites, which entirely cover the pleural portions. The
stronger lines ascending from the axis are the main stems of the
exopodites. The black dots along the axis are the fulcra for the
attachment of the limbs. x4.
FiguRE 5.—One-half the pygidium with three attached thoracic segments, from
an entire specimen, with a portion of the test removed; showing the
highly developed, lamellose fringes of the exopodites. x11.
FIGURE 6.—The same; lower side; showing the short, stout, phyllopodiform
endopodites, a, and the long, slender, exopodites, 6, bearing the
lamellose branchial frmges. In the lower third of the figure the ends
of the joints of the separate endopodites are shown by the oblique
ascending rows of setiferous nodes. The small ovate organs (c)
along the side are provisionally correlated with the exopodites. A
narrow striated doublure margins the pygidium and the ends of the
thoracic pleura. x11.
Utica slate. Near Rome, N. Y.
See N EET e ENT HeLEIG EN.C E,
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
1, On the Inorganic Preparation of Hydrazine.—Hitherto the
preparation of hydrazine has been possible only from complex
organic compounds. DupEeN however has now succeeded in
effecting its synthesis from inorganic materials. For this pur-
pose he makes use of a compound originally discovered by Davy,
produced by the action of sulphurous acid upon potassium nitrite,
and which has the composition K,SO,.N,O,. And he finds that
this substance, upon careful reduction with sodium amalgam or
with zinc dust and ammonia or soda, at a low temperature, gives a
solution having very strong reducing properties and which yields
312 Scientifie Intelligence.
after acidification, the salt of hydrazine corresponding to the acid
employed. In practice the recently prepared compound of nitro-
gen dioxide and potassium sulphite is suspended in water cooled
by ice, the whole is placed in a freezing mixture and sodium
amalgam is gradually added until the liquid is found to reduce
Fehling’s solution strongly and to yield, after being acidified and
heated to expel the sulphur dioxide a precipitate of benzalazine
on the addition of benzaldehyde. ‘The benzalazine thus obtained is
identical with that described by Curtius, fusing at 93° and hav-
ing the formula (C,H,CHN),. This substance treated with sul-
phuric acid yields hydrazine sulphate (N,H,),. H,SO,, of melting
point 256°, and otherwise identical with the product obtained
from organic sources. ‘The reaction appears to take place in two
stages. In the first |
BROLD>N -NO+H, = “S3s>N . NH, +H,0+ KOH
Then a pes reaction takes place between the a and
the sulphite compound thus
ASUODSN . NH, +KOH = K,S0,+H,N. NH,
—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxvii, 3498, January, 1895. 4G. F. B.
2. On the Production of Carbon chlorides at ordinary Tempera-
tures.—The production of C,Cl, and C,Cl, by the dissociation of
carbon tetrachloride at a red heat, with the setting free of
chlorine is well known. Vicror Meyer has now called attention
to the fact that during the preparation of carbon tetrachloride by
the chlorination of carbon disulphide at ordinary temperatures,
these two chlorides are produced. At these works of Miiller and
Dubois, near Mannheim, this process is operated on the large
scale, at temperatures between 20° and 40°. After some days,
the liquid becomes deeply colored owing to the production of
sulphur dichloride 8,Cl,. The tetrachloride is then distilled off
leaving the chloride of sulphur. On rectification of the tetrachlo-
ride an oily liquid having a higher boiling point, is obtained.
Upon fractioning this the author finds that it separates into
three constituents, CCl,, C,Cl, and C,Cl,, the last being a solid,
and being thus obtained in crystals, practically pure. Since the
carbon disulphide also was practically pure, the author considers
that the chlorides C,Cl, and C,Cl, are produced by direct synthesis,
as follows:
(CS,),+Cl,, va C,Cl,+(8,Cl,),
(CS,), a5 Cl, ah Cele. (8,Cl,),
— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxvii, 3160, November, 1894. G. F. B
3. On the Atomic masses of Nickel and Cobalt.—in the earlier
determinations of the atomic masses of nickel and cobalt, made
by Wiyxter, he obtained the values 58°90 for the former metal
and 59:67 for the latter; the results being secured by analysis of
the chlorides prepared from electrolytically deposited metals.
ee, a
Chemistry and Physics. 313
He now finds that a small error was introduced in the case of
cobalt, due to the fact that the metal deposited on the platinum
electrode contained a minute quantity of the hydrate Co,O,. (H,Q),.
No such result however occurs with nickel. Moreover he tinds
that a solution of iodine in potassium iodide of decinormal
strength is capable of dissolving the deposited metal from the
platinum terminal at once, without attacking the latter. In the
ease of nickel the platinum is left perfectly clean, while after the
removal of the cobalt a stain remains due to about one half per
cent of oxide. To remove this oxide, the electrodeposited cobalt
was reduced by hydrogen before use; and then it proved to be
pure on solution in iodine. The determination was made by
titrating with sodium thiosulphate the excess of iodine left after
the pure metals were dissolved. As a result of two complete and
concordant series of analyses the final values obtained are 58:72
for nickel and 59°37 for cobalt, H being 1 and I 126°53; the
atomic mass of cobalt being apparently about one-balf a unit
higher than that of nickel.—Zeit. anorg. Chem., viii, i, December,
13894. Gabe ae
4. On the Atomic Mass of Bismuth.—More than forty years
ago SCHNEIDER fixed the mass of the bismuth atom as 208, rela-
tive to that of hydrogen. A few years subsequently, i. e. in 1859, ~
Dumas made atomic mass determinations of a number of ele-
ments, among which was bismuth; giving to this metal the value
210. This figure continued to be accepted down to 1883 when
Marignac undertook his well known investigations upon atomic
mass and by a series of determinations which were carried out
with great thoroughness concluded upon 208°16 as the atomic
mass of bismuth; thus corroborating the work of Schneider. In
consequence of the slightly higher result 208°9, obtained by
Classen by an electrolytic method, Schneider has now repeated
and extended his work in this direction. The method adopted by
him in this new series of determinations is based upon a compari-
son of the equivalent relation of metallic bismuth to the trioxide
of bismuth; with a view of testing certain suggestions made by
Classen concerning possible errors in his former estimations. The
result finally obtained, for O = 16, is 208-05 ; the greatest diver-
gence from this mean among the values obtained in all the experi-
ments being only 0:21. This result not only confirms the value
originally obtained by Schneider himself, and also that of Marig-
nac, but it is specially important as tending to show that bismuth
belongs to the increasing class of elements whose atomic masses
are represented by whole numbers.—/J/. prakt. Ch., Il, 1, 461,
November, 1894. CBB
5. On the Use of Dihydroxytartaric acid as a Reagent for
Sodium.—By oxidizing tartaric acid in presence of iron, FENTON
observed the production of a new crystallized acid, which by oxi-
dation is converted into dihydroxytartaric acid. To effect this
oxidation, the crystallized acid is covered with glacial acetic acid
and a solution of bromine in this glacial acid is added drop by
Am. Jour. Sc1.—TsirD Serius, Vout. XLIX, No. 292.— Apri, 1895.
21
314 Scientific Intelligence.
drop with constant shaking, until a faint permanent yellow color
appears. On neutralizing with sodium carbonate, a heavy white
crystalline precipitate is produced, which after washing and dry-
ing, finally in vacuo over sulphuric acid, proved to be sodium
dihydroxytartrate. From this salt, by covering it with anhy-
drous ether and passing dry hydrogen chloride into the mixture,
dihydroxytartaric was obtained on evaporation. Owing to the
ease with which this acid can now be procured, the author sug-
gests the use of it as a reagent for the detection of sodium. For
this purpose, a few crystals of the acid are dissolved in a drop of
water on a watch-glass, the solution to be examined is added and
if necessary tbe liquid is neutralized with a drop of ammonia. On
stirring with a rod, a white crystalline precipitate of the sodium
salt appears, generally in lines as in the detection of potassium
by tartaric acid. The test is fairly delicate, a one per cent solu-
tion of sodium chloride giving the reaction almost immediately.
Neither potassium nor ammonium interferes with the reaction.—
oJ. Chem. Soc., \xvii, 48, January, 1895. G. F. B.
6. On the Commercial Synthesis of Acetylene-—The produc-
tion of the carbides of barium, strontium and calcium, by Mois-
san in his electric furnace,* seems likely to become of considerable
commercial utility. Ina paper by Lewes, read before the Society
of Arts, he has called attention to the production of acetylene by
the action of water upon these carbides as the starting point of
important practical developments. Although Wohler had made
calcium carbide by fusing an alloy of zinc and calcium with car-
bon, and had obtained acetylene from it by the action of water ;
and although in 1892 Macquenne had made barium carbide by
héating together barium carbonate, magnesium powder and char-
coal, and still later Travers had made calcium carbide by the
action of a high temperature upon a mixture of calcium chloride,
carbon and sodium, yet no commercial importance was attached
to these processes on account of their expense. But when work-
ing with the electric furnace, in the attempt to form alloys of cal-_
cium, Willson observed that a mixture of lime and pulverized
anthracite, exposed to the high temperature of the arc, fused to a
semi-metallic mass, which when thrown into water, effervesced
strongly and evolved acetylene, the process became of practical
value. The calcium carbide thus produced is a dark gray sub-
stance, having a density of 2262. When pure a pound of it
yields 5°5 cubic feet of gas, containing 98 per cent of acetylene.
This gas is colorless, with a penetrating odor resembling garlic.
It is poisonous, and is soluble in a little less than its own volume
of water, and in one-sixth of its volume of alcohol. It has a
density of 0°91. It burns with a highly luminous and smoky
flame, and liquefies at 0° C. under a pressure of 21°5 atmospheres.
When sprayed into the air the liquid evaporates rapidly, absorb-
ing so much heat that a portion of it is converted into a snow-
white solid. For illuminating purposes it can be burned only in
* See this Journal, III, xlviii, 506, December, 1894.
Chemistry and Physics. 315
small flat-lame burners, and then gives a light of 240 candles
when consumed at the rate of five feet per hour. It is claimed
that calcium carbide can be produced in this way for about $20
per ton. Since a ton will yield about 11,000 cubic feet of gas,
the cost at this rate would be about $1°60 per thousand cubic
feet, deducting the value of bye-products. In illuminating value,
it would be equivalent to ordinary coal gas at about ten or twelve
cents per thousand. Moreover, since acetylene is the starting
point for a multitude of organic syntheses, this cheap production
is of great importance in chemical industry.—JWVature, li, 303,
January, 1895. GK. SB
7. Theoretical Chemistry from the Standpoint of Avogadro’s
rule and Thermodynamics. By Prof. WatterR Nernst, Pa.D.,
of the University of Gottingen. Translated by Prof. Cuar Es
SKEELE Parmer, Px.D., of the University of Colorado, 8vo, pp.
xxvi, 697. London and New York, 1895 (Macmillan & Co.), $5.
—Dr. Nernst is well known as one of the leaders of the new
School of Physical Chemists. His papers upon subjects within
this domain have received marked attention and have made him
an authority in this branch of chemistry. A book from his pen,
like the one now before us, therefore, cannot fail to be of great
service in- advancing chemical science and will, no doubt, be
warmly welcomed by his co-laborers in every land. It is divided
into four principal divisions or books, preceded by an introduction
upon matter and energy and their relations. The first book
treats of the universal properties of matter, such as the gaseous,
the liquid and the solid states of aggregation, the physical mix-
ture and dilute solutions. The second book considers the atom
and the molecule, taking up successively the atomic theory, the
kinetic theory of the molecule, the determination of molecular
weight, the constitution of the molecule, the relation between
physical properties and molecular structure, the dissociation of
gases and electrolytic dissociation, the physical properties of salt
solutions, and the absolute size of molecules. Book third dis-
cusses the transformation of matter, being the first part of the
doctrine of affinity; its chapters being upon the laws of chemical
mass-action, the chemical statics of homogeneous and _ hetero-
geneous systems, chemical equilibrium in salt solutions and
chemical kinetics. Book fourth is devoted to the transformation
of energy, being the second part of the doctrine of affinity; its
first five chapters treating of thermochemistry and its last two
of electrochemistry and photochemistry respectively. ‘Two valu-
able appendices complete the work. One, edited by Dr. Nernst
himself, contains important matter which has appeared since the
publication of the German edition, The other, edited by Dr.
Kaiser, is a synchronistic comparison of the chief periodicals
bearing on this department ot chemistry. From this résumé
will appear at once not only how wide is the range of subjects
treated in this volume, but also how clear and logical is the order
in which they are taken up. Dr. Nerust everywhere speaks with
316 Scientific Intelligence.
the authority of a master of his subject. So that his book,
notwithstanding the treatises of Ostwald and others on Physical
Chemistry, seems to us, in the excellence of its arrangement, the
clearness of its style and the thoroughness of its subject-matter,
to be the best book of its kind which has yet appeared. Dr.
Palmer deserves especial thanks for putting the book so admirably
into its English dress. Typographically also, the book is a credit
to its publishers. G. F. B.
8. Qualitative Chemical Analysis of Inorganic Substances,
as practiced in Georgetown College, D.C. Short 4to, pp. 61.
New York, 1894 (American Book Company).—This book consists
of a series of tables for qualitative analysis, divided into four
sets. The first is on Basic Analysis, the second on Acid Analysis,
the third on Preliminary Examination, and the fourth on Solution
and on Special treatment. Though in the main following well
established authorities, yet there 1s some originality of arrange-
ment and some satisfactory explanatory matter added to the
tables. ‘The book appears to have been prepared with consider-
able care. G. F. B.
9. Double refraction of Hlectric waves.—K. Mack by inter-
posing pieces of wood between Hertz’s well known parabolic
reflectors, the axes of which are inclined to each other, has shown
that electric waves can be doubly refracted. Most specimens of
wood have a different structure along the direction of the fibres
from that perpendicular to this direction, and accordingly resem-
ble in this respect doubly refracting crystals possessing a struc-
ture parallel to their optic axis different from that at right
angles to this axis. When pieces of wood about 20 thick were
interposed on the line joining the foci of the mirrors, clear evi-
dence of the doubly refracting properties of the wood could be
shown by the appearance or disappearance of the spark in the
micrometer connected with the receiving mirror.—Ann. der
Physik. und Chemie, No. 2, 1895, pp. 342-851. SeoDs
10. National Academy of Sciences on Hlectrical Measurement.
—The standard specifications for the practical application of the
definitions of the electrical units, ampere and volt, referred to
in the act of Congress of July 12, 1894, quoted in the last —
number of this Journal (p. 236), are given below; they are taken
from Miscellaneous Document, No. 115, of the Senate of the
United States. These specifications were approved by all the
members of the committee named, of which Prof. H. A. Rowland
was the chairman, and were unanimously adopted by the Academy
at a special meeting held in New York on the 9th of Febru-
ary, 1895.
Specifications for the practical application of the definitions
of the Ampere and Volt.
SPECIFICATION A.— The Ampere.
In employing the silver voltameter to measure currents of
about one ampere, the following arrangements shall be adopted :
Chemistry and Physics. 317
The kathode on which the silver is to be deposited shall take
the form of a platinum bow! not less than 10 centimeters in diame-
ter, and from 4 to 5 centimeters in depth.
The anode shall be a dise or plate of pure silver some 30 square
centimeters in area and 2 or 3 millimeters in thickness.
This shall be supported horizontally in the liquid near the top
of the solution by a silver rod riveted through its center. To
prevent the disintegrated silver which is formed on the anode
from falling upon the kathode, the anode shall be wrapped
around with pure filter paper, secured at the back by suitable
folding.
The liquid shall consist of a neutral solution of pure silver
nitrate, containing about 15 parts by weight of the nitrate to 85
parts of water.
The resistance of the voltameter changes somewhat as the cur-
rent passes. ‘To prevent these changes having too great an effect
on the current, some resistance besides that of the voltameter
should be inserted in the circuit. The total metallic resistance of
the circuit should not be less than 10 ohms.
Method of Making a Measurement. The platinum bowl is to
be washed consecutively with nitric acid, distilled water and
absolute alcohol; it is then to be dried at 160° C., and left to
cool in a desiccator. When thoroughly cool it is to be weighed
carefully.
It is to be nearly filled with the solution and connected to the
rest of the circuit by being placed on a clean insulated copper
support to which a binding screw is attached.
The anode is then to be immersed in the solution so as to be
well covered by it and supported in that position; the connec-
tions to the rest of the circuit are then to be made.
Contact is to be made at the key, noting the time. The cur-
rent is to be allowed to pass for not less than half an hour, and
the time of breaking contact observed.
The solution is now ‘to be removed from the bowl and the
deposit washed with distilled water and left to soak for at least
six hours. It is then to be rinsed successively with distilled
water and absolute alcohol and dried in a hot-air bath at a tem-
perature of about 160° C. After cooling in a desiccator it is to
be weighed again. ‘The gain in mass gives the silver deposited.
To find the time average of the current in amperes, this mass,
expressed in grams, must be divided by the number of seconds
during which the current has passed and by 0:001118.
In determining the constant of an instrument by this method,
the current should be kept as nearly uniform as possible and the
readings of the instrument observed at frequent intervals of time.
These observations give a curve from which the reading corre-
sponding to the mean current (time-average of the current) can
be found. The current, as calculated from the voltameter results,
corresponds to this reading.
318 Scientific Intelligence.
The current used in this experiment must be obtained from a
battery and not from a dynamo, especially when the instrument
to be calibrated is an electrodynamometer.
SPECIFICATION B.— The Vole.
Definition and Properties of the Cell. The cell has for its posi-
tive electrode, mercury, and for its negative electrode, amalga-
mated zinc; the electrolyte consists of a saturated solution of
zinc sulphate and mercurous sulphate. ‘The electromotive force
is 1°434 volts at 15° C., and between 10° C. and 25° C., by the
increase of 1° C. in temperature, the electromotive force decreases
by -00115 of a volt. ;
1. Preparation of the Mercury. ‘To secure purity it should be
first treated with acid in the usual manner and subsequently dis-
tilled im vacuo.
2. Preparation of the Zinc Amalgam.—The zine designated in
commerce as “commercially pure” can be used without further
preparation. For the preparation of the amalgam one part by
weight of zinc is to be added to nine (9) parts by weight of mer-
cury and both are to be heated in a porcelain dish at 100° C. with
moderate stirring until the zinc has been fully dissolved in the
mercury.
3. Preparation of the Mercurous Sulphate. Take mercurous
sulphate, purchased as pure, mix with it a small quantity of pure
mercury and wash the whole thoroughly with cold distilled water
by agitation in a bottle; drain off the water and repeat the
process at least twice. Atter the last washing, drain off as much
of the water as possible. (For further details of purification, See
Note A.) |
4. Preparation of the Zinc Sulphate Solution. Prepare a
neutral saturated solution of pure re-crystallized zine sulphate,
free from irov, by mixing distilled water with nearly twice its
weight of crystals of pure zinc sulphate and adding zinc oxide
in the proportion of about 2 per cent. by weight of the zine
sulphate crystals to neutralize any free acid. The crystals
should be dissolved with the aid of gentle heat, but the tempera-
ture to which the solution is raised must not exceed 30° C. Mer-
curous sulphate, treated as described in 3, shall be added in the
proportion of about 12 per cent by weight of the zine sulphate
crystals to neutralize the free zinc oxide remaining, and then the
solution filtered, while still warm, into a stock bottle. Crystals
should form as it cools.
5. Preparation of the Mercurous Sulphate and Zine Sulphate
Paste. Kor making the paste, two or three parts by weight of
mercurous sulphate are to be added to one by weight of
mercury. If the sulphate be dry, it is to be mixed with a paste
consisting of zinc sulphate crystals and a concentrated zinc
sulphate solution, so that the whole constitutes a stiff mass, which
is permeated throughout by zinc sulphate crystals and globules
Chemistry and Physics. 319
of mercury. If the sulphate, however, be moist, only zine
sulphate crystals are to be added; care must, however, be taken
- that these occur in excess and are not dissolved after continued
standing. The mercury must, in this case also, permeate the
paste in little globules. It is advantageous to crush the zinc
sulphate crystals before using, since the paste can then be better
manipulated.
To set up the Cell. The containing glass vessel, represented in
the accompanying figure, shall consist of two limbs closed at
bottom and joined above to a common neck fitted with a ground
glass stopper. The diameter of the limbs should be at least
2s and their length at least 3°™S. The neck should be not less
than 1°5°™* in diameter. At the bottom of each limb a platinum
wire of about 0°-4™™ diameter is sealed through the glass.
To set up the cell, place in one limb pure mercury and in the
other hot liquid amalgam, containing 90 parts mercury and 10
parts zinc. The platinum wires at the bottom must be com-
B20) 3 Scientific Intelligence.
pletely covered by the mercury and the amalgam respectively.
On the mercury, place a layer one cm. thick of the zinc and mer-
curous sulphate paste described in 5. Both this paste and the
zinc amalgam must then be covered with a layer of the neutral
zinc sulphate crystals one cm. thick. ‘The whole vessel must then be
filled with the saturated zine sulphate solution, and the stopper
inserted so that it shall just touch it, leaving, however, a small
bubble to guard against breakage when the temperature rises.
Before finally inserting the glass stopper, it is to be brushed
round its upper edge with a strong alcoholic solution of shellac
and pressed firmly in place. (For details of filling the cell, See
Note B.)
NOTES TO THE SPECIFICATIONS.
(A.) Zhe Mercurous Sulphate. The treatment of the mer-
curous sulphate has for its object the removal of any mercuric
sulphate which is often present as an impurity.
Mercuric sulphate decomposes in the presence of water into an
acid and abasic sulphate. The latter is a yellow substance—turpeth
mineral—practically insoluble in water; its presence, at any rate
in moderate quantities, has no effect on the cell. If, however, it
be formed, the acid sulphate is also formed. This is soluble in
water and the acid produced affects the electromotive force.
The object of the washings is to dissolve and remove this acid
sulphate and for this purpose the three washings described in the
specification will suffice in nearly all cases. If, however, much of
the turpeth mineral be formed, it shows that there is a great
deal of the acid sulphate present and it will then be wiser to
obtain a fresh sample of mercurous sulphate, rather than to try by
repeated washings to get rid of all the acid. a
The free mercury helps in the process of removing the acid,
for the acid mercuric sulphate attacks it, forming mercurous
sulphate.
Pure mercurous sulphate, when quite free from acid, shows on
repeated washing a faint yellow tinge, which is due to the
formation of a basic mercurous salt distinct from the turpeth
mineral, or basic mercuric sulphate. The appearance of this
primrose yellow tint may be taken as an indication that all the
acid has been removed; the washing may with advantage be
continued until this tint appears.
(B.) Filling the Cell. After thoroughly cleaning and drying
the glass vessel place it in a hot water bath. Then pass through
the neck of the vessel a thin glass tube reaching to the bottom
to serve for the introduction of the amalgam. This tube should
be as large as the glass vessel will admit. It serves to protect the
upper part of the cell from being soiled with the amalgam. -To
fill in the amalgam,a clean dropping tube about 10°™* long,
drawn out to a fine point, should be used. Its lower end is
brought under the surface of the amalgam heated in a porcelain
dish, and some of the amalgam is drawn into the tube by means
Geology and Mineralogy. 321
of the rubber bulb. The point is then quickly cleaned of dross
with filter paper and is passed through the wider tube to the
bottom and emptied by pressing the bulb. The point of the
tube must be so fine that the amalgam will come out only on
squeezing the bulb. This process is repeated until the limb
contains the desired quantity of the amalgam. The vessel is
then removed from the water bath. After cooling, the amalgam
must adhere to the glass and must show a clean surface with a
metallic lustre.
For insertion of the mercury, a dropping tube with a long
stem will be found convenient. The paste may be poured in
through a wide tube reaching nearly down to the mercury and
having a funnel-shaped top. If the paste does not move down
freely it may be pushed down with a small glass rod. The paste
and the amalgam are then both covered with the zinc sulphate
crystals before the concentrated zinc sulphate solution is poured
in. This should be added through a small funnel, so as to leave
the neck of the vessel clean and dry.
For convenience and security in handling, the cell may be
mounted in a suitable case so as to be at all times open to
inspection.
In using the cell, sudden variations of temperature should, as
far as possible, be avoided, since the changes in electromotive
force lag behind those of temperature.
Il. GkroLoGy AND MINERALOGY.
1. Change of level in the West Indian Region.—Mr. ©. T.
Stimpson has a paper on the Distribution of the land and fresh-
water Mollusks of the West Indian Region, and the evidence they
afford with regard to past changes of land and sea. He con-
cludes that all the evidence of the terrestrial and fluviatile mol-
luscan fauna of this region indicates that in the early Tertiary
period, perhaps, there was a general land elevation of the Greater
Antilles, and possibly of some of the adjacent area; that Wal-
lace’s theory of a land connection of the greater islands is correct ;
that during some part of this time a landway extended across to
the continent; that the species and groups of this then connected
territory migrated to some extent from one part of it to another,
and that a probable connection existed over the Bahama plateau
to what was at that time no doubt the island of Florida.
Jamaica, by the evidence of its land snails, stands the most
isolated of any of the islands; Cuba is the next most so, while
those of Haiti and Puerto Rico are much more nearly related to
each other than to those of either ofthe first two. About 20 genera
and minor groups are confined to or have their metropolis in
Jamaica; a like number belong to Cuba, 7 to Haiti, and 1 to
Puerto Rico.
It bears directly on this subject, that the strait between Haiti
and Jamaica is deeper than that between any of the other islands,
322 Scientific Intelligence.
being nearly 1,000 fathoms in depth; that the strait between
Cuba and Haiti, is slightly more shallow, being only about 875
fathoms, while the one between the latter islands and Puerto
Rico carries but 260 fathoms. Supposing these islands to have
been united at a former time, then, during a period of gradual
subsidence, Jamaica would be separated sometime before the rest
of the Antillian island would be broken up; then Cuba would be
isolated, while Haiti and Puerto Rico would remain united for a
longer time. The distribution and character of the land-snail
faunas of these islands agree exactly with just what would be the
result of such a subsidence and separation.
2. Glacial phenomena Northwest and West of Hudson Bay.—
Mr. J. B. Tyrreti, of the Canada Geological Survey, concludes,
after an examination of the region on the northwest and west of
Hudson Bay, and especially from the direction of the glacial
scratches, that within a comparatively short distance of the
northern portion of the bay, there was “one of the great gather-
ing grounds for the snow of the Glacial period ;” and that from
the ice-plateau thus made, the movement of the ice was eastward,
into the Hudson Bay depression, northward toward the Arctic
Ocean, and a long distance westward toward the Mackenzie
River. There was also a southward movement ‘‘ toward the great
plains. At this time Hudson Bay was probably to a great
extent open water.”
After the recession of the ice from the lower country, the land
was about 400 feet below its present level. There are terraces at
different heights about the lakes. Those of Aberdeen Lake have
the heights 290, 220, 180, 150, 105, 90 and 60 feet above it.
Similar terraces are found in favorable localities all along the
shores of IIudson Bay.
3. Faults of post-Glacial origin.—In Bulletin XII of the
Natural History Society of New Brunswick (p. 34) Dr. G. F.
MatruHeEw describes small faults observed by him over a consider-
able area in the ledges of slate near St. John. The relations of
the faults to the glacial striz indicates that they are post-Glacial.
Their courses vary; but at St. John the greatest throws and the
most frequent have a northeast to southwest course, and the more
the joints depart from this course the less is the displacement;
rarely any occur at right angles to it. The displacements
observed are mostly between half an inch and ten inches. Dr.
Matthews regards it as probable that the faulting is due to lateral
pressure from the southeast.
4. Pre-Cambrian Radiolarians.—The paper of L. CayEux, on
Radiolarians in the pre-Cambrian rocks of Brittany (Bull. Soc.
Géol. de France, 1894, p. 197) is accompanied by a plate giving
figures of 45 of the forms observed. The figures appear to sus-
tain fully the author’s conclusion as to the Radiolarian character
of the organisms. Ile describes them as having generally a dis-
tinct outer shell, which is pierced by pores. ‘The age of the rocks
is pronounced pre-Cambrian by Barrois. They are quartzites,
Geology and Mineralogy. 323
‘and compact siliceous slates or phthanite. In a section near
Pléboule, the beds are represented by Barrois, as standing nearly
vertical and as conformable with beds of argillyte, granulitic
gneiss, hornblendic schist, and other rocks. Pebbles of the
Radiolarian rock are found in the Cambrian conglomera of Mont-
fort and Erquy and in pre-Cambrian conglomerates at the base
of the “ Phyllades de Saint Lo;” and from this the conclusion is
drawn that the Radiolarian beds are at Jeast pre-Cambrian.
5. Geological Survey of Alabama: 1894, Report on the Geol-
ogy of the Coastal Plain of Alabama by E. A. Smrrs, L. C.
JOHNSON and D. W. Lanepon, Jr., with contributions to its
Paleontology, by T. H. Avpricu and K. M. Cunnineuam, with
illustrations , pp. i-xxiv, 1-759, 1894.—The nucleus of the present
report was published in 1887 as Bulletin No. 43 of the U.S.
Geological Survey, but the present work contains considerable
new matter and a revision of the Bulletin in the light of later
discoveries.
In the Tertiary part, upon the work of Mr. Johnson, the hori-
zon of the “ Grand Gulf” formation has been shown to be of
Miocene age, and a new formation at its top, has been described
and its age determined to be also Miocene, by Dr. Dall.
The “Tuscaloosa ” formation which was described in the Bulle-
tin No. 43, but then only doubtfully referred to some place in the
Cretaceous, and since then referred to the lower Cretaceous,* is
shown by its fossil plants, discovered in 1892 and identified by
Dr. Ward, to be nearly equivalent to the Amboy clays (= Rari-
tan group, Dakota Epoch), the lower member of the Upper Cre-
taceous. The specimens identified are of species described from
the Amboy clays, Dakato group, and Cretaceous of Greenland.
The species of fossils described by Mr. Aldrich are from the
(Midway) Clayton Tertiary, of the lowest beds of the Eocene.
H. 8. W.
6. Paleozoic Corallines.—The first of Paleozoic Algz of the
group of Corallines has been described and figured by R. P.
WhuitFiELp in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural
History, vol. vi, p. 351, 1894. He names the single species thns
far discovered Primicorallina trentonensis.
7. Lehrbuch der Petrographie von Dr. FERDINAND ZIRKEI.
Zweite ginzlich neu verfasste Auflage. Dritter Band. 833 pp.
large 8vo. Leipzig (Wm. Engelmann).—The third volume of
this exhaustive work appeared near the close of the past year.
The earlier volumes have been already noticed in this Journal
and the minute and at the same time comprehensive character of
the whole has been dwelt upon. The opening part of this third
volume discusses the rocks containing a lime-soda feldspar with
nephelite or leucite ; those with nephelite, leucite, or melilite
without feldspar, and those containing no constituent correspond-
ing to feldspar. The crystalline schists are then taken up, also
the crystalline rocks of simple mineralogical character; then
* Dana’s Manual of Geology, 4th edition, 1895, p. 816.
324 Screntific Intelligence.
follows the discussion of the clastic rocks, that is, the conglom-
erates, breccias and tuffs of rocks of different types; then the
sandstones and sedimentary deposits and finally kaolin, clay, marl,
etc. Tbe index for all the three volumes, which closes the work,
contains rock-names only and is so brief as to seriously impair
the usefulness of the whole. The author is to be heartily con-
gratulated in the completion of his work; the many workers in
this department of science will not fail to estimate aright the
value of his arduous labors.
8. Chemical Contributions to the Geology of Canada from the
laboratory of the Survey , by G. Curistian HorrmMann (Annual
Report, vol. vi, 1892-93, Part R).—Mr. Hoffmann’s report con-
tains, besides analyses of fuels, assays of ores and other matters
of economic bearing, also a number of points of mineralogical
interest. Among these we note the identification of the follow-
ing minerals, of several of which analyses are given: léllingite
from Galway, Peterborough County, Quebec, containing nearly 3
per cent of cobalt and 0:8 per cent of nickel; strontianite from
Nepean, Carleton County, Ontario, where it occurs in veins of
some extent; also the same mineral from near the Horsefly river,
Cariboo district, British Columbia; native iron in minute spherules
occurring with the perthite of Cameron, Nipissing, Ontario ;
pyrargyrite from the Dardanelles claim near Bear Lake, West
Kootanie, British Columbia; anglesite from the Wellington mine
in the same region; calamine from the Skyline claim, near Ains-
worth, West Kootanie; altaite from Liddle Creek, West Kootanie;
arsenolite with native arsenic from Watson Creek, British Colum-
bia; cinnabar, perhaps in a large deposit, near the mouth of
Copper Creek, Kamloops Lakes, British Columbia.
9. Meteoritenkunde; von EK. Cowen. Heft 1. Untersuchungs-
methoden und Charakteristik der Gemengtheile, 340 pp. 8vo-
Stuttgart, 1894 (E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagshandlung — E.
Koch).—This volume forms the first part of a comprehensive
work on meteorites, which will be warmly welcomed by all inter-
ested in this subject. Such a work is much needed at the present
time. In recent years, especially during the past two decades, the
literature of the subject has increased remarkably, many investi-
gations after the improved modern methods of research have
been made of recent, as of earlier, falls, and the collation and
digestion of this vast amount of new material have become a
matter of the highest importance. This work obviously involves
great labor and calls for the knowledge and experience which are
possessed in a high degree by the author.
The present part, which is chiefly devoted to a description of
the mineral constituents of meteorites, will be followed by others
discussing the structure, external and internal, of meteorites, their
classification and finally the phenomena of fall and the hypoth-
eses advanced to explain their nature. The work on this minera-
logical side of the subject has been performed with care and
thoroughness and the completion of the whole will be looked for
with interest.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 325
il. Botany.
1. Field, Forest and Garden Botany. By Asa Gray. Re-
vised by L. H. Barrzy. Am. Book Co., N. Y. 1895. By the
publication of the first edition of a popular treatise on our more
common, wild and cultivated plants, Professor Gray met a want
which had long been felt. The work was received with
pleasure and used with profit by a great number of teachers and
pupils throughout the country, and it has ever since held its own.
But for some years it has been apparent that the treatise could
be made more useful by additions and modifications. It was
Professor Gray’s intention to undertake this revision himself, but
a great increase of care connected with the Synoptical Flora of
North America, led him to defer the task, and the wished-for
leisure never came. After the death of Professor Gray the
revision was taken in hand by one of our energetic systematists
and carried by him through a good part of the Polypetale. But
certain reasons led him to the relinquishment of the work, and so
the whole matter remained without change until it was taken up
by Professor L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University.
It is apparent that the revision of a treatise constructed on the
broad lines of the Meld, Forest and Garden Botany, presents
peculiar difficulties. Not only is it very hard to know what to
add and what to leave out, but, at this time, when nomenclature
is undergoing so many changes of one kind and another, it is
almost impossible to preserve consistency throughout.
Professor Bailey has been successful in a high degree in meet-
ing all these difficulties. Although he is inclined personally to
favor one of the new systems of nomenclature, he has preserved
in a remarkable manner the system which was preferred by Pro-
fessor Gray. Moreover, the additions and omissions have been
determined with excellent judgment, and have resulted in keeping
the treatise on nearly the lines laid down by its author. A
careful examination of these changes has convinced the present
writer that the proportions have been well maintained through-
out. Some species, which it would have been a pleasure to see
in the revision, are lacking, and there are some species given
which might perhaps have been well spared, but, as a whole, the
selection is good, and the book is sure to be of great use to the
mass of pupils and amateurs employing it. Professor Bailey is
_to be sincerely congratulated on his work. G. L. G.
2. A Popular Treatise on the Physiology of Plants, for the
use of Gardeners or for Students of Horticulture aud Agriculture,
By Dr. Pau Soraver, Director of the Experimental Station at
the Royal Pomological Institute, in Proskau (Silesia). Trans-
lated by F. E. Weiss, B.Sc. F.L.S., Professor of Botany at the
Owens College, Manchester. London, Longmans, Green & Co.,
1895. Some of our older readers will doubtless remember the
valuable Theory of Horticulture, by Professor Lindley, which
was introduced to American students in an edition revised and
326 Scientific Intelligence.
annotated by Professor Asa Gray. In that work, which was
then well up to date, the practice of the gardener was explained
as far as might be, and a great amount of thoroughly digested
material was placed at the disposal of all interested in culti-
vating plants. In comparing that work with the present, one is
struck by the very slight change in practice which has been
demanded by the vast advance in theoretical knowledge. The
old rules, many of which were very plainly empirical, still hold,
although their ratson @étre, may be put in a different manner
nowadays.
Professor Weiss has given us a clear, idiomatic translation, and
with his work no fault can be found. But the original is of very
uneven quality. In some places, as for instance, the treatment of
manures, the whole might serve as an exercise for correction, but
in others, for example, the subject of shoots and their manage-
ment, all the statements are correct and telling. In the hands of
a teacher, this volume can be made of great use in systematizing
and codrdinating the cardinal facts relative to the vegetative
processes, and in applying them to the practical needs of the
gardener. G. L. G.
IV. MIScELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. Prize- Question pertaining to Physical Science proposed by
the Schnyder von Wartensee Foundation for Arts and Sciences
at Zurich.*—The Schnyder von Wartensee Foundation proposes,
for the year 1897, the following prize-question concerning prob-
lems in the domain of physics.
As the numbers which express the atomic heats of the elements
still show very considerable divergences, the researches conducted
by Professor H. F. Weber on boron, silicon and carbon, regarding
the increase of the specific heat with the temperature, are to be
extended to several other elements prepared as pure as possible
and also to combinations or alloys of them. Further the densi-
ties and the coefficients of thermal dilatation of the substances
investigated are to be ascertained ag carefully as possible.
The conditions are as follows:
(1.) The treatises handed in by competitors for the prize-ques-
tion may be either in German, French or English and must be
sent in by September 30th, 1897, at the latest to the address given
in paragraph 6.
(2.) The examination of the treatises will be entrusted toa
jury composed of the following gentlemen: Professors Pernet,
Zurich, A. Hantzsch, Wurzburg, E. Dorn, Halle-on-the-Saale,
T. Wislicenus, Leipzig; also G. Lunge, Zurich, as member of the
committee proposing the prize-question.
(3.) The prize committee has at its disposition a sum of four
thousand five hundred francs, of which a first prize, of no less
* For an earlier announcement, for the year 1894, see this Journal, vol. xliii, 240.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 327
than three thousand francs will be awarded and minor prizes for
the remaining sum.
(4.) The work to which the first prize is awarded remains the
‘property of the Schnyder von Wartensee Foundation, which has
to arrange with the author regarding its publication.
(5.) Every treatise sent in must bear a motto on the title page
and be accompanied by a sealed envelope, containing the author’s
name and bearing the same motto outside.
(6.) The treatises are to be sent into the following address,
within the time named in paragraph 1. An das Prasidium des
Conventes der. Stadtbibliothek in Zurich (concerning prize-ques-
tion of the Schnyder von Wartensee Foundation, tor the year
1897).
Zurich, 31st December, 1894.
By order of the City Library of Zurich. The Committee for
the Schnyder von Wartensee Foundation.
2. American Association for the Advancement of Science.—
A circular from F. W. Putnam, Permanent Secretary, dated Jan.
30, announces that at a special meeting of the Council, held on
January 26th, it was decided to postpone the proposed meeting in
San Francisco. An invitation from Springfield, Mass., to hold the
meeting of 1895 in that city, was accepted. The date of the
meeting was fixed as follows: Council meeting, Wednesday,
August 28th, at noon; General Sessions, Thursday, August 29th,
at 10 a. M. Spccial efforts will be made by the officers of the sec-
tions to prepare program for the sections in advance of the
meeting and for this purpose members are requested to send
abstracts of their papers, as early as possible, to the Permanent
Secretary, or to the Secretaries of the Sections.
3. International Zoological Congress.—It is announced that
the third meeting of the International Zoological Congress will
be held at Leyden in September, 1895. The first meeting took
place at Paris in 1889, and the second at Moscow in 1892. The
arrangements for the reception and accommodation of the Congress
at Leyden will be made by the Netherlands Zoological Society.
The answers to invitations to be present and to codperate are to
be sent to Dr. P. P. C. Hoek, Secretary of the Society.
4. A Manual of the Study of Documents to establish the indi-
vidual character of handwriting and to detect fraud and forgery
including several new methods of research by PERsIFOR FRAZER.
218 pp. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1894 (J. B. Lippincott Company).—
The subject of this volume does not strictly fall within the range
of pure science, but Dr. Frazer has treated it with great thorough-
ness and it is interesting to note some of the methods of examina-
tion he has employed, as the application of composite photography
to the study of signatures; the use of colored prisms to dis-
tinguish inks of different colors, and others.
5. Smithsonian Geographical Tables prepared by R. 8. Woop-
warRpD. Washington, 1894 (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Contribu-
tions, No. 854).—This volume is the second of the series planned
328 Screntific Intelligence.
by Prof. S. P. Langley to take the place of the earlier Meteoro-
logical Tables of Dr. Arnold Guyot, the fourth and last edition
of which was issued in 1884. The appearance in 1893 of the first
volume of this new series, which is devoted to Meteorological
Tables, was then announced in this Journal (vol. xlvi, 160); the
third volume, still to come, is to include Physical Tables. The
volume now issued contains 105 pages of introductory matter,
giving useful formulas, discussion of mensuration, units, geodesy,
astronomy, etc. Then follow forty-two tables, chiefly geograph-
ical in object, and finally the work closes with the Appendix giv-
ing the relations of units, prepared by the late Mr. G. E. Curtis
for the earlier meteorological volume.
6. Hrench Academy of Sciences.—The French Academy has
recently conferred the Janssen prize upon Professor George H.
Hale of the University of Chicago in recognition of his important
discoveries in astrophysics.
Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. vi, 384 pp. 8vo, with
10 plates, 1894.—This new volume of the American Museum Bulletin contains a
paper by H. F. Osporn and J. L, WortMAn, On the Fossil Mammals of the Lower
Miocene White River beds; twoby J. L. WortMAN, On the Affinities of Leptaretus
primus of Leidy, and On Patriofelis, a Middle Eocene Creodont; several papers by
J. A. ALLEN, On Mammals from New Brunswick, On Mammals of Arunsas Co.,
Texas, On Cranial variations in Neotoma micropus, On Chilonycteris rubiginosus
of W. Mexico, and On fifteen new North American Mammals; two papers by F.
M. CHAPMAN, On Birds of Trinidad, and On Mammals from Florida; three papers
by W. BEUTENMULLER, On some N. A. ANgeriidze, On some N. A. Orthopters, On
N. A. Moths, and a Catalogue of Orthopters found within 50 m. of New York;
and a paper by R. P. WHITFIELD on neweforms of Algze from the Trenton lime-
stone.
OBITUARY.
Dr. GrorcEe A. Rex.—Dr. Rex, of Philadelphia died suddenly
on the fourth of February last. The following paragraphs are
from the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia, of which he was a member.
Dr. Rex was the highest authority on the Myxomycetes in the
United States. It was his enthusiastic study of this group that
first brought him to the Section, and his communications on this
subject formed an interesting part of nearly every meeting. He
was the author of numerous species, which, owing to his extreme
conservatism, will doubtless continue to bear his name. Many
forms, new to him, remained in his collection unnamed for years,
and were only published when he had thoroughly convinced him-
self that they were really new to science.
Although he was interested principally in the Myxomyeetes, he
was an earnest student of the lower orders of Fungi and an ardent
admirer of everything beautiful in microscopic nature.
Recent deaths abroad are the following: Mar@quis DE SaPorTa,
the eminent botanist, at Aix; Professor Hzr1nrica WIxLD, of St.
Petersburg, well known for his researches in magnetism and
optics; Dr. ALFRED W. Sreizner, Professor of Geology at
Freiberg, on February 25th.
# WONDERFUL QUARTZ, CRYSTALS FROM
NORTH CAROLINA,
Mr. English has just visited a new locality in North
Carolina and has obtained a startlingly fine collection of
rare forms of Quartz crystals, including several showing
the BASAL PLANE beyond question. The crystals are
colorless to smoky and amethystine, and frequently ex-
hibit the most beautiful etching we have ever seen.
Good, movable water drops are also present in some of
the erystals, while many of them are modified by the
rarest of planes. Altogether this accession to our stock
is the most interesting we have announced for a long
time. Orders must be sent in immediately to secure an
early pick.
.
— SAMARSKITE.
= _ We have just secured two shipments of choice specimens of this rare mineral,
containing probably more and rarer earths than any other known mineral. Good-
_ sized cabinet pieces 50 ets. to $2.00; small specimens, 10 cts. to 25 cts. Pure
material for blow pipe analysis, $1.00 per lb. Langbanite; Pyroaurite; Lavenite; Catapleeite; Melanocerite; Melanotekite ;
=e Ganomalite ; Inesite; Synadelphite ; very large Cobaltite crystals cheap.
FRENCH CREEK PYRITE.
The French Creek Mines are now closed, probably permanently, and we have,
' therefore, been buying up all the good specimens we could obtain. Several ship-
r: ments haye been received of the curious and interesting distorted cubes, cubes
have been found elsewhere.
See last month’s ad. for many other recent additions. 124 pp. Catalogue,
Iilustrated by 87 cuts, and describing every mineral, 25c. in paper; 50c. in cloth.
44 pp. Illustrated Price List, 4c. Circulars Free.
GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists.
64 East 12th St., New York City.
with rare modifications, etc. Notwithstanding their impending rarity we are sell- —
ing them at lower prices than ever, 10c. to $1.50. No Pyrites of this character
*
,
XXVIUI.—Structure and ae of Thabane: by Gr.
= OQ: N AGN TS) oo fe ee 2
Arr. XXI.—Niagara and the Great. Lakes ; : ce pr Bs,
TAY CORN. 22° 8 ees Bry aioe ee
XXII.—Disturbances in the direction of the Plumb- line i in
the Hawaiian Islands; by E. D. Preston ._-- .--.-_-- :
XXITII.—Glacial Lake St. Lawrence of Professor Warren
Upham; by Bi -Cuatmmrs 2.525 2s se 7 |
XXTV.—Argon, a New Constituent of the Atmosphere by oe
Lorp Rayimich and W. Ramsay _227.. 22225 ae 275
XXV.—Velocity of Electric Waves; by J. TrowsripeE —
and: Wi DUAN Ho '3 Sogn os ee poops
XXVI.—Epochs and Dias of the Glacial Period ; by MG
Una: ee ee ae Sa
EK. BrEcuer. wen Bie TET) 0 Se eee 807
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Inorgavic Preparation of Hydrazine, DupEN, 311.—
Production of Carbon chlorides at ordinary Temperatures, V. MEYER: Atomic
masses of Nickel and C balt, WINKLER, 312.—Atomic Mass of Bismuth,
ScHNEIDER: Use of Dihydroxytartaric acid as a Reagent for Sodium, FENTON, os
313.—Commercial Synthesis of Acetylene, Lewxs, 314.—Theoretical Chemistry _
from the Standpoint of Avogadro’ s rule and Thermodynamics, W. NERNST, 315. |
Double refraction of &
Hilectric waves, K. Mack: National Academy of Sciences on Electrical Meas: .
urement, 316.
Geology and Mineralogy—Change of level in the West Indian Rerioun O. T
STIMPSON, 321.—Glacial phenomena Northwest and West of Hudson Bay, J. B.
TYRRELL: Faults of post-Glacial origin, G. F. Marrazw: Pre-Cambrian Radi- —
olarians, L. CayEUX, 322.—Geological Survey of Alabama for 1894: Paleozoic |
Corallines: Lehrbuch der Petrographie, F. ZiRKEL, 323.—Chemical Contribu- ~
tions to the Geology of Canada from the laboratory of the Survey, G. C. os
MANN: Meteoritenkunde, EH. CoHEN, 324.
Botany-—-Field, Forest and Garden Botany, A. GRAY: Popular Eroatiee. on the 4
Physiology of Plants, P. SoRAUER, 325.- ;
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Prize-Question pertaining to. Physical
Science proposed by the Schnyder von Wartensee Foundation for Arts and
Sciences at Zurich, 326.— American Association for the Advancement of Science:
International Zoological Congress: Manual of the Study of Documents, P.
FRAZER: Smithsonian Geographical Tables, R. 8. WoopWwarp, 327,—French_
Academy of Sciences: Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural ae
328.
Obituary—Dr. G. A. hoe Marquis DE SAPORTA: Profesor H. WiLp Dr a
W. STELZNER, 328.
Chas. D. Walcott, Fo eA es, ret an age tee oo mee
U. S. Geol. Survey. - Be eee he Ff 5 Cae Ra ss
i UE Se eo Mi, Sm Hips fo —P¢
oleh ligg5 Go
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
Epiror: EDWARD S. DANA.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Prorzssors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
_H.P. BOWDITCH anv W. G. FARLOW, or Camprince.
Prorzssors H. A. NEWTON, O. C. MARSH, A. E. VERRILL
anp H. S. WILLIAMS, or New Haven,
Prorrssorn GEORGE F. BARKER, or Puivaperputa.,
THIRD SERIES.
VOL. XLIX—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXLIX.]
No. 293.—MAY, 1895.
WITH TWO PLATES.
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
1895.
TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET.
‘Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub-
a place in Table III and have done so chiefly to give emphasis to
this fact, that in the entire series of elements there tis not a
single case in whieh an element having atoms always colorless
appears in the regular numerical series between a transitional
element and one with atoms always colored. Also that there
is not a single case in which an element with atoms always
colored appears in the numerical series between a transitional
element and one having colorless atoms only.
This will be seen better by examining the diagram embracing
the entire series. This perfect regularity seems to justify.this
new method of classification.
This group contains elements whose atoms function as kathions
only.
Second Division. fons all colored.
In Table III will be found the series of elements with all
colored ions and to these have been added the transitionals,
distinguished by being printed in italics. The transitionals fit
equally well into either of the two great divisions, that of the
colorless and that of the all colored ions, with this difference
that in the first division they fit into the center, in the second
division they act as outliers to the respective series, connecting
the colored with the colorless. This last function is however
better shown by the diagram at the end. Their chemical rela-
tions are with the first division.
The colorless elements when arranged in vertical columns
form groups according to the horizontal lines. Members of
each group though closely connected in properties, differ
widely in atomic weights.
With the elements having all colored ions the case is very
different. They fall into four series, members of which have
their atomic weights immediately following each other in
unbroken succession.
The first of these series consists of the metals chromium 52,
manganese 55, iron 58, cobalt 59, and nickel 59. This is a
very well marked group, the chromates, manganeses and fer-
rates being isomorphous. Also the sesquisulphates of the three
metals replacing each other in the alums.
Chromium and manganese were formerly always placed in
the iron group until the exigencies of the Periodic Law re-
quired the transfer of chromium to the oxygen group and of
manganese to the univalent halogen group, a translocation for
which there seems no sufficient justification.
of Atoms, Lons and Molecules.
ONS O
370 Lea—Color Relat
*“parojoo
SABM]B
SUOT
‘SUBL,
"po.10]00
sABaye
SUOT
ae GOTSIM: | =<. 4 es <2 0000 P= as
SIE Ail OL wy eee vO UY | 96 OW |
6@8T OL\ Stl 1d |67T a) ‘801 by | sOl UY | 76 2A |
*paloloo “‘paloloo
‘SUBLL, sfVMe ‘]BUOIsueL J, SABA
SUuOy SUOT
‘TEUOMISUBL I],
BG i)
"paiojoo
shee
suo]
“SUBI,
“MAPlQ) JDIWAWNAT Ue (SOUIH]L UL) SJUdWAITT JoUOLSUDLT OS] “paLojoa shnayM suoy Yim spuawmanar
‘NOISIAIQ] GNOOMG—']][ AIAV,
Lea—Color Relations of Atoms, Ions and Molecuies. 371
_ The transitional elements titanium and vanadium on the
one side of this series and copper on the other, are the out-
hers.
The second colored series contains the well known group
rhodium, ruthenium and palladium. The third colored group
contains the metals of the rare earths followed by the transi-
tionals tantalum and tungsten. Finally the colored group of
the platinum metals and oold. These and the remaining col-
ored metals will be described in the next section.
One metal, zirconium, has proved rebellious to this classifica-
tion.
The others have taken their places so easily and exactly that
it seems as if there must be something inexact or incomplete
in our data respecting this metal. The most probable supposi-
tion seems to be the following. Zirconium uas but one degree
of oxidation while the very closely allied metal titanium, has
ions that are colored and colorless at different valencies.
Should zirconium prove to have a second degree of oxida-
tion corresponding to colored ions, it would be brought into
complete analogy with its congener and would find a place
open for it in the tables.
In Table II it would take the vacant place immediately fol-
lowing titanium and between that metal and cerium. Asa
transitional metal it would take its place in Table [II immedi-
ately before niobium in the second series. It is hardly neces-
sary to remark that these are exactly the places for which its
properties fit it.
All the Tees contained in Table IIL have ions that fune-
tion as kathions only.
372 Lea—Color Relations of Atoms, Ions and Molecules.
A Pesriopic Law or Conor.
It was necessary first to consider the elements in the great
divisions into which they fall by reason of the color of their
10ns.
It now remains to consider the whole range of elements in
one continued series from hydrogen to uranium.
Commencing with hydrogen (see Plate No. IV*) we have a
double series of 18 elements with colorless ions only. Ap-
proaching one of the great colored groups which may be called
the iron group we find two intermediate elements, titanium and
vanadium which have both colored and colorless ions.
By their colorless ions they are united to the series which
immediately precedes them in the order of numbers and by
their colored ions they are united with the iron group which
immediately follows. This iron group commences with the
element chromium which in the numerical series immediately
follows vanadium, so that after the transitionals titanium and
vanadium each of which has at least one colorless ion, comes
the group consisting of chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt and
nickel; metals which have colored ions only.
Approaching the next colorless series we find interposed the
transitional element copper, a metal having the colorless
cuprous and the blue cupric ions.
From this we pass to a colorless series commencing with
zine and continuing with gallium, germanium, arsenic, selen-
ium bromine, rubidium, strontium and conel uding with yttrium.
The ions of none of these elements show any tendency to
color.
Continuing in numerical order the next colored group will
consist of the metals ruthenium, rhodium and palladium. But
in approaching these we find precisely as in the previous case
two transitionals, molybdenum and niobium.
These are connected with the previous colorless group by
their colorless ions and with the colored group next followin
by their colored ions. ao colored group (tu, Rh, Pd,) has
colored ions only.
Continuing in numerical ondlen we approach the next color-
less group. “But as we pass from the colored to the colorless
we find as before, a transitional, in this case, silver, which is
connected with the previous colored group by its colored ions
corresponding with Ag,O and Ag,O,t and to the following
colorless group by its ion corresponding to Ag,O.
* In the plate the third and fourth colored groups should have been on the
same horizontal line as the first and second.
+The first of these colored ions is seen in the deeply colored hemi-salts of
silver. Another may exist in the peroxide which dissolves in snlphuric acid
with a dark green color.
°
wei cil
Lea—Color Relations of Atoms, Ions and Molecules. 373
From this we pass to the next colorless group of nine ele-
ments commencing with cadmium and ending with lanthanum.
Approaching the next colored group we as before find a tran-
sitional element, in this case but one. At least but one is now
known, but as we have now come to the region of little known
metals of the rare earths it is possible that some one of those
not yet thoroughly known may take its place alongside of
cerium and thus bring this approach into complete symmetry
with all the others.
Cerium connects itself with the colorless group immediately
preceding by having colorless ions and with the colored group
immediately following by its colored ions.
The colored group thus reached, composed of metals having
colored ions only, consists of didymium, samarium and erbium.
Then follow the transitionals tantalum (?) and tungsten.
Next, a series having ions colored at all valencies, namely
osmium, iridium, platinum and gold. With gold the regular
series terminates.
There follows what may be called the most curious part of
the entire range of elements. This is found in the little group
of six at the extreme end. In the principal series the colored
groups are always immediately preceded and introduced by
transitional elements, that is elements having both colorless
and colored ions. The usual number of these transitionals is
two. In the small final group the first two colored elements
act as transitionals to the third. The first of the colored
metals is thallinm, this metal is allied to the alkalies by its
thalhous salts which are colorless ; it is also closely related to
the heavy metals, lead and mereury which are on each side of
it. Even thallic sulphate and nitrate are colorless salts decom-
posed by water. but the thallic haloids form colored crystals
and colored solutions and thus correspond perfectly to colored
ions. Therefore thallium whilst chiefly related to the colorless
elements on each side of it has nevertheless made a well-
marked step towards color by its single pair of colored ions.
The next colored metal, bismuth, has advanced much fur-
ther towards color, for of its four valencies all but one have
colored ions. It still retains its relation however with the
colorless elements on each side of it, lead and thorium, by its
one pair of colorless ions corresponding to bismuth trioxide.
Finally we have the last of all the metals, uranium, with
colored ions at all valencies. Standing alone it occupies as it
were the position of a group to which its transitionals, thallium
and bismuth, lead up, and with it the series of the elements
closes.
374 HH. W. Turner—Gold Ores of California.
Amongst the conclusions to be drawn from the facts that
have been mentioned is this, that the color of the elementary
atoms is to a large extent a function of their atomic weights.
We find that with atomic weights,
From 1to 47 the atoms are always colorless
From 52 to 59 they are always colored
From 65 to 90 they are always colorless
From 103 to 106 they are always colored
From 112 to 139 they are always colorless
From 145 to 169 they are always colored
From 192 to 196 they are always colored.
Elements whose place in the numerical series falls between
these periods, have both colored and colorless atoms.
The six metals that remain are as we have seen, alternately
colored and colorless.
Ostwald remarks in his great Lehrbuch that when the prop-
erties of the elements shall show themselves to be functions of
their atomic weights, we have next to seek in the latter the
cause of the former, and then we shall hardly be able to avoid
the conception of a single primordial form of matter as sug-
gested by Crookes, a form whose varied modes of agglomera-
tion condition the various kinds of matter (Vol. I, p. 138).
Perhaps the facts in this paper described may be found to
make a step towards this great end.
With the aid of the Arrhenius theory it has been possible to
establish the principle that the colors of the atoms are those
which they show in dilute solutions of electrolytes, and that
the colors of elements are comparatively of little importance.
In the second part of this paper there will be given incident-
ally a proot of the correctness of the dissociation theory from
a new direction. In that part will be considered the combina-
tions of atoms and two laws controlling in certain cases the
interaction of ions.
Art. XXIX.—Further Notes on the Gold Ores of California ;
by H. W. Turner.
Some brief notes were published in this Journal on the
gold ores of California in June, 1894, and the following may
be considered as an appendix to that article.
Gold in barite.—During the past summer, the writer exam-
ined some gold veins on Big Bend Mountain in Butte County,
California, and found that one of them was of an unusual
H. W. Turner—Gold Ores of California. 375
character. The vein is known as the Pinkstown ledge. It is
located about a half mile due south of the highest point of Big
Bend Mountain (Bidwell Bar atlas sheet). The ledge strikes
N. 18° W. and dips at a high angle (about 80°). It is from
two to three feet wide where best exposed at the north end,
and is composed of a soft heavy mineral, some of which is
coarsely crystalline, with a granular structure, but most of it
is finer grained with a schistose arrangement of the granules.
No single crystals of the mineral were noted having a greater
maximum diameter than five-eighths of an inch. Some of
them show plainly a characteristic cleavage. Dr. Hillebrand
made a chemical examination of this soft mineral and reported
it to be barite. Three sections of the barite were examined
microscopically, and these show that when fresh there is
scarcely any impurity in the mineral, and in fact no other sub-
stance was noted except scattered minute reddish opaque grains .
which as seen under the microscope are reddish-yellow by
reflected light, without metallic luster. They may be limonite.
Many of the barite grains show distinct cleavages which appear
in the thin sections to intersect at nearly right angles. A
tendency to a radial structure like that of epidote was noted at
several points. The relief of the barite is rather high. A
sample was examined for gold by Dr. Stokes, who reported
that “the barite contains gold but too small in amount to be
determined in the wet way.” ‘There is said, however, to be
enough gold in the deposit to pay to work, and the writer
understood that the owner of the ledge obtained gold from it
by grinding up the ore in a hand mortar, and panning it.
A considerable part of Big Bend Mountain, as exposed along
the road from the bridge over the west branch of the north
fork of the Feather river to the abandoned village of Big
Bend, is made up of clay slates probably Paleozoic in age, with
layers of greenstone schists, representing original augitic tufts.
The rocks along the east and south base of the mountain as
seen along the river (the north fork of the Feather) are almost
entirely greenstones, with one or two layers of sedimentary
mica-schists. These greenstones are largely amphibolitic rocks
representing original surface lavas and tuffs, probably augitiec
porphyrites, but now containing little or no augite. The
exact nature of the schist enclosing the barite vein was not
determined. The south extension of the Pinkstown ledge
owned by Clarke was examined but no barite was found, the
rock on the dump being a white, fine grained schist, with a
greasy feel. This as seen in this section is composed chiefly
of minute, brightly polarizing fibers, perhaps tale, with numer-
ous minute cubes of pyrite, arranged in rows.
376 H. W. Turner—Gold Ores of California.
Gold associated with talc-schists——The magnesian rocks of
the Sierra Nevada consist chiefly of serpentine and tale and
chlorite schists. All of these rocks together with some others
of similar origin are frequently found in the same area, the
different varieties alternating rapidly in a perplexing manner.
There are, however, especially in the area of the Bidwell Bar
atlas sheet (Butte and Plumas counties) very considerable
streaks of tale and chlorite-schists with little or no serpentine.
It has been noted by the writer that while quartz veins are
very common in the tale-schist belts, they are very rare in the
serpentine. Veins containing gold and forming pocket mines
do exist in the serpentine areas, but in the two examples which
the writer has himself seen, there is tale-schist directly asso-
ciated with the vein, forming one or both walls.
One of the veins here referred to occurs on the Downieville
. sheet in Sierra County, on the spur north of Rock Creek and
one and a half miles east of Goodyear’s Bar. Here is a small
quartz vein in serpentine with talc-schist forming one wall.
This vein had evidently been worked for gold, and the writer
was informed that a gold pocket was found in it.
The other mine is in Mariposa County on the Mariposa
Estate, and is in charge of Mr. Ludwig, who kindly showed
me the deposit. There is here a streak of tale-schist in ser-
pentine near the west border of the large belt of that rock
that extends from near Princeton to Mariposa forming the
high ridge just west of the latter town. ‘The exact locality is
one and three-fourths miles a little south of east from Prince-
ton. The deposit consists besides the tale, of white dolomite
looking precisely like that associated with mariposite at the
Josephine Mine near Bear Valley, pyrite, and a black mineral,
the latter occurring in plates with metallic surfaces in the dolo-
mite. This black mineral was determined by Dr. W. F.
Hillebrand to be titanic iron ore (ilmenite). The gold occurs
native in the tale-schist, and the pyrite and ilmenite are also
saved for reduction. ‘The writer’s notes make no mention of
quartz in this vein.
As stated above, the talc, chlorite, and other associated schists
form considerable belts in the area of the Bidwell Bar atlas
sheet, and contain frequent quartz veins, as may well be seen
at Quartz Hill north of Lumpkin. The writer knows of no
case, however, where one of these veins has proved to be large
enough and to contain enough gold to warrant the erection of
a quartz-mill.
The rare occurrence of quartz veins in serpentine, a very
basic magnesian rock, and their comparative abundance in tale
rocks, which are much more acid, would seem to indicate a con-
nection between quartz veins and the rock in which they form.
H. W. Turner—Gold Ores of California. 377
But as both these rocks are altered forms of deep-seated igneous
rocks, it does not follow that the silica of any particular quartz
vein was leached out of the wall rock and re-deposited nearly
in place. These igneous masses may extend to a great depth
and the ascending hot waters and gases may have been in con-
tact with rock like the wall-rock for a long distance and for a
considerable time.
As a matter of fact, quartz-veins are more common in Cali-
fornia in sedimentary rocks which are not presumed te extend
deep into the earth’s crust, than in igneous masses. The cause
of this is more probably a physical than a chemical one, for
fissures form more readily in sedimentary than in massive
igneous rocks. It is extremely likely that the sedimentary
series of the Gold Belt of California is underlain throughout
by granite, and that this rock is the chief source of the silica
of the quartz veins in the clay slates, and other associated rocks.
Serpentine being a rock in which fissures may be supposed
to form with difficulty, it is by no means improbable that there
is a physical as well as a chemical reason for the lack of quartz
veins in that rock.
Mariposite.—The green micaceous mineral called mariposite
by Silliman occurs abundantly at the Josephine Mine near
Bear Valley. Several specimens of this were obtained in 1893,
and submitted to Prof. F. W. Clarke for analysis. Thin sec-
tions of the material were made and these show that the min-
eral is micaceous, nearly colorless or slightly greenish with
brilliant polarizing colors, resembling tale. There appears
to be no perceptible pleochroism. The mineral is in the form
of fibers and minute irregular foils with ragged edges, and
extinguishes nearly or quite parallel to the longer axis of the
fibers. Macroscopically it is not all green, some of it being
nearly white. Two analyses are appended by Dr. Hillebrand,
one of the green, and the other of the white mineral.
Analyses of Mariposite. (438 Sierra Nevada Coli.)
Green. White.
> See ee eee 05°35 56°79
I era 18
MG 25°62 pals
opie aes 18 none.
LEA) it a a 63 :
1 Oe Cara "92 te
rere er eee 07 07
14 Lag I Rea ee 3°25 3°29
“ai; i anes 9:29 8-99
(EiNa),O% 2.2 o-2 pa 2 17
ic A) eee a bien ae | PAD 4°72
100°13 100°84
* Very, strong lithium reaction. + No water given off below 300 C.
t Containing some K,0.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—TsiRD SeRizs, Vout. XLIX, No. 293.—May, 1895.
25
378 HI, W. Turner—Gold Ores of California.
The thin sections show that there is carbonate, probably
chiefly dolomite mixed with the mariposite. This with some
carbonate of iron was extracted with acetic acid followed by
warm dilute HCl, the mariposite substance remaining unat-
tacked. Dr. Hillebrand calls attention to the resemblance of
the mineral in composition to pinite, and states that no definite
formula is deducible. He determined the specific gravity of
the green mineral to be 2°817 at 29°5° C. and that of the
white mineral to be 2°787 at 28°5° C. The occurrence of
chromium in the green variety and not in the white suggest
that to be the cause of the green color. While resembling
tale optically it will be noted that the chemical composition
is very different.
Gold quartz veins in Tertiary Locks. — Precious metal
deposits in rocks of the Tertiary period are not uncommon in
the western United States. As notable examples of this may
be mentioned the Comstock lode in Nevada in part at least in
Tertiary lavas, and the gold and silver veins of the Bodie dis-
trict in hornblende-andesite.* Silver deposits also occur in
rhyolite in Southern California.t But in the Sierra Nevada
gold quartz veins in any but the Paleozoic or Jura-Trias rocks
are rare. The occurrence of quartz with native gold in a
rhyolite dike of Tertiary age in Plumas County has already
been described.{ The gold in the Silver Mountain district in
Alpine County (Markleeville atlas sheet) is in chalcedonie
quartz in Tertiary andesitic tuffs and the deposits of the Moni-
tor district are likewise in Tertiary volcanic rocks. One of the
ore specimens given the writer by Judge Arnot as coming
from the last district is chaleedonic quartz containing gold. In
both these districts the rocks containing the deposits are much
decomposed by solfataric action, and both are on the east slope
of the range in the Great Basin drainage.
About one anda half miles south of La Grange in Stanislaus
County (Sonora atlas sheet) in a flat-topped hill there are
abundant veins of white quartz in clay which appears at first
glance to be the basal portion of the Tertiary clastic series that
caps the hill. Overlying the clay is a sandstone containing
pebbles of white quartz and pearly scales of a hydrous silicate
of alumina, which is very abundant in the Ione sandstone.§
The age of the sandstone is thought to be Miocene. Portions
of the underlying clay are white in color, other portions
stained pinkish in streaks and patches. When first visited,
some years ago, the clay appeared to the writer to represent the
* This was first noted by Mr. W. Lindgren.
+ W. Lindgren, Trans. Am. Inst. Mng. Eng., February, 1887.
t This Journal, vol. xlvii, p. 472.
§ American Geologist, vol. xili, p. 240.
re as
H. W. Turner—Gold Ores of California. 379
lower clay of the lone formation, which is well exposed at
Tone and elsewhere, and as the quartz veins are unquestionably
in the clay it was then thought that the quartz veins were of
Tertiary age. The quartz is the white, compact kind that
oceurs in the majority of the gold quartz veins, and not the
chaleedonic quartz known to exist in veins in Tertiary rocks.
On a second visit to the locality in 1894, good evidence was
found that the clay is but the decomposed bed rock, which is
here a quartz-porphyrite. Pebbles of the. hardened clay were
found in the lower part of the sandstone and along some sharp
contacts of the clay and overlying sandstone it was noted that
the quartz veins stopped short at this contact. No quartz veins
were found with certainty in the sandstone itself. Moreover
some cracks in the clay extending down from its upper sur-
face were filled with the material of the sandstone, showing
that these cracks were in existence when the sandstone was
being deposited and were filled in from above. At the head
of a little gulch on the west side of the hillis a good exposure
of the clay with numerous quartz veins. The latter have a
varying course dipping mostly north at angles from 10°
upward, some veins curving very noticeably in a vertical direc-
tion. In some of this much stained and discolored clay, por-
phyritie quartzes are to be seen, and as lower down in the gulch
there is little altered quartz-porphyrite in place, there seems
little question that the clay is a decomposed form of the same
rock. At other points, notably on the east side of the hill the
white clay shows no evidence of its derivation from the bed
rock, being of even texture throughout and without discolora
tion. Slickensided surfaces were noted in the clay at several
points, along seams that intersect at varying angles.
Tetrahedrite.—TVhis sulphide of copper and antimony has
not often been noted by the writer in the gold ores of the
Sierra Nevada. What appears to be this mineral, however,
occurs very abundantly in the quartz veins of Mono Pass, east
of the Yosemite Valley. The specimens (No. 455 S. N. col-
lection) collected there by the writer from the Golden Crown
ledge were examined by Prof. R. L. Packard, who reported
that the sulphide is tetrahedrite or an allied mineral giving
blowpipe reactions for sulphur, antimony, copper, lead and iron.
The ore is presumed to contain silver and perhaps gold, but
neither of these were determined.
Mr. W. Lindgren informs me that he has detected tetrahe-
drite at the following mines: The Boulder, Hathaway, Golden
Stag, and Pine Tree mines in the Ophir district in Places
County ; the Osborne Hill mine at Grass Valley, Nevada
County; and the Miller & Holmes, Knox & Boyle, and
Whiskey Hill in Tuolumne County, azurite being associated
with the tetrahedrite in the last three mines.
380 Linebarger—Some Felations between Temperature,
Tioga mining district.—This is situated to the northwest of
Mono Pass in the same body of schists that occurs in the pass.
Some specimens obtained here in 1886 by the writer from the
Isbell claim on Lee Vining Creek. These were assayed by
Dr. W. H. Melville with the following results:
No. 876 Sierra Nevada Collection—
a: chiefly made up of zine blende; contains 5 oz. gold
and 7 oz. silver to the ton.
6: largely iron and copper pyrites; contains a trace of
gold, and nearly 16 oz. silver to the ton.
ce: contains a large amount of arsenical pyrite, 51 oz. gold
and 32 oz. silver to the ton.
The above samples probably do not represent an average of
the ore and are merely given to show the association of min-
erals in the vein.
Washington, D. C.
Art. XXX.—On Some Lelations between Temperature,
Pressure, and Latent Heat of Vaporization; by C. E.
LINEBARGER.
THE well-known equation
Ny p dp p
ar Tes) en ar ()
in which p is the pressure; 7, the temperature; p, the latent
heat of vaporization ; v, the volume of the saturated vapor;
and wv’, that of the liquid, may be considered to resume most
of the relations between temperature, pressure, and latent heat
of vaporization; it expresses fundamental relationships between
heat,—and volume-energy, as is at once seen, when it is thrown
into the form:
dT
dp dv= Ap) (2)
an equation of which the left-hand member contains only the
factors of volume-energy, and the right-hand member only
those of heat-energy. but certain relationships between these
factors of energy were found out quite independently of the
fundamental equation ; guided by no theoretical considerations,
their discoverers, by scrutinizing experimental data, saw some
regularities which, when generalized, became laws, although
approximate and containing inexplicable anomalies. Also, the
Pressure, and Latent Heat of Vaporization. 381
differential forms of equations (1) and (2) do not readily permit
of direct comparison with empirical facts; they must first by
suitable hypotheses and integrations be thrown into other forms.
The comparison of the deductions and discovered relationships
with the experimental data generally shows a close correspond-
ence. Sometimes, however, variations and exceptions occur
which cannot be referred to experimental errors.
The object of this paper is to give an account of the efforts
that have been made and the results that have been obtained
in regard to the relations between pressure, temperature, and
latent heat of vaporization ; to subject to a critical revision all
experimental data bearing upon the question ; to discuss the
differences seemingly present between theory and experiment ;
and to apply the results to certain practical problems. The
division of the matter is the following: first, a historical
account of such papers as have dealt with the theoretical side
of the question ; second, a review in tabular form of experi-
mental data together with a discussion of their comparative
value; third, a comparison of the results of theory and experi-
ment; fourth, an application of results to a practical problem.
I.
The first paper in which an endeavor was made to find out
relations between latent heats of vaporization and other energy-
factors is due to Ure;* this pioneer in this field of research
determined the heats of vaporization of a number of common
liquids, and concluded from his results that under the same
pressure the latent heat of vaporization is inversely propor-
tional to the vapor density.
Desprets,t in a paper read before the French Academy
towards the end of the year 1818, but of which merely an
abstract seems ever to have been published, communicated the
results of some determinations of the latent heats of vaporiza-
tion of water, alcohol, ether, and essence of terebinthine.
An inspection of his data led him to state that a liquid at its
point of ebullition requires for volatilization so much the less
heat, the denser its vapor; latent heats of vaporization are
approximately proportional to densities at the boiling points.
Persont after determining the latent heats of vaporization
of ten additional liquids, notwithstanding that his results were
not as accurate as those of Desprets, as he himself admits, and
without giving any data, formulated a law, which is “for the
heat of vaporization what the law of Dulong and Petit is for
the specific heat,” and “even more general, since it applies to
* Phil. Mag. liii, 191, 1819.
+ Ann. Chim. et Phys., xxiv, 323, 1823.
+ Comptes Rend., xvii, 498, 1843.
382 Linebarger—Some Lelations between Temperature,
simple and to compound bodies without distinction.” This
law is: ‘‘The heats of vaporization of different substances
range themselves exactly in the order of their temperatures of
ebullition, when, instead of equal weights, atomic weights are
taken. In a “Note” three years later Person* reverts to his
law, and drawing up atable of latent heats of vaporization
from the data due to Favre and Silbermann shows how well
his previous statements are corroborated by these determina-
tions. The exceptions presented by the acids are explained
away by making allowance for their abnormal vapor densities.
In this paper, he puts his law in a somewhat different form:
“The amount of heat needed to vaporize substances under the
same pressure is identical, when the volume produeed is the
same, and it is smaller or greater according as the volume pro-
duced is smaller or greater.”
Troutont “ on comparing the quantities of heat necessary to
evaporate at constant pressure quantities of different liquids
taken in the ratio of the molecular weights,”—found that the
amount of heat required by any body is approximately pro-
portional to its absolute temperature at the point of ebullition.”
He then propounded the following law:” The molecules of
chemically related bodies, in changing from the gaseous to the
liquid state at the same pressure, disengage quantities of heat,
which may be called the molecular latent heat, directly pro-
portional to the absolute temperature of the point of ebulli-
tion.”
The above laws are purely empirical; they were found
through observation of rows of figures; they have no theoreti-
cal grounding; being subject to exceptions and irregularities,
they can never as deduced rise to the rank of great generaliza-
tions; they have been drawn up by the inspection of experi-
mental data, which is an inversion of the usual order of dis-
covery, experimental data as a rule being a means of corrobora-
tion rather than of deduction of laws of nature.
We now pass to the consideration of the work that has been
done along theoretical lines in the finding out of relations
between heat of vaporization, temperature, and pressure.
The first effort made in this direction is due to Raoul Pictet,
in a paper truly remarkable for its time, although it seems to
have attracted but little attention. Pictet considers a cycle in
which a liquid is evaporated from one chamber, condensed in
another, and finally returned to the first. Admitting the
validity for the case in hand of the laws of Boyle and Gay-
Lussac, he then finds mathematical expressions for the work
done and the heat absorbed. In order to equate these essen-
* Comptes Rend., xxiii, 524, 1846.
+ Phil. Mag., V., xvili, 54, 1884.
— Pressure, and Latent Heat of Vaporization. 383
tially independent expressions he makes two hypotheses: 1,
the cohesion of liquids is the same for all: 2, Carnot’s cycle is
applicable to volatile liquids, and to their changes of volume:
and there exists a relation between heat taken in and work
performed. The expressions finally arrived at show a satisfac-
tory correspondence for the most part with the determinations
of latent heats of vaporization made by Regnault. The con-
clusions which have a bearing upon our subject are: I—The
product of the latent heats of liquids at the same pressure by
their atomic weights, divided by the absolute temperature at
which the vaporization takes place, is the same for all: II—
The difference between the internal heats of vaporization at
any two temperatures, multiplied by the atomic weights, is a
constant number for all liquids.
We will not enter into any discussion of these results, con-
tenting ourselves with remarking that the first conclusion is a
plain enunciation of “ Trouton’s law” mentioned above. If
priority of publication has any moment in the choice of the
name of a discovery, the law in question ought to be called
Pictet’s law since the date of Pictet’s paper is 1876 and that of
Trouton’s 1884.
Equation (1) seems first to have been made use of by van
der Waals* for the establishing of relationships between tem-
perature, pressure, and latent heat of evaporation. If for p,
T, and v, ep, mT, and g(mn)— (p, being the critical pressure,
T,, the critical temperature, 6, the covolume, and ¢, m, ¢(m),
coefficients) be substituted in equation (1), and it be kept in
mind that
Uf
“te =f (m),
(w being the molecular mass), the equation
dev °8:273 pus 1
GT ETC (3)
or
dey aye 'l
Gn: Pa (4)
results. Now when m is the same, that is, at the same reduced
dé
> dm
consequence it follows that
y
temperature, —— must have the same value, and as a necessary
py _
Tai F (m2) (5)
* Continuitat des gasformigen und fliissigen Zustandes, p. 137.
384 Lanebarger—Some Lrelations between Temperature,
where F is a constant number for all bodies. But equation (5)
is nothing else than the mathematical expression for “ Trouton’s
law,” and again the rightfulness of this name may be justly
questioned, for the German translation of van der Waal’s book
appeared three years before Trouton’s paper. Van der Waals
called to mind the similarity of the expression as developed
just above to the law proposed by Desprets (loe. cit.), and drew
up a little table of data to see if experiment corroborated
theory, which in a certain measure he found to be the case.
Bouty* sought to transform the fundamental equation (1) so
as to get the quotient of the molecular heat of vaporization by
the square of the absolute temperature equal to a constant.
His course of reasoning is as follows. If, in the formula
ap
p= Tv) (6)
the specific volume of the liquid be neglected in comparison
with that of the vapor, and if the density of the latter be
normal, it ensues that
Mihi Ditinils
5 hee OU (7)
where D is the absolute specific gravity of hydrogen at the
temperature zero and under the pressure of 760™" of mercury.
By the combination of (6) and (7) the equation
__P, Ti dp
PR= 73D. dT (8)
is obtained; and if T, be the boiling poimt under the pres-
sure D,,
Ae Gp
pph= saep( gr) . (9)
If it be admitted with Dalton that all vapors have the same
tensions at temperatures equidistant from the boiling points of
the liquids which give them off, the expression
(7)
qt),
must be the same for all liquids, and the expression
pu
i (10)
becomes equal to a constant.
Although Bouty is inclined to admit that Dalton’s “law ” is
incorrect, and hence (10) cannot be constant, he gives a table
of “constants” for a number of liquids, of which, as de Heen
* Journ. de Phys., II, iv, 26.
Pressure, and Latent Heat of Vaporization. 385
remarks* “it is needless to say that the variations to be found
in the values of ae are enormous.” If, however, it be assumed
y 0 :
that Ts be constant,+ it at once follows that oa = constant,
which is Trouton’s or better Pictet’s law.
Le Chateliert also has transformed equation (1) into another
directly comparable with the results of experiment. After
putting it in the form
FdT+A(v—v')dp =0, (11)
(o in Le Chatelier’s calculations is always taken to be the
molecular heat of vaporization) by multiplying and divid-
ing the second term by 7, he obtained this expression
a re”
pel + Ap(v oe == 0 (12)
If the volume of the liquid be neglected in comparison with
that of the vapor, and the gas equation
po= RT
be introduced, after division by T, the expression
aT dp
=, +AR— = 0 13
pr . (13)
or Parr +2 log p = 0 (14)
is obtained. If this equation be integrated between the limits
T and T,, it being admitted that the heat of vaporization is
constant, the equation
of dp +f es av (15)
results, and, all caleulations being ih on the assumption that
p is independent of 'T,
* Bulletin de l’Académie royale de Belgique, III, ix, p. 281, 1885.
a
+ The results of Ramsay’s and Young’s experiments show that tT“? is constant
: . l
for considerable differences of pressure. If it be true that i is constant then
£. must be constant also, for
dp Di tae
dT°A” dv’
Ramsay and Young have also experimentally proven the truth of this relation.
See Phil. Mag., V, xx, p. 515, 1885; ibid., xxi, pp. 33 and 135; and ibid., xxii,
p. 33, 1886.
t Recherches expérimentales et théoriques sur les equilibres chimiques, Ann.
des Mines, Mars—Avril, 1888, p. 337.
386 Linebarger—Some Relations between Temperature,
p J 1
2 log — —~—;)=0.
ne +0(a a 0 (16)
This equation contains no constant, but if the terms T, and p,,
which together form a constant, be transferred to the second
member, the equation
p -
2 log p+ir = constant (17)
is obtained, and if the pressure be kept constant.
a= constant, (1 8)
or, if p be taken as the heat of vaporization. of the unit of
mass of liquid,
pp
AQ
It is seen from the foregoing that the constancy of the quo-
tient of the molecular heat of vaporization by the absolute
temperature at which the vaporization takes place has been
arrived at by various scientists in different ways. This in itself
is strong warrant for the truth of the relation. Still there
exist certain discrepancies between the theory and the experi-
mental determinations, which must be accounted for. Before
taking up their consideration, however, it is necessary to pass
in review what experimental work has been done.
JE
In Table I are given the latent heats of vaporization of a
number of liquids, which have been determined by direct
experiment at or near the ordinary atmospheric pressure.
Only such liquids as are chemical units are admitted, solutions
of acids and the like being excluded; also the determinations
made with very volatile liquids, such as ammonia, sulphur
dioxide, ete., are omitted. With these exceptions it is believed
that no omissions of importance have been made.
The first column refers to the ‘‘ References; the second
column (@) gives the name of the liquids; the third (6) °
their formula, and the fourth (c) their molecular masses; in
the fifth (d) and sixth (e) columns are contained the tem-
pee at which vaporization took place and the latent
eats for one gram of the liquid in heat units of which one
warms one gram of water from 0° to 1° C., while the seventh
(7) column shows the quotient obtained by dividing the
molecular heat of vaporization by the absolute temperature.
The eighth column (g) gives the pressure in rounded milli-
meters of mercury; when the pressure has not been indicated
by the investigator, the space has been left vacant; however,
from the nature of the methods, the pressure cannot vary
greatly from normal atmospheric pressure.
= constant. (18 bis)
Pressure, and Latent Heat of Vaporization. 387
TABLE I.
| Molec-. |
M : _Latent| pp |Pres-
Name. Formula. | ular | Temp. | Mes Hea
| Mass. P | Heat. | Taps | Sure
| a b OAK ae). Fe if
iE iBrommei. 2 oka ee Bre PGW oe) 58 | 45°6 |22°04| 52
XIV 9 hy Ess aes SR ts e PeGOMee |) © GeGr| 4 Sree 0G )5) ieee
ee | SELLA ee ae Sx | 329 | 316 | 362°02119°66| 760
MmereiMercury .2. 222... 2% Hg | 200 | 350 62°0 |19°90| 760
if ‘Phosphorus ehloride_-| PCl; ISHS. | SUSE IN Ma AAA AD OTH Toy)
I __|Tin tetrachloride ----- SaGle © | 259°5 |-112°5~-| 30:57/20:49] 753
XVIII |*Sulphur chloride ___- S2Cl. PSO eee Or |) G94 G30
I ‘Carbon bisulphide.... CS. homens 46°20 hese 1 120-64) aoe
mexVITT | OS Boers ee eta AGE oS BRrBe 119-96 |anee
Romy}? BS VAS Swiere se | 76 46°6 | 85-7 |20°37| 759
XVIla |Diethylamine _---__-- C,HiuiN 13 SOs ee Ol .0) | 2050 eaeee
ny eaAmylone -._ Le. o24 7 alban MOS leon i cO: | eed Oltene 2
mE Benzene ....- 2c. O.He (Seas 8030) 08 93:4 120:63|5 160
= VC nee eran “ Seen eC Ost Nt 192-9" 120-50 Pose.
MOG Toltiene.-- 2 Pe. ee | O,He» 82 | 110°8 | 83°6 |20°02) 765
MeN LT Wihylbenzene = 2.12.2. Callas ||) 06-59 °134-7 |) 764 |19°86) Tort
XXVI |Propyi benzene ___--- Cy Hie 120 | 1570 | 171-8 |20°00| 754
XXVI |Metaxylene._---_-.- Pee @ebliag ||) L0G. 7413979) | 78:3 120-09), T66
XXViI |Pseudocumol _--..--: Collie | 120 | 168°0 | 728 119-58) 764
moe eymol. 2 ee eee Croktae | 13455 1150 GOB Sai). 0G
XI |Methylene chloride ___| CH.Cl, | 84% | 41°6 | 75-3 |20-25| ___-
mereverel iChlorotorm _____. __ __ CHCl, 119-1 60°9 See Ores ee
XXVIII Carbon tetrachloride_- CCl, 153°6 | T6°4 AGA 20235) p eee
XXIII = + oe a 153 Gree 164 46°6 |20°49| 758
if Methyl iodide__-_-_--_- LOFT 141°5 | 42:2 46°2 |20°66) 751
XI Ethylidene chloride_._-| C.H4,Cl. 98°7 60 Sel ORS ee
XXIV |Ethyl chloride ___.__- C.H;Cl G44 427-1) 89-3 |19-59] _- _.
mV) |“ - bromide. _ 2 _- Cae Bry |) N09 e ee 38-2 GOrds ils || 22 oe
VIII = Tell jo Se ps a ae 109 38°4 OlRGa 22720) See
I ee vedide fee. oe Clo) je lsomee tls 46:9 (21-6) 142
VIII |Ethylene bromide -...| C.H,Breg | 188 131 ABO 2 0F 38) a2 =
MEE = Amyl: chloride: ...2 C,;H,,Cl | 106°5 | 107 ENGR (Obes As see
ue | Amy bromide ..<2_- Celaabr | bt 129 AS Sr Seal eee
malate = Aimyl aodide +... .2-: C;Hiil NOMS | lao MEGS WAIN hace
I =Methyl formiate_.2--| “C2H,0, | 60- | -32°9 | 117-1 |22°96) 752
Gi es Rs all ts GOH 330), | 1is:2) 22-58) ee
I |\*Ethyl Tite, Pees Gat CsH,.O2 74 Bytes 105°3 |26°86,; 752
Bare ie Ml ts ey [yee 74 | 53-6(?)| 100-4 |22-75| __-
XXVI = hil ee a - 74 | 53:5 92°2 |20 88) 753
POEVE |Propyl) 8) GEHEO, 1/88 81-2 | 85-3 /21.18| 760
XXVI Isobutyl Oo Os yeh ities | A CsHi,02 102 98°0 TOM 2g 759
XXVI |Isoamyl ie ele Gels Osn| ihG 124°0 TL | 20°93" 59
XXVI (Methyl acetate_-_---- | CsH.6O2 74 57°73 | 94:0 [21:04] 757
I “Sains eer pe: Seen A Padget 3 BOO) } IO) 24°86 |e
I |*Ethyl Fe PAN aS age | ©O,H,O. 88 TAGol 92 23 46 eee
MeVE TS © i Cee aie ae e 88 Tico 83°1 |26°88 760
SaVEy * ah one Mee iy rege 88 hore 84:3 |21°43) ___-
XXVI_ Propyl i ea a | O;Hi.02 | 102 102°3 TU3 |21-00) 760
Bea V P isobutyl 6’. oe ok | CeH1202 | 116 116°8 69°9 |20°83) 761
MVE “soamyh oes. 2 8 | C,H 1,0. | 130 142-0 66°4 |20°78) 57
XXVI Methyl propionate....| C,H,O2 88 80:0 84:2 |20°97| 760
XXVI_ Ethyl Bet SEs! Oph Og-" 102-4) Set) er 121-15) 69
588
i\Valeric ‘“
TABLE I——Continued.
Name.
a
Propyl propionate -_--
Isobuty] i, are
Tsoamyl ‘i
Methyl butyrate ---.--.
Kthyl ~
Exod try
Isobutyl ‘
Isoamyl ‘“
Methyl isobutyrate ---
Ethyl ts beaige
Propyl ec eal
Isobutyl ‘ ee |
Isoamyl *
Methyl valerate
Ethyl p
Propyl he
Isobutyl ‘
Isoamyl “
*Hthyl oxalate_-_----
Ethylene oxide___----
Kithylioxadessse= = eee
be 66
e2e=-=22
W ater ee chen yer,
¢6
wee -- k= eee oe -- = =
TOD 1.) panne |
Isopropyl *
Butyl ¥
Isobutyl “
Amyl “f
6c
66 (73
Dimethylethyl carbinal
Cetylealecohnolyeees == — |
Acetone
—---------=-=--)|
Ge 75
INCELICN ane
Butyaie: 35
paler ip oe |
Nitroethaneveae = see
Formula.
b %
CyH202
C,His02
CsHi 602
O5Hi oOo
CoHi202
C,Hi10.2
CsA, 602
Cy Hy, sOo
C5H1002
CeHi202
C;Hi402
OH, 602
C,HisO2
C.Hi202
C,Hi402
CsHi602
CoH1,02
Ci 0H 2002
(C3H,0)x
(C3;Hs0)x
(C4Hi00)x
(C,H 00)x
(C5, 20)x
(a
(C5H120)a
(CisH340)x
(CsH60)a
(CH20s)x
(CoH4O2)x
(04H s02)x
(C5 Hi002)x
C,H3sNO,
C.H;NO.
Molec-
ular
Mass.
Cc
116
130
144
102
116
130
144
158
102
116
130
144
158
116
130
144
158
172
146
4A
"4
44
"4
"4
16
18x
18,
187
325
308
46
46
46
46.
46»
60>
60x
"Ags
Linebarger—Some Lrelations between Temperature,
26°53
26°85
(26°37
26°98
26°25
26°47
26°44
25°79
25°90
22°05
12°78
23 57
18°71
17°72
26°61) -
26-3)
22°36] -
14°88
13:03)
23°09)
[eee
Pressure, and Latent Heat of Vaporization. 389
REFERENCES.
J, Andrews, Th., Quart. Journ. Chem. Soc., London, i, 27, 1849.
II-XI, Berthelot, Comptes Rendus, Ixxviii, 162, 1874; Annales de Chimie et de
Physique, v, vi, 145, 1875. III, Comptes Rendus, lxxxii, 119, 1876. IV, ibid.,
p. 122. V, Annales de Chimie et de Physique, v, xii,529,1877. VI, ibid., p. 535.
VII, ibid., p. 550. VIII, Comptes Rendus, lxxxviii, 52, 1879. IX, ibid., lxxxix,
119, 1879. X, ibid., xc, 1510, 1880. XI, ibid., xciii, 118, 1881.
XIa, Berthelot and Matignon, Bull. Soc. Chim., III, xi, p. 867, 1894,
X-XIV, Berthelot and J. Ogier, Ann. Chim. Phys., V, xxiii, 201, 1881. XI,
Comptes Rendus, xcii, 769, 1881. XII, Ann. Chim. Phys., V, xxx, 382, 1883.
XIII, ibid., p. 400. XIV, ibid., p, 410.
XV, Brix, W., Poggendorff’s Annalen, lv, 341, 1842.
XVI, Dieterici, C , Wiedemann’s Annalen, xxxvii, 494, 1889.
XVII, Favre and Silbermann, Ann. Chim. Phys., III, xxxvii, 461, 1853.
X VIIa, Nadejdine, Exner, Repertorium, p. 446, 1894.
XVIII, Ogier, Comptes Rendus, xx, 922, 1881. XIX, ibid. xcvi, 646, 1883.
XIXa, Longuinine, Comptes Rendus, cxix, 601, 1894.
XX, Person, Comptes Rendus, xxiii, 343, 1846.
XXI, Petit, Ann. Chim. Phys., VI, xviii, 145, 1889.
XXII, Ramsay and Young, Philosophical Transactions, elxxviii, A, 313, 1887.
XXIII, Regnault, Mémoires de Academie, xxvi, 761, 1862. XXIV, Id., Ann.
chim. phys.. IV, xxiv, 375, 1871.
XXYV, Schall, Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xvii, 2199, 1884.
XXVI, Schiff, R., Liebig’s Annalen, cexxxiv, 338, 1886.
XXVII, Winkelmann, A., Wiedemann’s Annalen, ix, 208 and 358, 1880.
XXVIII, Wirtz, K., Wiedemann’s Annalen, x], 438, 1890.
It is not easy to make an estimate of the accuracy of some
of the data recorded in the foregoing table; the determina-
tions have been made by scientists employing different methods
and different preparations, and hence the same degree of exacti-
tude cannot be attributed to the work of each. Two principal
sources of error are encountered in the determinations of latent
heats of vaporization: the method may not be accurate: the
liquid may not be pure. As a rule, in the same investigation
both these sources of error are met with; that is, those investi-
gators who have worked by faulty methods have also not always
taken liquids of requisite purity. Nearly all the earlier deter-
minations are subject to this criticism, as those by Person, Brix,
and, to some extent, especially as regards the purity of the
products, those by Favre and Silbermann. Andrews’ work
which, as far as the method is concerned, is remarkably accu-
rate for the time when it was done, has been performed in
some cases with impure liquids; this is especially true of the
ethers investigated by him. Schiff states how difficult it is to
obtain in a state of great purity the more volatile ethers.
Thus, for ethyl formiate, a liquid very hard to purify, Schiff
found the heat of vaporization to be 92°15 cal., while Andrews
found 105°3 cal. With the exception of the ethers, however,
Andrews’ determinations may be regarded as very precious
data. Of the purity of the liquids used by Berthelot and by
Ogier, it is especially hard to form an opinion, inasmuch as
these scientists have not indicated with but few exceptions
390 Linebarger—Some Relations between Temperature,
their methods of purification. If it be permitted to judge from
a single example taken at random, we cannot admit that their
products were always as pure as necessary; thus, they found
for the latent heat of vaporization of ethyl formiate, which, as
stated just above, Schiff determined to be 92°15 cal., equal to
100°4 cal. The impurity within compounds of the ether
class is for the most part water. Since water requires much
more heat for vaporization than most liquids, its presence,
even in minimal amount, exercises considerable influence upon
the value of a determination. In those cases, therefore, where
water may be present as impurity, the heat of vaporization
will be too high. And, as a matter of fact, the determinations
on the ethers made by Andrews, as well as by Berthelot and by
Ogier, all give values higher than those found by Schiff, who
took the greatest pains to fully rid his preparations of water.
The method employed by them is, however, quite beyond any
but the sharpest criticism, so that their determinations may be
admitted as sufficiently accurate with the exception of the amyl
halogen compounds, amylene, ethyl formiate, and sulphur chlor-
ide. The work of the other investigators may be admitted
without question, especially that due to Schiff, which is a
marvel of accuracy. Such determinations as are not trust-
worthy are marked in the table with a star.
Il.
An inspection of Table i shows that the numbers in column
Jf are quite coustant, with the exception of the alcohols, the
acids, and the nitro-compounds, as well as water and acetone.
Leaving these liquids aside for a moment,—their seemingly
irregular behavior will be explained away later on—we will
consider the various family of compounds of which Table I is
made up. ‘Taking all the reliable determinations into con-
sideration, we find that the average value of the “ constant” is
for about seventy liquids equal to 20°70, the greatest value
being 22°04 for bromine (Andrews I).* For the elements and
inorganic compounds, the “constant” is equal to 20-47 with
22°04 and 19°66 as extreme values; for the hydrocarbons, to
20:19, 20:63 and 19°58 being the extreme values; for the halogen
compounds, to 20°63, with extreme values equal to 21°16 and
19:59; for the esters, to 20°87, the extremes being 21°43 and
20°36. With the exception of the esters, the determinations
have been made by different men in different ways, so that a
great degree of “constancy” is hardly to be expected; yet the
* The determination by Berthelot and Ogier (xiv), however, gives 20°95 as the
value of the ‘‘ constant,” so that it is perhaps better to reject Andrews’ determi-
nation. If that be done the greatest value is 21°54 for methylal (Berthelot) and
the smallest value being 19°58 for pseudocumene (Schiff).
Pressure, and Latent Heat of Vaporization. 391
“constant” is remarkably constant. Schiff’s work was most
carefully done by the same method and hence his results are at
once reliable and comparable in an eminent degree; and, as a
matter of fact, the extreme values of the constant calculated
from his data differ from the average value by hardly three
per cent.
Such a regularity as the above implies that the liquids at
their boiling points are in corresponding states (the term “ cor-
responding states ” being used in the sense given it by van der
Waals (loc. cit.) As far as the pressure is concerned, it may
be stated that atmospheric pressure can be reckoned as “ corre-
sponding” in questions of this sort. That boiling points for
certain properties of liquids are “ corresponding temperatures ”
in a not inconsiderable measure has been shown by C. M.
Guldberg* who in comparing the quotient of the absolute
boiling points by the absolute critical temperature found it to
remain close to an average value of about 3, and concluded
that quantities which vary slowly with the temperature (among
which latent heats of vaporization are to be counted) may be
reckoned as being approximately in corresponding states at
their points of ebullition. This conclusion follows directly
from equation (4) which indicates that the relation
qa
T = T (19)
must obtain (% being an unknown function). Guldberg then
states that through comparison of various liquids the equation
p(s) = 14 (20)
is found by means of graphic interpolation, and accordingly at
the boiling points the relation
Pie
T =i (21)
obtains with a certain approximation. Inasmuch as
shies
rm == 439
it follows that
pu _
sp esl. (22)
Guldberg thus obtains about the same “ constant ” as has been
shown in the foregoing to be the average of reliable determi-
nations. , : |
As stated above, the values of oe given in the table differ
* Zeitschr. fiir phys. Chemie, v, p. 374, 1890.
392 Linebarger—Some Relations between Temperature,
considerably from the normal average value in the case of the
acids, nitro-methane and nitro-ethane, the alcohols, acetone and
water. Tor the acids and nitro-compounds they are too small;
for the alcohols, water, and acetone, they are too large. The
cause of this abnormal behavior is to be found in the “ associa-
tion” of the molecules of these liquids, and in the changes
which the molecular aggregations undergo during the process
of vaporization. We will consider the case of the alcohols,
water, and acetone first.
The brilliant experiments of Ramsay and his associates on
the surface tensions of liquids, and his theoretical deductions
have taught us that the liquids in question are made up of
molecules in a state of association. No facts are known, how-
ever, which indicate that an appreciable amount of molecular
association is persistent in the vaporous state; on the contrary,
the normality of the vapor density, and other properties of the
vapors, show that they consist exclusively, it may be said, of
simple molecules. Accordingly, when the alcohols, etc., are
evaporated, there occurs a decomposition of the complex mole-
cules into simple ones. ‘This requires the expenditure of a
certain amount of energy, which is manifest as heat energy.
The heat necessary to convert a molecularly polymerized liquid
into its normal vapor consist then of two terms,* the heat
expended in actually turning the liquid into a gas, and the heat
used up in decomposing the molecular aggregations or “ tag-
pu
T
greater for associated than for normal liquids ; hence the value
of the “constant” becomes greater, and, indeed, so much the
greater, the more complex the liquid molecule. It seems at
present impossible to make a reliable correction for the heat
employed in decomposing the complex molecules.
In the ease of the acids, the state of affairs is somewhat dif-
ferent. It has long been known that the organic acids, as
formic, and acetic acid, have abnormal vapor densities due to
the association of the molecules in the vaporous state; as the
temperature rises, the degree of association becomes less and
less until the normal molecule is reached. At the boiling
points under ordinary atmospheric pressure, the vapor density
of formic acid may by extrapolation from the data due to
Petersen and Ekstrandt be put at 2°5 at 100°; this multiplied
by 28°87 gives a molecular mass of 72; and this value of yu
up
Tabs
* See Guye’s paper: Sur la polymirisation moléculaire des liquides: Archives
des Sciences physiques et naturelles, III, xxxi, 160, 1894.
+ Ber. der deutschen chem. Gesell., xiii, 1194.
= const. is
mas.” The value of o, then, in the expression
when introduced into the relation = const., gives for the
Pressure, and Latent Heat of Vaporization. 393
“constant,” 79°89. Likewise from extrapolation of Cahours*
determinations of the vapor density of acetic acid, its vapor
density at 118° may be set at 3-3, which by multiplication by
28°87 gives as molecular mass 95; and this in turn shows the
value of the “constant” to be 20-34. Now we have every
reason to believe that the gaseous associated molecule does not
dissociate on passing into the liquid state; on the contrary,
there can scarcely be any doubt but that it increases more or
less in complexity. Accordingly, the molecular masses calcu-
lated for the gaseous molecules may be set as very near those
of the liquid molecules of the two acids in question, and,
indeed, the experiments of Schallt indicate that for acetic acid,
at least, such is the state of affairs. The values of the “ con-
stant”? found for these corrected molecular masses are seen to
be practically identical with that found for normal liquids, and
the exception presented by the acids is seen to be but seeming.
For butyric and valerie acids, however, the “ constants ” can-
not be corrected as for the two preceding acids, since they are
found to be too large even when calculated on the assumption
that their molecular masses are normal. If their determina-
tions of latent heat of volatilization are sufficiently accurate—
which is somewhat doubtful—it is probable that the complex
liquid molecules in their case undergo decomposition on pass-
ing into the vaporous state, similar to the alcohols, etc. In
the absence of experiments on their vapor densities it is not
possible to judge what is the true state of the case.
Nitromethane and nitroethane also give values of the con-
stant less than the normal. Ramsay and Shieldst have meas-
ured the superficial tension of nitroethane, finding it such as
to legitimatize the assumption that the molecules of this liquid
are in a state of association; by analogy it may be admitted
that nitromethane is also an associated liquid, although no
experimental data are at hand. If what has been said in
explanation of the seeming abnormality in the behavior of the
acids as regards the “ constant” be in accordance with fact, it
is necessary to suppose that the two nitro-compounds also pass
from the liquid into the gaseous condition without the com-
plex molecule suffering much dissociation.
The immediately preceding considerations indicate a method
of getting an approximation of the degree of association of a
liquid. If any liquid, whose latent heat of volatilization be
known, gives a value for the “constant” close to 20°7, it is
pretty certain that it is normal. ‘If it gives a less value, it is
associated in the liquid as well as in the gaseous state; if it
* Comp. Rend., xix, 771. |
+ Ber. der deutschen chem. Gesell., xvii, 2199, 1884.
¢ Zeitschr. fir phys. Chem., xii, 433, 1893.
Am. Jour. Sci.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XLIX, No 293.—May, 1895.
394 Linebarger—Some Relations between Temperature,
gives a greater value, it must be associated in the liquid state
alone. The greater the variation from the normal value of
the “ constant,” the greater the amount of the association.
Thus far, we have considered the application of the formula
= = const. only to determinations made under the pressure
Qos
of about one atmosphere. But how will it be at other pres-
sures and hence other temperatures? All of the deductions of
the formula have been made on the assumption that the pres-
sure was that of one atmosphere, with the exception of the one
developed by Le Chatelier, which contains a term referring to
pressure (Equation 17). This equation, however, was derived
on the supposition that the latent heat of vaporization is inde-
pendent of temperature and pressure; such an assumption,
however, does not accord with the experimental results
obtained by Regvault, Ramsay and Young, Jahn, and others.
The heat of vaporization of a liquid decreases with rise of
temperature and concomitant increase of pressure until at the
critical point it becomes equal to zero. Yet for all tempera-
tures and concurrent pressures below the critical, the relation
(17) obtains, and the lower the temperature, the larger the
“constant.” The number of reliable data at hand for the com-
parison of the theory with experiment at other pressures than
the atmospheric is relatively small. Most of them have been
made at the freezing point of water under the pressure of the
saturated vapor at that temperature. In Table II are given
such data as are reliable, and only for normal liquids. In the
first column is given a reference number to the investigator’s
names and places of publication,—directly below the table.
Columns a, 6, c, and d give the name, formula, molecular mass,
and the latent heat of vaporization, respectively of the liquids
in question. The sixth (¢) column contains the value of the
expression ie and the seventh (f/) the value of twice the
aos
natural logarithm of the pressure. (The pressure in the case
of such liquids as have had their vapor tension determined is
generally set as equal to that of the saturated vapor at 0°; for
the others, the pressure has been put at 60™™ of mercury, as
Jahn, in his experiments, reduced the pressure to this point
before allowing evaporation to take place, and the others exam-
ined by him have not been investigated thoroughly as regards
their vapor tensions. ‘The pressure is reduced to absolute
measure by multiplication by 13-6.) The last column gives the
value of Le Chatelier’s relation (17), obtained by adding the
values found in columns e and f for each liquid.
Pressure, and Latent Heat of Vaporization. 395
TABLE II.
|
Molec
Ref. | Latent; HP
No. Name. | Formula. aa Heat, ieee 2 log p
| a b Oph as Gi laa f (|\fande
Meeenvene. 2202s. 2 Ue C.eHe CS DOR eSers 98 40°55
Eby Reka SS. See bs 78 VO9-0 >) 93-14) | 99:87 4094
ia hileroterm ©)... L..) CHCl; 119°4 67-0 | 29°20 |=k2:85 | 42705
II Carbon tetrachloride -- CCl. 156 | 52-0 | 29°25 | 1221 | 41:46
IL Carbon disulphide ---- CS. 76 90°0 | 25°00 | 14:92 | 39°92
EP |. SS zt te th 76 | 89:5 | 25°09 |- 14°92 | 40°07
Itt |Mthyl ether_..._.-.--- (C2Hs5)20 74 93°5 | 25°21 | 15°67 | 40°87
a eg ee eye on ha s 74 94°0 | 25:49 | 15°67 | 41°16
I ‘Ethyl Tormiate.—. 4. . = CoHisO> 74 113°25; 30°69 9°8 40°49
I |Propyl formiate_...-- C,H sO. 88 105°37| 33°96 9°8 43°76
I |Methyl acetate... .__- C3H,O2 714 113°86] 30°86 9°8 40°09
I Ethyl acetate ....___- C4H,02 88 102°14} 32°92 9:8 A422
I, Jahn, Zeitschr. f. phys. Chem., xi, 790, 1893.
II, Regnault, Memoires de 1’Académie, xxvi, 761, 1862.
III, Winkelmann, Wiedemann’s Annalen, ix, 208 and 358, 1880.
Table II shows that, while it is impossible to speak of a
constancy for the values contained in the sixth column, through
the introduction of the pressure correction in equation (17) a
value is found equal in mean to about 40°5; it is remarkable
that such a constancy is to be found in the values, since no
great amount of accuracy can be attributed to the determina-
tions of the latent heat or of the pressure. If the pressure
correction be applied to the determinations of the latent heats
of vaporization carried out under or nearly under atmospheric
pressure, the “constant” is found to become equal to 39-18,
since 2 log 760 equals 18°48; this value, as is to be expected,
is very near to that found for the liquids under the circum-
stances given in table II; undoubtedly, approximately the
same value for the expression would be found under other
pressures and concurrent temperatures, although the data at
hand are too meager to make it worth while to perform the
necessary calculations. As a conclusion to all that precedes
and as a prediction of all future experimental work on latent
heats of vaporization, it may be stated that the relation deduced
by Le Chatelier may be put equal to about 40-00, thus
2 log Pri = 40:00 (17 bis)
LV:
In accurate determinations of temperatures of ebullition, it
is often necessary to make a correction for the variation of the
pressure from the normal pressure of 760™™ of mercury. In
396 Linebarger—Some frelations between Temperature, ete.
ease the latent heat of vaporization of the liquid under exam-
ination is known, this correction is easily made by the applica-
tion of equation (1), which gives in terms of latent heat, tem-
perature, and volume, the change of the boiling point with the
concomitant variation of pressure. But the latent heats of
volatilization are known for only a comparatively small number
of liquids. In this case, the “law” treated of in the fore-
going sections is specially applicable. We know from what
precedes that near atmospheric pressure
= const., (A)
Tabs
The “constant” varying slightly for different classes of
liquids from an average value of 20°7, at least, for normal
liquids, Jf we set for the ‘“ constant,” the letter C, neglect
the volume of the liquid in comparison with that of the vapor
—which will introduce no appreciable error,—and substitute for
T its equal rat equation (1) becomes transformed into
aT vp
eae (B)
If now, from the gas equation
2T
v= — (C)
ie
we take the value of we (vo = V =a gram-molecule of satu-
rated vapor), and set it in equation (B), we obtain the equality
Oo aI
p pe
and if » be the normal pressure of 760", we get finally
aT 2m T
dp — 760 G ~ 3800 Ge
or
‘a0
dT = Sani dp. (Ff)
By putting for C, that value of the constant found for the
class of liquids to which the liquid under examination belongs
(see page 359), and for T, the absolute temperature of ebullition,
we may obtain with a very considerable degree of accuracy the
desired correction, with the restriction, however, that the
variation of pressure is but slight, that is, not over 50 milli-
meters of mercury.
Chicago, January 22d, 1895.
Pratt—Double Halides of Cesium, Rubidium, etc. 397
Art. XXXI.—On the Double Halides of Cesium, Rubidium,
Sodium and Lithium with Thallium ; by J. H. Prarr.
In previous investigations upon the double halides of triva-
lent thallium with the alkali metals, the salts of only potassium
and ammonium seem to have been carefully studied. The
only cesium and rubidium salts that have been made are
Cs, TIC1,.2H,O and Rb,TICI,.2H,O described by Godfrey,*
but in the present investigation the compounds of this type
were found to have one instead of two molecules of water of
erystallization.
The present research has been carried out very carefully and
systematically in order to obtain as complete a series of double
salts in each case as possible. The salts that have been made
belong to four types, corresponding to those previously made
with potassium and ammonium, and are as follows,
yee | 2:1 aa 2 Lee]
Cs,TICI,. H,O Oa HCl: Coen CG Tienes
Oru On et So
_.... 1 eas Cs,Tl,Br, CsTIBr,
oo 22 ico sl ES eee CsTII,
eee oc oRG MOr HO) (ee
=, 2" Ee TED dialer cl Le selene ae RbTIBr,. H,O
a eR) ree ROTI! EO
For comparison, a list of the previously described double salts
with potassium and ammonium is also given.
ae |b 29 oe ie
K,TIC),.2H,O ~—‘K,TICI,.3H,O K,TI,CI,.13H,O KTIBr,
(NH,).TICI,.2H,0 K,TI,Br,.14H,O KTII,.H,O
(NH,).TICI, (NH,)TIBr,. 5H,O
(NH,)TIBr, . 2H,O
(NH,)TIBr,
(NH,)TU,
Several points of interest, already noticed in connection
with double salts prepared in this laboratory, are well illus-
trated by the series of new compounds to be described. With
cesium, a more complete series.of salts was prepared than
with the other alkali metals; and there is also an increase in
ease of formation and in number of salts, from the iodides to
the chlorides. The salts, formed from the alkali metal with
* Landenberg’s Handwéorterbuch.
398 J. H. Pratt—Double Halides of Cesium,
the lower atomic weight are generally more soluble in water,
form in larger crystals and with more water of crystallization
than those with higher atomic weight.
Preparation.—The double salts were prepared in each case
by mixing solutions of the thallic halide with the alkali halide
in widely varying proportions, evaporating and cooling to erys-
tallization. With the bromides and iodides the conditions for
obtaining the double salts were improved by the presence of a
little free bromine and iodine.
The crystals, soon after forming, were removed from the
solutions, quickly pressed between filter papers to remove
the mother-liquor, and, with the exception of the sodium and
lithium salts, allowed to stand exposed to the air for some time.
The latter on account of their instability, were placed in
tightly stoppered weighing-tubes as soon as they were free
from the mother-lquor.
Method of analysis.—In determining thallium, the salt was
' dissolved in warm water and a slight excess of ammonium
sulphide added to precipitate the thallium as thallous sulphide.
This was filtered and washed with water containing a little
ammonium sulphide. The precipitate was then dissolved in
hot dilute nitric acid, the solution evaporated with sulphuric
acid in a platinum crucible, and then heated to constant weight
within a porcelain crucible over a small flame. The filtrate
from the thallous sulphide precipitation, was evaporated with
sulphuric acid, the ammonium salts driven off, and the residual
alkali sulphate ignited in a stream of air containing ammonia.
The halogens were determined as silver salts in separate por-
tions, with the precaution of adding sulphurous acid in the
case of the iodides to prevent loss of iodine in dissolving, and
it was found to be necessary in all cases to use a large excess
of nitric acid in order to obtain the silver halide in a pure con-
dition. Water was determined by igniting in a combustion
tube, behind a layer of dry sodium carbonate, in a stream of
dry air and collecting it in a weighed calcium chloride tube.
3:1 Cesium and Rubidium Thallic Chlorides, Cs,TtCt, .
H,O and Rb,TiCl,. H,0.—The cesium salt is obtained, as a
white precipitate, when 0°25 g. of thallic chloride is added to
a solution of 50 g. of cesium chloride. The precipitate dis-
solves somewhat slowly upon heating the solution and erystal-
lizes out on cooling. The range of conditions is very narrow
as 8g. of thallic chloride to 50 g. of cesium chloride give the
salt, Cs, TIC], The salt is soluble in hot water, but Cs,T!,Cl,
crystallizes from the solution.
The rubidium salt has a much wider range of formation. It
is obtained when 1°5 to 25 g. of thallic chloride are added to a
solution of 40 g. of rubidium chloride. It is very soluble in
Rubidium, Sodium and Lithium with Thallium. 399
cold water but gives another salt, Rb,T1Cl,.H,O upon erystal-
lization. Both salts are white as are all the chlorides with one
exception. Two separate crops of each were analyzed with the
following results :
iB; Calculated for
A. I, le Css3TICl,H,0.
Ceestnm! ...-... 48°44 48°05 48°33 - 47-84.
lgalium: .. =. .- 942} 94°45 24°37 94°46
ehiorine ___.__- 95°37 DAR IYS, 25.54
Mmvater 2... Le 2°74 1:97 2°16
Calculated for
A. B. RbsT1C1,H.O.
PeMOTOURIMN . oe Se 36°54 37:09
hiehom, 5). 22.2252 29°02 ZOOS 29°50
Whtorine:! .- (ji 2.5.39: 30°99 oa 36°81
Dieebel 5-74 21. 1 aa) oil ee 2°60
The cesium salt was obtained in hair-like crystals, too small
for measurement. Therubidium salt crystallized in thin plates
having a rhombic outline. Under the microscope these showed
an extinction parallel to the diagonals and in convergent light
a bisectrix at one side of the field, with the plane of the optic
axes at right angles to the longer diagonal, indicating mono-
clinic symmetry.
2:1 Cesium and Rubidium Thallic Chlorides, Cs,T1Cl,,
Cs,T1Cl,. H,O and Lb, T1C1,. H,0.—The anhydrous cesium
salt is formed when 5 to 8 g. of thallic chloride are added to a
somewhat concentrated solution of 100 e&. of cesium chloride,
and the hydrous salt, when 8 to 15 g. of thallic chloride are
added to a more dilute solution of 100 g. of cesium chloride.
The rubidium salt was observed when 1°25 to 18 g. of rubidium
chloride were added to a rather concentrated solution of 380 g.
of thallic chloride. The two hydrous salts are white and the
anhydrous compound is pale green. The cesium salts are
readily soluble in hot water but the salt Cs,T],Cl, crystallizes
from the solution. The rubidium salt recrystallizes unchanged
from water. The following analyses were made upon separate
crops.
Vey, Calculated for
A. ie II. Cs, TICl;.
Bee Tih ta oe 40°46 40°17 41°07
{Wiel | Le | 31°82 31°62 3) Uta
iorine® <.< 42. QiT9 27°30 27°20 Deal
Water - s u8 81 81
The small amount of water found in the above analyses, equiva-
lent to about one-fourth of a molecule, was probably held
mechanically by the crystals.
400 J. H. Pratt—Double Halides of Cesium,
A. Calculated for
I. Ot; B. C. CseTICl; . H.0.
Cesium._-. 40°08 39°84 40°30 39°85 39°97
Thallium___ 30°75 30°71 olell 30°98 30°65
Chlorine .._ 26°85 26°56 26°93 26°67
Wiaterm 22 2°88 Domi yl
Calculated for
A. 13} Rb. TICI; . H20.
Rubidium’. ae 29°09 28°97 29°97
AMhalliimi eee eee 30°94 30°74 35°76
Chlorine) 2222 =e 30°97 By ea ki
Water... 302. eee 3°34 3°16
The crystals of Cs,TICl, were in needles too small for meas-
urement.
1p | 2.
d
The crystallization of
Cs, TIC],. H,O and Rb,-
TIC], . H,O is orthorhom-
bic. The salts are similar
in habit and are devel-
oped as in figs. 1 and 2.
The forms observed are
as follows:
a, 100
m. 110
d, 011
é, 102
a Ls
The crystals of the czesium salt were only about -4 to -6™™ in
length, but the faces were smooth and gave good reflections on
the goniometer. The axial ratio is,
G:6:é = 0°6762:1: 0°6954.
y)
Measured. Calculated.
dad, 011A 011 oO)?
mam, 110,110 HRS Dy
mA a, 110A 100 Bu BBO" 3A cae
mad, 110A 011 Ty Tew EL TG (bye
UL IRA WIN OY ae (O)! 43 16
OR GO, NOB ~ 102 54 6 54 32
Crystals of the rubidium salt were obtained from about 1°5
to 4™™ in length.. The axial ratio is,
a@:6:¢= 0°6792 :1:0°7002.
Measured. Calculated.
ee, OM AO! *69° 36’
MAM, 110A 110 OS males °
LON by TOYA TOO Bal EN aH oS GS = LS al!
aA €, 100A 102 62° 524! 62 49
IO Oy VO AOU file 26 (20 Glee 3n (an ail
@ 7x6, Oli M02 43° 19' 43 44
én €, 102,102 5415 5A 22
Rubidium, Sodium and Lithium with Thallium. 401
3:2 Cesium Thallic Chloride, Cs,T1,Cl,—The conditions
under which this salt can be made are very wide, °5 to 29 g. of
ezsium chloride form a heavy white precipitate when added to
a solution of 40 g. of thallic chloride. This dissolves readily
‘in the solution upon heating and crystallizes in slender hex-
agonal prisms terminated by the pyramid. When the ratio of
the cxsinm chloride to the thallic chloride is 30 g. to 50 g. a
salt is obtained which crystallizes in hexagonal plates. Analy-
ses of the plates do not agree very closely with theory, but it
is evident that they are the same as the prismstic salt with
another crystalline habit. The high percentage of czesium and
the corresponding low percentage of thallium is probably due
to the slight inclusions held by the crystals, which could be
seen with the microscope. This salt is white, permanent in
the air and recrystallizes unchanged from water. The analyses
given below are of separate crops made under very different
conditions.
Ceesium. Thallium. Chlorine. Water.
ee 34°93 "65
Does es 35°09 35°64-35°51 28°09-27°99
iin eee 28°06 "95
or 35°63
Dee 30°03 35°69 28°06
F (Plates).._ 36°64 33°85 28°15
G (Plates) - - - 36°18 34°46 28°18 “61
Calculated for 95-49 36°22 98°36
CTC.
The water found in these analyses was probably held mechan-
ically by the crystals.
The prismatic variety of this salt showed only the forms of
the prism, 1010, and pyramid, 1011.
Axis c = 0°82566 00011011 = 43° 37’ 50”
Measured. Calculated.
Dp ADs 1011A 0111 *40° 21’
map, 1\010A 1011 46 214; AG? 29" 46° 29’
Sections parallel to the basal plane show in convergent
polarized light the normal uniaxial interference figure, with
weak negative double refraction. The erystals served very
well as 60° prisms for the determination of the indices of
refraction with the following results:
Red, Li. Yellow, Na. Green, TI.
= 1°772 1°784 1°792
— 1°762 1774 1:786
3:1 Rubidium Thallic Bromide, Rb,TiBr,.H,O—This
salt was formed, when 1°5 to 24 ¢. of thallic bromide were
402 J. H. Pratt—Double Halides of Cesium,
added to a very concentrated solution of 50g. of rubidium
bromide. It crystallizes in beautiful golden yellow crystals,
which are very soluble in water, giving the 1:1 salt on recrys-
tallizing. Careful efforts were made to obtain a 2:1 and 3:2
rubidium thallic bromide, but without success. Several sepa-
rate products, made under very different conditions, were an-
alyzed with the results which follow :
Rubidium. Thallium. Bromine. Water.
Ds Cicer 1" 28°57 49°29 2°49
BIS gee ee 20°39 49°66
CON oe ans oes 28°18 20°59
Dee ee S08 20°16 49°42
ad se ecbedeeteeet HG 20°33 50°28
PMR SEAR SES | gaia 20°64
Gin Sick... 6256 PALA yi 50°49
Calculated for ) .,. :
Rb,TIBr, H,0 26°76 21°28 50°08 1°88
The somewhat high percentage of rubidium and the low
percentage of thallium found in the first four analyses is prob-
ably due to the large excess of rubidium bro-
mide in the concentrated solutions from which
the crystals were obtained. As more thallic
bromide was added, better crystals were obtained
in more dilute solutions, which give percentages
agreeing very well with the calculated.
The crystallization of this salt is tetragonal.
Doubly terminated crystals were obtained up to
a length of 6™.
The forms observed are:
a, 100 m, 110 p, Vid
c,+ 001 ێ, 101
The habit is shown in fig. 3.
Axis ¢= 0°80728; 001A 101 = 88° 54! 45”
Measured. Calculated.
éaeé, 101A 101 earls aioe
Gre, LOOAWOl 51° 675 a1 2 aol ios eo) wees
Qa Ap, \OOntl 57 525 5 ot ois omer
np, Lote 32°15 2382 elo 82 8
elnp, OOM 48 51; 48 55 48 46
MAP, 107 AL PARA AN 41 13
The erystals show a weak negative double refraction.
8:2 Cesium Thallic Bromide, Cs,Tl,Br,.—This salt was
observed, as yellowish red crystals, when 1 to 15 g. of thallie
bromide were added to a solution of 50 g. of cesium bromide.
It was always obtained in small striated crystals, which were
Rubidium, Sodium and Lithium with Thallium. 408
not adapted for measurement. It is permanent in the air and
recrystallizes unchanged from water. Analyses of separate
products gave the following results,
Calculated for
A. B. C. 1D). Cs3Tl.Bro.
Ceesium ___- 26°52 26°14 26°13
Mhalhum —.. 27°36 OT A 27°28 96°72
Bromine ___ 47°24 47-14 47°08 OY 47-15
1:1 Cesium and Rubidium Thallic Bromides, CsTIBr,
and RbTiBr,. H,O.—These two salts are of nearly the same
eolor, pale yellow. The rubidium compound which retains its
luster and color much better than the other, recrystallizes
unchanged from water, while the cesium salt vives Cs Ui bre
when its solution is evaporated to crystallization. The cesium
salt was observed when 2 to 10 g. of cesium bromide were
added to 40 g. thallic bromide, and the rubidium salt when 3 to
24 2. of rubidium bromide were added to 40 g. thallic bromide.
Analyses of several different crops gave the following results:
Caleulated for
(AR Be C. Ds CsTIBr..
Grcsumm .... 19714 20°44 20°25
Thallium___ 32°36 ahet9 32°04 31°05
Bromine _.. 47°76 48°39 48°88 48°70
Calculated for
A. 1B} C. RbT1Br,. H.0.
Eubidium...2 13°77 Pecan 13°91 13°63
bam. . 22) 32718 32ok
Sromine.....<.. 50:06 50°30 50°99
Witter... ... 3°80 Dee
The crystallization of these two salts is ee. the cube
being the only form observed.
1: 1 Cesium and Rubidium TLhallic Lodides, CsT1L, and
RbTU,.2H,0.—Both of these salts were prepar ed from solu-
tions containing a large excess of thallic iodide and also from
solutions containing a large excess of the alkali iodide, so that
no other type of double iodides with these two metals could be
obtained. As the thallic iodide was very difficultly soluble in
water, alcoholic solutions were used where the thallic iodide
was in excess. The salts are ruby red, with a brilliant luster,
which is slowly lost inthe air. Both are decomposed by water.
The analytical results obtained from several different crops are
given below.
Calculated for
A. B. C. CsTlI,.
Cesium __._. 16°57 16°38 15°74
Thallium ____ 24°09 24°04 DA Ve
fodime. is: 6 59:48 59°67 60°12
404 J. H. Pratti—Double Halides of Cesium, ete.
Calculated for
A. Be RbTII,.2H.O
Rubiciimess seer = 10°34 9°78 10°26
‘Thallium: se eae 24°98 25°23 24°47
lodine: =. 4-2 ee 0sas 00:32 60°79 60°94
Water 2222): sa suaee 4°50 4°39
These salts crystallize in the isometric system, the habit being
usually the cube truncated by the octahedron.
3:1 Sodium and LInthium Thallic Chlorides, Na,T1Cl, .
12H,O and I1,71Cl,.8H,O.—Only one type of double salts
could be obtained with these metals and it does not seem pos-
sible that others exist, for the ground was covered very care-
fully and systematically. On account of the extreme solu-
bility of these salts, especially that of the lithium compound,
the solutions had to be kept very concentrated, in a more or
less syrupy condition, which accounts for the high alkali metal
and low thallium found. These salts are transparent and color-
less when first taken from the mother-liquor, but, upon expo-
sure to the air, the sodium salt becomes opaque and the lithium
compound deliquesces. Analyses of different products gave
the following results :
Calculated for
JA. 1By NasTICl, . 12H.O0.
SWOCUUNIN Soe 4 eens ihe if tobe 10°48 9°83
alanis: See ee DUS) 28°39 29:06
Ghlorime> 2] Sean hg be Sale 31 OA 30°45 30°34
Wea er th book ween aueaenen 29°75 30h
Calculated for
A. B. C. D. LisTICl,. 8H.O.
Ligh oe earl 3°79 3/33 3°78 Sol
Thallium __. 34°51 35°06
Chlorine .__ 36°09 36°01 36°40 36°31 36°59
Winter =a OAs 24°74
On account of the instability of the sodium and lithium
salts no crystallographic determinations were made.
Repeated attempts to prepare lithium and sodium thallic
bromides were entirely without success, hence no attempt was
made to prepare the iodides.
The author wishes to express his indebtedness to Prof. H. L.
Wells for valuable advice in connection with the chemical part
of this work, and to Prof. 8. L. Penfield for suggestions con-
cerning the crystallography.
Sheffield Scientifie School, December, 1894.
* By difference.
E. A. Hill—Argon, Prout’s Hypothesis, ete. 405
Art. XX XII.— Argon, Prout’s Hypothesis, and the Periodic
Law ; by Epwin A. Hitt.
Ir Argon be an element, its properties indicate that its place
in the periodic classification is between F and Na, with an
atomic weight of 20. Its non-metallic acidic electro- negative
character, and low melting and boiling points, link “it to
Series 2 “ending with F rather than Series 3 beginning with
Na; just as Fe is more closely allied to Mn than Cu. Its
resemblance to the members of transitional Group VIII, into
which it would therefore fall, is shown in many ways. All
the members of this group have high specific gravities, small
atomic volumes, very weak chemical affinities, are inert, and
with basic or acidic properties very weakly developed if at all.
Argon is as truly transitional from Na to F as Group VIII in
general is transitional between the two halves of Mendeléef’s
long periods, and belonging in a short period, is cut off from
the other long period members of Group VIII by the same
differences in “boiling points, melting points, atomic volumes,
specific gravities, and other properties, which separate the
Series F, O, N, from Mn, Cr, V. To assign it an atomic
weight of 40, thus usur ping ‘the ‘place of calcium, and placing
it among elements to which it bears no analogies whatever,
would violate all the principles of the periodic law as now
understood; and the great mass of accumulated evidence, upon
which that generalization rests, requires us to accept any rea-
sonable explanation of the supposed inconsistency, between the
specific heat ratio of 1°66 and the diatomicity of the molecule,
rather than the conclusion that it is monatomic.
That is to say the burden of proof is on those who oppose
the conclusions drawn from the periodic law.
The argument for monatomicity, briefly stated, is this: The
Argon molecule, if diatomic, being eccentric, would by molec-
ular contacts acquire rotational energy, which it does not pos-
sess, as proved by the specific heat ratio; hence its molecule
must be monatomic, and its atomic weight 40. The whole
argument is based on the assumption that a molecular encoun-
ter involves an actual contact of atoms, or is of the nature of a
collision between two elastic balls. This, however, is not a
necessary assumption, nor was it Maxwell’s view.* As pointed
* “T have concluded (he says) from some experiments of my own that the col-
lision between two hard spherical balls is not an accurate representation of what
takes place, . . . a better representation of such an encounter will be obtained
by supposing the molecules to act on one another in a more gradual manner, so
that the action between them goes on for a finite’ time during which the centers
of the molecules first approach each other and then separate.” And again: ‘‘We
have evidence that the molecules of gases attract each other at certain small dis
tances, but when they are brought still nearer they repel each other.”
406 EL. A. Hill—Argon, Prout’s
out by Thomson, Maxwell, and others, we need only postulate
particles in motion, and a mutual action between them, tending ©
to reverse that motion when they approach within certain
small distances of each other, in order to arrive at all the
ordinary conclusions of the kinetic theory of gases; which in its
simplest form does not depend on any assumptions whatever
as to the exact nature of the process by which the motion is
reversed. It is only when Boyle’s law no longer holds, that is
when because of reduced volume the molecules are within the
sphere of their mutual actions for an appreciable time, that the
theory has to deal with the nature of the encounter, as in the
case of viscosity, and for those conditions where we make use
of Van der Waals’ equation instead of the more simple form,
PV=kT. But this ratio of the two specific heats in Argon,
was determined under ordinary conditions of pressure and
temperature, for which the gas obeys Boyle’s law, hence in ex-
plaining this ratio we can without going counter to the ordi-
nary kinetic theory of gases, make any assumptions we please as
to the nature of the encounter and the constitution of the
molecule, not at varianee with known facts and the fundamen-
tal postulate of moving particles and reversed motion at small
distances. Whenever we reach problems in any way condi-
tioned by the nature of the encounter, the ordinary kinetic
theory fails. Evidently the nature of the encounter is by it
not properly taken into account. Maxwell, in order to test the
theory as to viscosity found that, assuming the molecules to be
hard elastic balls only acting on each other when in actual con-
tact, viscosity should be proportional to the square root of
absolute temperature, but assuming them to be systems repell-
ing each other with a force varying inversely as the 5th power
of distance, it should be proportional to the absolute tempera-
ture. As shown, however, by Barus and others, viscosity varies
more rapidly than required by the first hypothesis, and more
slowly than required by the second. Hence the encounter is
not a mere collision involving an actual contact. Sutherland,
says Thomson, concludes that the molecules act without contact
by a repulsive force varying inversely with the fourth power
of distance, and Pickering in his theory of solutions, represents
chemical attraction to be due to charges on the surfaces of the
attracting matter, but inalienable from the matter, owing to a
repulsive force between the atoms similar to that which pro-
duces elasticity, preventing the atoms ever coming close enough
together to allow of the charges combining by actual contacts.
Now if we suppose the atom endowed with such a force of
repulsion, varying inversely say as the fourth power of distance
(following Sutherland) and combine this with the force of
gravitation, then as the atom is approached the repulsive force
Hypothesis, and the Periodic Law. 407
will first become equal to, and then greatly exceed the attrac-
tive foree. Now conceive the atom, as enveloped by an
imaginary spherical surface or shell, whose radius is the half
distance at which these forces become equal, two such atoms
would evidently act upon each other like perfectly elastic spheres
of that radius; that is, they would strongly repel each other
when separated by. less than their imaginary diameter, and
yet the atoms themselves if they have magnitude and are not
mere Boscovitch points may be small as compared to their
imaginary diameters, and so the approach of two such atoms
might be checked and reversed without any actual contact
between them.
Now the force which binds atom to atom within the mole-
cule must do so in opposition to this force of repulsion, and if
resembling (it is probably closely connected with) electrical
attraction it would vary as the inverse square of distance, and
two similar atoms drawn together by it to form a molecule
would approach each other, until this force plus gravitation
became equal to the force of repulsion. The stronger this
attractive force the less the distance between the atoms of a
diatomic molecule compared to the distance nearer than which
two such molecules could not approach, which latter distance,
as between two diatomic molecules, will be that at which the
various attractions and repulsions are equally balanced (disre-
garding kinetic energy of translation which will tend to reduce
this distance). Now when the force drawing the atoms
together is large compared to that of gravity, the distance
between the atoms within the molecule will be small compared
with their least distance of approach, and the greater the dif-
ference between these quantities the less the action of atom
upon atom, which is the action tending to produce internal
rotations, and the closer will the action between two molecules
during an encounter approximate to that of two repulsive
forces concentrated at their respective centers of gravity.
Here we can apply the principle made use of in astronomy
to simplify the problem of the three bodies in the case of per-
turbations, viz: That when the distance between two systems
of bodies is large compared to the distance between their com-
ponents, each system practically affects the other as if all its
matter were concentrated at its own center of gravity. LEvi-
dently the nearer the approach to this condition (i. e. the
stronger the force which aggregates the atoms within the mole-
cule against the force of repulsion) the less the tendency to
produce internal rotation.*
* The assumption here made is that the force of aggregation differs from gravi-
tation and other forces, in what chemists refer to when they speak of an affinity
being saturated or satisfied, thereby recalling the mutual saturation of the two
408 Lf. A. Hill—Argon, Prout’s
Says Professor Fitzgerald (discussing Lord Rayleigh’s paper):
“That the atoms in Argon may be very closely connected
seems likely from its very great chemical inertness. Hence
the conclusion from the ratio of its specific heats may be not
that it is monatomic but that its atoms are so bound together
in its molecule that it behaves as a whole as if it were mon-
atomic.”
And again (Dr. Armstrong): “ It is quite likely that the two
atoms exist so firmly locked in each other’s embrace . . . that
they are perfectly content to roll on together without taking
up any energy that is put into the molecule.”
A rigid mathematical analysis would unduly lengthen this
paper but the principles involved are obvious. Some prelimi-
nary calculations which I have made show that if G=the
force of gravitation, R = the force of repulsion, and d = any
distance from the atom then
Ford= a 4
4
sane yy) 4 8
G-R = —4032 1
0 —12 0 0°188 0°058 0°0154
Showing how rapidly the repulsive force would increase at less
than the imaginary atomic diameter (@=1). At close dis-
tances theory requires that the repulsive should greatly exceed
the attractive force, in order to produce rebound after impact,
but at distances eveater than the molecular diameter the attrac-
tive should be the greater force. This repulsive force evi-
dently corresponds to that resisting compression in liquids and
solids, and which at small distances from the surface is nil, but
at the surface quickly becomes enormous in amount. Says
Maxwell “It seems probable from the great resistance of
liquids to compression that the molecules are at about the
same distance from each other as that at which two molecules
of the same substance in the gaseous form act on each other
during an encounter.”
A. molecule composed of atoms of this kind, having no real
surfaces in contact with those of other molecules during the
encounter (friction eliminated) would act in a way tending to
avoid internal rotation where solid elliptical or eccentric atoms
would when in contact give rise to it. Thus A’ A’, B* B® being
the atoms of molecules A and B during an approach, the dis-
tance A’ B* between one pair of atoms would usually be less
than between the other pair. When this distance was reduced
to d, their approach would be very quickly checked, the distance
A? B* almost as quickly reduced to d, the same value, and their
electrical fluids, Thus when two atoms are aggregated into a molecule by this
force, itis thereby cancelled or saturated within the molecule, its energy becomes
potential so to speak, and the force unlike gravitation, ceases to act on bodies
without the molecule.
Hypothesis, and the Periodic Law. 409
motion likewise checked, and the four repulsions would as to
their tendency to produce rotation, be more or less balanced,
with the tendency nil or very small in the case of one molecule,
while in the case of the other, the tendency would depend
partly on the circumstances of the encounter, but could not
exceed a certain maximum value, depending on the ratio of the
distance between the component atoms to d, the imaginary
molecular diameter or least distance of approach. The greater
this ratio the less the tendency for internal rotation. Now
in a gaseous system as we would have all possible variations in
the circumstances of the individual encounters, so also would
we have all possible values of the internal rotations from the
maximum value thus imposed, down to zero; but the average
value of this rotation would be constant, and bear a fixed rela-
tion to the maximum value, and it would be this fixed average
value which would determine the ratio of the translatory to the
rotatory energy, so that a near approach of the ratio of the two
specific heats to the value 1:66 would merely indicate that the
distance between the atoms in the molecule was so small com-
pared to their least distance of approach, that their mutual
action on each other was the same as if all of their matter was
concentrated close to their respective centers of gravity.
Now have we not here the explanation of that hitherto unex-
plained fact the varying values of this ratio which we find
in diatomic gases? Thus the molecular gram of O°’, N’, H’,
NO and CO has about 1°92 cals. of internal energy while that
of Cl’ and Br* has about 3°84 cals or twice as much. Ostwald’s
values are
Efe and, N* = -1°82 CO) = 186 INO y= 1°95 OF 71596
Cl’ and Br’ = 3°84*
In Halogen Group VII strong chemical affinity for other ele-
ments would imply corresponding weakness in the force aggre-
gating the atoms in the molecule, hence a greater distance
between those atoms compared with their molecular diameter,
therefore large atomic volume which we find to be the case,
the volumes of the Group (VII) being comparable in size only
with those of Group I where the same conditions apply with
equal force; and Ostwald has said “The two conceptions of
chemical affinity, stability on the one hand and activity on the
other have been confused . . . Thus it is the chemically inac-
tive bodies that are held together by the most powerful affinity,
compounds which react with: ease and rapidity can only hold
their components loosely bound if at all.”
* Ostwald gives a lower value for Br, but Regnault’s specific heat determination
leads to practically the same value (3.84) as for Cl.
Am. Jour. Sci.—TaHirp Series, Vou. XLIX, No. 293.—May, 1895.
27
410 E A. Mill—Argon, Prout’s
If the views outlined are correct then the following rela-
tions ought to hold at least in Mendeléefi’s short periods.*
Groups I and Groups III, IV,
Properties, etc. Var Vile
Atomic volume 2.42) seeeeeee 2s large small
Tendency toward internal energy of
Fotation’! ts. ee eee EE eh ce ae
Tendency to combine directly with other
elements oi mame ee oe é Se
Heat absorbed in separating atom from
atom (dissociation) .....-.-------- small large
Heat of formation in solution -__.___-- Ks ce
Distance between the atoms in the mole-
Gullepii 2.5 sl Beene ot Liter large small
Force of attraction for the atoms of
other moleculess-ese ees. hee ee e me
Distance between the atoms of different
TMOLCCUIES he eee meee ie cee small large
Force of attraction between atoms in the
Same moleculcwemee meee ek ee ke =
How far does this scheme of properties conform to nature ?
In the two short periods Li— F and Na—Cl the atomic volume
(distance between the atoms) decreases from alkali Group I to
Carbon Group IV, and then increases from Nitrogen Group V
to Group VII the Halogens. We are ignorant of the amount
of internal energy of rotation in Groups I, II, III and IV but
we have in Groups V, N’=1°82, in VI, O?=1:96, and in VII,
Cl’'=38:84. These values show the constant increase which the
theory requires.
That the tendency for direct combination with other ele-
ments isa maximum in Group I decreases to Group IV and
then increases again to Group VII is too well known to require
illustration.
* Just as this article is going to press I note the following remarks made by
Mendeléeff, March 14th, before the Russian Chemical Society:
‘‘In favor of this supposition (monatomicity) we have the specific heat ratio at
constant volumes and pressures, K, found by Rayleigh and Ramsay, to be near
to 1°66, i.e. to the value which is considered as characteristic for monatomic gases.
It must however be borne in mind that K varies for compound molecules, even
when these last contain the same number of atoms; thus for most bivalent gases
(nitrogen, oxygen, etc.) K is near to 1°4, while for chlorine it is 1:3. This last
figure makes one think that K depends not only upon the number of atoms in the
molecule, but also upon chemical energy, that is upon the stock of internal
motion which determines the chemical activity of a body and the quantity of
which must be relatively great with chlorine. If, with the chemically active
chlorine, K is notably less than 1°4, we may admit that for the inactive argon it
is much more than 1°4, even though the molecule of argon may contain two or
more atoms.”
Mendeléeff seems to lean toward the view that Argon is N* though prefers an
atomic weight of 20 to one of 40 if it be a new element.
Hypothesis, and the Periodic Law. 411
The data on dissociation are meagre. Iodinein Group VII as
is known is easily melted and dissociated by heat, and probably
also the alkali metals of Group I, while such bodies as © and Si
of Group IV are but little affected, so that so far as known
theory is again complied with ; but more satisfactory conclusions
can be drawn from the heats of formation in solution, for on
the very probable theory, that in aqueous solutions of binary
salts the elements are almost entirely dissociated, we can com-
pare these thermal reactions of members of Series 3.
Na’ GroupI 2(Na, Cl, Aq) = 193020
Me’ Group II 2(Mg, cr , Aq) = 373860
AF Group III 2(Al, Cl’, Aq) = 475650
Sr—P*
S’ Group VI 2(Na’, 8, Aq) = 208000 rs a
Pe Group Vil 2(NaOl Ag) =, 193020 Di — + 14980
As the chlorides of Groups IV and V decompose instead
of dissolve in water the series is broken. Now in the reaction
2(Na, Cl, Aq) we have the dissociation of Na* and Cl’ and in
2(Me, Cl’, Aq) the dissociation of Mg’ and Cl* that is to say the
difference is the difference between the heat of dissociation of
Na’ and Mg” plus the dissociation heat of Cl’. This term CI’
is a constant addition to the first two series differences. We
are evidently justified in concluding that in Groups I and VIT
the heat of dissociation is small but large in Groups III and IV.
We may however consider this series of heats of formation
Group I 2(Na, Cl) = 195380, Group IV 2(Si, Cl’) = 315280,
Group II 2(Mg, Cl’) = 302020,. Group V 2(P, Cl’) = 209980.
Group LI 2(Al, Cl*) = 321060,
Here as before the result is masked by a constant addition
depending on the constant increment Cl’, but still the maxi-
mum values plainly are attained in families III and IV and
the minimum in family I as the theory requires. ‘“Sub-
stances,” says Muir, “which are formed with the disappearance
of heat are generally more readily decomposed by the applica-
tion of outside forces than substances which are formed with
the production of heat;” and Mendeléeff has noted the fact
that elements of large atomic volume combine easily with
others, and explains it by assuming a comparatively large dis-
tance between the single atoms in the molecule.
Our theory requires that the force holding the atoms together
be large compared with both gravitation and the (elastic) force
of repulsion. And there is evidence that this is so. For
instance, at 18° Centigrade 2 grams of H and 16 grams of O,
combined by the electric spark into 18 grams of water, give off
68360 calories of heat or more than 6 times the quantity neces-
sary to raise the water thus produced from 18° to 100° and
Dits— —18084e
Dit, => —1OK790
412 E. A. Hill—Argon, Prout’s
vaporize it. Now the heat of combination is closely related to
the difference between the forces binding H* to O and H to H
and O to O, and if the heat of combination is large, the differ-
ence between these forces must be large, as also the forces
themselves, compared with both gravitation and the force of
elasticity or repulsion, for the Jatter will be of about the same
order (at the least distance of molecular approach) as kinetic
energy of translation. The fact that the energy of the motion
of translation of the O and H molecules before combination is,
as shown by Thomson, only about 7,th part of their total store,
the great bulk of which must be potential, shows how great
must be the forces binding the atoms together (upon whose
differences the magnitude of the heat of formation depends), not
only compared to gravitation but also to all other forces acting
within the molecule.* The modern theory of electrolysis and
salt solution postulates enormous electrical charges on the dis-
sociated ions, which fully accords with the view herein expressed
that the force of atomic aggregation is large compared to other
forces. The intimate connection existing between valency,
electrical character, chemical affinity and the electrons or
charges on the ions has long been noted. The magnitude of
these charges appears to be of the same order as the potential
energy of chemical affinity, and as indicated by Ostwald, when
valency is understood, so also will probably be all these other
and closely related subjects.
Nature, in the edition of Feb. 7th, makes an apparently
strong point for monatomicity when it states “that no diatomic
gas has a specific heat ratio greater than about 1°42, and to
place among them a substance for which the ratio is 1°66 would
be entirely opposed to all other indications of a theory, which
though admittedly only approximate, nevertheless in all other
eases accords fairly well with the conceptions of the chemist.”
It is notwithstanding a reasonable view, that when internal,
vibrations are small (disregarding the higher order of vibra-
tions which produce the lines in the spectrum) the tendency to
split up ito free ions will also be small. Chemical inertness
goes naturally with the minimum of internal energy and atomic
volume; and with practically no internal energy in Argon we
ought to find it, just as we do, chemically very inert, so there
are two horns to the dilemma. True if diatomic, Argon is the
only diatomic gas known having so high a ratio for the two
specific heats, but on the other hand if monatomic then its
* Mendeléeff remarks that 1 gram of H cooled to the absolute zero of tempera-
ture would evolve about 1000 units of heat and 8 grams of O half this amount,
while in combining together they evolve more than thirty times that quantity,
and hence the store of chemical energy must be much greater than the physical
store proper to the molecule.
Hypothesis, and the Periodic Law. 413
molecules are free ions, and what other instance have we of a
chemically inert free ion? Which of the two horns shall we
choose? The nascent state is par excellence the state of maxi-
mum tendency towards chemical combination, and finds its best
explanation in the idea that the free and unincumbered ion is
exceptionally prone to combination with the first partner it
finds, but what have we about Argon, if monatomic, which
in the slightest degree reminds us of the nascent state? Is
not its great inertness just what we would not expect a free
ion to possess? Which is the more unique, a diatomic gas
without rotational energy or a free ion devoid of chemical
affinity ¢
On the whole, therefore, it seems a fair conclusion as to
Groups III, IV and VIII that the force binding the atoms
together in the molecule is great, therefore their atomic volume
is small, likewise the distance between the atoms in the mole-
cule, their tendency to combine directly with other elements,
and their tendency as diatomic gases to acquire internal rota-
tion; hence the large quantities of heat required for their dis-
sociation, and evolved when they are dissociated by solution
in water or combine with other elements.
The theory on which these conclusions rest (which conelu-
sions accord with the facts found) accords also with fact in that
the resultant force causing the elements to combine in the free
state to form a binary compound is not identical with that
holding the atoms together after combination, which thing has
proved a stumbling block to more than one theory of affinity,
for certain forces may come into play to facilitate or restrain
combination, as for instance the force required to dissociate the
two component atoms, which are no longer factors in the prob-
lem after combination has occurred. The stability of the ele-
mentary molecule, the tendency to combine with other elements,
and the stability of the compound, will in each case depend not
on single forces, but will be determined by the magnitude of the
resultant of many forces, changing in various ways and with
varying conditions just as we find actually occurs in nature, as
for instance in cases of reversed chemical action and many
others which will occur to the mind at once.
We may then briefly sum up the matter as follows: The
Periodic law places Argon if an element between F and Na
with an atomic weight of 20; which law has been confirmed
by such a mass of evidence that any reasonable hypothesis
should be adopted rather than a theory inconsistent therewith.
While Argon may yet prove to be an allotropic form of nitro-
gen, yet the specific heat ratio of 1:66 is apparently even less con-
sistent with a triatomic than a diatomic molecule, so that in
either case it is in order to show that such a ratio does not
414 Lf). A. Hill—Argon, Prout’s
necessarily involve monatomicity.* The weak point in the
assumption that it does, lies in the view taken that the molecular
encounter involves actual contacts, which is not a necessary
assumption in the kinetic theory of gases. That such contacts
do not occur is shown by Maxwell’s computations coupled with
the experiments on viscosity. Moreover, Maxwell did not
believe in this theory of the encounter, and both Sutherland .
and Pickering assume the existence of a repulsive force. The
greater the force of aggregation, and the smaller the distance
between the atoms compared to the imaginary molecular
diameter or least distance of approach, the less the tendency
for internal rotation as shown by the application of the astro-
nomical methods used in the problem of the three bodies. In
Groups I and VII we have the maximum of atomic volume,
internal rotation, and chemical activity, combined with small
heats of dissociation both in solution and otherwise, indicating
a weak force of aggregation within the molecule. In Groups
Ill, IV and VIII we have these properties reversed, small
volume, little if any internal rotation, chemical inertness, and
large heats of dissociation indicating a strong force of aggrega-
tion within the molecule; and the fact that the translatory
energy of the H and O molecules before combination is only
4,th of their total store of energy, which is not rotational and
* The evidence grows stronger that Argon may be Nitrogen with the molecular
formula N?, the theoretical density of which (21), would closely agree with
that (19:9) found for Argon. There would then be more or less analogy between
Oxygen O=O, Ozone Mane Nitrogen N=N, and Argon Gans Thomson
and Threlfall in 1886, observing a contraction in volume when the electric spark
was passed through pure nitrogen, concluded that an allotrepic form resulted;
but Threlfall’s later repetition of the experiment led to negative results. John-
son, from observations on the action of a hot tube upon Nitrogen. also concluded
that the gas can exist in two forms; one active, the other inactive. It has been
recently remarked that as in Ozone, O%, the characteristic properties (chemical
activity) of Oxygen O° are enhanced; so in Argon, if it be N®, the characteristic
property of Nitrogen N? (its chemical inactivity) should also be enchanced; hence
its very inert character. The boiling points seem to contradict this view.
Oxygen—18§2°2°, Ozone—106'0°, Nitrogen—194:0°, Argon—187°0°. The two
latter are almost the same, the two former widely separated; but Brauner
(Chem. News, Feb. 15, 1895) has endeavored to explain this apparent incon-
sistency.
Quite recently Berthelot has succeeded in causing combination between Argon
and the vapor of benzene, by means of the electric spark; thereby producing
resinous compounds very similar to those produced, under like circumstances, by
the action of benzene vapor on nitrogen.
In the formula 6 oO (Ozone) the molecule is apparently less eccentric than
in O=O (Oxygen) and application of the principles already discussed will show,
that its tendency for internal rotation should be less than in the case of oxygen.
I know of no data as to the specific heat ratio for Ozone, but it would be interest-
ing to know whether or not it is greater than in Oxygen. Evidently if Argon be
N# we have here another principle tending toward small value of the internal
energy, and a correspondingly large value in the ratio of the two specific heats.
Hypothesis, and the Periodic Law. 415
hence must be potential, is only one of many similar facts
proving that this force is very large as theory requires it to be,
compared with the other molecular forces. Moreover, to call
Argon monatomic, requires us to explain how a free ion, which
should possess all the activities of the nascent state, can be as
chemically inert as Argon has been shown to be.
In view therefore of the fact that the burden of proof is
upon those attempting to prove monatomicity, it would seem
safer at present to adopt some such way as this of explaining
the supposed inconsistency between the specific heat ratio found
and the diatomicity of the molecule, and follow the almost per-
emptory indications of the periodic law by accepting an atomic
weight of 20.*
A very interesting question connected with the discovery of
Argon, is what will be the effect of these researches upon -
Prout’s hypothesis? Is it possible that Argon has been an
unsuspected cause of error, which when properly allowed for
will show the ratio of H to O to be almost exactly 1 to 16%
This would make so many atomic weights even or half multi-
ples of H as to render probable, what has been often surmised,
the generation of the elements from a common form of matter
(Protyle) by the continued addition of some one or more con-
stant increments of mass. As pointed out by Mendeléeff the
periodic law does not indicate continuous but abrupt variations
of weight and properties, trom family to family, corresponding
to the changes in valency. Some years since I noticed the
prevalence in the natural series of the elements of a regular
alternation of intervals of 3 and 1 substantially as referred to
by Dr. Gladstone in a recent issue of Nature.t Thus in round
numbers and with a few changes we have the following series:
* There is, however, one real difficulty which it may be well to meet as far as
can be done at present. As the atomic volume is the quotient of specific gravity
into atomic weight we have these volumes: F=15? A=13°3 and Na=23°7, with
the volumes of the metals of Group VIII varying from 67 to 92. Why then
should not Argon have a volume approximately that of Group VIII, and since its
volume is about that of F can we infer close aggregation in the Argon molecule
in view of the known chemical activity of Fluorine?
We may say in reply that the volumes of Group I are about double those of
Group VII, although their chemical activities (force of aggregation within the
molecule) are about equal, thus we have these volumes: F=15,? Na=23°7;
Cl=25°6, K=45-4; Br=26-9, Ro=56°1; [—=25°6, Cs=70°6. Now Argon if tran-
sitional from F to Na should have its volume a mean value or about 19°5, whereas
it actually has a volume of 13°3, the difference indicating the strong force of
aggregation within the Argon molecule which the theory requires. That is, the
force of aggregation, weak in F and Na is strong in Argon, and the repulsive force
in Argon is a mean of that in F and Na with its value in Na about double that
in F.
+ Quite curiously in an article which I prepared on this subject but did not pub-
lish I almost duplicated Dr. Gladstone’s remarks about this relation and its bear-
ing on the atomic weight of Argon some days before his article was received
in this country.
416 E. A. Hill—Argon, Prout’s Hypothesis, ete.
Beieyy say enis oN ee pean aie
8 ee: 1 a q
aie Wei on Hy (A, ee O.F_ A.Na. Meg
OCLs) Maa 12 plata a
Al St ERE =) fat wenn] 0G Ca, 7 Se, 2) ee
OF 98 By 39 & 36° 389°: 400° «48: «AE ae
Cr Mn Fe. Co. NiiGuey/ an ? Ga\. ? @ (Gegras
uy Taco Go Ga. ee (a ae
gets Cite ib) ae amie Rb\~ Sr DVS: Zr 2 Nb Mo
BREE sie | GANG D pd oY ca 2 Ry (aia PBs a se 2 Tee
76°79 80° 83 (si)? (Gs )' a
? ? Rat Romer A ? Cd I ?
3-8 ee eee! 3 222) ae er
99 100 108° 164° 107 jos” 111 “i> ame ames
i
Sn b ? T I 2 ie 7 ?
a egg le ee es ee
119 190 123 .\fes)- 127 198° 181 ~ 130: tpeene
La Ce A Di
a, To” 1a
I have, in the main, used the nearest whole numbers, brack-
eted those values that might seem forced, and inserted a few
numbers (possible blanks) to complete the series. :
There is, | think, some other law or laws besides this simple
one, effective in the matter, but there are many things justify-
ing the view that this ideal arithmetical series, which on the
whole is so closely attained (all things duly considered)
expresses the chief of perhaps several laws, all jointly effective
in limiting the mass of the elements.
One of the strongest objections thus far to the use of round
numbers in such atomic theories, as well as to Prout’s hypothe-
sis in general, has been the irrationality of the ratio of H to 0.
Now Lord Rayleigh has shown that at 138° C. water absorbs
4 per cent of its volume of Argon and that gases handled over
water in the usual way almost invariably become contaminated
with the Argon held in solution. Moreover, it is quite likely
that in reactions for the production of gases where water is
used as a reagent (e. g. evolution of H. by electrolysis of water
or action of dilute acid on Zn), Argon contamination might
result from the Argon so dissolved, and that such contamina-
tion once acquired, would not be removed by any ordinary
reagents through which the gas was passed. A simple calcula-
tion will show that with hydrogen contaminated by only ;4,ths
of one per cent of Argon, the ratio H to O would be
reduced from 1:16 to 1: 15°879 which is about the latest values
deduced from direct weighings of the two gases. And in those
determinations based upon the synthesis of water, by passing
Hover red hot oxide of copper, with Argon in the water from
which the H was evolved and contamination having occurred,
E. Kidwell—Improved Rock Cutter and Truommer. 417
the Argon, unabsorbed by any subsequent reagents, might
finally turn up dissolved in the water formed by synthesis, and
if this water were saturated with Argon the effect on the ratio
would be to reduce it from 1:16 to 1:15-98.*
Probably it will be difficult to handle gases over the water
bath without the risk of such contamination. In the ease,
however, of density determinations it would seem advisable
after the weighing to absorb the gas by suitable reagents, and
then if any residual gas, Argon or any other, be found, to apply
the proper correction to the weights already obtained ; I believe
that when this has been done the ratio of H to O will be
found nearer to the value 1 to 16 than is at present supposed.
It would be interesting to go more deeply into the question
of the laws governing the masses of the elements to which I
have barely alluded, and to which I have given attention for
some years past, but this paper would then be extended far
beyond all proper limits. At some future time I may discuss
this matter also.
Art. XXXIII.—An Improved Rock Cutter and Trimmer ;
by Epe@arR KIDWELL.
OVER a year ago the Michigan Geological Survey required
a rock cutter, and consulted me regarding the matter. I there-
fore designed one, and as a year’s use has shown this cutter to
be fully capable of doing the work required of it, a detailed
description may be of value to those having need of a similar
machine.
The cutter had to be suitable for heavy and accurate work,
hence ample strength of parts, power in the mechanism, and
freedom from lost motion were absolutely necessary. Previous
experience in our shops had shown me that a No. 4 parallel
swivel railway chipping vise, with wrought bar, as made by
Merrill Brothers, possessed all these qualifications, and I there-
fore made in one of their vises such changes as were necessary
to convert it into a cutter. The vise itself needed but few
alterations, as it was necessary only to cut away the jaws to
give the operator more room, and provide suitable openings
for inserting the steel cutters. Provision was also made for
holding cutters in place, and changing them quickly when
necessary. Fig. 1 shows all necessary details.
* It is rather significant that the best determinations by these two different
methods closely approximate to these two values of 15°88 and 15:98 respectively.
418 FE. Kidwell—Improved Rock Cutter and Trimmer.
Two forms of cutter were made, and a duplicate set of each
was provided. The working drawings, fig. 2, show the details
of cutters so clearly that further description is unnecessary.
The specification required that these cutters should be of the
Law
af
©
|
|
|
I
Plan of visesaw as altered.
1
4
1
|
=
i
best quality Jessop’s, Stubb’s, or Mushet’s steel, tempered very
hard. It might be better for some kinds of work to have ~
another form of cutter, with edges at an anglé of 45° with top
edge of jaws, but the two forms already mentioned have so far
answered all requirements.
A, B, Cutters with horizontal edge. OC, D, Cutters with vertical edge.
There should be also two pins, 4” diameter, 2” long, for holding cutters; one
pin 3," diameter, 4” long, for removing cutters.
Unless a large amount of work is to be done, it will be
advisable to order only a single set of cutters. This will make
a material reduction in the first cost of the machine, and one
set of cutters, if properly cared for, will last for years.
EE. Kidwell—Improved Rock Cutter and Trimmer. 419
If very rapid work is desired any of the various forms of
quick-acting vise might be employed as a basis for the machine,
but I do not think the change would be a good one. The
quick-acting vises are provided with weaker screws, and the
parallel bars are invariably of cast iron, cored hollow, and
sadly deficient in strength, hence a cutter made from a vise of
this kind would be liable to complete collapse when used for
heavy work. No matter what form of vise is used, if the
machine is to be satisfactory it 1s absolutely essential that the
screw be accurately cut, to prevent lost motion, and that each
cutter be carefully fitted to its seat, shaped so that cutting
edges will exactly meet when brought together, and be made
of the very best tool steel, properly tempered. If these pre-
cautions are taken, the result will be a machine that is free
from every trace of ricketiness, and amply able to stand up to
any work that can be put on it. During the last year the
Michigan Geological Survey has made with one pair of jaws
from 2500 to 3000 cuts, on such specimens as conglomerates,
sandstones, amygdaloids, traps, felsites, porphyries, silicified
tufas, prehnite and datolite veinstone with copper, and its jaws
show practically no signs of wear on the cutting edges.
Fig. 3 shows the machine ready for use.
Wh ai
| I Fig. 3.
ZN
Be
|
=S=
——
SS
In conclusion I would state that none of the features here
mentioned are patented, and are free to all who may care to
use them. The complete machine, from my drawings, can be
got of Merrill Brothers, 465 Kent ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.
Michigan Mining School, Houghton, Michigan.
420 H, A. Newton—Plane of Jupiter's orbit, ete.
Art. XXXIV.— Relation of the plane of Jupiter's orbit to the
mean-plane of four hundred and one minor planet orbits ;
by H. A. NEwron.
ABOUT nine years ago (this Journal, III, xxxi, p. 319) I
called attention in a brief note to the fact that the mean-plane
of the orbits of the then known two hundred and fifty-one
minor planets was inclined to the plane of Jupiter’s orbit by a
very smal! angle. In fact no minor planet out of the whole
251 had its plane so near to the mean-plane as did the
planet Jupiter. Since that time we have added to the list of
planets between Mars and Jupiter one hundred and fifty newly
discovered ones, and it seems worth while to find whether the
same relation of the large planet to the entire group of four
hundred and one small ones holds true.
The plane of an orbit is determined by the longitude of the
ascending node and the inclination, and its place may be repre-
sented to the eye by a plot in which the inclination is the
radius vector and the longitude of the node is the polar angle.
‘The point thus plotted is of course the pole of the plane.
The mean-plane of the 401 planes, regarding each plane as a
unit, may be determined with sufficient accuracy for the
present purpose by the formulas for computing the center of
gravity of the 401 points plotted, viz:
401 feos O = 27 ces Q, and 401 / sin .O = S7smege
where 7 and & are the inclination and longitude of ascending
node of any orbit, and Jand 2 are the same functions of the
mean-plane of all the orbits. Computing Jand @ for the 401
orbits as given in the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes
for 1895, adding three later orbits from the Astronomische
Nachrichten, we have
T = 0°-93, and OO = 1093.
The corresponding quantities for Jupiter are
i= 1°31, Q = 98°°9,
so that the inclination of the mean plane to Jupiter’s plane is
0°43. The three minor planets whose planes are nearest to
the mean-plane are 1898 Y, (27) and (149). These planes
make angles with the mean-plane severally equal to 0°65,
0°-74, and 0°77. The planet 1893 Y, was photographically
discovered and has not yet a place in the numbered series of
planets. Its plane will doubtless be much changed when the
Chemistry and Physics. 421
orbit is definitely known, and it may or may not be found to
be nearer the mean-plane than at present.*
The reason for the relation of Jupiter’s plane to the minor
planet planes is evident. The secular perturbatiou of the orbit
of a minor planet by Jupiter is such that the inclination of the
orbit plane is not greatly changed, but the node has a constant
motion. The pole of the planet’s plane therefore is constantly
describing a curve, not widely departing from a circle, around
the pole of Jupiter’s plane. This motion is greater for some
minor planets than for others. Hence whatever be the distri-
bution of the poles at one epoch, the tendency of the secular
perturbation by Jupiter is to finally distribute the minor-planet
poles symmetrically around the pole of Jupiter’s plane.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.:
1. Onthe Presence of Argon and of Helium in Uraninite.—
At a meeting of the Chemical Society of London on March 27th,
Ramsay announced that he had discovered both argon and
helium in the mineral clevéite, a variety of uraninite. His atten-
tion was first called to this mineral by Miers of the British
Museum, since Hillebrand had shownt that when treated with
dilute sulphuric acid and warmed, the uraninite gave off two per
cent or more of a gas which from the tests he applied to it
appeared to be nitrogen. On sparking with oxygen however,
in presence of soda, Ramsay found that the gas which he obtained
from this mineral contained only a trace of nitrogen intro-
duced probably during its extraction. In a Pliicker tube its
spectrum showed all the more prominent argon lines and in addi-
tion a brilliant line close to, but not coincident with, the D lines
of sodium. Besides these there were a number of other lines, one
in the green being especially prominent. Moreover argon
obtained from the atmosphere shows three lines in the violet
which are not to be seen apparently in the gas from clevéite.
Hence the author suggests that possibly atmospheric argon con-
tains some other gas in admixture, not yet separated, which may
possibly account for the anomalous position of argon in its
numerical relations with other elements. Further results are
promised, especially in relation to the density of the mixture, a
point of very great interest.
* If we consider the planes of the orbits of the eight principal planets, Jupiter’s
plane is not the nearest to the mean-plane of the system. But by omission of
the plane of Mercury, the mean-plane of the seven other principal planets is
a little nearer to Jupiter’s plane than it is to any other planetary plane.
+ This Journal, III, xl, 384, November, 1890.
429 Scientific Intelligence.
At the same meeting, CRooKEs reported upon the spectrum of
this gaseous mixture from clevéite, two Pliicker tubes containing
it having been sent to him by Ramsay, the nitrogen in which had
been previously removed by sparking. By far the most prom1-
nent line was a brilliant yellow one occupying apparently the
position of the sodium lines. With higher dispersion, however,
the lines remained single under conditions which would have
widely separated the lines of sodium. Moreover, on throwing
sodium light simultaneously into the spectroscope, the spectrum
of the new gas was seen to consist almost entirely of a bright
yellow line, a little to the more refrangible side of the sodium
lines, and separated from them by a space a little more than
twice that which separated the two components of the sodium
line. This line appeared as bright and as sharp as D, and D,,.
Careful measurements gave 587°45 as its wave-length; the wave-
lengths of the sodium lines being for D, 589°51 and for D, 588-91.
So that while the difference between the D lines is 0°60, that
between D, and the new line is 1:46. It appears, therefore, that
this line is the spectrum of the hypothetical element helium, dis-
covered by Lockyer in the chromosphere of the sun and indicated
as D,. Its wave-length according to Angstrém is 587°49 and
according to Cornu 587°46. Besides this line of helium, there
were seen traces of the more prominent lines of argon. Compar-
ing the visible spectrum of the new gas with the band and the
line spectrum of nitrogen, they were found to agree closely at the
red and the blue ends, and to differ entirely between these points
through a broad space in the green. The complete spectrum of
the helium tube is as follows:
Wave-lengths.
(a) D, yellow 587°45 Very strong. Sharp
(b) Yellowish green 568°05 Faint.
(c) - 566°41 Very faint.
(d) Green 516°12 Faint. *
(e) Greenish blue 500°81 . e
(f) Blue 480°63 “ “
Photographs of this spectrum at first glance show in the violet
portion, a close resemblance to the band spectrum of nitrogen.
But a more careful examination shows that some of the bands and
lines of the nitrogen spectrum are absent from the spectrum of
the helium tube, while there are many fine lines in the latter
spectrum which are absent from the spectrum of nitrogen.
Measurements of these lines are in progress.—Jature, li, 512,
March, 1895. Chemical News, 1xxi, 151, March, 1895. G. F. B.
2. On the Combination of Argon with Benzene vapor.—By
means of the silent electric discharge, BERTHELOT has succeeded
in effecting the combination of argon with the vapor of benzene.
The argon was received from Ramsay and had been circulated in
the apparatus for the absorption of nitrogen until the nitrogen
bands disappeared and there was no further contraction. The
Chemistry and Physics. 423
density of the gas thus purified was 19°95 and the ratio of its
specific heats was 1°65. Its volume was 37 cubic centimeters.
In order to bring about the combination of argon with other sub-
stances, the author used the silent discharge, since he had found
it, in his experience, much more effective than the spark in secur-
ing the permanence of unstable compounds. Thus nitrogen in
presence of hydrocarbon vapors gives rise under these conditions
to the most varied products of condensation—products, too, which
decompose with elevation of temperature; while under the
influence of the spark, hydrogen cyanide, because of its stability
at high temperatures, is the sole product. Again the silent dis-
charge, acting on a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen, pro-
duces several per cent of ammonia, while the spark gives
only infinitesimal quantities. Under the action of the silent
discharge nitrogen reacts with water vapor to produce am-
monium nitrite, a compound which, on standing, is decom-
posed at the ordinary temperature. Moreover the vapor of
benzene was employed for the first experiment, because the
author had found it very effective in the case of nitrogen.
The apparatus used was that already employed in similar experi-
ments (Ann. Chem. Phys., V, x, 76—79, 1877), and the conditions
were those described in the author’s ‘‘ Essai de Mechanique Chim-
ique,” the silent discharge being effected with the variable poten-
tial producible with an induction coil. With this apparatus the
author had succeeded in bringing about the direct union of free
nitrogen with hydrocarbons, carbohydrates and other organic
substances. On submitting the mixture of argon and the vapor
of benzene to the action of the silent discharge, combination took
place though with more difficulty than in the case of nitrogen.
The action is accompanied with a faint violet glow visible in
darkness. In one of the five experiments there was finally
formed a fluorescent substance which gave out a magnificent
greenish light and afforded a special spectrum. A careful quanti-
tative experiment, made with 10 c¢. c. of argon, yielded the follow-
ing results: 100 volumes of this gas, put in contact with a few
drops of benzene (by which its volume was increased about one-
twentieth), was introduced into the discharge-tube and subjected
to the discharge for ten hours under moderate tensions. After
removing the benzene vapor by concentrated sulphuric acid, the
remaining gas occupied 89 volumes; showing a condensation of
11 per cent. It was again mixed with benzene vapor and again
subjected to the discharge, much higher tensions being employed.
The diminution in volume was much more rapid, amounting in
three hours to 25 per cent. The 64 remaining volumes was
mixed anew with benzene vapor and again exposed for several
hours to the discharge under still higher tensions. There remained
32 volumes of gas, consisting of hydrogen 13°5, benzene vapor 1°5
and argon 17°0 volumes. So that of 100 volumes of argon, ben-
zene had condensed 83 into a state of chemical combination under
the action of the silent discharge; or about five-sixths. The
494 Screntific Intelligence.
quantity of the products was too small to permit of any extended
examination. They resemble those produced by the similar action
of the silent discharge on nitrogen mixed with benzene vapor and
consist of a yellow resinous odorous substance condensed on the
surface of the two glass tubes between which the electric action
is exerted. Submitted to the action of heat this substance decom-
poses, yielding volatile products and leaving a bulky carbonaceous
residue. The volatile products turn red litmus paper blue. Evi-
dently therefore the conditions under which argon is condensed
by hydrocarbons tend to affiliate it still closer to nitrogen.
Indeed if it be permissible to increase its molecular mass from
40 to 42—which seems not unreasonable—this mass would repre-
sent one and a half times that of nitrogen; so that argon would
bear to nitrogen the same reaction that ozone does to oxygen.
Thus far, however, argon and nitrogen are not transformable the
one into the other. Under the conditions now described it is
evident that the supposed inactivity of argon ceases to exist. —
C. &., exx, 581, March, 1895; Chem. News, |xxi, 151, March,
1895. GC. BB:
3. On the Presence of Argon lines in the Spectrum of Atmo-
spheric Air.—In a communication to the Royal Society on Febru-
ary 21st, NEWwA.t has called attention to a line spectrum which
appeared frequently upon the photographs of the air spectrum
taken by him a year ago, and which he called “the low pressure
spectrum.” The lines of this spectrum were then unknown, but
it now appears that they belong to argon, constituting seventeen
out of the sixty-one lines of the air spectrum. ‘To obtain this
argon spectrum, a glass bulb was sealed hermetically to a Hagen-
Topler mercury pump, having a layer of strong sulphuric acid
above the mercury. On reducing the pressure to 0°14™™ (about
180 millionths of an atmosphere) a bright alternating discharge
could be passed through the residual gas simply by surrounding
the bulb with a coil of wire carrying the current from a condenser.
After 30 minutes the pressure fell from 0°13™™ to 0°085™™ (from
174 M to 112 M) and the photograph then taken showed the
bands of nitrogen strong, mercury and nitrocarbon lines strong,
hydrogen weak and no oxygen or argon lines. After thirty min-
utes more, the pressure has fallen from 0°76™™ to 0°015™™" (from
100 M to 20 M) and in the photograph the nitrogen spectrum
had faded considerably and a number of fine new lines appeared,
constituting this “low pressure spectrum.” Recent measure-
ments show the practical coincidence of seventy-two lines belong-
ing to this spectrum with the lines of argon as measured by
Crookes.
~ NE
MINERALS
RECENT ADDITIONS TO STOCK, Collected by Dr. Honan Soi ag
west Missouri.
CALCITE, in_scalenohedrons from one to eighteen inches diameter, con-
taining “phantoms of Marcasite.” Some of the larger crystals show tints of ame-
thyst and honey-yellow, divided by the lines of Marcasite. Single erystals and
groups, 25c. to $10.00.
Where particularly clear or finely colored material was found, we sacrificed crys-
tallization and obtained in portions of large crystals, what are considered to be the
most beautiful rhombs of Iceland-spar ever seen. They show perfect transparency
save for the exquisite coloring of yellow and various amethyst shades, and the
linings of brillant spear- -shaped Marcasite crystals. The one inch cleavages at
10c. to 25¢. are quite as fine in quality as the larger cabinet specimens and make ©
a novel addition to the collection of the microscopist.
CALCITE ON GALENA. Clear, honey-yellow scalenohedrons scattered
over groups of brilliant Galena cubes. The few specimens we have of this showy
type are going rapidly. $1.00 to $5.00. Small twins of same color, quite rare,
$2.00 each. ye
GALENA. The most brilliant cubes we have ever seen, 50c. to $2.00.
Groups of curiously elongated and distorted cubo-octahedrons with Asphaltum, new
and rare, 25c. to $2.50.
Octahedrons, of large size and sharp angles mounted on immense Sphalerite
erystals, the whole coated with naturally associated Asphalitwm. (The latter
is regarded aS a most interesting occurrence and has recently been described
as a new discovery from a foreign locality, though noted by Dr. Foote at Oronogo,
Mo., in 1874). Shelf and drawer specimens, $1.50 to $5.00.
CHALCOPYRITE ON RUBY BLENDE. Bright crystals of the
former are arranged over the blende with planes parallel, so that when moyed in
the sunlight the specimens exhibit a most beautiful chatoyant effect. Rare, $2.50
to $5.00.
SPHALERITE. Ruby Blende; also very large and symmetrical crystals
of Black Jack, 50c. to $3.00.
For other arrivals see page in recent numbers of this journal.
Minerals sent on Approval.
‘Oatalogue of Minerals.” 128 pp. illus., 10¢; bound, 20c.
Rare and Valuable Books.
Send for catalogue mentioning subject in which you are interested.
Annuaire de journal des Mines de Russie, 9 vols., 1535 to ’42 inelu-
sive,;mor., gilt, very: fine Sebe iva 22s So ee ee ee oe $ 7.50-
Baird, Brewer & Ridgway, Land Birds of N. A. 3 vols...__-.----.---- 20.00
Boyle, Robt:, (Works! °6,wzols:' folio, “befs sje Sat eae aereeae hte eee Retin 3 25.00
Buffon, Histoire Naturelle. 52 vols...) Un 10.00
Hayden, Bulletins of Survey of Territories. 6 vols., mor, very fine set.. 20.00
Leenwenhoek, Works of, containing his microscopical discoveries. 2
* ‘vols., 20 plates, 4to;ods.,'1800 <2 7S | 10.00
Lembeye, Aves de la Isla de Cuba. 140 pp., 20 plates (19 col.), hmor.,
pili VSbOl aa ee 6.00
Observations made at Radcliffe Observatory, 1858-1875. 17 vols._.___- 12.50
Percy, Metallurgy of Gold and Silver. . 710 pp., 1880__..-..._---_--2-: 6.00
Richardson & Watts, Chem. of Acids, Alkalies, ete. 3-vols., 186%. 232 10.00
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 36-yols,.-.. 200.00
Trans. of Linnean Society.) 14 vols.,\4tov22 22005)". 1 ee 45.00:
Tryon, Am. Marine Conchology. 208 pp., 44 col. plates and set of duplicate
plates, hmr., gilt top, very. fine copy; exbra;rare.-2_. ___- 20.00.
Britten, Buropean Ferns. 240 pp., 30 col. plates, 109 ill., 4to, cloth, fall
ail
Wilden & Bonaparte, American Ornithology. 3 vols..in 1, 1178 pp.,
BIT ypolabes i las ie en oN APO en CS ee 0 ge
Dr. A. E. FOOTE,
1224-26-28 North P'orty-Eirst Street,
PHILADELPHIA, PA., U. S$. A.
Erratum for the June number.
Attention is called to a serious error in the June number,
which escaped notice in reading proofs.
On page 475 in the title of the 3d article, Illinois is twice mis-
used in place of Missouri. It should read Geological Survey of
Missouri, vol. iv, Paleontology of Missouri, ete. Also in the
Index, p. "487, under Geological Reports and Surveys, the third
entry should be Missouri, not Illinois; and on p. 489, the first
line should read, Keyes, C. R., Paleontology of Missouri, not
Hllinois.
Ree i.
Nig
ee
ve! cap, i, ms
ees
Ai 4 ye wee
yee tad
ae ea oe eee
a ae?
THE
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
[THIRD SERIES.|
Oe
Arr. XXXV.— Daily March of the Wind Velocities in the
United States ; by FRANK WALDO, Princeton, New Jersey.
[The following matter is extracted from a paper prepared by the writer
for the Weather Bureau of the Agricultural Department, and is published with
the kind permission of the proper authorities. |
Ty the Appendix No. 14 to the Chief Signal Officer’s Annual
Report for 1890, the average wind movement is given, for a
large number of stations, in miles per hour for each hour of
the day (1 to 24), for each month of the year, and also the
averages for all of the months of the seven years 1883-89.
This presents most valuable data and is certainly the most
unique of the tabular compilations published by the Weather
Bureau. Hitherto we have relied mainly on the papers pub-
lished by Hann and Képpen for collected data concerning the
daily period of wind velocities, and even in these there are
comparatively few places of observation taken into account.
The publication of such data as those which we are considering,
from a large number of stations having a variety of immediate
exposures, and distributed over so large a portion of an entire
continent, furnishes material for a very complete treatment of
the subject of hourly winds. The present paper is mainly
devoted to a view of the conditions of the geographical distri-
bution of some important phases of the daily march of the
wind velocities. The material is sufficiently rich to serve as a
basis for a number of similar and more complete investigations.
The hourly wind velocities as originally published are
arranged according to synchronous hours of the 75th meridian
time. It is inconvenient in that form for many kinds of inves-
Am. Jour. Sct—Tuirp Series, Vou. XLIX, No. 294.—Junzu, 1895.
29
439 EF. Waldo— Wind Velocities in the United States.
tigation and so I have arranged the data for the four mid-
seasonal months and for the year, according to the local times ;
and, moreover, have converted the published anemometer miles
(with constant 3:00) into true miles by means of Marvin’s
Table published by the Signal Service. I have also grouped
the stations geographically and not alphabetically as given in
the original table of hourly winds. This table cannot be
reproduced here on account of its length, but I may remark
that the relations of the maxima and minima have been inves-
tigated; and in the unpublished table are given the amplitudes
or ranges in miles per hour, the excesses and deficiencies in
terms of the average, and the amplitudes in terms of percent-
age of the averages. An account of this will shortly appear
in the American Meteorological Journal.
The curves showing the daily march of the hourly wind
velocities for January, July and the Year, I have also drawn
for individual stations, but these cannot be reproduced here on
account of the expense of drawings. The characteristics of
these curves show marked variations with changes of geo-
graphical position, as we should expect: and while the num-
ber of years of observations which have been employed,
which for the most cases is 7, is not sufficient to remove all
irregularities from some of the curves, yet in most cases a sut-
ficiently good idea of the daily march is given. I have how-
ever given the curves for January and July for 20 stations
more or less representative of the various sections of the U.S.
See the curves and explanation of the diagram at the end of
this paper. This material is of such importance that the curves
deserve to be taken up for discussion for individual stations, but
it is only possible, in the present instance, to treat them in
groups. Without further preliminary remarks I will give the
main characteristics of these curves in what seems to me to be a
proper order. In counting the hours, midnight is given as 0°,
The wind velocities are given in miles per hour: written
m.p.h. In mentioning the characteristics of these curves, it
will be remembered that a sharp ascent or descent indicates a
rapid change in the wind velocity from hour to hour; a flat
curve indicates no change; a sharp crest or trough shows an
extreme maximum or minimum of short duration, while when
well rounded they indicate a period of several hours during
which the conditions at these phases continue to prevail before
the swing to the opposite phase sets in.
Atlantic Coast.—On the exposed Atlantic Coast (Curve 1)
there is in January but a slight variation in the wind velocity
from hour to hour during the whole day, the average wind
being 15 or 16 m. p. h.; but for July there is a strongly
defined maximum (12 or 13 m. p. h.) at about 16", and a mini-
F. Waldo— Wind Velocities in the United States. 483
mum (9°5 m. p. h.) at 4" on the northern and 6" on the Central
Coast (7°5) and preceded in this last case by a slight secondary
maximum at 3"; while for the Year the maximum is well
defined at 16" on the northern (14°5 m. p. h.) and at 15" on the
southern (12°5 m. p. h.) coasts, and the minima occur at 0”
and 5° for the former (nearly 13 m. p. h.) and about 22" and 4°
for the latter (10°5 m. p. h.), and in both cases there is a slight
secondary maximum at 3”.
For the ordinary or partially sheltered Atlantic Coast stations
(Curve 2) at which the land influence is strongly felt, there are
in January well defined primary phases of max. (about 12
m. p. h.) and min. (about 9 or 10 m. p. h.), but the secondary
phases are very weak and the curves become quite flat at these
times. The max. phase becomes more marked with the south-
ward progress from the north, not only on account of actual
inerease in the absolute height of the curves (which increase
perhaps does not extend to places south of the Carolina Coast)
but also on account of the fact that the crest of the curve
becomes sharper and the rise and fall more abrupt. The daily
eurve during the hours of deficiency of wind (below the aver-
age) becomes more flattened out and of greater extent in the
south. For /uly the upward swell of the curve is very much
broader than for January, throughout the whole coast, but it is
especially so at the south. The extreme maximum is more
pronounced in all cases, but is most so at the north. At this
season there is a remarkable similarity in the length of the
swell of the curves (about 16 hours duration) throughout the
whole coast.
For the depressions of the curves (i. e. periods of least wind)
a greater irregularity is noticeable at the north, where slight
secondary phases are visible.
For the Year, as might be expected, the curves possess char-
acteristics between those for January and July: but they
resemble the latter very much more closely than they do the
former. The crest of the curve is, however, more rounded for
the Year than for July; but the amplitude is not quite so great,
nor the period of excess above the nearly level portion of the
curve at the minimum quite so long, the latter for the Year
being about half of the twenty-four hours.
Gulf of Mexico Coast.—The eastern, western, and north-
western coasts are represented (Curves 8 and 4). For January
there is but slight absolute change in the irregular curves for
these three coast sections. The curves for the extreme eastern
and western coasts are somewhat similar as to the times of the
phases, but the early afternoon maximum (at about 15") is
much more strongly marked in the west than in the east. In
the northwestern part (Galveston, Texas) the amplitude is not
4384. F. Waldo— Wind Velocities in the United States.
so great, and the ill defined crest is several hours earlier than
in the other sections just mentioned.
For July, in the eastern part, a well defined and gradual but
not excessive maximum rises above a fairly level period of
deficiency, there being no strongly marked individual mini-
mum; but in the northwestern part the maximum and mini-
mum are very sharply marked, in each case the curve comes to
a point, the amplitude is rather large for a coast exposure and
the time of maximum (at 17") is considerably retarded as com-
pared with that in the eastern part (at 12"). In the extreme
western part (at Corpus Christi) a curve of very marked pecu-
larities presents itself; it has a single rather sharply defined
minimum of 5 m. p. h. at (5") about the same time as in the
northwestern part, and a very high but round-crested maxi-
mum of nearly 15:5 m. p. h. (at 14" to 18") with very steeply
inclined sides which extend to the sharp angle of the mini-
mum with as rapid a slope throughout the whole length as is
ordinarily observed for inland stations at about (or a little
after) the noon hour. It is seen that the whole amplitude of
fluctuation thus becomes enormously great (over 10 m. p. h.).
For the Year, in the eastern and northwestern parts the
maximum is well marked but the crest of the curve is very
much flattened; and there is in both cases a nearly level mini-
mum for about half of the twenty-four hours, with a rather steep
but slight increase to a nearly level maximum which lasts for
six hours. At the extreme west there is an open and very
well rounded maximum and a well rounded minimum with a
steep ascent, but with a more gradual descent connecting the
two: the amplitude is about the same as that for an ge
inland station.
The Great Lakes (Curve 5).—In J/anwary the curves are
nearly all irregular, but the amplitudes of the irregularities are
not great. The early afternoon maximum, although slight, is
plainly marked in all cases: it is sometimes rounded and some-
times sharp-crested ; that for the lesser absolute wind velocity
being usually the more rounded, and that for the greater wind,
which indicates a better water exposure, becoming sharper.
The nearly flat minimum portion of the curve is usually some-
what lower for the hours succeeding midnight, than for the
hours just preceding it. Secondary phases are quite plainly
shown in some of the curves.
In July the max. is well rounded and strongly marked on
all of the curves, and this period covers more than half of the
twenty-four hours in most cases. When the minimum portion
follows midnight it is in many cases a little higher than when
preceding it, and is consequently somewhat of a : reversal of the
conditions for Januar y. Secondary phases are not present.
F. Waldo— Wind Velocities in the United States. 485
For the Year, as is usually the case, the curves form a sort of
mean between those for January and July. There is a nearly
level min. period and a very well marked max.; this last with
characteristics very similar to those for July. The period of
the mid-day rise above the level minimum is about half of the
twenty-four hours. Secondary phases are not noticeable.
Some peculiarities which distinguish the Upper from the
Lower Lake Regions are mentioned farther along in their
proper place among inland stations, and the above remarks are
offered for comparison with those pertaining to the Gulf coast.
Pacific Coast (Curves 6, 7 and 8).—For January, at the
north there is a nearly mid-day principal minimum, with a
slight min. shortly after midnight, and with two nearly equal
maxima from four to six hours before and after midnight; the
changes are gradual and relatively small. On the Central
coast the rise of the single max. above a somewhat level min.
period is gradually accomplished in about twelve hours, the
slope of the curve being gentle but the actual crest sharp. At
the south a single early afternoon max. rises rapidly from a
nearly level minimum; the slopes of the sides of the max.
which separate to eight hours apart at the base are steep, and
the actual crest slightly rounded. (On the high bluff at Cape
Mendocino, near the center, the sharp crested max. occurs
shortly after noon, and the sharp pointed trough of the min. at
about midnight; and while the descent from the max. is steep
and regular, the ascent is at first steep and then from 4" to 11%
there is little change, then another steep ascent; the whole
range being excessive and greater than that for mid-summer.)
For July, at the north there are both primary and secondary
phases of max. and min.; but the secondary ones are slight,
and the primary occur at nearly a reversal of the times for
January, although the amplitude is slightly greater in July.
On the central coast there is a single max. and min., but with
an enormous amplitude. The crest is slightly rounded, but
with a very steep slope, while the trough is more rounded, and
the slope of descent becomes more gradual as the trough is
approached. At the south there is a high max. with rather
rounded crest, and steep sides, especially for the ascent; the
curve for the period of minimum wind is quite flat during
seven or eight hours, when the rise for the max. begins abruptly
and finally ends nearly as abruptly. (The curve for the high
bluff at Cape Mendocino, near the center of the coast, is quite
similar in shape to that for the south, but the maximum is not
quite so pronounced.)
For the Year, at the north the reversion of the phases
noticed for January and July is such as to cause practically
almost an erasure of the phasesof max. and min., and the curve
nearly becomes merely an irregular line with little variation of
486 F. Waldo— Wind Velocities in the United States.
level. For the central coast the curve is quite similar to that
for July, but the phases are not so great in amplitude and the
slopes of the max. are not so steep. At the south there is a
well rounded max. which rises for half the day above a nearly
level min. period ; the whole curve exhibiting phases about
half way between those for January and July.
At the high station of Cape Mendocino the curve for the
first half of the day resembles that for July, while for the
latter half of the day it is similar to that for January for the
same hours; but the amplitudes are less than for those months.
Having mentioned the Coast regions, we now pass to the
various /nland sections of the U.S. :
Inland: Northeastern U. S. (Curve 9).—For January there
is a well marked maximum rising, for about ten hours of the
day, above an irregular min. period, which has in some eases
faint secondary phases. The crest of the max. is fairly well
rounded, but flattens ont (showing less rapid changes) with
progress southward.
For July the maximum period is above the nearly flat min.
period for about fourteen hours; in most cases the crest is
well rounded but it becomes flatter toward the south.
For the Year the minimum period is usually still more flat-
tened out than in the cases just mentioned, and the maximum
portions of the curves are nearly as pronounced as for July but
do not extend over quite as many hours. The curves for the
Year are unusually similar to those for July, and in each very
little secondary influence is noticeable.
Southeastern U, S—For January the maximum rice is well
marked, but does not cover a period of over eight to ten hours,
and the minimum is rather more regularly level than is usual
in mid-winter. for the relatively high exposure at Atlanta
(Curve 10) there is but slight absolute variation, although there
is a noticeable max. succeeded almost immediately by a rapid
descent to a narrow minimum.
For July the max. covers a wider period than for January,
and is more strongly marked (except at Jacksonville), while the
curve of descent becomes steeper and the max. retarded until a
later hour. The minimum period is hardly as level as for
January. At the high exposure of Atlanta a slight secondar
minimum is present. |
For the Year the maximum is well developed and the curve
well rounded, with a gradual ascent and a slightly sharper
descent, and extends for about twelve hours above the smooth,
slightly sloping, minimum period. At the high exposure of
Atlanta the curve resembles that for July but has a more
rounded maximum with slight secondary phases.
Lower Mississippi River Region (Curves 11 and 12).—
For January the curves are very irregular and suffer but slight
F. Waldo— Wind Velocities in the United States. 487
absolute changes; usually the max. occurs at 14" to 16". The
irregularity is greatest along the Mississippi River, at Vicks-
burg and Memphis, where the maximum is so slightly devel-
oped that the secondary maximum is nearly or quite as great as
the primary; this is not due to the greater development of the
secondary but the lack of development of the primary. For
Vicksburg, the minimum has about the same absolute value in
both phases, but for Memphis the afternoon minimum (at
about 19") is slightly the lower of the two. On the lower
Arkansas River, with a more east-westerly river exposure, the
primary maximum at 13" or 14° is well developed, but the
secondary phases are hardly perceptible, and the principal
minimum is hardly to be distinguished since it is but little
below the long, nearly level, period of minimum wind.
For July, there appears to be but a single well defined maxi-
mum culminating about the middle of the afternoon, at about
16", and a minimum is reached just before or about midnight.
The shght traces of secondary phenomena can hardly be
ascribed to other than accidental errors of exposure, ete.
The curves for the Year are very similar to those for July, but
the amplitudes are not quite so great, and the minimum period
ismore nearly a uniform level. In all cases the descent from the
culminating maximum is steeper than the ascent toit. The
absolute maximum is at about 15" and the minimum at or just
before midnight.
Ohio River Region (Curve 13).—For January the maxi-
mum, at about 14°, is well defined and with a rounded crest in
some cases, and in others a pointed crest, but the slopes on
either side are symmetrical. There is just a trace of a second-
ary maximum at some of the stations, which becomes best
defined at Knoxville; while the minimum occurs for some of
the stations before midnight, and for others after midnight, so
that the usual times of both primary and secondary minima are
represented in speaking of the principal minimum, and at
Knoxville minima of about equal magnitudes occur for both
primary and secondary phases.
For July the maxima are well developed, and usually with
rounded, rather symmetrical crests; and the period of excess
above the somewhat level period of deficiency is about four-
teen or fifteen hours. The time of extreme maximum covers
most of the afternoon hours, extending from 13" or 14" to 17°
or 18". There is but little more than a suspicion of a secondary
maximum phase at about midnight, and although it can be
noticed in some cases, yet it is entirely wanting in others.
The minimum occurs a little before sunrise, and consequently
just precedes the beginning of the ascent to the principal
maximum.
4388 FF. Waldo— Wind Velocities in the United States. :
For the Year, the maximum curves are remarkably sym-
metrical and have an absolute maximum at about 15", and
while the amplitude is not quite so great as for July, yet the
period during which the curve is above the very nearly level
minimum is but little less than for July, and what shortening
there is, is due to there being an earlier descent to the mini-
mum level. The time of minimum is still in the early
morning hours. Secondary phases are not noticeable.
Lake Region (Curve 5).—On the Lower Lakes for January,
the curves are generally very irregular, but there is, in every
case, a well defined, though short, principal maximum at about
14". The time of the principal minimum is variable; for
Rochester and Cleveland it occurs only about four or five
hours after the time of maximum, consequently at about 18",
and for Buffalo, Detroit and Toledo it occurs shortly after or
at midnight. Slight, secondary maxima occur for Rochester
at about midnight ; for Toledo two hours earlier, and probably
for Cleveland at about 237,
For July a fairly well rounded maximum culminates at 14°,
but the time of minimum is by no means regular, for it occurs
at about 4 hours before midnight in some cases, and 4 hours
after midnight in others. In those cases in which the
maximum is the best developed, the minimum occurs after
midnight, both of which characteristics belong to the stations
having greater land influence.
For the Year, a moderately sized maximum with gentle,
regularly sloping, sides culminates at about 14". The minimum
period covers about half the twenty-four hours, and the abso-
lute minimum follows closely the relations just given for July,
but the absolute change is so much smaller than for that
month that the whole minimum period varies but little from
a fixed level.
For the Upper Lakes for JSanwary there is a principal
maximum at times varying from 12" to 15" and the crest is
the more pointed, the better the water exposure. While the
principal minimum occurs in the early morning hours (4" and
8>) for most of the stations, yet at Duluth a secondary mini-
mum occurs at 17" or 18", and this is of the same magnitude
as the primary. The minimum period is very irregular and
broken in all cases, and there are traces of secondary phe-
nomena, which are well marked only in the case of Duluth,
where the maximum nearly equal to the primary occurs
near, or shortly before, midnight, and the minimum as jus
mentioned. 7
For July there is a well marked, rather rounded maximum
at 15" in most cases, but at 14> at Alpena, with minimum at
about 3" for Alpena and Chicago, but with the principal
minimum just before and at midnight at Milwaukee and
FF. Waldo— Wind Velocities in the United States. 489
Duluth. For these last mentioned places a secondary maxi-
mum occurs at 3" or 4° and a second minimum at about 63,
while for Duluth there is a slight tertiary maximum at 22"
and minimum at 20". For the early hours of the descent
_ from the maximum the slope is steeper than in the ascent.
For the Year, the maxima of the curves are nearly as well
developed as for a uly, but the amplitude is not quite so great,
and the period that the maximum is above the nearly” level
minimum period is only about 12", which is less than for July.
In most cases the minimum occurs atabout 3" or 4", but the
whole minimum period is nearly the same, although for Mil-
waukee it is very irregular, and secondary phases are probably
present.
Upper Mississippi wer Valley Region (Curve 14).—For
January there is a rather sharp-crested narrow maximum rising
for about 9" above a somewhat irregular though level mini-
mum period, and having a small amplitude. The minimum
usually occurs at about sunrise, although a near approach to
the absolute minimum occurs at about sunset or a little later.
Traces of secondary phenomena are present about three hours
after midnight for Dubuque, and three hours before midnight
for Keokuk. At the high exposure of St. Louis there is a
low flat-crested maximum during the time from 9" to 15" and
a secondary sharp-crested maximum of nearly the same ampli-
tude at midnight; the principal minimum is at 18" and
secondary at about 6". The extreme amplitude is very slight,
during the whole month.
For July there is a well developed maximum at from 14?
to 16" and in most cases a secondary maximum at about mid-
night (sometimes a little before, and sometimes a little later).
The times of minima are variable but usually at 6" and 21°, or
a little later; in some cases the first is the primary and in
others the secondary. The secondary phases are slight in com-
parison with the primary.
For the Year, there are well developed maxima at about
14" and very slight secondary maxima at St. Louis, at or just
before midnight. The minima occur at or about daybreak,
with very slight secondary minima at St. Louis at 20°. The
minimum period is quite level. Secondary phases are hardly
noticeable except at St. Louis.
Great Plains (Curves 15 and 16).—For January in the
north, the maximum period culminating at 13" or 14° or 15> is
short (about 8" above minimum level), but well marked; and
the main minimum is at from 5" to 8". Most of the stations
show secondary maxima, near midnight, and _ secondary
minima at about 18" or 19" and of nearly equal level with the
principal minima. In the south the principal maximum
extends over a longer period and is more flattened at the
440 F. Waldo— Wind Velocities in the Onited States.
crest, which reaches from about noon to four hours after, but
has not a greater amplitude than in the north. Secondary
maxima rather better marked than usual are present, just
before midnight at Abilene and Palestine; and the secondary
minima for these stations at 18" and 20 are a little dower than
those at about sunrise in the morning, so that the secondary
phase really becomes the primary in these cases.
For /uly, the maxima culminating at 14" or 15" are large
and well rounded, with the exceptions of Abilene and Pales-
tine which have flat irregular crests; and the curve of the
minimum is a sharply defined trough (at 5" or 6") in some
cases but rather flattened out in others, no law appearing to
hold good. Secondary phases are present except in the
extreme south, and in Dakota. At Palestine the usual second-
ary minimum is lower than the primary, and so in this case
becomes the primary. Abilene and Palestine have flattened
irregular crests at the principal maxima, and these show a
slight recession at about noon.
For the Year the curves are quite similar to those for July
except that the maximum period (culminating at 14” or 15”)
is not so long or the amplitude so great. The minimum is at
5” or 6". Secondary phases are lacking or are barely per-
ceptible, except at Palestine, where the usual secondary mini-
mum is so low as to really become the primary. The crest of
the maximum is much flattened out at the south, showing
little change for several hours about noon and later.
Great Plateau (Curves 17, 18, and 19).—For January at
the south, there is a single abrupt, narrow, steep sided, but
slightly round crested maximum with level or slightly sloping
minimum but no secondary phases; near the center there is
still a principal though less marked maximum, varying from
12" to 16", and usually secondary or even tertiary phases.
While the minima are about equal, yet the customary sec-
ondary minimum phases (in the early evening) are usually
slightly the lowest and thus become the primary. At the
high station of Winnemucca the curve is irregular and has
three sets of phases; while at the north the curves have
relatively slight amplitudes and are irregular, having at least
two sets of phases, and the usual secondary minimum becomes
the primary in about half the cases.
For July, in the south, the maximum (at 14” or 15") becomes
relatively great in Central Arizona, but is not usually large else-
where, while a sharply defined minimum occurs at 6" to 8"; and
but single phases occur where the amplitude is so excessive,
while for the other stations secondary phases occur, but the
minimum at about sunrise remains the primary minimum with
a single exception, in which case the minimum occurs at mid-
night. Near the center the maximum period (culminating at
F.. Waldo— Wind Velocities in the United States. 441
15° to 17°) is of rather long duration but the amplitude is not
excessive, and the principal minimum occurs at about 6" to 8".
The high station of Winnemucca is the only one with pro-
nounced secondary phases. In the north, the characteristics of
_the curves are similar to those near the center, except that at
Ft. Assiniboine and Helena there is a secondary minimum at
21" to 22" and maximum at 24".
For the Year, in the south, the maxima (culminating at about
15") are about an average between those for January and July,
and a single minimum occurs at 6" or 8", except for Phcenix
which, as in July, has an absolute minimum in the afternoon :
the minimum period is rather level. Near the center, but a
single moderately sized maximum occurs at about 15" and the
minimum is at 6" to 8". Winnemucca has two maxima, a
slight secondary one near midnight; and the morning mini-
mum, although it remains the primary, is not much different
from thesecondary. Atthe north, the maxima are usually fairly
well marked (crest at about 15") and cover a long period with
no secondary phases except at Ft. Assiniboine.
The curves (p. 442) showing the daily march of the wind veioc-
ities for January and July for characteristic stations of twenty
regions in the U. S. are numbered from 1 to 20 and the follow-
ing list will identify stations by name: :
Daily Wind, miles per hour.
JANUARY. JULY.
= pe Rt ————————————— —
Daily Daily
At05, Max. Min. average. At0®. Max. Min. aver.
1. Block Island, 15°9 16°8 15°5 16-2 LOY ai 9% 10°9
Zwew York City, 10° 11° 9% 10°4 6°6 Se ont gs
3. Key West, List "9 10°8 S78 Peabo ees Sis sl Ose
4. Corpus Christi, 10°1 10-4 + 11°8 9°4 12°6 LSS enn Fs Meh sepe (Gm ese
5. Cleveland, OT E250 102 KO:9 78 84 5:1 9°0
6. Tatoosh Island, 1656." 17-0, 1533 16°4 8:8 Sa) 39 TL
7. San Francisco, - 52 Chea 6:2 OTe Lio ote hice
8. San Diego, 4°3 8:4 eo 5-1 DES ee eO el iS 5:8
9. Albany, 5°9 So" ao 6°6 4:2 80" -3°6 5°6
10. Atlanta, 10°3 ie oe 10°5 6'5 i3u5 GFE 6°8
11. Little Rock, 5°6 G97 pros 59 2-4 Gist 2r0 4°1
12. Vicksburg, 6°8 74 6:2 67 4-0 6252 3:8 4:7
13. Louisville, 8°4 Lie GS geod 8°9 4:0 SiS 54
14. St. Paul, 5°2 €2 ow oe: 5°8 aig O28 oo 5°6
15. North Platte, 6°9 Sey (Ge 15 S72) =, HOG Soro 88
16. Palestine, Texas, 87 105 8:3 a 67 19 5:4 6°8
17, Ft. Apache, 4°6 hy a o°3 AA sO 2°9 6°0
18. Salt Lake City, £0 G0)" 371 2 as 45 89 28 57
19. Ft. Custer, 674 Coy GAs) 62h 6°3 Osa AST 6°9
20. Roseburgh, 2°5 4°6 2°65 3°0 1°5 Slee 4:0
In the little table are given for January and July the wind
in miles per hour at 0" (midnight), at the time of maximum
and minimum wind, and for the average of all the hours of the
day.
449 =F, Waldo— Wind Velocities in the United States.
These curves begin and end at 0" (midnight) and are all in
the same scale. At the top of the diagram giving the curves
the two hour spaces are indicated by short lines, but the miles
per hour have been indicated only in general by vertical scales
January. July.
2 24 72 es
15.9 Vi
0
L0.0 i a y é \
SV | 3 68 v ER r
12.6 \
10.1 + \
10.7 et 1 ee 75 i
: aa
89 |
i i,
J.
8
39
43 g 28
59 4.2 10.
5.6 M 2
6.8 72 24
14 oy
oe G5
52 19 39
6.9 76 eS 76. x
Ou), 67
17 17
4.6 yy 183
ae 13 4b
43! nS
6.4 19
a 20
251 |
1.5
at the sides of the curves because it would make the reproduc-
tion of the diagram less simple to place the scales properly
opposite each curve. The miles per hour of wind at 0" is given
at the beginning of each curve.
D. A. Kreider— Preparation of Perchlorie Acid, etc. 448
Art. XXXVJ.—The Preparation of Perchlorie Acid and tts
Application to the Determination of Potassium, by D.
ALBERT KREIDER.
| [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale College.—XXXVIII.]
Various methods for the preparation of perchloric acid
have been developed through the long felt want of a process
in which the elements of time and danger would be reduced to
a minimum and the product increased to quantities commen-
surate with the growing use of the acid in analytical chemistry.
Most of these methods have been found impracticable because
of the incidental formation of the dangerously explosive oxides
of chlorine, or the time required in refining the product from
the impurities introduced with the reagents employed.
Doubtless the best process thus far offered is that of Caspari,*
which, however, is to an objectionable degree exacting of time
and labor. The product has to be treated and retreated for
the removal of potassium and then for the extraction of the
hydro-fiuo-silicic-acid and at several stages is for this purpose
to be left standing for from twenty-four to forty-eight hours.
Under the most favorable circumstances it could not be pre-
pared in less than five or six days, and during a great many
hours of that time it requires close attention.
The great difficulty has always been with the necessity of a
perfect separation of potassium from the perchloric acid, which
has been prepared by the ignition of the potassium chlorate.
If, for the manufacture of the perchlorate, the chlorate of
sodium—which, if not upon the shelves of every laboratory, is
nevertheless in the market, almost, if not entirely free of potas-
sium—be used instead of the potassium salt, the complete
removal of the base will be unessential; since its presence in
the determination of potassium will exert no influence other
than that which is beneficial. It is well known that because
of its deliquescence and the almost equal solubility of sodium
perchlorate with that of the chloride, its separation from the
latter by recrystallization from an aqueous solution, as in the
case of potassium, is impossible. But the insolubility of the
chloride of sodium in strong hydrochloric acid, with the aid of
the acid-proof Gooch crucible, affords a means for the libera-
tion of the perchloric acid and the removal of the greater part
of the sodium in one operation.. Upon this basis, therefore,
the following simple method was elaborated.
A convenient quantity of sodium chlorate, from 100 to 300
grms., is melted in a glass retort or round-bottomed flask and
* Zeitschr. fir Ang. Chem., 1893, p. 68.
444. Kreider—Preparation of Perchloric Acid and its
gradually raised to a temperature at which oxygen is freely,
but not too rapidly evolved, and kept at this temperature till
the fused mass thickens throughout, which indicates the com-
plete conversion of the chlorate to the chloride and perchlorate,
and requires between one and one-half to two hours: or the
retort may be connected with a gasometer and the end of the
reaction determined by the volume of oxygen expelled, accord-
ing to the equation
2NaClO,=NaCl+NaClO,+4+0,.
The product thus obtained is washed from the retort to a capa-
cious evaporating dish where it is treated with sufficient hydro-
chlorie acid to effect the complete reduction of the residual
chlorate, which, if the ignition has been carefully conducted
with well distributed heat, will be present in but small amount.
It is then evaporated to dryness on the steam bath, or more
quickly over a direct flame, and with but little attention until
a point near to dryness has been reached, when stirring will be
found of great advantage in facilitating the volatilization of
the remaining liquid and in breaking up the mass of salt.
Otherwise the perchlorate seems to solidify with a certain
amount of water, and removal from the dish, without moisten-
ing and reheating, is impossible.
After triturating the residue, easily accomplished in a porce-
lain mortar, an excess of the strongest hydrochlorie acid is
added to the dry salt, preferably in a tall beaker where there
is less surface for the escape of hydrochloric acid and from
which the acid can be decanted without disturbing the precipi-
tated chlorid. If the salt has been reduced to a very fine pow-
der, by stirring energetically for a minute, the hydrochloric
acid will set free the perchloric acid and precipitate the sodium
as chloride, which in a few minutes settles, leaving a clear solu-
tion of the perchloric acid with the excess of hydrochlorie acid.
The clear supernatant liquid is then decanted upon a Gooch
filter, through which it may be rapidly drawn with the aid of
suction, and the residue retreated with the strongest hydro-
chloric acid, settled, and again decanted, the salt being finall
brought upon the filter where it is washed with a little strong
hydrochloric acid. A large platinum cone will be found more
convenient than the crucible, because of its greater capacity
and filtering surface. When the filter will not hold all the
sodium chloride, the latter after being washed may be removed
by water or by mechanical means, with precautions not to dis-
turb the felt, which is then ready for the remainder. Of
course, if water is used, the felt had better be washed with a
little strong hydrochloric acid before receiving another portion
of the salt. This residue will be found to contain only an
&
Application to the Determination of Potassium. 445
inconsiderable amount of perchlorate, when tested by first heat-
ing to expel the free acid and then treating the dry and pow-
dered residue with 97 per cent alcohol, which dissolves the
perchlorate of sodium but has little soluble effect on the
chloride.
The filtrate, containing the perchloric acid with the excess
of hydrochloric acid and the small per cent of sodium chloride
which is soluble in the latter, is then evaporated over the steam
bath till all hydrochloric acid is expelled and the heavy white
fumes of perchloric acid appear, when it is ready for use in
potassium determinations. Evidently the acid will not be
chemically pure because the sodium chloride is not absolutely
insoluble in hydrochloric acid; but a portion tested with silver
nitrate will prove that the sodium, together with any other
bases which may have gone through the filter, has been com-
pletely converted into perchlorate, and unless the original
chlorate contained some potassium or on evaporation the acid was
exposed to the fumes of ammonia, the residue of the evapora-
tion of a portion is easily and completely soluble in 97 per cent
alcohol and its presence is therefore unobjectionable. One
cubic centimeter of the acid thus obtained gave on evaporation
a residue of only 0°036 grm., which was completely soluble in
97 per cent alcohol.
Caspari’s acid under similar treatment gave a residue in one
case of 0°024 grms. and in another 0:047 grms. If, however, a
portion of pure acid be required, it may be obtained by distill-
ing this product under diminished pressure and, as Caspari
has shown, without great loss providing the heat is regulated
according to the fumes in the distilling flask.
Some modification of the above treatment will be found
necessary in case the sodium chlorate contains any potassium
as an impurity, or if the latter has been introduced from the
vessel in which the fusion was made. Under these circum-
stances the hydrochloric acid would not suffice for the removal
of potassium, since a trace might also go over with the sodium
and thus on evaporation a residue insoluble in 97 per cent
alcohol be obtained. To avoid this difficulty, the mixture of
sodium perchlorate and chloride, after being treated with hydro-
chloric acid for the reduction of the residual chlorate, being
reduced to a fine powder, was well digested with 97 per cent
alcohol, which dissolves the sodium perchlorate but leaves the
chloride as well as any potassium salt insoluble. By giving the
alcohol time to become saturated, which was facilitated by stir-
ring, it was found on filtering and evaporating that an average
of about 0-2 grm. of sodium perchlorate was obtained for every
cubic centimeter of alcohol and that the product thus obtained
was comparatively free of chlorides, until the perchlorate was
>
446 Kreider—Preparation of Perchlorie Acid and ats
nearly all removed, when more of the chloride seems to dissolve.
This treatment with alcohol is continued until, on evaporation
of a small portion of the latest filtrate, only a small residue is
found. The alcoholic solution of the perchlorate is then dis-
tilled from a large flask until the perchlorate begins to erystal-
lize, when the heat is removed and the contents quickly
emptied into an evaporating dish, the same liquid being used
to wash out the remaining portions of the salt. When the dis-
tillation is terminated at the point indicated, the distillate will
contain most of the alcohol employed, but in a somewhat
stronger solution, so that it requires only diluting to 97 per
cent to fit it for use in future preparations. The salt is then
evaporated to dryness on the steam bath and subsequently
treated with strong hydrochloric acid for the separation of the
perchloric acid.
One cubic centimeter of the acid prepared in this way, on
evaporation gave a residue in one case of 0:0369 grms., and in
another 0:0307 grm., completely soluble in 97 per cent alcohol,
which was then ignited and the chlorine determined by silver
from which the equivalent of perchloric acid in the form of
salts was calculated as 0°0305 grm. By neutralizing the acid
with sodium carbonate, evaporating, igniting in an atmosphere
of carbon dioxide till decomposition was complete, collecting
the oxygen over caustic potash, allowing it to act on hydriodie
acid by intervention of nitric oxide, according to a process
soon to be published, titrating the iodin liberated, with stand-
ard arsenic and calculating the equivalent of perchloric acid,
after subtracting the amount of acid found in the form of salts,
the amount of free acid per cubic centimeter proved to be
0°9831 grms.
The whole process, even when the separation with alcohol is
necessary, can not well require more than two days and during
the greater part of that time the work proceeds without atten-
tion.
In applying perchloric acid, thus prepared, to the determina-
tion of potassium according to the treatment suggested by
Caspari* very satisfactory results were obtained. Briefly, the
method is as follows: The substance, free from sulphuric acid,
is evaporated to the expulsion of free hydrochloric acid, the
residue stirred with 20 cm? of hot water and then treated with
perchloric acid in quantity not less than one and one-half times
that required by the bases present, when it is evaporated with
frequent stirring to a thick, syrup-like consistency, again dis-
solved in hot water and evaporated with continued stirring till
all hydrochloric acid has been expelled and the fumes of per-
* loc. cit.
ag
v
Application to the Determination of Potassium. 447
chloric acid appear. Further loss of perchloric¢ acid is to be
compensated for by addition of more. The cold mass is then
well stirred with about 20 cm? of wash aleohol—97 per cent
alcohol containing 0°2 per cent by weight of pure perchloric
acid—with precautions against reducing the potassium per-
chlorate crystals to too fine a powder. After settling, the
aleohol is decanted on the asbestos filter and the residue simi-
larly treated with about the same amount of wash alcohol, set-
tling and again decanting. The residual salt is then deprived
of alcohol by gently heating, dissolved in 10 em® of hot water
and a little perchloric acid, when it is evaporated once more
with stirring, until fumes of perchloric acid rise. It is then
washed with 1 em? of.wash alcohol, transferred to the asbestos,
preferably by a policeman to avoid excessive use of alcohol,
and covered finally with pure alcohol: the whole wash process
requiring about 50 to 70 cm? of alcohol. It is then dried at
about 130° C. and weighed.
The substitution of a Gooch crucible for the truncated
pipette employed by Caspari will be found advantageous; and
asbestos capable of forming a close, compact felt should be
selected, inasmuch as the perchlorate is in part unavoidably
reduced, during the necessary stirring, to so fine a condition
that it tends to run through the filter when under pressure. A
special felt of an excellent quality of asbestos was prepared
for the determinations given below and seemed to hold the
finer particles of the perchlorate very satisfactorily.
A number of determinations made of potassium unmixed
with other bases or non-volatile acids are recorded in the fol-
lowing table:
KCl Volume of KCl0, Error on Error on Error on
taken. filtrate. found. KClU,. KCl. KO.
germs. em?, germs. germs. germs. germs.
0°1000 54 Oso: 0'0008 — 0°0004— 0°0003—
0°1000 58 0°1854 0°000u0 — 0°0002 — 0°0002 —
0°1000 5. 0°1859 0:0000 0°:0000 0°0000
0°1000 50 0°1854 0°0005 — 0°0002 — 0°0002—
0°1000 48 0°1859 0°0000 0°0000 0:0000
0°1000 >) 52 0°1854 0°0005 — 0°0002 — 0:0002—
Considerable difficulty, however, was experienced in obtain-
ing equally satisfactory determinations of potassium associated
with sulphuric and phosphoric acids. As Caspari has pointed
out, the sulphuric acid must be removed by precipitation as
barium sulphate before the treatment with perchloric acid is
attempted, and unless the precipitation is made in a strongly
Am. Jour. Sc1.—TuirpD Series, Vout. XLIX, No. 294.—Junz, 1895.
30
448 D. A. Kreider— Preparation of Perchloric Acid, etc.
acid solution, some potassium is carried down with the
barium. Phosphoric acid need not be previously removed ;
but to secure a nearly complete separation of this acid from
the potassium, a considerable excess of perchloric acid should
be left upon the potassium perchlorate before it is treated with
the alcohol. When these conditions are carefully complied
with, fairly good results may justly be expected. Below are
given a number of the results obtained.
Vol. of KClO, Erroron Erroron Error on
Compounds taken. filtrate. found. KCl1O,. KCl. K,0.
orms. Goi, mygaatsy, germs, orms. germs,
KCl = 0°1000 )
CaCO; = 0°13 50 01887 0:0028+ 0:0014+ 0:0009+*
MgSO, = 0°13 | 82 01875 0:0016+ 0:0008+ 0°0005+*
Fe.Cle =005 $ 80 0°1861 06°0002+ 0°0001+ 0:0001++4
Al.(SO.4)3 = 0°05 | 80 01843 0:0016— 0:0008— 0:0005—+
MnO, = 0:05 92 01839 0:0020— 0:0010— 0:0006—+
HNaePO,°12H,.0=0-40 J) 60 0:1854 0:0005— 0°0002— 0°0002—+
In the last three experiments of the above table the amount
of perchloric acid was about three times that required to unite
with the bases present and the phosphoric acid subsequently
found with the potassium was hardly enough to appreciably
affect the weight, although its absolute removal was found
impossible.
The kindly direction and frequent advice of Professor F. A.
Gooch, during the investigation, is gratefully acknowledged.
* The residue showed phosphoric acid plainly when tested.
+ Only traces of phosphoric acid found in the residue.
WhalD, ViilesY,
Hobbs— Crystal Form of Borneol and Lsoborneol. 449
Art. XXX VII.—On the Crystal Form of Borneol and
LIsoborneol; by WM. H. Hosss. |
IN a recent paper by Bertram and Walbaum* on an isomer
of borneol (C,,H,,O) which they have called isoborneol, Traube
has described both this substance and borneol from a erystallo-
graphical standpoint. ‘The borneol examined was obtained b
reduction of camphor, had a melting point of 206°-207°, and
was dextro-rotatory. Thesymmetry of both borneol and isobor-
neol as determined by Traube is hexagonal, the combination
in each case being the basal pinacoid with the pyramid and
rism. The chief differences between the two substances he
finds to be the greater double refraction of isoborneol, and its
positive optical character, borneol being optically negative.
The axial ratio of borneol he determined to be exactly double
that of isoborneol.
Three samples of the aleohol C,,H,,0 were given me for
examination to determine whether they are borneol or isobor-
neol. They were prepared in the School of Pharmacy of the
University of Wisconsin by Mr. Carl G. Hunkel, whose study
of them will be published in the Pharmaceutische Rundschau.
The samples were prepared, one from the oil of black spruce
(Picea nigra) in which the alcohol is contained as acetic ester,
a second from the oil of the fir balsam (Adbzes balsamia), and
the third from the oil of turpentine in benzine. The crystals
in all these samples are larger and more highly modified than
those described by Traube, and their examination has brought
out new facts concerning their crystallography and physical
properties. The surest basis of comparison with the crystals
described by Traube has been the degree of double refraction.
The crystals obtained from Picea nigra and Abies balsamia
in this respect correspond exactly with the borneol of Traube’s
study. The crystals in the sample obtained from turpentine,
on the other hand, correspond with his isoborneol so far as the
degree of double refraction is concerned, but they are always
optically negatwe, in this respect agreeing with borneol. It is
therefore not certain that this substance is identical with the
isoborneol of Bertram and Walbaum, but it seems best from
all the facts to refer to it for the present as isoborneol. All
the samples examined have rhombohedral symmetry. This is
clearly shown by the partial occurrence of pyramids, and in
the case of the crystals from Picea nigra by the tri-symmetric
character of pittings on the basal pinacoid. Of the nine pyra-
midal forms which have been made out on the two substances
* Ueber Isoborneol, Journ. f. prakt. Chemie, vol. xlix (1894), pp. 1-19.
450 Hobbs—Crystal Form of Borneol and Lsoborneol.
no one occurs in both positive and negative dodecants on the
same crystal. The habit of both substances is broadly tabular
parallel to the basal pinacoid and the plates have generally a
regular hexagonal outline. One variety of isoborneol is, how-
ever, observed whose crystals take the form of rhomboidal
plates owing to the disappearance of all planes from two of the
opposite vertical pairs of dodecants. Although these crystals
are identical with the normal variety in regard to their optical
properties, they nevertheless represent an entirely different
crystal combination. Crystals from all the samples have their
faces more or less rounded and the measurements are as a
result subject to considerable variations, but they are, neverthe-
less sufficiently accurate for a determination of all the forms.
It is very probable that the axial ratios of borneol and isobor- |
neol are different, since the substances differ so much in their
double refraction, but they are certainly nearly identical and
the difference is within the limits of error in the reading of
angles on the crystals examined. I have therefore used for
both substances the axial ratio determined on erystals of bor-
neol from Picea nigra.
Borneol from Picea nigra. The crystals of this substance
examined are thin, colorless, hexagonal plates having a diameter
of $-1°". and a thickness of 0°5-1™™. ‘The larger plates have a
wide peripheral zone which is occupied by cavities generally filled
with mother liquor. The shape of these cavities is somewhat
irregular, but they are oriented roughly parallel to the bounda-
ries of the plate. Besides the basal pinacoid the prominent forms
are a steep rhombohedron making nearly 83° with the base and a
smaller rhombohedral face of opposite sign which makes nearly
78° with the same form. This latter form is undoubtedly the
pyramid observed on the substance by Traube and it is there-
fore chosen for determining the axial ratio. The average of four
measurements of the angle included between this face and the
base (limits 71° 25’ and 74° 6’) is 72° 46’ and if considered the
fundamental rhombohedron the axial ratio would be ¢= 2°79
(2°83, Traube). It is, however, more convenient to consider
this form 3R (3031), which makes the axial ratio ¢ = 0-98.
The observed forms ae c, oP (0001); s, 8R (8031); g, —8R
(OSL) 8 my cole (OLD) s ws aR (2023) 5 wu, 4R (4041). Fioure i
represents a crystal of borneol. These forms have been deter-
mined by the following measurements :
Measured. Calculated.
CAS, 72° 46’ ‘(limits 71° 25’ and 74° 6’) 72° 46’
CAq 82 42 (limits 81 13 and 83 47) 83 22
CAU, ie el (limits 76 47 and 77 35) 76 54
Hobbs—Crystal Form of Borneol and Isoborneol. 451
The crystals have very perfect cleavage parallel to the base
and the rhombohedron g. They are very flexible and care
must be used in handling them before measurement. Pittings
on the basal pinacoid are trisymmetric with the lines of sym-
metry meeting at angles of 120°.
Examined under the polarizing microscope basal sections of
these crystals appear isotropic and afford no interference figure.
Sections parallel to the prism exhibit very weak double refrac-
tion. In sections 2™™. in thickness the double refraction is
faintly perceptible without the use of a quartz plate. In sec-
tions 3™™”. in thickness the double refraction is easily determined
with use of the quarter undulation mica place. A consider-
able number of sections were tested and all were found to be
negative. In these sections the interference color only reaches
the yellow of the first order when the corresponding axes of
the crystal and the mica plate are parallel. These characters
therefore agree well with those determined for this substance
by Traube. The borneol prepared from SX
‘ RR,
LLL et
So Ken Heine
EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.
Fig. 1.—Diplograptus pristis Hall. Natural size.
Fic. 2.—Diplograptus pristiniformis Hall. Natural size.
Fic. 3.—Diplograptus pristiuiformis Hall. Enlarged six times. Specimen from
the limestone. a. Pneumatocyst. 0b. Gonangium.
Fig. 4.—Diplograptus pristis Hall. Enlarged four times.
a. Gonangium filled with sicule.
b. Sicula developing into a stipe.
c. Young stipe with distinct sicula at the distal end.
Fig. 5.—Detached sicula of D pristis Hall with pneumatocyst.
456 Darton and Kemp—Newly Discovered Dike at
Art. XXXIX.—A Newly Discovered Dike at De Witt, near
Syracuse, New York. Geologic notes by N. H. Darton,
U. 8. Geological Survey. Petrographie description by
J. F. Kemp, Columbia College.
In November, 1894, I received intelligence of an occurrence
of intrusive rock penetrating the Salina formation near Syra-
cuse, and soon after had an opportunity to visit the locality.
The materials obtained were submitted to Prof. J. F. Kemp
for microscopic study, and an analysis of the rock was made in
the laboratory of the U. 8. Geological Survey.
The locality is at the new reservoir on the top of an isolated
hill, a half mile south of Dewitt Center (De Sono station on
the West Shore railroad), 8 miles east of Syracuse. Mr. Phil-
lip F. Schneider, a professor in the High School at Syracuse,
was the discoverer of the dike, and to him also we are indebted
for information regarding its relations. The dike was exposed
by the excavations for the reservoir and does not appear to
reach the natural surface. It was buried under a mantle of
glacial drift, and in part, at least, was covered by shales and
limestones of the Salina formation. Unfortunately the reser-
voir was practically completed and filled with water before Mr.
Schneider learned of the dike, so that he was unable to observe
the relations. . According to the statements of the contractor,
the rock occurred in masses imbedded in a greenish-yellow
earth which underlaid the entire area of the excavation, which
was about 200 by 250 feet. The masses varied greatly in size.
Some were 20 by 50 feet and afforded an adequate supply of
building stone for the walls of the reservoir. A considerable
amount of the excavated materials now remains on the banks
and it was from that source that I secured specimens. The
greenish-yellow earth in which the rock masses occurred is
undoubtedly a product of the decomposition of the intrusive
rock. The original surfaces of all the rocks are more or less
deeply decomposed to a serpentinous matter, and some of the
smaller rocks are filled with calcite veins and other secondary
products. Whether the mass was really a dike or mainly an
intruded sheet was not determined. No traces of the rock
have been found on the surface or in wells in the vicinity.
The dike at Dewitt is in the upper portion of the Salina for-
mation which consists of shales and limestones. A short dis-
tance south, rise the slopes of the Helderberg escarpment, and
to the north are wide plains of the lower Salina beds. The dip
is a gentle monocline to the southward. The rocks adjoining
the intrusive were thrown out in considerable amount in the
De Witt, near Syracuse, New York. 457
excavation of the reservoir. They present signs of slight meta-
morphism, consisting of increase in hardness and darkening in
eolor. Mr. Schneider has called my attention to an exposure
600 yards north of the reservoir, in which there is considerable
flexing in the shales, but this was the only signs of disturbance
noted and may not be due to the intrusion.
The intrusive rock contains many inclusions of various rocks
which will be referred to by Prof. Kemp. They were of
course brought up from below by the dike.
The relations of the Dewitt dike to the Syracuse occurrence
are not known, but as the rocks and relations are so similar it
is probable that they are connected underground. It is very
desirable that a careful search should be made in the region for
other dikes at the surface.
Petrography of the Dewitt Dike.
J. F. Kemp.
The interest of geologists was greatly excited when Dr. G.
H. Williams announced, in 1887, the undoubted igneous nature
of the serpentine, which, in 1839 had been recorded by Van-
uxem as occurring in the Salina salt group at Syracuse, N. Y.
The region of undisturbed sedimentary strata of central New
York was generally regarded, with much reason, as one of the
least likely of all localities to contain intrusive rocks; and
although scattered mention of dikes had been made for at least
two other localities, the microscopic determinations of Dr.
Williams were the first really conclusive evidence of their
igneous character. In but two particulars did this paper leave
anything to be further desired; first, the specimens, as stated
in the paper, were of weathered material, such that the larger
minerals, with the exception of a few small cores of enstatite
had to be determined from the alteration products and the
ground-mass was represented by a mass of carbonates and ser-
pentine; and, second, Dr. Williams was unable to obtain, either
from his own collections or those at Hamilton College, the
“sranitic” and “syenitic” (or micaceous and hornblendic)
“accretions,” mentioned by Vanuxem.
Somewhat later in further excavations, additional material
was obtained, on which a brief note was presented to the Geo-
logical Society of America, at New York, December, 1889.*
The geological relations proving the intrusive character, are
set forth, and the general statement is made that the minerals
of the rock are not all altered to serpentine, but beyond this,
no further determinations are recorded than were given in the
* Bulletin, vol. i, p. 533.
458 Darton and Kemp—Newly Discovered Dike at
earlier paper. Dr. Williams also found abundant inclusions—
doubtless Vanuxem’s “‘ accretions ”—even of the acidic crystal-
lines on which the sedimentary series must rest. It is evident,
however, from comparative remarks made upon the peridotite
described by R. N. Brackett,* from Pike Co., Ark., that
abundant and unaltered little augites in the ground-mass were
also noted.
It would appear that in some respects the material collected
by Mr. Darton is in an even fresher and less altered state than
any yet examined, and as it occurs some three miles from the
former locality, a few additional notes are not out of place.
The writer is fortunate in having had for comparison some of
the original specimens collected by Prof. Oren Root, the dis-
coverer of the outcrop, and also a representative set of pieces
from Dr. Williams’s collection, given him by the latter in 1889.
Comparisons have also been made with slides of some other
allied rocks, as indicated below.
The Dewitt rock belongs to the porphyritic type of Williams.
While in some specimens much altered, yet in others it contains
olivine, as fresh and unchanged as if it had come from the most
recent of basalts. Almost no traces of serpentinization are
present in some of the slides. In addition to the olivine,
whose crystals vary from 1™™ to 8™™ in diameter, the only
other large phenocrysts are biotite and one or two crystals of
augite. In the ground-mass are innumerable small augites,
which seem to have made it up in largest amount, shreds of
biotite, magnetite, apatite and perofskite. It is probable that
there was also an original glass, now mostly devitrified by alter-
ation.
The olivine is often idiomorphic, and the elongated, lozenge-
shaped cross-sections are common. It is practically colorless.
The figure given on page 142 of Dr. Williams’s paper, would
answer excellently for the new occurrence. The phenocrysts
of biotite are smaller, 1™™ being the general diameter. They
are hexagonal, and the outer portions are thickly set with
included grains of magnetite. The color is the usual rich
brown of the biotite in basic rocks, and there is a slight separa-
tion of the optic axes. The augite is a rather rare phenocryst,
but two or three crystals having been seen in a half dozen slides.
It is, however, well marked, has an extinction ranging from 30°—
40°, and is perfectly fresh.
The little rods of augite in the ground-mass are very small,
°05™™ or less in diameter, and perhaps twice as long. They are
faint green, have a high extinction, and are normal in their
properties. The ground-mass is practically like that of the basic
* This Journal, July, 1889, p. 57, second paragraph and top of p. 59.
De Witt, near Syracuse, New York. 459
dikes called monchiquite, and the resemblance is very close in
this respect to those met by the writer on Lake Champlain.*
The shreds of biotite are irregular and small. It is not certain
that they are not, in large part, secondary. One vein of yel-
lowish-brown biotite was found running across a thoroughly
serpentinized olivine crystal, and hence must have been second-
ary. The occurrence casts a doubt over the shreds in the more
or less decomposed ground-mass, and gives ground for thinking
them likewise secondary. The magnetite and apatite deserve
no special comment, although the analysis indicates that as
regards the former, some chromite is also present. Dr. Wil-
liams came to the conclusion that the greater part of the black
opaque grains met at Syracuse were chromite; but as so little
Cr,O, is shown by the analysis of the Dewitt material, and as
the grains are quite abundant, and the rock magnetic, it is prob-
able that rnost of them are magnetite. They show no altera-
tion to leucoxene. Not a few of the small grains, on being
highly magnified in a strong light, are seen to be translucent
and brown. They are undoubtedly perofskite, and a close par-
allel to the occurrence at Syracuse. The translucency was not
detected in the hasty examination made by the writer prior to
the meeting of the Geological Society of America in Baltimore
last December, and it was then stated verbally, that no perof-
skite had been detected. The minuteness of the grains and their
high refraction led to this erroneous inference from study with
low powers. ‘The web of apparently devitrified glass in which
these small crystals of the ground-mass are caught, is an unsat-
isfactory subject of study. Some clear patches are perfectly
isotropic, while others show irregular spherulitic crosses, and
even colors of the first order. Where the network of small
augites is thick, the interstitial masses are too minute to be sat-
isfactorily studied. Careful search was made for melilite,
because the abundant perofskite and the interesting occur-
rence of this mineral at Manheim, N. Y., described by C. H.
Smyth, Jr.,¢ gave some ground for suspecting it, but none
could be detected.
The Dewitt rock might, with perfect propriety, be called a
picrite, as a porphyritic form of peridotite, or a monchiquite as
a dike rock without feldspar and containing olivine, there
being no real need for both these names. It corresponds to
picrite as used by Rosenbusch, except that it has abundant bio-
tite, and therefore is related to the mica-peridotite of J. S.
Diller,t from the very similar Flanary dike of Crittenden Co.,
Ky., but biotite, as shown by a comparison of slides, is less
* Kemp and Marsters, Bulletin 107, U. S. Geological Survey. p. 33.
+ This Journal, Aug., 1893, p. 104.
¢ Ibid, Oct., 1892, p. 289.
460 Darton and Kemp—Newly Discovered Dike at
abundant at Dewitt, while augite, even in the ground-mass, is
absent in the Kentucky occurrence. It is practically the same
as the peridotite of Pike Co., Ark., referred to above, and both
Williams in the original papers on the Syracuse occurrenee,
and Brackett in the one earlier cited, on the Arkansas expos-
ure, were abundantly justified in placing these rocks with
Lewis’ kimberlite* from South Africa. The writer has com-
pared the Dewitt rock with slides of all the American related
dikes, and with others of the dike in the De Beers mine of
South Africa. It is practically the same rock as the last,
except that in the specimens at hand, the latter appears to
have had a glassy ground-mass now devitrified, which lacks
augite. The writer is in thorough sympathy with the growing
opinion, that rocks should be classified on texture, and, broadly
speaking, into granitoid, porphyritic and glassy groups: that
dikes should be referred to their nearest granitoid or porphy-
ritic relatives, and called by their names. Taking plutonic
rocks as practically the granitoid, and volcanic as the porphy-
ritic, the Dewitt rock is a basaltic dike of the same composi-
tion and texture as limburgite, and should be called limburgite,
even if it is not a surface flow. It would probably simplify
matters in a commendable degree if all the other names of
feldspar-free, olivine-bearing dikes with a glassy ground-mass,
be allowed to drop out of use, and if in this and other similar
cases, large resemblances, rather than small differences, were
brought out in our nomenclature. |
At Mr. Darton’s request, the following analysis was made of
the Dewitt rock, in the laboratory of the U. 8. Geological
Survey, by Dr. H. Stokes. With it are placed analyses of the
Syracuse serpentine, made by T. S. Huntt in 1858, and of the
mica-peridotite from Crittenden Co., Ky., made by W. F.
Hillebrand for J. 8. Diller.t Although an analysis of the badly-
weathered Ithaca dike was made for the writer, and published,
it is here omitted, because it is clearly untrustworthy, the high
Al,O, and low MgO, being unlikely.
Mr. Darton collected a coarsely crystalline rock, which
occurred with the fragments of peridotite. In thin sections it
is seen to contain brown, basaltic, quite idiomorphic hornblende,
plagioclase, one large untwinned feldspar with parallel extine-
tion, apparently orthoclase, and many quite large bits of mag-
netite. This is probably one of the syenitic accretions of Van-
uxem, and an inclusion of wall rock in the peridotite, brought
up from great depth. It may be, it should also be stated, a
drift-boulder, as it was found with the loose, blasted peridotite,
* Geol. Mag., 1887, 22.
+ This Journal, Sept., 1858, 237,
t Ibid., Oct., 1892, 288.
De Witt, near Syracuse, New York. 461
but the indications were that it came from the excavation. In
studying a series of slides, however, from the material received
five years ago from Dr. Williams, one slide contained a crystal
of brown hornblende like the above, and another had in the
midst of the porphyritic peridotite, a chance inclusion about 10™™
across which consisted of microperthitic orthoclase, in largest
part, with some plagioclase, brown hornblende and titaniferous
magnetite. It is undoubtedly a fragment of the underlying
Archean crystallines, picked up by the intrusive peridotite, for
its edges are sharp and all the associations are of this character.
Mr. Darton also gathered specimens with undoubted inclusions
of sedimentary rock. One of these is an argillaceous sandstone
formed of quartz grains and interstitial clay; and the others
are earthy limestones showing, under the microscope, sections
of small brachiopod shells. No appreciable evidence of contact
metamorphism could be detected.
Dewitt. Syracuse. Kentucky.
S50) eran 36°80 40°67 33°84
Oey... eee 1°26 Coe 3°78
PRO ne. AEE. 4°16 5°13 5°88
emery ho) ee Sa 0-20 a 0°18
50S SRAM Sa eee RAE. Eee: 7:04
EGS pea ie L 8°3: 8°12 5°16
LS Sa eet ae Uae 0°13 nats 0°16
aren eh: 3 ene OE 0°09 Lan aie 0°10
CS ea oe lee ine ies ee eee trace
| Lod, ESE REE 8°63 Pe fai 9°46
20 0°12 aoe 0:06
REA the et Jalouse trace cae 5
Mh Recre e a s 25°98 32°61 22°96
70 pie alte agile 2°48 spt 2°04
EO 8 ele 5 7s s | Oealve Beh 0°33
Re ei eg UP arer 7-50
2 lok ine eae 0°47 i: 0°89
Cn 2°95 ee 0°43
ee Sr hia 2 her Leer 0°05
ee See ee Bs i oe ?
pommer gait. eo 0-06 Ae She.
eee ee is! a 0°95 ee Ee team
HO helow 1109s... 0°51 i yee pedis
i Ovabove 110°. 22_\ 6°93 vee tee
100°22
eel OS) “47
99°75 99°30 99°86
It is interesting to note the thickness of sedimentary strata
through which this dike must have come from its source in or
462 Darton and Kemp—New Dike at Syracuse.
below the old erystallines. F. E. Englehardt* gives as the
result of the State well at Syracuse, 1969 feet from the surface
Salina to and 154 feet into gray Medina sandstone. Forty miles
due west, at Clyde,t+ a well, begun in the Salina, went 1792 feet
and stopped, being then 92 feet into the Hudson River shales.
A few miles north of Clyde, a well at Walcott+ penetrated
from the Niagara on the surface 2700 feet, and stopped 750
feet into, but not through the Trenton. While at Rochester,t
beginning in the Niagara, a well was put down 3078 feet, end-
ing in white ferruginous quartz, supposed to be Archeean.
Ashburner’s generalized section along the meridian of Clyde,
gives 4800 feet from the Helderberg to the Archeean, and the
dike must have come up through some such section as this,
until it stopped in the Salina strata.
Note:—The following igneous intrusions have now been determined microscop-
ically in central New York. At Syracuse, peridotite, G. H. Williams, this Jour-
nal, Aug., 1887, p. 37, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., I, 533; at Ithaca, 75 miles south
of Syracuse, presumably peridotite, like preceding, J. F. Kemp, Idem., Nov.,
1891, p. 410. The analysis given in this paper, as regards Al.O; and MgO is
undoubtedly untrustworthy. At Manheim, 75 miles east of Syracuse, alnoite,
C. H. Smyth, Jr., Idem. Apr., 1892, 322, Aug., 1893, 104. At Dewitt, 3 miles
east of Syracuse, as above. In addition, boulders of a most interesting rock have
been found at Aurora, N. Y., about 25 miles north of Ithaca, which consisted of
great crystals of pyroxene and hornblende in a glassy ground-mass, and with no
certain olivine. (J. F. Kemp, Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., XI, 126, 1892.) Boulders
of the same rock with attached, fossiliferous Trenton limestone, have been found
by J. M. Clarke, on Canandaigua lake, 30 miles west of Aurora, and have been
described by B. K. Emerson. (12th Ann. Rep., N. Y. State Geologist, 1892, nub-
lished 1893.) Wemay expect other dikes of these curious basic rocks to be dis-
covered in the New York Paleeozoic series, as time goes by.
* N. Y. Assembly Doc., 1885, No. 32, p. 15. Quoted by Ashburner in Trans.
Amer. Inst. Min. Enge., XVI, 944.
+ C. 8. Prosser, Amer. Geol., Oct., 1890, 203-204. The same figures are given
by Ashburner, loe. cit.
{ H. L. Fairchild, Proc., Rochester Acad. Sci. I, 184, 1891.
Dawson—Flevation of the Rocky Mountain Range. 4638
Art. XL.—WNote on the amount of Elevation which has taken
place along the Rocky Mountain Range in British America
since the close of the Cretaceous period; by Dr. G. M.
Dawson. (Reply of March 18 to a letter from J. D. Dana.)
BETWEEN latitudes 49° and. 52° (or thereabouts) numerous
infolds of Cretaceous rocks occur in the Rocky Mountains
proper, or Eastern range of the Cordillera. (Laramide Range.)
These consist chiefly of earlier Cretaceous (Kootanie) but in
places strata as high up as Lower Laramie (St. Mary River
beds) still remain. The actual elevation of these rocks is now
in many places from 6000 to 8000 feet above sea-level. In the
adjacent belt of foothills, to the east, the same Cretaceous
rocks are found, but here still including strata as high as Upper
Laramie. The actual elevation is here often between 5000 and
6000 feet above sea-level.
In the mountains, the Cretaceous rocks have been involved in
all the flexure, faulting and overthrust suffered by the Palzo-
zoic; and both in the mountains and foothills these rocks are
found at all angles up to vertical and even overturned.
Tt is thus difficult to know to what elevations these rocks
may have been thrust up in some places, but a minimum esti-
mate may be arrived at by tracing the continuations of the
beds over the less disturbed anticlinals or by adding their volume
to the elevation of flat-lying ranges of the older rocks. About
latitude 50° it may thus be shown that the base of the Cretace-
ous must in several places have considerably exceeded 10,000
in altitude, while in Mr. McConnell’s section along Bow Pass
(51° 15’) to the north of Devil’s Lake, the same horizon must
have been about 15,500 feet above sea-level, the beds at this
place being nearly flat.
To ascertain the uplift of the beds which were at sea-level at
the close of the Cretaceous, the volume of the Cretaceous strata
must of course be added to such figures as the above. This was,
in the eastern part of the mountains, at least 17,000 feet and
may well have been 20,000 feet (See G. 8S. C. Report, 1885, p.
166 B), giving as a minimum estimate of greatest uplift for the
region say 32,000 to 35,000 feet.
Farther north, Cretaceous infolds in the Rocky Mountains
become less common, so far as known, but the foothills retain
the same general character to Peace River and beyond. Proba-
bly the uplift was somewhat less in these latitudes, as the
Rocky Mountain range proper is less important and narrower.
Still farther north, opposite the Mackenzie delta, Mr.
McConnell describes the range as composed in its highest part
Am. Jour. Sci.—Tairp SeRizs, Vou. XLIX, No. 294.—Junz, 1895.
31
464. Dawson—Elevation of the Rocky Mountain Range.
of Cretaceous rocks, but there only about 4000 feet above the
sea. Several thousand feet have doubtless been removed by
denudation, but we have no exact knowledge of the thickness
of the Cretaceous in that region.
There are also some evidences of slight or moderate uplift
in the Rocky Mountains proper of Alberta previous to or dur-
ing the Laramie, such as the supply of material from the red
rocks of the Triassic to the middle zone of the Laramie, opposite
that part of the range in which these rocks occur, (see G. S. C.
Report, 1882-84, p. 1138 C.) as well as in the materials of the
older Cretaceous conglomerates, although these last may in part
have been derived from elevations west of the Laramide Range.
It is probably impossible to ascertain exactly how long the
main uplifting process continued or to what extent its effect was
counteracted by coneurrent denudation, but some facts may be
cited in this connection.—No deposits referable to the Eocene,
as distinct from the Laramie, have been found in the foothills
or over the Great Plains of Western Canada. It is probable
that none such exist, and it may therefore be assumed that free
eastward drainage, without arrest, obtained during this period.
In the Early Miocene (White River) we find evidence that
strong rivers were carrying coarse gravels from the mountains
out over the plains to a depression some 200 miles east of the
present base of the mountains, forming there a deposit of
which outliers, like that of the Cypress Hills, still remain.
These deposits, in their relation to the Laramide Range,
resemble the Upper Siwalik Conglomerates of India, and it is
probable that at this time a range comparable to the Himalayas
in height, bordered the Great Plains of Alberta on the west.
During the Eocene and Miocene, orographic uplift may
have been continuous, but sometime long before the close of
the Pliocene it came to an end. Evidence of this is found in
the following circumstances.—The Oldman, Highwood, Bow
and other rivers flowing from the mountains, occupy notably
wider valleys where they cross the eastern foothill belt. In
these valleys Cretaceous and Laramie rocks, arranged often in
compressed and complicated folds, are cut sharply off on planes
nearly corresponding with the slopes of the present streams
and upon the basset edges of these rocks bowlder-clay and other
glacial deposits are spread. Since the Glacial period, the
streams have cut out narrow new trenches in the floors of these
valleys. The main valleys are therefore not only pre-glacial,
but also involve a long antecedent period of erosion, during
which the conditions changed little if at all. Had orogenie
movements continued in the Pliocene, the flexed Cretaceous
beds of the foothills Gntimately connected with the general
folding of the mountains) must have participated in them, and
—Luquer and Volckening—New Analyses of Sodalite. 465
no such uniform cutting out of wide valleys would have been
possible. It was no doubt at this time also that much of the
denudation of the Great Plains to the eastward occurred. In
the vicinity of the western end of the Cypress Hills the general
surface of the plain is now about 2200 feet lower than the
Miocene capping of these hills.
Art. XLI.—On Three New Analyses of Sodalite, from three
new localities ; by L. McI. LUQUER and G. J. VOLCKENING.
Sodalite from Hastings Co., Prov. Ontario, Canada.
THE massive sodalite from this locality was collected by
Mr. T. D. Ledyard of Toronto. It was found in the northern
part of Hastings County, Prov. Ontario, about 180 miles N.E.
of Toronto. According to Mr. Ledyard’s statement the soda-
lite does not appear to be very plentiful, takes a beautiful
polish and occurs in the Laurentian formation. He also states
that he has secured the mining rights of all the land on which
the mineral is known to occur. The specimen examined has a
very distinct cleavage, vitreous luster, cobalt-blue color, hard-
ness of 5 to 6, and a colorless streak. It loses color, fuses with
intumescence to a colorless glass, giving a strong soda flame,
and is soluble in hydrochloric acid with separation of gelatinous
silica. A thin section in parallel polarized light appeared of a
pale blue color, and showed by a few cloudy patches traces of
decomposition. Between crossed nicols it was perfectly iso-
tropic.
The other known occurrences of sodalite in this country are:
Litchfield, Me. (blue); Salem, Mass. (violet-blue); Beemer-
ville, N. J. (colorless grains in eleolite syenite)*; Crazy
Mountains, Mont.; Brome, Montreal and Beleil, Canadat;
and Ice River, a branch of the Beaver Foot River, near Kick-
ing Horse Pass in the Rocky Mountains, B. C.
Prof. Harrington of MeGill University, Montreal, is at
present preparing a report on Ontario sodalite and other
Canadian minerals.
Sodalite from the Ural Mountains, Asia.
The specimen examined from this locality was obtained
from a mineral dealer in Ekatherinburg. It is massive, almost
* J. F. Kemp, Trans N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. xi. p. 60.
+ B. J. Harrington, Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Sect. III, p. 81, 1886.
466 Luquer and Volckening—New Analyses of Sodalite. -
free from impurities; and its color, physical characters and
blowpipe reactions are the same as in the Canadian sodalite.
A thin section showed the presence of very perfect cleavage,
and the commencement of decomposition, especially along the
cleavage cracks. Microlitic inclusions of hornblende and a
few grains of what appeared to be eleeolite were also noticed.
Between crossed nicols it was perfectly isotropic. Two sides.
of the specimen were polished.
Sodalite from the Congo State, Africa.
The specimen examined was collected by Brazza, the ex-
plorer, and, so far as is known, is the only noted occurrence of
this mineral in Africa. The cleavage is not very apparent
macroscopically, but its color, physical characters and blowpipe
reactions are the same as in the Canadian sodalite. A decom-
posed iron mineral (chiefly limonite) and a decomposed feld-
spar or clay are associated with the sodalite. A thin section
showed rather a more advanced state of decomposition than in
the Ural specimen, and the presence of only imperfect cleavage.
Little patches of oxide of iron were noticed, and between
crossed nicols the section was completely isotropic. One side
of the specimen was beautifully polished.
The specimens from the Ural Mountains and the Congo:
were loaned for examination by Tiffany & Co., through the
courtesy of Mr. G. F. Kunz; but unfortunately no details.
could be obtained as to exact occurrence, associated minerals,
etc.
CHEMICAL ANALYSES.
Ontario, Sp. Gr. 2°303. Urals, Sp. Gr. 2°328. Congo, Sp. Gr. 2°363.
Gio ee OT Oe CL 2 7 uonoane 40 laeeaene 6°46
SIOe Wa tae SiO AT STO see 37°28 SiO.” ). femeweee
NEM OME Lu) 25:01’ Na,Ol.!. 24°74" 7 Na_O) 2eeaeee
ALLO! Lay 31:25 > ALO...2. 37°60) Al 0, aeg
CaOmr a3 ae) CaOwr ee 464) -CaQ 2:22am
Ka Ore oer 7A. pO H SIE. ‘93 K.0 2/7) Shee
101°51 101°66 101°34
Deduct oxygen equiva-
lent for Cl, 1°53 1°50 1°46
E. Bamberger and K. Feussner note the occurrence of
sodalite in Tiahuanaco, Bolivia. Zeit. f. Kryst., 1881, v, 580.
Mineralogical Laboratory, Columbia College, March 27th, 1894.
Chemistry and Physics. 467
SCERN TEM EC 'TNTELELIGENCE:
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
1. On Solution and Pseudo-solution.—Some years ago LINDER
and Picron concluded from their examination of various grades
of arsenous sulphide solution, that there is no defined boundary
line between suspension on the one hand and perfect solution on
the other; the difference being one of degree of aggregation
only. They have now added another grade of this solution,
haying found that on pouring a two per cent arsenous oxide solu-
tion into hydrogen sulphide water, the mixture is not only dif-
fusible but can be filtered through a porous pot. Of the As,S,
solutions already prepared therefore, grade (a) is made up of
aggregates visible under the microscope, (/) is invisible but not
diffusible, (7) is diffusible but not filterable and (0) is both dif-
fusible and filterable, although it scatters and polarizes a beam
of light. Experiments with the higher grade solutions chiefly (7)
show that as regards their power of coagulating these solutions,
metallic salts can be divided into well defined groups depending
upon the valency of the metal; trivalent metals having the high-
est coagulative power, bivalent metals only one tenth of this
power and univalent metals, including hydrogen and ammonium,
less than one five-hundredth. Moreover these differences are
shown by the same metal when its valence varies. And the
authors have observed that silver and thallium (in its thallous
salts) fall in the same group as copper and the bivalent metals,
while mercury and lead belong in the trivalent group with alu-
minum and iron. From a table giving the relative quantities
needed for coagulation it appears that one molecule of aluminum
chloride AlCl, possesses the same coagulative power as 16:4
molecules of cadmium chloride or 750 molecules of sulphuric
acid. As to the nature of coagulation it was observed that when
effected by barium chloride the arsenous sulphide contained
barium not removable by water, though exchangeable for another
metal when digested with a cold solution of it, such as calcium
nitrate. Since coagulation is due to the positive constituent of a
salt, the authors were led to inquire whether the coagulative
power of salts of the same metal is proportional to the number of
free positive ions in the solution. And acomparison of the molec-
ular conductivities of the chlorides, bromides, iodides, nitrates
and sulphates of potassium, hydrogen, sodium and ammonium,
which are due to the free ions present, with the coagulative power,
appears to indicate that this power is entirely controlled by the
number of free positive ions present.—J. Chem. Soc., \xvii, 638,
February 1895. G. F. B.
2. On the Fluidity of Metals below their Melting Points.—It
has been pointed out by Sprine that many metals exhibit prop-
erties characteristic of the liquid state, even when at temperatures
468 Scientific Intelligence.
much below their melting points. In his experiments, the metals
were in the form of cylinders with perfectly plane ends, placed
end to end in an iron holder, and forced together by means of a
screw, while heated in an air bath or in a bath of an indifferent
gas. The metals used were aluminum, bismuth, cadmium, cop-
per, tin, gold, lead, zinc, antimony and platinum. In the earlier
experiments both cylinders were of the same metal, and the tem-
perature was kept at from 200° to 400° for from four to eight
hours. It was then found that, with the exception of the plati-
num and antimony, the cylinders had alloyed so perfectly that
when one end was fixed in a lathe the entire cylinder could be
turned, and when broken in a vise the fracture was not through
the line of separation. When different metals were employed, as
copper or lead with certain others, an alloy of a considerable
thickness was produced, 18™™ in the case of zinc and copper and
15™" in that of cadmium and copper. When lead and tin were
used a cavity was made at one end of the cylinder and filled with
mica, in order that contact should take place only at the edge.
The alloy formed had a thickness of 15"™, nine millimeters being
in the tin and six in the lead. With cylinders of copper and
zine having a central cavity at the ends in contact, the surface of
the copper next to the cavity was colored yellow, resembling the
alloy formed when copper is exposed to zine vapor. The author
explains these results upon the assumption that the molecules of
solids, like those of fluids, have not all the same velocity.—Zezvt.
physikal. Chem., xv, 65, September 1894. G. F. B.
3. On the Light emitted during Crystallization.—The emission
of light during the crystallization of certain salts has been exam-
ined by BanpRowsk1, who considers it to be in all probability
electrical and to be due to the union of electrified ions. If this
is the case it should be most decided in the sudden crystallization
of strongly dissociated compounds. He suggests the following
experiments in proof of this, which are suitable also for the lec-
ture table. A glass cylinder is half filled with a warm saturated
solution of sodium chloride and into it is poured an equal volume
of hydrochloric acid of specific gravity 1:12, the whole being
mixed by means of a glassrod. A bluish green light fills the
entire cylinder. The experiment may be modified by pouring in
the two liquids separately and carefully and then strongly shak-
ing the cylinder. A flash of light occurs. In place of the acid,
alcohol may be used and the results may be obtained with potas-
sium bromide or chloride in place of the sodium salts. When
potassium chloride was used with alcohol the effect was very
marked, the light being stronger and greener than that given by
sodium chloride.—Zett. physikal. Chem., xv, 323, November, 1894.
G. F. B.
4. On the Two-fold Spectra of Oxygen.—In a paper to the
Royal Society, Baty has sought to account for the two-fold
spectra of oxygen. These spectra are of a different nature ; they
behave differently and there are reasons why in all probability
Chemistry and Physics. 469
they are spectra of different gases. These spectra may be pro-
duced by different vibrations of the oxygen molecule, or they
may be the spectra of two different modifications of oxygen, or
the spectra of two distinct gases resulting from a dissociation of
oxygen. In order to test the last hypothesis, oxygen was sparked
in an apparatus with hollow platinum electrodes, connected with
a Sprengel pump. The distance between the electrodes was 35™™
and the highest pressure consistent with the production of the
two spectra was initially employed, being 380™™, ‘The fractions
of the gas obtained from the anode and kathode were weighed
and compared with the oxygen before sparking. With long
sparks a lighter fraction was obtained at the kathode and with
short sparks a heavier fraction. With long sparks the density of
the kathode oxygen was 15°78, 15°79, 15°80, 15°79; with short
sparks 16°00, 16°01, 16°02, 16°04, 16:06, 16:05. The density of the
unsparked oxygen was 15°88, 15°87, 15°89, 15°88, 15°88. The
fractions from the anode showed a difference in the same direc-
tion, though not as definite. Further results are promised.—
Nature, li, 550, April, 1895. G. F. B.
5. Kré ifte der Chemischen Dynamik ; 3 Vortrige von Dr. Lup-
Wwic STETTENHEIMER. 8vo, pp. 88. Frankfurt-a-M. 1895. ate
Bechhold.)—These lectures appear to be aimed against the molec-
ular constitution of matter, every substance being regarded as
homogeneous and its atoms interacting mechanically with all
other atoms. The reasoning seems to be loose and the conclusions
altogether hypothetical. G. F. B.
6. Physical Constants of Hydrogen.—Professor Ramsay has
received a letter from Professor OtszEwsk1 in which he says:
“T have at last succeeded in determining the critical tempera-
ture and the boiling point of hydrogen. I have found for the
former —233° and for the latter —243°. Ihave used the dynam-
ical method which I described in the Phil. Mag. A thermal
couple proved of no use and I was obliged to avail myself of a
platinum wire thermometer, measuring the temperatures by the
alteration in resistance of the wire. I have obtained satisfactory
results and intend to publish an account of thein in English.—
Nature, March 21, 1895. Te
7. Color Photography.—At a meeting of the Physical Society
in Berlin, Feb. 8, Dr. Neunavs exhibited a series of color photo-
graph’s taken by Lippmann’s method with prolonged exposure,
Spectra show, if the exposure is sufficiently long, a greenish band
in the infra red as well as in the ultra violet, in addition to ordi-
nary colors. The colored band was very markedly displaced by
both over and under exposure. The photographs of objects with
mixed colors, such as fruits, flowers, butterflies, etc., were good:
but their production was extremely difficult and only one plate
in twenty-five was, on an average, successful. It was found easier
to photograph naturally mixed than artificially mixed colors.
Some substance such as eosin or cyanin must be added to the
films to make them more sensitive to red rays and less sensitive
470 Scientific Intelligence.
to blue. The theory of the method is still unsettled.—Wature,
March 21, 1895. BL 0
8. Stlveriny Glass.—To a physicist any method of silvering
glass which will replace the method with Rochelle salts or the
Martin process is of especial interest. M. M. Aveusrx and Louis
LumiERE describe the following method: To 100 cubic centi-
meters of a 10 per cent solution of silver nitrate ammonia is
added drop by drop until the precipitate formed is redissolved.
Too much ammonia must not be added at first, for this might pre-
vent the formation of the precipitate. The volume of the solu-
tion is increased to a liter by the addition of distilled water.
This is solution A. Solution B.is made by diluting commercial
Formaldehyde of 40 per cent with distilled water so as to form
a 1 per cent solution. Solution B can be kept for some time.
Two volumes of A are rapidly mixed with one volume of B and
the mixture is rapidly poured over the glass to be cooled. In
five or six minutes, at a temperature of 15° to 19°, all the silver
in the solution is deposited in a brilliant layer which can then be
washed with water.—Journal de Physique, January, 1895.
Jp ae
9, A Form of Sensitive Galvanometer.—In a note to the
French Academy, presented by Prof. Mascart, M. Prirrre Weiss
describes a new method of making the suspended magnetic
system of a galvanometer. The system is formed of long
vertical needles, placed parallel to the axis of rotation in such a
manner that they constitute with their opposed poles almost a
closed magnetic circuit. Each one of the two systems of poles
is placed at the center of suitably constructed bobbins. The
almost complete absence of demagnetizing force, allows the
maximum magnetization of the steel: and one can by changing
the distance of the needle change at will the ratio of the mag-
netic moment to the moment of inertia. If the sensibility of a
galvanometer is defined as the number of divisions which it indi-
cates for one micro-ampere divided by the square root of the
resistance, the scale being at a distance from the mirror equal to
2000 divisions and the duration of the oscillation being five
seconds, M. Weiss obtains S=1500. This sensibility can be
increased by greater care in the mechanical construction of the
instrument. The author states that Mr. Wadsworth, Phil. Mag.,
No. 38, 1894, describes a galvanometer of more difficult construc-
tion which gave S = 1300.—Comptes Rendus, No. 13, April,
1895. J. T.
10. On the Diselectrification of Air.—Lord Kevin has con-
tinued his experiments on this subject with the assistance of
Messrs. Magnus Maciean and ALEXANDER Gat. It was found
that positive or negative electricity given to air by an electrified
needle-point can be conveyed through 3 or 4 meters of small
metal tube (1°" diameter) and shown on a quadrant electrometer
by a receiving filter. A filter of 120 wire gauges only reduced
the electrical indication to a little less than half of what it was
Chemistry and Physics. 471
with the 12 gauges which were first tried. In general air
electrified negatively by bubbling through water and caused to
pass through a metallic wire gauge strainer—gives up some, but
not a large proportion of its electricity to the metal.— Proceedings
Royal Society, March 21, 1895; Nature, April 11,1895. 3. 7.
Ll. Beitraege zur Kenntniss des Wesens der Saecular Variation
des Erdmagnetismus ; by L. A. Baver. Inaugural Dissertation
University of Berlin. Large 8vo, 56 pp. and 2 plates. 1895.
Abstract prepared by the author.—If we suppose a magnetic
needle so suspended that it is free to move in every possible direc-
tion, it will, under the influence of terrestrial magnetism, assume
at any particular time a definite direction. This direction is a
tangent to the geomagnetic lines of force. As is well known
these lines are constantly shifting. They are subject to diurnal,
seasonal, annual, 114-year, ete., variations, also to non-periodic
fluctuations. The most striking one of all the changes, however,
is that due to the so-called secular variation whereby the direc-
tion of the needle suffers in the lapse of time most remarkable
changes. This variation has been known now for over two and a
half centuries; it has been the subject for speculation by some of
the most brilliant minds. The great riddle, however, is still
unsolved.
This phenomenon owing chiefly to the asymmetrical distribu-
tion of geomagnetism is a most complex one. But the method
of treatment heretofore employed has done its share, also, to
deepen the mystery. Namely, it has been customary to treat
separately the secular variation of the different magnetic elements,
declination, inclination, or intensity, as the case may be, as
though these were different effects of operative forces, instead of
component ones. The consequence has been that not a single
law governing the secular variation as applying to all parts of
the earth could be established.
At the meeting of the A. A. A. 8. in Aug., 1892, the writer
presented a preliminary paper “ On the Secular Motion of a Free
Magnetic Needle.” This paper had for its object to investigate
the total change suffered by the needle by drawing the actual
curve described in space by the north end of a free magnetic
needle in the course of centuries. That is, both the declination
and the inclination changes were considered. The intensity
changes are not taken into account as the purpose was to investi-
gate solely the total change in direction of terrestrial magnetic
lines of force. This paper announced some novel conclusions,
chief of which being number one stated below. The present
paper is a continuation and amplification of the A. A. A. 8. com-
munication. The writer enjoyed the.use of the Washington and
the Berlin libraries,
Chapter I deals with the secular motion of a free magnetic
needle. The observation data for twenty-four stations distributed
over the earth have been carefully collected and discussed. The
curves described by the north end of the free magnetic needle
472 Scventific Intelligence.
have been constructed and plotted on Plate I. They correspond
to a length of needle of 40°™ (15°8 inches). The main conclu-
sions drawn are:
1. In consequence of the secular variation of geomagnetism,
the north end of a freely suspended magnetic needle viewed from
the center of suspension of the needle moves on the whole earth in
the direction of the hands of a watch.
II. Zhe secular variation period (if there be such) is different
for various portions of the earth or the secular curve is not a
single closed curve, but consists of loops.
No. I has been tested at more than 100 stations scattered over
the face of the earth with the result that the writer believes it
can be considered as a safely established result. It virtually
embraces two laws, first, the clockwise motion, secondly, the uni-
formity of this motion in both magnetic hemispheres. This law
is playing an important role in the differentiation of the operat-
ing causes.
Chapter II is devoted to a comparison of the phenomena of
the secular variation with those due to the actual distribution of
terrestrial magnetism. It was noted in this chapter that the
incomplete secular variation curve at any particular station could
be apparently completed by a consideration of the parts of curves
described at the stations passed in making an easterly circuit of
the earth. This led to the following conclusions:
Il. Zhe north end of a free magnetic needle viewed from the
center of suspension of the needle moves clockwise in making an
instantaneous circuit of the earth along a parallel of latitude; or,
as I have put it later :
The north end of a free magnetic needle whose center of sus-
pension is fixed in space close to the earth’s surface will describe
a curve* as the earth rotates under it which as viewed from the
center of suspension of the needle moves anti-clockwise.
IV. The secular variation and the prevailing distribution of
geomagnetism appear to be closely related, 2. e. seem to be subject
to similar laws.
The five subsequent chapters contain preliminary announce-
ments of additional investigations of the secular variation. The
paper will be found fully abstracted, as also the curves given, in
the Physical Review, May, ’95, and subsequent number.
1. Ae
12. A Text Book of the Principles of Physics ; by ALFRED
Dantett. Third edition (sixth thousand), 782 pp., 8vo, 1894.
New York and London (Macmillan & Co.)—Daniell’s Text Book
of Physics has become so widely known as a work of high scien-
tific grade, carefully developed throughout on a uniform and con-
sistent plan, that it hardly needs now to be commended anew.
The present third edition, a few advance copies of which have
* The curves resulting thus are termed the “instantaneous curves” and have
been laid down on Plate II for the epochs 1780, 1829 and 1885 and for the paral-
lels of latitude 40° north, equator and 40° south.
Geology and Mineralogy. 473
been distributed, has been thoroughly worked over and improved
in minor details, as well as largely added to where the develop-
ment of the science has called for this. ‘T’he amount of new mat-
ter added will be appreciated from the statement that the work
has been increased one-fifth in size since it was first issued.
II. Grotocy AND MINERALOGY.
1. Discovery of a dicotyledonous Flora in the Cheyenne sand-
stone.—In a letter to the editors of the Journal, Mr. Roserr T.
Hitt of the United States Geological Survey, reports “ the dis-
covery of a typical dicotyledonous flora in the Cheyenne sand-
stone at the base of the beds belonging to the Comanche Series
in Comanche and Barber counties of Southern Kansas. This
sandstone has hitherto been referred to the Trinity Division of
Texas by Prof. F. W. Cragin, but the flora as determined by
Prof. F. H. Knowlton of the U.S. Geological Survey consists
entirely of species hitherto supposed to be peculiar to the Dakota
Group, while the flora of the Trinity Division of Texas as has
been reported by Prof. Fontaine is all of the non-dicotyledonous
- Potomac type. The Cheyenne sandstones are separated from the
true Dakota sands of Kansas by nearly 200 feet of shale, contain-
ing a molluscan fauna composed of fifteen species characteristic
of the Washita Division of the Comanche Series in Texas, and
about twenty littoral species peculiar to the locality, thus extend-
ing the hitherto known. downward range of the Dakota flora
from the Dakota position to the base of the Washita.” The
details and results of Mr. Hill’s observations will be published in
an early number of the Journal.
2. On the Geological Aspects of Variation.—An interesting and
‘suggestive paper on the relation of varietal modification of form
to the geological range of a fossil species is contributed by M.
GOsSsELET in his memoir on the variation of Spirifer verneuili.*
M. Gosselet has accumulated large collections of this common
species of the Upper Devonian formations of northern Europe,
has made exact and minute study of the various elements of their
morphological characters, has classified them into groups on the
basis of their differences and has given a beautiful series of illus-
trations of the varieties and of the most closely allied species.
From his studies he draws the following important generaliza-
tions, viz: (Translated from the French).
“From the comparison of diverse forms of Spirifer verneuili,
either among themselves, or with allied species, the conclusion is
reached that this Spirifer is a very polymorphic species, of which
all the elements vary, except the character of the plications,
which remain always simple upon the sides while they multiply
by bifurcation or by intercalation on the fold and on the sinus.
There are insensible passages between all the varieties. The
* Etude sur Jes variations du Spirifer verneuili par J. Gosselet. Mém. Soc.
Géol. du Nord, [France] Tome iv, I, pp. 1-61, Plates I-VII. 1894.
44 Scientific Intelligence.
groups which have been made of them, are altogether artificial.
Not only do they run the one into the other in a gradual manner,
but the same individual passes successively from the one into the
other during the course of its existence. It is also to be noted
that they are not restricted (cantonnées) to any particular geo-
logical horizon. It is necessary to make exception in the case of
the Spirifers with extended wings of Barvaux, which seem to be
peculiar to one facies of the Upper Frasnien. These Spirifers are
not only characterized by great production of the wings, but also
by the imbricated scales which cover their plications, forming
small tubercles on the surface. Nevertheless, although this pecu-
liarity is often associated with the enlargement of the wings, it
does not necessarily accompany it.
I do not believe therefore that there are varieties in the species
called Spirifer verneuili, but rather groups of forms. These
groups are essentially distinguished from zoological varieties
because the same individual is able to pass successively through
several of them before attaining its definitive form.
It is in the upper part of the Frasnien, i. e. in the middle of its
specific duration, that the Spirifer verneuili presents the widest
variations. It is there, where in some sense it is in all its prime,
that the richness of form is added to abundance of numbers. It
peopled the seas, exceeding in numbers all the other fossils,
Atrypa reticulatis excepted. However none of these forms gave
birth to a new species, not even to a constant variety. The more
remarkable forms appeared rather as local varieties; they consti-
tuted a kind of tribe or physiological family having its circle of
habitat, but which did not propagate itself either in time or
space. The lower Famennien is already less rich in-varieties
than the Frasnien. When we rise in the formation, the Spirifer
verneuili presents more and more intermediate characters. It
becomes extinct finally in the upper Famennien without its being
possible to admit that it is transformed into another species.
Is it the ancestor of Spirifer attenwatus and of Spirifers of the
group of Mosquensis ? It is possible, for the difference between
the two types is not extreme; but there is no passage from the
one to the other. From the point when Spirifer attenwatus arises
it assumes immediately its distinctive characters: all the ribs of
the wings are bifurcated. But, never, from the lowest beds to the
schists of Etrceeungt [the uppermost Devonian horizon] has
Spirifer verneuili shown an indication of bifurcation of the ribs,
never, spite of its numerous variations, has it presented a tendency
to pass into the attenwatus ; if there is filiation here, the trans-
formation has been rapid and complete. It is impossible to say
what relation there is between Spirifer verneutli and Spirifer
Orbelianus and aperturatus. The characters which distinguish
these two species are of slight importance and when they are
attenuated they become almost verneuili. It may be questioned
whether they ought to be considered as species or only simple
varieties, the passage from one to the other is not less real and
Geology and Mineralogy. 475
their filiation is an established hypothesis. It is also a curious
fact that these two species or varieties are brusquely produced at
the same time throughout the whole basin, that they are preceded
by no attempt of the species to acquire these new forms, that
they arose when Spirifer verneuili had not yet reached any
important variation, and possessed all its primitive uniformity,
that they disappear finally very rapidly and brusquely as they
arose, and that their descendants, if they are not lost, returned to
the general type of the species vernewilz.
As to the Spirifer called difidus, if it possessed some forms
which may be compared with verneutli, it differs from it by an
essential character which it manifests even in its young age. It
should also be borne “in mind that the forms of passage, of
doubtful determination, were produced only when the true
Spirifer bifidus of the Frasnien limestone was departing from the
geological arena, at least in the Ardenne;” p. 61.
The methods employed in this investigation and the results
obtained will suggest to the thoughtful paleontologist problems
of the deepest interest and promising rich reward to those who
will thoroughly investigate them, (WW assoury H. 8. W.
8. Geological Survey of, =, vol. iv, Paleontology of
mms, Parts I and II, by Cuas. R. Kuyus, State Geologist, pp.
1-271, plates xii-xxxii, colored geological map of the state, scale
1 in. to 18 miles, and pp. 1-266, plates xxxili-lvi. Jefferson City,
Mo. 1894.—This is a valuable contribution to the Paleontological
literature of the Mississippi valley formations, giving as it does a
carefully compiled list of the already described invertebrate
forms of the rocks of Missouri, with descriptions of many, full
references to synonomy in most cases, and illustration of many
already figured forms and of several new species. We regret to
note that there are still numerous species named and described by
Swallow but without figures, which the author of this work still
leaves unfigured. If he, having access to the type collections, is
unable to furnish typical figures, it is time to discard from
Synonomy such unidentifyable references.
In the early part of the first volume on the geological forma-
tions the author proposes to substitute another name for the
Osage group which for several years has been in use to indicate
the general formation which locally has been called Burlington
and Keokuk limestone on account of the continuous fauna which
appears to characterize them. The argument, that because there
has been found a more complete section near Augusta, Iowa,
than in the region through which the Osage river flows, the first
name may therefore be discarded, is quite contrary to the general
principle of priority in the application of scientific names. So
long as the meaning is accepted, understood and applicable in
the region from which the name was derived, the Osage group
has the priority. H. S. W.
4, Geological Survey of New Jersey: Ann. Rept. of the State
Geologist for 1894, pp. 1-457 with five maps, plates i—x, figures
476 Scientific Intelligence.
1-28, Trenton, N. J. 1894.—The following papers are included :
Administrative Report by T. C. Smock, State Geologist, pp.
1-32; Part I, Surface Geology, report progress by R. D. Salis-
bury, pp. 33-328 (including Section VI, a chapter on Lake
Passaic,—an extinct glacial lake, by R. D. Salisbury and Henry
B. Kimmel, pp. 225-328); Part II, Cretaceous and Tertiary
Geology, Report of Progress by Wm. B. Clark, pp. 329-356;
Part III, Report on Archaean Geology by J. E. Wolff, pp. 357-
370; Part IV, Water Supply and Water Power by C. C. Ver-
meule, pp. 371-386; Part V, Artesian Wells in Southern New
Jersey by Lewis Woolman, pp. 387-422; Part VI, Minerals of
New Jersey with notes on mineral localities, pp. 423-444. H.s. w.
5. Geological Survey of Iowa. Vol. Ill. 2d Ann. Report,
1893, with accompanying papers. Des Moines, 1895.—In addition
to the ordinary administrative reports this volume contains a
bundle of separate papers by members of the survey staff, viz:
Work and Scope of the Geological Survey, by C. R. Keyes;
Cretaceous Deposits of the Sioux Valley, by H. F. Bain; Certain
Devonian and Carboniferous outliers in Kastern Iowa, by Wm. H.
Norton ; Geological Section along Middle River in Centra! Iowa,
by J. L. Tilton; Glacial Scorings in Iowa, by Chas. R. Keyes;
Thickness of the Paleozoic Strata of Northeastern Iowa, by Wm.
T. Norton ; Composition and Origin of Iowa Chalk, by Samuel
Calvin; Buried River Channels in Southeastern Iowa, by C. H.
Gordon; Gypsum Deposits of lowa, Geology of Lee County, and
Geology of Des Moines County, by Chas. R. Keyes. The volume
is illustrated by 37 plates and 34 smaller figures, many of them
fine reproductions of photographic views, illustrating the charac-
ter of outcrops of particular geological formations, and present-
ing a vivid representation of the geology of the country described.
H. S. W.
6. Ueber devonische Pflanzen aus dem Donetz-Becken; J.
Schmalhausen. Mém. Comitégéologique, St. Petersburg, vol. viii,
No. 3, 1894, pp. 1-86, pl. 1, ii, (Russian and German.)—The
interesting collection which forms the basis of this brief memoir
by the late Dr. ScumaLHAUSEN was obtained from Karakuba in
the Donetz basin, at the horizon of the Productus fallax, Rhyn-
chonella aff. Stephani, Kk. multicostata, and Rk. Domgeri, pub-
lished by 'schernyschew in 1885. The Devonian age indicated
by the above named invertebrates is fully demonstrated by the
plants, although, as frequently happens in Devonian rocks, the
flora is rich in individuals but relatively poor in species. Six
species are described, all of which are new. Archwopteris arche-
typus, compared by the author with A. Gaspiensis Dn. and A.
hibernica (Forbes) Lx., exhibits a great range in the forms of the
pinnules aud is especially characterized by the arrangement of
the sporangia in a row on either side of the reduced lower portion
of the lamina of the pinnule, the terminal portion of the pinnule
being fringed out. Each spore case has its distinct pedicel.
Archeopteris fissilis, compared by the author to Sphenopteris
Geology and Mineralogy. ATT
petiolata Goepp., is allied to the A. sphenophylloides and A.
macilenta published without illustration by Lesquereux. The
fructification of this species described by Schmalhausen with con-
siderable detail, resembles that of A. minor Lx. and others, but
the sporangia are few. Being unable to find satisfactory family
~ connections between the genus Archeopteris and any other living
or fossil type of ferns, the author proposes the group Archeop-
teride. It is not unlikely that the spiral arrangement of the
leaves in the Russian species noted by Schmalhausen is also indi-
eated in our American species of Archeopteris by the alternation
of pinnules with pinne in the ramification.
The Karakuba flora is remarkable in having more fertile than
sterile species. On certain clavate or bivalvate “capsules ”
strongly resembling the fruit of Sphenopteris Harveyi Lx. or
Zeilleria, the author founds the new genus Dimeripteris. D. grac-
ilis and D. fasciculata are compared by Schmalhausen with
Sphenopteris Hitchcockiana Dn. and S. condrusorum Gilk. The
first is very suggestive of the fertile S. Harveyi of the Potts-
ville series in this country, while the other reminds one at first
glance of the fruit of Calymmatotheca bifida (L. and H.) Kidst.
from the Calciferous sandstone series of Scotland. The author
compares his Lepidodendron Karakubense with L. Gaspianum
Dn. and Z. nothum Ung. The flora as a whole is considered as
indicating an Upper Devonian age. D. W.
7. Contributions a VEtude des Feldspaths des Roches Vol-
caniques par F. FouqtE. 8vo, pp. 336. Paris (Imprimerie Chaix)
1894.—This excellent work is another token of the manner in
which the demands of petrography have in recent years stimu-
lated research in mineralogy along certain lines. Along with the
work of Micnret Lavy, FEpErRov, and Becks, the petrographer
has now placed at his disposal a variety of means by which the
problem of the determination of the feldspars by optical methods
ean be successfully attacked.
The volume under consideration is divided into four parts.
In the first the author points out the methods by which the deter-
mination of the feldspars, especially the plagioclase group in thin
sections, may be resolved. His method is chiefly by the measure-
ment of the angle of extinction with the edge of ¢(001) on (010)
in sections perpendicular to bisectrices; in the second part are
given the facts obtained from a chemical, optical and crystallo-
graphic study of a large number of species, on which the process
is based. In the third portion is presented the petrographic
study of a large number of volcanic rocks chiefly from the Haute
Auvergne which furnish examples of the author’s methods and
contain moreover many facts of petrographic interest.
The last portion contains a general discussion of the nature of
the soda-lime feldspars with respect to their chemical constitution.
The author does not view this group as a case of isomorphism
with all possible mixtures of the albite and anorthite molecules,
but from the frequency of certain extinction-angles and other
478 Scientific Intelligence.
facts believes that a certain number of definite mineral species of
intermediate nature exist between the extremes. They thus
constitute in fact a ‘“morphotropic” series, whose gradation of
properties would lead to the same practical results as the views
now generally held but which would be more in accord with
chemical principles. Lh. Was
8. AnaleiteDiabase from San Luis, Obispo Co., Cal.; by H.
W. Farrpangs. Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. of Cal., vol. i, No. 9,
pp. 278-300, Pls. 15-16. Berkeley, Cal., 1895.—This is a careful
study both in -the field and laboratory of a number of peculiar
basic dike rocks, which are allied to teschenites. They contain
augite with a peculiar parting, a soda-lime feldspar and a con-
siderable proportion of analcite which occurs crystallized and
lining cavities in the rock, filling angular spaces between other
components, replacing feldspar and in hexagons. The occurrence
of the analcite is studied and discussed and the conclusion is
drawn that it is secondary, replacing nephelite which was pri
marily present. LW.
9. Gold in Serpentine; by H. W. Turner (communicated).
—In an article by the writer in the May number of this Journal,
it is stated that quartz veins are rare in the serpentine areas of
the Sierra Nevada. Mr. W. Lindgren in a valuable paper on
‘¢ Characteristic Features of the California Gold-Quartz Veins’*
speaks of the occurrence of quartz veins in serpentine as an ordi-
nary phenomenon, and as Mr. Lindgren and the writer are both
working in the same mountain range, it would appear as if there
were an error in one of the above papers. ‘The writer therefore
desires to state that the occurrence of quartz veins along narrow
serpentine dikes, or cutting small bodies of serpentine, is not
uncommon. Mr. Lindgren has made a careful study of the gold
mines in the neighborhood of Nevada City, Cala., and he has
there found several quartz veins entirely in serpentine, but these
are in comparatively small masses of that rock which moreover
contain lenses of sedimentary material and are therefore of a
more or less complex character. It was the intention of the
writer rather to indicate that quartz-filled fissures formed with
difficulty where the country rock is purely serpentine, and in this
statement Mr. Lindgren concurs. The writer’s observations in
the paper in the May number of the Journal moreover refer only
to that portion of the range which he has particularly studied.
10. Brief Notices of some recently described Minerals.—Loran-
pirr.—This is a mineral of rare interest since it is the second
known native compound of thallium, A preliminary description
has been giving by Krenner. It occurs in tabular or short pris-
matic crystals belonging to the monoclinic system. The color is
cochineal-red to kermes-red color; it is transparent and is flexible
like gypsum, and has three cleavages parallel to planes in the
orthodome zone. An analysis by Loczka is given below (1) and
* Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. vi, pp. 221-240.
Geology and Mineralogy. 479
also the percentage composition (2) calculated from the formula
TIAsS.
NS As Tl
iT: 19°02 [21°47] 59°51 = 100
». 18°67 Best 59°46 = 100
The locality is Allchar in Macedonia where it occurs implanted
upon realgar.—Math. Nat. Ber. Ungarn, xii, 1895.
KyuinprirEe. A new lead mineral from the Mina Santa Cruz at
Poopé, Bolivia. It occurs in cylindrical forms and in capillary
crystals. The luster is metallic; color blackish lead-gray ;
hardness 2°5 to 3; specific gravity 5°42. An analysis gave
the results below (1) which are compared (2) with the percentage
composition for the formula Pb,Sb,Sn,5.,.
S Sn Sb Pb Ag Fe
Peres 50 526 a1, Oo o0'41 0°62 . 3°00 = 98°63
2. 23°46 24°90 8°36 43°28 == LOM:
The description is given by Frenzel in Jahrb. Min., ii, 125, 1898.
ANDORITE. 45 > >,
%%, Cr Mn Fe Co Ni S yy Ru Rh Pl SS a rey
%0,
Di Sm Er %,
H Li BBB C N O F Na Mg Al Si P S Cl K Ca Sc Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Rb Sr Y Cd In Sn Sb Te | Cs Ba La
17 9 It 12 4 16 19 23 24 27 28 31 32 35539 40 45 65 69 72 75 79 80 85 87 90 12 13 118 122 125 127 132 187 139
— ———————————————— ~~.
9 CoLorRtess
9 CoLoRLEss
9 CoLorRLess 9 CoLoRLess
Plate IV,
4M COLORED GROUP
%,
Qs Ir Pt Au
AvTernate Series
o
cn
DR. FEF". BRAN TA,
RHENISH MINERAL OFFICE,
BONN ON THE RHINE, GERMANY.
ESTABLISHED 1833.
NEW MINERALS.
Andesine, Darapskite, Elpidite, Hintzeite, Hohmannite, Huantayaite, Jod-
chromate, Knopite, Koninckite, Kylindrite, Lautarite, Lorandite, Lossenite,
Neptunite, Richellite, Soda niter, Sulfoborite, Tarapacaite.
NEW CRYSTAL-MODELS IN WOOD.
Petrographic-crystallographic collection of 100 crystal-models arranged
according to Professor Dr. H. Rosenbusch’s ‘‘ Mikroskopische Physiographie
der petrographisch wichtigen Mineralien.” III edition, Stuttgart, 1893.
Price, $25.00.
Collection of 56 models of distorted and pseudosymmetric forms of crystals,
arranged by Professor Dr. Hirschwald. Average size, 2inches. Price, $11.25.
This collection contains single crystal-models well appropriate for study
and practice. Since they show equivalent faces in disproportionate distance
from the centre or present a pseudosymmetric character in the relations of
the combination, the system can be determined only by means of the
goniometer.
Such instruments will be furnished at the rate of 65c. (5 goniometers,
$2.75); the models having a size of about 2 inches, these instruments will
allow an exactness in measuring of 1°.
THIN SECTIONS,
For Microscopical investigation.
A. Rocks. Collection of 50 ‘‘ Lenne-Porphyres,” described by Professor
Dr. Miigge in ‘‘ Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, Beilageband VIII,” thin
sections. Price, $25.00. Collection of 25 Rocks from the Auvergne with
thin sections. Price, $15.00. Collection of 100 Rhenish eruptive rocks and
of the accompanying tuffs with thin sections and an exact description by Dr.
W. Bruhns. Price, $50.00.
B. Minerals. Collection of 120 properly mounted sections of 59 mineral-
species, in elegant etui. Price, 345.00.
\
C. Fossils. I. Collection of 10 specimens of Diatoms and Algze, $2.50
Il. 10 fossil woods, . 3.75
II. 7. ee Se Foraminifera, : 3.15
IV. ore ‘¢ Sponges, . é 3.75
V. ee | ‘* Corals, . . 3.00
VI. Tl ae ‘¢ Echinoderms, . 3.00
Vil. “as <0 a Vere ; 3.00
Vill. ae ‘¢ Bryozoa, . : 3.00
IX. ‘aoe ‘* Brachiopoda, . 3.00
X. ? 0 ‘* Mollusks, . : 3.00
XI. eee ‘« Vertebrates, ; 3.00
XII. Large general collection of 110 thin sections according
to the above arrangement. Price, $32.50.
Single sections will be furnished at the rate of 25c. to 40c., according to
the difficulty of manufacture.
All preparations will be microscopically examined before sending ; the
correctness of the designation is therefore warranted.
New editions of the following lists have just come out: No. I. Minerals
and plates of minerals for exhibiting optical phenomena, 6th edit. No. II.
Fossils and General Geology, 3d edit. (illustrated), No, X. Contact-meta-
morphosis (price, 12c.) and will be sent on demand.
Represented in the United States by Messrs. Eimer & Amend,
205-211 Third Avenue, New York.
My i Winn
D
ls $30
Zs
\V GAN
FLAY
Ny LYON gS al
Na Sr Na Ua may oe ES
SYSTEMATIC COLLECTIONS.
With unusual facilities for securing educational materials, it is proposed to take the lead in
furnishing systematic collections for teaching MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY, and ZOOLOGY in
Schools and Colleges. Individual Specimens also furnished. Catalogue sent on receipt of 6cts.
in postage stamps.
RELIEF MAPS AND MODELS.
Special attention given to Relief Maps. Send for circular describing Grand Cafion, Yosem-
ite Valley, Yellowstone National Park, Mt. Shasta, Mt. Vesuvius, Kentucky, Massachusetts,
New Jersey, Etc., Etc. Also model of the whole United States, with adjoining ocean bottoms,
modeled on correct curvature. Many of these made especially for Schools. New Relief Map of
Palestine, modeled for the Palestine Exploration Fund, now ready.
LANTERN SLIDES.
Series of Lantern Slides for class illustration in Geology, Physical Geography, Etc.
METEORITES.
A good price paid for meteorites of all kinds. New and undescribed ones especially desired.
An extra price paid for the entire “‘find”’ or “‘fall.”” Meteorites also cut, polished and etched.
WASHINGTON SCHOOL COLLECTIONS.
These collections, decided upon after numerous conferences with teachers and experts con-
nected with the U. S, Geological Survey and U. S. National Museum, have just been introduced
into the schools of Washington, and will be Known as the Washington School Collections. Itis
safe to say that no collections of equal excellence have ever before been offered in this
country at so low a price ($2 each). Send for circulars.
EDWIN E. HOWELL, 612 17th St., N. W., Washington, D. C.
FOURTH REVISED EDITION
DANA'S MANUAL OF GEOLOGY
Treating of the Principles of the Science with special reference to
American Geological History. By James D, Dana, Yale University.
Cloth, 1088 pages, over 1575 figures and two double-page maps.
PRICE, $5.00, POSTPAID.
Entirely rewritten, and reset in new type. Introduces new
principles, new theories; and new facts relating to all depart-
ments of the science. Much additional matter; improved
arrangement; largely increased number of illustrations; all
enhancing the value of the work.
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY,
S806 Broadway, New York City.
j
“a
Ce.
¥ .
¢
=
3
:
Fee
ry
+.
> ae
te
‘
aw
oe
~ HEMATITE CRYSTALS PRON NORTH CAROLINA.
Mr. English has been spending most of his time
recently in the Carolinas and we have also had our
own collector at work for two months with a force of
men. As a result we can offer a large number of
new minerals. Among the most interesting are the
Hematites. The specimens vary greatly in habit,
commonly they are groups of quite simple tabular
erystals averaging 1 to 1 and 14 inches in diameter ;
occasionally highly modified forms are found. Their
luster is equal to the best of the French crystals,
which they also resemble in other respects. The
ee find is quite limited. Prices range from 2dc. for
loose arystals and small groups to $1.00 to $3.50 for fine large groups,
RUTILATED AMETHYST.
Our collector has thoroughly worked this North Carolina locality during
the past month and we now have a splendid stock. Loose crystals and small
groups as low as 25c. Larger groups 50c. to $3.50. The Amethyst is of
rich color and the Rutile in long brilliant metallic needles, making a most
pleasing combination. Enclosures of Go6thite, Hematite, ete. are also fre-
quently found in the same specimens.
RARE NORTH CAROLINA QUARTZ CRYSTALS.
A second visit by Mr. English to the great Lincoln Co. mineral belt and a
great deal of work by our own collector and many purchases made by him,
have yielded us unquestionably the finest collection of rare quartzes ever
shipped from this region. The scores of crystals so rapidly sold when our
first lot reached New York encouraged us to thoroughly work the various
pockets and our latest accessions are the most interesting of all. Crystals
with their terminations rounded off by a multitude of minute but distinct
planes, crystals with their vertical edges replaced by a series of trapezohe-
drons, crystals with most wonderful etching, crystals so distorted as to
puzzle a crystallographer, crystals with bubbles moving an inch or more,
erystals with enclosures of Rutile, Muscovite, Tourmaline, Hematite, Gothite,
ete.; crystals of rich Amethystine and smoky colors combined in the same
specimen, crystals without end !
Boxes sent on approval by us will contain only carefully selected specimens
of real merit, and not the lot of rubbish always put in by local collectors,
who do not know good crystals from bad ones. d0c. to $1.50 is about the
range of prices for really fine specimens, but for 10c. to 25c. we can furnish
many very choice little crystals. A few large museum groups still remain.
HAUERITE! A GREAT COLLECTION PURCHASED.
For.a year and a half we have been negotiating for a large collection of
Sicilian Hauerites and on April 15th we cabled our acceptance of the collec-
tion. The first installment has now arrived and others will reach us by June
ist. The crystals already received include one simple octahedron 2 and 3¢
inches in diameter, one very large cubo-octahedron, five octahedrons, of
about 1 and 14 inches, and a number of very sharp little crystals. Several
new twin crystals and many other rare forms, groups and matrix specimens
» are still to arrive. This is the most important collection of Hauerites ever
brought together and, as the mine is closed, it is likely to be the last of them.
TILLY FOSTER MINERALS.
The great run on our magnificent stock of Chondrodites and Clinochlores
still continues, and yet there are still many fine specimens. See last month’s
announcement.
OTHER RECENT ADDITIONS.
Virginia, Tscheffkinite ; 5S. Dakota, Autunite; gorgeous Labradorite; native
Antimony ; splendid Obsidian, Chrysotile, Jade; 75 Styrian Flos Ferri; Monte
Poni Anglesites ; Griphite, etc.
124 pp. Catalogue. Illustrated by 87 cuts, and describing every mineral.
25c. in paper; 50c. in cloth.
44 pp. Illustrated Price-Lists, 4c. Circulars Free.
GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists.
64 East i2th St., New York City.
CONTENTS.
Art. XXXV.—Daily March of the Wind Velocities in Hie
United States; by F. Warpo :
XXXVI. —Preparation of Perchloric Acid and its Applica-
tion to the Determination of Potassium; by D. A.
KREIDER
XXX VII.—Crystal Form of Borneol and Isoborneol; by ~
Wo HG Hopes ace et ee) :
XXXVIIL—Synopsis of the Mode of Growth and Develop-
ment of the Graptolitic Genus Diplograptus ; by R. ,
RUEDEMANN 453
XXXIX.—Newly Discovered Dike at DeWitt, near Syra- |
cuse, New York. Geologic notes by N. H. Darron.
Petrographic description; by J. F. Keme_ 456
XL.—Note on the amount of Elevation which has taken place
along the Rocky Mountain Range in British America
since the close of the Cretaceous period; by Dr.G. M. |
Dawson 463
XLI.—Three New Analyses of Sodalite, from three new
localities; by L. McI. Luqumr and G. J. VotckEntne 465
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Solution and Pseudo-solution, LinpER and Picton:
Fluidity of Metals below their Melting Points, Sprine, 467.—Light emitted
during Crystallization, BANDROWSKI; Two- fold Spectra of Oxygen, BALy, 468.
—Kritte der Chemischen Dynamik, L. SreTreNHEIMER: Physical Constants of
Hydrogen, OLSZEWSKI: Color Photography, NevuHAUS, 469.—Silvering Glass,
M. M. AuGuSTE and L. LumMihrE: Form of Sensitive Galvanometer, M. P. WEISS:
Diselectrification of Air, KELvIN, M. MACLEAN and A. GALT, 470.—Beitraege
zur Kenntniss des Wesens der Saecular Variation des Erdmagnetismus, Lb. A. |
BaveEr, 471.—Text Book of the Principles of Physics, A. DANIELL, 472.
Geology and Mineralogy—Discovery of a dicotyledonous Flora in the Cheyenne
sandstone, R. T. Hint: Geological Aspects of Variation, M. GOSSELET, 473.
—Geological Survey of Illinois, vol. iv, C. R. Krygs: Geological Survey of
New Jersey, 475.—Geological Survey of Iowa, vol. iii: Ueber devonische
Pflanzen aus dem Donetz- Becken, ‘SCHMALHAUSEN, 476.—Contributions a
VEtude des Feldspaths des Roches Volcaniques, F. Fouavt, 477.— Analcite-
Diabase from San Luis, Cal., H. W. FarrBanxks: Gold in Serpentine. FU We
TuRNER: Brief Notices of some recently described Minerals, 478.—Elements of
Mineralogy, Crystallography and Blowpipe Analysis, A. J. Moszs and C. L.
Parsons, 480.
Botany—Students’ Text-Book of Botany, 8. H. Vines, 481.—Celluiose; an out-
line of the Chemistry of the structural elements of plants, with reference to
their Natural History and Industrial Uses, 0. F. Cross, E. J. BevAN and C.
BEADLE, 482.—Interesting Method of Dissemination, Dustin: Australian Nar-—
cotics, a H. MAIDEN, 483.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Science of Mechanics, K. Macu: Dynam- | |
ics: R. T. Guazesrook: Few Chapters in Astronomy, C. Kennepy: North sk
Ametican Birds, H. NeHRuine, R. Ripeway, A. GOERING and G. MUETZEL, 484.
Obituary—JOoHN H. REDFIELD: LOTHAR VON MEYER: CARL VOGT, 485.
INDEX, 486.
r
met
~
vm
. 4 i
oe
i “s
1 Ld ;
e..
Ae
4:
>» en é
Fiddin /
es * tn
ae
‘ =
ne
te
S ;
© L€:
‘G &
; i ob
a ai ‘
=
3
% 4 4
' me at;
Vs “df et, ;
i
wy
’ j .
, is Pay
4 a a eet: ‘
y 4 i i" is valle: y
y ‘
i
a
1 { ut rey: 7
aE vi
| ' * K
. 3 ’ ‘
' ‘
7 Ay * ¢
oy
re s “" «
hen RA Am, tN 11
lS ioe Le ae Tei, Ae, 7. | AUG Raa, yan VET a, Wee Petes AASABRAPA AAR anprn TY al Da nin afte
Caner. Sagi mt an 7 sas Tia (h~ x ‘ 4
Aaaat >
a s ,& a PPh, a i
qr isl aa | pasar” 4 sopnnnp gael ttaaneaht Reel
ARA@a. .. ou Diy) - Be Oe YELETYY Fr Tiyiiiit SAE ITEP): TA ail maamnris
al at Naps OM§ aa Ay A, oEAR wis RaRiNA, 4 spam m on oa By A’ Trim) The Heo De
rit i} asnahay, Nig: Tay ie. " Unser Sag, Waal nhl Fn Vth al
em ah hites pe . wa Shy a Rea aap ee sca Aidiwn | Age ral pur pbb
Bac Lee ar 1 Hien ¢ a or ON Ir. ry yu" baa .. oe Nobel VN. & a . ,
aia! | aa eaal ip wn ‘> Wan Pm AGB mS. = ane Sn RSE R Renae fl | wlaaeal :
a oR, lepeie ts pate ry re “ Mar” bs
Senet, NT TTT) || pepeyilt camry gw AaLsAR gi Sco ara tii
TS Pipe. TN thes a Pet ee Span we ges _ : Tr
AA\s yrds An iy. Ss af np ages. actenng = SN vite
1) | SE a ~ y = _ PT __ SL dade ry 4
rapt any yan wt" Ba ae eit ae Sata =e aang ASAIN agbaesat RP thd ) yo® yu ive, ~ Nun
am Ri | < PAIN Nees ;
OCA gues WA Hava, i oa UPA ap toailie Ke
mR la ANA =. Ble pred) AD Demos... ‘A Ap
Cage " * ORs i tae | | Es aah Seceeen pee Vt Gafaaa Wi) RAR : aa
area, : oe eae eat OT Le lee
Pal | | "wr +PLy, z ‘a pubes Ric Sg igh
\ LEY (han vet peter. : I hm ota | ie
PONCPRL LL ~ Bit bol hobo ARs iia Al A ’ BAI@? aoe ue
1) oom ARR EEE EPL dat° | | |
Hanan idam Goeee: sha
aa Ree LL Le Wa ata a ly
Neeser 4 |
E | 1\yy | ; | ay ae WN a ‘e oat Vt tet
tm ylroco Aheas eanden Ai SUA EEE ala’) Uy id@alean.o0 NAABAAADO RRR: an
| = apse BP eg
‘ Sort aay 3 tds Tan
innit AT Thea
- Br» OOF ap Rp ; Wea
\ yarsven | wee © sas Pe ae bee a4
Bt taeda ry laa Ll | tari Seay S)~ wn AQ hy
palace lik Wt Liat eeene ase EL SBMArAMPaey "
ato netiess | Yo ibaDe | ces femel ieee
eeaer HTT Pear) |) aber tt
Abs ef a a” a in a
i pant BB PAA aace Aa) a alta |
ey As AIL TAY 4 maak Wet a
ry \ablina awe mang LNA aa hanna
s hee |S | “~ Aas
Ticaaaes MaMa rn oe
A ey tara td be ene as
rs ; pa Ee yim by=4 Rew aA
AA Saye ofA eal | a oe ane ‘ae naw’ fe ial Rye. jp = lu,
3 ARARATAeeena! ‘tan e C
apacen@Anat
~~
ia An, dare apm °. Aan NAAN | SS NY OS a Oo im, pp did AARAAARAAAR FT: AAR
NAAM haa aaachea Liha tie yy yery DPARAD spd he
iar ty. im ORY! BBR» 5 f ww ible ‘ ane ws
f \ _ Arh en, \* 3 ay ween Pretty EY rt AN,
rey) OY synth Ne AM
» ame wie AMY TAUPE
manilen “Wo nation.
( uidWAa, tsiey
yd yt | SH Wsdbcatanan see ie
| PP Ma GiDninith PAR jt Ava a & > Lai Serene Vtg
ag hpoull Nal ~ » i ay ea ur Pee Nu panning scantiieaurel
“eg He LL sagunee Pr Ss
§ By I AAS ih ¢ vr a's Aa dab itty yd] ht cc naati - ~* gi evo : Ay Nigel rh
aR hs .. iF Lae ‘dead! Of WP. ermal OSI F SD pep eA NP «
>, } " ab A _ , -
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES
TAA
3 9088 01298 5503