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AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Epitor: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Proressors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
W.G. FARLOW anp WM.M. DAVIS, or CAMBRIDGE,

Proressors A. E. VERRILL, HENRY S. WILLIAMS, anp
L. V. PIRSSON, oF NEw Haven,

PROFESSOR GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA,
Me. J. S. DILLER, oF WasHINGTON.

FOURTH SERIES.

VOL. XI—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXI.]

| ‘ WITH SEVEN PLATES.

b. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT+e~.,0 0.
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CONTENTS TO VOLUME XI.

Number 61.
Page
Art.. .—Stereographic Projection and its Possibilities, from. «
‘a Graphical Standpoint; by S. L. PEnrrerp_ (With

Plate ee as ee EE a]
1I1.—Mode of decumeane of Tope near Ouro Preto, Brazil ta
ope nee a8 Oe Ee MAI RU 25
I1I.—Chemical Study of the: Glaucophane Schists ; by EES.
+1; WASHINGTON -. .. -- ES EN pe E's Es ene 5 ey Pen omnes
IV.—Nature of the. Metallic Veins of the ieee tom <
eevereorite; by O: C. Farrineron.._.....2.:.-....-. 60
V. —Erigenia bulbosa Mutt ; by T. 2G een : ite Ee 63
VI.—New Species of Merycocherus in Montana, Part II; .
by E. Doverass --.--- Nea Ek Sy NEN 2 Bey BS

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCH.

Chemistry and Physics—Periodic Phenomena connected with the Solution of
Chromium in Acids, W. OSTWALD, 84.—Krypton, LADENBURG and KRUEGEL,
_85.—Combustion of Gases, 8. TanTAr, 86.—Combustion of Acetylene in Air
enriched with Oxygen. G. L. BOURGEREL: Inverse effect of a magnetic field
upon an electric charge. M. V. Cremizv: Electrical Convection, M. V.
CREMIEU: Unipolar Induction, HE. LECHER, 87.—Electron theory of metals, P.
_DruDE: Simple modification of the Wehnelt interrupter, 88.

Geology and Mineralogy—Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota,
Vol. V, N. H. Wincuenn and U. S. Grant, 88.—Etude mineraiogique et
pétrographique des Roches gabbroiques de PEtat de Minnesota, Etats Unis, et
plus specialment des Anorthosites, A. N. WINCHELL: Roches Eruptives des
Environs de Ménerville, Algérie, L. Duparc, F. PEaRcE and K. RITTER: Char-”

- nockite Series, a group of Archean Hypersthenic rocks in Peninsular India. T.
H. HOLLAND: Geologische Skizze der Besitzung Jushno-Saoserk und des Berges
Deneshkin Kamen in nordlichen Ural, F. LozEWwinson-LEssineé, 89.—Some Prin-
ciples controlling Deposition of Ores, C. R. Van Hise: Physical Geography
ot the Texas Region, R. T. Hitt, 90. —Field Operations of the Division of Soils,
1899, M. Watney: Etudes sur les Minéraux de la Roumanie, P. Pont, 91.—
Mineralogy, F. RuTLEY: Corundum and the Basic Magnesian Rocks of West-
ern North Carolina, J. O. Lewis, 92.

Botany—Maladies et Jes Ennemis des Caféiers, G. DELACROIX, 92.—Monographie
und Iconographie der Oedogoniaceen, K. K. H1irn, 93.—Ueber Sclerotinia
cinerea and Sclerotinia fructigena, M. Woronin: Platydorina, a new Genus of
the Family Volvocidae, from the Plankton of the Illinois River, C. A. Koror,
94..<.-

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Velocity of Seismic Waves in the Ocean,
C. Davison: Old Indian Village, J. A. UppEN, 95.—Anleitung zur mikroskop-
ischen Untersuchung der vegetabilischen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, A, R
W. ScHIMPrR, 96.

XN

lV CONTENTS.

Number 62. ee
Arr. VIL—Apparent Hysteresis in Torsional Magnetostric-
tion, and its relation to Viscosity; by C. Barus------- on
VIII.—Dinosaurian Genus Creosaurus, Marsh; by 8S. W.-
Wiusron._....-............. 2S ae Bi

IX —Stereographic Projection and its Possibilities, from a
Graphical Standpoint; by S. L. Penrrevp. (With
Plates 1, UII and: IV.) ..-. 2:---52- 4234 ee 115

X.—Melting Point of Gold; by L. Hotporn and A. L. Day 145

XI.—New mineral occurrences in Canada; by G. C. Horr-

MANN | on Soe cob Seec weet beck BoP eee

XII.—Spectrum of the more Volatile Gases of Atmospheric
Air, which are not Condensed at the Temperature of
Liquid Hydrogen; by S. D. Liverne and Dewar -.--- 154

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Diethyl Peroxide, BarYER and VILLIGER, 162.—
Ammonium Amalgam, A. CozEHN: Hydrogen Telluride, ERNYEI, 163.—Conduc-
tivities of some Double Salts as Compared with the Conductivities of Mixtures
of their Constituents, F. Linpsay: Cause of the Loss in Weight of Commercial
Platinum when Heated, R. W. Haunt: Hlementary Treatise on Qualitative
Chemical Analysis, J. F. SELLERS, 164.—Bedeutung der Phasenlehre, H. W.
B. Roozesoom: Visibility of Hydrogen in Air, Lord RAYLEIGH: Wireless
Telegraphy, Staby and Count Arco, 165.—Telegraphone, V. POULSEN: Proper-
ties of Argon and its Companions, W. Ramsay and M. W. TRavurs, 166—
Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, E. W. ScRIPTURE, 168.

Geology and Mineralogy—Periodic Variations of Glaciers, F. A. ForEL, 168.—
Contributions to the Tertiary Fauna of Florida, W. H. Datu: Record of the -
Geology of Texas for the decade ending December 31, 1896, F. W. SImonpDs:
Geological Survey. of Canada, G. M. Dawson: Report on the Geology and
Natural Resources of the Country traversed by the Yellow Head Pass Route
from Edmonton to Téte Jaune Cache, comprising portions of Alberta and
British Columbia, J. McEvoy, 170.—Mesozoic Fossils, Vol. I, Pt. IV. On
some additional or imperfectly understood fossils from the Cretaceous Rocks of
the Queen Charlotte Islands, with a revised list of the species from these rocks, -
J. F. WuitgAves: Geology of the Albuquerque Sheet, C. L. Herrick and
D. W. Jounson: I Vulcani dell’ Italia Centrale. Parte I. Vulcano Laziale, V.
SABITINI: Occurrence of Zoisite and Thulite near Baltimore, 171.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Transcontinental Triangulation and the
American Arc of the Parallel, C. A. Scuorr, 172.—Astronomical Observatory
of Harvard College, 173.—Norway ; Official Publication of the Paris Exhibi-
tion, 1900: American Museum of Natural History: Principles of Mechanics:
an Elementary Exposition for Students in Physics, F. SLATE: Knowledge
Diary and Scientific Hand-book for 1901, 174.

CONTENTS. Vv

Number 63.
: P
Art. XIII.—Circular Magnetization and Magnetic Permea- me
bility; by J. TRowpripes and EH. P. Apams ..-.--.--- 175

XIV.—Notes on the Geology of Parts of the Seminole,
Creek, Cherokee and Osage Nations; by C. N. Goutp 185

XV.—Names for the formations of the Ohio Coal-measures ;

Meee Ot EOSSER. Gel 50s uesaliy aoe edie ce eu 191
XVI.—New American Species of Amphicyon; by J. L.

Re NGAING seek eset al)! 2 RE Sea dailies ot. 200
XVII.—Studies in the Cyperacer, No. XV; by T. Horm _. 205
XVIII.—Just Intonation Piano; by 8. A. Hageman ------ 224

XIX.—Very on Atmospheric Radiation; by W. Hattock - 230

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Radio-active Lead, HOFMANN and StrRAuss: Physiolog-
ical Action of Radium Rays, WaLKHOFF: Chlorine Heptoxide, MICHAEL and
Conn, 235.—Non-Existence of Trivalent Carbon, J. F. Norris: Diffusion of
Gold in Solid Lead at Ordinary Temperature, W. C. RoBERTS-AUSTIN: Cerium,
G. B. DrossBpacH: Method for Crystallizing Substances without the Formation
of Crusts upon the Surface of the Liquid, A. WRO6BLEWSKI, 236.—Veloclty of
the ionized phosphorus emauation in the absence of electric field, C. Barus:
Thermo-chemistry of the alloys of copper and zinc, T. J. BAKER, 237.—Decre-
ment of electrical oscillations in charging condensers, A. F. SUNDELL and Hy.
TALLQUIST: Effect of a magnetic field on the discharges through a gas, R. 8S.
WILLow: Conductivity produced in gases by the motion of negatively charged
ions. TOWNSEND, 238.—Recueil de Données Numériques publié par la Société
Francaise de Physique, H. Durer: One Thousand Problems in Physics, W. H.
SNYDER and I. O. PALMER, 239.

Geology and Mineralogy—Maryland Geological Survey: Allegheny County, W. B.
CuaRK: U. S. Geologial Survey, C. D. WALcort, 240.—Geological Survey of
Michigan, A. C. LANE, 241.—Geological and Natural History Survey of Minne-
sota, N. H. WINCHELL: Pleistocene Geology of the South Central Sierra Nevada
with especial reference to tbe Origin of Yosemite Valley, H. W. TuRNER, 242.
—Geologisches Centralblatt: Metasomatic Processes in Fissure Veins, W. LInp-
GREN, 243.—Some Iowa Dolomites, N. Knicgut, 244.—Minerals of Ontario:
Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks, with tables on the determination
of minerals, 8. E. TinuMANn: Los Minerales, G. BODENBENDER, 246.

Botany—Monograph of the North American Umbelliferz, J. M. CoULTER and J.
N. Ross, 247.—Foundations of Botany, J. Y. BerGEN, 248.— Flora of Vermont:
Catalogue of the African Plants collected by Dr. Friedrich Welwitsch in 1853-61.
W. P. Hiern, 249.—Botany: an Elementary Text for Schools, L. H. Baier:
Plant Life and Structure, E. DENNERT, 250.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Comparative Physiology of the Brain and
Comparative Psychology, J. Lors: Microbes et Distillerie, L. L&vy: Gesang
der Vogel, seine anatomischen und biologischen Grundlagen, V. HAcKER, 251.
—0O. 8. U. Naturalist: Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften ;
Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, 252,

vi CONTENTS.
Number 64.
Page
Art.- XX.—Magnetic Theory of the Solar Corona; by F. H.
BIGELOW 220 6 So. oo): Je ee be eee aS '

XXI.—Tertiary Springs of Western Kansas and Oklahoma;
bye. Gounb. seu 28 42 2 Jo... .. 2 er

XXII.—Fundamental Propositions in the Theory of Hlas-
ticity: A study of primary or self-balancing stresses;
by FH. Cimury 42.22. 2.2. 02.35 22

X XIIT.—Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen, determined by
Hydrogen and Helium Gas Thermometers; by J.

DEwaRi efi.) 20. e eles. ee) Serr
XXIV.—Nature of Vowels; by E. W. ScrrprurE...._.-.. 302
XXV.—Behavior of the Phosphorus Emanation in Spherical

Condensers ; by C. Barus .:.__.__..-....-_ 2a 310
XX VI.—Concretions of Ottawa County, Kansas; by W. T.

BELG so oo Sh ee et le ie eee. rr

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics— Ammonium Bromide and the Atomic Weight of Nitro-
gen, A. Scott: Combustion of Gases, S. TaANTAR, 317.—Peculiar Blue Color
produced when Potassium and Sodium Sulphocyanides are Heated, W. B.
GiLES: Method of obtaining Crystals of difficultly Crystallizable Substances, A.
RUMPLER: Elimination of Methane in the Atmosphere, V. UrBain, 318.—
Introduction to Modern Scientific Chemistry, Lassar-Coun: Ausgewahlte
Methoden der Analytischen Chemie, A. CLASSEN, 319.—Radiation Law of Dark
Bodies, F. PASCHEN: Unipolar Induction, E. HaGenspacu: Effect of Electricity
on Bacteria, A. MACFADYN, 320.—Electric Convection, M. V. CremiEu: Pre-
servation of Photographic Records, W. J. 8. LockyzrR: Eclipse Cyclone and
the Diurnal Cyclone, H. H. CLayron, 321.—Attempt to show that the earth
being a magnet draws ether with it, W. Rouuins, 322.—Presence of Gallium in
the Sun, W. N. Hartiry and H. Ramage, 323.

Geology—Geology of the Boston Basin. W. 0. Crossy: University Geological
Survey of Kansas, S. W. WiListon, 324.~-Orange River Ground-Moraine, A.
W. Rogers and E. H. L. Scuwarz, 325.—Founders of Geology, A, GEIKIE:
Gesetz der Wustenbildung in Gegenwart und Vorzeit, J. WALTHER, 326.

Zoology—Recent papers relating to the fauna of the Bermudas, 326.—Trans. Conn. —

Acad. Science: Zoological Results based on Material from New Britain, New
Guinea, Loyalty Islands and elsewhere, A. WILLEY, 330.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Lecons de Physiologie Expérimentale, R.
Dusois et HK. CouvREuR, 330.—Webster’s International Dictionary, New Edition,
331.—The National Standardizing Bureau, 332.

Obituary—GOrRGE Mercer Dawson; CHARLES HERMITE: ADOLPHE CHATIN:

J. C. AGARDH, 332,

CONTENTS. vil

Number: 65.

P
Art. XX VII.—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the Marsh
Collection, Peabody Museum; by J. L. Worrmay.
eee ere i eee ogy orB33

XXVIII.—Velocity of Chemical Reactions; by W. Duane. 349

age

XXIX.—Transmission of Sound through porous materials;

eis PORTS SSE ee ae ee a SY |
XXX.—Yoke with intercepted Magnetic Circuit for measur-

faeeelypueresis- by ZA, CROOK _..---_-.--- ---+,25--- i. 365
XX XI.—Mineralogical Notes; by C. H. Warren -..----- 369

XXXII.—Expansion of Certain Metals at High Tempera-
Wiese by lL. Horsorn and A. L.. Day-..22--..----.-

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Sulphur Hexafluoride, Thionyl Fluoride, and Sulphuryl

Fluoride, Moissan and LEBEAU: Molecular Weight of Ozone, A. LADENBURG,
391.—Preparation of Chlorine from Sodium Chlorate, C. GRAEBE: New Alka-
loids in Tobacco, PicteT and Rotscuy, 392.—Hydrate of Sulphuryl Chloride,
_ BAEYER and VILLIGER: Action of Hydrogen Peroxide upon Silver Oxide,
BAEYER and VILLIGER, 393.—Action of Alcohol on Metals with which it comes
in Contact, MALMEJac: Excitation and Measure of Sine Currents, M. WIEN:
’ Metallic Reflection of Electrical Waves, K. F. LinpMan: Light Transparency
of Hydrogen, V. SCHUMANN, 394.—Measurement of the Réntgen Rays by means
of Selenium, F. Himsrept: Effect of the Rontgen Rays and the Becquerel Rays
on the Hye, F. HiMsTEepT and W. A. NAGEL, 395.

Geology and Natural History—Eocene and Lower Oligocene Coral Faunas of
the United States, T. W. VAUGHAN, 395.—Presence of a Limestone Conglomer-
ate in the Lead region of St. Francis Co., Mo., F. L. Nason: New Species of
Cambrian from Cape Breton, G. F. MATTHEW: Geological Survey of Western
Australia, A. G. MAITLAND, 396.—Geology of Texas, F. W. Srmonps: Concre-
tions from the Champlain Clays of the Connecticut Valley, J. M. A. SHELDON:
Study of the Gabbroid Rocks of Minnesota, A. N. WINCHELL: Flow of Marble
under Pressure, ADAMS and NicoLson, 397.—Flora of Cheshire, S. Moore:
Preliminary list of the Spermatophyta of North Dakota, H. L. BoLugy and L.
R. WALDRON, 398.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—New Star in Perseus, T. D. ANDERSON,
399.—National Academy of Sciences: Report of the Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1900, 400.—Memorial of George
Brown Goode: U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 401.—La Navigation Sous-
marine, M. GAGET: Geological Survey of Great Britain: Geological Survey of
. Canada, 402.

Obituary—Dr. Henry A. ROwuAND: Professor GEORGE F. FitzGeRALD: Pro-
fessor CHRISTIAN F, LUTKEN, 402.

Vill CONTENTS.

Number 66.
Page

Art. XXXIII.—The New Spectrum; by S. P. Lane.ey.
With Plate VIL .).-..-22e2-220) zi. 2... . er

XXXIV.—Rival Theories of Cosmogony; by O. Fisumr... 414
XXXV.—Study of some American Fossil Cycads. Part IV.

Microsporangiate Fructification of Cycadeoidea; by G.
Bee WV RIGAND £80 5 oe - Cowes eee need eer 423

XXXVIL—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the Marsh Col-
lection, Peabody Museum; by J. L. Worrman. With
inte yar eos ee ae ere ere - 437

XXXVI1L—Cesium-Antimonious Fluorides and Some Other
Double Halides of Antimony; by H. L. Wextts and F.

J. MerzGnr 22. 22 bo Lo ee eee 451
XXX VIIL—“ Mohawkite”; by J. W. Ricnarps-__- 222-25 457

Henry ‘Augustus Rowland. -..-__-....-.. =... .-: 222 459

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Radio-active Lead, HOFMANN and STRAUSS: Zirconia of
Euxenite from Brevig, HOFMANN and PRANDTL, 463.—Action of Radium Rays
upon Selenium, E. BLocn: Reducing-power of Magnesium and Aluminum, A.
Dusoin: Method of Determining Atomic Weights, Based upon the Transparency
of Substances to the X-Rays, L. BENoIsT, 464.—Presence of Platinum upon an
Egyptian Hieroglyphic Inscription, BERTHELOT: Generalization from Trouton’s
Law, DE FoRCAND, 465.— Wissenschaftliche Grundlagen der analytischen
Chemie, W. OstwaLp: Spectrum of Carbon Compounds, A. SMITHELLS, 466.—
Absorption of Gas in a Crookes Tube, R. S. WitLow: Mechanical Movements
of Wires produced by Electrical Discharges which also make these Movements
luminous, O. Vion: Band Spectrum of Oxides of Aluminum and Nitrogen, G.
BeRNDT: Electricité et Optique; La. Lumiére et les Théories Electrodynam-
iques, H. PoIncaR®, 467.

Geology and Natural History—U. 8. Geological Survey, 21st Annual Report of

the Director, C. D. WAtcort, 468.— Physiography of Acadia, R. Dany: Carte
Géologique du Massif du Mont Blane, L. Duparc and L. MRazec: Mineral
constituents of dust and soot from various sources, W. N. HaRTLEy and H.
RAMAGE, 470.—Studies in Fossil Botany, D. H. Scorr: Flora of Western Mid-
dle California, W. L. Jepson, 471.—Grand Rapids Flora, E. J. Cots, 472.—
Variations of a newly-arisen Species of Medusa, A. G. MAYER, 473. ;

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of
the Smithsonian Institution, S, P. LANGLEY and C. G. ABBOT, 473.—Report
of the U. 8. National Museum: Journal of Hygiene: Annals of the Astronom-
ical Observatory of Harvard College, E. 0, PickeRING and E, S. King, 474,

INDEX TO VOLUME XI, 475.

Se Te a Se ae

Plate |.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XI, 1901.

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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FOURTH SERIES. ]

ArT. L—The Stereographic Projection and its Possibili-
ties, from a Graphical Standpoint; by S. L. PENFIELD.
(With Plate I.)

Introduction.—The results which are given in the present
paper are the outgrowth of a desire on the part of the writer
to simplify some of the processes of plotting and determining
crystal forms. The whole subject of stereographic projection,
as it has gradually unfolded itself to him during the past two
years, has revealed so many possibilities, and seems so important
and of such general interest, that it has been decided to pre-
sent first a paper treating of the stereographic projection alone,
leaving for a later communication its applications to special
problems of crystallography.

As far as the mathematical principles of the projection are
concerned, the writer lays claim to no new facts. The projec-
tion is treated, in more or less detail (usualiy very briefly), in
most text-books of crystallography, and instructions are given
for making stereographic projections. The processes recom-
mended, however, are generally tedious, and one of the objects
of the present paper is to indicate how projections may be
constructed easily and very accurately. Moreover, no mathe-
matical formulas nor equations have been used in developing
the subject, neither have tables been employed other than one
of natural tangents for calculating a certain scale. The prin-
ciples of the projection, as set forth in this article, are abso-
lutely exact ; while the errors involved in solving problems by
graphical methods are dependent upon one’s ability to locate
points and read scales correctly, the errors generally diminish-
ing as the size of the projection increases. It is also true of
numerical calculations that the processes are limited. Given
exact data, results accurate to the minute or to the second are

Am. Jour. Scl.—FourtH Series, Vou. XI, No. 1.—January, 1901.
I

2 S. L. Penjield—Stereographie Projection.

obtained according as four-place or seven-place logarithm
tables are employed ; while for some very exact geodetic com-
putations, where small fractions of a second must be taken into
consideration, ten-place logarithm tables are at times made use
of. The advantages of graphical methods over numerical eal-
culations are numerous, and are fully appreciated by engineers
and others who deal extensively with measurements and prac-
tical results derived therefrom.

The writer would be one of the last to claim that numerical
calculations can be dispensed with, yet he contends that, for a
large number of problems, especially those where the data are
not very exact, results obtained by graphical methods are in
every way as serviceable as those secured by ealeulation.
Then, too, it is possible to make computations by graphical
methods wholly without the use of formulas and tables, and
the processes can be carried out intelligently by persons who
have had no special mathematical training, provided only that
they have an appreciation of measurements expressed in terms
of degrees and fractions. Many advantages to be derived
from the use of the stereographic projection will naturally
suggest themselves during the course of this paper. In sub-
sequent paragraphs some of these advantages will be set forth,
and results obtained by plotting will be given, in order that
an idea of the accuracy of the method may be obtained.

General Principles of the Stereographic Projection.—In
this method of projection all points and ares on the surface of -
a sphere are projected on a flat surface (the plane of the pro-
jection) passing through the center of the sphere, the pole or
point to which everything is projected being located on the
surface of the sphere and at right angles to the plane of the
projection. Often the equatorial plane is chosen as the plane
of the projection, and the pole to which everything is then
projected is the south pole. Under the foregoing conditions,
it is also customary to represent only the features of the upper
half of the sphere (the northern hemisphere) in the projection,
although, as will be shown, the projection may be earried out
beyond the equator so as to inciude the southern hemisphere
as well. Projections are likewise frequently made upon a
plane passing through some north and south meridian, in
which case the pole of the projection will be located upon the
equator, at right angles to the plane of the projection. As will
be shown, projections can be made without difficulty upon any
desired plane. A most important feature of the stereographic
projection is that all angular distances and directions, which
can be plotted and measured only with difficulty on a spherical
surface, appear on the flat surface of the stereographie projec-
tion in such relations that they may be easily plotted and
measured. ‘This is true of no other method of projection.

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Prajedaon. 3

Some essential features of the stereographic projection are
illustrated in figure 1. The circle represents a vertical section

through a sphere, or a north and south meridian if considered

as such. JV and WS are the north and south poles, respectively,

and A B is the trace of the plane of the equator. Points on
2

(on

Hquator

the meridian 20°, 45°, 70°, and 90° from JV, when projected to
the south pole, are seen upon the plane of the equator at a, 0,

4 S. L. Penfield—Stereoyraphic Projection.

c, and d, respectively, while points more than 90° from 1
(110°, 185°, and 160°, for example), when projected to the
south pole and continued along the lines of projection until
they meet the plane of the equator, appear beyond the circle
at e, and points still farther out as indicated by the direction
of the arrows. In stereographic projection, figure 2, the
equator appears as a circle, the north pole WV occupies a posi-
tion in the center, and a north and south meridian is projected
upon the plane of the equator as a straight line corresponding
to some diameter of the circle, it may be C D, or it may have
some other direction, C’ D’ for example, depending, so to
speak, upon the longitude of the meridian. Points 20°, 45°,
70°, 90°, and 110° from JV, as measured on a north and south
meridian, appear in stereographic projection, figure 2, at a, b,c,
d, and e, or a’, 6’, c', d’, and ée’, respectively, the distances of
these points from JV being equal to those of corresponding
points from the center, figure 1, provided that the diameters
of the two circles are the same. The diameter C D, figure 2,
represents a stereographically projected north and _ south
meridian, and the distances JV to a, : c, d, and e, indicate 20°,
45°, 70°, 90°, and 110°, respectively, as measured on the
meridian. The true linear distances JV to a, d, ete., are equal
to the tangents of half the angles under consideration, the
radius of the circle being regarded as unity. The foregoing
tangent relation is well illustrated in figure 1, and depends
upon an important principle of geometry; namely, that two
lines within a circle meeting at the circumference (as any two
lines meeting at S, figure 1) make an angle with one another
which is measured by half the are included between the lines
at the circumference. The distances JV to a, c to d, and d toe,
each represent 20° in stereographic projection, and the rela-
tions of these distances should be carefully considered. Pro-
ceeding from the center, each stereographically projected degree
is somewhat greater than the one just before it, hence the dis-
tance c to d just within the equator is nearly twice as great as
NV to a near the pole, and @ to e just beyond the equator is
more than twice as great as JV to a.

From a consideration of figure 2, it is evident that, although
any point on the stereographic projection (a, for example)
which is 20° from the pole has a fixed relative distance from
the center irrespective of the size of the circle, the absolute
distance of 20° from the pole will vary with the size of the
circle. Hence, the construction of stereographie projections
can be greatly facilitated by adopting some definite size for
the fundamental circle, and devising certain protractors and
scales, by means of which points occupying known positions
on the sphere may be quickly and accurately plotted. In

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. 5

deciding upon an appropriate scale on which to make stereo-
graphic projections, it was necessary carefully to consider the
two following points :

If the construction is too small, it is difficult to locate given
points with sufficient accuracy, by means of a pencil and ordi-
nary drawing instruments ; while, on the other hand, if the con-
struction is on too large a scale, the drawing becomes unwieldy
and presents many difficulties, although the degree of accuracy
is greatly increased. After some experimenting it was decided
to make the projections on a circle of 14°" diameter, and after
nearly two years’ experience, during which time almost all
kinds of crystallographic problems have been under considera-
tion, it may be stated that this scale has proved very satis-
factory.

The Graduated Circle-——As one of the first aids for the
quick and accurate construction of stereographic projections,
a circle of 14° diameter, graduated into degrees, was engraved.
Every tenth degree of the graduation is accentuated, so that it
may be quickly caught by the eye, but it was thought best not
to number the entire graduation, as degrees can be easily
counted off. The exact center of the circle is indicated by a
small cross. The circle was engraved by means of a dividing
engine, which is equivalent to a guarantee of its accuracy.
(See page 23.) The circle and some scales which will be
described later are shown, much reduced and with only 5°
graduation, in figure 3. They are printed together on large
sheets of paper of excellent quality, the idea being that the
sheets may be purchased at a trifling expense, and used for
plotting all kinds of problems in stereographie projection.

Protractor No. I for plotting Stereographie Projections.—
In order to facilitate the work of locating known points on a
diameter of the graduated circle, a special protractor, desig-
nated as No. I, has been devised, which is shown without
reduction in figure 4. The semicircle, divided into degrees,
has a diameter of 14°™, thus corresponding to the diameter of
the graduated circle, figure 3, of the printed sheets. Holding
the protractor in a vertical position, and regarding the upper
0°-90° point of the semicircle as the north pole, lines drawn
from degree points on the semicircle to an imaginary south
pole would cross the diameter at correspondingly numbered,
stereographically projected, degree points. The distance from
the center to each degree line of the graduation was deter-
mined by calculation, and the scale was then engraved by
means of a dividing engine. The graduation has been num-
bered in both directions in order that angles given from either
the pole or the equator can be conveniently located. The pro-
tractor is printed on cardboard and is inexpensive. It may be

S. L. Penfield—Stereographie Projection.

6

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S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. Q

employed either in semicircular or rectangular form as an ordi-
nary protractor for laying off and measuring plane angles.

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Protractor No. J, FOR PLOTTING STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS.
The graduation on the base line gives the stereographically projected degrees.

Seale No. 8, accompanying the graduated circle, figure 3,
repeats the graduation of the base line of the protractor, and
the graduation is further continued for arcs of more than 90

8 S. L. Penfield—Stereographice Projection.

from the pole. Thus, referring to figures 1 and 2, p. 3, the
distances at which the lines of projection of ares of 110° and
135° would meet the diameter can be taken directly from this
scale. Various examples of the uses of scale No. 3 will appear
during the course of this article.

Owing to the size of the sheets upon which the divided
circle and scales are printed, there is a limit to the number of
stereographically projected degrees which can be given. As
seen in figure 3, the end of scale No. 3 indicates the 156th
degree from the pole. Since in some operations it may be
necessary to carry the projection beyond the limits of this
scale, the distances from the pole to the remaining projected
degrees are given in millimeters in the following table:

157°-344:]"™ 163°-468'4™™ = 169°-727:0™™ =: 175°-1603°3™™

158 -360°1 164 —498°1 170 -—800°1 176 —2004°5
159 -377°7 165 —531°7 171 — 889°4 177 —2673°2
160 —397°0 166 —570°1 172 —1001°0 178 —4010°3
161 —418°'3 167 —614°4 173 —1144°5 179 —8021°2
162 —442°0 168 —666'0 174 -13385°7 180 Infinity

The Possible Circles on a Spherical Surface.-—About a
point p located anywhere on the surface of a sphere, two
kinds of circles may be described ; an indefinite number of
small circles, whose distance from 7p is less than 90°, and one
great circle, at a distance of 90° from p. If p is located at
either the north or the south pole of a sphere, the small circles
described about p correspond to the parallels of latitude of a
terrestrial globe, and the great circle answers to the equator.
If the sphere is oriented with its north and south poles in a
vertical direction, and p is located on the equator, the small
circles described about » will have a vertical position and will
be referred to as vertzcal small curcles. A vertical great
circle, on the other hand, will pass through the north and
south poles, and will thus correspond to some north and south
meridian of a terrestrial globe. A great circle, whatever its
position, corresponds to some circumference of a sphere, and,
moreover, every great circle has this peculiarity, that it crosses
the horizontal great circle, or equator, at two points which are
antipodal.

The Stereographic Projection of Small Circles.—The upper
portion A of figure 5 is intended to represent a vertical sec-
tion through the center of a sphere; hence, the graduated
circle corresponds to some north and south meridian. X Y is
the trace of the plane of the equator, and WV and WS are the
north and south poles, respectively ;. is some fixed point on
the meridian, the figure representing it as 36° north of the
equator. Around p, asmall circle is supposed to be described,

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. 9
every point of which is «from p. In the figure, a is equal
to 28°, hence the circle touches the north and south meridian

at the. points a and 6, respectively at 8°, =36°—28°, and 64°,
It is evident that all possible lines of pr ojection

5, A and B.

=36°+28°.

LNB Noe Vee | zyuator, |

\Z

-

--.—---7”

running from S to the small circle under consideration must
be located upon the surface of an imaginary cone, with its
apex at S and having a circular base touching the meridian at
aand 6. Such a cone is an oblique cone, and the plane wb Sis
a symmetrical section through it. Continuing the line S a,
laying off a distance S}’= Sd, and joining 6 0’, a section bb’

10 S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection.

through the cone will be an ellipse, but it is not necessary for
the present discussion to demonstrate this point. A line join-
ing the center of > 6’ and S, passes through p, bisects the angle
of the cone at S, and may be regarded as an axis of the cone.
Let it now be imagined that the cone 6 6’ S revolves about the
axis Sp. Since the section 6 0’ is an ellipse, and an ellipse is
a figure of binary symmetry, the surface of the cone during
the first quarter of the revolution will depart somewhat from
its original position, and then on continued turning it will
approach more and more to its original position until a revolu-
tion of 180° has been accomplished, when the correspondence

of the conical surfaces. will be complete. After the revolution -

of 180°, the points @ and 6 of the cone in its original position
will be transferred to a’ and 6’, respectively, and the section
a’ b’ must be a circle, because a6 was a circle. Figure 5, A,
illustrates.a most important feature of the stereographie pro-
jection; namely, that no matter where p is located, if the pole
of the projection is at S, all circular sections corresponding to
a’ b' are horizontal and parallel to the plune of the equator ;
hence, the lines of projection running from S& to the circle ab
or a’ b’ intersect the plane of the equator in a@ circle. Proot
of this feature of the stereographic projection is very simple.
The angles @ and £@’,: figure 5, A, are equal, because they
belong to the same cone before and after a revolution of 180°
about the axis Sy. Draw the line ae parallel to 0’ a’, and 6”
will equal 8’ because of the construction. The angle @ (on
the circumference of the circle at 6) is measured by half the
are Sa, and the angle 8” is measured by half the are Sc;
therefore, since @ and 8” are equal, the ares Sa and Sc are
equal. This being true a c must be a chord, at right angles to a
line joining the north and south poles, and hence horizontal, or
parallel with the trace of the equator X Y. What holds good
for a circle cutting the meridian at the points a and 3, figure 5,
A, holds good for a circle in any possible position on the sphere ;
henee,. ald circles on the sphere will appear in stereographic
projection as circles on the plane of the projection.

Figure 5, A, further illustrates an interesting feature of
conic sections; namely, that through an oblique cone circular
sections are possible in two directions,—parallel to a} and a’ b’.
All other sections are ellipses.

The construction of a small circle in stereographic projec-
tion corresponding to the problem of which, so to speak, an
elevation has just been given in figure 5, A, becomes a very
simple matter, and is illustrated in figure 5, 6, case Z. The
divided circle here corresponds to the equator, and the north
pole WV isin the center. A north and south meridian would
appear in the projection as a diameter of the circle, and the

———————————— Eee ee

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. 11

pole p, 86° from the equator, is readily located on a diameter
by means of protractor No. I, p. 7. On just what diameter
it should be placed would depend upon some determining
factor—for example, the longitude of the meridian. The
small circle which is to be projected is v° = 28° from p; hence
it would intersect the north and south meridian at points 8°
and 64° from the equator, which points can be quickly located
on the same diameter as p by means of protractor No. I. All
that now remains to be done is to find the center point and
construct the circle.

Another small circle in stereographic projection is illus-
trated by case LI, figure 5, £. Here p’ is some pole which
may be located anywhere within the circle. Draw a diameter
passing through p’, bring the base line of protractor No. I to
correspond with the diameter, and note the position of p’. In
the case under consideration, p’ was found to.be 60° 20’ from
NV. The small circle described about py’ is distant 45° from p’ ;
hence it will touch the diameter at 15° 20’ = 60° 20’—45° 0’,
and at 105° 20’=60° 20’+45° 0’. The two points 15° 20’ and
105° 20’ can be located on the diameter by means of scale No.
3, figure 3, and it then becomes an easy matter to find the
center point and construct the circie. Numerous applications
of the principles of the stereographic projection of small
circles will appear during the course of this article.

The Stereographic Projection of Vertical Small Circles.—
This is a problem deserving special consideration because of
its very general application. The point p, figure 6, A, is
located on the equator at the crossing of some meridian ;
hence the small circle described about it touches the north and
south meridians, passing through p at points a and 6, equally
distant from p. The same demonstration that was employed
on p. 9, figure 5, A, for illustrating that a small circle on the
‘sphere is projected as a circle on the plane of the equator,
holds good in the present case. Figures 5, A, and 6, A, are
lettered alike, and the demonstration need not be repeated.
In order to construct a vertical small circle in stereographic
projection, figure 6, 6, four points can be readily fixed upon.
Two of these are the projection upon some diameter, z y, of
the points a@ and b of the upper figure, the other two being
points on the equator at the desired distance, 2°, from p. ‘To
facilitate the projection of any desired vertical small circle,
scale No. 2 of figure 3 has been constructed, from which the
radius of the desired circle can be obtained. To construct,
therefore, a small circle 36° from p, as represented by figure 6,
B, draw a diameter @y through p, and upon it, by means of
the scale on the base line of protractor No. I, locate a point
36° from p. Then set a pair of dividers so that their points

12 S. L. Penfield—Stereographie Projection.

will span the distance from 0° to 36° on scale No. 2, figure 3,
find the center point on the diameter « y, and draw the small
circle, which will intersect the divided circle at 36° from p.
Owing to the character of the stereographic projection, the
greater part of projected vertical circles will always lie outside
the divided circle.

6, A and B.

Vertical circles nearly 90° from p have very long radii, and
are best constructed by means of the curved ruler described
later on. Thus, a vertieal circle 88° from p, figure 6, B,
must pass through two points 83° from p on the divided circle,

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. 13

and also through the stereographically projected 83° point,
as plotted on the diameter y, by means of the graduation
on the base line of protractor No. J.

7, A and B.

B4Zhe Stereographic Projection of Great Circles.—W hat was
true of a small circle described about some point p as a center,
holds true also for a great circle intersecting a north and south
meridian, figure 7, A, at points a and b, 90° from p. In the
special case illustrated by the figure, p being 36° from the

14 Sets Penfield—Stereographie Projection.

equator, the line of projection from S to 6 crosses the plane of
the equator at 126° (stereographically projected) from the left-
hand end of the diameter XY Y, or 54° from the right-hand
end, while the line of projection from S to a would intersect
the plane of the equator far out beyond the divided circle, as.
indicated by the arrow, at a point which could be determined
by scale No. 8, figure 3, a being 144° from VV. All possible
lines of projection from S to the great circle a } are located on
the surface of an imaginary oblique cone with its apex at S.
Moreover, it could be proved, as was done in the case of the
small circle illustrated by figure 5, A (the figures being lettered

the same), that the intersection of the cone with the plane of

the equator is in this case alsoa circle. The stereographic pro-

jection of a great circle is illustrated in figure 7, 6. The pro-
jection of the point 6, 54° from the equator on a north and
south meridian, as shown by the upper figure, is quickly found
on the diameter « y by means of the graduation on the base line
of protractor No.1. <A circular are must then be found passing
through 6, and intersecting the divided cirele at antipodal points
at right angles to the diameter # y. To facilitate the construc-
tion of such circular ares, scale No. 1 of figure 3 has been con-
structed, which gives the radii of possible great circles. As
the arcs of projected great circles approach JV (the center of
the divided circle) they become flatter; hence they are best
constructed by means of the curved ruler described later on.
As seen from scale No. 1, figure 8, the shortest radius of any
stereographically projected great circle is equal to the radius
of the divided circle.

S. L. Pensield—Stereographic Projection. 15

To draw the projected are of a great circle through two
points, one of which, p, figure 8, is on the divided circle and
the other, a, within the circle, is a simple matter. The circular
are must intersect the divided circle'at p’, antipodal to p, and
its center must be on a line w y intersecting the divided circle
at 90° from and p’. The center ¢ may be found by a few
trials with a pair of dividers, or it may be determined analyti-
cally as follows: With dividers opened up to some convenient
distance construct two circular ares w w and v », figure 8, hay-
ing the same radius 7, and draw a line through their intersec-
tions. The line thus drawn will be at right angles to the cen-

ter point of a line joining a and p’, and will intersect the line
x y at ¢, which will be the center of the circular are pa p’.
To draw the projected are of a great circle through two
points a and 0, both of which are within the divided circle, the
following principles may be used: That the great circle pass-
ing through @ and 6 must also pass through points @’ and 0’,
antipodal, respectively, to a and 6; also that the great circle
must intersect the divided circle at antipodal points p and p’.
If, therefore, there are two points, a and 3, figure 9, anywhere
within the circle, draw a diameter through one of them, a for
example, and continue it beyond the circle. Apply the base
line of protractor No. I to the diameter, determine the dis-
tance, in stereographically projected degrees, of a from the
divided circle, and, making use of scale No. 3, figure 3, locate

16 S. L. Penfield—Stereographie Projection.

a’ just as many projected degrees beyond the divided circle as
ais within it. Thus, as measured on a stereographically pro-
jected north and south meridian, @’ is antipodal to a, and the
problem of finding the center ¢ and drawing a circular arc
through a, b, and a’, which is fully illustrated by the figure, is
too simple to need more detailed explanation. In some cases
it may prove easier to plot a line w y, as illustrated by figure 9,
and find upon it the point ¢ by trial, for only one circular are
can be found, which, passing through @ and 6, intersects the
divided circle at antipodal points p and p’. If the two points
within the circle are so located that the projected great circle
passing through them has a very long radius, the curved ruler
described later on can be quickly adjusted so that a cirenu-
lar are may be drawn passing through them and intersecting the
divided circle at antipodal points.

10

To measure the Angular Distance between any two ports
on a Stereographic Projection.—To measure the Side of a
Spherical Triangle.—Let the two points a and 6, be anywhere
within the divided circle, figure 10. Since the angular dis-
tance between any two points on a sphere is measured in
degrees along the are of a great circle, it is first necessary to
construct a great circle passing through a and 6, and thus locate
the antipodal points » and p’ on the divided circle. It is now
possible to find some projected vertical small cirele described
about py, which passes through a and servesas a measure of the
angular distance p to a; likewise a small circle described
about p’ and passing through 6, which serves to measure the
distance from p’ to 6, Knowing the angular distances p to @
and p’ to 6, the distance a to b is readily determined. In fig-

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. aly

ure 10, » to a= 33° 0’ and p’ to b = 58° 15’; hence a to b=
88° 45’, or the supplement of the sum of the two angles.
Without the aid of the special protractor described in the
next paragraph, it is a laborious task to find the two projected
vertical circles passing through @ and 6, figure 10; though by
making use of the protractor No. I and scale No. 2, figure 3
they can be plotted without great difficulty.

Stereographic Protractor No. I1.—To facilitate measure-
ments of the angular distances between points on a stereographic
projection, or measurements of the sides of spherical triangles, a
special protractor has been devised which is represented in
plate I, without reduction, and will be designated as the Stereo-
graphic Protractor, or Protractor No. 11. The essential fea-
tures of this protractor are as follows: The circle of 14° diame-
ter, divided into degrees, corresponds with the divided circle
shown, much reduced, in figure 8. On one-half of the circle, the
projected ares of vertical small circles, p. 11, have been con-
structed for every degree. Since on a 14°™-circle the stereo-
graphically projected circles are very near together, the even
degrees have been represented by full lines and the odd degrees
by dashed lines; also the ares of every fifth and tenth degree
are engraved somewhat heavier than the others. These details,
however, are not essential, but simply serve to make the use of
the protractor somewhat easier. On the other half of the cir-
cle only the ares of every fifth and tenth degree are repre-
sented. This half of the protracter is really superfluous, but
for approximate measurements it will at times be found more
convenient than the other half where the ares are crowded.
For convenience the protractor is numbered in two directions,
from 0° to 180°. Further, in order to have the protractor
really practical, it should be printed or engraved on some trans-
parent material ; transparent celluloid has been found to satisfy
every requirement.

To use the protractor in finding the distance from a to 6,
figure 10, for example, lay it (best with the printed side down) on
the drawing, and bring the 0° and 180° points to correspond
with the antipodal points p and p’ on the divided circle, then
note the distances p to a@ and p to db in degrees and fractions,
and the difference between the two readings will equal the
angular distance from a to 6.

To measure from any given point p on the divided circle to
a point @ within the circle, it is not necessary to go through
the operation of constructing the are of a great circle through
pand a, as represented in figure 8, p. 14; merely place the
protractor with its 0° and 180° points on p and p’, and then
note on the protractor the projected are which corresponds
most nearly to a.

Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Series, Vou. XI, No. 1.—January, 1901.
2

y)

18 S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection.

To measure the Angle made by the meeting of Two Great
Circles.—To measure the Angle of a Spherical Triangle.—
Just as the angle between two meridians at the north pole of a
sphere is measured on the equator, so the angle between two.
great circles crossing at a point A, which may be anywhere
within the divided circle, figure 11, is measured on the are of a
great circle at 90° from A. To make the measurement of the
angle, draw a diameter of the divided circle through A, and,
applying the base line of protractor No. I to the diameter, note
the distance in projected degrees from JV to A; then locate a
point & just as many degrees from the divided circle as A is
from V. A and # are thus 90° apart, and, making use of

net:

6°40

/ 116° 4
AIG 4

~
ao

scale No. 1, figure 3, the arc of a great circle p p’, passing
through £, can be easily drawn. All points on the great circle
thus plotted, including the intersections a and y, are 90° from
A,and the angle at A is equal to the distance in projected
degrees between w and y, as measured with the stereographic
protractor on the arc of the great circle p p’.

Provided an angle is located on the divided circle, as at C,
all that is necessary to do is to draw a diameter of the divided
circle at 90° from C, and measure the angle at C on the pro-
jected north and south meridian by means of the graduation
on the base line of protractor No. I; for example, from
u to v = 59°.

Another method of measuring the angles of spherical tri-
angles depends upon a well known and interesting peculiarity
of the stereographic projection, to which the writer’s attention
was called by Prof. G. P. Starkweather of Yale University ;
namely, that the angle made by the crossing of two circles on

S. L. Penfield—sStereographic Projection. 19

a@ sphere 1s preserved in the stereographic projection of the
circles. The method of measuring is illustrated by figure 12.
ABC is a right spherical triangle, and to measure the angle
BL, draw through & a tangent 7’; the angle formed by ¢¢’ and
the diameter UC’ determines B. To draw accurately the
tangent tt’, locate two points a and 6, equally distant from B,
on the great circle ALA’. A line joining ab would be a
chord of the circular arc AA’, and a line through B, paral-
lel to ab, is a tangent to the circle. An ordinary protractor
PP, preferably a transparent one,* centered at B by means of

12

a needle, can be employed for measuring the angle. The
0°—0° line of the protractor is made to coincide with 7’, and
the angle (78° 15’ in the illustration) is determined from the
graduation of the protractor. It is not necessary to construct
the tangent ¢¢’ except when great accuracy is required ; it is
simply necessary to turn the protractor until the are ABC
intersects the circular are of the protractor at equal distances
from its two 0° points when its 0°-0° line will be tangent to
the are AA’ at B.- In case the spherical triangle is an
oblique one, ABD, to measure B draw two tangents, dz’ and
“’t’’", then measure the angle between them. Whether it is
easier to construct tangents and measure with an ordinary pro-
tractor, as illustrated by figure 12, or to construct the are of a
great circle at 90° from #, 4s illustrated by figure 11, and
measure by means of protractor No. II, plate I, is a matter
which must be determined by experience. It is far simpler to

* Protractor No. II, plate I, which is printed on transparent celluloid and is
divided at the periphery into degrees, can be employed.

S. L. Penfield—sStereographic Projection.

20

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‘A[UO de1sep Y{Jy AOA AIO] SO[OIIO [[VUUS pUB JVI YIM ‘TIT ‘ON ALOJORIOIg O1yYde1s001099
‘10J pojdde yueywg

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+
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, page 7, than by con-

ane angles.

measure the angles A and JD, figure 12, by meansof the gradua-

tion on the base line of protractor No. I

structing tangents and measuring the pl

1
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—

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Supplementary Protractors.—E
the divided circle and

Ing

SOL: Penfield—Stereographic Projection. = A.

J and II, figure 4 and plate I, practically all kinds of problems
in spherical trigonometry can be plotted and solved by graphical
methods. Two additional protractors, however, are so conve-
nient that some space may be well devoted to them.

Protractor No. III, figure 13, is a combination of great and
small circles on the same sheet. Every fifth degree only is
given, the even degrees being indicated by full, and the odd
degrees by dashed, lines. It is printed on transparent celluloid
and is intended to be used for making an approximate meas-
urement of the distance between any two points on a stereo-
graphic projection. At the center, there is a small hole, and
if a sheet upon which a stereographic projection has been made
is pierced at its center, the protractor can be quickly centered
upon the sheet by means of a needle passed through the two
holes. Thus centered, the protractor is turned until the two
points, the distance between which is to be measured, fall either
on an are of a great circle or at proportionately equal distances
between the arcs of two great circles. The distances of the
two points from either zero point of the protractor is then
noted, as indicated in degrees by the stereographically projected
small circles, and the difference gives the distance between the
points. Generally speaking, it is not essential to know upon
what great circle the two points are located. They must be on
some great circle, and the 0° and 180° points of the protractor
locate approximately where this great circle intersects the
divided circle. It is from the antipodal points thus ascertained
that the readings of the protractor are made.

Given a chart or map in stereographic projection and a pro-
tractor, as just described, less than two minutes are required to
shift the protractor to the proper position and measure the
distance between any two points. Measurements thus made
with a protractor graduated only to every fifth degree can be
regarded as but approximately correct. They will seldom be
more than a degree from the truth, and will average less than
half a degree. For quick and approximate work, therefore,
this protractor will be very serviceable.

The great circles for every fifth degree might well appear
on that half of protractor No. II, plate I, on which the small
circles for every fifth degree are engraved. The advantage,
however, of having the two kinds of circles on the same pro-
tractor was not appreciated until after the plate for protractor
- No. Ii had been engraved.

Protractor No. I V.—In this protractor, figure 14, the great
circles of every alternate degree (second, fourth, etc.) are repre-
sented. . On the small scale adopted, it would bring the ares
too close together to represent every degree. The arcs are not
numbered, but those corresponding to every tenth degree are
represented by lines heavier than the rest, so that they may be

22 S. L. Penfield—Stereographie Projection.

readily caught by the eye. The protractor is printed on trans-
parent celluloid. At the center there is a small hole, and at

14

Printed from the original engine-divided plate.

Stereographic Protractor No, IV, giving the great circles of every alternate degree (second, fourth, etc.).

Patent applied for.

the ends of the semicircle the celluloid is cut away to the exact
line of the diameter. The chief use of this protractor is to
find the great circle which passes through any two given points

SO. Pen field —Stereographic Projection. 23

of a stereographic projection; more especially, however, to
locate the antipodal points where the great circle crosses the
divided circle. To perform this operation, the protractor is
centered by means of a needle over a sheet upon which a
stereographic projection has been made. It is then revolved
until any two points of the projection are on, or proportionately
distant from, the same great circle, when, by means of a pencil,
marks are made on the drawing where the base line of the
protractor crosses the divided circle. From the antipodal
points thus located, measurements to the two points within
the circle can be made by means of protractor No. Il. In the
majority of cases it is not necessary to draw the are of a great
circle passing through two points within the cirele. To
measure the distance between them, however, it is necessary
to locate the antipodal points on the engraved circle. On
page 15, figure 9, it was shown how a great circle passing
through any two points within the circle of a stereographic
projection may be plotted. Protractor No. IV furnishes a
quick, though perhaps not quite so accurate a method of accom-
plishing the same result.

The Engraving of the Scales and Protractors.—It seems
best to give a brief account of the methods employed in making
the scales and protractors. The graduation of scale No. 3,
figure 3, repeated in part on the base line of protractor No.
I, figure 4, was calculated to a fraction of a millimeter by
means of a simple tangent relation; for example, the distance
of the 20° line from the center equals the radius of the circle
multiplied by the natural tangent of 10°, page 4. The
method of preparing scale No. 1, figure 3, may be illustrated
by referring to figure 7, A, page 138. The distances (from the
center) of the stereographically projected 126° point to the right
and of the 144° point to the left, as determined by scale No. 3,
are added, and their sum divided by two gives the radius of

. the great circle under consideration. Figure 6, A, page 12,

illustrates how scale No. 2, figure 3, was derived from scale
No. 3. From the distance (from the center) of the stereo-
graphically projected 126° point, that of the 86° point was sub-
tracted, and the difference divided by two gives the radius of
the small circle under consideration.

Scale No. 4 is not employed in the stereographic projection,
but is used in crystallography. The data supplied for making
scales 1, 2, and 3 was employed in the construction of the pro-
tractors. Scales and protractors were laid out and engraved
by means of a dividing engine. The plates were made by the
so-called wax process. In this process, a metal plate, covered
with a wax preparation, is employed, and the engraving tools
cut through the wax to the metal. Engine work on wax plates

24 S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection.

should leave the engraver’s hands practically perfect. An elec-
trotype of the plates is next taken, and the copper depositing in
the grooves made by the engraver’s tools furnishes the relief from
which impressions are taken. Finally, in order to prepare the
electrotype for printing, the copper, stripped from the plate, is
strengthened by casting some easily fusible metal upon the back
of the electrotype. This casting causes a slight shrinkage of
the plates, amounting to about 0°5™™ for a distance of 140™™
(the diameter of the protractors). It has been ascertained that
the shrinkage is practically uniform and proportional in all the
plates, so that no appreciable errors can arise from using engrav-
ings of this kind. Still, the plates are not absolutely perfect.

Copper or steel engravings would be preferable to engravings
made by the wax process, but both the plates and impressions
therefrom would be more expensive. If it is thought best to
have another set of scales and protractors on a larger scale, the
desirability of having them engraved on steel or copper should
be carefully considered. Even impressions made from steel
engravings might not be absolutely perfect, for paper changes
somewhat under varying climatic conditions, and expansion and
contraction are not always alike in every direction.

Another thing to be considered is that celluloid shrinks, and
protractors printed from accurately engraved plates may become
inaccurate inafew months. Except for its tendency to shrink,
however, celluloid is exactly the kind of transparent material
upon which to print the protractors, and a very simple correc-
tion serves to offset the slight shrinkage. Tor example, some
impressions of protractor No. II, printed on newly purchased
celluloid five months prior to the time of writing, have shrunk
so that with a zero point of the protractor matched exaetly at
one end of a diameter of the divided circle, figure 3, the 180°
point falls one-half a degree short of coincidence with the
opposite end of the diameter. In other words, a distance of
179° 30’, stereographically projected upon a diameter of one
of the engraved sheets, figure 3, is measured as 180° by means
of the protractor; hence, from measurements made by the
protractor, 5’ should be deducted for every 30°, equivalent to
30’ for 180°. It is believed that, in time, celluloid will become
seasoned, so to speak, and that it will cease to shrink. Accord-
ingly a rather large stock of this material has been purchased
with the hope that in the course of a year or two it will be
possible to print protractors which will not change.

Taking into consideration all imperfections of the plates,
especially those due to shrinkage in casting, errors arising there-
from are quite insignificant when compared with the errors
involved in plotting points and constructing ares when the con-
struction is based upon so small a scale as a 14 circle.

(Zo be continued.)

Derby— Occurrence of Topaz near Ouro Preto, Brazil. 25

Art. Il.—On the Mode of Occurrence of Topaz near Ouro
Preto, Brazil; by OrviLtLeE A. DERBY.

THE current treatises on mineralogy, in the brief reference to
the association of the yellow Brazilian topaz of the Ouro Preto
district with taleose or chlorite schist, give an idea of a mode
of occurrence quite different from that of any of the other
known localities of the mineral. This statement is made on
the authority of Eschwege, who in the early part of the century
(1811-1822) spent a number of years at Ouro Preto and was
very familiar with the mines during a period of active work-
ing. A fuller statement of Eschwege’s observations, given ip
various writings, but most fully in his Pluto Brasiliensis pub-
lished in 1833, is as follows. The topaz occurs in a narrow belt
of country only a few hundred meters wide, extending for
several kilometers from Saramenha, a suburb of Ouro Preto
westward, in a nearly straight line for a distance of about 20
kilometers, by the mines of Boa Vista and José Correia to
Capao de Lana,* with indications of a second less important
belt a few kilometers to the northward. The topaz here
oceurs 2m situ and exclusively of a yellowish or rose color in
contradistinction to the northern region near Minas Novas on
the Jequitinhenha, where only white and blue stones occur
exclusively in the state of rolled pebbles. The mineral, asso-
ciated with quartz, specular iron, rutile and euclase, occurs in
layers and nests of a fine scaly friable lithomarge, white or
colored by iron oxide, all of these minerals being well crys-
tallized but invariably broken at the base and irregularly
mingled, as if kneaded into the lithomarge. The topaz-bearing
nests and layers are enclosed in a decomposed unctuous schist
which provisionally was cailed tale or chlorite schist, and which
in turn are intercalated in the decomposed argillaceous schists
of the region that were referred to the primary formation.

Mawe,t and Spix and Martius,t who visited the region about
the same time gave descriptions of the mines in substantial
accord with that of Eschwege, except that they refer the topaz
to veins and the latter authors contest the classification of the
enclosing schist as talcose, calling its characteristic mineral a
modified mica. |

No additional information of value regarding the topaz was
given until 1882, when Gorceix$ described the principal mines

*Not Ulana nor Lane, as frequently given. Capao is the Indian name for an
isolated group of trees or grove and Lana is probably the name of a former pro-
prietor.

+ Travels in the Interior of Brazil. London, 1812.

¢ Reise in Brasilien, Munich, 1831.
S$ Annaes da Escola de Minas de Ouro Preto, No. 1.

26 = Derby—Occurrence of Topaz near Ouro Preto, Brazil.

and made analyses (reproduced in full in No. 57 of this
Journal) proving that a great part at least of the unctuous
schists of the region called talcose or chloritic by Eschwege
and others are relatively poor in magnesia and rich in alkalies
and are therefore essentially micaceous. Three of the schists
analyzed were from the topaz mine of Boa Vista or its imme-
diate vicinity, but it is almost certain that they represent what
Eschwege called argillaceous schist (fibrous schist of Gorceix)
rather than the topaz-bearing layers themselves, which are
nowhere found in a sufficiently sound state to give satisfactory
analyses. The lithomarge accompanying the topaz was also
analyzed, giving: SiO, 46°6 per cent, Al,O, 38 per cent, MgO
1 per cent, and loss on ignition 14:1 per cent—which is the
composition of a true kaolin with a sight percentage of mag-
nesia. The lithomarge is spoken of in one place as occurring
in a vein occupying a line of fracture but in another as result-
ing from an alteration of the schist. The alignment of the
principal mines noted by Eschwege was confirmed and some-
what extended by Gorceix and the existence of a second
parallel line marked by the smaller workings of Caxambu and
Fundao was affirmed.

In recent brief visits to the Ouro Preto region an attempt
was made to resolve the doubts suggested by the above studies
and to determine the original character and mode of origin of
the topaz-bearing material. For this purpose the small mine
of Caxambt was selected, as here the topaz bed was tolerably
well exposed by recent workings, whereas in the larger mines
it is now for the most part concealed and everywhere greatly
obscured by landslides. A preliminary examination of these
mines fully confirmed the opinion of Gorceix of their sub-
stantial identity with that of Caxambu, which may therefore be
taken as typical of the topaz mines of the region. On account
of the extreme decomposition of most of the material to be
examined the problem presented was one of ‘‘mud geology”
—the attempt to reconstruct from earthy materials the original
rock types from which they were derived—and the solution
here presented is necessarily largely hypothetical.

The mine is situated on the slope of a low col between the
base of the high-rounded campo-covered knob called the Morro de
Caxambu, and a lower knob a few score of meters to the south-
ward. In both of these knobs on each side of the col sound
rock is exposed in low bluffs. This is a sericitic phyllite
heavily charged with fine hematite dust and on the southern
side with a considerable amount of rather coarse quartz in scat-
tered grains, which gives the rock the appearance of an iron-
bearing quartzite (itabirite), though on examination it is seen
to be more micaceous than quartzose. The rock from both of

Derby— Occurrence of Topaznear Ouro Preto, Brazil. 27

these bluffs gives a small residue of rolled zircons, most
abundant in the more quartzose one, and there can be no doubt
that it is a metamorphosed clastic although from its essentially
micaceous and ferruginous character, indicating a high per-
centage in alkalies and iron oxide, it may be suspected that it
was not originally a perfectly normal sedimentary clay. On
the slope of the col itself and only a few meters away from the
mine on the line of strike there is a small exposure of a soft
bluish black slate-pencil phyllite, which, in appearance, only
differs from the rock of the bluffs on either side in its finer
grain, and which is in all respects identical with the one of
which an analysis was given in the September number of this
Journal from a smaller topaz working in the immediate
vicinity. ‘This is a sericite schist free from quartz but heavily
charged with iron, and in the paper above cited its low silica
and high alkali contents were given as an argument for con-
sidering it as, possibly, a sheared eruptive. The absence of
rolled zircons in its heavy residue (both the rock at Caxambu
and the one analyzed) may be cited as a confirmation, though
not an absolutely conclusive one, of this argument.

The mine itself, which is simply a small excavation in earthy
material which when soaked with water has much the appear-
ance and consistence of soft soap, exposes a zone some ten or
dozen meters wide of bluish and yellowish clays which still
distinctly show the nearly vertical lamination of the rocks
' from which they are derived. The predominant color is bluish
but with streaks and patches of yellow which in part represent
a more advanced stage of decay of the bluish material, in part,
as will be seen farther on, a material of somewhat different
structure and composition. The blue clay could be very satis-
factorily traced into the slate-pencil phyllite above mentioned
and on the other hand into a light yellow micaceous clay, or
rather earth, that shows a change of color owing to the more
complete hydration of the iron oxide. In the midst of this
earthy material that, while still retaining its original form and
structure, falls to pieces on the slightest movement, are bands
from a few centimeters up to a meter or more in width of a
different colored and more plastic earth, carrying oxide of man-
ganese as well as of iron that gives it a darker yellow color
passing to brown or black. The contacts between these two
kinds of earth are perfectly sharp, like an eruptive contact, and
are sometimes accentuated by a concentration of iron and man-
ganese oxides, forming a black sahlband of about a centimeter’s
width that merges gradually into the general mass of the
brownish or yellowish earth. In one case a band was observed
having such a black sahlband on one side and on the other a |

28 Derby—Occurrence of Topaz near Ouro Preto, Brazil.

zone full of angular fragments of the blue phyllite, giving a
brecciated appearance.

So far as could be observed, the topazes only occur in this
darker-colored earth, and this is in accord with the descriptions
given by Eschwege and Gorceix. This earth is evidently the
decomposition product of an eruptive rock which though
sheared is less perfectly laminated than the blue phyllite in
which it is inclosed and which was evidently much more irregu-
lar in its composition and structure. This last difference is
shown by a considerable variation, in streaks and patches, of the
coloration and by the occurrence of nodular masses from the

it

size of a pea up to that of the fist, or larger, of white kaolin,
of a dark chocolate-colored earth, or of granular quartz, or of
a mixture of these various elements. It is in these nodules
that the topaz occurs though in a somewhat irregular manner,
since a number of the smaller ones were washed without find-
ing a trace of the mineral.

Of these nodular inclusions the most significant are those of
kaolin. The small group exposed on a carefully- -scraped face
and shown of natural size in fig. 1 is very suggestive of an
original porphyritic structure somewhat modified by shearing.
The larger and more sheared group shown in fig. 2 exhibits a
gneissoid aspect suggestive of the shearing of a granitic or
syenitic nodule in a fine-grained rock as, for example in the
phonolitic types of the Serras of Tingua and of Caldas. The
larger nodules of white or chocolate-colored earth and of
quartz, in some but apparently not all of which the topaz
occurs, are too friable to permit of satisfactory sections, but
there can be little doubt that they are essentially of the same
character. These frequently show a scale-like crust and irregu-
lar intercalations from a few miilimeters to one or two centi-

‘
j
i
,
ay
i

Derby— Occurrence of Topaz near Ouro Preto, Brazil. 29

meters thick of micaceous material that still retains a lithoid
character and is composed almost exclusively of fine flakes of
muscovite, which also occurs in considerable abundance and in

larger flakes in the earthy and quartzose matter of the nodules.

Washings of the various phases of the topaz-bearing earth
give avery abundant slime of earthy iron and manganese oxides
and finely divided mica with a greater or less amount that is
difficult to estimate of clay matter, leaving a comparatively
insignificant residue of mica flakes and fine grains of scaly

hematite. The normal earth free from visible kaolin of the
specimen of fig. 2 gave 27-8 per cent soluble in hydrochloric
acid, of which 3 per cent was manganese oxide, the rest being
iron with a very perceptible trace of alumina. The darker
earth of the brown clay nodules and that surrounding one of
quartz gave about twice as mnch soluble constituents, that is to
say of iron and manganese oxides. The residue after sliming
is nearly free from quartz except when quartzose nodules occur.
On removing the mica and iron a very slight heavy residue of
minute grains and aggregates of rutile and needles of tourmaline
remains with very rare and ill-formed grains of green anatase
and a comparative abundance of a yellowish phosphatic
mineral. The hematite grains are rare in the body of the
earth but very abundant when the micaceous crusts above
mentioned occur, and the tourmaline is distributed in a similar
manner but is nowhere abundant. Rutile appears in all the
washings, but is apparently more abundant in the main body

30 Derby—Occurrence of Topaz near Ouro Preto, Brazil.

of the earth than in the’nodules, while anatase only occurs spo-
radically. Zircon in extremely minute and. usually ill-formed
grains of difficult identification was found in the micaceous.
crusts but only sporadically in washings from other parts.
The phosphatic mineral is usually in illformed aggregates
that sink in the Klein solution, but a few rare erystals of
rhombohedral form were detected. By microchemical and
blowpipe tests (with the Florence bead) cerium was identified
in these grains and this with the rhombohedral form and high
specific gravity indicates that the mineral is the cerium-alumi-
num phosphate, florencite, recently described by Hussak and
Prior. Topaz could only be found in some but not all of the
nodular masses, but no trace of it could be detected in the main
body of the earth free from inclusions. When found it was.
always in fragments of what had evidently been macroscopic
crystals, no ” perfectly formed microscopic crystals bein
observed although they were carefully and confidently looked
for.

The above observations afford a very insufficient basis for
the determination of the original type of the topaz-bearing
material, but in view of, the interest of the subject and the
slight probability of finding better preserved material for
study, some hypothetical deductions may be hazarded. In this
attempt at reconstructive geology two phases have to be con-
sidered, viz. the schistose one from which the earthy matter is
directly derived by decomposition, and the original rock type
from which this schist was derived by metamorphism accom-
panied by shearing.

In the schistose phase it is certain that the rock was essen-
tially a micaceous schist, which, as the mica flakes, although
minute, are for the most part well formed, can be designated
as muscovite rather than as sericite schist. The mica contents.
of this schist must have varied from about 70 per cent in the
normal parts free from segregations to about 30 per cent in
the more basic and to almost nothing in the more acid of the
latter. The iron and manganese contents varying in the
inverse proportion are probably referable to original oxides*
and in this case the schist must have been very similar in com-

* Probably but not certainly, as in the immediate vicinity there are extensive
deposits of manganese ores that are residues from original carbonates and others
that are presumed to be derived from original silicates, while examples of the
complete replacement of an iron-bearing silicate (asbestiform amphibole) by
limonite are frequent in the neighborhood. In the case in question, however,
there are serious difficulties in the way of the hypothesis of the derivation of
these hydrous oxides from either a carbonate or a silicate. The other conditions
of the bed seem incompatible with the first, and the absence, at least apparent, of
secondary silica in the vicinity gives a strong though not absolutely conclusive:
argument against the second.

4

a

iM

4

1
: in
Be

Derby— Occurrence of Topaz near Ouro Preto, Brazil. 31

position to the blue phyllite with which it is associated,
differing principally in the presence of manganese and in the
greater susceptibility to hydratization of the hematite grains,
since in the residues only an insignificant amount of this
mineral appears. This would givea muscovite schist normally
free from quartz but heavily charged with metallic oxides and
with scattered and more or less crushed crystals of feldspar
and nodules of feldspar or quartz, or of mixed feldspar and
quartz, with or without specular iron, rutile, topaz and mus- |
covite. These nodules are frequently surrounded by a dark
band more heavily charged with the metallic oxides than is the
body of the schist and which may be either a primary or a
secondary feature, most probably the former since nodules of
a similar character and composition also occur. The accessory
elements rutile, tourmaline, zircon (?) and florencite are com-
mon to both the normal schist and the nodules bnt are not
prominent in either, while topaz, and probably euclase (not
identified in any of the samples examined) appear to be con-
fined to the latter. The larger undecomposed minerals of the
nodules (quartz, topaz, specular iron, rutile and exceptionally
euclase) usually show a certain amount of crushing which is in
accord with the sheared condition of the rock as a whole and
indicates that the nodular structure is a primary rather than a
secondary feature. The circumstance noted by Eschwege and
others that only very exceptionally do any of the minerals show
double terminations probably indicates that the nodules were
originally accompanied by drusy cavities that have doubtless
disappeared in the shearing.

In a recent communication in this Journal I endeavored to
show from the chemical and mineralogical characters of the
schists of this region that many of them are probably sheared
eruptives and suggested the hypothesis of decomposition and
leaching prior to metamorphism to account for their peculiari-
ties. One of the rocks there discussed is identical with the
blue phyllite of the Caxambt mine and is from a topaz wash-
ing in the immediate vicinity, so that the arguments there
presented are applicable to those here considered. The argu-
ment for an eruptive origin is somewhat weakened by the
occurrence above noted of very similar, though more quartz-
ose, rocks with clastic zircons on each side of the mine which
perhaps may represent a mixture of eruptive and non-eruptive
material. Be this as it may, the argument for decomposition
and leaching, giving a concentration of iron oxide and alkalies
necessary for the formation of a hematite-muscovite schist, still
holds good and in this case the associated topaz schist may be
presumed to have been similarly affected. An explanation 1s
thus afforded for the peculiar .composition of this rock, and
with this hypothesis, that of a concentration during the leach-

32 Derby—Occurrence of Topaz near Ouro Preto, Brazil.

ing of metallic oxides in certain nodules and about certain
others becomes plausible. All things considered, however, it
seems more probable that this last is rather due to an original
and not a secondary feature.

The question of the original type from which, by shearing
and metamorphism, this muscovite-iron-manganese schist was
produced, is a more difficult one. Whether the blue phyllite
was originally eruptive or not, there can be little doubt that
the topaz-bearing schist enclosed in it was so. This is indi-
cated by the character of its contacts, by the absence of clastic
elements, by its manganese contents, and by its banded and
nodular structure. Being eruptive, it must have been a rock
without free quartz but with a comparative abundance of
alumina-aikali silicates (feldspars or feldspathoids) and of iron
and manganese minerals, which last, if in the state of silicates,
must have been bisilicates containing lime and magnesia that
have disappeared by leaching either in the recent decomposi-
tion, or, as seems more probable, before the metamorphism
and shearing. The rock was probably porphyritic in structure
(perhaps not necessarily so if an ancient period of decomposi-
tion be admitted) and full of segregated masses of both the more
acid and the more basic constituents, in the former of which
quartz, not a normal constituent of the rock, also appeared.
These segregations must have been more or less drusy and in
them several minerals, of which some were not normal to the
rock, crystallized with one free termination.

The conditions above enumerated point to some member of
the augite- or nepheline-syenite groups as the most probable
original eruptive type. The rocks of these groups would
afford the necessary alumina and alkalies to furnish the abund-
ant mica free from quartz that characterizes the metamorphic
schist, while their more or less basic phases would afford the
metallic oxides as well,if the accompanying lime and magnesia
can be supposed to have disappeared by leaching. Moreover
these rocks are particularly subject to rapid alternations in
texture or composition, or both, giving segregated masses, or
Schlieren. In those known to me in various Brazilian loeali-
ties both acid and basic segregations occur, and frequently one
of the former character is surrounded by a zone more basic
than the normal rock, thus giving the conditions noted in some
of the topaz nests. |

In this connection it is interesting to note that the study of
the more normal schists of this and of the Diamantina region
led toasimilar conclusion, that rocks of the augite- or nepheline-
syenite groups were probably represented among them, though
in this case it seems necessary to admit that clastic as well as
eruptive types occur. Combining the two series of observa-
tions, the hypothesis may be ventured of the existence in this

.
“4
5

4

Derby— Occurrence of Topaz near Ouro Preto, Brazil. 33

region (and various other similar ones in Brazil) of an ancient
voleanic series represented by both massive and clastic types,
characterized by soda-bearing rocks and ranging from soda-

granite through augite- and nepheline-syenite to the extremely

basic phases rich in metallic oxides that characterize these
groups. In this regard the analyses by Gorceix of various
schists from the Boa Vista topaz mine showing comparatively
high soda contents are particularly significant. Perhaps also
the association, at least apparent, of iron and manganese ores
with the schists here discussed, mdy be taken as an indication
in the same direction, but a discussion of the matter must be

deferred to another occasion. On this hypothesis the later

phases of the eruptives may be supposed to have been charac-
terized by topaz-bearing dikes.

Although topaz has not been recorded as occurring in rocks
of the types above mentioned, there is no apparent reason why
it should not be found, since the only element required for its

formation that is not normally present in them is fluorine,

which in the form of fluorite and fluo-silicates is quite frequent
in their segregations and drusy cavities. it is worthy of note
that its almost constant companions in the granitic rocks in
which it has hitherto been found, cassiterite and tourmaline,
are only represented by the latter in insignificantly small pro-
portions. Its characteristic companion, if it can be said to
have one, is euclase, containing the element glucinum, charac-
teristic of a number of the rare minerals of the nepheline-
syenite pegmatites of southern Norway. It may also be noted
that in these last mentioned rocks cerium occurs in forms
different from the common one of monazite, thus presenting a
certain analogy with its occurrence as florencite in the topaz-
bearing earth of the Ouro Preto district.*

Whether the above guess as to the original character of the
topaz-bearing earth proves correct or not, it is certain that the
occurrence of the topaz in the Ouro Preto district does not
differ so materially from the other known ones as has hitherto
been supposed. That is to say, the mineral does not occur in
an essentially magnesian rock nor is its matrix of presumably
sedimentary rather than of eruptive origin. On the other
hand, the rock cannot be positively identified with any in
which the mineral has hitherto been found. Of the known

modes of occurrence the only one that offers a more or less

remote analogy is that described by Cross in the lithophyses of
a rhyolite of Colorado and Utah. As lithophyses are essen-
tially drusy cavities of peculiar character and as rhyolites difler

*This mineral, which was first detected by Hussak in alluvial washings from

Tripuhy in the immediate vicinity of the topaz mines, has since been found im a
number of diamond residues from the Diamantina district.

Am. Jour. Sci1.—Fotrtu Series, Vou. XI, No. 1.—JANUARY, 1901.
3

84 Derby—Occurrence of Topaz near Ouro Preto, Brazil.

from acmite-trachytes and. phonolites mainly in the higher
proportion of silica, the analogy may be a closer one than at
first sight appears.

Both Eschwege and Gorceix noted a linear arrangement of
the topaz localities which is also suggestive of occurrence along
one or more dikes. The older workings define quite clearly
two such lines lying several kilometers apart, but recent pros-
pecting in the soil cap shows that topaz occurs sporadically
over much of the intervening belt.

Although the topaz is known to occur in other regions in
Brazil, very little definite information can be obtained regard-
ingit. Under the name of pizngos de agua (water drops) rolled
white and blue pebbles were for a long time an article of com-
merce at the little town of Minas Novas on the Jequitinhonha
below Diamantina. This place wasa center of trade in various
gem stones, other than the diamond (aquamarine, chrysobery],
tourmaline, spodumene, topaz and andalusite) coming from an
extensive region lying between the Jequitinhonha and Doce,
but for the most part, if not wholly, outside of the diamond
region proper, where it is to be noted the minerals mentioned
are extremely infrequent or wholly lacking in the miners resi-
dues that have been examined. Some years ago Dr. J. C. da
Costa Sena of the Ouro Preto Mining School made a trip in
this region and succeeded in finding most of these minerals
both in gravel deposits and in the rocks but makes no mention
of the topaz, from which it may be inferred that it does not
occur in association with the minerals above named. The
specimens from this region are often of considerable size, one
in the National Museum of Rio de. Janeiro being but little
short of two kilograms in weight.

Some years ago a gentleman at Serro between Ouro Preto
and Diamantina showed me some beautiful little doubly-ter-
minated crystals of white topaz that had apparently been
extracted from the original matrix and are presumed to be
from somewhere in the vicinity, but I failed to learn the exact
Jocality or conditions of finding. In the diamond region proper
the topaz isa great rarity, although Gorceix reports having
foundit. Eschwege also reports it as occurring In a magnetite-
bearing pegmatitic rock on the island of Pescaria near the little
town of Sepitiba to the south of Rio de Janeiro. As there is
a massif of augite- and nepheline-syenite near by, a detailed
examination of this place may perhaps throw some light on
the hypothesis above presented, but owing to quarantine
restrictions it has not been possible to visit the place in time
for the present paper.

Sao Paulo, Brazil, July 30th, 1900.

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. 35

Art. IIl.—A Chemical Study of the Glaucophane Schists ;
: by Henry 8. WASHINGTON.

Introductory.—Among the metamorphic rocks the glauco-
phane schists are of special interest, on account of their
peculiar mineralogical composition, as well as their compar-
ative rarity. It is therefore somewhat remarkable that they
have been only slightly investigated from a chemical point of
view, especially as the characteristic mineral, glaucophane,
has been analyzed from most of the localities. Indeed, as
Rosenbusch* has remarked, our knowledge is far from suffi-
cient for a proper understanding of their relations and origin.
It is with the object of supplying partially this deficiency that
the present chemical investigation has been undertaken. To
supplement the analyses, some petrographical description js
added, but the geological relationships will be only lightly
touched upon, on account of the lack of opportunity for
personal observations.

The material from Syra was collected by myself, several
years ago, during a day’s stay on the island. [Tor the num-
erous specimens from the other localities 1 am deeply indebted
to petrographers in different parts of the globe, and I gladly
take this opportunity to express my hearty thanks to those
mentioned in subsequent pages, in connection with the various
specimens, for their kindness and generosity, which have made
this investigation possible by supplying me with the requisite
material.

Syra, Greece.

The glaucophane rocks of this island were first noticed by
Virlet,t in 1833, who took the blue hornblende to be in part
cyanite. Fiedler{t in 1841, in a sketch of the geology and
archaeology of the island, refers to this mineral as a horn-
blende, and mentions the abundance of epidote. Glaucophane
was indentified as a new mineral in these rocks by Hausmann §
in 1845. The rocks of the island were described by Lue-
decke{ in 1876, from specimens collected by Fouqué and von

*Rosenbusch, Elemente der Gesteinslehre, 1898, p. 521; also Sitzungsber.
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1898, p. 706.

+ Virlet, Expéd. Scient. de Morée, vol. ii, ». 66, 1833.

t Fiedler, Reise durch Griechenland, vol. ii, p. 168, 1841.

§ Hausmann, Gott. gel. Anzeigen., 1845, p. 193, Ref. in Neues Jahrb. 1845, p.
321.
4 Luedecke, Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch., vol. xxviii, p. 248, 1876.

36 Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists.

Fritsch, and later the geology, as well as the rocks, were
described by von Foullon and Goldschmidt.*

While the glaucophane schists of Syra vary considerably in
appearance and composition, yet, according to von Foullon
and Goldschmidt, (with whose conelusions my own observa-
tions agree, as far as they go), they may be referred to two
main types, epidote-glaucophane schist and mica (quartz)-glau-
cophane schist. These are not divided with absolute sharp-
ness, as some transition forms are found, but, with only one or
two exceptions all my specimens may be referred to these two.
The more numerous divisions of Luedecke may also be put in
one or the other of these two groups, or regarded as transition
varieties.

In association with these are found various metamorphic
rocks, such as gneiss and epidote schist (which are especially
abundant, according to von Foullon and Goldschmidt), ompha-
cite rocks and eclovites, and various augitic and hornblendic
schists. All these occur in connection with and interbedded
with metamorphosed limestones, but the relations of the
different members of the complex are far too intricate and
little known as yet to permit of discussion.

Epidote-Glaucophane Schist.—It would seem that the rocks
belonging here are rather more abundant than those belonging
to the other main group. They vary from coarsely crystalline
forms, in which either the glaucophane or the epidote is
porphyritic in quite large individuals, to fine-grained varieties,
in which the epidote occurs as small patches in the mass of
dark blue, silky prismatic glaucophane, forming specimens of
great beauty. Garnet is present only to a small extent, and
mica, quartz and feldspar are not abundant in the most typical
representatives of this type.

The specimen chosen for analysis is from near Kyperusa, a
small hamlet about 24 kilom. north of Hermoupolis, in the
northeastern part of the island. It is fine-grained, and shows
to the naked eye small prisms of pale greenish yellow epidote
with some white flecks of calcite and quartz, lying in a dark
blue, silky groundmass of minute glaucophane needles. Under
the microscope all these minerals are seen, the glaucophane
highly pleochroic, the epidote nearly colorless, together with
some chlorite (which is apparently derived in great part from
the glaucophane), a few small titanite and rutile crystals, and
a little feldspar, which, with the quartz and calcite, is
interstitial.

*voun Foullon and Goldschmidt, Jahrb. k. k. Geol. Reichsanst., vol. xxxvii, p.
1, 1887,

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. 37

The analysis (No. I, below) shows a decidedly basic com-
position, with rather high Al,O, and CaO, considerable Na,O,
and only a trace of K,O. It will be seen later that it resem-
bles the analyses of several other occurrences of these rocks.

As the mineralogical composition is quite simple, it may be
calculated out quite readily as follows. The figures for
glaucophane used here are those furnished by an analysis
given further on, while those for epidote are based on the
analysis by Luedecke.*

Glaucophane —2_. 227 37°2
Mpidowe: oo 2). of. Se ee 40°2
@imorive: <0 2. sus ee TSE
tetas te ee et 6'1
@allene 22). Ee aol
elidispar . 222 i's.) 271
itamite and rutile:_._2. 16

100°0

In IJ there is given an analysis of another specimen from
Syra, an omphacite-zoisite rock, composed of bright, grass-
green omphacite (diallage) in blades and large crystals, white
mica {paragonite), and granular zoisite, with a little interstitial
quartz. The content of mica varies considerably, being fairly
abundant in the specimen analyzed, and much less so in others.

This resembles I very closely, though Fe,O, is considerably
higher than FeO. TiO, was not determined, and is included in
the Al,O,. Even thus the latter is high, but is to be attributed
to the abundant zoisite and paragonite. The mineral composi-
tion of this calculates out approximately ;

Omphacrtend 2) 222 31°7
PGONSMLE 2 tage SST 31:7
Iganamouibe lc. 2". 2 31-0
Qurmine oe Ana 6)

Mica-Glaucophane Schist.—The rocks which may be refer-
red to this group are not abundant, but vary considerably in
character, and, through decrease in the amount of mica tend
to become quartz-glaucophane schists. The specimen which
was chosen for analysis seemed to be fairly typical. It came
from near the Café Skarbeli, on the east coast, a short distance
to the north of Hermoupolis on the east coast.

It is markedly schistose, and shows megascopically glau-
cophane, white mica, greenish epidote and diallage, and small

* Luedecke, op. cit., p. 262.

38 Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists.

red garnets, the whole being rather fine-grained and traversed
by veins of quartz, which were carefully avoided in the pieces
chosen for analysis.

Under the microscope the glancophane appears in long
erystals, with fringed ends, of the normal gray-blue color and
pleochroism, the blue being deeper at the borders. The
epidote is slightly greenish yellow, in elongated crystals, and
much broken. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish it from
the diallage, which occurs in generally larger crystals and less
green in color. The garnets are almost colorless and much
cracked. The flakes of mica present the usual characters
of muscovite, but they must be referred to the soda-mica
paragonite, on account of the mere trace of K,O which the
analysis reveals. Apart from the veins, grains of quartz are
fairly abundant, scattered through the other constituents and
interstitial. Small brown titanites are seen here and there, a
little chlorite is present, and also grains of an apparently
alkaline feldspar.

Through the kindness of Prof. Lawson and Dr. Ransome, I
have been enabled to study specimens and sections of the
lawsonite-bearing schists of California, but have been unable to
find any of this interesting mineral in the rocks of Syra.

The analysis (No. III, below) shows a much higher percent-
age of SiO, than the preceding, slightly lower Al,O, and Fe,O,,
the same MgO and FeO and K,O, with lower CaO and higher
Na,O. In nearly all respects, ‘with the notable exception of
the Na,O, it is transitional between the analyses of the more
basic rock and that of the quartz-glaucophane schist to be given
presently, and this intermediate character is quite consonant
with its complex and transitional mineral composition. In its
general features it resembles the analyses of many diorites, and
it may be mentioned here that this analysis is quite unique
among the dozen or so given in this paper.

The mineral composition being so complex, any satisfactory
calculation of the relative amounts of the component minerals
is difficult, and would be arbitrary.

Quartz-glaucophane Schist.—It has already been said that
von Foullon and Goldschmidt divided the glancophane schists
of Syra into the two groups in which the blue hornblende was
associated with either epidote or mica. While this is in gen-
eral true, and in correspondence with the megascopical appear-
ance of the rocks, yet it does not recognize fully enough the
fact that the mica-glaucophane schists tend to become highly
acid through the increase in quartz and decrease in mica.
I have therefore referred some of my specimens to a
third group of quartz-glaucophane schists, in which the mica,
while present, and prominent in the hand specimen, yet is in

7

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. 39°

subordinate amount, and quartz very abundant. This division
seems also to be in accordance with facts observed elsewhere.

Some of these schists resemble closely the preceding, and
are rather bluish-gray, fine-grained, and highly schistose. The
specimen taken for analysis differs from all these, and is a very
striking rock, resembling (as far as can be told from the
description) some of the quartz glaucophane schists of Angel
Island, described by Ransome, to be mentioned later.

It is a highly schistose, shining white rock, from the north-
west slope of Mt. Kappari. It is composed largely of quartz
and less white mica, forming a fine-grained groundmass,
through which are scattered blades of blue glaucophane, and
some garnets abont one cm. in diameter. Accessory epidote
and apatite are also present in small amount. ;

The analysis (No. LV, below), it will be seen, differs radically
from those of the other Syra rocks, being very acid, and with
all other oxides much lower, except K,O, which is quite high.
In a general way it resembles those of the acid glaucophane
schists of the Pacific coast.

ut iii TEE: TV:
BO hess ose 46°39 46°76 58°26 79°43
0 Re aaa 17°34 22°65 16°21 12°68
Ue 0 Seen 6°32 4°35 3°44 1°10
(Ge ee ae ee 4°62 1°74 4°63 1°86
1 © ean ee 4-93 3°93 4-99 0°48
AO eet Sy36 52 13°07 14°43 3°82 1°40
BPO) esate |e 2299 2°36 5°36 1°61
Wr ee ne 0°25 O°15 0°39 0°76
ERO UL 2 oS 1-49 2°87 0°98 1:03
H,O 110° —__ 0:08 0°16 0°22 0°12
BOom Pari). 2/04 cen ele 0-00
OG, ne |: 0°85 not. det. Ey er Oe 7
Win Oye trace trace trace trace —

100°52 99°40 93567, 100°64

I. Epidote-glaucophane schist. Kyperusa, Syra. Washington

anal.

II. Omphacite rock. Café Skarbeli, Hermoupolis, Syra. Wash-
ington. anal.

III. Mica-glaucophane schist. Café Skarbeli, Hermoupolis,
Syra. Washington anal. |

IV. Quartz-glaucophane schist. N.W. slope of Mt. Kappari,
Syra. . Washington anal. ,

In connection with the glaucophane schists of Syra, it will
be convenient to give the results of an analysis which I made
of the glaucophane of the island. The mineral was very

carefully separated by means of Thoulet’s solution from a

40

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists.

rather coarse-grained specimen of quartz-mica-glaucophane
schist, with a few accessory garnets.
of sp. gr. 3°11, and was examined with the microscope and
seen to be extremely pure.

My analysis (the mean of two) is shown in I, and for
comparison are given the analyses of Luedecke (II) and
Schnedermann (III), taken from the paper of Luedecke (p.

252), already cited.

It just sank in a solution

It is hoped to discuss this analysis, along

with other new ones, in a subsequent paper.

1g
SiO) 10 eS ae riety
AIOE 2 oo ee 11°07
Pes res aes 3°20
FeO ooo ox Seer ons
MnO. Anes 0:06
MeOie. 25 ee 9°85
CaQOn 2 aera 0°95
Nal O! 22 ee 6°80
KO: See ee 0 42
HOMO ge ee 0°36
HO 1109s 2 yroaie
100°18
Attica.

100 TM
55°64 56°49
15°11 12°23

3°08 ae

6°85 LO7o0
0°56 0°50
7°80 On
2°40 2°20
9°34 9°28
100°78 99°63

The investigation of Lepsius* have shown that both the
gabbros and the Cretaceous shales of Attica have been altered
to glaucophane schists, through regional metamorphism.

101

iL,

SIOke ws Pee 00
Al.Ons = aha 15°80
FesO. see ae 11°76
ReQOio ee ya eG
MeO 2.2 o.e ene a
CaQere ips eos ae 5°51
Na Oe ee
KOs ie eee 0°46
H Oo Sees 4:20
POOR eee trace
Ne pai Rear kc Tee trace
MnO 222 eee trace

100°14

Kypriano, near Laurium.

Ly,
45°97
18°18

5°95
2°30
7°50
8°29

99°54 ©
Lepsius anal., op. cit.,

p: °
Il. Gabbro. Malje Kuki, near Daskalio. Lepsius anal., op. cit.,

Diyne2;

* Lepsius, Geologie von Attika, Berlin, 1893.

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. 4]

Unfortunately he gives no analyses of true glaucophane
schists, but it seems worth while quoting the above two
analyses of gabbros, which have partially undergone the
transformation. Both are composed chiefly of plagioclase and
diallage, which has been largely altered to fibrous green horn-
blende, with considerable glancophane in needles. Chlorite
and magnetite occur, but no olivine nor serpentine was seen.

Lepsius* also describes a blue gray, partially schistose rock,
from west of Olimpos in Attica, composed of glaucophane
needles lying in a groundmass of quartz and feldspar. .A
silica determination gave 87:43 per cent, and it is evident that
this is a quartz-glaucophane schist, analogous to those of Syra,
and, as will be seen later, of the Pacific Coast and elsewhere.

Croatia.

In 1887 Dr. Kispatié+ described a number of glaucophane
schists, which occur chiefly as boulders or pebbles in various
streams of Fruska Gora in Croatia. They vary to some extent,
but it is of great interest to note that they may all be classed
as either epidote-glaucophane schists, to which the majority
belong, or as quartz-glaucophane schists, which are represented
by only two occurrences. Garnet is sometimes present in
abundance, sometimes quite wanting, and mica is rare, even in
the more acid group.

I am indebted to Prof. Rosenbusch for one of KiSpatié’s
specimens from the Srnjevacki Potok. It is of very simple
composition, being composed chiefly of frayed, pleochroic
glaucophane, and colorless or pale yellow epidote, in grains and
prismatic crystals. Between these, but. in very small amount
is a colorless mineral, which occasionally shows multiple twin-
ning lameliz, and is referred to plagioclase. There are also
rare rutile grains.

In thin section my specimen corresponds very well with
Kispatie’s description. The rock is very fine-grained, com-
posed of a pale glaucophane, in xenomorphie masses, with
abundant grains and stout crystals of colorless or pale yellow
epidote. A colorless mineral, apparently a plagioclase, as sug-
gested by Kispatié, is rare, in interstitial grains.

The analysis shows low SiO,, and resembles in a general
way that of the Kyperusa rock. It differs, however, in having
much higher MgO and lower CaO, as well as in the absence of
OO

* Lepsius, op. cit., p. 104. .
+ KiSpatié, Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichsanst., xxxvii, p. 35, 1887.

42 Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schasts.

iGn “ree Lr eee 47°36
LONE SIRE TON
We, 0) cea ee eee
PeQ\ ces beste oe ae Bovil
MeO tues yi 8°24
CaQ)- 354 te the Line 4°63
Na Oia. steht ee ee Be 7
KO. sa ile eke aaa!
10 Li0? oan aes
FLO 08 22) See 0°16
CO oe eB at eee AO
TiO) CVS? oo ees
Nin" SrA aoe ees trace

100°27

Epidote-glaucophane schist.
Croatia. Washington anal.

Srnjevacki Potok, Fruska Gora,

Anglesey, Wales.

The occurrence of glancophane schists on. Anglesey was
first observed by Blake* in 1888.
composition apparently quite uniform, only epidote-glauco-
phane schist being mentioned. ‘This occurs as local modifica-
tions of a hornblende schist which is probably derived from a

diorite, which occurs in the vicinity.

Through the kindness of Mr. Teall and Mr. EK. B. Greenly
I received specimens from the most typical locality,
Monument,” near Menai Bridge, on Anglesey, one of which

was analyzed.

The area is small and the

The specimens are very uniform, and are dense, compact,
fibrous rather than foliated, schists, of a dark, blue- black color,

SIO. ose eae eee
AO) heh ales ee 15°25
Be.O 0 och ec eee
ReQ 2 22 on ale) Re (ey
MgOn eee 2 oaeeee 5°96
CaO en? 2) tak oa nina
NakOok 26 BUD ae 2-4
IO Woo Te git ieee 0°56
HO 110Ce eh ae 2°18
HyO.1100 Ss sare ee 0°04
LiOe sesso 2 eee not det
MnQs%- san Gia ieee trace
100°25

Epidote-glaucophane schist. The Monument, Anglesey, Wales.

Washington, anal.

* Blake, Geol. Mag., Decade ITI, vol. v, p. 125, 1888.
+ Blake, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1888, p. 406.
Harker, Petrol. for Stud. 1897, p. 314.

4

Also op. cit., p. 125.

“The

——

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. 48

and somewhat silky luster. Under the microscope they corre-
spond with the plate given by Teall*, and are seen to be

composed of a rather pale, prismatic glaucophane, with the

normal pleochroism, rather less pale epidote, and small
amounts of magnetite, quartz, mica and titanite. No calcite
was seen.

Piedmont.

The occurrence of glaucophane schists in Piedmont is well
known, and has been described by many geologists, but as I
had no specimens from this region, I have passed it by in the
preceding pages. Since they have been put in type, however,
I have discovered an analysis of one of the rocks of this region,
which is inserted here.

The occurrence of glaucophane schists and amphibolites
(“ prasinites ”) in the Val Maira, in southwestern Piedmont, is
described by 8. Franchi,t who also shows that they are both
derived from diabases by metamorphism, apparently regional.
The glaucophane schists are described as composed of glauco-
phane (gastaldite), with epidote and chlorite, and less albite,
quartz, titanite and calcite. Analyses of this and of the amphi-
bolite are given, and the very close correspondence between
the two is evident. This is a strong point in favor of the view
elsewhere expressed, that the formation of these two rocks is
due, not to age distinctions, but to differences in conditions
during metamorphism.

iB i.
One a2 48°67 50°38
NO sacri a a 18°36 17°65
MOR Gr 21 Fs. 10°30 10°02
he Owner Pos mats eras
Wie Ores ieee 2. 5°49 4°77
CAOmee ree 11038 10°95
NU) oe eae all 2°52
OO) a a rr Oe 0°24
Orr eo 4°20 2°52
OMe ere ae... 0845 1°32
BO bare cess 8, trace trace

99°75 100°37

I. Glaucophane schist, Val Maira, Piedmont. Aichino anal.
S. Franchi, Boll. Com. Geol. Ital., xxvi, p. 199, 1895.
Il. Amphibolite (“Prasinite”), Valle del Sangone, Piedmont.
. Aichino anal. 8. Franchi, op. cit., p. 199.

Corsica.
For the sake of completeness there may be mentioned two
glaucophane rocks of Corsica, which have been analyzed.

* Teall, Brit. Petrog. 1888, pl. xlvii, fig. 1.
+8. Franchi, Boll. Com. Geol. Ital., vol. xxvi, p. 192, 1895.

44 Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists.

One is a gray-green schist from the neighborhood of a
large serpentine dike, at La Barchetta, near Bastia, of which,
not having access to the original paper by Oels,* I can give
no description. It is, however, possibly the same as that
described by Oebekket from the same locality, as com-
posed of prismatic glaucophane, partly altered to chlorite,
granular epidote, plagioclase, quartz and calcite.

The analysis (No. I, below) shows low SiO, and CaO, with
very high alkalies, and Fe ,O, largely preponderating over
FeO. It does not ‘correspond ‘with the description given by
Oebekke, nor, in fact, as far as the iron oxides and alkalies are
concerned, with any other analysis of a glaucophane schist.

The other is a glaucophane schist from the gneiss of Bastia,t
a dark, fine-grained, tough rock, composed of “ orthoclase, some
oligoclase, needles and prisms of glaucophane, sahlite, iron mica
and chlorite, with other secondary products.”

The analysis, given in II below, is unsatisfactory, and of
little value, as FeO, alkalies and H,O have not been deter-
mined. As far as it goes it is rather anomalous for a glauco-
phane schist, and resembles most that of the rock from Café
Skarbeli, in Syra.

I. mi.
Si@: saa wee SO 55°94
FUE eer aN 13°88 18-06
Ke (Oy Se, ie ee es 7°80 ;
inh wane as OR Slag el
Mia Q) werk ee Seeds 2°75
ClO Sake ee 10°90 5°95
50 ee 5-18 (difference)
TQ a eee 1°56 not. det.
Min: O). ie oo cee be Oe

100°59 10000
I. Glaucophane schist. La Barchetta. Bastia. Corsica. M.
Oels anal. Ref. in Neu. Jahrb. 1896, i, p. 47.
II. Glaucophane schist, near Bastia; Corsica. Busatti anal. Ref.
in Neu. Jahrb., 1897, 1, p. 281.

Japan.

Glaucophane schists are of quite common occurrence among
the metamorphic rocks of Japan,§$ and a number of them have
been described by Kotd. From him I received several speci-
mens of typical material, two of which were analyzed.

*M. Oels, Inaug. Diss. Erlangen. 1894, Ref. in Neues Jahrb. 1896, I, p. 47.

+ Oebekke, Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Ges., vol. xxxviii, p. 647, 1886.

¢ Busatti, Atti Soc. Tose. Sci. Nat., Mem. xiii, p. 1-19, 1894: Ref. in Neues
Jahrb. 1897, i, p. 281.

§ Koto, Jour. of Sci. College, vol.i, Pt. i, p.85, 1886. Harada, Die Japanischen
Inseln, Berlin, 1890, pp. 54, 62.

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. 45

LEpidote-Glaucophane Schist.—One of these specimens is a
rock of this character from Hongo, in Norimoto Village,
Yana District, Province Mikawa. It is compact, of a rather
dark, greenish gray color, and schistose with a silky luster.
The specimen is traversed by a vein of calcite, which was
avoided in the material chosen for analysis. The microscope,
as well as the analysis, shows that this mineral is present
throughout the rock to a considerable extent.

The structure of the rock as seen by the microscope differs
from most of the other specimens examined, in the very finely
fibrous character of the glaucophane, which is ae pale, but
of the usual pleochroism. This forms streaks and bands
through the rock, bringing out the schistose i otietate: and also
occurs as a sort of felt. With it, but somewhat locally devel-
oped, is a pale green or bluish-green, not highly pleochroic,
amphibole, also in needles, which seem to be an actinolite and
to be derived from the glaueophane. A yellowish epidote
occurs in small grains, chiefly intimately associated with the
glaucophane.

Partly intermingled with these three, but generally forming
the greater part of separate streaks, is a colorless mineral of
rather high refraction and low birefringence, the polarization
colors being grays and blue-grays. It is chiefly i in long grains,
not showing much cleavage, and is apparently orthorhombic.
This must be referred to zoisite, as the low alkalies preclude
the possibility of its being a feldspar. Calcite is quite com-
mon, and some grains of quartz are seen. ‘Titanite is also
present in small grains.

The analysis of this rock, given in I below, is that of a nor-
mal epidote-glaucophane schist, with high CaO. It calls for
no special remark here.

A specimen of glaucophane schist from Otaki-san, near
Tokushima, Shikoku Island, represents the rocks in which
elaucophane was first discovered in Japan by Koto, and which
have been briefly deseribed by him. The majority of them
would seem to be epidote-glaucophane schist, some containing
garnets, but the one in my possession is a quartz. glaucophane
schist. Unfortunately it is seemingly so badly altered that no
analysis was made of it, but a brief description may be of
interest.

It is a highly fissile, schistose rock, of a general brownish
color, glistening with mica scales, and with abundant dark
blue glaucophane. Microscopically it is composed of stout
prisms of dark glaucophane, white mica, and considerable
interstitial quartz. Small crystals of colorless titanite, apatite
and zircon (?) are numerous. Brown limonitic stains over all

46 Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists.

the section indicate the decomposition of the specimen, but it
is more fresh than the megascopic appearance would indicate.

“ Glaucophane Slate.’—The second specimen which was
chosen for analysis is one of a rock called by this name by the
Japanese geologists. According to Koto* they are extensively
developed in the Paleozoic of Japan, and are really “schalsteins,”
derived from diabase tuffs. ‘The specimen in question, from
Kamoi Kotan, Island of Hokkaido (Yesso), is a very fissile,
slaty, fine-grained rock, of a general light, blue-gray color, but
stained between the folia with limonite. |

Under the microscope it is seen to be very fine-grained,
and with the detrital, cataclastic structure of the original
diabase tuff very well marked. There are irregular patches of
a pale, fibrous glaucophane, with some rather large crystals
and fragments of pyroxene, but the greater part is an indeter-
minate, very finely granular mass of colorless and yellow
grains and fragments, mostly of augite, with some of glass,
and possibly of plagioclase.

The analysis (No. II) resembles the preceding in many
respects, but is lower in CaO, and higher in iron oxides, K,O
and TiO,.H,O is high, but no CO, was found.

The analysis, on the whole, contirms the view that the rock
is a metamorphosed diabase tuff, and for comparison, analyses
of two of these are given in III and LV.

if Tm: UE Es DV.

SiO hice 47°89 48°88 47-25 49°13
AKO SU eeaOr:. 13-06 13°44 17°84 14°76
oO) jee Gra 5°82 5°46 16°40
HeO ene ee 5°36 8°96 20 eye
MeO: aie be ao 4-21 5°97 4°41
CaO Soe ae eee 5°80 5°15 9°05
INGOs ete 3°35 3°73 2°30 2°96
JO tao eee 0°57 171 0-29 Tea
BO.110° 4. 38 3°49 aes
H.O110°= 22 0:2 0°36 1°66
CO: Say 2°97 none Lee
RG ase eee 2°14 3°90 in Al,O, age
Mba 2 us ee 0°09 eee: 0°14 Ay xs

99°46 99°73 100°15 100°18

I. Epidote-glaucophane schist. Norimoto, Yana Distr. Mikawa
Prov. Japan.

II. “ Glaucophane slate.” Kamoi Kotan. Isl’d Hokkaido. Japan.

III. “Schalstein.” Nogurizawa. Kanra Distr. Kozuke Prov.
Japan. Harada anal. Harada. Die Jap. Inseln., p. 66.

IV. “Schalstein.” Siebenhitz. NW of Hof. Bavaria. Schwager
anal. Giimbel, Geogn. Beschr. Fichtelgeb. 1879, p. 227.

* Koto, op: cit.,4p. 89:

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. 47

California.

Coming to our own continent, we find glaucophane schists
only in the extreme west, where they are extensively developed
along the Pacific Coast, in California and Oregon, and possibly
beyond these. They are very varied in character, and have
been described in part by many geologists, but their relation-
ships and origin are not yet fully understood. Some of them
would seem to be the products of regional metamorphism,
while in other cases they are due to contact metamorphism
and are local in character. :

They also vary widely in composition, but the researches
already made by others, as well as the analyses given here,
show that, just as in Syra, Croatia and Brittany, they belong
to two groups, the basic and the acid. As the occurrences are
somewhat widespread, they will be described under local head-
ings.

ate Catalina Island.—The geology of this island, which
lies off the coast of Southern California, has been described by
W.S. T. Smith.* It is composed largely of diorites and ande-
sites, resting on a basement of quartzite and schists, in which
also serpentine occurs.

Of the occurrence of the glaucophane schists he speaks as
follows: ‘‘ Besides the micaceous partings of the quartzites
there were found at a number of points partings of blue
amphibole, having frequently a silky luster. This amphibole
also occurs in larger masses in a schistose condition. The
occurrences of this rock are found particularly in the Little
Harbor region, apparently confined to the neighborhood of
areas of the amphibole, and tale-schists and serpentine. It is
probable that here, as elsewhere in California, these blue
amphibole schists are due to local contact metamorphism occa-
sioned by the intrusion of basic eruptives.”

Dr. Smith does not describe these rocks further, but in the
petrographic collection of Yale University is a suite of rocks
from Santa Catalina Island, collected by Prof. B. Silliman in
1867, among which are several specimens of the glaucophane
schists from Little Harbor, on the west coast. J am indebted
to Prof. Pirsson for the privilege of studying these, as well as
material for analysis.

They all prove to be quartz-glaucophane schists, pale, blue-
gray in color, rather ashy and duil, one fibrous, and the others
(including the specimen analyzed), very schistose and fissile,
though quite hard. One specimen shows thin bands of white
quartz.

* W.S. T. Smith, Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., (3), Geol., vol. i, p. 1, 1897.

48

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists.

Under the microscope the specimen analyzed shows a multi-
tude of fine, pale blue glaucophane needles, and larger crystals —
fringing out into needles, embedded in granular quartz, with

some minute zircons and a few grains of epidote.

There is no

carbonaceous matter present, but in another similar specimen
this exists to a considerable extent, while a dark, compact rock,
also from Little Harbor, is a black and apparently little altered,

quartzose shale.

T. itl III.
SiO eine eae 74°48 80-21 74°16
VU OS Me tlie Pela: 4 9°15 7:99 11°85
Be,O. 62) Oo As eee 0°82
FeO 22 0: SS pees 2D ao 1°66
MeO: a2 sper nke ae 3°04 1°54 2°10
CaO: Goo. eee 2°84 1°10 210
NavOi! i eae 2°24 5°97 6°57
KO 602 se ee 0°43 0:22 O15
EO} T0742 nee 2°06 o-" 0°52
HO Wore) 2h eens 0:08 0°05
OO, oils Pe ee. 0-09
TWO. as. 498 ce ae Pas Bee 0°37
PO oc ee Be: 0-08
MnO) 123 sagt. a eee ace vam 0:06
Cees) ae Ap a een He eff. 0718

99°85 LOMA2 100°76

J. Quartz-glaucophane schist.

Island, Cal.

II. Quartz-glaucophane schist.
anal.

III. Adinole, Mansfield, Mich.

Little Harbor, Santa Catalina

Washington anal.

Angel Island, Cal. Ransome

Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Cal., vol. i, p. 231.

Steiger anal. Clements. This

Journal, vol. vii, p. 88, 1899.

The analysis shows that quartz is very abundant, more so
indeed than the microscopical examination would have led one

to suppose.

It is possible, to judge from the amount of AJ,O,,

that sillimanite is present, since Smith speaks of it as occurring

in the neighboring quartzite.

None was seen in the sections,

though the dense felt of glaucophane needles would make its

identification diticult.

It may be inferred from the presence of carbonaceous mat-
ter in some of the specimens, and from the apparent gradation
‘to true shale shown by them, that these schists are derived
from shales of a quartzose character, or from the quartzites as
Smith suggests, possibly through the contact metamorphism

of intruded igneous rocks.

It may be mentioned that the analysis corresponds very well
with that of an adinole (III above), derived from a clay slate

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. 49

by contact metamorphism of a dolerite, at Mansfield, Michi-
gan, described by Clements.* The adinole carries abundant
albite, and actinolite instead of glaucophane. This difference
may be connected with the higher Al,O, and Na,O and lower
FeO in the adinole.

Angel Island, Cal.—The occurrence just described seems to
be analogous with that at Angel Island, in San Francisco Bay,
described by Ransome,t the similarity being also remarked on
by Smith (p. 57). At the latter locality radiolarian cherts
have been altered into quartz-glaucophane schists by the intru-
sion of fourchite and serpentine. They vary rather more in
character, as some are composed essentially of glaucophane and
albite,t while others are made up of glaucophane and quartz.
Brown mica and garnet also occur. Analysis II above, by
Ransome, shows the essentially general similar character of the
two, though it was made evidently of an albitic sclvist.

It is of interest to note that, just as carbonaceous matter is
preserved in the Santa Catalina schists, so in these from Angel
Island the radiolarian remains are not entirely obliterated by
the metamorphism.

Mount Diablo—Among the metamorphic rocks of this
locality glaucophane schists occur,$ but unfortunately detailed
petrographic descriptions seem to be wanting. One of them,
a bowlder from Pine Canyon, has been analyzed by Melville.|
It is briefly described as bluish with streaks of green, with well
_ marked schistose structure, and containing innumerable cinna-
mon garnets. It is composed presumably chiefly of glauco-
phane, epidote and garnet, with few accessories, and is probably
closely similar to some of the glaucophane schist of Tupper
Rock, Oregon, or a specimen from Tiburon Peninsula, sent
me by Prof. Lawson. The analysis is given on the next page.

In a recent paper§ Turner throws some doubt on the inter-
pretation of these schists as the product of contact metamorph-
ism by basic intrusions, but discussion of this problem is
outside the scope of this article.

Sulphur Bank.—Glaucophane schists from this locality,
which lies east of Clear Lake (north of the preceding iocality),
have been described by Becker.** They vary much, as else-
where, some being quartz-mica-glaucophane schists, and others

* Clements, this Journal, IV, vol. vii, p. 88, 1899. é
+ Ransome, Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Cal., vol. i. p. 211, 1894.

¢ Turner (17th Ann. Rep. U.S. G.S., i, p. 728, 1896) suggests that they may
be in reality dike rocks.

§ Turner, Bull. Geol. Soe. Amer., vol. ii, p. 384, 1891.

| Melville, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 1i, p. 413, 1891.

“| Turner, Jour. Geol., vol. vi, p. 490, 1898.
** G. F. Becker, Mon. XIII, U.S. G.S., p. 102, 1888.

Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourts Series, Vou. XI, No. 1 —Janvary, 1901.
4

50 Washington—NStudy of the Glaucophane Schists.

IOs eas sl eee 47°84
ANOS 6: 0 16°88
HeO oso 65 eee 4:99
BGO ows. 2 eee 5°56
MoO...) 7°89
Oa) oo 11°15
Na, O . 2.24 Se ees
K, Oe eee eee 0°46
H. ,0 105 23s C2 eer 1°81
H.0 105° 354 aes 0°17
P.O") ee i 0-14
MnO Ub 4. 2S eee 0°56

100°65

Garnet-glaucophane Schist. Pine Canyon, Mount Diablo.
Melville anal. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 11, p. 413, 1891.

zoisite-glaucophane schists. One of the last was analyzed, and
is described by Becker as follows.

“Tt is a greenish-gray, schistose rock, consisting chiefly of
elaucophane | and zoisite. The latter occurs in imperfect pris-
matic crystals. The zoisite is distinctly dichroic and has a
faint olive-green tint when the prisms are parallel to the prin-
cipal section of the nicols. Sections perpendicular to the main
axis are square, often with one truncated corner. The extinc-
tions are normal and the colors of interference are gray to
yellow in the prisms, but more vivid in granular aggregates. °
The angle of the optical axes appears to be large. Glauco-
phane, in needles and long, imperfect, nearly parallel prisms,
gives the rock its cleavage. Quartz, albite, muscovite and
titanite are present.”

The occurrence of a purely zoisite-glaucophane schist, as
described by Becker, is decidedly unusual, and the determina-
tion of all the supposed zoisite as such would seem to be some-
what problematical. It is true that some of the mineral was
separated and analyzed,* the results corresponding fairly well
with the determination as zoisite, but being not inconsistent
with an epidote low in iron. The cvlor and pleochroism are
also unusual for zoisite. It would seem probable that both
minerals exist in the rock, the granular form: being probably
especially referable to epidote.

Melville’s analysis (I) shows a composition closely resembling
the preceding one, and like other glaucophane schist analyses,
with high CaO. It j is of interest to compare with it an analysis
of a diabase (Becker’s pseudodiabase) from Mt. St. Helena, also
by Melville. It will be seen that the two are almost identical.

* Becker, op. cit., p. 79.

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. sk

ial II.
SS Ae Sey es 3 49°68 49°08
PM) ene ht nr 13°60 14°68
CEG) eS rere ee 1°86 1:95
Le ee ee ae 8°61 9°63
Las OY A ee gee ae 6:27 6°69
CAO ee a 10°97 10°09
IA oes ae 3°09 4°60
EO re co 2 Ss Oe 0°20
i AG 0 Se 5-84 1°18
emerge ts 0°28
TD Sone Oe ee 3k 1372
AUS 0°21 0:23
LS et eee 0°04 0°15

99°60 100748

I. Zoisite-glaucophane schist. Sulphur Bank. Melville anal.
Becker, Mon. XIII U.S. G.S., p. 104, 1888.
II. “ Pseudodiabase.” Mt. St. Helena. Melville anal. Becker,
Op. cit., p. 98.

While we are still in California, there may be quoted, for
the sake of completeness, two analyses given by Rosenbusch.
The first (1) is of a specimen sent him by Palache, of a “ Grun-
sehiefer with glaucophane, further stage of altered tuff. Hills
north of Berkeley.” This is calculated from two partial
analyses and an alkali determination.* It shows a composition
very low in $10, and MgO, probably high in iron, and high in
CaO and Na,O, differing materially from others only in the
lower SiO,,

The secondft (II) is of the albite-crossite rock described by
Palache,t and which Turner§ thinks may be a dike rock.

il, asta,
SOLS Le 2s is ee 42°59 65°2
NO ne O 5 witha 15°8
el) A See orem 31:00 2°7
te) Ge oh es D°4.
LIES 9 0A en le Mae 5-10 2°4
AO eg a 10°80 0°6
SEED 5 aaa a tala Seen 4°16 10°8
LSS SR ai ae, ha FOr 0-1
154 0)5e O13 Be eneneamlers 5°34 Ma
100-00 100°0

* Rosenbusch, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad., 1898, p. 716.

+ Rosenbusch, op. cit., p. 712.

¢ Palache, Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Cal., vol. i, p. 181, 1894.
§ Turner, 17th Ann. Rep. U.S. G.S., i, p. 728, 1896.

52 Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists.

Rosenbusch calculated the rock composition from the specific
gravities of the rock and of the two minerals, and their known
chemical composition. He gives two limiting results, but, as
they differ but little, that corresponding to the mineral mix-
ture Ab,,Cr,, is here given. As Rosenbusch remarks, this eom-
position is quite anomalous, whether for eruptive or meta-
morphic rocks, and it is to be desired that an ale of the
rock itself were available.

Oregon.

Glaucophane schists, both acid and basic, occur along the
coast in Oregon, and have been partially described by Diller,*
who suggests that, as at Angel Island, they are the products of
contact metamor phism. He very kindly sent me a number of
typical specimens, three of which I have analyzed. ~

That from a ledge about one mile N.E. of Winston’s bridge,
near Roseburg, is a schistose, gray (scarcely blue) fine-grained
rock, with many glistening flakes of white mica sprinkled
through it. One specimen shows some small brown garnets.
The other (analyzed) is wanting in them, and is composed of a
felt of stout, rather short glaucophane erystals, with grains of
epidote, some chlorite, a few irregular quartz grains, and
phenocrysts of colorless mica.

Chemically (I) it is the most basic of all these rocks which
have been analyzed with the exception of the one partially
analyzed by Rosenbusch. It is also very high in iron, low in
CaO, and, for these rocks, high in K,O, which indicates that
the mica is a muscovite and not a paragonite, as in the Syra
rocks.

Glaucophane schists also occur southwest of Roseburg, in
the neighborhood of Coos Bay. Those from Tupper Rock
have been briefly described by Diller, and three specimens sent
me indicate that they vary considerably in character. Two are
composed essentially of glauncophane embedded in granular
quartz, with some white mica, and a little epidote. The
chemical composition of these must be closely similar to that
from Four Mile Creek, described later. The other (III) is
much more basic, composed of glaucophane with less granular
epidote, or zoisite, in which lie many small garnets, around
which are zones of white mica. This corresponds more nearly
in chemical composition to the Mount Diablo occurrence.

The schist from Four Mile Creek, Coos County, is‘a rather
coarser grained, schistose rock, of a general light gray color,
showing considerable white mica and quartz. In veneral

* Diller, 17th Ann. Rep. U.S. G. &., i, p. 454, 1896; Geol. Atlas of U. S. Rose-
burg Folio, 1898.

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. 53

appearance it is not unlike the intermediate mica-glaucophane
schist from Cafe Skarbeli, Syra, already described. In thin
section it is seen to be com posed very largely of quartz, which
shows clear evidence of crushing. In this lie well-formed
glaucophane prisms, which are highly-pleochroic, c blue, b
violet, a pale yellow or colorless. With these, but in less
amount, are thin flakes of colorless mica, which the analysis
shows to be muscovite scales and plates of chlorite, and some
small garnets.

The analysis (II) shows an exceedingly acid composition,
being the highest in SiO, of any of the rocks so far examined
by me. On calculation ‘the mineral composition works out as
follows:

CIRO 1) Ah rome arti e | 67°6
Glaneoplane. «2 22. 14°2
MISO VIe 2222 2.0. Be 10°4
Gammete oo 225 oe! Ke
Silonite se (+ 2. ae
100°0

_ The relatively high K,O in both these Oregon rocks is note-_
worthy, the nearest approach to them in this respect being the
‘‘glaucophane slate” of Kamoi Kotan in Japan.

| ip II. ITI.
Oe ae A res 6 46°07 © 82°53 49°15
JNO; iS ae het a 15-85 6°88 15°87
GONG’ 2 oan, aaa 3°61 0°59 4°10
ON a fe 9587 4-11 7°58
Wis Oper ay. 1183 1°86 7°53
Orie re ary), 4°37 0°68 9°06
Ici @ an aa ao eet 3°59
ue Jooh eo: aire 2°68 1°24 0°54
pO NO gt. 4°25 1°35 1:07

1 SL 4 ine a 0°16 0°07 0°16.
"ONG jc ilar tad eg a 1:05 el none
AiO ear nnn ey el IGS Mase 1:19
JEG 1.5 A al Ria trace trace trace
10009 100°52 99°84

I. Epidote-glaucophane schist. Near Winston’s Bridge, Rose-
burg, Douglas Co., Oregon. Washington anal.
If. Quartz-glaucophane schist. Four Mile Creek, Coos Co.,
Oregon. Washington anal.
III. Garnet-glaucophane schist. Tupper Rock, near Brandon,
Coos Co., Oregon. Washington anal.

54 Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists.

General Conclusions.

It will be of interest to compare the foregoing analyses with
each other, and for this purpose those which seem to be of
most value are collected in the large table on page 55. It is
at once evident that these rocks are divided into at least
two main groups. One, the larger, is basic, with SiO, ranging
only from 46 to 49-7, the other is very acid, with SiO, ranging
from 74°5 to 82:5. These two seem to be very sharply sepa-
rated, a possible third intermediate group being represented
by only one analysis, with SiO, 58:3.

Basic Group.—Taking up the basic group first, it is seen
that they are of fairly uniform composition in most respects.
AJl,Q, in most of them is rather low, from 13 to 15, being higher
only in II (17°34), III (19°74) and V (16°88) and VII (18°36).
Tron oxides are high in all, and FeO uniformly surpasses Fe,O,
(molecularly), in two cases (I and X) very much so. MgO
varies from 4°71 to 8:2, and there seems to be no correlation
between it and any other oxide, though there are indications
of a parallel variation of it and FeO.

CaO shows the most striking behavior, running from 4°4 to
5:8 in some, and then with a break from 11 to 13 in others.
It would be natural to connect this behavior with some corre-
sponding difference in mineral composition, but I have failed
to find any trace of such. One would suppose that the rocks
rich in CaO might be prone to carry garnets, but, while they are
abundant in V and IX they are lacking in Il, [V, VI and X.
On the other hand they are quite wanting in I, III and VILL,
in which CaO is low.

Na,O remains very steady, varying only from 1-1 to 3-7,
while K,O is present, as a rule, only in traces, being above one
per cent only in I (27) and VIII (1:7). H,O is, of course,
present in considerable, but varying, amount, and CO, like-
wise is irregular, being often quite absent, and again high.
TiO,, when determined, is always high, a fact connected with
the frequent occurrence of rutile and titanite as accessory min-
erals. P,O, and MnOare present only in traces.

Acid Growp.—Inasmuch as in this group SiO, constitutes 75
to 80 per cent of the rock, the distribution of the other oxides |
through the remaining 25 to 20 per cent allows of a compara-
tively small range in variation. It may be noted, however,
that FeO is constantly higher than Fe,O,, that MgO is rather
high for such acid rocks, that CaO decreases regularly as SiO,
increases, and that Na,O is constantly higher than K,O, which,
except in XV, is present only in traces. The very high Na,O
in XIV is undoubtedly to be attributed to the presence of
albite.

55

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schasts.

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56 Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists.

Comparisons with other rocks.—Rosenbusch* has already
ealled attention to the fact that “certain glaucophane rocks
are chemically identical with the igneous rocks belonging to
the gabbro magmas, or their tufts.” He bases this conelusion
on the two analyses of Melville (Nos. V and X), admitting
at the same time that it does not follow that all glancophane
rocks are so derived.

That this main conclusion is correct for the majority of
glaucophane schists would seem to be borne out by the analyses
in the table, and their comparison with typical analyses of dia-
base and gabbros quoted in the large works of Roth, Zirkel
and Rosenbusch. It is undeniable that there is a remarkably
close agreement between the two, and the conclusion is irre-
sistible that a large part of the glaucophane schists are prob-
ably derived from diabases, gabbros or their tufts.

That this is not true of all is rendered certain by the four
analyses of acid’ glaucophane schists, which we have already
seen are in all probability derived from cherts, quartzose shales
or quartzites. The anomalous analysis No. XI corresponds
with those of many rather acid diorites, and it is possible that
it has been derived from a rock of this kind, though this is not
certain.

Although outside the scope of this paper it will not be amiss
to call attention to several cases which bear directly on the
question of the derivation of some of the glaucophane schists
from rocks of the gabbro family, and which are strongly con-
firmatory of this view.

Direct evidence of the change from undoubted igneous rocks
was first given by Koto+ in the case of several Japanese occur-
rences, melaphyrs and diabase tuffs showing a gradual increase
in the blue amphibole and final transition into trne glauco-
phane schist, through ‘“glancophanizationn” of the diallage.
Instances of the same thing are also mentioned by Harada.{

Another instance is furnished in Greece by Lepsius, in his
description of the metamorphic schist of Attica.§ He shows
that some of the gabbros of this region, which have been
intruded into the sedimentaries and have been subjected to the
same regional metamorphism, contain glaucophane, often in
large quantities, though there are apparently few instances of
the final conversion into true glaucophane schist.

It may be noted that the gabbros from near the Isthmus of
Corinth and from Argolis, according to Lepsius and my own
observations, do not show any glaucophane, but are analogous

* Rosenbusch. op. cit., p. 711.

+ Kot6 op. eit.

+ Harada, op. cit., p. 62.

S Lepsius, Geologie von Attika. Berlin, 1893, p. 176.

a
i.
[.

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. 57

to a more basic group of gabbros, also occurring in Attica,
which furnish serpentine on alteration.*
The Attic Cretaceous shales, according to Lepsinus,t also

yield glaucophane schists as products of metamorphism.

Unfortunately no analyses are given, but some of them, as
that from Velaturi near Thoriko, must resemble closely the
Kyperusa schist, being composed essentially of glaucophane
and epidote. Others again are more acid and carry along with
glaucophane abundant quartz, feldspar and white mica.

In this connection it is of interest to note that glaucophane
schists are very common in the whole region of metamorphic
rocks which runs along the eastern coast of Greece, and extends
southward and eastward through the Archipelago. Rocks of
this character have been described from Thessaly,t Euboea,$
Attica,| Thermia,§] Tinos,** Siphnos,tt Syra, Milos,tt
Samos,§$§ Rhodes,|| and Smyrna.4] 4

e have already seen that the glaucophane schists of

Anglesey are probably derived from diorite (possibly gabbro),

since, according to Blake and Harker, gradual transitions are
observed from massive diorite to hornblende schist, the glau-
cophane schist being locally developed. Serpentine also occurs
on Anglesey, though not near the Monument, where diorite
occurs.*** Though the whole district has been subject to
regional metamorphism,t{+ it is uncertain whether the develop-
ment of glaucophane schist is due to this or to contact meta-
morphism.

Another instance of derivation from basic igneous material
is that given by Rosenbusch in the paper already cited. He
describes specimens sent by Palache, labelled “altered tuff”
from near Berkeley, Cal., and concludes that these diabase
tuffs do in fact alter to true glaucophane schists.

In his monograph on the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific
Slope Beckerttt briefly describes the alteration of diabase to
glaucophane schist, and also speaks of the glaucophane schists
of Mt. Diablo passing over into slightly altered shales.

* Lepsius, op. cit., p. 86.
+ Lepsius, op. cit, pp. 133 and 136 ff.
t F. Becke, Min. Petr., Mitth., vol. ii, p. 49, 1879.
§ F. Becke, op. cit., p. 71.
|| Lepsius, op. cit.
‘ ¥ Oebekke, Zeitschr. d. d. Geol. Ges., vol. xxxvili, p. 644, 1886.
** Von Foullon and Goldschmidt, op. cit., pp. 24 and 31.
++ K Ehrenburg, Inselgruppe von Milos. Leipzig, 1889, p. 101.
t{I. Chelussi, Giorn. di Min., vol. iv, p. 34, 1893.
S§ Foullon, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. c, p. 176, 1891.
||| Oebekke, op. cit.. p. 651.
x«* Of, Blake, Q. J. G.S., vol. xliv, pl. xiii, 1888.

+++Sir A. Geikie, Anc. Vole. of Gr. Brit., vol. i, pp. 128, 220, 1897.
ttt Becker, op. cit., pp. 100 and 102.

58 Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists.

Finally Barrois* regards the glaucophane schists of Ile de
Groix, in Brittany, as the product of the metamorphism of
sedimentary rocks.

Comparison with amphibolites—A point of some interest,
already touched on by Rosenbusch,f is the general similarity in
chemical composition between the basic glaucophane schists
and many of the amphibolites, as may be seen on reference to
the analyses of these last given by Roth, Zirkel and Rosen-
busch. It was hoped that the present investigation would
throw some light on this point, and possibly reveal some con-
stant difference in chemical composition between the two,
which would serve to explain the diverse mineralogic resultants
of apparently identical metamorphic processes on similar
original material.

The results are, on the whole, inconclusive, though as a rule,
the amphibolites are higher in MgO, CaO and K,O, and lower
in Fe,O,, than the glaucophane schists. The eclogites approach,
as a class, much more closely to the glaucophane schists, espe-
cially in low K,O, though they also are apt to be higher in
MgO and lower in Fe,O,.

As Rosenbusch remarks, the distinction between the amphi-
bolites and the glaucophane schist les in the fact that, while in
the former the Na,O has gone into feldspar, in the latter it has
gone into glaucophane. He suggests that this may be con-
nected with a difference in the age of the rocks.

With this view I cannot agree. It seems more reasonable
to suppose that, just as in the consolidation of igneous magmas
the eventual mineralogic composition of rocks derived from
any given magma is chiefly dependent on the physical condi-
tions of cooling, the presence of mineralizers, etc., so here
physical or chemical conditions have determined whether the
metamorphism of, for instance, a diabase tuff produces a
normal amphibolite or an epidote-glaucophane schist.

This view is based partly on the general reasoning which has
abolished the age distinction in igneons rocks, and partly on
the following considerations : 2

In the first place, we find at many places, as Ile de Groix,
Greece, California, Anglesey, etc., amphibolites and glauco-
phane schists occurring together, the latter being often only
locally developed.

In the next place glaucophane has been often developed at
one locality by the metamorphism of such widely diverse —
original materials as cherts and diabase tuffs. This points
clearly to the existence of some peculiar conditions, apart from

*Barrois, Ref. Neus Jahrb., 1884, ii, p. 72.
+ Rosenbusch, op. cits, 7p. 711.

Washington—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. 59

the composition of the original material, as necessary to the
formation of the mineral. |

_ Again we find glaucophane schists in the “ Grundgebirge ”
or Lower Cambrian at Ile de Groix, Neocomian among the
Pacific Coast, Post Cretaceous in Attica, and probably of other
ages elsewhere. Similarly amphibolites are found of various
ages.

Lastly, the fact that these rocks are not found generally dis-
tributed over the earth, as are the amphibolites, but occur in
well-defined zones or regions of metamorphic rocks, points to
the existence of some peculiarity in the conditions of the meta-
morphic processes involved. This occurrence in strongly
marked regions is exemplified by their presence in Greece and
the Archipelago, the Piedmont Region in Italy, Japan and
along the Pacific Coast of this country.

Summary.—The glaucophane schists belong to two main
groups, sharply separated from each other. The larger one is
basic, composed chiefly of glaucophane and epidote, often with
abundant garnet, zoisite, diallage, and sometimes smaller
amounts of mica, feldspar and quartz, and rutile and titanite as
frequent accessories. Chemically these closely resemble the
composition of the rocks of the gabbro family, and are appar-
ently divisible into two subgroups, one high in CaQ, the other
low init. These are in most cases almost undoubtedly derived
from such igneous rocks or their tuffs, but also: possibly in rarer
cases from sediments or slates of similar composition.

These basic glaucophane schists scarcely differ in chemical
composition from the amphibolites and eclogites, and the dif-
ference in their formation is probably to be ascribed to differ-
ences in the conditions of metamorphism.

A smaller, but widely spread, group is acid in composition,
and these are composed largely of quartz and glaucophane,
with mica and sometimes albite. These are derived from
cherts, quartzites or quartzose shales and sandstones.

The existence is indicated of a third, still smaller, group of
intermediate mineralogical composition, and chemically like
the diorites. 3

The glaucophane schists are apparently the result of both
regional and of contact metamorphism, and in many regions
they occur together. This last seems to be the rule in glauco-
phane schist areas of any size, and where only the one kind is
found the area is apt to be small.

Locust, N. J., September, 1900.

60 Farrington—Nature of the Metallic Veins

Art. IV.— On the Nature of the Metallic Veins of the
Farmington Meteorite ; by O. C. FARRINGTON.

In notes on the Farmington, Kansas, meteorite published
some years ago,* Preston described numerous metallic veins
occurring in the mass of the meteorite, and made the follow-
ing suggestion as to their origin: “ That, as the meteor struck
our atmosphere the concussion was so great that the mass was
fractured in various places, of course extending from the sur-
face inward, and the larger of these fissures or fractures were
then filled by the metallic iron which was fused on the exterior
surface of the mass, due to its velocity throngh the atmos-
phere and was thus forced in a molten state into its present
position, thus forming the metallic veins.” The explanation is
ingenious and perhaps correctly states the origin of the veins,
but a recent study of the matter by the writer has led him to
a somewhat different conclusion.

A discussion of the point seems desirable in view of the
light it may throw on the question as to whether the veins of
meteorites are in general of terrestrial or pre-terrestrial origin.
It should be first noted that the formation of fractures or fis-
sures in a meteoric mass ought not probably to be ascribed to
concussion from the meteor striking our atmosphere. The
fact that such crumbly and friable meteorites as Orgueil, War-
renton, Allegan and others have reached the earth intact seems
to argue against there being any particular force of concussion
attending the meeting of a meteorite with the earth’s atmos-
phere. The resistance of the atmosphere to the passage of a
meteorite is probably rather a gradually increasing one. In
the writer’s view, therefore, expansion due to external heating
of the mass while the interior remained cold is the cause of
any fissures which may form in a meteorite during its passage
to the earth. Granted, however, that such fissures may form
the above quoted explanation of the metallic veins seems to be
open to two objections: Ist. The interior of a meteoric mass
of any considerable size is so cold that portions of molten
metal would be chilled before penetrating to any appreciable
distance. 2d. The metallic constituents of the Farmington
meteorite are its least fusible ones. That the interior of a
meteorite may remain intensely cold during its fall to the
earth has been proved in at least two instances, that of the
Dhurmsala meteorite, the fragments of which were so cold as
to benumb the fingers of those who picked them up, being the

* This Journal, III, xliv, p. 399.

of the Farmington Meteorite 61

best known. The fact has already been urged by Tschermak*
as proof that Reichepvbach’s view that the black veins of
meteorites are formed by the flowing of fused material of the

-erust into fissures, cannot be correct, and he notes that in the

Chantonnay meteorite the fused matter of the crust only pene-
trated the fissures to a depth of 6™™ even thongh they were
open some distance beyond this. Moreover the Farmington
meteorite was not hot when dug up four hours after its fall.+
The veins of other sections of the Farmington meteorite have
less the appearance of leading in from the surface than those
figured by Preston. In a section now in the Field Columbian
Museum collection, shown in fig. 1, two veins cross one another
nearly at right angles. One of these is continuous at intervals

Farmington meteorite, natural size.

for a length of 90™™. It is hard to conceive of such a system
of fissures as this filling from the surface.

That the nickel-iron of the Farmington meteorite is more
difficultly fusible than the stony constituents is proved by the
fact that the former stands out in many places over the sur-
face in prominent rounded beads. If any material had flowed
into the fissures, therefore, it would probably have been fused
silicates. If then the above theory of the origin of the
metallic veins cannot be accepted, what is their nature? They
do not appear to be of the nature of the harnischfldchen of
the Honolulu, Mocs, Pultusk and other meteorites, which
when seen in cross section look like metallic veins but when
cleft along the vein are plainly seen to be slickensided surfaces
over which movement has flattened and drawn out the metallic
grains. In the view of the present writer the veins of the
Farmington meteorite are phases of structure of the metallic
constituents of the mass. It is well known that the structure

* Sitzb. Wien. Akad., 1874, lxx, p. 467.
+ Science, vol. xvi, p. 39.

62 Farrington—Nature of the Metallic Veins, ete.

of many of the siderolites is that of a metallic network enclos-
ing grains of the silicates, while on the other hand the tend-
ency of the metallic grains of many aerolites to a continuous
arrangement has been noted by Reichenbach* and Newton.t+
Between meteorites of the siderolite structure and those in
which the metallic constituents occur only as isolated grains
there are all gradations. Hence sheets or filaments of a con-
tinuous network might remain in some portion of a meteorite,
while in the remainder the metallic constituents would be
present only as isolated grains. Favorable cross sections of a
continuous network would appear as veins. Metallic filaments
which are undoubtedly of this character are to be seen in sections
of the Crab Orchard (Rockwood) and Bluff meteorites now in
the Field Museum collection. The nickel-iron appears in general
in the sections in the form of isolated grains, but over a por-
tion it appears as continuous filaments. These are the only sec-
tions in the collection which show such filaments but there is
every reason to believe that the filaments could be found on
sections of other meteorites if looked for. If the writer’s
view be correct, therefore, the term filament would describe
these structures better than the term veins, since the latter
term implies fissures filled subsequent to their origin.

* Pogg. Annalen, vol. eviii, pp. 291-311.
+ This Journal, III, xlv, p. 152.

Field Columbian Museum,
Sept. 1, 1900.

T. Holm—Erigenia bulbosa. 63

Arr. V.—Lrigenia buibosa Nutt. A morphological and
apatomical study; by THEO. Houm. (With six figures in
the text.)

W2GILE not especially interesting in morphological respects,
the Umbellifere, nevertheless, possess types which have
attracted some attention, though more by the structure of
their flowers and inflorescence than by their vegetative organs.
The seedling-stage, with the first development of rhizome and
roots, has been studied in only a relatively small number of
species by Bernhardi, Hegelmaier, Irmisch, Klebs, Lubbock,
Winkler and others, and in regard to the mature plants, there
are many species, which are so little known that it is alto-
gether conjectural whether their underground organs represent
roots or rhizomes ; even in the “ Revision of North American
Umbeliifere” * the authors have made no attempt to draw the
distinction between roots and rhizomes, but state simply: “ We
use roots here in the ordinary systematic way. Morphologically
these tuberous roots are mostly subterranean stems.” Con-
sidered from an anatomical view-point the order seems to be
known much better, and we find in the literature several
papers with accounts of the anatomy and some very compre-
hensive studies of the oil-ducts, which are particularly well
developed in this order (U/mbellifere).

Thus it would appear as if there were a number of vacant
spaces to be filled in the life-history of the order, and it is,

therefore, our intention to present some brief notes as a con-
tribution to the knowledge of one of its members, the
“ Harbinger of spring” : Arzgenia bulbosa.

It is a plant, which has, for a long time, attracted our atten-
tion on account of its globular underground part, by Nuttall
correctly defined as a tuberous root. Having made a special
study of similar plants with tuberous, underground parts, we
have often desired to ascertain how far Lrzgenia possesses a
true tuber or a tuberous root. It is, however, not always satis-
factory to study plants of this nature only from adult speci-
mens, and the publication of observations of this plant has
been postponed for a considerable period until we succeeded in
obtaining material in the seedling stage. ‘The seedlings are, as
a matter of fact, not easily found, and it was not until last
spring that we detected some -young plants, which proved to
be the seedlings of Erigenta. Several years ago, in the early
spring, we collected quite a number of seedling plants with
only one cotyledon, just as we expected to find in Lrigenia,

* For references consult the Bibliography appended to this article.

64 T. Holm—Evigenia bulbosa.

but an anatomical study of the specimens proved these to be
seedlings of Claytonia Virginica, which germinates with a
single cotyledon. But those of Hrigenia, which we found
last spring, did not only exhibit a single cotyledon, but they
showed besides all the anatomical details, the characteristic oil-
ducts for instance, as were familiar to us from the study of
full-grown individuals ; moreover these little seedlings showed
a minute tuberous body at the base of the cotyledon.

Erigenia bulbosa seems to be rare in the vicinity of Wash-
ington, D. C., and has so far only been recorded from High
Island and Plummer’s Island; it is also found on the muddy
river shore at Great Falls, Maryland, where we discovered it a
few years ago. It prefers low, shaded grounds, and was found
associated with such plants as Dicentra, Trillium, Caulophyl-
lum, Jeffersonia and Lrythronium. It may be found in
bloom as early as the month of March or the beginning of
“April, and the seedlings appear at the same time. It is by no
means acaulescent, but the stem is very low and bears a few
stem-leaves and umbels, which are held in an erect position
during anthesis. In the fruiting stage the stems bend down
towards the ground, though without burying the fruits.
These are said to fall off before maturity, a statement we can-
not confirm, at least. not according to our own observations.
The seedlings are small, but occur in large numbers with the
older plants, and the color of the cotyledonar leaf-blade is of
the same deep green as the leaves of mature specimens. The
blade of the cotyledon is held in a horizontal position, raised
above the ground by a long, slender petiole (fig. 1). As
already stated, a small light brown, tuberous body is to be
noticed at the base of the cotyledon and this is the first indica-
tion of the globular root, which represents one of the charac-
ters of the genus, the monotypical Arzgenia.

The tuber is at this stage about 2™™" in length, and tapers
almost gradually into a filiform, unbranched root, covered by
root-hairs, which are not very numerous, however. We
observed, on the other hand, no root-hairs on the tuber itself
and suspected, thus, that it represented the hypocotyl, but by
examining its internal structure we felt convinced that it
actually represents the basal portion of the primary root itself ;
the filiform part of the root does not grow out any further,
but dies off during the first season. No other leaf than the
cotyledon develops in the first year, and the plumule stays
underground concealed in the sheathing base of the cotyledon.
In the month of May the cotyledon had already faded away
entirely, and the same was, also, the case with the leaves and
stems of older specimens. In the second year after germina-
tion has taken place, the first proper leaf pushes up through

T. Holm—Erigenia bulbosa. . 65

the ground (fig. 3) and shows a small, ternately decompound
blade with divisions of the same shape as those of mature
leaves. This leaf has during the winter been surrounded by a
small, membranaceous, scale-like leaf, which is still to be seen
at this stage, but is, however, mostly decayed and not plainly
visible. The tuber has increased in thickness, and the filiform.
part of the root below the tuber has died off altogether. A
few (three or four) lateral roots, all filiform, have developed

1 5 4

Fic. 1. Seedling of Hrigenia bulbosa Nutt.; natural size. R = the primary
root.

Fic. 2. Blade of the cotyledon, enlarged.

Fig. 3. Young plant in its second year; natural size. The filiform portion of
the primary root has faded away, and four lateral roots have developed from the
tuberous part. A small scale-like leaf is to be seen at the base of the petiole of
the green leaf.

Fig. 4. Young plant in its third year; natural size. The dotted lines indicate
the surface of the soil.

from the sides of the tuber, but otherwise the plant does not
show much progress in growth since the first year. The third
year’s growth is not much advanced either (tig. 4), as only one
green leaf is developed, though with a few additional divisions
of the blade, and we find, also, at this stage a small scale-like
leaf at the base of the larger, which has, thus, served as bud-
scale during the winter. The tuber has only grown very little,
retaining its globular shape and brown color, but no additional

Am. JouR. ScI.—FourtH SERIES, VoL. XI, No. 1.—JAnuary, 1901.
5 5

66 T. Holn—Erigenia bulbosa.

lateral roots were observed at this stage. The depth of the
tuber is, however, changed, and it seems as if it becomes
buried deeper and deeper in the ground every season, not by
means of contractile roots, but by continued deposits of sedi-
ment from the river during the winter, when the localities
become inundated. )

Lrigenia thus germinates with only one cotyledon and the
basal portion of the primary root shows a distinct swelling
during the first year. This manner of germinating very mach
resembles that of Carwm Bulbocastanum, which according to
Irmisch’s observations does not develop more than one cotyle-
don, the other one staying as rudimentary, but observable in
the seed itself. Adventitious roots develop sometimes from
the base of the cotyledonar petiole in this species of Oarum,
and similar roots have, also, been observed upon the under-
ground portion of the hypocotyl in Cherophyllum bulbosum.
In rigenia, however, we found no seedlings, where such
adventitious roots had “developed from the base of the petiole.
Some of the other Umbelloferw exhibit, also, a somewhat
singular manner of germinating, viz: Smyrniuon olusatrum,
in which the hypocotyl is very short, while the cotyledonar
petioles form a tube of 8-15™™ in length, which the plumule
has to penetrate in order to reach the light. erula Cande-
labrum and Tordylium Syriacum illustrate a similar germina-
tion, but the cotyledonar tube is much shorter in these;
Ferulago, Prangos, Cherophyllum bulbosum and Smyrnium
perfoliatum possess also a cotyledonar tube, and the cotyledons
are in the two last named the only assimilating organs of the
plant during the first year.

In returning to A7zgenza, there is, as we have stated above,
a regular succession of scale-like and green leaves, which con-
tinnes for about four years; after that time there may be
developed two or three scale-like leaves, while at the same
time the aerial leaf has attained the same size and shape as the
later developed stem-leaves. The plant does not seem to
reach its flowering stage until about six or seven years after
the seed has germinated, and the flowering stem is in its bud-
stage protected by about four scale-like leaves, tightly enclosing
each other. When we, therefore, examine a flowering speci-
men of Hrigenia, we find only scale-like leaves at the apex of
the tuber, and the first green leaf at this stage is situated upon
the stem some distance from the tuber, but close to the surface
of the ground. The distance from the tuber to the first green
leaf varies very much and depends of course upon the depth
of the tuber in the ground; we observed specimens in which
this stem-internode was only 1 or 2™ in length, while in
others it reached 13°". In most cases only a single stem is

T. Holm—EKrigenia bulbosa. : 67

developed during a season ; thisis terminal, but it is not unusual
to find two or three more, which are lateral and developed
from the axils of the scale-iike leaves. Whether the plant
_ produces flowers more than once is a question, which we have
not been able to answer, since no traces of flowering stems
from previous years were observed upon the large tubers, a
fact that does not, however, exclude the possibility of the plant
having bloomed before, inasmuch as the stems are so very
weak and evidently fade away entirely. The tubers of fruit-
ing specimens showed no signs of losing their vitality, but
were, on the contrary, in perfectly healthy condition and still
containing considerable deposits of starch: hence we suppose
that Hrigenia may be considered as a polycarpic plant.

While Arigenza is quite interesting at the seedling- and suc-
ceeding stages, when compared with the majority of the
Ombellifere, hitherto examined from this viewpoint, there
are, furthermore, some peculiarities in its internal structure,
which may be mentioned in connection therewith. Moreover
it has not been possible from a mere superficial examination to
decide whether the tuberous body is a true tuber: a stem-part,
or simply a swollen root. The fact that we found no root-
hairs on the tuberous part, but only on the filiform part, does
not seem sufficient for separating them as morphologically dis-
tinct from each other, the former to represent a stem, for
instance the hypocotyl, the latter a root. An anatomical study
is necessary to decide this question, and since Hrigenia does
not appear to have been examined anatomically, it may be well
to add some other details in regard to the position of its oil-
duets for instance, which are very distinct and well developed
in this genus.

If we examine one of the filiform roots of a tuber in its
third year, we find the following structure: Epidermis, this is
almost without roothairs, but many of the cells exhibit a slight
extension of the outer wall, though not enough to form what
is generally termed as “ papille” ; the cortical parenchyma is
thin-walled and composed of a few (four or five) strata without
deposits of starch, and, furthermore, neither lacunes or oil-
ducts were observed in this tissue. The endodermis (E in
fig. 5) is thin-walled and shows the dots very plainly; inside
the endodermis is a pericambium of only one layer which sur-
rounds the leptome and hadrome. ;

The hadrome constitutes a diametrical band of vessels, cor-
responding to two hadromatic rays of which the outermost
(the first developed) are narrower than the inner. On each
side of this single row of vessels is a group of leptome and
separated from these by a stratum of thin-walled conjunctive
tissue. Two, in transverse section, rhombic ducts (D) are

68 | TL. Holm—EKrigenia bulbosa.

visible in the pericambium itself, just outside each of the two
oldest vessels, hence diametrically opposite each other. The
center of the root is occupied by a very wide vessel. If we
compare this structure of a lateral root with that of the fili-
form, primary root of the seedling, we notice the same arrange-
ment and development of tissues with the single exception
that there is no central vessel in the primary root, but the two
rows of vessels are separated from each other by conjunctive
tissue. The primary and the lateral roots thus show the same
principal structure and, as we have stated above, none of the
tissues showed signs of contractility. |

Fig. 5. Transverse section of the inner part of a lateral root of Hrigenia.
E =endodermis; P=pericambium; D =the ducts, developed in the pericam-
bium. There is a group of leptome on each side of the diametrically arranged
vessels, separated from these by a layer of conjunctive tissue. x 560.

If we, now, examine a series of sections, taken from various
parts of the tuber itself (the seedling-tuber), we observe the
following modifications. In sections taken from a little above,
where the filiform root begins, the structure is identical as far
as concerns epidermis, cortex and endodermis, the two latter
however, containing deposits of starch. The pericambium,
on the other hand, shows a number of cell-divisions and con-
sists, thus, of several layers, surrounding the two rays of
hadrome and the leptome, situated as described above. In
other sections taken from the thickest part of the same tuber,
the structure is still more different, but illustrates, neverthe-
less, a root-structure. Epidermis, cortex and endodermis are,
still, preserved, but the endodermis surrounds now a mass of
parenchyma, filled with starch, which borders inwards on sev-
eral strata of cambium, which lies close toa central group of
vessels, arranged in a line, just as we observed in the filiform
root. There is no pith, and the leptome shows the same posi-
tion as before, but is separated from the vessels by the cambium.

T. Holm—Erigenia bulbosa. 69

Several ducts, rhombic in transverse sections, occur inside the
endodermis as a peripheral band around the central-cylinder.
_ The increase in thickness, at this part of the seedling-tuber, is
then due not only to the pericambium, which has now devel-
oped a broad parenchyma, a secondary bark, but also to the
formation of a cambium between the leptome and hadrome.
The tuber as it appears during the seedling-stage is thus to be
considered as a swollen part of the primary root, of which the
structure has been modified somewhat by the divisions of the
pericambium and by the formation of cambial strata. The
divisions of the pericambinum have not, however, ceased at this
moment, but continue during the further growth of the tuber-
ous root-part. If we, for instance, examine another specimen
in its third year, we notice that the epidermis, the cortex and
endodermis have been thrown off, while the pericambium, by
outward divisions has begun to develop a number of cork-
layers at the same time as it continues the formation inwards
of secondary cortex.

While thus the anatomical structure of the primary root is
readily recognized as that of a true root in its entire length, in
its tuberous and in its filiform part, and well comparable with
that of a specimen in its third year, we find in fully matured
specimens, such as have reached the flowering stage, a very
different structure, which may have led to the belief that the
so-called “globular tuber” is a stem and not a root; that is
supposing a study of the seedling-stage to have been omitted.
The mature tuberous root possesses a number of cork-layers, a
secondary bark of very considerable width, filled with starch,
and inside the bark is a band of collateral mestome-bundles
with cambium between the leptome and hadrome and besides
well defined strata of interfascicular cambium, while a broad
pith occupies the central portion of the root, of which, how-
ever, the innermost part is broken down into a cavity; thus the _
principal features of the primary root are, almost, totally
obliterated. Oil-ducts are quite numerous in the mature root ;
they are located in the same radii as the mestome-bundles and
oceur in four or five concentric bands. The innermost oil-
ducts are to be seen in the leptome itself, the others some dis-
tance apart, the outermost being very near the periphery,
though not in contact with the cork. It appears as if the
ducts of the outermost two bands are mostly pentagonal in
transverse sections, while those of the inner are rhombic and
somewhat narrower in circumference. ,

Having thus described the root-system of Hrigenia, we
might, also, give a few notes on the structure of the other
organs, as these are developed in the seedling and the mature
plant. The petiole of the cotyledon exhibits the same pecn-

TOO T. Holm—Erigenca bulbosa.

liarity as seems characteristic of the Umbellifere in general,
i. e., the mestome-bundles are separated from each other, and
in this genus they are arranged in the form of an arch; there
‘is no collenchyma; ducts with four special cells occur in the
leptome besides that a larger duct with six special cells is to be
observed beneath each of the three mestome-bundles on the
leptome side. The leaf-blade of the cotyledon shows a bifacial
structure with stomata on both faces, most numerous on the
lower surface; a palisade-tissue of one
stratum occupies the upper part of the
blade, while an open pneumatic tissue
occupies the lower. Large ducts with six
special cells are visible above and below
the mestome-bundles, but neither the
smaller ducts, rhombic in transverse sec-
tion, or collenchyma were found at this
stage. In the petiole of a large leaf taken
from a flowering specimen, there are five
isolated mestome bundles forming an arch
Mi as in the cotyledon, and we noticed eleven

D. oil-ducts, all of which were large and sur-

Fic. 6. Transverse rounded by five or seven special cells;
section of a part of a these ducts are located in the cortical
cat edict Gao a parenchyma, and mostly separated from
Erigenia. Two ducts(D) the epidermis by a sma!l group of collen-
one with four, the other chyma. The blade of the mature leaf has
aa six special cells. stomata only on the lower surface, and the

cells of epidermis on the upper face are
extended into minute, roundish papille, which along the
margin attain the shape of pointed, thick-walled prickle-like
projections. Otherwise the structure is like that of the coty-
ledon, and oil-ducts, were, also, found here above and below -
the mestome-bundles.

The stem above ground is obtusely triangular in transverse
section and shows a rather weak structure with only moderately
thick-walled collenchyma in small groups, inside of which we
noticed the usual large ducts as in the petiole. But we found,
also, the smaller ducts, and these occurred in the leptome, one
on each side of this. Five mestome-bundles surround a thin-
walled pith, of which the innermost portion is broken down,
leaving a wide cavity in the middle of the internode. While
oil-duets are known to occur in the pith of several genera of
this order, it seems as if they were lacking in Hrigenia; we
_ were, at least, unable to find any of these ducts in the pith in
spite of very careful research.

The peduncle of the umbel is quadrangular in outline and
the angles are rough from the presence of small prickle-like

,

T.. Holm-—Erigenia bulbosa. 71

projections from the epidermis, which is, here, distinctly thick-
walled and covered by a wrinkled cuticle. There are four

groups of collenchyma, one in each angle, corresponding to

four mestome-bundles and four large oil-ducts, located in the
bark, between the collenchyma and the mestome-bundles. The
cortical parenchyma is somewhat open and consists only of
about four or five layers, bordering on a thin-walled but solid
pith. None of the smaller ducts with four special cells were
observed in the peduncle, although we had expected to find
such in the leptome, inasmuch as they were observed in the
main stem.

In regard to the anatomical structure of the fruit, we
observed that the carpophore is developed as a thick coating
on the concave, ventral face of each mericarp and adnate to
these. Thirty-eight oil ducts were noticed in each mericarp:
twelve on the commisural side, one outside each of the five
mestome-bundies and from five to six in the intervals between
these. The statement by Coulter and Rose that the number
of oil-ducts in the mericarp of Arigenza is only * one to three in
the intervals and nine to eleven on the commisural side,” is not

_ correct; the same is also the case with the description of the

ducts as being developed in “‘ the inner epidermal layer itself.”
They are, according to our observations, developed in the
mesophyll, but their location can only be ascertained by exam-
ining mericarps, which are not fully matured. We might
furthermore, state that the mericarps are not glabrous, but
hairy from numerous, short, unicellular, pointed hairs, which
are readily seen to cover the entire dorsal face of these.
Brookland, D. C., May, 1900.

Bibliography.

Coulter and Rose:. Revision of North American Umbellifere.
Crawfordsville, Indiana, 1888.

Courchet: Etude anatomique sur les Ombelliféres et sur les prin-

- cipales anomalies de structure que présentent leurs organes
végétatifs. (Ann. d. sc. nat. Botanique, 6th series, vol. xvi,
Paris, 1884, p. 107.)

Hegelmaier, F.: Vergleichende Untersuchungen tiber dikotylen
Keime. Stuttgart, 1878.

Irmisch, Thilo.: Carum Bulbocastanum und Chaerophyllum bul-
bosum nach ihrer Keimung. (Abhdl. d. Naturf. Gesellsch.
Halle, vol. 2, Halle, 1854, p. 47.) “

Klebs, Georg: Beitriige zur Morphologie und Biologie der Kei-

' mung. (Untersuch. a. d. Bot. Inst. Tiibingen, vol. 1, Leipzig,
1881-1885, p. 550 and 562.)

Miller, Carl: Ueber phloémstindige Secretkanile der Umbel-
liferen und Araliaceen. (Berichte d. Deutsch. Bot. Gesellsch.,
vol. vi, Berlin, 1888, p. 20.)

72 T. Holm—FEirigenia bulbosa.

Solereder, Hans: Systematische Anatomie der Dicotyledonen.
Stuttgart, 1899, p. 473.

Van Tieghem, Ph.: Recherches sur la symétrie de structure des
plantes vasculaires. (Ann. d. sc. Botanique, 5th series, vol.
xiii, Paris, 1870-1871.)

Van Tieghem, Ph.: Mémoire sur les canaux sécréteurs des
plantes (ibidem 5th series, vol. xvi, Paris, 1872, p. 141).

Van Tieghem, Ph.: Second mémoire sur les canaux secréteurs
des plantes (ibidem, 7th series, vol. i, Paris, 1885, p. 22).
Winkler, A.: Anomale Keimungen. (Abhdl. d. Bot. Vereins

Brandenburg, vol. xxxvi, p. 135.)

Douglass—New Species of Merycocherusin Montana. 73

Art. VI.—WNew Species of Merycocherus in Montana.
Part I]. By Eart Doverass.

Merycocherus altiramus n. sp.

THIS species, from the Madison Lake beds of the Loup Fork
epoch, is represented by a right mandibular ramus which only
lacks the posterior border and some other small fragments.
The jaw is nearest like that of J. laticeps, but differs from it
in several respects. In the present species the lower border
slopes more uniformly downward and backward from the chin.
‘From pm 4 backward the jaw is deeper. I know of no other
that is as deep in proportion to the length. The greatest
depth, back of m 3, was very nearly 3 the greatest length. The
symphyseal border, at least the lower portion, was not con-
eave and it forms a larger angle with the lower border of the
jaw than in JZ. lateceps. The concavity under pms 3 and 4 is
less and the masseteric fossa is much deeper, being bounded in
front by a high narrow ridge which dies out on the alveolar
border under m2. The lower border of the fossa is about on a
line with this border. There is a small foramen mentale under
the posterior part of pm 3.

Dentition.—A_ small portion of the bone in front of pm J is
lost, but the lower portions of the alveoli of the canine and
first and second incisors are preserved. ‘There is no trace of a
first incisor and there probably was none. The inner border of
the alveolus of 22 is only about 14 millimeters from the sym-
physis. Separated by a still narrower ridge of bone is the
alveolus of 23. One millimeter back of this is the three-sided
canine alveolus with its rounded angles. The posterior side
was the broadest and is close to pm 7. The canine was much
smaller than the first premolar. The first premolar is set
diagonally in the jaw. In cross-section it is nearly lenticular
but the anterior inner side is concave, while the greater inner
convexity is farther back than the outer one. Its transverse to
its antero-posterior diameter is as 11 to 17. Its anterior and
posterior edges are thin and sharp, and, though the tip is
broken off it evidently ended in a sharp point. Pm 2 is thin,
compressed and trenchant and like the first is inserted diago-
nally but with two roots. It is almost unworn. The highest
point and the convexity that descends from it are in the
median line, but the posterior slope is steeper and longer. As
seen from above the crest is sigmoid. In front of the highest
point there is a hint of the anterior inner lobe that is quite
prominent in pms 3 and 4. Back of this is a small groove.
On the posterior inner side of the tooth is a slight concavity,

74 Douglass—New Species of Merycocherus in Montana.

and another faint depression on the posterior outer surface.
On the posterior margin the descending ridge divides, forming
a little delta. In the third premolar these points are all more
prominent and the posterior internal concavity has become
quite a deep fossa bounded anteriorly by a prominent ridge.
In pm4 the ridge has become a prominent element of the
tooth, being separated from the other part by a large posterior
fossa and the extension backward to meet it of the anterior
interior fossa. In this tooth the posterior concavity above
mentioned has become quite a deep trough and is more nearly
central. The unworn and nearly perfect condition of the pre-
molars gives an excellent opportunity for the study of their
development and their conditions before wear. If worn to the
same extent they would not differ so greatly from those of JZ.
laticeps.

Merycocherus altiramus, x $.

Measurements.

M.
Inferior dental series, length - =. -.. 9222224) 22) ee
Molar-premolar series, lencth . _— 2 252) 522 2-23) 2) eee 158
Molar series, length _... 00.0 22. 22 ee re
Premolar series, length 2225 209) ee "060
First lower premolar, length, greatest._./._-...--.--.-=5 7018
Birst premolar, width, oreatest 2-92 29 ee 011
second lower premolar, length (2225-2 eee So ee 017
Second lower premolar, width’. .4e2 pec == {oes £008
Second lower premolar, height 2... 20°222- 4 202-22 .- 20
Third premblar, lengtht_ ...:o2.02ae eee eee 019
Third: premolar, height. 2: ¢b eee es ae 015

Fourthopremolar, length - 24. 222822 gee ee | oe 019

Douglass—New Species of Merycocherus in Montana. 75

eoematopremtorr, width ~... oe "0085
MEO Ll RS ee "0224
eumetemrme wide eee et, 0196
neem ir eieieiGe 2 Le see ee 015
pepetmrree aimlet sui 220 3 Ye a oe 028
Enna wacieh 22) oe ee ee 013
Beal Nelehe 0 i PE et 0245
ierstmtee rar emote ee) 0446
MemnnONeH WIGGM fos 2 ll el ek Le Leg ee de 011
Pepiroet ramus beneath pm2 ---.....-.2. sli 22. bu.. i. "042
Depth of ramus beneath pm 4, middle -_...-_..----..--- "053
Meponon ramus beneath mi, middle __.--.-...-..-------- 063
Depry of ramus beneath m2, middle _..........___.__-.- 076
Depth of ramus beneath front part of m3 _---..-.-----.. ‘098
Mepoien ramus, beneath back parts_./..2-2-2--.-----.-2 125

Found by the writer in layer of sand at bottom of Loup Fork
beds near top of White River beds in bluffs on eastern side of
Lower Madison Valley about ten miles from Three Forks,
Gallatin Co., Montana.

Merycochoerus madisonius n. sp.

In my collection from the Madison bluffs is a lower jaw
fragment with the anterior lobe of m3, m2, m I, the roots of
pms 4and 3 and of pm i. It represents a somewhat older but
smaller animal than the one described as Alerycocherus laticeps,
from which it differs in several particulars. The correspond-
ing part of the ramus is much shorter. The anterior part has
about the same depth. There is not that sudden descent under
the interval separating m2 and m3, to form the rounded angle.
The foramen mentale is larger, narrower, and situated relatively
farther back, being mostly under pm 4. ‘The posterior part of
the symphysis is farther back, being beneath the interval
between pm 4 and mJ. The ramus is much thicker near the
lower border under m 7, the two being in the proportion of 19
to 24. The lower border is preserved to a point beneath the
front lobe of m3. Here it is much narrower than in J.
laticeps, being ? the width. As nearly as I can determine the
length of the premolar series and the first two molars in the
present species is 8°8°"; in JZ. laticeps it is 10°3°™.

The length of the premolars and first two molars is about the
same asin MV. rusticus. The foramen mentale is about the

* The measurements of the width were taken at top of crown; as, to preserve
the parts of the jaw in place, it was necessary to imbed it in plaster.

Some teeth overlap a little, so measurements of individual teeth do not quite
coincide with the total. ; ;

The measurements of depth of jaw are taken from upper projections of bone
between lobes of teeth.

16 Douglass—New Species of Merycocherus in Montana.

same size and shape, but is farther back. The jaw is much
deeper and not straight on the lower border back of the chin.
It is broken in the region of the incisors, canine and second
premolar, but the nearness of the first and third premolars and
the position of the lower part of the alveolus of the outside
root between these two teeth show that pm2 was probably
small and closely crowded between them as in J/. compres-
sedens, to be described later.

On account of the thickness of the ramus and the narrow-
ness laterally of the incisive region there is little curving
inward of the inner part posterior to the symphysis.

Merycocherus madisonius, 0. sp. x #.

A low ridge or broad convexity begins just back of pm 1,
sweeps downward and backward just above the foramen men-
tale to near the lower border of the ramus under m /, then
becoming a broad convexity sloping gently laterally it sweeps
upward and backward towards the position formerly occupied
by the last lobe of m 3. It was evidently continuous with the
ridge forming the outer anterior border of the ascending
ramus.

A cross-section of pm Ja little below the alveolar border is
rather irregular. Its transverse is much greater than its antero-
posterior diameter, the measurements being about 1°5 and -95°™
respectively. The enamel lakes have entirely disappeared in
ms 1and 2. In m ithe enamel is nearly worn away on the
outside. There is only -4°™ left. On m 2, 1:25™ of the crown
remains, and on the anterior lobe of m3, 2°. The outer lobes of
m2 are united as if bya swelling, from each growing together,
thus filling up the lower part of the space between them. On
the last lobe of m 2 and the first of m 7, the anterior and pos-
terior faces are concave, making the outer lobes contracted in
the middle.

Douglass—New Species of Merycocherus in Montana. TT

| Measurements.
Length of lower premolar series, estimated_-_-..-_....--- 049
emia. eo ee ea elec. O18
PnrmOraTIN ieee ree ae. LL Tyce Se ces l a ee 0155
Meneth of m2 222. -.- ee en CR ee are eee, geen eae 023
OMT eee ee ke oe en 0184
Depth of jaw at lower bor der of SWIM MVSISS ge "0585
Pe emonjaw under pr 4. ee et se “051
Peermonjaw under m tf middle..-- o.oo 2 2. 2. 22-8. "055
Peano qaw under m 2 middle...- 222. 5... --4.2.-1.--- 057
Weminol jaw under m 3 anterior lobe.__._.-.2-------..- 061
ira womnoramen-smentale 0022.2 ee eee 0096
Pee wot eoramen mentale sso 2.2.2 lee 0026
Whickness of jaw under pm 4, greatest._........_..---.- “023
)finekness of jaw under m 3, anterior part._:..2.--...--. 0264

Found by myself in the Loup Fork Lake beds, Madison
Valley, Montana.

Upper Jaw.—F rom the same beds as the above is a fragment of
an upper jaw with the last three molars, which I refer provision-
ally to the same species. The part preserved differs from .
laticeps in the more posterior position of the inferior border of
the anterior root of the zygomatic arch, the lowest part being
opposite the anterior part of m 1, while in WL lateceps it is oppo-
site the last lobe of m2. Inthe present specimen the posterior
border of this root, which forms the anterior border of the
zygomatic foramen, is nearly vertical, whilein the species above
named it slopes backward. The small, short, malo-maxillary ridge
extends forward horizontally, quickly dying out on the side of
the face above the posterior part of pm 4. Above this the
surface as far as seen is flat and looks forward and upward.
Evidently the face contracted rapidly forward and upward,
but its exact shape cannot be told. This sudden contracting
would indicate a short skull to correspond with the shortening
of the jaw in the type above described. The outer border of
the palate next to the teeth is convex antero-posteriorly. The
species was smaller than J/. laticeps. The wearing of the
teeth indicates a mature individual. There is a small posterior
lobe on the last upper molar asin JZ. proprius, but the median
external buttress extends more vertically outward. The other
columns were evidently prominent, though they have dis-
appeared.

. Measurements.
Length of upper molar series _----.------------ ‘072
LSC Gil itd 1 agai SOC ae le ne 0183
LIGHT Qu TL 1) SEE RE eae Sah a "022
ceete moreiie ee ew ee Le el "0215
etme onemmeom es or ee ee 021
VET ELD Di LDS SN ec 032

MAP AGIULE Gil Tn Gi Se al a ‘0268

78 Douglass—New Species of Merycocharus in Montana.

Merycocheerus elrodi n. sp.

Represented by part of the posterior portion of a left man-
dibular ramus with the last two molars. This, so far as they
can be compared, most resembles AZ. madisonius, but I do not
think they belong to the same species. The only portions
common to the two are m 2, the anterior lobe of.m 3 and the
portions of the rami beneath, and here there are no points of
exact likeness. In the present species the crowns of the teeth
are higher, though this is partly due to a less amount of wear.
There is no bridge or buttress uniting the inner lobes in m 2.
This tooth is longer and narrower in this specimen. There is
a cingulum on the anterior face also on the front of m3. The
ramus is deeper but not so thick, the difference being more
marked near the lower border. The lower border of the jaw
_ is less flat and has an angular ridge near the outside border.
The crescent-shaped convexity on the outer face is not seen but
under m Z the jaw is nearly flat.

The contour of the lower
border of the jaw differs
from that of JZ. laticeps.
The descent to form the
anterior part of the rounded
angle is farther back, and
the ramus does not become
so deep. The masseteric
fossa had evidently about
the same position and shape
as in Wf. altiramus. A
shallow depression or groove
extends downward and for-
ward from it to the middle
of the jaw under m 2.
There are traces of a similar
groove in MW. Laticeps and M. altiramus. P

-

Merycocherus elrodi x 4.

Measurements.
M.
M2, leneth = 20 0 We 2 "027
M2) width 2.2) LoS 28 5 Pues eee "Oy
M' 3; length Jl2o0p ae ats UUs ee ‘041
M 3, width _U22)0)1 2 (ee 020
M3, height, about:s_¢2 1) 3 2ce ee

The name is proposed in honor of my friend Prof. M. J.
Elrod of the State University of Montana.

From fragment of indurated clay that had rolled from cliff
near top of Big Round Top, east side of lower Madison Valley,
about seven miles south of Logan, Montana. Found by the writer.

se ee mn es ‘ ‘e rs
Hedi die St ca

poy

Douglass—New Species of Merycocherusin Montana. 79

Merycocheerus compressidens n. sp.

Represented by a left mandibular ramus extending back to
beneath m 3. The premolars and first two molars are nearly
perfect.

The most striking feature of this jaw is the close crowding
of the premolars, in all of which there is an overlapping.

The form of the jaw is most like that of Jf. proprius. It
differs from all those previously described in this paper, in the
narrowness of the horizontal ramus, and from at least part of
them in the presence of a first incisor. It agrees with these
and differs from the /. superbus type including the so-called
M. montanus, M. macrostegus and MM. lecdyi in the crowding
with individual lengthening of the premolars, and the less
relative length of the series as compared with that of the true
molars.

=

N IN Jey yo Ve

ae e

Merycocherus compressidens n. sp. x4.

As the mandible is quite thick in the region of the chin, the
symphysis is broad, especially the lower half. In AZ. madi-
sonius the broadest part is near the top. Back of the chin
the ramus is thinner, then it thickens under the last two
molars, partly by the bellying inward on the inside, making a
large convexity which stops short of the lower border of the
jaw. This convexity is bounded infero-posteriorly by the inner
fossa. The molar-premolar series is not straight, but somewhat
sigmoid, there being a slight curve inward, outward and inward
again in passing backward from pm 1. The last two molars
form a slight angle with the premolars.

There is a broad protuberance at the angle of the chin.
Back of this, the lower border is nearly straight, as far as pre-
served. The mental foramen issmall and nearly round.

sy

80 Douglass—New Species of Merycocherus in Montana.

All of the teeth were closely crowded. The incisors were

laterally compressed. ‘The canine is nearly cireular in section. —

Pm 1 is quite large but not high. There is an anterior inner
angle and a posterior outer one. Between these the tooth is
broadly convex, being nearly semicircular in front, and less
prominently convex behind. Pm 2 is more nearly transverse
than in a line with the dental series. While its longitudinal
diameter is 1°6°", it occupies only one-half that amount of
space on the alveolar border. Pm 3 is also inserted diagonally
but not so much so as pm 2. In pm 4 the posterior part is pro-
portionally broader than in JZ. proprius. The fold of enamel
which separated the posterior lobes has by wear become an enamel
lake. It occupied the same position as in JL. laticeps. Pm 2
has much the form of the corresponding tooth in WZ, proprius
except that the anterior lobe has been twisted inward and back-
ward. The same is true of pm 3, but on the posterior inner
side a little rounded lobe has been added. This is true also of
pm 4 but the lobe is larger.

Measurements.

M.
Length of ramus to second lobe of m 3 .__.-..---------- °*128
Length of three lowetincisors ._ 2: ]2 2022 jee 010
Length of premolars and first two molars -..------------ "092
Length of premolar series _-2. .- 22 2225230 oe 051
Length of ms 1 and 2 and anterior lobe x M3)... ae 055
Leneth of canine, about -- --- Lod. 2 eee ee es WOU
Width ofcanine ..i.) 2 oe ee eo Oe
Length of pms]. 220.52 Wa ee ae "012
Width of pm Ws. s ee ee ee 014
Heioht, of pm] . 2.252 eee ee "023
Length ‘of pm 2 2.22 ee eee go. ie Sul 016
Width of pm'2.. 2... 1/2. fe eel cl eee oe
Height of pm 2, crown only. 2. =_.2 2) 4-- =. rr
Length of pm 3.2.22... 2 oe
Width of pm 30.65 ln2 0 SEs eee “O11
Height of pm 3°02. '. Saale) ee ae ‘011
enoth of pm 42.22.5220 5 See ee 7019
Width:of pm. 4 225 ye See LO Bee ee 014
Height of pm 4 -_..2. 2. Hague eee ee ee eee 012
Lieneth of m bv. 2.22 ote gage ee ee 018
Wacthuof m disco 5: Oo ee ee A ots ih Se 0155
Height of m 1, crown on sniisiile Men Lt Rope eS 0054
Length of m g en ONES ee 024
Width-of'm.2-_ 20.2250. oo er
Flevehitxer mi: 2... ... 20 eee ee "015
Height.of m.3, middle lobe, abouts. 2224e=-e2>-=-.. ee "020

From Loup Fork beds, on east side of Lower Madison
Valley. Found by Earl Douglass.

Douglass—New Species of Merycocherus in Montana. 81

Merycocherus ? obliquidens ?

In the collection from the Madison Lake beds are two por-
tions of mandibles of a smaller animal than any of the preced-
ing. One is part of a right ramus containing only one perfect
tooth—the first molar. It seems to be muuch like the one
described by Cope as JW. obliquidens. The ramus is small,
narrow and thick. Pm Jas indicated by the large abrupt bot-
tom of the alveolus was robust. Pm 2 was placed diagonally
between pms / and 3 as in J. compressidens, only more trans-
versely as the alveoli are nearly at right angles to the long axis
of the jaw. Evidently pm 3 was also inserted obliquely, as the
anterior root is near the inner margin while the posterior one
invades the outer. m4 was in line with the long axis of the
jaw. In the other specimen
the fourth ternporary premolar
is preserved. It has three lobes
of which the posterior is slightly
the larger. 7 has a_ high,
prismatic crown. All the pre-
molars were large. The men-
tal foramen and __ posterior
of symphyseal suture occupy
nearly the same place as in oa
Cope’s NM. obliquidens. It is Merycocheerus obliquidens ?, x 4. :
very doubtful whether this iat: premolar from another speci-
belongs to the genus Mery-

cochcerus.
Measurements.

M.
From posterior of pm 1 to anterior of m1_--------------- “0575
Length of pm 2 at alveolar border _--.------------------- ‘011
Shortest distance between pm 1 and pm3---------------- 0055
Length of pm 3 alveolar measurement ------------------- "016
Meee Gln A ee 2-4 ~~ = 2 - += 2 O27
Merrion mites 2 2. ob foe 2-3-2 2-5 --- 019
Senne Mie ee NT ONE Oe Pes eee 015
Height of crown of m1 outside__---------------------- 015
Depth of ramus under pm 2 about-_-------------------- “082
Depth of ramus under m1-----.------------ igs orig lh) 029

As the above described species are represented by portions
of mandibles and the most striking differences are in the
depths of the horizontal rami, I give below a table which will
show the variation in this respect:

Am, Jour. Sct.—Fourta Series, Vou XI, No. 1.—Janvary, 1901.
6

82 Douglass—New Species of Merycocherus in Montana.

Species. Depth of ramus under
Pm2 Pm3 .32m4 M1 M2 M3
ant. pos.

M M M M M M M
Merycocherus laticeps 043 ‘053 -050 ‘053 ‘067 ‘076 -109
Meraltiramus: 2.5/2.2. 043 "054-7063, 078 098 alas
M. madisonius ~~~. --- "052, -05. 2055. "05g ae om
Merelrodiy eke oe . "062 065 90
M. compressidens .--- ‘050 °048 ‘045 °045 °044 ‘047
M.? obliquidens ?---- - 032. *030/-702%) 029

In the above table the measurements are taken as nearly as
possible from the alveolar border at the middle of the last lobe
of the tooth, except under m3 which is taken beneath the
anterior lobe, also the posterior one when present.

As previously stated, the discovery of a complete skull of
Merycocherus shows that those previously described under
that name must be divided into two genera, though at present
the generic limits cannot be definitely defined. I include pro-
visionally under the genus Merycocherus, of which J/.
proprius is the type, I. rusticus, M. laticeps, M. madisonius,
M. elrodz, and perhaps I. compressidens, and M. obliquidens.
Were the skulls of all these found, the genus might have to be
divided again. The last two have a much slimmer ramus than
the others and J/. compressidens has a first incisor. With
regard to If. obliguidens, which Cope does not mention in his
“Synopsis of the Oreodontide,” this is doubtful.

I have no wish to supply a generic name for the other
species that have been included in this genus, as more experi-
enced workers will, | hope, soon make a thorough study of
all the data and material available. Butfor convenience I pro-
visionally call the other members Promerycocherus, as all
with the exception of Promerycocherus montanus are older,
and some of the species are perhaps in the direct line of Mery-
cocherus. Instead then of using the names Jerycocherus
superbus, leidyt, chelydra, macrostegus, and montanus, I will
use provisionally the terms Promerycocherus superbus, leidyt,
chelydra, macrostegus and montanus respectively.

Between these two groups as I have divided them there is an
easily recognizable difference in the inferior dentition. In P.
montanus and macrostegus ; and, judging by the upper den-
tition in P. superbus and chelydra, the length of the premolar
series nearly or quite equals that of the molar series. The
molar series may be somewhat longer in P. lezdyz. In Mery-
cocherus proprius, rusticus, laticeps, compressidens, altiramus;
and madzsonius, the premolar series equals, or is slightly less
than the length of the first two molars and the anterior lobe of
m3. Inthe first species it is a trifle more and they decrease in

Douglass—New Species of Merycocherus um Montana. 83

about the order mentioned. In the last the measurement does
not fall short more than half the length of the anterior lobe of
m3. The measurements of the first two are taken from
Leidy’s illustrations.* _

In all of these there is more or less crowding of the first
three premolars, and pm 2 is placed obliquely in the jaw. In
other respects the mandibles vary so much that we may expect
that farther discoveries will show that they do not all belong
to the same genus.

_ With regard to a first incisor I have no proof that it was
possessed by any but JZ. compressidens.

* Extinct Mammalian Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska.

84 Scventijic Intelligence.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYsICS.

1. Periodic Phenomena connected with the Solution of Chro-.

mium in Acids.—While experimenting upon the behavior of
metallic chromium with acids, W. Ostwatp has found the action

to be sometimes periodical. The evolution of hydrogen is at |

first slow, then it increases to a maximum, becomes slow again,
again increases, and so on. The length of the periods from one
maximum to the next is to a certain extent constant, as is also
the rapidity of increase and decrease of gas evolution. The
author was able to measure the rapidity of action by an appa-
ratus analogous to those used in physiological laboratories for
measuring changes in blood-pressure. In this apparatus the gas
evolved in a flask was allowed to escape through a capillary tube,
so that periodic changes of pressure occurred in the flask as the
gas was formed more rapidly or more slowly than it escaped
from the capillary tube. The periodic change of pressure is not
due to a change in the solution, but to a change in the metal.
When two pieces of chromium were placed beside one another,
but without touching, in the same hydrochloric acid, the appa-
ratus recorded a curve which was equivalent to the summation of
two curves for single pieces. When the two pieces were placed
in contact, however, the curve had a form like that produced by

single piece. This behavior is connected with the fact that
passive chromium (¢. e. that which does not dissolve in acids) is
made active upon contact with active chromium, for in this appa-

ratus contact with the piece which at the moment is giving off

hydrogen more actively instantly causes the other to dissolve
more rapidly. Different pieces of chromium did not behave uni-
formly, but gave curves of different forms. It is interesting
to notice that only the chromium from a single fusion gave
this periodic behavior. It was found that the addition of certain
reducing agents, sometimes even in very small quantities had
a very marked effect upon the form of the curves by retarding
the action. The addition of a little potassium iodide has this
effect, while cyanides, sulphocyanides and formaldehyde give still
greater effects in the order in which they are mentioned. Other
reagents, such as nitric acid, the lower oxides of nitrogen and
bromic acid, accelerate the action, making the periods shorter.
Hydrogen peroxide has a retarding action, like the reducing
agents. Measurements of the electrical tension between the
metal and the liquid showed that the metal is ‘1 volt more
anodic while rapidly dissolving than while slow action is taking
place. The variations in tension form a curve similar to that
given by the pressure of hydrogen.

In a subsequent communication Ostwald has described further
experiments upon this subject. He has succeeded in obtaining

Chenuistry and Physics. 85

another sample of chromium which showed fluctuations while
dissolving, but in this case the periodic action took place only
with particular acid solutions, while with other samples of acid of
the same concentration a slow, uniform action occurred. It was
finally discovered that the acid solutions which induced periodic
action contained a trace of dextrin, derived from cloth bags that
had been put into the liquids, and upon adding dextrin to other
acids they also gave regular fluctuations. An examination of
other carbohydrates and similar substances showed that their
action is the more pronounced the higher their molecular weight
is. The presence of ‘001 per cent of glycogen, ‘01 per cent of
lichenin, 1 per cent of inulin, or 1 per cent of raffinose sufficed to
produce the effect, while more concentrated solutions of cane
sugar, milk sugar and dextrose gave a similar result. Certain
kinds of chromium are “ self-fluctuating,” and an addition of dex-
trin to these produces irregularity in the hydrogen curve, which
is more marked the greater the addition that is made.—Zettschr.

— physikal. Chem., xxv, 33+ 204. H. L. W.

2. On Krypton.—This rare constituent of the atmosphere,
which was discovered by Ramsay and Travers, has been further
studied by LapENBuRG and Kruxcer. They used for the pur-
pose about three liters of residue left by the evaporation of the
greater part of 850 liters of liquid air. Upon conversion into
gas this residue occupied 2300 liters, and after oxygen and nitro-
gen had been removed in the usual manner about 3°5 liters of
inactive gas were obtained. The latter was condensed by cool-
ing with liquid air, when it formed a colorless liquid in which
floated a small quantity of colorless crystals. - The liquid was
now raised to the boiling-point and fractions of gas were collected
according to the boiling temperature, which rose quickly from
—189° to —181°2, where it became nearly constant while about
2°5 liters of gas consisting chiefly of argon were given off; then
the temperature rose rapidly to —153° where the last portions of
the liquid evaporated. At last there remained a crystalline
residue which melted at about —147°, then quickly evaporated
and was separately collected. This last fraction showed a strong
krypton spectrum in which the lines D,, 589°9 wy, and 558°1 wy
were very brilliant, while many argon lines, including the whole
of the violet end of the argon spectrum, were wholly wanting.
It was therefore evident that the product contained very little
argon, or only a constituent part of that gas. Compared with
oxygen as 32, the density was found to be 58°81 and 58°67.
These numbers correspond to the atomic weight if the gas is
monatomic. Some of this gas was afterwards condensed by use
of liquid air, when the tube containing it became covered with a
crystalline layer, but no liquid was formed. A fraction of gas
which evaporated last from the crystalline deposit gave a density
of 59°01. Ramsay expected that the atomic weight of krypton
would be about 80, although his density determination with gas
which certainly contained much argon gave an atomic weight of

86 Scientific [ntelligence.

about 45. The authors believe that the new elements of the air
should be placed before group I in the periodic system, so that
helium = 4, argon = 39, and krypton = 59 come before lithium,
potassium, and copper. It is their opinion that air contains less
than 0:00002 per cent of krypton, but if this is so it is evident that
the 750° of liquid air of Ramsay and Travers, in which they dis-
covered the element, must have been previously subjected to a
great amount of concentration by evaporation.— Chem. News,
Imex, 205, andyixxxit,209: H. L. W.

3. The Combustion of Gases.—It is well known that sufficient
dilution of an explosive mixture of gases with any other gas will
prevent explosion. ‘Thus Bunsen found that a mixture of 25°79
per cent of detonating gas (hydrogen and oxygen) with 74°21
per cent of carbon dioxide cannot be kindled, while 8°72 parts of
detonating gas and 91°28 parts of oxygen behave in the same
way. Such facts are satisfactorily explained by assuming that
the dilution lowers the temperature of combustion below the
kindling point. S. TanTar calls attention to the fact that where
the dilution is made with certain hydrocarbon gases the effect is
caused by so little of the latter that the usual explanation is not
sufficient to account for it. He found that 11-12 per cent of
propylene, CH, : CH. CH,, or of trimethylene, (CH,),, is suffi-
cient to prevent the explosion of detonating gas, while methane,
CH,, prevents the explosion when present in twice the amount,
or 22-24 per cent. He found that when a mixture of 5° of pro-
pylene with 45°¢ of detonating gas was exploded only a small
change of volume, at most a diminution of 5°°, took place instead
of the expected disappearance of the detonating gas. If 5 to
15°° more of detonating gas was taken than in the preceding
experiment the contraction increased to the extent of this addi-
tion. An analysis of the resulting gases showed that propylene
was no longer present, and that no noticeable amount of carbon
dioxide was formed, particularly when the proportion of gases
- was such that the limit of combustibility was reached. The
oxygen was completely used up in the combustion, so that the
mixture of gases consisted essentially of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen. It is remarkable that the combustion of propylene
does not take place under these conditions until there is just
enough oxygen present for its complete combustion to carbon
monoxide and water, for 5°° propylene require 15°° oxygen or
45°° detonating gas, which is the smallest amount that will cause
an explosion. Methane requires half as much oxygen, and com-
bustion actually takes place upon the addition of 25°° of detonat-
ing mixture to 5° of the gas. The results show a remarkable
selection which oxygen exhibits in combining with hydrocarbons
in preference to hydrogen. Berthelot’s thermochemical principle
of greatest work does not apply here, for the reaction 6H,+30,=
6H,O produces more heat than C,H,+30,=3C0+3H,0. It is
the author’s opinion that the only possible explanation of the
phenomenon is that the rapidity of the action of oxygen with

Chemistry and Physics. 87

hydrocarbons is much greater than with hydrogen. No satis-
factory explanation is given for the curious fact that combustion
does not take place at all until sufficient oxygen is present for
the complete combustion of the hydrocarbon.—Zeitschr. physkal.
Chem., xxxv, 340. H. L. W.
4. The Combustion of Acetylene in Air enriched with Oxygen.
-—Having occasion to use high temperatures, G. L. BourGEREL
experimented with acetylene by using it in an ordinary blast-
lamp. This gave a very high temperature by means of which
nickel or pure gold could be melted with ease. Still higher tem-

peratures being desired, the air used for the lamp was replaced

by pure compressed oxygen from a cylinder. The result was sur-
prising from the fact that the flame leaving the blowpipe was
exceedingly brilliant. The gases did not mix, but burned only
in contact with one another, then, little by little, there formed at
the extremity of the central tube of the blowpipe a deposit of
carbon which rapidly increased, taking the form of a truncated
cone with the base outward. The carbon thus formed was very
dense and that at the base of the flame was hard and sonorous,
and in some instances sufficiently hard to scratch glass. When
examined with a lens the carbon showed a cauliflower-like struc-

_ ture. The curious phenomenon was evidently due to the disso-

ciation of acetylene. As the incomplete combustion when pure —
oxygen was used was unsatisfactory for the purpose of heating,
mixtures of oxygen with air were tried with the result that very
hot oxidizing or reducing flames could be produced.—Moniteur
Scientifique ;, Chem. News, \xxxil, 187. H. L. W.

5. The inverse effect of a magnetic field upon an electric
charge.—M. G. Lippman, reasoning upon Maxwell’s theory of
electric convection, shows by the principle of the conservation of
energy that variations in the strength of a magnetic field ought
to produce a movement of an electrified body placed in such a
field. M. V.Cremtev has put this conclusion to the test of experi-
ment. A charged aluminum disc is supported between the poles
of an electro-magnet. The author calculates how much turn-
ing effect he should obtain on closing or breaking the circuit of
the magnet. He did not obtain any effect, and he concludes
therefore that this experiment taken in connection with his pre-
vious one on electrical convection (Comptes Rendus, cxxx, p.
1544, 1900) proves that the displacement of an electrified body
does not produce a magnetic field along its trajectory.— Comptes
Kendus, No. 15, p. 578, Oct. 8, 1900. so 8

6. Electrical Convection.—M. V. Cremizu returns to his attack
on the experiments relating to the possibility of this effect. He
has repeated those of Rowland and Himstet, and shows apparently
that the effects observed are not due to the magnetic effect of
moving charges, since they can be suppressed by the intervention
of a metallic plate-— Comptes Rendus, Nov. 12, 1900. B Pu i

7. Unipolar Induction.—K. LEecHER continues his discussion
with W. Kénig on the question whether a magnetic pole can

88 | Scientific Intelligence.

revolve around a conductor carrying a current, and whether the
well-known pieces of apparatus in physical cabinets which are
supposed to illustrate the revolution represent a true phenomenon.
He arrives at the conclusion that Biot and Savart’s law, which is
interpreted without reference to the position of the leading-in
wires, is incorrect, and that the observed rotations are entirely
due to the leading-in wires. It is impossible apparently to get
rid of the effect of these wires in any of the pieces of apparatus
which have been devised. There is however no theoretical
ground for the existence of the rotation, since action and reaction
are equal. H. Lorberg also discusses the point of contention be-
tween Lecher and Konig, and shows that in his Lehrbuch der
Physik he arrived at Lecher’s conclusion.—Ann. der Physik, No.
11, 1900, pp. 513-529. . Beet

8. Hlectron theory of metals —The most important paper of
the last issue of the Annalen der Physik is that of P. Drupz on
this subject. The author seeks to explain the electric current and
its effects in the magnetic field by the hypothesis of the move-
ment of electrons or corpuscles between the atoms of the metals
of the conductors. He finds a sufficient amount of agreement
with known facts to make the theory plausible, but he points out
that it is highly desirable to collect together observations on the
four transverse-galvanic and thermo-magnetic effects, together
with the thermic, the electric conductivity and the Thomson effect
in the same piece of metal, in order to prove his theory.—Ann.
der Physik, No. 11, 1900, pp. 369-402. _ Tee

9. A simple modification of the Wehnelt interrupter.—This
consists in substituting a steel wire for the positive electrode
while the negative electrode consists of a copper wire. Both
wires are enclosed in glass tubes, except at the ends.— Ann. der
Physik, No. 11, 1900, pp. 543-544. J, 8s

Il. GroLocy AND MINERALOGY.

4 1. Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota,
Vol. V. Structural and Petrographic Geology of the Taconic
and Archean ; by N. H. WrincHELL, assisted by U. 8. Grant.
4°, pp. 1027, pl. 6, St. Paul, 1900.—It would be impossible in the
limits of a brief mention like this to do much more than merely
state that this volume contains an enormous mass of detailed
observations on and descriptions of the rocks of Minnesota.

The first part, of some seventy-five pages, is by Prof. Winchell,
and gives aresumé of his views on the general structure, age,
origin, relationsbips and petrology of the rocks of the State.

The second part, by both authors, covers the detailed study
of some three thousand thin sections from every part of the
area. The occurrences are so numbered that the descriptions can
be referred to their appropriate places in the earlier reports of
the Survey. As is already well known, the great mass of this
work relates to rocks of the gabbroid family.

a A oh tm, a -
eas Ni 2 rat ae

Geology and Mineralogy. — 89

The third part embraces such discussions and comparisons as
to genesis and relationship as appear to be the result of the fore-
going, and may be regarded as the petrographic geology of the

“State. Eevee,

2. Htude mineralogique et pétrographique des Roches gabbroi-
ques del? Htat de Minnesota, Etats Unis, et plus specialinent des
Anorthosites ; by A.N. Wincuett. Inaug. Diss., Paris, 1900, 8°,
pp. 164, pl. 8.—This work, which is being published in English
in a journal devoted to geology, is a very careful, minute and
painstaking petrographic examination of a series of the gabbroid
rocks of Minnesota. It is accompanied by a series of analyses
and a number of general conclusions upon the inter-relations of

the gabbroid magmas are brought out. Especially noticeable is
the detail and care with which the micro-mineralogy of the com-

ponent minerals has been worked out. Bava.

3. Les Roches Eruptives des Environs de Ménerville, Algérie ;
by L. Duparc, F. Pearce and E. Rirrer. Mémoires de la Soe.
de Phys. et d’Hist. Nat. de Genéve, xxxiil, No. 2, 4°, pp. 142,

l. 8.—The region whose eruptive rocks have furnished the sub-

ject of this memoir lies about 40 miles east of the city of Algiers.

There is an important massif of granite, and in the general

‘neighborhood of this extensive areas of rhyolites (liparites), dacites

and andesites. All these are carefully described from the petro-
graphic point of view by the first two authors, with many ap-
pended analyses. The collection of the material and the geologic
portion of the work is by the last-named author. neve
4, The Charnockite Series, a group of Archean Hypersthenic
rocks in Peninsular India ; by T. H. Hottanp. Memoirs Geo!
Surv. India, vol. xxviii, pt. 2, pp. 130, pl. 8.—The author states

that the name charnockite is intended for local use and conve-

nience alone. Although these rocks are of great age, and have
thus lost some of the distinctive features of igneous intrusions.
they are nevertheless to be clearly regarded as such, and the
author takes great pains to give the evidences on this point with
fullness and detail. The nearest equivalents of these rocks among
types previously described are found in the group of “ pyroxene
gneisses.” The study of the field relations is supplemented by
petrographical and chemical investigations. Le VieB.
5. Geologische Skizze der Besitzung Jushno-Saoserk und des
Berges Deneshkin Kamen in nordlichen Ural ; by F. Lonwinson-
Lessine. 8°, pp. 257, pl. 9, Dorpat, 1900.—This volume is pub-
lished in Russian, but a résumé of 87 pages in German will serve
to greatly extend its readers among geologists. After a brief
description of the region, the Devonian sediments and the gold-
placer mines, the main body of the work is taken up with the
petrography of the igneous rocks. Several varieties of these are
described in detail, the chief interest centering in those rich in
lime, iron and magnesia, a group of gabbros, norites, pyroxenites,
dunites, etc. Analyses of these rocks are given and there is a
general discussion of their magmatic relations. Li Wage

90 Scientific Intelligence.

6. Some Principles controlling Deposition of Ores; by C. R.
Van Hisr. Paper read before the American Institute of Mining
Engineers, February, 1900. Author’s edition.—Prof. Van Hise
divides his paper into two parts, Part I being a consideration of
the principles governing ore deposition, while Part If treats of
their application to ore deposits. A brief outline of Part II fol-
lows. The outer zone of the lithosphere is a zone of fracture, a
zone where the rocks under stress break into fissures, ete. The
depth to which this zone extends depends upon the nature of the
rocks and other considerations, but in no case exceeds 12,000
meters. Below this depth we have a zone of flowage, where
rocks are deformed by flowage but do not fracture. The zone of
fracture below the level of ground-water is everywhere permeated
by water. This water is ever in more or less rapid circulation.
Below the zone of fracture there can be practically no circulation.
Therefore the first and fundamental premise of the paper is that the
greater number of ore deposits are the result of the work of under-
ground water. The second premise is that the material for ore
deposits is derived from rocks within the zone of fracture. The chief
cause of the circulation of underground water is gravimetric stress.
The water descends through the smaller openings in the rocks,
and continually seeking the easiest passages rises at last by means
of the main fissures. Descending waters are in the main agents
for solution; the ascending waters are in the main agents for de-
position. After deposition, a second concentration and general
enrichment of the upper parts of ore deposits is caused by descend-
ing oxidizing waters from the surface. Ore deposits which have
their origin in deposition from solution may be of three kinds,
(1) deposited by ascending waters alone, (2) deposited by descend-
ing waters alone, (3) deposited by ascending waters and concen-
trated by descending waters. Deposits of the last class are by far
the most numerous. W. E. F.

7: Physical Geography of the Texas Region; by Roxsert T.
Hitt. U.S. Geological Survey, Physiographic Folio No. 3.—
The Physiographic folios “are designed chiefly as aids in the
teaching and study of physical geography. Folios Nos. 1 and 2
contain general illustrations and descriptions. The present folio
is descriptive of a large area which is particularly rich in dis-
tinctive physiographic types. The region is divided according
to its geographic features—soil, climate, geologic structure, drain-
age, underground water, and environment for human culture—
into six provinces. These provinces are described in detail,
with special reference to the large and small topographic fea-
tures represented. Plains are represented by the greatest
variety, and an unfamiliar type—‘Bolson Plains”—has many
examples here. ‘‘ Bolsons” are described as “‘ apparently level
valleys inclosed by mountains, ordinarily without drainage out-
let—they are usually structural and floored with unconsolidated
sediments” (page 8).

Ten sheets of “special illustrations” make the descriptions

co

Se dees

Geology and Mineralogy. 3h,

doubly clear. They include charts showing drainage, rainfall,
flora, mineral resources, distribution of population; photographs
of valley, plain, cuesta, and mountain types; and 23 special con-

tour maps of topographic features. This folio should be the text-

book for the region it covers and a chapter in any general physi-
ographie work. H. E. G.

8. Mield Operations of the Division of Soils, 1899; by Mitton
Wuirtney. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Report 64; pp.
1-198, with 48 illustrations and 11 maps.—The plan of Prof.
Whitney is to map the soils of the country on a scale of an inch
to the mile and to give them distinctive local names. Mechanical
and chemical analyses of the soils are then made in the field and
in the laboratory. . This information, taken in connection with
the climatic conditions of a region, will determine the possibilities
of successful cultivation of certain crops. After the character of
the soil and the attitude of ground water is known, then the
data are at hand for the study of methods to enrich the soil or to
adapt it to particular plants. During 1899 field work was done
on the alkali soils of the Pecos Valley, New Mexico, on the Salt
Lake Valley of Utah, and on the Connecticut Valley soils of
Massachusetts and Connecticut. The detail with which the work
has been carried through is well shown by the fact that nine
distinct soil types are mapped in the Connecticut Valley—each
type suited to its own crops and demanding its own style of cul-
tivation. The Agricultural Department considers this the most
important agricultural investigation ever undertaken. H. E. @.

9. Etudes sur les Minéraux dela Roumanie, par P. Pont. Pp.
1-137, Jassy, 1900 (Ann. Sci. Univ. Jassy).—Professor Poni
has done a service to mineralogists in giving them this excellent
summary of the little-known minerals of Roumania. It includes
a catalogue of the species identified in the country, briefly char-
acterized, and with a full account of the localities at which they
occur. One of the most important of these hes in the crystalline
schists of Broscéni in the district of Sucéva, where a consider-
able number of metallic species have been found. A number
of these new analyses are given. Perhaps the most important
pages are those devoted to the account of the rock salt deposits
which occur on an enormous scale, although at present only
developed at four points. The most important of these is at
Slanic, where the amount delivered in ten years, down to 1897-8,
was nearly half a million tons. The volume adds two new names
to the literature of the mineralogy,—namely Badenite and Bros-
tenite.

BabDENITE is an arsenide of cobalt, nickel and iron, containing
nearly 5 per cent of bismuth. It is found in the valley of Negu-
letzul, near the village of Badéni-Ungureni in the district of
Muscel. It occurs massive with granular to fibrous structure ;
specific gravity = 7:104 ; color steel-gray, becoming dull on expo-
sure to the air. An analysis gave:

As S Bi Co Ni Fe
61°54 0°27 4°76 20°56 ao 5°98 = 100°50

92 Scientific Intellagence.

This gives a ratio of 2:3 nearly for (Co, Ni, Fe): (As, Bi, 8).
The composition is somewhat analogous to that of rammelsbergite, |
but the latter has the ratio of about 1: 2.

BrosTENITE is a hydrated manganite of iron and manganese,
analogous to chalcophanite in composition. It occurs in large
quantities in the crystalline schists of the region of Brosténi, dis-
trict of Sucéva. It is compact, friable; of a black color; luster
semi-metallic on the fresh fracture but becoming dull on exposure
to the air. Treated with hydrochloric acid, chlorine is freely
evolved. Different samples yielded somewhat varying results
upon analysis; that from the valley of Holda is interpreted as
follows: .

MnO, MnO FeO CaO H.O Gangue (Si0.)
52°40 6°16 11°47 3°05 LS 147i) 99780

The formula calculated from this is: 2MnO,.RO+2H,0, where
R= Mn, Fe, Ca. For the mineral from Dorna, the formula
6MnO,.2RO+3H,0 is calculated; and that from Dealul-Ferului,
it is suggested, may be a mixture of these. The deposits of man-
ganese oxides have probably been formed by the action of car-
bonated waters upon manganese carbonate.

10. Mineralogy ; by Frank Rutitey. Twelfth edition, revised
and corrected, pp. 240, 12mo. London, 1900 (Thomas Murby).—
The fact that this little work is now in its twelfth edition is suffi-
cient indication of the excellent way in which it fills the place for
which it was written. Though necessarily brief in its treatment
both of the theoretical and descriptive parts, a great deal of
matter is brought together in a small space, and much good judg-
ment is shown in the presentation of the whole.

11. Corundum and the Basic Magnesian Rocks of Western
North Carolina; by JosnpaH Otnry Lewis (Bulletin No. 11,
North Carolina Geological Survey). Pp. 107, Winston, 1896.—
This Bulletin gives an interesting summary of the occurrence of
corundum in North Carolina and the various types of rocks,
peridotites, pyroxenites and amphibolites, with which it is asso-
ciated.

Ill. Borany. |

1. Les Maladies et les Ennemis des Cafeiers ; by G. DEta-
croix. Second edition, pp. 212, 8°, with 50 figures. Paris,
Augustin Chollamel, 1900.—The first edition of this work formed
a series of articles published in the Revwe des Cultures Coloniales
in 1898-99, which with numerous additions are now issued as a
separate volume. Under the head of non-parasitic diseases are -
treated such subjects as changes due to excess of heat and mois-_
ture. By far the greater part of the volume is devoted to para-
sitic diseases, including both those due to fungi and those due to
insects. Of the former the rust, Hemileia vastatrix, is the most
widely spread and most injurious, and is treated at length by the
author. According to Delacroix, the only parts of the world
exempt from this disease are the west coast of Africa, New Cale-
donia and America, including the West Indies. He does not

Botany. 93

accept the statement of Hennings’ that the disease occurs in
Guatemala, but believes that the trouble in that country is due
to another cause. The disease known in Venezuela as Koleroga

is due to an imperfectly known sooty fungus, Pellicularia Kole-

roga. ‘There are several troublesome diseases of coffee known as
leaf-spots, due to attacks of Sphaerella coffeicola, Stilbum flavidum,
Cercospora coffeicola and Gloeosporium coffeanum. Other dis-
eases in Java and Liberia are supposed to be due to Pyrenomy-
cetous fungi, but their effect has not yet been studied in detail.
A chapter is devoted to the action of the leaf-lichens belonging
to the genus Strigula and the accompanying alga, Cephaleuros
virescens. 'The phaenogamic parasites of the genera Loranthus
and Clusia attack the coffee as well as other trees in the tropics,
causing damage, but cannot be said to cause special diseases.
The present volume is a very useful and convenient treatise
which will be especially valuable in tropical countries, since the
treatment as well as the origin of the various diseases is given in
a way rarely found in works treating of diseases beyond the
limits of Europe and North America. W. G. F.

2. Monographie und Iconographie der Oedogoniaceen; by
Karu E. Hien. Acta Soc. Sci. Fennicae, xxvii, No. 1, pp. iv, 394,
pl. 64. Helsingfors, 1900.—Our systematic knowledge of the
Oedogoniacae dates from Pringsheim’s. monograph in 1858, and
this was followed by Wittrock’s Prodromus in 1874. To the
two genera Oedogonium and Bulbochaete treated by them a
third genus, Oedocladium, with .a single species, was added b
Stahl in 1891. In the elaborate and thorough monograph of Dr.
Hirn no less than 199 species of Oedogonium and 43 species of
Bulbochaete are recognized besides the single species of Oedo-
cladium. This large number of species is not due to the fact that
Dr. Hirn is given to species making. On the contrary he is con-
servative in his treatment, and a comparatively small number of
new species have been described and many species have been
reduced to varieties. The monograph will be of great value to
American geologists, since our species were in a chaotic condi-
tion, and Dr. Hirn, who has received material from several
American sources, has been able to give us for the first time a
clear and accurate account of our Oedogoniaceae. It is to be
regretted that of the numerous American species described in
Wolle’s Fresh-Water Algae, so large a number cannot be recog-
nized with certainty at the present time. 0. pungens is an inter-
esting new species collected by Ravenel in South Carolina, and
O. geniculatum Hirn from California, described in Erythea, 1898,
is figured for the first time. To O. Martinicense Hirn is referred

-a form included by Wolle in O. crassum, and an unnamed species

of Wood is referred with doubt to O. Margaritiferum Nordstedt
and Hirn. Of the Wittrockian species not before recorded in
America may be mentioned O. Magnusii, O. nobile and O. nodu-
losum. Weshould also mention that O. acrosporum, O. Boscit,
O. crispum and O. Wolleanum, species much confused in Ameri-
can herbaria, are here clearly distinguished. An introduction,

94 Scientific Intelligence.

giving an account of the structure and general character of the
order and its literature, and good plates of the different species,
give additional value to this admirable monograph. Ww. G. F.

3. Ueber Sclerotinia cinerea und Sclerotinia fructigena; by
M. Woronin, Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersburg, viii, Ser. x,
No. 5, pp. 38, pl. 6, in part colored, 1900.—In the present sequel
to the series of papers on Sclerotiniae by Woronin, the author
gives a full account of his studies and experiments in relation to
the two species to which is due the rotting of cherries, apples and
other fruits of the order Rosaceae. The rotting in this case,
however, is not the ordinary moist rot, but what may be called a
dry wilting. In neither species was Woronin able to observe the
cosporic stage, but he considers that they belong to the genus
Sclerotinia since their conidia are those of that genus, although
the disjunctor is less clearly marked.. By some writers S. cinerea
and S. fructigena have been considered forms of one species, but
Woronin distinguishes the latter species by its larger conidia,
which are yellowish and not gray. He withdraws his previously
expressed opinion that the conidia are uninucleate, and states
that they are multinucleate. S. cinerea is the species which has
caused serious disease of cherries in many places, while S. fruct¢-
gena causes a disease in apples and pears. These diseases are
usually manifested in the fruit, but may attack twigs and leaves.
Both species may occur on drupaceous as well as pomaceous
fruits or may, at least, be made to grow on decoctions of them,
but in nature Woronin believes that in all serious epidemics it is
S. cinerea which affects cherries and stone fruits, while in the case
of apples and other pomaceous fruits the fungus is S. fructigena.

W. G. F.

4. On Platydorina, a new Genus of the Family Volwocidae,
Srom the Plankton of the Illinois River ; by C.A.Kororp. Bull.
Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist., V, 419-440, pl. 28. Dec. 28, 1899.—
In this paper the writer supplements his previous notice of the
genus Pleodorina by an account of another very interesting mem-
ber of the Volvox family discovered during his investigation of
the plankton of the Illinois River. The new genus Platydorina,
represented by the single species P. caudata, is one of the most
peculiar members of this peculiar family, and is characterized by
its horseshoe-shaped coenobium, composed of 16 or 32 cells with
three or five prolongations or tails on the posterior end of the
coenobium. The cells of the two sides of the compressed and
flattened coenobium intercalate so that the flagella are found
upon both faces on alternate cells. The different cells are, how-
ever, all similar, and the marked polarity of this genus is indi-
cated by the general outlines of the coenobium rather than by a
difference in the cells as in some other genera, as Pleodorina.
Although the sexual reproduction was not seen, the non-sexual
reproduction and the cell structure and arrangement are consid-
ered by the writer to indicate its near relationship to EKudorina.
At the end of the paper is a key to the genera and species of
Volvocidae. W. G. F.

ee aia >

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 95

3
TV. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. On the Velocity of Seismic Waves in the Ocean.—Dr.

‘Cuarues Davison has recently discussed the waves propagated

by the Japanese earthquake of June 15th, 1896, the special
object being to compare the observed velocity with that calcu-

lated from the usual formula, v = 1/gh, where h is the depth of
the ocean taken as uniform, in which waves would travel with
the same velocity as that of the seismic sea-waves. In this case,
the epicenter was located some 240 km. east-south-east of Mi-
yako, at a depth of 4,000 fathoms. The time of occurrence at
Miyako and the surface velocity within the disturbed area being
given, the approximate time at the epicenter is obtained, which
is assumed to be correct within a minute.

The earthquake waves were observed at two stations, where
self-recording tide gauges are established,—namely, at Honolulu,
and at Sausalito in San Francisco Bay. In the case of Honolulu
the first effect was observed after an interval of 7 hours 44
minutes, a small rise of three-quarters of an inch being noted.
The disturbance continued for about 48 hours; at one time a
group of seventeen small waves, with an average period of twenty-
five and a-half minutes, was recorded. At Sausalito, the first
crest reached the gauge after an interval of 10 hours and 34
minutes. Here there was a rise of 3°7 inches; later a series of
thirty waves, with an average period of six minutes, and a mean
distance between crest and hollow of 1:5 inches, were noted. The
distance in the two cases was 3,591 and 4,787 miles respectively.
From the time-intervals given, the mean velocity to Honolulu is
calculated as 681 feet per second, and for Sausalito as 664 feet.
The former would give a uniform depth to the ocean between the
two points of 14,492 feet; the latter corresponds to 13,778. In
the case of the Honolulu line, the depth is very variable, the
Hawaiian Islands coming in between the two places; hence any
comparison between the observed and calculated depth is more or
less unsatisfactory. In the other case the shortest line joining
the two points is free from islands, and cuts the sub-oceanic
contour lines nearly at right angles. The mean depth aloug this
line is more than 17,000 feet, so that the calculated depth of
13,778 feet is only about four-fifths of the measured value. This
ratio is the same as that obtained by the author in an earlier dis-
cussion, where the calculated depth was 1900 fathoms and the
true depth 2420.—Phil. Mag., Dec. 1900, p. 579.

2. An Old Indian Village.—An exhaustive account has recently
been published by Jonan Aucust Uppy, of a series of mounds
discovered on the west bank of Paint Creek, about a mile and
a half south of Smoky Hill river, in McPherson county, Kansas.

96 Scientific Intelligence.

It is noted that such prehistoric monuments are relatively rare
west of the Mississippi, which is to be explained partly by the
fact of the absence of powerful communities, such as were devel-
oped, for instance, in more fertile regions to the eastward as in the
Ohio valley, and partly because the region has been thus far
only imperfectly studied.

The locality here described includes a group of fifteen low
mounds, averaging in most cases 125 feet apart or a multiple of
this: they evidently represent the dwelling site of an aboriginal
village. The mounds are circular in form, with a diameter of
from 20 to 25 feet, and none more than three feet high. The
locality was carefully searched and numerous relics, chiefly in
the line of domestic utensils, bones of animals, etc., were found.
There were no buried human remains discovered. <A detailed
account is given, with numerous excellent illustrations, of the
different articles collected : including scrapers, which were very
numerous; also pottery and other domestic utensils; arrow-points
and spear-heads, also numerous; agricultural implements and
tools; finally a few other articles, as catlinite pipes, etc. The
most novel thing discovered was- a piece of chain mail, pre-
sumably of Kuropean origin, which, it is suggested, may have
been derived from the Spanish expedition of Coronado, which
passed through this region in 1542.

In regard to the ethnic relations of the people who dwelt here,
it seems probable that they were of agricultural habits and
belonged to some tribe of the Siouan family. A certain ming-
ling of northern, southern, and western features of primitive
industry and art is noted.—Augustana Library Publications,
Vo. 2, Rock Island, 1900.

3. Anleitung zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der vegeta-
bilischen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel; von Dr. A. F. W.
Scurmmper. IJ Auflage, mit 134 Abbildungen; pp. 158. Jena
1900 (Gustav Fischer).—The second edition of Prof. Schimper’s
*“‘ Anleitung ” presents in somewhat systematic order the minute
description of the more common vegetable foods and food acces-
sories, with particular reference to their microscopical examina-
tion. The food analyst is yearly being confronted with the
increased necessity of applying the microscope to the detection
of adulterations in food; in fact, in many cases chemical methods
absolutely fail to give a satisfactory answer to problems involving
the purity of food materials. The book here reviewed is intended
as a guide for the beginner, and presents the most recent improve-
ments in technique, together with a large number of drawings for
comparison with actual specimens. A brief introduction offers
suggestions regarding the equipment of a laboratory adequate
for the application of the directions contained in succeeding
pages. The topics treated include the common varieties of
starchy foods, pepper, tea, coffee, tobacco, mustard, cinnamon,
vanilla, agar-agar, ete. L. B. M.

dhele tale:

“AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FOURTH SERIES.]

Art. VII.— Apparent Hysteresis in Torsional Mugnetostric-
| tion, and its relation to Viscosity ; by C. Barus.

1. In the present paper I shall describe a series of phe-
nomena bearing on the permanence of torsional magnetostriction
in iron and nickel magnetized by circular and by longitudinal
fields, which have been encountered in different ways by
others, but which appear here not only with greater clearness
and in a more elementary form, but in a manner indicating a ~
certain uniformity in the behavior of all metals. The phe-
nomena are evoked by purely magnetic action. They are
obtained by twisting the wire alternately back and forth over
a definite angle within the elastic limits and examining the
change of rigidity produced by circular or by longitudinal
magnetization immediately after each new twist and after
several repetitions of the magnetizations. The first magneti-
zation succeeding any twist operates on the magnetic configu-
rations surviving from the preceding twist and magnetizations ;
the remaining magnetizations (current alternately made and
broken) for the same twist operate on the new configurations
produced by the twist in question and the first magnetization
applied to it. The results are very different as the following
observations show. The former are viscous (temporary), the
latter elastic (permanent) in character.

To explain the phenomena I shall make use of Maxwell’s
theory of viscosity in which (as I have ventured to interpret
it) any deformation due to molecular instability is a viscous
deformation. Now when the breakdown is gradual in char-
acter, which it must be if dependent on temporary local inten-
sities in the distribution of heat motion, the deformation will
be gradual as actually observed in ordinary viscous phenomena.

Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH SERIES, Vou. XI, No. 62.—FrEBRvuARY, 1901.
7

98 C. Barus—Apparent Hysteresis.

If, however, the breakdown is instantaneous, due for instance
to the molecular shake-up accompanying magnetization or its
withdrawal, then viscosity is instantaneously a minimum, the
deformation sudden and the phenomenon “static.” There
seems to be no theoretical gap here.

2. The method of work is the same as that employed in
preceding experiments.* The two identical wires to be
compared, ab, ed, are fastened coaxially one above the other
and a mirror, m, is attached between them. The top and the
bottom of the system are soldered to cor-
responding torsion heads, ), #, and the
wires are insulated from each other at the
mirror. The lower wire is kept submerged
in a tube of flowing water, ww, and the
meanst are at hand for passing an electric
current through it without interfering
with the torsional adjustment. Hence the
lower wire is under the influence of a cir-
cular magnetic field and thermal discrep-
ancies are reduced toa minimum. Again
a helix, A.A, is placed around the tube for
a longitudinal field the water bath being
retained.

As the two identical wires make a single
system any degree of twist may be locked
up in it and the change dn of rigidity »
due to the magnetic field is dn/n = d@/@,
nearly, where @ is the twist imparted and
d@ the change of twist due to the action
of the field and observed at the mirror. _

In describing the experiments Z will
denote the length of each wire in centims.,
DP their common diameter in centims., ( the current passed
either through the lower wire or through the helix in amperes.

3. The effect to be observed expresses itself in a shifting of
the fiducial zero, i. e., the position of the spot of light on the
scale when the magnetic field is nil. The amount of deflec-
tion obtained in the first and second magnetizations therefore
differs because the zero is markedly changed and in the ease of
a circular field always in such a way as to diminish the deflec-
tion; in longitudinal fields on the contrary, in a way to
increase the deflection.

* This Journal, [4] x, pp. 407-418, 1900.

+ The vanes v v dipping in the salt solution contained in an annular trough (not
shown), deaden vibrations and carry off the electric current for the circular field,
entering at H. The weight W suitably stretches the system with the aid of a
slot adjustment in the torsion head £.

C. Barus—Apparent Hysteresis. 99

In figure 1 for example (to begin with the circular fields) a
nickel wire (L= 41, D=-05, C=4) is twisted +45° and
—45° alternately, as shown by the abscissas. The deflections
observed are given by the ordinates in the order shown by the
arrows. The two observations recorded at each twist corre-
spond respectively to the first and the second (or succeeding)
magnetizations. The deflection of the former is always the
larger. The initial deflections or changes of rigidity due to
circular magnetization lie along a line, a, the succeeding deflec-
tions along a line, 6, of smaller slope. The fiducial zero in
the successive twists suffers displacements due to the circular
magnetization alone and would be represented by a zigzag line

as will be more definitely instanced below.

If the deflections are studied between three successive twists
the result is even more striking as seen for example in figure 2,
for twists successively 0°, —45°, 0°, +45°, 0°. The lines for
initial and final deflections might again be drawn but they
would confuse the figure. The displacement of the zero is
such as to indicate two successive displacements in the same
direction. |

The phenomena are independent of the direction of the cur-
rent and a larger angle of twist does not magnify them in an
easily discernable way.

The nickel wire being relatively thick and the current
closed but a short time, no attention was paid to the heat pro-
duced in the wire by the current. In the following experi-

100 C. Barus— Apparent Hysteresis.

ments with a thinner wire of iron, this was kept submerged in
the tube of flowing water specified. The residual diminutions
of rigidity given by the line 6 in figure 1 may, therefore, be
of thermal origin.

4. The decrement of rigidity ‘ane to the effect of circular
magnetization on a submerged iron wire (L=41, D=-024,
C = 8) is so nearly like the above results for nickel, that a few
sample curves will suflice to introduce the subject. The
diameter being relatively small larger twists are admissible as
lying well within the elastic limits.

In figure 3 the twists are alternately +180° and —180°,
though the observations begin and end with zero. The arrows
are a sufficient guide as to the sequence of results. ‘The lines

Oe

a and 6 show the decrement of rigidity due to the initial and
subsequent circular magnetizations for each twist. In figure 4
three twists are successively applied. Lines corresponding to
the initial and final magnetizations are omitted. An inspec-
tion of all the figures shows that the displacements of the zero
due to twisting between two angles a and —a, is less than the
ageregated displacements due to twisting from a to 0° and 0°
to —a, under otherwise identical conditions. We have here
also the key to certain results in a*previous paper in which
increasing positive twists return with larger positive displace-
ments and increasing (absolutely) negative twists return with
increasing negative displacements.

C. Barus—Apparent Hysteresis. 101

The curves given correspond to mean currents. The scale
of the phenomenon increases with the strength of the current.
For 1 ampere, figure 5, the decrements of rigidity due to the
initial magnetizations line qaqa are still of marked value; the
subsequent effects (line 0/) lie within the errors of observation.
For 6°5 amperes all decrements have been greatly magnified as
seen in figure 6.

Finding that a more systematic series of results would facili-
tate the discussion below, I have added figures 3’ to 6’, for the
same sample of (submerged) wire and a circular field (current
6°5 amperes), and for twists increasing from 45° to 360°,
applied to each wire. These were 35 centims. long and :024
centims. in diameter. The cycles were many times repeated
as the figures show at once. The striking feature of all these
experiments is the remarkable constancy (for the same wire
and current) of the slopes of the cycles, 1. e., of lines connect-
ing the means of initial and subsequent deflections. This
slope shows no certain variation between 45° and 360° of
twist. The marked contrast between the temporary slopes, a,
due to the first magnetization and the permanent slopes, 6, due
to the ensuing magnetizations is sustained. All slopes are
negative.

The displacements of the fiducial zeros or slips observed at
the end of the cycles do not increase as fast as the twists.
They show their chief increase between 45° and 90°. To
better exhibit the displacement of the zero I have given the
successive scale readings in the zigzag curves c, attached to
each figure. The position of the spot is marked off vertically
to scale, and the successive observations are charted at equal
distances apart horizontally, for distinction, and joined by
straight lines. The field is alternately made and broken begin-
ning with no field. When the sign of the deflection (positive,
up) and that of the twist (given by the attached sign) agree,
rigidity is increased. The curves show that rigidity is dimin-
ished on closing the current and increased on breaking it.
Moreover, after the first closing, the diminution of rigidity is
enormously greater than on subsequently closing the current
for the same twist. This is particularly true for small twists.

5. The endeavor must now be made to elucidate these phe-
nomena. With regard to the relatively small decrement of
rigidity obtained in the circular magnetizations succeeding the

first (i. e., the permanent decrements), I haye already shown

(Il. c.) that they may be reproduced in brass wire by the same
means; and until specially refined experiments are made, they
may be regarded as the mere result of the accession of heat.
The phenomena are thermal and elastic in their nature. So
much, therefore, for the slopes of the lines, 0.

102 C. Barus— Apparent Hysteresis.

The interesting feature of the experiments are ‘thus the
lines, @, together with the corresponding displacements of the
fiducial zeros given by the zigzags, c. These phenomena can-
not be reproduced in brass* stressed within the elastic limits.
Hence I infer that they are viscous in character and due to the
breakdown of unstable magnetic configurations (in Maxwell’s
view) resulting from the new magnetization. For although
the viscosity of a magnetic wire and of a non-magnetic wire
are identical, the period of breakdown which follows the first
magnetization must be rich in unstable configurations and,
therefore, temporarily low in viscosity. I conclude, therefore,
that the displacement of the zero is due to the molecular
instability which accompanies the act of magnetization when
first applied; that in subsequent magnetizations the molecular
disturbance is less because the configurational effect of the first
magnetization is largely permanent. Fixed configurations are
merely deflected in their elements without being broken up
anew. further discussion would be of little value because of
the heat discrepancy, occurring in spite of the submergence.t
The essential data are to be incorporated with the remarks
made for longitudinal fields.

6. After these results it seemed necessary to reconsider in —
detail the corresponding phenomena in a longitudinal field
since here the heat discrepancy can be quite eliminated. This
was done with the same precautions. The helix was supplied
with currents of about 2, 4, and 8 amperes, respectively, evok-
ing longitudinal fields of roughly 200, 400, and 800 ¢. gs.
units. The identical annealed iron wires were each of about
35 centims. long and 024°" in diameter. They were insulated
from each other so that a current could be passed through the
lower alone, which was submerged in flowing water while the
upper wire was suspended freely in air. Both wires were
stretched in the same vertical line. Cf. figure above.

But one observation was made with the weak field for O= 2
amperes, as shown in figure 7, the twists being alternately +90°
and —90°. The interesting features are the directions @ and 4,
corresponding respectively to the first and subsequent magne-
tizations, and, therefore, to the temporary and the persistent
effects. Both are increments while in the above cases of cir-
cular magnetism they were decrements. The displacement of
the zero, however, here and above has the same direction and
corresponds to diminished viscosity (high molecular instability)

*T also tested the effect of a current on a submerged brass wire stressed a
little beyond the elastic limits. The results showed that whereas the rigidity is
decidedly modified by the presence. of a current, the viscosity of the wire is not.
noticeably different in the two cases. The effects are due to heat.

+ See preceding paper in this Journal, IV, x, p. 417, 1900.

C. Barus—Apparent Hysteresis. 103

of the magnetized wire in the initial magnetization. As this
is the important result I will again record the successive scale
readings as shown by the zigzag lines c, with the subscript
referring to the figure.- It is: not necessary to give more than
four observations for each twist since all subsequent elonga-
tions are like the second in magnitude. For the first and
third points the field is off, for the second and fourth it is on.

|

If the twist be positive (shown by the attached sign), an
increased scale reading denotes increased rigidity of the mag-
netized wire, and vice versa.

It is preferable to discuss these results in connection with
figures 8-11, for a larger field ((=4 amperes) and _ twists

104 CU. Barus—Apparent Hysteresis.

respectively between 45°, 90°, 180°, and 360° both sides of 0°.
In figure 8 the line aa shows that the initial magnetization has
produced a decided decrement of rigidity; line 6d that the
persistent effect of longitudinal magnetization is an increment
of rigidity. The series of zigzags ¢ (except the first which is
reached from zero or no apparent strain) bear this out very
fully. The first magnetization produces a deflection in a
direction opposite to the acting stress. On breaking the cur-
rent this deflection is increased (rigidity further diminished).
The second and subsequent magnetizations increase rigidity
but the original reading is not again reached.

Figure 9 for twists between +90° and —90° is similarly
explained. The original magnetizations are indecisive, some-
times corresponding to increase sometimes to decrease of
rigidity. On the whole the initial slopes, aa, are nil. Slopes
bb correspond to marked increase of rigidity as usual. Full
account is given by the zigzags ce.

Figures 10 and 11 apply for twists between +180° and
—180°, and between +360° and —360°, respectively. Both the
initial and the subsequent magnetizations produce marked
increments of rigidity, as shown by the lines a@ and 0b for
each case and by the lines ¢« The scale of the phenomenon
increases as the limits of twisting increase. The displacements,
however, do not increase ; in other words the vertical breadth
of the cycles is not much greater for 360° than for 45°.
There appears to be a pronounced tendency for the displace-
ments to pass through maxima of slip for intermediate angles.
Finally, so far as can be discerned the slopes of the cycles are
the same throughout, rather an unexpected result. This
means that the mean increments of rigidity are proportional to
the twists, caet. par.

Repetitions of the experiments with the same sample of
wire and small angles reproduced the original results as shown
for instance in figures 12 and 13.

In view of the small effects produced in fields for C=2, and
C=4 amperes, respectively, it seemed advisable to investigate
the effect of further doubling the strength of the longitudinal
field. ‘The data are given on the same plan as in §6, in figures
14, 15, 16, 17. The displacements (vertical width of the
cycles) have remained about as large as before and tend to
pass through a maximum for intermediate angles of twist.
The slopes of the cycles have definitely increased, so that for
mean values, rigidity increases proportional to twist at a faster
rate 1n stronger fields.

A rough summary of the principal data will be in place
heres

rs

eee

C. Barus—Apparent Hysteresis. 105

TABLE I.—Magnetostriction of soft iron in longitudinal fields.
Current

Field. Twist. Slope a. Slope 0. Cycle slope. Displacement.
2 amp. + 90° +0°5 +6'0 +3°0 +5°5
200
4 amp. +45 —3°0 + 6:0 ac eo + £0
400 90 —1°0 55 3°0) 6°0
180 +1°0 5°0 3'0 ia,
360 + 2°0 3°D 25 a0)
4 amp. 45 Se 6°0 20 4°0
400 90 —1°0 6°0 2D i ()
4°0
8 amp. +45 —2°0 +6°0 22s 4°0
800 90 —0°5 6°5 3°0 7:0
180 +2°0 5"o 4-0 6°0
360 +3°0 4°0 aw AQ)

Length, 35°". Diam., 024. Deflections in scale parts (‘001
radian or 057°) per 90° of twist of each wire.

Hence with increasing twist the temporary deflection @ and
the permanent deflection ) make respectively from large nega-
tive and from large positive values toward the same interme-
diate positive limit, which is larger for the larger field. The
slopes of the+cycles pass from small values rapidly into con-
stant values as twist increases but they probably also pass
through maxima as above. Finally the displacement of the

zero for increasing twist marches through a definite maximum

located at small angles of twist when the field is greater.
8. To obtain further relevant data it will next be necessary
to twist between three angles, the middle one being zero and

106 C. Barus—Apparent Hysteresis.

the others equidistant from it. These results are shown in
figures 18, 19, 20, the field corresponding to C=8 amperes.
Soft iron wire ee :35™, D=-024™) was here used as above.

In figure 18 for instance, beginning with the twist —90°,
the wire is magnetized twice, giving the temporary and the
permanent effect: then untwisted and again magnetized twice
giving the two corresponding effects; next twisted +90° and
magnetized twice as the figure shows; finally untwisted again
and magnetized twice, ete., for succeeding double cycles. In
figure 19 the limits of twist are +180°; in figure 20, +360°.

The general characteristic of these figures is the very large
zero displacement, or rather the large return displacements.
In other words, the slip phenomenon is much larger on remov-
ing twist than on adding it, positively or negatively. The
deflections are laid out on a larger scale for increasing twists
and they are in general symmetrical. Temporary slopes @ are
usually negative and even at 360° not strongly positive. Per-
manent slopes are positive and about of the above values. The
following data may be given. When the lines @and 6 are

constructed either side of 0°, they are designated @’ and 0’.

TABLE III.—Magnetostriction of soft iron in longitudinal fields. Current, 8 amperes.
Field 800 c.g. s. units
Disp]. Displ. at —_ Displ.

Cycle at elonga- non-mag.
Twist. a. b. — slove. sl ce ale +b’ —0’, i tion. at 0°.
+90° +4+2°5 +63 +45 —2:0 —3:0 +60 +65 5 4°7 2°0
180 3°O 5°4 4°2 —1'0 —1°0 a°3 D°d 8. D°D 5°2

360 2°9 3°9 o£ OD Uo 80 Sys 1G 4°0 8°d

9. The next question at issue is the amount of displacement
due to magnetization at the zero of twist, which may be pro-
duced by merely twisting the wire to different angles and back
again to zero, without magnetizing it when twisted. These
results are also inserted in figures 18, 19, 20, and marked N, N’.
They increase rapidly as the twist (without magnetization)
increases. At 360° it makes little difference whether the
twisted wire is magnetized or not, so far as the displacement at
the zero of twist is concerned ; in all cases, however, magneti-
zation at the elongation i increases the slip at 0°,

Finally a perfectly fresh wire was adjusted, twisted to 360°
without magnetization and then freed from twist. The result
(amount of displacement due to magnetization at the zero of
twist) did not differ essentially from the figure. .

10. In conclusion a few words on the interpretation of the
above phenomena may be added. The point of view taken has
already been indicated in §1. In Maxwell’s sense any defar-

s

ye eS ee ee

Ries

C. Barus—Apparent Hysteresis. 107

mation due to molecular instability is legitimately termed vis-
cosity.

The initial longitudinal magnetization of the wire does two
things: it increases its rigidity (see preceding paper, |. c.) in
marked degree, and it decreases its viscosity during the act of
magnetization. The subsequent magnetization merely increases
rigidity without the accompanying viscous effect. The phe-
nomenon now becomes purely elastic. Thus the first magne-
tization after any twist has been imparted is the one which

reconstructs the magnetic configurations ; the subsequent mag-

netizations (to refer to the mechanism of Ewing’s theory)
merely defiect the set molecular magnets.

It follows also that with each fresh twist molecular configu-
rations are broken down. This is similar to what occurs in
eases of the tempering of a glass-hard or hard drawn magnet.
The prepondering amount of the magnetization is wiped out
by the simultaneous decay of the hardness.*

Finally, whenever a wire is strained certain groups of mole-
cules lag behind the stress: they may be gradually disinte-
grated by time (seecular viscous deformation); more rapidly
by rise of temperature (viscous deformation); or suddenly as
in the present instances, by magnetization. it is not necessary
to assume that the breakdown is identically the same even
apart from time in all these instances. In other examples
(tempering, etc.) whereas the decay of hardness wipes out
magnetization, the decay of magnetization does not influence
temper; but such cases are easily interpreted.

If we endeavor to follow the figures 7-11, 14-17, after the
first magnetization, we encounter a case in which magnetically
increased rigidity is to be imparted to a body of simultane-
ously decreased viscosity. The wire momentarily contains
groups of unstable molecules and is thus in a condition to
yield to the mechanical stress (torque) to which it has been
subjected.

If now we consider the system of two wires and imagine
these occurrences to be consecutive, the increment of rigidity
would produce a deflection in the same direction as the twist,
or work would be done by the magnetized wire upon the non-
magnetic wire, against the existing torque. The yield of the
wire due to the presence of unstable configurations would pro-
duce a deflection in the opposite direction to that of the twist ;
or work would be done by the non-magnetic wire upon the
magnetized wire. After the first magnetization the greater of
these effects will supervene. The result is uncertain as to
sion. After subsequent magnetizations for the same twist the

* Barus and Strouhal, Bull. U.S. Geolog. Survey, No. 14, p. 154-5, 1885; ef.
Wied. Ann., xx, p. 662, 1883.

108 CC. Barus—Apparent Hysteresis.

viscous effect has vanished and the result is simply increased
rigidity in definite amount during the continuance of each
magnetization. .

In figures 8, 9, and the corresponding figures 12, 18, 14, 15
(ef. the zigzag curves ¢), i. e., at low strains, 45° and 90°, the
viscous effect preponderates. On first making the current
after a fresh twist, rigidity is decreased; on breaking it rigidity
is further decreased by a greater amount; on again making
the current rigidity is increased definitely and the same occurs
after all snbsequent magnetizations.

In' figures 10, 11, and 16, 17, the increased rigidity pre-
ponderates after the first magnetization. ‘There is increased
rigidity on first making the current, a numerically larger
decrement on breaking, and thereafter definite increments of
rigidity during the continuance of each subsequent making of
the magnetizing current. Thus it follows that the magnetic
increment of rigidity increases and decreases faster than the
coexisting decrement of viscosity due to the first magnetiza-
tion.

So understood, moreover, the observed hysteresis is a mechan-
ical phenomenon and the magnetization acts as does ordinarily
heat in producing the instabilities essential to viscous deforma-
tion. The molecular shake-up due to magnetic action is
practically instantaneous, whereas the heat motion within the
body is gradual in its action: hence the kaleidoscopic dis-
placement of molecules in the one case seemingly without
resistance, and the viscous displacement of molecules in the
thermal case (seemingly with resistance). Again the displace-
ment of the zero if due to viscosity should under like circum-
stances be of about the same order both in the cases of
longitudinal and of circular magnetization (aside from the heat
effect in the latter, which makes it larger). A comparison of
fignres 3’ to 6’, with the subsequent figures 7 to 17 show dis-
placements of about the same order for both. |

11. Simpler in its nature is the evidence contained in figures
18-20, for the displacement of the zero after the first mag-
netization. If the wire is twisted to say 360° and back again
to zero, the resulting strain does not correspond to the zero of
stress. Certain configurations lag behind in the direction of
the twist which has last acted. The first magnetization, how-
ever, produces the necessary molecular shake-up to bring the
strain back again to zero in correspondence with the stress.
Hence the subsequent magnetizations produce no deflection
since the wire is without twist. Residual strain has been
wiped out.

Figures 18-20 show that the residual strain when stress is
zero, increases with the preéxisting stress, being greater at

1 * Beis - i

= 7 4 . ~~
=a Si ;
: ;

CO. Barus—Apparent Hysteresis. 109

360° than at 90°, for instance: This is the natural explanation
of the greater displacement corresponding to the greater stress

and of the change of sign of the displacement with the pre-

existing stress. Again the residual effect at zero is greater if
the twist’ has been accompanied by magnetization before
removal. Of. WV, WV’. Combined magnetization and twist
(say at 360°, for instance) correspond to a greater value of
stress in the absence of magnetization ; for the magnetization
wipes out the lagging or unstable configurations, bringing the
strain at 360° in correspondence with the stress.

Why, it may next be asked, is the displacement at zero after
removal of twist 360°, greater than the displacement at 360°,
for instance. We meet here, I think, the usual occurrence in
viscous deformation.* For example, if a strained or hard
metal is tempered at 100° C., it is then molecularly stable or
shows no deformation or change of temper at temperatures
below 100° or for smaller values of strain, even when the
deformation at the original temperature (100°) and strain still
continue.

If the wire is twisted to 360° (say) not only is strain stored
up in the wire, but at the same time new instabilities are
evoked by the process of twisting. When the stress is with-
drawn or the wire untwisted to zero, instabilities are not
encountered at nearly the same rate; for the preceding larger
strain has wiped them out for the diminishing smaller strains.
Hence the wire is less viscous when twisted and more viscous
when untwisted for like stages or angles of twist. Now any
twist no matter how small or within the elastic limits stores
strain in the wire, which action possibly, is but another expres-
sion for the configurations broken during the process. This,
as I understand it, is the explanation of figures 18-20, in
which the slip at zero following a reduced strain is so much
larger than the slip at 360° following a growing strain.

12. If the interpretation given be correct, then on shaking
out a strain with longitudinal magnetization, the wire should be
free from slip for circular magnetization ; and vice versa. This
is the case as shown in figure 21, p. 100, where the successive
scale readings are given (vertically) at equal intervals (abscissas)
apart, the current being alternately made and broken begin-
ning with no field. Z denotes a longitudinal field, C, a circu-
lar field if first in action; Z’ and (”, the corresponding fields
if they succeed the action of other fields. The twist is alter-
nately +180° and —180°. Mere inspection shows that from
the cases Z’ and ©” slip has practically been wiped out. It is
markedly present in cases Z and C;, the first deflection being

*Barus and Strouhal, Bulletin U. S. Geolog. Survey, No. 14, p. 57, 1885;
Wied. Ann., xi, p. 965, 1880.

110 C. Barus—Apparent Hysteresis.

respectively about half as large for Z or twice as large for Cas
the second deflections due to the making of the field. Figure
21 also shows that if the residual strain or slip is wiped out for
a longitudinal field it is also wiped out for a circular field. In
eases J there is increase of rigidity and decrease of viscosity ;
in cases C decrease of both rigidity and viscosity. The dif-
ferential and summational results are well given in the figure.
In cases L’ and there is increase and decrease of rigidity
only with no viscous effect. .

To sum up the argument it is briefly this: Magnetization is
regarded as a means of shaking up the molecular mechanism
and thus to produce temporary molecular instability or momen-
tarily very low viscosity. Hence if mechanical strain has
been stored up in the metal it will be instantly released and
the metal will correspondingly yield to external stress. This
view seems to give a good account of all the hysteresis-like
phenomena met in torsional magnetostriction and makes it
possible to describe the behavior of all paramagnetic metals in
a single explanation.

The one quantity by which the experiments seem to be
characterized is the cyclic slope, or the mean slope determined
by the temporary (viscous) and the permanent (elastic) deflec-
tions, which increases (numerically) with the strength of the
field and is nearly independent of the twist imparted, remem-
bering that the remarks have no meaning beyond the elastic
limits. It would seem, therefore, that in terms of this parameter
the phenomena as a whole for any field or metal, may be sim-
plified. Whether the slip constitutes a kind of molecular
“back lash,” and whether there is any meaning to its obvious
analogy to the action of a “coherer” cannot here be answered.

Brown University, Providence, U. 8. A.

Walliston—Dinosaurian Genus Creosaurus, Marsh. 111

Art. VIII.—TZhe Dinosaurian Genus Creosaurus, Marsh ;
: by S. W. WILLISTON.

THE genus Adlosawrus was proposed by Marsh in this
Journal for November, 1877, for the type species, 4. fragilis,
from Colorado, presumably Cafion City. His description was
as follows: “This genus may be distinguished from any known
dinosaurs by the vertebree, which are peculiarly modified to
ensure lightness. Although apparently not pneumatic, they
have the weight of the centra greatly reduced by deep excava-
tions in their sides. Some of them have the centra hour-glass
in form, the middle part being so diminisbed as to greatly
reduce the strength. The vertebre preserved are biconcave,
with shallow cavities. The feet bones referred to this species
are very slender. A lumbar vertebra has its centrum 105™™
in length, and 80™™ in least transverse diameter. An anterior
caudal, 85™™ long, has its centrum so much constricted that its
least transverse diameter is 38°", while its anterior face is 90™™
in transverse diameter.”

In the following March, Marsh described in this Journal the
genus Creosaurus, based chiefly, if not entirely, upon a left
ilium collected by the present writer at Como, Wyoming. It
will be observed that at the time of the erection of the genus,
very little was known of the distinctive characters of Ad/o-
saurus, and, so far as the author of it knew there was no
reason for referring the ilium and other bones there described
to another genus—or at least Marsh gave no reason. In the
following January number of this Journal, occurs the follow-
ing passage by Marsh, which, taken in connection with subse-
quent changes, is a little remarkable:

“The genus Allosaurus is typical of the family [ Adlosaurida,
later merged into Mcegalosauride| which also includes Creo-

-saurus and Labrosaurus [Anétrodemus Leidy]. The first

named genus presents some very interesting features in the
vertebree and pelvic arch. The vertebre first described are
remarkable for the reduction of the centrum by constriction,
so that the necessary lightness is secured without cavities in
the interior. This is shown in the lumbar vertebra repre-
sented in Plate X, figs. 3 and 4.”

From this it would certainly be inferred that the vertebra
figured was a type specimen, especially as it agrees in size and
form guite with the lumbar vertebra first described, and upon
which the genus and species Aldlosawrus fragilis practically
rests. Ina later paper (this Journal, xvii, Pl. XIV), however,

112. Williston—Dinosaurian Genus Creosaurus, Marsh.

this same vertebra, used to typify Allosaurus, is figured as
Creosaurus.

The interesting fact remains that the author of Creosawrus
did not and apparently could not satisfactorily distinguish it
from Adlosaurus, and the name has remained in catalogues
and text-books as a sort of floating wreckage, that will neither
sink nor be cast up. The few characters Marsh gave for
Creosaurus, it is readily seen are of very slight value. The
ilium, it is true, is of somewhat different shape, as figured, but
even this difference may be due to imperfect preservation, as
Marsh himself suspected. The only other things mentioned
by Marsh is the number of vertebrae in the sacrum, of very
little value as already demonstrated in other genera of the
Wealden dinosaurs; the position of the transverse processes,
which I am confident will not prove distinctive; and the num-
ber of teeth in the premaxilla. In fact, then, nothing seems
to be known as certainly belonging to Creosaurus, except the
imperfectly preserved ilium first described.

In the Kansas University expedition to Wyoming in the
summer of 1899, a number of bones of a carnivorous dinosaur
were obtained from a deposit in the Freeze Out Mts., asso-
ciated with remains of J/orosaurus, Diplodocus, Stegosaurus
and Antrodemus. These remains were at first unhesitatingly
referred to Adlosaurus, and it is possible that some of them
may really belong with that genus. The numerous centra pre-
served certainly agree very closely with the description given
of the Adlosaurus vertebree—but they also agree equally well
with the vertebra referred to Creosaurus. Aside from the
vertebree, however, there were two scapule obtained that
certainly show a generic distinction from Adlosaurus, as I have
convinced myself from inspection of the scapula referred by
Marsh to that genus, and figured by him in various places. It
remains to be seen, however, whether this scapula of Marsh
indubitably belongs with the bones first referred by him to
Allosaurus. I do not think that there is conclusive evidence
of this. Associated with these scapule in our quarry, though
not in immediate juxtaposition, were two coracoids, a humerus,
radius, claw bones, ete., all of which belong I think with the
same species, though from two animals. An ilium and femur,
obtained later from the same deposit by the Field Columbian
expedition, in all probability belong with one or the other of
the two animals.

I give herewith a restoration of the shoulder girdle and arm,
so far as the bones preserved permit. The portions outlined
are reproduced from Marsh’s restoration of the corresponding
parts of Adlosaurus.

Williston—Dinosaurian Genus Creosaurus, Marsh. 118

The striking distinction from Adlosawrus, at once seen, and
clearly of generic value, is presented by the remarkably elon-
gated and slender scapula. Its shape also is distinctively dif-
ferent in the proximal portion. The other bones preserved do
not seem to differ very much from the corresponding bones of

Allosaurus. The humerus appears to be somewhat more
P eurved, the radius is stouter, and the hand is probably larger,
rf relatively. This bird-like form of the scapule is a feature
a apparently unique among dinosaurs. Its shaft is of nearly
equal width throughout or but slightly widened distally. The

Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourta Smrizs, Vou. XI, No. 62.—FrsBruary, 1901.
8

114. Williston—Dinesaurian Genus Creosaurus, Marsh.

upper half is much flattened, and the edges are thinned, while
proximally it is more trihedral in cross-section, the posterior
border rather sharp, the anterior one more rounded and the
inner surface here more flattened. Longitudinally the external
surface is convex, though less so, or nearly straight, in its
middle portion.

The age of the beds whence these fossils are derived, the
Atlantosaurus Beds of Marsh, I have no hesitancy in accept-
ing as Lower Cretaceous. They were first referred to the
Wealden by Marsh at the time of the discovery of the rich rep-
tilian fauna in 1877, but afterwards wrongly placed by him in
the Upper Jurassic. I have always doubted this reference, and
their Cretaceous age it now seems to me to be sufficiently well
proven to accept without question. The character of the
reptilian forms present sufficient evidence, I believe, to refer
them to beds equivalent to the Wealden of Europe, and the
evidence from the invertebrates is still stronger: “The Wealden
formation of England contains the greater part of the genera
which occur in the Atlantosaurus Beds and is doubtless of the
same age. The two formations have similar lithological char-
acters, and four of the genera— Unio, Valvata, Planorbis and

Viviparus—which are represented in the two formations by
species having practically the same development, are not
known from older formations.”’*

The name Atlantosaurus Beds, derived from a synonym, is
not available for them, and must be replaced by Como Beds as
proposed by Scott, unless indeed, the determination is suffi- -
ciently exact to allow the name Wealden to be substituted.

* Logan, Kans. Univ. Quart., ix, 132, 1900.

University of Kansas, Lawrence.

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. 115

Art. IX.—The Stereographic Projection and its Possibils-
ties, from a Graphical Standpoint; by S. L. PENFIELD.
(With Plates II, III and IV.)

(Continued from page 24.)

Some [results obtained from the Solution of Spherical Tri-
angles by Graphical Methods.—In order to test the accuracy
of the methods set forth in the foregoing pages, two right and
five oblique-angled triangles. were plotted and solved graph-
ically. None of the parts of the triangles selected were given
to exact degrees, so at the very beginning the points had to be
approximately located between the degree graduations of the
14™ divided circle and the scales derived therefrom.

15

Case 1.—Given two sides, a = 26° 34’ and 6 = 63° 26, of a
right triangle, figure 15. At C construct a diameter, and, by
means of protractor No. I, plot the side a, 26° 34’. Lay off
the side 6, 63° 26’, on the divided circle, and then construct a
great circle passing through the points thus located, page 15.
The angles A and B and the side / of the triangle are thus
plotted. A is now measured on the diameter w (stereograph-
ically projected great circle) at 90° from A, by means of pro-
tractor No.I. B is measured on the great circle z, at 90° from
B, by means of protractor No. I], page 18. The side A is
measured by protractor No. IJ. The results of the work are
as follows:

Calculated. Plotted. Error.
S210 Se ae 99° 10! 9!
i 1, 4 Tn. 20 6
ie oae ) 25 66 25 0

116 S. L. Penjfield—Stereographie Projection.

Case 2.—Given an angle A = 24° 9’ anda side A= 70° 14’
of a right triangle, figure 16. On the diameter a, locate the
point p 24° 9’ from the divided circle, using protractor No. I;
then making use of scale No. 1, figure 3, construct the great
circle A p. Likewise on the diameter y locate p’ 70° 14’ from

A, and making use of scale No. 2, figure 3, construct the small
circle which intersects the great circle previously constructed
at 6. Through & draw a diameter, thus locating the right
angle C, and completing the triangle. The side a is measured
by protractor No. I, the side 6 by the graduation of the divided
circle, and the angle £4 on the great circle z, by means of pro-
tractor No. II, page 18.
The results are as follows:

Calculated. Plotted. Error.
Oh ae UGS 1G" Boe AO 1 se
Gis == 685280 68 25 3)
5p OY Ne DS: 81 25 2

Case 3.—Given the three sides of an oblique triangle, a =
94° 126’, b = 78° 42’, and ¢ = 72° 36’, figure 17) @meine
divided circle, lay off the side a, and thus locate the angles B
and C. On the diameters # and y locate the points p and 7’,
respectively 78° 42’ and 72° 86’ from C and J, using pro-
tractor No. I. Now making use of scale No. 2, figure 3, con-
struct small circles through p and p’, and their intersection
locates the angle A. Construct the great circles through Cand
A, and & and A, and the sides a, 6, and ¢, of the triangle are
plotted. The angles 6 and Care measured on the diameter 2’
and y’, at 90° from B and C, respectively, using protractor

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. iy

No. I. The angle A is measured on the great circle z, using
protractor No. LI, page 18.
The results are as follows:

Calculated. Plotted. Error.
A= 98° 21! 98° 30’ 9’
eS 16 47 76 40 7
Cee Nel 1G (Aegis i

Case 4.—Given the two sides and the included angle of an
oblique triangle, a = 31° 25’, 6 = 88° 53’, and C = 97° 13’,
figure 18. To plot the angle C, on the diameter « locate the
point p 97° 13’ from the divided circle, and construct the
great circle Cp. To plot the side a and thus locate 5, on

118 S. L. Penfield—Stereographie Projection.

the diameter y locate the point p’ 31° 25’ from (C, and con-
struct the small circle with radius given by scale No. 2, figure
3. Lay off 6 on the divided circle, and draw the great circle
AJ, thus completing the triangle. The side ¢ is measured by
protractor No. Il. The angle A is measured on a diameter 90°
from A, by means of protractor No. I. The supplement of
the angle & is measured on the great circle z, using protractor
Noy iE page Ns.
The results are as follows:

Calculated. Plotted. Error.
A eS aloaelbaliy Shey sie 6!
1B =o a 83 0 15
C 5S] 007 8 927°=50 2

Case 5.—Given two angles and the included side of an
oblique triangle, A = 59° 3’, B = 58° 34’, and ¢ = 7) 2a,
figure 19. Lay off the side ¢ on the divided circle. Plot the

angles A and £ by locating the points p and p’, on the diam-
eters x and y, respectively, at 90° from A and JB, the point
p being 59° 3° and the point p’ 53° 34’ from the divided
circle. Using scale No. 1, figure 8, construct the great circles
through A and p, and B and p’, thus locating Cand completing
the triangle. The sides @ and bare measured by protractor
No. I, and the angle C also by protractor No. II on the great
circle 2, page 18. |
The results are as follows:

Calculated. Plotted. Krror.
Grea? 656". Oy 56 A. Sn
Ot 1 eS tg lease: BG) 5
C= 297) 33 97 3a 2

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. ite

Case 6.—Given two sides and the angle opposite one of them
of an oblique triangle, a = 56° 7’, b = 40° 8’, and A = 938°
39’, figure 20. This problem has but one solution when «@ is
greater than 0, as in the present case. Lay off } on the divided

circle. On the diameter x, 90° from A, locate p 93° 39’ from
the divided circle, and draw the great circle Ap. On the
diameter y locate p’ 56° 7’ from C, and construct the small
circle which determines 6. Through C and & draw a great
circle, which completes the triangle. The angle C is measured
on the diameter v, at 90° from C. The angle B is measured
on the great circle z by protractor No. II, page 18. The side c
is measured by protractor No. II.
The results are as follows:

Calculated. Plotted. Error.
oe Oe 47” 50m bb: 8’
Co 350 353 bi sO 7
Cre 40 12 40 25 13

Case 7.—Given two sides and an angle opposite one of them
of an oblique triangle, a = 68° 20’, 6 = 78° 8’, and A = 55°
10’, figure 21. This problem is similar to the foregoing in the
parts given, but has two solutions when @ is less than 6. On
the diameter w, 90° from A, locate p 55° 10’ from the divided
circle, and draw the great circle Ap. On the diameter y locate
p’ 63° 20’ from C, and construct the small circle which inter-
sects the great circle A p, previously drawn, at two points, B
and B’. Thus two triangles are plotted, ABC and AB’C,
determining the two solutions of this problem. The acute
and obtuse angles at C are measured on the diameter v, at 90°

120 S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection.

from C(. The obtuse angle 6 is measured on the great circle

2 by protractor No. II, page 18. Likewise the acute angle B’

is measured on the great circle 2’, the portion between the

arrow. points giving the supplement of the angle. The sides ¢

and c’, from A to & and from A to 5’, are measured by pro-

tractor No. I. |
The results are as follows:

Caleulated. Plotted. Error. Calculated. Plotted. Error.
pe 11 A Cade Bie 4’ Bea G2 a5), 62° BOR
C= 20 17 ZO rds 36 C =°108 48 0S Sains
Cus Ie. 43 18 -5o8 12 é Stowe 115 55 6

The solutions of the seven problems just given were made
without knowledge of the calculated values; furthermore, the
results are not a selection of best values, obtained from a
number of solutions of the several problems. The results have
been given exactly as they were obtained, and hence they serve
to illustrate the probable degree of accuracy which may be
secured. In solving the two right triangles the greatest error
was 6’, the average error less than 3’. In solving the five
oblique triangles the greatest error was 15’, the average 7’.
It is evident that by increasing the size of the projection, and
using more accurately engraved plates, the errors could be
materially lessened.

One possible case has not been ineluded in the foregoing
list; namely, having three angles of a triangle given. Such a
problem may be solved graphically, but, having no sides given,
the problem is complicated. It may be done somewhat as
follows: Referring to figure 19, the great circle Ap, determin-

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. 121

ing the angle A, is first plotted. Then, taking protractor No.
IV, page 22, the great circle corresponding ‘most nearly to B
is selected, and the protractor, centered on the drawing, is
turned until the great circles A p of the drawing and B p’ of
the protractor cross at an angle approximating to CO, which is
told by means of an ordinary protractor, page 19. Thus an
approximate solution may be quickly obtained.

Some Practical Applications of the Stereographie Projec-
tion.—Some mathematicians may contend, and justly, that the
seven problems previously presented might be solved easier by
numerical calculations than by plotting; and that by using
four- or five-place logarithm tables the results would be correct
to minutes, while those obtained by plotting are only approxi-
mately correct. In spite of the truth of this, graphical methods
still have their advantages. Most persons who have occasion
to make calculations, the writer included, use formulas and
tables, as a rule, wholly in a mechanical way. With graphi-
cal methods, on the other hand, formulas and tables are not
needed, and every operation is clearly understood, for graphi-
eal methods can scarcely be applied otherwise. In the majority
of cases, numerical calculations are laborious, while graphical
solutions appeal to one like pictures which, to a certain extent,
tell their own story. Although it may be known that for some
problems there are two solutions, it issafe to assume that of those
persons who are accustomed to solve spherical triangles by the
use of formulas, only a few could satisfactorily explain why
two solutions apply to the conditions shown in figure 21 where
a@ is less than 6, while only one solution is possible when @ is
greater than 6, figure 20. The two figures, however, being
accurately constructed, not only show the point in question
clearly, but present the problems in such a manner that desired
parts can be measured.

Most persons have never studied spherical trigonometry,
and those who have studied it usually regard the solution of
a spherical triangle as at least a laborious, if not a difficult,
matter. This is especially true of those who for a long time
have not made numerical calculations, and who have thus lost
their familiarity with the use of formulas and of logarithmic
tables. Perhaps no one can appreciate the difficulties presented
by the subject more than one who has had occasion to teach
crystallography to advanced students. It is generally the case
that students desiring to take up erystallography (chemists
especially) have not made numerical calculations, other than
very simple arithmetical ones, for a number of years. As a con-
sequence, the problems in spherical trigonometry are regarded
as a great trial. Mistakes of all kinds arise, and the only way
to make absolutely sure of one’s work is to check, either by

122 S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection.

means of duplicate calculations or by applying formulas for
checking. Professor Edward 8. Dana, in preparing his “Sys-
tem of Mineralogy,” had all the angles i in the book recalonlenianl
using as far as possible the fundamental angles of the original
investigators. He has told the writer that the number of errors
he detected was astonishing. Some of the errors had been
made even before the axial relations of the crystals were deter-
mined, and whole tables of angles were, as a consequence,
vitiated. Other mistakes had been made early in the century,
and had been copied into all the leading text-books of mineral-
ogy and crystallography.

By making use of the graphical stereographic methods, tri-
angles can be plotted practically in exact proportions, and, by
measuring the unknown parts, a check upon the results of
numerical calculations can be made. The importance of hav-
ing some simple method of checking can not be overestimated.
In the matter of making numerical calculations persons differ
greatly. Some have great facility and seldom make mistakes ;
others do the work with difficulty, especially, it would seem, if,
like the writer, they are only occasionally called upon to make
calculations. Some check, therefore, carried out graphically,
is a great saving of nervous energy. In the writer’s short
experience in using graphical methods as applied to the stereo-
eraphic projection, numerous errors in numerical calculations
have been detected. At times the error has not amounted to
1°, yet it was evident that some mistake had been made.
Then, too, in following out the graphical methods, a map or.
chart is prepared, which in crystallography, as doubtless also in
other departments of science, is of importance.

In determining eeographical distances, the stereographic pro-
jection possesses very great advantages. Tn physical geography,
for instance, it is important to find the distance between two
points on the earth’s surface in order to determine the velocity
of wind and ocean currents, seismic waves, tidal waves, ete.
In navigation, at least in teaching it from an elementary stand-
point, the distance between two “points of given longitude and
latitude must be determined. To indicate how easily this may
be done, the problem of finding the distances of New York
and Rio de Janeiro from Queenstown will be presented. The
approximate longitudes and latitudes of the places, as taken
from an atlas, are as follows:

Queenstown. New York. Rio de Janeiro.
Shand WW. TAS > 0 Ne 43° 0) Ne
Simo) IN, 40° A0GGNe 23° 10's

In equatorial stereographic projection, figure 22, the meridian
of Greenwich is drawn from the center wo Or. Queenstown is

S. L. Penfield—Stereographie Projection. 123

located on the meridian 8° 15’ W., and by means of protractor
No. I, at 51° 50’ N. Ina similar manner, New York is located.

22

KS’
5 N EC
° Rio de

Janeiro
23'S
Rio de Janeiro being south of the equator falls beyond the
engraved circle on the meridian 48° W., but can -be easily
located by means of scale No. 3, figure 3. Instead of locating
Rio de Janeiro, however, beyond the engraved circle, its anti-
podal point # can be located on the same meridian, at 23° N. of
the equator. Using now protractor No. IV, the points P and
P’, and S and WS are located, where the great circles passing
through Queenstown and New York, and Queenstown and Rio
de Janeiro cut the equator; then using protractor No. II the
distances are measured. From Queenstown to New York the
distance, as plotted, was found to be 45° 23’, calculated 45° 11’.
From Queenstown to # the distance as plotted was 99° 20’;
hence to Rio de Janeiro is the supplement of this value, 80°
40'; while by calculation it is 80° 47’. The data for the calcu-
lations were the longitudes and latitudes as previously given.
An advantage is gained by using a meridian rather than an
equatorial projection, since the method of measuring is simpler,
and the plotting is done near the periphery of the divided
circle, where the distances between the stereographically pro-
jected degrees are largest. Figure 23 illustrates this method.
The divided circle represents the meridian passing through
Queenstown, and a mark at 51° 50’ locates the place. On the
stereographically projected equator, the intersections of the
meridians of New York and Rio de Janeiro are plotted by
means of the graduation on the base line of protractor No. I.
The two meridians 74° and 43° West of Greenwich are respec-

124 S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection.

tively 65° 45’ and 34° 45’ West of the meridian of Queens-
town. By taking the radii from scale No. 1, figure 3, the two
meridians are quickly drawn. New York, being in latitude
40° 40’ N., is 49° 20’ south of the pole. Its position is deter-
mined by locating the point 40° 40’ N. on the central meridian,
and constructing the small circle with radius 49° 20’ taken
from scale No. 2, figure 3. In asimilar manner, Rio de Janeiro
is located. The figure also indicates another method of locat-

(Queenstown.

ing Rio de Janeiro. On the equator locate the points p and p’
at 23° from the crossing of the meridian of Rio de Janeiro.
The intersection of the meridian being 34° 45’ (48° — 8° 15’)
from the divided circle, the points » and p’ are respectively
11° 45’ and 57° 45’ from the divided circle. Now by finding
the center and constructing the small circle, Rio de Janeiro is
located. ‘To measure the distances, match the zero point of
protractor No. II with Queenstown, swing the protractor so
that its center corresponds with that of the plate, and note the
position of the points plotted. Thus plotted, the distances from
Queenstown to New York and Rio de Janeiro were found to
be respectively 45° 15’ and 80° 52", calculated 45° 11’ and 80°
47’. Plotted in this way it is seldom that the error exceeds
6’; the average error is less than 4’. It is a decided advantage
to be able to determine any distance by one reading of the
protractor, rather than by two readings and a subtraction, as
illustrated by figure 22.

It may be seen from the foregoing demonstrations that if
there were maps of the northern and southern, and eastern and

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. 125

western hemispheres accurately plotted in stereographic pro-
jection, and transparent protractors constructed on the same
scale, such measurements could be made by simply shifting the
protractors and noting the angles. Maps of this kind would |
be very serviceable, and the writer believes that they should
and will be made. The most important continental features
(promontories, mouths of rivers, lakes, etc.), the islands, and
the principal ports and inland cities could be located with
great accuracy on a map of 30° (nearly one foot) diameter,
and it ought to be possible to measure distances between any
two points within two or three minutes (two or three nautical
miles) of the truth; while the maximum error ought not to
exceed. ten minutes. If there is an error of judgment in the
foregoing statement, it favors greater, rather than less, exact-
ness, for on the 14™ circles a degree of accuracy can be
obtained almost equal to that just expressed.

Without doubt geographers and physical geologists would
find many uses for sheets printed from accurately engraved
plates giving the meridians and parallels, in both equatorial and
meridian stereographic projection, plates II and III. On such
plates, points of given longitude and latitude could be quite
accurately located (within half a degree), the outlines of conti-
nents sketched, wind and ocean currents noted, etc.; and,
provided with protractor No. II, measurements snfiiciently
accurate for most purposes could be made in a very few min-
utes. The writer has not employed such sheets in erystallog-
raphy,* but has had the plates prepared to conform with the
protractors and scales described in this article, believing that
they will prove very useful.

It is at times desired to shift a stereographic projection so as
to bring some special point or pole to the center. By making
use of scale No. 3, figure 3, this can be easily accomplished.
Plate IV represents a projection thus shifted so as to bring
longitude 75°, latitude 40° (practically the location of New
York city), to the center. The north pole is shifted 50° from
the center, and the equator is an arc of a great circle crossing
the vertical diameter 50° from the divided circle. Cutting off
scale No. 3, figure 3, from one of the engraved sheets, and
matching it along the vertical diameter, the stereographically
projected points 10°, 20°, ete., are laid off in both directions
from the shifted north pole, and about the respective center
points the parallels of latitude (small circles) are drawn. That
parallel which is located by actual measurement exactly halt-
way between the stereographically projected north and south

* Impressions of an equatorial stereographic projection, essentially like plate II,

have been recommended by Fedorow, especially for use with the two-circle or
universal goniometer. Zeitschr. fiir. Kryst., xxxii, p. 446, 1900.

126 S. L. Penfield—Stereographie Projection.

poles (the parallel 40° South, plate IV) has an infinite radius,
and appears as a straight line in the projection. Upon this
straight line are located the centers of all the stereographically
projected meridians, for they are all arcs of circles running
through the north and south poles, hence having their centers
on a line crossing the middle point of the N.S. diameter at 90°.
The points of intersection of the meridians with the equator
may be found by drawing an are, with a radius like that of the
equator, on an impression of protractor No. I, plate I. Then,
by means of dividers, the points 5°, 15°, 25°, etc., from the 90°
line of the protractor are transferred to the shifted equator.
It took very little time to construct the parallels and meridians
of plate [V, and, considering the size of the projection, they are
accurately drawn. The outlines of the continents were sketched
upon the chart by Mr. H. H. Robinson of Yale University.

Professor Andrew W. Phillips of Yale University has devised
a machine consisting of jointed rods, by means of which the
pole of any stereographic projection can be shifted to any
desired position. Thus an equatorial projection, the easiest of
all to make, can be transformed into a meridian projection, or
into one like plate [V, having some desired point at the center.
This machine was exhibited in 1884 before the British Asso-
elation for the Advancement of Science, at their summer
meeting in Montreal,* and is described by Professor Phillips
in his geometry.t ;

Map Projection —The method of projection almost uni-
versally employed by geographers for representing hemi-
spherical surfaces is the so-called Globular Projection, invented
in 1660 by the Italian Nicolosi.t In this method the equator
is divided into equal parts, and the meridians are circular ares
uniting these points with the poles; the parallels are likewise
circular ares, dividing the extreme and central meridians into
equal parts. Figure 24 shows the meridians and parallels in
globular projection. Compare this figure with the stereo-
graphic projection of the meridians and parallels, plate LII, and
a marked difference is at once apparent. The stereographic
projection is correct in every particular, the parallels intersect
the meridians .at right angles, as on a globe, and, as has been
shown, distances and directions can be accurately measured and
plotted on such a projection. In the globular representation,
on the other hand, nothing is correct except the graduation of
the outer circle and the directions of the two diameters; dis-
tances and directions can be neither measured nor plotted.

* Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1884, p. 649.

+ Phillips and Fisher’s Geometry, 1899, p. 510.

+t Germain, Traité de Projections des Cartes Géographique, p. 127, Paris, about
1865.

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. 127

Strictly speaking, figure 24 is not a projection, for it does not
correspond point for point with the surface of a sphere, accord-
ing to some fixed law of projection. It is simply an arbitrary
distribution of a series of curves. The only excuse for its con-
tinued use in map construction is that, having the distances on
the equator and central meridian equally spaced, land and water
areas are more uniformly distributed than in the stereographic

24

projection. In order to show still another defect of the globu-
lar representation, two circular ares, z and y, have been drawn
on figure 24, one running from 40° N. on the periphery to 60°
W. on the equator, the other from 60° N. to 60° W. Circular

_ ares drawn from the same locations on plate III would represent

stereographically projected great circles, agreeing in their inter-
sections with the meridians and parallels point for point with
corresponding great circles drawn on asphere. Not so with

‘the globular representation, however. The two great circles

under consideration, if accurately plotted on the globular chart
from their actual intersections with the meridians and parallels,

128 S. L. Penjield—Stereographic Projection.

would appear not as circular ares, but as the irregular curves
w and y’, figure 24, showing marked deviation from cireular
ares in the lower left-hand portions of the chart.

It is impossible to represent the areal relations of a hemi-
sphere upon a plane without sacrificing some features. In the
stereographic projection, plates II and III, distances between.
the meridians and parallels become smaller as they approach
the center. Distances and areas on stereographic maps must
therefore be magnified in proportion as the distances between
the meridians and parallels become smaller. The gradual con-
traction of areas, as the center of a stereographically projected
hemisphere is approached, is not altogether a drawback, for
it should be part of a person’s education to understand that, in
making a map on a flat surface, some contraction or magnifica-
tion of areas must appear on certain portions of the map.

- Doubtless most geographical relations can be appreciated best
by beginners by studying a sphere or globe. Serious difficulties,
however, are encountered in making accurate drawings and meas-
urements on aspherical surface; hence to be able to plot all
the relations of a sphere easily, quickly, and accurately on a flat
surface isa great advantage, an advantage, moreover, which the
stereographic projection alone possesses.

It would seem as though the distorted and inaccurate globu-
lar representation, now universally employed-by geographers,
should give place to the accurate stereographic projection. It
is safe to assume that few teachers in our academies and high-
schools have exact ideas concerning the kinds of projection
employed in map construction. By making use of comparatively
simple wire models* it should be possible to give not alone to
teachers, but to scholars of from twelve to sixteen years of age,
a sufficient knowledge of the essential features of the stereo-
graphic projection to enable them to appreciate the meaning
and significance of meridians and parallels as projected on a flat
surface, plates II and ILI.

If scholars were supplied with stereographic charts, corre-
sponding to plates II and III, and were taught to locate places
from their longitudes and latitudes, the more skillful of them,
at least, would soon be able to construct quite accurate maps,
better than those now existing in our school geographies, and

* The writer has in mind models such as are used in teaching crystallography.
Wire circles could be arranged and soldered so as to represent meridians, parallels,
and ares of circles in any desired position. It does not take many wire circles to ~
give to such models the effect of a sphere. By running wires or threads from
certain fixed points on the circles to the south pole, for example, the fundamental
conception of the stereographic projection.—the projection to a pole on the surface
of a sphere—can be demonstrated. Where the wires or threads intersect the
plane of the equator, determine the position of the points in stereographic pro-

jection. Great and small circles could be thus projected, and if properly worked
out with not too much detail, the models would be very effective.

S. L. Penfield—Stereographie Projection. 129

ones which would be correct within certain limits, depending
upon the size of the projection and the skill with which the
drawing and plotting were done. Map-drawing is generally
a feature of grammar-school education, and by making use
of printed charts, showing stereographically projected meridians
and parallels, it would be no more difficult to construct an
accurate map than a mere sketch, and probably it would be
easier. It would be at least more profitable and instructive.

Having demonstrated on a globe that the shortest distance
between two points is along the arc of a great circle, the use of
protractor No. IV, figure 14, could be explained, and by turn-
ing the protractor, the great circle passing through any two
points could be easily and quickly found. It is probable that
by making use of a suitable wire model, the principles under-
lying the construction of protractors II and III could be made
clear. In any event, an inteiligent person would soon learn to
turn protractors IJ and III to the right position, and determine
in degrees the distance between two stereographically projected
points.

Students come to the universities with altogether too little
knowledge of how to do things accurately, and the lack of
proper training in this respect is a serious defect in their edu-
cation. By applying to geography the mathematically correct
principles of the stereographic projection, it would be possible
to inculcate into pupils of high-school, possibly also of gram-
mar-school, age, methods of absolute accuracy as pertaining to
map construction. The essential features of the projection are
so simple, that, if properly presented with the aid of a few
models and. diagrams, it should be possible to teach compara-
tively young pupils how to construct maps intelligently and
to make geodetic measurements accurately. It seems to the
writer that training of such a nature would be most beneficial,
not alone because it is important to know how maps are con-
structed and geodetic measurements are made, but, in a broader
sense, because of the advantages derived from that kind of
training which teaches pupils how to do things and to do them
correctly.

This opportunity will be taken to present a brief demon-
stration showing the advantages of the stereographic over the
ordinary methods of map construction. In maps comprising
small areas, it is possible to measure the distance between two
points, in a straight line across the map, with considerable
accuracy. Not so, however, for long, transcontinental dis-
tances, as such must be measured with reference to the curva-
ture of the earth along ares of great circles. Most persons
have no means of determining the distance between distant
points other than the very crude, and necessarily incorrect

Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourts Serizs, Vou. XI, No. 62.—Fersruary, 1901.
9

130 S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection.

method of applying a scale of miles in a straight-away direc-
tionacrossamap. Tor the sake of demonstration, the distance
between New York, 74° W., 40° 40’ N., and New Orleans,
90° 0’ W., 29° 55’ N., was chosen. Making use of atlases, only
those maps can be employed on which both New York and
New Orleans appear on the same sheet, therefore maps of
the whole United States must generally be used. On a
number of such maps, varying in width from 14 to 26 inches,
and accompanied in each case by a scale of miles, the following
results were obtained: 1170, 1180, 1185, 1190, 1200, and
1210 statute miles. On all the maps, the position. of the two
places with reference to the meridians and parallels corre-
sponded closely with the longitudes and latitudes as already
given. By calculation from the longitudes and latitudes as
given, the distance was found to be 16° 52’, or 11664 statute
miles. By plotting in equatorial projection, and measuring
with protractor No. II, the distance was found to be 16° 53’
(figure 22 shows both New York and New Orleans in equato-
rial projection). By plotting four different times in meridian
projection, using the method shown in figure 23, page 124, the
distance as measured by protractor No. II was found to be
16° 58’, 16° 53’, 16° 53’, and 16° 58’. It should be explained
that in three cases (a zero point of the protractor being at New
York) New Orleans fell just short of coincidence with the 17°
line of the protractor; hence the position was recorded as 16°
55’. In one case it was on the 17° line. From these readings
2’ were deducted to allow for the shrinkage of the celluloid
protractor. It is in part accidental that four of these deter-
minations, 16° 53’, came so close to the calculated value,
16° 52’; still it is seldom that an error of 6’ is made in plot-
‘ting and measuring on a meridian projection, and the
average of measurements of a similar nature which the writer
has made would be not over 4’, probably not over 3’, from the
truth. Consider for a moment the discrepancies between
measurements as made on ordinary maps and those made by
means of the stereographic projection. On maps including the
United States alone, and varying in width from 14 to 26
inches, the measurements ranged from 1170 to 1210 miles, a
maximum error of 44 miles; while on a stereographic projection
of 14 centimeters (54 inches) diameter, comprising a whole
hemisphere, the greatest error was less than seven miles, the
average error being but two miles. To appreciate better the
discrepancies of the two methods, compare the size of the
whole North American continent, as shown on the stereo-
graphic map, plate LV, with an ordinary map of the United
States. It seems to the writer that this example furnishes a
strong argument for discarding the defective methods of map
representation now in general use.

S. L. Penjield—Stereographic Projection. 131

As pointed out on page 125 and shown in plate IV,
it. is an easy matter to shift a stereographic projection
so as to bring any desired point to
the center. Figure 25 shows the distri-
bution of some of the meridians and
parallels when the intersection of the |
95th meridian and the 40th parallel is
brought to the center of the stereo-
graphic projection. The point 95° W.
40° N. is about in the center of the
United States. The map is- not. re-
duced, but shows the actual size of the United States as it
appears at the center of a stereographic projection, based upon
a circle of 14°™ diameter. The distance from right to left across
this map is 28™™ (1¢ inches), and the distance from New York

26

25

de

to New Orleans is 104™", but little over ¢ inch; yet in spite
of the very small scale on which the map is made, and also
of the fact that the United States is at the center of the hemi-
sphere where it appears the smallest, measurements can be
made with the stereographic protractors to within a fraction of
a degree. For example, New York to New Orleans was meas-
ured by protractor No. II, after making a reduction for shrink-
age, as 17° 8’, calculated 16° 52’, a difference of but 16’, or
about 18 statute miles.

There is but little distortion, due to the stereographic pro-
jection, provided a map does not cover an area larger than that
of the United States. Measuring from right to left across the

132 S. L. Penfield-—Stereographic Projection.

center of the United States, figure 25, not from east to west
along the 40th parallel, but on the are of a great circle, the
edges of the map are about 45° (one-eighth of a circumference)
apart. An are of 45°, a 6b, figure 26, appears in stereographic
projection as a line a’ 6’. A stereographic projection, however,
can be made on a tangent plane a’ 6”, in which ease the
linear distance from @” to 6” will be twice that of a’ to 0’,
while the area on a tangent plane will be four times that of a
plane passing through the center. As far as distortion is con-
cerned, however, it makes no difference whether a map is made
small on a central plane, or with four times the area on. a
tangent plane, the proportions of the two maps remain the
same. Oonsidering the radius of the circle, figure 26, as unity,
the distance from @ to b, 45° along the circumference, is 0-785,
while from @” to 6” it is 0°828, a difference of only 0-048.
These figures indicate that the distortion resulting from the
stereographic projection of a small portion of a sphere upon a
plane, for example figure 25, can not be very great.

Figure 27 shows a stereographic protractor based upon a
14™ circle, the same as that employed in making the map of
the United States, figure 25, and sufficiently large to cover all
portions of the map. The only great and small circles which

come into consideration are the ones

a i near the center of protractors II and
a : _ IU, plate I and figure 13. The small

109 : , 5
Sols alsa eter circles on one half of the protractor
aa | ae indicate degrees, and on the other

: \\.; half statute miles. A semicircular
& \ protractor with the small circles indi-
| cating either degrees or miles would
answer every purpose. Such a pro-
tractor would have to be centered on
a map of the United States, corre-
sponding to figure 25, at 95° W.,
40°N.; that is, at the center of the
projection. By turning the protrac-
tor, some great circle can be found
running through any two points under consideration ; and by
noting the positions of the points with reference to the small
circles, their distance apart may be determined, either in degrees
or miles.

By increasing the width of the map of the United States,
figure 25, sixteen times, an ordinary sized atlas sheet, eighteen
inches in length, would result. In that case the projection would
be based upon a fundamental circle of 224°" (about 74 feet)
diameter, and to plot the stereographically projected meridians
and parallels on such a scale would present no difficulty. The

Miles

S. L. Penfield—Stereographie Projection. 133

protractor also would have to be increased in like proportion.
On such a scale the first degree of the protractor would be
9°8™™ (nearly a centimeter) from the center, and if the small
circles of the protractor indicated tenths of a degree (6’), the
graduation would be far coarser than that of protractor No.
II, plate I. If the small circle graduation of the protractor
indicated every fourth minute, the first line would be distant
0°652™" from the center, while the first-degree line of protractor
No. IJ, plate I, is 0°611™™" from the center. It will be at once
evident to any one accustomed to reading scales, that, with
divisions 0°65™" apart, one quarter of the distance between
such divisions may be easily estimated, and with care, perhaps,
one eighth, which would be equivalent to half a mile on a map
of corresponding scale. By making use of a dividing engine, itis
possible to construct protractors of any size; and used in con-
nection with carefully plotted maps, geodetic measurements
can be made with almost any desired degree of accuracy.

For purposes of navigation of the North Atlantic, for exam-
ple, it would seem that nothing could be simpler than a stereo-
graphic chart with 35° W., 45° N., at the center. On such a
chart, 18 inches or more in diameter, all ports and lighthouses
could be accurately located. If a navigator can determine his
_ longitude and latitude correctly, which under favorable con-
ditions he is supposed to do within a minute (nautical mile), all
that remains to be done to find the distance from any desired
point would be to locate his own position on the chart, shift a
-stereographic protractor so as to bring the two points on the
same great circle, and note the position of the two points with
reference to the small circles. The great circle, which it would
not be necessary to draw upon the chart, would indicate the
sailing direction. Compass bearings could be determined by
means of an ordinary protractor, as indicated on page 19,
figure 12. Calculations involving the use of tables and for-
mulas would not be necessary. An 18-inch chart would
probably be quite large enough for practical purposes. At all
events, the errors in determining longitude and latitude would
probably be as great as those resulting from locating the points
on the chart and reading the protractor. The position of a
ship from day to day being noted on a stereographic chart, the
daily runs could be determined directly by means of a stereo-
graphic protractor. Without doubt, vessels have frequently
been wrecked because of failure of the commanding officer to
. make his caleulations correctly, but if ships were provided with
suitable stereographic charts and protractors such accidents
might be avoided. A navigator may make a mistake in locat-
ing his position, but, that having been correctly determined
and located on a suitable chart,-a stereographic protractor

134 S. L. Penfield—Stereogruphie Projection.

would indicate not only the distance from any point of danger
noted on the chart, but also the direction to any desired port.
The possibilities of mistakes in calculation, other than those
involved in determining the position of the vessel, would not
have to be taken into consideration.

Still another method of projection which is in very general
use is that of Mercator, invented in 1569.* In this, figure 28,
the meridians appear as vertical straight lines equally spaced,
and the parallels as horizontal lines so distributed that the

28

Mer cator’s Pr oiections

points of the compass preserve the same direction over all the
map. In such a projection, areas are very much distorted,
especially those near the poles, and distances can not be meas-
ured directly. Although the writer does not consider himself
competent to pass judgment upon the relative merits of map _
projections as employed by navigators, he does see many advan-
tages of the stereographic over all other kinds of projection.
‘It is interesting to note, for example, that the projection of
Mercator, desioned especially for use in navigation, does not
give the navigator the information he most wishes to know,
except in a few cases. A straight line drawn on the map from
one point to another gives a possible sailing direction between
the two points. If the direction is due north or south on any
meridian, or east or west on the equator, the course is that of
a great circle ; hence the shortest possible. In all other eases,
however, a course thus plotted as a straight line on the map,
and sailed by compass without deviation from the direction
indicated, will not correspond to the are of a great circle ;
hence will not be the desired shortest possible route. Take as
an illustration two ports on the same parallel, for example, Lis-
bon, 11° 30’ W., 38° 30’ N., and the mouth of Delaware Bay, —
75° 0’ W., 38° 30’ N.; how is a mariner to shape his course,
provided that no account is taken of ocean currents? To one

* Germain, loc. cit., p. 205.

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. 135

not accustomed to deal with spherical surfaces and their projec-
tions, it would seem, on looking at a map in Mereator’s projec-
tion, that the course should be due west, and that an east wind
would be most favorable. Steaming or sailing thus, however,
one would be traveling along the arc of a small circle. In stereo-
graphic projection, figure 29, the small circle S. C., crossing all

29

[-
Ps Greenwich | / 0
tee lf 38° 30’ N.

] .

his 30"

S.C.

CE

“De BiNGS? SO" IN:

meridians at 90°, is drawn. ‘The shortest course between Lis-
bon, Z., and Delaware Bay, D.B., is, however, the great circle
G.C., passing as far north as 43° 6’. Sailing on this great circle,
a vessel should be pointed 21° 4’ (plotted 20° 57’) north of west
on leaving port, and should gradually change its course so as to
cross the intermediate 43° 15’ meridian due west, and then pro-
ceed south of west. The distance traveled on the great circle is
48° 38’ (plotted 48° 50’), equal to 2,918 nautical miles, while the
distance on the small circle is 2,982 nautical miles, a difference
of 64 miles. It is not probable that a steady wind would be an
east one swirling around the pole along the arc of a small circle,
but, rather, it would be far more likely to travel along the arc
of a great circle, crossing the different meridians at slightly
different angles. It seems to the writer that these relations, as
plotted in stereographic projection, must be far easier to com-
prehend than if plotted on any other projection.

136 S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection.

A line plotted on a sphere so as to intersect all meridians
at the same angle, and which appears as a straight line
on a Mercator’s projection, is known as a rhumb-line, and
sailing with the same compass bearings from the place of
departure to the place of destination is known as rhumb-
sailing. A rhumb-line intersecting the meridians at an

60

40

I
9 Cape

4. RKlattery
20

oblique angle (the condition which almost always comes into
consideration) gives, when plotted on a sphere, a spiral curve
with complex mathematical relations, known as a loxodromic
curve. Figure 30 represents the meridians and parallels of a
hemisphere in stereographic projection, and two possible sail-
ing routes, from Cape Flattery, 124° 45’ W., 48° 30’ N., the
extreme northwestern point of the State of Washington, to
the entrance of Bass Strait, 148° E., 40° S., leading to Mel-
bourne, South Australia. The shortest route is the great circle
x #, which, if followed, necessitates a slight change of compass

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. 137

bearing, as one meridian after another is passed. The rhumb-
course, which intersects all meridians at the same angle, hence
maintains the same compass bearing (41° 20’ West of South)
throughont, is y y. It would be somewhat difficult to estimate
the distance traveled in following the rhumb-course, but,
judging from the figure, it would not be very much longer
than that of the great circle. In regions near the equator the
discrepancies between great-circle sailing and rhumb-sailing,
‘both as regards distance and direction, would not be very
great. As the polar regions are approached, however, discrepan-
cies become greater. The rhumb-line from Cape Flattery to
Bass Strait, figure 30, if continued toward the polar regions, as
indicated by the dotted lines y y, deviates more and more
from the great circle « «, and terminates eventually in two
spirals, circling around the respective north and south poles,
constantly nearing, yet, theoretically, never reaching them.

The problems presented by navigation are naturally compli-
cated, and such factors as ocean currents and the probabilities
of encountering favorable winds and weather during certain
seasons of the year must be taken into consideration. Hence
the route along which the shortest and safest passage may be
made must be selected, rather than the shortest course. The
main factor, however, in determining the shortest passage must
be the shortest distance from point to point, which may be
determined by a stereographic protractor giving great circles,
figure 14. The direction of ocean currents and prevailing
winds may be represented on a stereographic chart as well as
on any other, and it must be a matter of judgment on the
part of a navigator to shape his course so as to take advantage,
as far as possible, of favorable and avoid unfavorable conditions.

Instruments needed for plotting Stereographic Projections.—
For the most part. ordinary drafting instruments may be
used. Pencils should be very hard and sharpened to a chisel-
like edge, rather than to a point. For locating points very
exactly, a fine needle, fastened in a suitable handle, is very
useful. Although a puncture made by the needle point may
be quite a fraction of a degree in diameter, its center may be
regarded as indicating the exact location of any point; and in
reading scales and protractors with reference to the puncture,
the reading may be easily made from its center. An instru-
ment which is not very generally used and is almost indispen-
sable where great accuracy is required is a beam-compass.
Ordinary dividers are not very satisfactory, aud when used
with an extension bar for constructing large circles the utmost
pains must be taken in order to get good results.

For drawing very flat arcs the instrument shown one fourth
natural size in figure 31, and designated as the curved ruler,

138 S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection.

may beemployed. The construction of the instrument is very
simple. A strip of strong, straight-grained wood, a a, is bent
by pressure applied in one direction at points pp, and in oppo-
site direction at points 77. Pressure is applied by means of

31

the lever Z, which is held in any desired position by means of
the nut VV. The instrument may be quickly adjusted, and the
curve between the points a a, even when the bending is con-
siderable, corresponds exactly with the are of a circle. It is
no drawback that the wooden strip a@ a becomes permanently
bent when left for some time under pressure in the instrument.
It is only necessary to withdraw the strip and reverse it, in
order to draw a very flat arc, almost a straight line. A curved
ruler, in principle like the one figured, but made of metal, was
first described by Wulff.* Later Fedorow elaborated the instru-
ment somewhat.+ The writer has a metal instrument, made
after the Fedorow model by Fuess of Steglitz, near Berlin, but
has not found it as satisfactory as the one made of wood.
This, however, is only because of certain minor defects. The
metal strip in the Fuess instrument, corresponding to a @ of
figure 31, is so high that it is difficult to use a pencil, and
almost impossible to use a ruling-pen, in contact with it. More-
over, it is so highly polished that reflections from it are very
annoying.

32
Pees ea ae it A a ee me ny ! i
0 2 0 0 * ) 0 i 0 0 0 0 ; 0 0 : 0 0 Poop ‘ 00°00 00 000
Bee Se ee ee SS eS ae Se ee i NAP) Nee,
12 il 10 9 8 7 6 a 4 Sy scope

Figure 32, which may be designated as the scale of decamal
parts, gives a series of spaces (millimeters as indicated by the

* Zeitschr. fur Kryst., xxi, p. 253, 1892.
+ Zeitschr. fir Kryst., xxi, p. 618, 1893.

S. L. Penjield—Stereographic Projection. 139

numbers), each divided into tenths, with the exception of
the smallest space. It may be necessary to have spaces
of millimeters and a half similarly subdivided, which must
be determined by experience. For use, the scale of deci-
mal parts will be printed on a ecard. It is to be used in
locating points on charts corresponding to plates II and III,
where the meridians and parallels are given for every tenth
degree only. For example, to locate Queenstown, 8° 15’ W..,
51° 50'N., on plate IT, its longitude is determined by the diam-

33

eter 8° 15’ W., and a short line on this diameter, drawn between
the parallels 50° and 60° N., locates the place in part. Making
use of the scale of decimal parts, figure 32, one of the spaces

(the 7™™ one) will approximate closely to the linear distance

between the 50th and 60th parallels, and the location of
Queenstown, nearly 2° north of 50°, can be determined with

considerable accuracy. Similarly, on a meridian projection,

plate III, the approximate location of any desired point between
the ten-degree spaces of the meridians and parallels can be
quickly ascertained.

Finally, in fixitig locations exactly by means of a needle
point, with reference either to the scale on the base line of
protractor No. I, or to the scale of decimal parts, figure 32, it
is convenient to use a lens of low magnifying power, for exam-
ple, one of two-inch focus. -A reading glass or pocket lens
may be employed, but, still better, a lens cut in two and
mounted on a stand, so that when placed upon the drawing or
chart it will be at the proper distance above the paper and does
not need to be held. By using only half a lens, the needle-point

140 S. L. Penfield—Stereographice Projection.

holder can be held vertical, and, on a diameter or are previ-
ously drawn, a puncture can be made which is centered very
exactly with reference to the graduations of the scales and
protractors. A cheap lens is trying to the eyes, as it distorts
the lines of the scales, therefore persons making much use of
the stereographic projection will find it greatly to their advan-
tage to have a half-lens made from an aplanatic triplet. Figure
33 represents a half-lens made for the writer from a Hastings
triplet, two-inch focus, by the Bausch and Lomb Company of
Rochester, N. Y. This form of lens will doubtless be con-
venient for many kinds of work.

Black-board Demonstration of the Stereographie Projec-
tion.—In explaining the projection to an audience or class, it.
may be convenient to make use of a black-board, and with a
few implements, demonstrations can be made very quickly and
accurately.

Figure 34 represents the black-board equipment employed
by the writer, in about one fourteenth its natural size. The
black-board, AAA, is of slate, on which is scratched the circle
BB, with center C. The circle has a radius of 35™, and its
graduation gives every tenth degree. The circle and gradua-
tion marks need not be conspicuous, and they interfere in no
way with the ordinary uses of the black-board. In case a
permanent circle, scratched or painted on a_ black-board, is
objectionable, a center point may be fixed, and degrees on any
circle described about it may be taken from graduation marks

SL. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. i41

painted on the frame of the black-board, as shown. JD is a
scale, drawn on cardboard, which may be used for locating
degrees between the ten-degree marks of the graduated circle.
f is a ruler or straight-edge of light wood, on one side of
which are the scales giving the radi of great circles, G.C. and
vertical small circles, S.C., as shown ; while on the other side
are the two scales corresponding to Nos. 3 and 4 of figure 3,
page 6. For most operations a smaller ruler, which is not
shown, is used. It is provided with the same scales as #. A
semicircular protractor having the same radius as the circle is
shown at / with stereographically projected degree gradua-
tions upon its base line. A beam-compass is shown at G,*
having one fixed arm ending in a metal point, and a sliding
arm carrying acrayon. The sliding arm has two screw nuts,
one for clamping the arm to the beam, the other for clamping
the crayon. The beam may be graduated, the scale on one
side giving the radii of vertical small circles, S.C., as shown,
while the scale giving the radii of great circles is on the other
side. Another compass, exactly like the one shown, except
having a shorter arm, is employed in most operations. A
large curved ruler is shown at /, provided with a handle A for
holding it in position against the black-board. A stereographic
protractor, drawn with India ink on transparent celluloid, is
shown at /. The face of the protractor is covered with a thin
sheet of celluloid to protect the lines, and the two sheets are
fastened by screws to a light semicircular frame of wood. A
is a long, light blade of wood which may be clamped at any
angle to the cross-piece & by means of a thumb-screw. With
this instrument, lines of any desired inclination, taken from
the graduation of the circle, may be drawn on any part of the
black-board. Although the instrument is not needed for con-
structing stereographic projections, it has been included. with
the others in order to make the description of the black-board
instruments complete. It is used for solving problems in
crystallography by means of graphical methods which will be
described in a later communication.

Although the black-board implements are graduated only to
every fifth degree, quite accurate work can be done with them.
For example, in solving the problems given on pages 115 to 120,
the maximum error was 77’, the average error 30’. In making
such measurements as from Queenstown to New York or Rio

* A beam-compass of the form shown is an excellent instrument for black-
board demonstrations, far superior to the black-board compasses ordinarily
employed. If made with scales giving inches on one side of the beam and centi-
meters on the other, so that circles of any desired radius may be drawn, it would
be a very useful instrument. not only in the school- or lecture-room, but in offices
of architects and designers. Application has been made for a patent for this
instrument.

142 S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection.

de Janeiro, pages 123 and 124, results are often within a quarter
of a degree of the truth, seldom more than half a degree out.

Conclusion.—Starting with the very simple idea of making
a protractor with stereographically projected degrees upon its
base line, one possibility after another has presented itself,
involving, as stated at the outset, no new mathematical princi-
ples, but leading, as the writer believes, to very important
results. ‘he main features of this article are the development
of the scales shown in figure 3, by means of which it is pos-
sible to make stereographie projections very quickly and accu-
rately; and the discovery of the transparent stereographic
protractors. The writer can not learn that any one has ever.
made use of such protractors, and accordingly has made appli-
cation for patents to control their manufacture and sale. Up
to the present time, protractors have been made to conform to
a circle of 14° diameter only, but any demand for protractors
and scales based on a larger circle can be easily satisfied.
With accurately engraved stereographic plates and protractors,
based on a circle of 12 or 18 inches diameter, for example,
very accurate plotting and measuring could be done. Many
have expressed surprise that on a circle of only 14™ diameter,
representing a whole hemisphere, such accurate measurements.
can be made as those cited in this article. It may be stated,
however, that the method in itself is absolutely exact, and
errors are wholly due to inability to work accurately on so
small a scale as the one adopted, and with plates and _ pro-
tractors graduated to degrees only. Based ona cirele of 14™
diameter, a stereographically projected degree at the periphery
and at the center is represented by distances of about 1-2 and
0°6™™, respectively. Of these distances, one ought to be able
to estimate about one tenth of the former and one quarter of
the latter; hence, a point carefully located near the periphery
ought not to be more than one tenth of a space, or six minutes,,
out of the way, and the chances are that it will be correct
within three minutes, while near the center a point ought to
be located at least within a quarter of a degree and probably
within ten minutes of the truth. The possibilities as thus
stated correspond closely with actual tests of the method. If
the plotting is of a simple nature and made near the periphery,
and especially if the measurement can be made with one read-
ing of the protractor, the result is rarely more than 6’ and
averages less than 4’ from the truth. If, on the other hand,
the plotting is done near the center of the circle, and measure-
ments necessitate two readings of the protractor, errors amount-
ing to a quarter of a degree must be expected, but the average:
will be less than 10’ from the truth.

S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection. 143

The stereographic projection is admirably adapted for repre-
senting all kinds of relations pertaining to a sphere. It is
very difficult, almost impossible, to plot and measure accurately
on a spherical surface, and a sphere which may be used for
such purposes is rarely at hand ; hence, to be able to plot and
measure accurately on a flat surface is a great advantage. The
writer hopes, therefore, that as a result of this article the
stereographic projection will become more widely known and
appreciated, and that it will prove more generally useful.
Crystallographers have employed the stereographic projection
not only for indicating the distribution of crystal faces, but
especially for showing zonal (great circle) relations and the
spherical triangles which when solved determine the interfacial
angles. The stereographic protractors will now give to the
projection a new and tar more important significance. Crys-
tal forms being plotted according to some fixed scale, desired
angles may be measured with sufficient accuracy for most pur-
poses by the protractors. Protractor No. IV, page 22, will
indicate zonal relations; and the solution of many other prob-
lems follow, which will form the basis of a later communica-
tion.

The application of the stereographic projection to astronom-
ical problems are very numerous, and doubtless some astrono-
mers will find their work simplified by using scales and
protractors similar to the ones described in this article.

It would seem as though no course in spherical trigonometry
could be quite complete without reference to the possibilities.
which the stereographic projection offers for the solution of all
the problems presented.

Before closing this communication the writer takes pleasure
in calling attention to a recent article by Professor E. von
Fedorow of Petrowsko-Rasumowskoje, near Moscow, on a
“ Unwersalgoniometer mit mehr als zwei Drehacen und
genaue graphische Rechnung.’* In this communication, Pro-
fessor I’edorow describes a modification of the two-circle goni-
ometer, by means of which spherical triangles may be solved
accurately by purely mechanical methods. This is accom-
plished by having two reflecting surfaces which may be set at
any angle (kiinstlicher Krystall), and which take the place of
a crystal on the instrument. By obtaining appropriate reflec-
tions from the surfaces, which necessitates the turning of cer-
tain circles, the problems are solved, the angles being read
from verniers accompanying the graduations of the circles.
Although it is shown that the instrument is capable of giving
exact results, the applications of the Fedorow method of solv-

* Zeitschr. fir Kryst., xxxii, p. 464, 1890.

144 S. L. Penfield—Stereographic Projection.

ing triangles will probably be limited, since an expensive
instrument must be procured, which not only must be kept in
perfect adjustment, but can be used only by persons who
thoroughly understand the workings of its several parts.
Then, too, the instrument does not give a map or chart, which
is such an important feature of the stereographic projection.
Although it is not customary for the writer of a scientific
article to. advertise, there are many who may wish to apply

stereographic methods to the solution of problems in which

they are especially interested, and therefore will find it con-
venient to make use of the printed sheets, scales, and protrac-
tors described herewith. Accordingly arrangements have been
made to keep a supply of the necessary articles in stock, and,
upon application either to the writer or to E. L. Washburn &
Co. of New Haven, a price list will be sent.

If the method fulfills the writer’s expectations, there will be
in time a demand for seales and protractors of larger size and
finer graduation, based, for example, on circles of 12 or 18
inches diameter. Moreover, with the experience already gained,
there ought to be no serious difficulty in making them very
accurately.

Sheffield Uaboratory of Minevaneey and Petrography,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn., December, 1900.

/
3

4

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Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. X!, 1901. Plate Il.

MERIDIANS AND PARALLELS IN STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION. EQUATORIAL PROJECTION.

Printed from the original engine-divided plate.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XI, 1901.

Plate III.

20

Printed from the original engine-divided plate.

30

YZ

S
MERIDIANS AND PARALLELS IN STEREOGRAPHIO PROJECTION.

MERIDIAN PROJEOTION.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XI, 1901. Plate IV.

170

Rio jle J ‘qneiro

Lt
ae |

Buenos Ayres,

HPMISPHERE IN STPREOGRAPHIO PROJECTION,

With 75° W. 40° N., at the center.

Holborn and Day—WMelting Point of Gold. 145 .

Art. X.—On the Melting Point of Gold; by Lupwie
- HOLBORN and ARTHUR L. Day.

[Communication from the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg,
Germany. |

In connection with the measurement of high temperatures
with the gas thermometer,* the melting points of various
metals lying between the temperatures 300° and 1100° were
determined. The two methods employed were distinguished
by the names “ Wire Method” and “Crucible Method.” The
wire method consisted in inserting into the hot junction of the
thermo-element about 1% of the wire whose melting point was
to be determined, and observing the E.M.F. at the moment of
melting and consequent interruption of the circuit; the cru-
cible method, on the other hand, involved the introduction of
a thermo-element properly protected by porcelain tubes into a
comparatively large mass of the metal. The melting point of
gold was determined at that time by the wire method only.

On account of the special importance which has been attached
to the melting point of gold for comparing the temperature
scales of various observers, it seemed to us advisable to make a
further determination of this melting point by the crucible
method as well, and at the same time to investigate whether
the surrounding atmosphere exerts any influence on the melting
temperature.

For this experiment some 450 gr. of pure gold were used,
the purity being vouched for by the Gold- und Silber-Schei-
deanstalt at Frankfort-on-Main, where it was obtained. For
the sake of certainty, however, a sample weighing 2 gr. was
also analyzed in the chemical laboratory of the Reichsan-
stalt, but no impurities were found.

The gold was melted in the same oven which was described
in the former paper, and measured with the same thermo-
element which had served for the observations by the wire
method.

Preliminary trials made with a smaller quantity of the
metal (350 gr.) in a thin porcelain crucible yielded ill-defined
“time curves” on account of the small latent heat of fusion,
and also a difference between the melting and solidifying tem-
peratures amounting to as much as 4°. : Afterward, using 450
grams of gold and placing the light crucible in a larger one
lined with asbestos, the distribution of heat was more even and
excellent results were obtained. Crucibles of mixed graphite
and clay with walls 5™™ in thickness also yielded satisfactory
results, in fact we afterwards restricted ourselves to these

* Ludwig Holborn and Arthur L. Day, this Journal [4], vol. x, p. 171, 1900.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Surizs, Vou. XI, No. 62.—FEBRuARY, 1901.

146 Holborn and Day—Melting Point of Gold.

e
crucibles entirely, using old ones from which the graphite
had been burned away where the reducing action was not
needed.

The gold was melted under two different conditions, either
in the reducing atmosphere of a graphite crucible, carbonic
acid gas being also sometimes introduced, or in a double por-
celain or thick clay crucible (graphite and clay from which the
graphite had been burned away), in the presence of atmos-
pheric air and later in an atmosphere of oxygen. The gas.
was introduced into the molten metal through a thin porcelain
tube, as described in the experiments with silver (previous
paper loc. cit.). Under these two conditions, both melting and.
solidifying points were observed.

TABLE I,
iain ee
Date. a MV Degrees. Mean,
Graphite Crucible.
me 2 Te os 8°0 H 10194 1063°3
9°2 M 10197 1063°6
U5 F 10194 1063°3
8°8 M 10197 1063°6 1063°5°
Peal! es, 6°8 F 10197 1063°6
8°3 M 10196 1063°5
6°8 F 10197 1063°6
8:2 M 10195 1063°4
Graphite Crucible. Atmosphere of C'O,.
Tay i aw Fe) F 10198 1063°6
8°5 M 10198 1063°6
EO F 10196 1063°5 1063'5
82 M 10199 1063°7 )
6°8 F 10194 1063°3
79 M 10196 1063°5
Double Porcelain Crucible.
rune 277 See mrs (0 F 10190 1063°0
9°0 M 10198 1063°6 1063°3
75 EF 10188 : 1062°8
9°5 M 10197 1063°6
Double Porcelain (or Clay) Crucible. Oxygen Atmosphere.
Sine 29 2 LS ae F 10200 1063'8
oh (ligne ed 10199 1063°7
7:0 | a 10192 1063°1
8°5 M 10199 1063°7
July ods ied AES Ou F 10189 1062°9 1063°5-
This) M 10195 1063°4
6°5 F 10198 1063°2
July iene eee ee G2 F 10198 1063°6
7°5 M 10203 1064.1

. “

Holborn and Day—WMelting Point of Gold. 147

Table I contains the temperature ¢(in microvolts and degrees)
of the observed solidifying points /’ and melting points J.
Under 2 is contained the number of amperes carried by the
oven coil during the observations.

The various values of ¢ show no systematic differences and
the final mean is 1063°5°.

The forms of the time-curves, some of which are given in
Table II, vary somewhat under the different conditions; the
measurements in the oxygen atmosphere being especially con-
spicuous in this particular.

TABLE II.
‘““Time-Curves ” (MV).

Gold in Graphite, Gold Copper
Gold in Graphite. Atmosphereof COz. Atmosphere of O. in Air.

aD SS SSS SSS aca aa oe mia eS

Min. F M F M F M F
feeeelOon tl), LOOs4 10402 - 10117 10366 10027 10590
Peeeewoszol, 1050 10346 10166 10276 10074 10470
peer Z09 = L090) ~10298 » 10192 10223 10101 = 103852
POZO 7T 10194 10246 10195 10205 10144 # 10281
pee 20s) “LOGS 10200 10197 10201 TOM 7O: 4s 1CQ iy
eeeeetoZ007. 10195 . 10199 10194 10199 10198 10204
fae orngs- 10195... FOr99 10194 10199 10254 10212
Pee rOtoa 1019s. 10199. 10194 10198 10238 10212
peor oye 10197 10198 10194 10196 10222 L0212

peony -- 10199, . 10198 10196 10193 10205. — TO2t2

fee too, 10203: 10198 10196 10194 10202 10212

Pee LOG 210212 910198. -. 10197 101938 10201 . 102Z%2

ieee 10196 -10222 10198 10198 10194 10202 = 10212

ep OLoos 10231 - 10198 . 10199 10192 10203: » 10212

fa5-7 10194 10240 10197 -10200 10191 102038 10212

foe TONGA 5.102748 10198 10201 10189 102038 10212

Pee LOUSS 10257 ~. 10197 _- 10202 10186 LOZOSiy A0211

meee lOL7{S. 10272 10197. 10205 10184 10216 10210

19... 10070 10400 10197 10206 10184 10212 10208

Pee OOOO) ek 10196 10205 10188 10222 10204

oS ea 10196 + 10209 10174 10230 10195
2. 5) See 10195 10204 10159 10360 10176
ee eee LOLOoe VOZ0Z OO BO fae 10027
oo ee 10194 10214 Lye Ly Sao Ee i
1) 5 SRE ERE ae amen T0192. 10296 eee 2) tet a eames:
eS aaah) ee = TOC TOLOO) os. Ba ph of
ee ey oS Re ecommerce ete ey AR ieee
Pee oe UA LTO ie 2 a I ly es ee 2 =
Peer 2) TNQMUKC dea SM os 2 gS Sp Bs a2 Seo) ee

The stationary temperature characteristic of the change of
state is less well-defined in this case, the temperature in obser-
vations of the melting point often rising uninterruptedly to a

148 Holborn and Day—Melting Point of Gold.

point somewhat above the melting point and coming back to
it again afterward. The stirring produced by the gas bubbling
through the molten metal is not the cause of this phenomenon,
for the cases where carbonic acid was introduced under like
conditions do not show it. |

Furthermore, where the oxygen atmosphere was introduced
the time-curves are always irregular and often even with
ordinary air. This suggests the possibility that in these cases
the melting metal takes on some oxygen. The effect of this
irregularity upon the melting temperature, however, is small
and scarcely exceeds the errors of observation.

From the same gold which had served for the measurements
in the crucible, several grams were afterward drawn out into
thin wire 0°25™" in diameter, and used fora series of control
observations by the wire method which it would be so desirable
to be able to use in the case of gold. The same thermo-element
was used for these also, and great care was taken that the two
wires of the element enclosing the short gold wire be as free
from strain as possible to avoid rupturing the gold before its
proper melting point. .

Five observations yielded the following values for the melt-
ing temperature:

Sept. 26. 10206 MV 1064°3°
10197 1063°6
102038 1064°1
10199 1063°7
10198 1063°6

The mean value, 1063-9°, differs only 0°4° from that obtained
by the crucible method and only 0°1° from the earlier results
obtained under the same conditions (see former paper, p. 190)
in which other gold was used.

For the calibration of thermo-elements then, the determina-
tion of the melting point of gold by the wire method is per-
fectly trustworthy, and only about 0°03 gr. of gold are necessary
for the determination.

If for any reason, however, the crucible method be preferred,
the neighboring melting point of copper in air is well adapted
for calibrations. Our determination of it was 1064-9. This
point, aside from the diminished expense, is more convenient
to determine than the gold-melting point by the crucible method,
on account of the greater latent heat of copper.

Table II contains a time-curve for comparison with the gold,
which was observed on Oct. 1 with 370 gr. of copper in a
thin poreelain crucible. The current strength ¢ in the heating
coil amounted to 5:2 amp., and was smaller than in any experi-
ment made with gold.

Charlottenburg, November, 1900.

Hoffmann—New mineral occurrences in Canada. 149

Art. XI.—On some new mineral occurrences in Canada ;
_ by G. Cur. HOFFMANN, of the Geological Survey of Canada.

[Communicated by permission of the Director. ]
1. Lepidolite.

This species has been found to be a constituent of a coarse
granite vein, of very considerable width, on the twenty-
fifth lot of the seventh range of the township of Wakefield,
Ottawa County, in the province of Quebec. The minerals
composing this vein consist of white and light smoky-brown
to brownish-black quartz, pinkish and light to dark verdigris-
green microcline, a grayish albite having a fine bluish opales-
cence, and the mica in question, together with some aggrega-
tions of light purplish crystals of fluorite, and fine crystals of
black and green tourmaline. The mica occurs in broad folia-
tions having a rough, distorted hexagonal contour, and which
in some instances have been found to measure fourteen by
twenty-eight inches or more across. It has a pearly luster.
In thin laminze it is transparent and colorless ; in combinations
of several lamine it exhibits, on a white surface, a fine, light
purplish color; and in layers of about half an inch in thick-
ness it has, by reflected light, a rich purplish brown color.
Before the blowpipe, it fuses easily and with much intumes-
cence to a light yellowish-brown glass, simultaneously color-
ing the flame intense carmine-red. Its specifie gravity, em-
ploying the air-pump, at 15°5° C., was found by Mr. R. A. A.
Johnston to be 2°858, and its analysis afforded him the follow-
ing results:

STG) Ao ae eke eee a 47°89
PwluMMMapes 2 ke eek Rh LA le 21°16
Herrie oxide... _..- hes Eas es eee 2°52
MRR OMSTOMAGE foe ya yg ee a 4°19
Gis s pee ee eee! et ee LOT
irctnicmaeen en Sth hers, eye Lk 5°44
SOI) a oy eats ee Seen on a 1:34
Peele PAA ie AR ON Se PG 0°36
Water (direct estimation) .-..----.--- AYO
Eiiioninneme ses yhetiid = Serle od 5. Ta
102°94

Less oxygen, equivalent to fluorine. ---. 312

\

99°82

2. Newberyite and Struvite.

A material corresponding in composition to a mixture
of these two minerals has recently been obtained from part-

150 Hoffmann—New mineral occurrences in Canada.

ings resulting from the drying up of the soft material of the
concentric rings of interglobular spaces in the ivory of the
tusk of a mammoth which was found at a depth of some fifteen
feet in a surface bed of dark frozen swamp-muck overlying
stream-gravels on Quartz Creek, a tributary of Indian River
which flows into the Yukon some twenty miles south of Dawson
City, Yukon district, in the Northwest Territory.

The material occurred in the spaces in question in the form
of readily removable plates of from one to two millimeters in
thickness, which were at first colorless and transparent, but,
on exposure to the air, became white and lost their trans-
parency. In the closed tube it gives off water and ammonia
and becomes opaque. When heated before the blowpipe it
imparts a green color to the inner flame, and fuses at about
3 to a white enamel which, when moistened with a solution of
cobalt nitrate and reheated, assumes a beautiful pink color.
It is shghtly soluble in water, and readily and completely so in
cold, dilute hydrochloric, nitric or sulphuric acid.

Its analysis afforded Mr. R. A. A. Johnston the following
results:

Phosphorus pentoxide 2s. 212-2. 9220 Bee 38°53
Magnesia” 2 ooo Jenks Rae ee ee 21°93
Ammonia. 22 .eoae 2 eee ee Lge clos
Water, by difference 22. 22.2 2.8. ae 37°18
Carbon dioxide .22 2's 4). (Oe eee 0°42

100°00

These figures afford a ratio closely agreeing with the follow-
ing formula :
(HMePO,+3H,0)+2(NH,MgPO,+6H,0) +a trace of MgOO,
Newberyite. Struvite. Magnesite.

3. Schorlomite.

A mineral which, as the result of an examination by Mr.
I’. G. Wait, proves to be this species, has been met with, in
masses of considerable size, as an accessory constituent of the:
nepheline-syenite rocks of Ice River, a tributary of the Beaver-
foot which flows into the Kicking Horse’ River, in the Rocky
Mountains, province of British Columbia.

It is massive, without cleavage; the color is velvet-black,
here and there tarnished blue, and occasionally with pavonine
tints; that of the streak, hair-brown ; the luster is vitreous ; it .
is brittle ; the fracture is irregular, occasionally subconchoidal ;
it is opaque ; fuses quietly at 3 to a black enamel; has a hard-
ness of 6°5, ‘and a specific gravity, at 15°5° C., of 3802. Its
analysis afforded :

Hoffmann—N ew mineral occurrencesin Canada. 151

SO 3) OO SR Ee? OO le ea De Ti
MU MINCMOG 352.0 a 19°95
AOR SEP TUTE: ERE RANE Sa ie TA a Pole anata cual
Hereicnaxiae 29°. Joc Pe eg 9°69
MeGrONE OmIGe Le 8°01
Bikmmeanous Oxide... 0°76
1! SST Se a ei ell Rl aah ii el ae lic 31°76
1h Ly TES ll Ig eae iy al, ob ea La

100°37

These figures do not afford arational formula. If, however,
it be assumed that the iron represented as being present in the
ferrous condition, does not exist in the mineral as such (as
would appear to be justified by the fact that a very carefully
conducted qualitative examination failed to afford more than
the faintest reaction for ferrous iron), but that it resulted from
an interaction between titanium and iron sesquioxides during
the process of solution of the mineral (the titanous oxide being
converted into titanic oxide at the expense of a portion of the
oxygen of the ferric oxide, with simultaneous formation of
ferrous oxide), and the above analysis be recalculated in accord-
ance with this view, we obtain for the composition of the
mineral : |

Mime are ee ee NN te a 25°7

Siem wORlGoucg. 8 ee L088
TITRE aa pe enor BT
RIOR O XEN IM me gS 18°59
imo ORIG. 200 8°23
MMO AMMOUS..OSIAC. oi o--- = 25--652--.-- | O76
Mince Art eee ee ne ee SAMETAS
Je DIU BST eign th ele ee 122

100°37

which figures afford a formula closely analogous to that re-
quired for garnet, and according with that now generally
accepted for schorlomite.

4, Danalite.

A few crystals of what has been identified by Mr. R. A.
A. Johnston as the somewhat rare mineral danalite, have been
observed by him scattered through the feldspar of a vein-stone
composed of orthoclase, spodumene, and quartz, which was
found by Mr. A. P. Low, cutting syenite, on Walrus Island,
one of a group of islands lying off Paint Hill, east coast of
James Bay, Ungava district, Northeast Territory.

The erystals are mostly minute, seldom exceeding a milli-
meter in diameter; one, however, was found,—and that the

152 Hoffmann-—New mineral oecurrences in Canada.

only one of any appreciable dimensions in some twenty pounds
of the rock, which measures fifteen millimeters across. It is a
contact twin of two tetrahedrons, and on some of the faces is
triangularly marked by successions of crystal growth. On
some of the more minute crystals the rhombic dodecahedral
plane—which is striated in the direction of the longer diagonal,
is largely developed, sometimes obscuring the tetrahedral plane.

It has a faint yellowish orange-gray (faint yellowish-brown)
color; is translucent; has a resinous luster; affords a yellow-
ish white streak ;is brittle, and breaks with a subconchoidal
fracture. The hardness is 6, and the specific gravity, at
15°5° C., 3°25. Before the blowpipe, it fuses at about 5 to a
black enamel. With soda on charcoal, it gives a slight coat-
ing of zinc oxide. It is perfectly decomposed by hydrochloric
acid, with evolution of hydrogen sulphide and separation of
gelatinous silica.

5. Spodumene.

This species has been identified by Mr. R. A. A. Johnston
as being a prominent constituent of a micaless orthoclastic,
granitic vein-stone found, by Mr. A. P. Low, in 1899 cutting
syenite, on Walrus Island, one of a group of islands lying off
Paint Hill, east coast of James Bay, Ungava district, Northeast
Territory.

The mineral occurs in more or less well-individualized gray-
ish green subtranslucent prisms, some of which measure more
than ten centimeters in length and from eight to ten milli-
meters in diameter. It has one well-developed prismatic
cleavage, the luster of which is pearly, while that of the eross-
fracture, which is an uneven one, is vitreous. The hardness is
nearly 7. Before the blowpipe, it swells up and fuses at about
4 to a white glass, imparting at the same time a bright purplish
red color to the flame. The finely powdered mineral is not
acted on by hydrochlorie acid.

6. Uranophane.

A mineral which, on examination by Mr. R. A. A. John-
ston, proved to be, as anticipated by the writer, uranophane,
has been found, associated with gummite, uraninite, black
tourmaline, white, light gray, pale olive-green and bluish green
apatite, spessartite, monazite, and green and purple fluorite, in
a coarse pegmatite vein—composed of white and light to dark
smoky-brown quartz, microcline, albite and muscovite, which
traverses a gray garnetiferous gneiss on the thirty-first lot of
the first range of the township of Villeneuve, Ottawa County,
in the province of Quebec.

Bete:

Hoffmann—New mineral occurrences in Canada. 158

The mineral which, in this instance, is evidently an altera-
tion-product of gummite, occurs in small bright lemon-yellow
fibrous masses, sometimes in immediate contact with the gum-
mite found coating the uraninite or, per se, embedded in the
albite immediately surrounding the tourmaline and often
invading the latter. In the closed tube it blackens and gives
off water. before the blowpipe, it affords, with salt of phos-
phorus, in the oxidizing flame, a yellowish green bead, which,
on reheating in the reducing flame, assumes a fine green color.
Warm hydrochloric acid decomposes it, with separation of
floceulent silica. 7

154 Liveing and Dewar—Spectrum of the more

Art. XIL—On the Spectrum of the more Volatile Gases of
Atmospheric Air, which are not Condensed at the Tem-
perature of Liquid Hydrogen.* Preliminary notice by
Professor 8. D. Livetne, M.A., D.Se., Professor of Chem-
istry University of Cambridge, and Professor Dewar, M.A.,
LL.D., Fullerian Professor of Chemistry, Royal Institution,
London.

[Read before the Royal Society of London Dec. 13, 1900.]

in August last some tubes were filled at low pressure by an
improved process with the more volatile gases of the atmos-
phere. The air was liquefied directly from that above the
roof of the Royal Institution by contact at atmospheric pres-
sure with the walls of a vessel cooled below —200° C. When
about 200° of liquid had condensed, communication with the
outer air was closed by a stop-cock. Subsequently, communi-
cation was opened, through another stop-cock, with a second
vessel cooled by immersion in liquid hydrogen, and a part of
the liquid from the first vessel, maintained at —210°, was
allowed to distil into the second still colder vessel. When
about 10° had condensed in the solid form in the second ves-
sel, communication with the first vessel was cut off, and a
manometer showed a pressure of gas of about 10 to 15™™ of
mereury. |

This mixture of gases was passed into tubes previously
exhausted by a mercury pump, but before reaching the tubes
it had to pass through a U-tube immersed in liquid hydrogen
so as to condense less volatile gases, such as argon, nitrogen,
oxygen, or carbonic oxide, which might be carried along by
them. Previous trials with tubes filled in the same way,
except that the U-tube in liquid hydrogen was omitted, showed
that these tubes contained traces of nitrogen, argon, and com-
pounds of carbon. The tubes filled with gas which had passed
through the U-tube showed on sparking no spectrum of any
of these last-mentioned gases, but showed the spectra of hydro-
gen, helium, and neon brilliantly, as well as a great many less
brilliant rays of unknown origin. In addition, they showed
at first the brightest rays of mercury, derived, no doubt, from
the mercury pump by which they had been exhausted before
the admission of the gases from the liquefied air. After some
sparking the mercury rays disappeared, probably in conse-
quence of absorption of the mercury by the electrodes, which
were of aluminium.

In one experiment the mixture of gases in the second vessel
into which a fraction of the liquefied air was distilled as above

* From an advance proof received from the authors.

Volatile Gases of Atmospheric Air. 155

described,—(the U-tube in liquid by Noyes having been dis-
pensed with) was pumped out and examined. This mixture
was found to contain 43 per cent of hydrogen, 6 per cent of
oxygen, and 51 per cent of other gases—nitrogen, argon, neon,
helinm, ete.—and it was explosive when mixed with more
oxygen. ‘This shows conclusively that hydrogen in sensible
proportion exists in the earth’s atmosphere, and if the earth
cannot retain hydrogen or originate it, then there must be a
continued accession of hydrogen to the atmosphere (from inter-
planetary space), and we can hardly resist the conclusion that a
similar interchange of other gases also must take place. The
tubes containing the residue of atmospheric gases uncondensed
at the temperature of liquid hydrogen we have examined
spectroscopically.

On passing electric discharges through them, without any
condenser in the circuit, they glow with a bright orange light,
not only in the capillary part, but also at the poles, and at the
negative pole in particular. The spectroscope shows that this
light consists in the visible part of the spectrum chiefly of a
succession of strong rays in the red, orange, and yellow,
attributed to hydrogen, helium, and neon. Jesides these, a
vast number of ravs, generally less brilliant, are distributed
through the whole length of the visible spectram. They are
obscured in the spectrum of the capillary part of the tube by
the greater strength of the second spectrum of hydrogen, but
are easily seen in the spectrum of the negative pole, which
does not include the second spectrum of hydrogen, or only
faint traces of it. Putting a Leyden jar in the circuit, while
it more or less completely obliterates the second spectrum of
hydrogen, also has a similar effect on the greater part of these
other rays of, as yet, unknown origin. The violet and ultra-
violet part of the spectrum seems to rival in strength that of
the red and yellow rays, if we may judge of it by the intensity
of its impressions on photographic plates. We were surprised
to find how vivid these impressions are up to a wave-length
314, notwithstanding the opacity of glass for rays in that part
of the spectrum. The photographs were taken with a quartz-
calcite train, but the rays had to pass through the glass of the
tube containing the gases.

We have made approximate measurements of the wave-
lengths of all the rays which are sufficiently strong to be seen
easily or photographed with an exposure of thirty minutes, and
give a list of them below. These wave-lengths are computed
to Rowland’s scale, and were deduced from the deviations pro-
duced by two prisms of white flint glass for the visible, and of
calcite for the invisible, rays. The wave-lengths assigned to
the helium lines are those given by Runge and Paschen, and

156 Liveing and Dewar—Spectrum of the more

some of these lines were used as lines of reference. In general,
the iron spark spectrum was the standard of reference.

The tubes when first examined showed the lines of the first
spectrum of hydrogen vividly, and the earlier photographs of
the spectrum of the negative pole contained not only the violet
lines of hydrogen, but also the ultra-violet series as far up as
» 337. In order to get impressions of the fainter rays, expo-
sures of half an hour or more were required, and a succession
of photographs had to be taken so as to get different sections
of the spectrum into the middle of the tield, where measure-
ment of the deviations would not be impeded by the double
refraction of the cale spar. As the light of the negative pole
only was required, the electric discharge was made continu-
ously in one direction only, with the result that the hydrogen
lines grow fainter in each successive photograph, and soon dis -
appeared altogether. Along with the ultra-violet rays, the
less refrangible rays of hydrogen also disappeared, so that no
trace of the C or F line could be seen, nor yet of the second
spectrum, so long as the current passed in the same direction
as before. Reversal of the current soon made the F line show
again, so that it seems that the whole of the hydrogen was
driven by the current to the positive pole. The conditions
under which this ultra-violet series shows itself are a matter of
interest. It appears here in the midst of a brilliant spectrnm
due to gases other than hydrogen, and yet it is very difficult to
obtain a photograph of it when no gas but hydrogen is known
to be present, or, at least, to become luminous in the electric
discharge.

We have had an opportunity of comparing the spectrum of
the volatile residue of air with that of the more volatiie part
of gas from the Bath spring. The tube did not admit of the
separate examination of the light from the negative pole, but
was examined end on, so that the radiation probably included
rays emitted from the neighborhood of the negative pole. The
whole of the hydrogen had been removed from the Bath gas,
but not all the argon. In the spectrum of this gas the rays of
helium are dominant, decidedly stronger than those of neon,
although the latter are very bright. In the spectrum of the
residue of atmospheric air, the proportion of helium to neon
seems reversed, for in this the yellow neon line is as much
more brilliant than the yellow helium line as the latter is the
niore brilliant in the spectrum of Bath gas. All the promi-
nent lines in the spectrum of the volatile residue of Bath gas
were also in that of the residue of atmospheric air except the
argon lines. There were, on the other hand, many lines in
the latter not traceable in the former, some of them rather
conspicuous, such as the ray at about A 4664. It is, of course,

Volatile Gases. of Atmospheric Air. 157

probable that such rays are the outcome of some material not
contained in the Bath gas. A very conspicuous pair of lines
appears in photographs of the spectrum of the air residue, at
about A 38587, which is not traceable in spectrum of Bath gas.
The helium line, > 3587-4, is seen in the latter spectrum, but
is quite obscured in the former spectrum by the great intensity
of the new pair. This helium ray is really a close double,
with the less refrangible component much the weaker of the
two, but the new pair are wider apart, and of nearly equal
intensities; this character also distinguishes them from the
strong argon line at 1 3588°6. They are, however, very much
more intense at the negative pole than in the capillary, and it
will require a good deal more study to determine whether
these rays, and many others which we have not tabulated, are
due to the peculiarity of the stimulus at the negative pole, or
to the presence of a previously unrecognized material.

As our mixture of gases probably includes some of all such
gases as pervade interplanetary and interstellar space, we early
looked in their spectra for the prominent nebular, coronal, and
auroral rays. Searching the spectrum about 5007 no indica-
tion of any ray of about that wave-length was visible in the
spectrum of any one of the three tubes which had been filled
as above described. ‘Turning to the other green nebular line
at about » 4959 we found a weak, rather diffuse line to which
our first measure assigned a wave-length 4958. The correct-
ness of this wave-length was subsequently verified by measur-
ing with a micrometer eye-piece the distances of the line from
the helium lines A 4922-1 and A 5015°7 which were in the field
of view at the same time. The position of the line was almost
identical with that of the iron spark line X.4957°8, and the con-
clusion arrived at was that the wave-length was a little less
than 4958, and that it could not be the nebular line. There
remained the ultra-violet line X3727. Our photographs showed
a rather strong line very close to the iron spark line » 38727'8,
but slightly more refrangible. As the line is a tolerably strong
one it could be photographed with a grating spectrograph
along with the iron lines. This was done, and the wave-length
deduced from measuring the photograph was 3727-4. This is
too large by an amount which considerably exceeds the prob-
able errors of observation, and we are forced to conclude that
the nebular material is either absent from our tubes, or does not
show itself under the treatment to which it has been subjected.

Although the residual gases of the atmosphere, uncondensed
at the temperature of liquid hydrogen do not show the nebular
lines, we found that another tube gave a ray very close indeed
to the principal green nebular ray. This tube had been filled
with gas prepared in the same way as the others, with the

158 Liveing and Dewar—Spectrum of the more

exception that in passing from the vessel into which the first
fraction of liquid air was distilled it was not passed through a
U-tube immersed in liquid hydrogen on its way to the
exhausted tube. In consequence it contained traces of nitro-
gen and argon, and when sparked showed the spectra of these
elements as well as those of hydrogen, helium, ete. The
nitrogen spectrum disappeared after some sparking, but the
tube still shows rays of argon as well as those of the gases in
the other tubes. On examining the spectrum of the negative
pole in the neighborhood of the principal green ray, a weak
ray was seen in addition to those given by the other tubes. It
was found by comparison with the nitrogen rays ) 5002°7 and
X 5005°7 to be a little less refrangible than the latter of these
rays, and by measuring its distance from the nitrogen rays and
from the two helium rays 4932-1 and 5015-7.

With a micrometer eye-piece, the wave-length > 5007-7 for
the new ray was deduced. This looks as if we might find the
substance which is luminous in nebule to be really present in
the earth’s atmosphere, and we hope shortly to be able to
verify the observation of it.

Turning to the coronal rays, our tubes emit a weak ray at
about A 53804. This is not far from the wave-length A 5303-7
assigned by Sir N. Lockyer to the green coronal ray. It is,
however, greater than that assigned by Campbell, namely,
5303°26.* Other lines observed by us near the places of coro-
nal lines are at wave-lengths about 4687, 4358, 4570, 4323,
4232, 4220, 3985, 3800. These are all weak lines except that

at 2 4232, which is of tolerable strength, and that at » 4220

which is rather a strong line. The wave-lengths 4323, 4232,
4220, and 38800 come very close to those assigned to coronal
rays, but the others hardly come within the limits of probable
error. The ray 4220 seems too strong in proportion to the
others, but the strength of that at 4232 seems to accord with
the strength of the corresponding ray in the corona. It will
be seen that the rays we enumerate above correspond approxi-
mately to the stronger rays in Sir N. Lockyer’s list.t Further
measures of the wave-lengths of the faint lines are needed
before we can say definitely whether or no we have in our
tubes a substance producing the coronal rays, or some of them.

As to the auroral rays, we have not seen any ray in the
spectrum of our tubes near 5571-5, the green auroral ray.
We have observed two weak rays at 14206 and A 4198 which
may possibly, one or both represent the auroral ray A 420.
The very strong ray of argon, \ 4200°8, would make it prob-
able that argon was the origin of this auroral ray, if the other,

* Astroph. J., vol. x, p. 190.
+ Roy. Soe. Proe., vol. Ixvi, p. 191.

Rea are ey ‘ :
rege

Volatile Gases of Atmospheric Air. 159

equally strong, argon rays in the same region of the spectrum
were not absent from the aurora. Nor have we found in the
spectrum of our tubes any line with the wave-length 3915,
which is that of another strong auroral line. On the other
hand it seems probable that the strong auroral line, \ 358, may
be due to the material which gives us the very remarkable pair
of lines at about the place of N of the solar spectrum, A 3587,
which are very strong in the spectrum of the negative pole,
but only faint in that of the capillary part of our tubes. It
may well be that the auroral discharge is analogous to that
about the negative pole. We have also a fairly strong ray at
» 8700, which may be compared to the remaining strong ray
observed in the aurora X 3700. This, however, is a ray which
is emitted from the capillary part of our tubes as well as from
the negative pole, and is, moreover, emitted by Bath gas, and
may very likely be a neon ray.

We hope to pursue the investigation of this interesting
spectrum, and if possible to sort out the rays which may be
ascribed to substances such as neon and those which are due to
one or more other substances. The gas from Bath, even if
primarily derived from the atmosphere—which is by no means
sure—seems to have undergone some sifting which has affected
the relative proportions of helium and neon, and a more thor-
ough comparison of its spectrum with that of the residual
atmospheric gases may probably lead to some disentanglement
of the rays which originate from different materials. The
arrangement of the rays in series, if that could be done, would
be a step in the same direction.

We are indebted to Mr. Robert Lennox, F.C.8., for the
great help he gave us in the complicated manipulation with
liquid hydrogen required to fill the spectral tubes, and to Mr.
J. W. Heath, F.C.S., for kind assistance.

List of Approximate Wave-lengths of the Rays, Visible and
Ultra-violet, observed about the Negative Pole.

The rays of hydrogen and. helium, and those attributed to
neon by other observers are indicated by the chemical symbols
of those substances :

A “b” prefixed to the number expressing the wave-length
indicates that the ray is emitted by gas from the Bath spring
as well as by that obtained from the atmosphere.

A “ec” similarly prefixed indicates that the ray has been

‘observed to be emitted from the capillary part of the tube as

well as from about the negative pole. Pie
A “w” indicates a weak line; “s” a strong one; “d” a
diffuse one; “vw” a very weak; and “vs” a very strong one.

160
be He 7281°8
7247 b
Role:
be He 7065°5 vwb
Vw 7058 vw
be Ne 7034 wh
be Ne 6931 Vw
be Ne 6716 vwhb
be Ne 6678°4 b Ne
be Ne 6601
sc He 6563
be 6535
be Ne 6508 be Ne
vwbe 6446 be Ne
be Ne 6404 Ww
be Ne 6382 WwW
be Ne 6334
be Ne 6304 b
be Ne 6266
be 6244 b Ne
be 6232 b
be Ne 6217 b Ne
b 6183
be 6176 b Ne
be Ne 61638
be Ne 6144 b Ne
vwb 6128 b Ne
b Ne 6097
b Ne 6075 b He
b Ne 6031 sbe
b 6001
b 5991 b He
wb ~=_-5987 wd
be Ne 5976 b He
wh 5964 vw
sdb Ne 5945 sc H
WwW 5919 vwb
Ww 5914 Vw
wh 5905 vwb
be 5882 wd
be He5875‘9 wd
vsbe Ne 5852°7 b Ne
sb 5820 b Ne
sb 5804 b Ne
sbe 5763 Ww
be ban Ww
be 5718 wh
be 5689 w
whe 5662 wh
be 5656 Ww

5592
5561
5532
5503
5447
5432
5417
5409
5400
5372
5360
5355

5341 a pair

5330
5304
5298
5234
5222
5209
5204
5192
5188
5152
5145
5122
5116
5180
5074
5047°8
5038
5031
5015°7
4958
4922°1
4884
4861°5
4838
4819
4811
479]
4754
4715
4710
4704
A687
4680
4657
4647
4640
4636

4444

=

b He

Liveing and Dewar—Spectrum of the more

4628
4616
4589
4583
4576
4570
4540
4538
4526
4523
4518
4508
4500
4488
4471°6
4460
4457
4438
4437°7
4431
4429
4424
4422
4413
4409
4398
4392
4388°1
4380
4370
4365
4363
4358
4347
4340°7
4334
4322
4315
4306
4200
4276
4270
4261
4258
4251
424]
4234
4232
4220
4218

Volatile Gases of Atmospheric Air. 161

Ww 4206 3766 be 3460
Vw 4198 314. 3 Ww 3456
we 4176 3751 be 3454
wh He 4169°1 vw 3745 sbe He 3447-7
WwW 4151 Wie: 3738 Ww 3429
b He 4143°9 ?c¢ 37385 Ww 3424
Ww 4134 ?¢ 3728 sbe 3418
b LEN Bs ea Ww 322 Vw 3417
wh 4128 WwW Big hed I) Ww 3407
b He 4121 Ss 3713 Ww 3404
WwW 4112 SFA ue) b 3393
scH 4102 be He 3705:2 b 3388
Ww 4099 Ww 3703 Ss 3378
Vw 4086 3701 Vw 3374
Ww 4080 8?¢ 3694 Ww 3372
Ww 4063 Cc 3686 be 3370
4047 Cc 3683 3367
Vw 4043 ?¢ 3664 WwW 3363
Vw 4037 3655 Vw 3362
vsbe He 4026°3 3651 3360
b?He 4009 Ww 3650 3358
WwW 3996 3644 apair bHe 3354:7
vw 3985 sc?He 3634 apair s 3345
VW 3980 Vw 3628 Ww 3344
sc He 3970 be He 3613°8 8 3300
s He 3964:9 Ww 3609 3329
Vw 3933 be ? He 3600 3327
?b? He 3927 sbe 3593 s 3324
3905 vs 3587°5apair sb 3319
3900 3015 Ww 3015
vsbe He 3888°8 Ww 3001 Ww 3013
whe? He 3872 3569 Ww 3311
be He 38867°6 Ww 3061 3a10
Ww 3866 Ww 3558 b?He 3297
Ww 3862 vwbh 3548 Vw 3254
we? 3860 3543 wh 3250
Ww 8856 vscb 3521 ~ 8 3244
Ww 3842 be 3515 o2Zo0
WwW 3840 whe 3510 Ppair 3230
cH 3836 Ww 3504 o220
b 3830 be 3500 8 3218
sbe He 3819°75 be? He 3598 3214
we? He 3806 3482 3209
Ww 3800 3481 3199
et” “3798 sbe 3473 sb He 3187°8
Slt be 3467 Ww 3165
wH aml be 3464 Ww 3142

Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH SERies. Vou. XI, No. 62.—FEBRUARY, 1901.
11

162 Scientific Intelligence.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysICcSs.

1. Diethyl Peroxide.—BarYER and ViLLIcER have succeeded
in preparing this interesting derivative of hydrogen peroxide by
the action of the latter upon diethyl sulphate with the gradual
addition of potassium hydroxide. The substance, (C,H,),O,, is a
colorless, mobile liquid, boiling at 65°, which does not solidify in
a mixture of solid carbon dioxide and ether. It is difficultly solu-
ble in water, but miscible with alcohol and ether. It has a faint
odor resembling ethyl bromide, and its specific gravity at 15°
compared with water at 4° is ‘8273. In its chemical behavior it
is remarkably inactive for a peroxide. It does not react with
permanganate, chromic acid or titanium sulphate. Acidified
potassium iodide solution is not changed by it until after long
standing. Metallic sodium has no action upon the pure sub-
stance, and sodium amalgam in the presence of water does not
reduce it. Alkaline pyrogallate solution is not darkened by it
until after long standing, when an intense color is produced ,and
alcohol is formed. The substance, like all peroxides, is quickly
reduced by the action of glacial acetic acid and zine dust, the
product being alcohol. The low kindling-point of the substance
1s very striking. If the bulb of a thermometer warmed to 250°
is brought near the liquid, it ignites and burns very rapidly but
noiselessly with a large, luminous flame. Carbon disulphide
under the same conditions could not be kindled until a tempera-
ture of 300° was reached. If a hot copper wire is brought near
the liquid for an instant in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, the
substance disappears very quickly after the wire isremoved with-
out producing sound or light, and without boiling. This is appar-
ently a sort of slow explosion, which is almost magical in the
impression made upon the observer. This internal combustion
produces a large amount of formaldehyde, and, besides this, prin-
cipally carbon monoxide and ethane. A mixture of the vapor of
the substance with air explodes with violence, while with oxygen
it explodes more strongly than detonating gas. The authors
were unable to explode the liquid by the blow of a hammer even
when fulminating silver was present, but it is their opinion that
this apparently harmless substance may be very dangerous under
certain conditions, just as acetylene is.

The properties of diethyl peroxide indicate that the older struc-
tural formula for hydrogen peroxide, HO .OH is more probable
than a newer one that has been advanced, H,: O: O, in which one
of the oxygen atoms is assumed to be quadrivalent. For, if the
ethyl compound had a structure analogous to the latter it seems
probable that its reduction product would be ethyl ether instead
of alcohol; moreover it would be expected that (C,H,),0:O
would act upon alkaline pyrogallate as rapidly as molecular
oxygen, O: 0.

Chemistry und Physics. 163

In preparing the compound that has been described the authors
‘obtained a second substance which they had not yet been able to
purify. They are convinced, however, that it is mono-ethylated
hydrogen peroxide, C,H,.HO,. This substance is miscible with
water, has an odor similar to chloride of lime, does not act upon
acidified permanganate or dichromate solutions, but behaves like
hydrogen peroxide with potassium iodide solution.— Berichte,
XXXlli, 3387. H. L. Ww.
2. Ammonium Amalgam.—It has been recently shown by
ALFRED Corun that this well known, curious substance, which
swells up and gives off ammonia and hydrogen gases, is in all
probability what its name implies. It was found that at about
0° the ammonium amalgam produced by electrolysis is compara-
tively stable, does not swell up, and presents a perfectly metallic
appearance. When the amalgam under these conditions was
allowed to act upon a cooled copper sulphate solution, the for-
mation of metallic copper was readily seen, exactly as when potas-
sium amalgam is used. It was possible also to reduce cadmium
and even zinc from solutions of their sulphates by means of this
amalgam. No such striking evidence of the fact that ammonium
behaves like an alkali metal has been previously obtained, as sim-
‘ilar experiments have failed at higher temperatures.—Zeztschr.
anorg. Chem., xxv, 430. H. Le W.
38. Hydrogen Telluride.—This gas which was discovered by
Davy in 1810, has not heretofore been prepared in a pure condi-
tion, although its composition, corresponding to the formula
TeH,, had been established by indirect means. ERnyeEr has
recently succeeded in preparing the pure substance. He first
obtained the gas mixed with only a small quantity of hydrogen
by means of electrolysis carried out at a temperature of —15 to
—20°, using tellurium as a negative electrode in 50 per cent sul-
phuric acid with a current of 220 volts. By cooling the impure
product with solid carbonic acid the hydrogen telluride solidified
to lemon yellow needle-like crystals which melted at about —54°
to a greenish-yellow liquid. Hydrogen telluride is a colorless gas
possessing a very disagreeable odor and poisonous properties.
In contact with air it decomposes at once, and even below 0° in a
sealed tube it decomposes spontaneously into hydrogen and tellu-
rium in a few days. It burns with a bright, blue flame, and is
rather soluble in water. When passed into alkaline solutions it
forms tellurides, but in solution of salts none are formed. The
last statement corrects a generally accepted error. The vapor
density of the pure substance determined by the method of
Dumas gave the numbers 65°48 and 64°72 compared with hydro-
gen as unity, while theory requires 64°8. In making these deter-
minations it was found that the liquid evaporated very slowly at
0°, but at 2 or 3° it went faster, The boiling point, therefore, is

probably a little above 0°.—Zettschr. anorg. Chem., xxv, 311.
. H, L, We

164 Scientific Intelligence.

4. The Conductivities of some Double Salts as Compared with
the Conductivities of Mixtures of their Constituents.—F. Linpsay
has made a series of experiments from which he draws the con-
clusion that the conductivity of a double salt in concentrated
solution is slightly less than that of a mixture of the constituents
having the same concentration. In other words, he infers that it
makes a difference in conductivity whether the constituents of a
double salt have been in actual combination in the solid state or
not before they are dissolved. The work, coming as it does from
the laboratory of Professor H. C. Jones of Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, deserves careful attention, but the conclusions are so
incredible that it seems easier to assume that the results are due
to experimental errors than that they are true. It must be ad-
mitted that the work was evidently done with great care, and that
three different double salts gave differences in the same direction ;
but these differences are small, and the results, being entirely con-
trary to the modern ideas of equilibrium in solution, will hardly
gain general acceptance without the most convincing confirma-
tion.— Am. Chem. Jour., xxv, 62. H. L. W.

5. Cause of the Loss in Weight of Commercial Platinum
when Heated—Having observed unusual losses in the weights of
platinum crucibles upon the introduction of blast from a blowing-
engine into a new laboratory, R. W. Har has made some import-
ant observations on the subject. He finds that strongly oxidiz-
ing flames greatly increase this loss. Where a crucible was
placed high up in a blast-lamp flame the loss was 1:0 mg. per
fifteen minutes, while lower down where the temperature was
higher the loss was only one-fourth as great. The author does
not find that the loss decreases after repeated ignition, as has
been previously supposed, and various kinds of crucibles, old and
new, of soft, comparatively pure platinum, and one of platinum-
iridium alloy gave about the same results. Experiments were
made by heating platinum wires by means of an electric current
in a glass tube through which various gases were passed. Carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen gave little or no losses,
while in air and oxygen the loss of platinum was very rapid, and
mirrors were produced in the tube. An examination of one of
the mirror-like deposits showed that the volatilized metal does
not dissolve in aqua regia as rapidly as the original wire, hence
it is inferred that certain elements are fractioned out of the
impure platinum. As an explanation of the results, the sugges-
tion is made that a volatile oxide of platinum is formed.—Jour.
Am. Chem. Soc., xxii, 494. H. L. W.

6. An Elementary Treatise on Qualitative Chemical Analysis ;
by J. F. Setters. 12mo, pp. vil, 160, Boston, 1900 (Ginn &
Company).—The author of this little book has aimed to avoid
the two extremes of fullness and brevity. His objection to the
latter in books where the material is condensed into “ tables ”
and ‘‘schemes” is undoubtedly well founded, and these unde-
sirable features are avoided. The practical part has been care-

ss

Chemistry and Physics. 165

fully worked out and is concise and brief enough for use in a
very short course on the subject. Several “improved” methods
have been introduced, some of which probably will not be as
satisfactory to most teachers as those generally used. The
introductory part of the book, comprising nearly half of it, seems
to be somewhat overdone in fullness. It is difficult to believe
that young pupils should study spectroscopy, including spark-
spectra, before beginning qualitative analysis. The introduction
of the “dissociation theory of solutions” is a step in the right
direction, but the rather elaborate treatment here will certainly
be far beyond the comprehension of the beginner who has no
knowledge of analytical facts. The table of solubilities, which is
also included in the introduction, contains a number of serious
errors: for instance, lithium fluoride and phosphate are given as
soluble in water. BL) is? W..
7. Die Bedeutung der Phasenlehre ; by Dr. H. W. Baxuutis
RoozEesoom. 8vo, pp. 29. Leipsic, 1900 (Wilhelm Engelmann),
—This lecture is a most excellent presentation of the Gibbs

Phase Rule. Perhaps no one is better qualified to treat this sub-

ject than Roozeboom who has done so much experimental work
on it. ‘The application of the rule to various cases of equilibrium
is taken up in a very clear elementary manner, with sugestions as
to its possible future application in geology and physiology. The
article is most heartily recommended to those who wish to take
up the subject. H. W. F.

8. On the Visibility of Hydrogen in Air.—Lord Ray eieu
has resumed some experiments begun in 1897 on the presence of
hydrogen in air, prompted by some late results obtained by M.
Gautier who, working by chemical methods, finds that air nor-
mally contains about 57% 7, of hydrogen in addition to variable
amounts of hydrocarbons. It appeared important to test these
results by spectroscopic analysis and the author relates his experi-
ence in endeavoring to get rid of the hydrogen which came from
the tubes and the drying materials employed. The visibility of
the C line with ordinary air was not perceptibly diminished by
the passage of the air over red hot cupric oxide. Lord Rayleigh
had previously found that hydrogen introduced into nitrogen
could be so far removed that the weight remained unaffected
although 54,45, of the residual hydrogen might be expected to
manifest itself. Lord Rayleigh concludes that the experiments
of Gautier are not above doubt, since it is not stated whether he
properly estimated the gas which might have come from the walls
of his apparatus. The paper also contains a method of showing
the presence of argon at atmospheric pressure in very small quan-

tities of air, and also a method of concentration of helium in the

atmosphere.— Phil. Mag., January, 1901, p. 100-105. i. Ts

9. Wireless Telegraphy.—Protessor Suaspy and Count Arco
have lately conducted experiments on communicating with dif-
ferent stations at the same time, and believe that they have over-
come previous difficulties. They have communicated with two

166 Scientific Intelligence.

stations distant two miles and eight miles from the conference
room of the General, Electric Company in Berlin. Two instru-
ments were used, both of which were connected to the lightning
conductor in the neighborhood. One instrument syntonized with
that in the laboratory of Charlottenburg, the other with that

in the works at Ober Schénweide. The greater part of Berlin

separated the conference room from one of the stations with
which successful messages were exchanged.—WNature, Dec. 27,
1900. Ss TD
10. The Telegraphone.—V. Pou1sEN discusses with fiures his
very interesting invention. A small electromagnet connected

with a microphone is moved along on aniron wire while a message

is spoken into the microphone. Subsequently the microphone is
removed and a telephone, having been substituted for it, the
electromagnet not traversed by a current is again moved over
the iron wire and the message is reproduced.—Ann. der Physik,
No. 12, 1900, pp. 754-760. J. T.

11. Onthe properties of Argon and its Companions.—In a paper
read before the Royal Society on November 13, by W. Ramsay
and M. W. Travers, after detailing the methods employed for
obtaining a supply of the gases associated with argon, the
authors give an interesting summary of their properties and with
this a statement in regard to their place in the periodic scheme.
We quote as follows:

“That these are all monatomic gases was proved by deter-
mination of the ratio of their specific heats by Kundt’s method;
the physical properties which we have determined are the refrac-
tivities, the densities, the compressibilities at two temperatures,
and of argon, krypton and xenon the vapor-pressures and the
volumes of the liquids at their boiling points. The results are as
follows — |

Helium. Neon. Argon. Krypton. Xenon

Refractivities (Air =1)__. 0°1238 0:2345 0°968 1:449 2°364
Densities of gases (0 = 16) 1:98 O:9/ts 19°96 40°88 64
Boiling-points at 760 mm - ? ? 86°9° 121:335 eo gellbeeoe
abs. abs. abs.
Critical temperatures. -._- ? below 68° 155°6° 210°5° 287-7°
abs. abs. abs. abs.
Critical pressures -.__.--- ? ? 40:2 41°24 43°5
meters meters meters
Vapor-pressure ratio ___.- li " 0°0350 0:0467 0:0675
Weight of 1 cc. of quid. i 1212 2°155 3°52
a grams grams grams
Molecular volumes ------- 8 % 32°92 37°84 36°40

The compressibilities of these gases also show interesting
features. They were measured at two temperatures—11°2° and
237°3°; the value of PV for an ideal and perfect gas at 112°
is 17,710 meter-cubic centimeters, and at 237°3° to 31,800. This
is, of course, on the assumption that the product remains constant
whatever be the variation in pressure. Now with hydrogen at
11:2° C. the product increases with the rise of pressure; with
nitrogen, according to Amagat, it first decreases slightly and then

Chemistry and Physics. 167

increases slightly. With helium the increase is more rapid than
with hydrogen; with argon there is first a considerable decrease
followed at very high pressures by a gentle increase, although the
product does not reach the theoretical value at 100 atmospheres
pressure; with krypton the change with rise of pressure is a still
more marked decrease, and with xenon the decrease is very sud-
den. At the higher temperature the results are more difficult to
interpret; while nitrogen maintains its nearly constant value for
PV, helium decreases rapidly, then increases, and the same pecu-
liarity is to be remarked with the other gases, although they do
not give the product of PV coinciding with that calculable by
assuming that the increase of PV is proportional to the rise of
absolute temperature.

These last experiments must be taken as merely preliminary ;
but they show that further research in this direction would be
productive of interesting results.

The spectra of these gases have been accurately measured by
Mr. E. C. C. Baly, with a Rowland grating; the results of his
measurements will shortly be published. It may be remarked,
however, that the colour of a neon-tube is extremely brilliant and

of an orange-pink hue; it resembles nothing so much as a flame,

and it is characterized by a multitude of intense orange and yellow
lines; that of krypton is pale violet; and that of xenon is sky-
blue. The paper contains plates showing the most brilliant lines
of the visible spectrum.

That the gases form a series in the periodic table, between that
of fluorine and that of sodium, is proved by three lines of argu-
ment:

(1) The ratio between their specific heats at constant pressure
and constant volume is 1°66.

(2) If the densities be regarded as identical with the atomic
weights, as in the case with diatomic gases such as hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen, there is no place for those elements in the

periodic table. The group of elements which includes them
is :—*

Hydrogen. Helium. Lithium. Beryllium.
] + 7 e,
Fluorine. Neon. Sodium. Magnesium.
18 20 23 24

Chlorine. Argon. Potassium. Calcium.
35°5 40 39 40
Bromine. Krypton. Rubidium. Strontium.
80 82 85 87
Iodine. Xenon. Czesium. Barium,
127 128 133 137

(3) These elements exhibit gradations in properties such as
refractive index, atomic volume, melting-point, and boiling-point,
which find a fitting place on diagrams showing such periodic

* For arguments in favour of placing hydrogen at the head of the fluorine
group of elements, see Orme Masson, Chem. News, vol. 73, 1896, p. 283.

168 Scientific Intelligence.

relations. Some of these diagrams are reproduced in the original
paper. Thus the refractive equivalents are found at the lower
apices of the descending curves; the’ atomic volumes, on the
ascending branches, in appropriate positions; and the melting
and boiling points, like the refractivities, occupy positions at
the lower apices.

Although, however, such regularity is to be noticed, similar to
that which is found with other elements, we have entertained
hopes that the simple nature of the molecules of the inactive
gases might have thrown light on the puzzling incongruities of
the periodic table. That hope has been disappointed. We have
not been able to predict accurately any one of the properties
of one of these gases from a knowledge of those of the others ;
an approximate guess is all that can be made. The conundrum ot
the periodic table has yet to be solved.” —Proc. Roy. Soc., No. 439.

12. Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory ; edited by
Epwarp W. Scriprurs, Ph.D., Director. Volume VII, 1899,
pp. 1-108. Yale University, New Haven, Conn.—This volume,
which is issued from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, contains
an interesting paper by Dr. Scripture (pp. 1-101) giving the
result of a first series of researches in experimental phonetics.
The immediate question before the experimenter, as stated by
him, was as to the possibility of using laboratory methods to
settle the controversy in regard to the quantitative character of
English verse. Records of verses in English poetry were made
by means of a gramophone and were transcribed with great care
by the use of delicate apparatus. The results are discussed in
detail as to the character of the vowel- and consonant-sounds and
their physiological explanation, also as to the nature of the
rhythm. <A second paper (pp. 102-108), also by Dr. Scripture,
gives observations on rhythmic action.

Il. Grontocy AND MINERALOGY.

1. Zhe Periodic Variations of Glaciers.—Professor F. A.
FoREL, in a lecture before the Helvetic Society of Sciences at
Thusis, in September, 1900, gave an interesting summary of his
views in regard to the variations in length of glaciers, particu-
larly as applied to those of Switzerland. He notes, in the first
place, that the variation that takes place is really one of volume
and not of form, though the observation of one dimension,
as that of length, is usually sufficient in the discussion of
the phenomenon. In regard to the changes that have taken place
during the nineteenth century, he notes a decided phase of
advance between 1816 and 1820; a maximum recognized every-
where in 1855, and a general recession from 1856 to the end
of the century, with a small partial advance between 1875 and
1893. This is shown more definitely in the following table.

Geology and Mineralogy. 169

1800-1811 @

1811-1816 (1822) Advance.

1818-1820 Grand maximum.

1820-1830 ' Slight recession, uncertain.
1830-1850 _ Contradictory movements.

1855 Maximum.

1856-1900 Recession.

1875-1892 Advance for some Swiss glaciers.
1890-1900 Same for some Austrian glaciers.

In regard to the duration of the periodic movement in general,
there are to be recognized two distinct periods. First, the
annual, caused by the fact that during the winter months no
melting takes place, and the state of the glacier is stationary; the
advance, consequently, continues, so that there is a temporary
increase between October and April or May. During the sum-
mer months, however, the melting predominates and a decrease
shows itself. This annual period causes in one case an accelera-
tion, in another, a retardation, of the general variation going on,
whatever that may be.

There is also a cyclic period, the duration of which is not easily
established, but which the author connects with the thirty-five-
year climatic period called the Cycle of Briickner. Thus, in 1889,
after considering all the facts available, he arrived at the conclu-
sion that the average value of the phase of increase was 10:5
years, that of decrease 27:4 years, or together 37°9 years for the
entire period. This conclusion was also reached by E. Richter
(1891) after discussing the observed maxima from 1600 down to
1840-50. Forel, however, is inclined to regard the actual periodic
relations as much more complex. He would divide the Swiss
glaciers for the nineteenth century into three classes. First,
those with a single period, like that of the Aar, with a maximum
about 1870; second, those of two periods, as the Rhone, maxi-
mums 1820, 1855; and finally, those of three periods, as the Trient

and des Bossons, with maximums 1820, 1855, and 1892. While

the glacial increase in general is due to an excess of precipitation,
the period coinciding probably with the Briickner cycle, the
actual advance must depend upon the length of time which the
snow-fall requires in its journey from the upper névé regions to
the glacial front, varying for glaciers of different length. The
actual effect observed will be modified by the temperature condi-
tions existing. The author adds that the minimum state is to be
regarded as the normal magnitude for the glacier, the forward
impulses being, as it were, accidents.— Bz0l. Univ., Nov. 15, 1900.

In this connection, attention may be called to the 5th Report
(for 1899) on the periodic variations of glaciers by E. Richter,
President of the International Commission of Glaciers (see this
Journal, ix, 71). In this report (Bibl. Univ., July 1900,) it is
noted that for the Swiss glaciers the phase of advance which

began about 1875, has spent its force, so that now, for 1899, only

one glacier (Boveyre, Rhéne) is certainly and only nine others
probably advancing: which nineteen are certainly, and fort y-four
probably, retrograding.

170 Scientific Intelligence.

2. Contributions to the Tertiary Fauna of Florida, with

especial reference to the Silex Beds of Tampa and the Pliocene
Beds of the Caloosahatchie River, including in many cases a
complete revision of the Generic Groups treated of and their
American Tertiary Species; by Wittram Heatey Dati. Trans-
actions of the Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia,
vol. iil, Part v, pp. 949-1218 ; plates xxxvi-xlvii. Philadelphia,
December, 1900.—The present Part, No. V, of Dr. Dall’s import-
ant contributions to the Tertiary of Florida, includes the genera,
from Solento Diplodonta, of the order Teleodesmacea. It carries
the whole so far on towards completion that it is expected that
the entire work will be finished in another installment. This
part has all the admirable characteristics in substance and method
of presentation that have marked its predecessors. The careful
and minute critical labor which is recorded here must serve to
restore order in the case of a number of groups in which the
nomenclature has been hitherto much confused. In addition to
the description of the well-known species included within these
limits, a very considerable number of new species are given.
The illustrations given on the plates with which the part closes
are worthy of the descriptive portion of the work and leave
nothing to be desired.
_» 8 A record of the Geology of Texas for the decade ending
* December 831, 1896 ; by FREDERIC W. Suvonps. (Hx. Trans.
Acad. Sci., Vol. III.) | Pp. 1-280. 1900.—The value of this
Index is greatly increased by the brief summary of contents of
each of the volumes cited. It supplements Bulletin 45 of the
U. 8S. Geological Survey (The Present Condition of Knowledge
of the Geology of Texas, by Robert T. Hill, 1887), bringing the
record down to the close of 1896. Ww.

4, Geological Survey of Canada ; G. M. Dawson, Director.
General index of the Reports of Progress, 1863 to 1884, (com-
piled by D. B. Dowling). Pp. 1-475. 1900.—The Reports of
the Geological Survey of Canada prior to 1863, were condensed
and summarized in the Geology of Canada, 1863. The present
index begins with this volume of 1863 and includes the volumes
published up to the Reports of Progress for 1882, 1883, 1884,
published in 1884. Its usefulness is apparent. Since 1884
‘¢ Annual Reports” have been published having their own indices.
Special publications and paleontological and botanical reports of
the Geological Survey are not indexed in this volume. Ww.

5, Report on the Geology and Natural Resources of the
Oountry traversed by the Yellow Head Pass Route from Edmon-
ton to Téte Jaune Cache, comprising portions of Alberta and
British Columbia; by James McEvoy. Pp. 1-44 D, Pl. LI,
figs. 1-2, 1 map. 1900.—In the region traversed by Mr. McEvoy
the following formations were met with :

7 a

Geology and Mineralogy. Url

Wertiary ls" 2... Paskapoo beds | Larami
Cretaceous Edmonton beds :
as Sa Pierre and Fox Hill

Devono-Carboniferous

3 E Castle Mt. Group
Cambrian .----.. 1 Bow River Series

Archean ...--.- .Shuswap Series W.

6. Mesozoic Fossils, Vol. I, Pt. TV. On some additional or
imperfectly understood fossils from the Cretaceous rocks of the
Queen Charlotte Islands, with a revised list of the species from
these rocks; by J. F. Wuirraves. Pp. 263-307, pl. 33-39.
1900.—In addition to making a thorough revision of the Cre-
taceous faunas of the Queen Charlotte Islands, the author par-
ticularly discusses the fauna of the ‘lower shales,” describing
several new species. Ww.

7. The Geology of the Albuquerque Sheet ; by C. L. HERRICK ,
and D. W. Jounson. From the Bull. Sci. Lab., Denison Univer-
sity, Vol. xi, pp. 175-239, folded map and plates xxvii—lviil.
June, 1900. Edited by W. G. Tight.)—The authors present in
this paper a detailed account of their study of the Albuquerque
region, as a sample of the geology of the Territory of New Mex-
ico. They give descriptions of the species, some of which are
new, and figures of the old species are reproduced from Bulletin
106, of U.S. Geological Survey. It furnishes a valuable sum-
mary of the local geology, correlated and compared with stand-
ard sections of other regions. H. S. W.

8. IL Vulcani dell’ Italia Centrale. Parte I, Vulcano Laziale,;
by V. Sapatini. Vol. X of Memorie descrittive della Carta
Geologica Italiana. 8vo, pp. 392, pl. 11. Rome, 1900.—This,
the first of a projected series of monographs on the volcanoes of
central Italy, is a careful and detailed study of the complex of
eruptive vents and the materials of which they have been built
up. The author distinguishes five distinct craters, the oldest
being the largest (Tusculan), and the latest that of Ariccia. The
extensive deposits of tuff in the Roman Campagna are described
at length, and the vexed question of their age and order of suc-
cession discussed. The earliest manifestations of activity appear
to have been about the end of the Pliocene. Detailed petrograph-
ical descriptions are given of the tuffs and lavas, among the
interesting features being the growth of leucite crystals and their
alteration to feldspar. A few new analyses are given of the leu-
citites and leucite-tephrites, but it may be regretted that the author
did not devote more space to a’discussion of the relationships of
these interesting rocks, A number of good phototypes and a
colored plate of rock sections, together with a geological map on
a scale of 1:75000, adorn the volume, which is an important addi-
tion to the literature of Italian geology. H, S. WASHINGTON.

9. Occurrence of Zoisite and Thulite near Baltimore.*—These \

* From notes by the late John W. Lee furnished by Prof. A. W. Bibbins of
Baltimore. "

172 Scientific Intelligence.

minerals were found for the first time in Maryland in May, 1895,
in a pegmatite dike, in the quarry of hornblende schist operated
by Alphaeus H. Wright on Stony Run, east of Hampden. The
gangue is white feldspar (oligoclase) together with mica, com-
pact garnets in mass, tale, etc. They occur in the cracks and
veins of the oligoclase as thin crusts, mostly in radiated crystals,
isomorphous with epidote, with which it is intimately associated.
The epidote has a brighter luster than the Jones Falls specimens
in general. |

The thulite is bright pink, shading off into light pink and light
orange, clear and glassy. The crystalline form of the zoisite is
identical with that of the thulite. It is gray, shading into the
light and dark green of the epidote. There is room for question
whether this should not also be regarded as thulite. Foliated,
stellated and granular tale also occur, occasionally changing to
deweylite. Bright iron pyrites is also often met with. The
quartz has yielded a single crystal of beryl of good size and
color—a rarity in Maryland. WS

Harris gneiss quarry on Jones Falls has yielded a large quan-
tity of epidote but all of one color—dark bottle-green, but the
slightest tint of pink or gray or intermediate colors has never
appeared here, though the two localities are scarcely half a mile
apart.

III. MisckELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

- 1. The Transcontinental Triangulation and the American
Arc of the Parallel ; by Cuas. A. Scuott, Chief of the Comput-
ing Division. Pp. 871, with 2 maps and 55 illustrations; 4to.
Washington, 1900. (United States Coast and Geodetic Survey,
Henry S. Pritchett, Superintendent. General Publication, No.
4).—The work of transcontinental triangulation began in 1871.
Its completion in 1900 “marks an epoch not only in the scientific
history of the United States but in the world’s Geodesy as well.”
We have now a continuous triangulation along the 39th parallel
from the Atlantic to the Pacific 2,625 miles in length. Its value
to the sixteen states embraced by it need not be explained. Its
value from a scientific standpoint consists in the great addition it
offers to the data necessary for the accurate determination of the
earth’s shape and size. No contribution to geodesy of equal
magnitude has ever been made, that most nearly comparable
being the measurement of the great Indian are. -

Its main result may be summarized in the statement that the
curvature of the North American continent along the 39th paral-
lel given by it is intermediate between that of the Bessel and
the Clarke spheroids. The accuracy of this deduction is evi-
denced by the fact that the probable error in the measured length
of the entire arc of 4,224 kilometers is 26 meters, while the dif-
ference on the spheroids of Clarke and Bessel for the same arc is
615 meters.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 173

The entire triangulation is divided into three sections: the
western of 1,047 miles characterized by the great altitude of its
stations, many of them over 12,000 feet, and the unusual size of its
triangles, many of the sides being over 100 miles long and not a
few over 150 miles long; the central section of 756 miles from
Colorado to St. Louis, with low stations and small triangles ; and
the eastern section of 822 miles, terminating at the Capes of the
Delaware and marked by small but diversified hypsometric
features. During the progress of this work, and in many cases
resulting from it, new methods have been introduced and great
gains have been achieved both in precision and rapidity of execu-
tion. Among the special problems met with may be mentioned
the changed conditions in attractive and centrifugal force found
at the great altitudes of the western stations, the variations in
refraction between stations of very different altitudes, the develop-
ment of new formule for spherical excess and the special treat- -
ment of geographical positions requisite in triangles whose sides
are as long as 180 miles, as well as mechanical questions involved
in mounting instruments 150 feet above the ground and erecting
observing poles 275 feet high.

Most difficult of all and requiring the qualities of a great gen-
eral is the orderly marshalling of the vast bulk of material of
observation and the utilization of it to the best effect. The
responsibility for this task has fallen chiefly on Mr. C. A. Schott,
who has been in active service in the bureau for more than 50
years. W. B.

2. Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College.—The Fifty-
fifth Annual Report of the Director of the Harvard Astro-
nomical Observatory, Prof. E. C. Pickering, in addition to the
usual summary of work accomplished, gives an interesting
statement of the present needs of the institution. It appears
that the annual income of the Observatory is now nearly $50,000,
which puts it on an equal footing with the chief observatories of
the world ; but, notwithstanding, the shrinkage in interest rate
makes an additional sum of $200,000 necessary if the income of
six years ago is to be secured permanently. Furthermore, new
and fire-proof buildings at Cambridge are urgently needed; a
large telescope mounted in the Southern Hemisphere would also
prove a most valuable means of carrying on important work
which cannot be provided for at present. Thus a sum of half a
million dollars is needed to keep the Observatory in the foremost
rank. Attention is also called to a considerable series of unpub-
lished investigations which, if completed, would fill twenty-eight,
volumes, or two-thirds as many as have been published by the
Observatory during its existence of the past fifty years. A
moderate expenditure for additional computers would make
prompt publication of this material practicable.

Volume xxxvii, Part I, of the Annals of the Observatory has
recently been issued. It contains observations of circumpolar
variable stars during the years 1889-1899, prepared for publica-
tion by Oliver C. Wendell, Assistant Professor of Astronomy.

174 Scientefie Intelligence.

3. Norway ; Official Publication of the Paris Eichibition, 1900.
Pp. xxxiv, 626. Christiania, 1900.—This beautiful volume, pre
_pared for the occasion of the Paris Exhibition of 1900, deserves
a fuller notice than would be appropriate in this place. It con-
tains a series of articles by able writers discussing this most
interesting country in all its features, scientific, political, eco-
nomic, educational, and artistic. These chapters are liberally
illustrated by an abundance of excellent plates. An interesting
though brief summary of the geology of the country, with a geo-
logical map, is given by Professor H. H. Reusch; other scientific
papers are those on the climate by Axel Steen; on the plant life
by H. H. Gran; on the animal life by James A. Grieg. The
text has been translated into good English and the volume as a
whole will be found to have permanent value as a useful book of
reference. |
4. American Museum of Natural History.—It has been
recently announced that through the generosity of a donor whose
name is for the present withheld, the collections of minerals and
meteorites belonging to Mr. Clarence 8S. Bement of Philadelphia
have become the property of the American Museum of Natural
History in Central Park, New York City. Mineralogists are
well aware of the very remarkable excellence of the Bement col-
lections, representing as they do the earnest labors, extending over
a period of many years, of a collector of indefatigable energy, keen
eye and good judgment, and one who was always ready to purchase
a specimen of unique beauty or interest even at a high price. It
is a matter for congratulation that these collections are to be pre-
served unbroken for all time for the benefit of science and the
, public.
if 5. The Principles of Mechanics: an Hlementary Exposition
for Students in Physics ; by FREDERICK SuiaTE, University of
California. Part I. Pp. 299. New York, 1900 (The Macmillan
Co.).— This book is intended for the use of students well
grounded in experimental physics and the calculus. In connec-
tion with the analytical development much emphasis is laid on
the fundamental notions of the science, which are broadly and
philosophically presented, though with a degree of abstractness
which would render it difficult for the beginner to grasp them
firmly. A greater proportion of concrete exercises involving
numerical computation would be desirable. W. B.

Knowledge Diary and Scientific Hand-book for 1901. Pp. 120. London, 1900
(Knowledge Office, 326 High Holborn). The introduction to this volume con-
tains an historic summary of the advance of science in the 19th century; astro-
nomical notes and tables, with an account of the astronomical phenomena of the
year; twelve star maps, showing the night sky for every month in the year,
with full descriptive account of the visible constellations and principal stars; a
calendar of notable events; photograph and detailed description of the gigantic
telescope exhibited at the Exposition Universelle in Paris, with a table of princi-
pal observatories of the world and monthly astronomical ephemeris.

2 + i rs : . .

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FOURTH SERIES.]

Art. XIIl.—Circular Magnetization and Magnetic Per-
meability ; by JoHN TROWBRIDGE and E. P. ADAmMs.

Very little quantitative work appears to have been done
upon the problem of the intensity of magnetization produced.
by an oscillatory current in an iron wire. Previous work of
this kind has been done with oscillatory currents, either
of very much higher frequency or of very much lower
intensity than those used in the experiments about to be
described.

In 1894, I. Klemencic* gave an account of some experi-
ments on this problem. He studied the effects of the oscil-
latory currents induced in an iron wire by Hertz waves,
reflected and received by parabolic mirrors. By comparing
the heat produced in a short iron wire through the action of
these oscillatory currents, with the heat produced in a similar
non-magnetic wire, he was able to arrive at a value for the
effective resistance of the iron wire to oscillatory currents.
Then by making use of Lord Rayleigh’s formula :

R! = V/4pinR-
he calculated the value of the permeability of the iron. The
heat produced in each case was compared by the use of a
thermal junction held near the wire under investigation. In
this way he arrived at the value 118 for the permeability
of the iron to oscillatory currents, and estimated the maxi-
mum value of the field strength at 290. He reasoned that
since this very large maximum field strength produced such
feeble magnetization, the permeability of iron to oscillatory

* Wiedemann’s Annalen, liii, p. 707.

Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SERIES, Vou. XI, No. 63.—Marcu, 1901.
12

176 =Trowbridge and Adams—Circular Magnetization.

currents was a constant. The frequency used by Klemencic
was about 9x10" oscillations per second.

The experiments described below are with oscillatory cur-
rents of frequencies ranging from 600 to 8000, with maximum
field strengths of higher values than those used by Klemencic.
It appears from the results given below that with oscilla-
tory currents of as low frequencies as this, the permeability is
not a constant, but depends upon the strength of the magnetic
field; that is, the iron behaves toward oscillatory currents in
much the same manner as it does toward steady currents,

Similar results were brought out recently in an article by
Marchant.* He showed that the same dependence of per-
meability to field strength holds in the case of oscillatory dis-
charges as in the case of steady currents. No figures are given
in his article by means of which a quantitative idea of this
relationship may be obtained.

The arrangement of apparatus used in our investigation was
as follows: B is a battery of 10,000 storage cells; C a con-

i
B A

denser consisting of 300 glass plates, coated on both sides with
tin-foil, the coated surface being 43338 centimeters. The
battery circuit was controlled by a switch at E. The discharge
circuit, CA DO, contained a spark-gap at D, of cadmium termi-
nals. The self-induction of this circuit could be changed by
placing coils of copper wire of different dimensions at A.

When the switch at E was closed the condenser was charged ;
it then discharged itself through the circuit CADC. This
latter circuit was so proportioned that the discharge was
always of an oscillatory character, that is, approximately, by
the well-known theory, R® was less than 4L/C, where R is the
resistance, L the self-induction, and O the capacity of the
circuit. The self-induction of A was large enough so that the
self-induction of the rest of the circuit could be neglected ;
and the electrostatic capacity of the circuit could also be neg-
lected in comparison with the capacity of the condenser.

* Nature, Aug. 30, 1900, p. 413.

‘000‘¢ 01 009 spoted YIM ‘cesuopuoD & fo Sesavyos|d A104e][IOSO—'Z HANSA

178 Trowbridge and Adams—Oircular Magnetization

In order to study the frequency of oscillation, the revolving
mirror method was used. A concave mirror of about 300 cen-
timeters focal distance was attached to the shaft of an elec-
tric motor. The image of the spark was reflected by the
revolving mirror upon a photographic plate, and when the
plate was developed the length of this image could be meas-
ured. Some typical photographs are shown in the accompany-—
ing cuts, fig. 2. The speed of the motor was obtained by means
of a chronograph, the cylinder of which was directly attached
to the shaft of the motor.

The formula connecting the periodic time of an oscillatory
discharge, T, with the self-induction, L, and the capacity, C, of
a circuit is:

Qar
T= ioe 13
LO 41?
or since R’/4L’ is very small compared with 1/LC,
T = 26,/LC |

In this formula T is known from the length of the spark on
the photographic plate, the distance of the plate from the
mirror, and the speed of rotation of the mirror. |

C was determined by placing at A a coil of copper wire
whose self-induction to steady currents could be accurately
calculated. It was then assumed that for the low frequency
used, the self-induction to oscillatory currents did not differ
appreciably from its calculated value. That this was a legitimate
assumption within the limits of experimental error, was shown
by the close agreement that existed between this calculated
value, and the value obtained by measuring the self-induction
by means of Rayleigh’s bridge, employing a frequency of
about 700. Knowing thus L and T, C could be calculated
by the above formula. The value of the capacity obtained
for the lowest frequency used. viz: 1°85 micro-farads, agrees
very closely with its value measured by comparison with a
standard condenser.

Two different coils of copper wire, corresponding to fre-
quencies, when alone in series with the condenser, of 633 and
1423 respectively, were used. For the higher of these two
frequencies the capacity was about 5 per cent less than for the
lower. Part of this change may have been due to the fact
that the change of self-induction of the copper coil was neg-
lected, but this latter was very small.

The iron wire, whose permeability was under investigation,
was arranged in the form of a rectangle, around the four sides

and Magnetic Permeability. 179

of the Jefferson Physical Laboratory—200 feet long and 60
feet wide. The wire was the ordinary soft iron wire, 0°105
inches in diameter. This iron wire was arranged so that it
could be put in series with either of the two copper coils, and
also so that it could form practically the only self-induction in
the discharge circuit.

The general method of procedure was as follows: As stated
above, one of the copper coils was placed at A and the
capacity of the condenser obtained. Next the iron wire was
placed in series with the same copper coil. This of course
changed the frequency of the discharge, but since the change
was not large, it was assumed that the capacity of the con-
denser was not sensibly altered. Knowing the periodic time
and the capacity, the self-induction of both copper coil and

iron wire was given by the formula T =27*/LC. Then the
self-induction of the iron wire alone was obtained by subtract-
ing from this combined self-induction, the calculated self-
induction of the copper coil. Then by means of Lord
Rayleigh’s formula:

Las gs wR
Wat (A+ a |

the permeability of the iron was obtained.

The same process was repeated using the other copper coil,
and the permeability at this different frequency obtained in
the same way. Finally the iron was placed alone in the dis-
charge circuit, and the self-induction of this obtained directly

from the formula: T = 27/LC. In order to get the capacity
of the condenser at this highest frequency, it was assumed
that it had diminished by 5 per cent. ‘This, of course, can
only be regarded as a rough approximation.

The experimental data and calculations follow:

The self-induction of the two coils of copper wire was calen-
lated by means of Maxwell’s formula:

8a j D
be trn'a\ log —— 2) +2 i(log — + 01 1835
R d
where:
‘ number of turns.
mean radius of coil.
geometric mean distance of cross-section of coil.
total length of wire.
diameter of insulated wire.
diameter of bare wire.

a heels =

180 Trowbridge and Adams—Circular Magnetization

In these coils :

D 03969"

@ 10712402

For the larger coil :

a 43°5558

R FA WIS ive

nm 144°

vs 3°421< 107

For the smaller coil:

a 40°2016
EE 1°4194
7 64°

De NDS Se

The iron wire was in the form of a rectangle, 200 feet long
and 60 feet wide, the diameter of the wire being 0°105 inches.
Rayleigh’s formula for self-induction with alternating cur-

rents is:
Vat( a + yo
4anl

Z length of wire.
# resistance for steady currents.

m number of alternations per second.
pm permeability.

where:

A is a constant, depending upon the geometric form of the
circuit, and can be calculated from the self-induction of the
circuit with steady currents. For steady currents, Rayleigh’s

formula becomes:
ae [pe
L= u( JAS ee a )

Using Maxwell’s formula for the self-induction of two parallel
wires, and applying it to this case, we get for the self-induc-
tion of the iron wire to steady currents :

= telog — + 4b log — + p(b+c)

Here
e length of rectangle.
6 width x
a radius of wire.
~ length of wire.
Hence

L = 311200 + 15860 p/2

and Magnetic Permeability. 181

and
1A = 311200

The resistance of the iron wire to steady currents was meas-
ured by means of Wheatstone’s Bridge, giving,

= 43) & LO:
Thus Rayleigh’s formula, for calculating the permeability,

when we know the self- coon of the iron wire to alternat-
ing currents, becomes :

L' = 311200 + (ee 10° 15860
4a7n

Discharging the condenser through the larger coil, we had :

Length of half-oscillation------- §-98°"
Peete @igmMIRFOr 22 225 22..25. ~ 3°0
Distance plate from mirror ..--. 300°9

From this we find the number of complete oscillations per
second to be:

n 633
Using this value of n, and the calculated value of the self-
induction of the coil given above, we find for the capacity of
thé condenser :

C 1°848 micro-farads.

Discharging the condenser through the same coil and the
iron wire in series we had :

Length of half-oscillation ------- 6-915"
Speedvel mirror 22... .. =.= - 222
Distance plate from mirror--.---. 300°9
giving
nm = 605

This gives for the combined self-induction of iron wire and
copper coil :
Li 3"745 < 10"

Subtracting from this the self-induction of the coil, that of the
iron wire becomes :
= 3-24 x 10°

Substituting this value in Rayleigh’s formula we get for the
permeability of the iron:
= 827

Discharging the condenser through the smaller coil alone,
we had:
Length of half-oscillation ---- -- - qeagom
SMeed. Ob mirror 222 24. .--.--'- 5°6
Distance plate from mirror ---- - 300°9

182 Trowbridge and Adams—Circular Magnetization

giving,
nm = 1423
This value of n, with the calculated value of the self-induction
of the coil, gives as the capacity of the condenser at this fre-
quency :
C = 1°756 micro-farads. .

Discharging the condenser through the smaller coil and the

iron wire in series, we had:

Length of half-oscillation -- .---- liso
Spéed-of mirror lei sk ae Bel 8:0
Distance plate from mirror _...- 300°9
giving
m2 = 1280

Using 1-756 as the capacity of the condenser, and this value of
n, we get for the combined self-induction of coil and j iron,

L='87805)< 10"
Subtr acting the self-induction of the coil, that of the iron wire
becomes :

Lk) = 168) x M0:
And by means of Rayleigh’s formula,

p = 443 .
‘Discharging the condenser through the iron wire alone, we

had:

Length of half-oscillation....... 2°42e™
Speed of minor. 205 eae 4:2
Distance of plate from mirror ._- 300°9
giving
nm = 3300

Assuming the capacity of the condenser to be 1°668 micro-
farads, and using this value of the frequency, we get for the
self-induction of the iron wire:
L’= 1:395 x 10°
By means of Rayleigh’s formula,
/ p=

The values of the permeability so calculated are a kind of
mean value for a single discharge of the condenser. The mag-
netic force is that due to the current in the wire, so that the
iron becomes circularly magnetized. This magnetic force is 0
at the axis of the wire, and increases to the value 22/a@ on the
circumference, where 7 is the current and a@ the radius of the
wire. Thus the magnetic force is not a constant over the
cross-section of the wire; at any point in the wire its value is
Qrir/a*, where 7 is the distance of the point from the axis of

and Magnetic Permeability. 183.

the wire. The mean value, found by integrating this expres-

sion over the cross-section of the wire, is:

Bley = 47/3a = 2 FAS cheers

The following values were obtained by Klemencic* for the
susceptibility of iron wire to a steady circular magnetizing
force. The last column gives the permeability as calculated
from his results:

z(Amperes) Umax. Hmean k; Kee
"12 °23 "15 14°3 180

23 °43 29 16°7 210

46 87 58 20°2 255

°85 1°62 1°08 28°7 362
1°26 2°40 1°60 46°8 590
1°45 2°77 1°85 61°2 771
2°39 4°56 3°04 103°5 1304
3°62 4116590 4°60 1129 1423

These values of the permeability are thus seen not to differ
very much from the average values of the permeability with
longitudinal magnetization.

From the results of our experiment and the above table, it
would seem that the oscillatory currents we employed were
equivalent in their magnetizing effects upon the iron wire to

steady currents varying in strength from about 0°8 to 14

ainperes. We can easily get an approximate idea of what the
maximum current strength was as follows. The images meas-
ured on the photographic plates were in every case the images
of the first half-oscillation. Neglecting the damping during
this first half-oscillation, which is small, the maximum current
is given by the following expression :

E
VR? + 42°27 L”
E is the potential to which the condenser was charged. The
e.m.f. of each cell was very approximately 2 volts, giving as
the total e.m.f.,

I max. =

Hy =" 20,000 <0"

We can thus form the following table, making use of the
maximum current strengths thus obtained, and the maximum
magnetic field strengths: :

Tnax. (Amperes) Frequency. ls ax. Permeability.
140 605 53 327
282 1280 106 443
742 3300 278 fag:

* Wied. Annalen, lvi, p. 585.

184 Trowbridge and Adams—Curcular Magnetization, ete.

It might be supposed that we could have made a known
change in the current by employing one-half the battery to
charge the condenser. One-half, however, was not sufficient
to charge the condenser to such a degree that sufficient light
could be obtained in the spark. We believe that the following
inference, however, is correct: the permeability is seen to
increase with increasing field strength, in spite of the increase
of frequency. But the increase of permeability with increase
of field strength is seen to be much less rapid than in the case
of steady currents. For, from the table of Klemencic, a per-
meability of 827 corresponds to a maximum current of about
0°8 amperes, while a permeability of 711 corresponds to a cur-
rent of about 1-4 amperes. But in the case of an oscillatory
discharge, these two values of the permeability correspond to
maximum currents of 140 and 742 amperes respectively. This
clearly shows the effect of period in diminishing the perme-
ability; for the same change of permeability is produced by
increasing the currents in the ratio 8:14 with steady currents
as is produced by increasing the currents in the ratio 1:5 in
the case of oscillatory currents.
Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Harvard University.

eee a

Gould— Geology of Indian T. erritory, ete. 185

Art. XIV.—Wotes on the Geology of Parts of the Seminole,
Creek, Cherokee and Osage Nations ; by CHARLES NEWTON
GOULD. :

Duxine the month of August, 1900, while engaged in the
Oklahoma Geological Survey, I was enabled to make a brief
reconnaissance of the northwestern part of the Indian Territory
and the Osage nation, Oklahoma. The trip was made by
wagon and occupied in all about two weeks. I was accom-
panied by Mr. Paul J. White, botanist to the survey, and Mr.
Roy Hadsell, general assistant. The route lay through Cleve-
land and Pottawotamie counties, Oklahoma, and the Seminole,
Creek, Cherokee and Osage nations. The chief towns through
which we passed were Shawnee, Keokuk Falls, Okmulgee,
Sapulpa, Tulsa and Pawhuska.

The object of the trip was primarily to ascertain the general
geological features of the region, and particularly to locate the
eastern extremity of the Red-beds. Incidentally it was intended
to locate the position of the heavy ledges of limestone which
were supposed to extend southward from the Flint hills of
southern Kansas into the western part of the Creek nation.

As is well known, the Flint hills or Permian mountains
extend north and south across Kansas, reaching their culmina-
tion in Cowley, Butler, Chautauqua, Elk and Greenwood coun-
ties in the southeastern part of the State. For the most part
these hills are composed of massive ledges of limestone con-
taining great quantities of flint in the form of nodular concre-
tions. Besides the limestones there are beds of green, blue and
reddish shales of considerable thickness. The entire series is
fossiliferous. The fossils of the lower part of the hills indicate
that the rocks are of Upper Carboniferous age, while those
from the summit are Permian. The Cottonwood Falls lime-
stone, which lies near the point of division of these groups, is
located near the top of the Flint hills.

Few ledges of sandstone are found except in the extreme
southern part of the State. In the vicinity of Dexter, Cowley
County, Kansas, a bed of arenaceous shale immediately beneath
the Strong flint (Prosser) changes into a ledge of light brown
sandstone. This ledge may be traced south past Maple City to
the State line, and thence down Beaver creek to the vicinity
of the Kaw agency. By this time, however, several other
ledges of sandstone have come in. The section of a hill at the
mouth of Beaver reveals the presence of six ledges of sand-
stone each from five to fifteen feet thick, alternating with
limestone and shale.

This is intended to show that while the Flint hills in Kansas
consist almost entirely of limestones and shales, still on the

186 Gould—Geoloyy of Parts of the Seminole,

southern line of the State sandstones have already begun to
appear. ‘To the south these conditions obtain more and more
until the limestone is entirely replaced by sandstone. Even in
Kansas the rock east of the Flint hills is sandstone and shale.
To the west the limestones gradually thin out and give place
to shales (the Marion and Wellington formations) which farther
west are succeeded by the Red-beds. South of the State line
the sandstones from the east and the Red-beds from the west
begin to approach each other, while the limestone ledges be-
come thinner and thinner and the flint less pronounced.

In Pawnee County, Oklahoma, there are still some heavy
ledges of limestone, although even here sandstones greatly pre-
dominate. In eastern Payne County, fifty miles south of the
Kansas line, the conditions have changed still more. The
following section taken at Ingalls will illustrate the succession
of the various rocks:

Section at Ingalls, Oklahoma.

No Feet
13... Red clay and’ sandstone __)-. >a 20
12. Red sandstone -------- one 2
11. , Red clay shale..: .. 3 62-25, 20

10. Two ledgesof hard, flinty, fossiliferous
limestone, 1 to 2 feet thick, sepa-

rated by 1 foot of greenish clay... 5

9.” Red clay’shale: U2 222 saan 50
8.’ Sandstone '!. 00S). 2 ae ee ~ 5
7. Red and green shale._-.----------- 10
6, Limestione 22. 82 Jade. 0 See 1
5b S ha l@eeh 0k See es Le 10
4... lbimestione, .) 23862). 44 eee eee u
3. Greenish) shales) 442.236 aa 5
9... Limestone 2.322) sea tae ee 1
1; ‘Shales: ou bec)... 2a ee 20
Total ft) 2: hie 2 ee ee 150

No. 10 forms the cap of the noted Twin Mounds, seven miles
east of Ingalls, as well as the tops of numerous bluffs and
escarpments in the vicinity. It is the most pronounced ledge
in the region and isthe one that gives tone to the erosion forms.
It will be observed, however, that of the 150 feet of strata
represented but eight feet are limestones, the remainder being
either sandstone or shale, with the latter predominating.
Above the rocks represented in this section only shales and
sandstones of the Red-beds are to be found. The gradation
from the underlying Permian or Carboniferous to the super-
jacent Red-beds is so slow that when on the spot it is not easy
to tell just where the one leaves off and the other begins. At.

Oreck, Cherokee and Osage Nations. 187

Ingalls, as shown above, there is a fifty foot ledge of red clay
which may not be distinguished from typical Red-beds clay,
below the thickest limestone ledge in the region. On the State
line there are several hundred feet of blue and green shales
between the upper limestone and the base of the Red-beds.

In general, however, it may be observed that in going east-
ward from a Red-beds region toward the Carboniferous the
sandstones and shales, which have been of a deep brick-red color,
become more and more brownish and grayish, and finally lose
entirely their characteristic hue and take on that of the older
formations. The lithology changes also, but so gradually that
it is impracticable if not impossible to fix any but an arbitrary
line of separation between the two groups.

With these facts in mind the reconnaissance was undertaken.
In the absence of evidence to the contrary it was assumed that
the limestones forming the southern extension of the Flint
hills extended as far south as the Seminole nation. The plan,
then, was to go east from Norman, Oklahoma, until these lime-
stone ledges were encountered and then to follow them north-
ward to the Kansas line. This object was not accomplished
for the reason that on the eastern trip no limestones were
found. As will be shown later, the only time when the party
encountered the Flint hills was in the Osage nation, on the
road from Pawhuska to Winfield. While the trip extended
much farther east than had been planned, still this fact need
not be regarded as an unmixed evil inasmuch as it enabled us
to a region the geology of which has not been well under-
stood.

From Norman to Shawnee the rock is prevailingly red.
About the west line of the Seminole country the sandstones
begin to lose their red color and are usually brown or even
light gray. These ledges are frequently quite pronounced and
in many localities form prominent escarpments or even hills of
considerable size. Keokuk Falls of the North Canadian, on
the north line of the Seminole reservation, is formed by one of
these ledges. From Keokuk Falls to Okmulgee, a distance of
fifty miles, only sandstones and shales appear. The sandstone
ledges are often many feet. thick and dip slightly to the west
or southwest. The peculiar “ stair-step arrangement” so notice-
able in the Carboniferous of Kansas is observed throughout the
region. Prominent ledges appear to the east as the escarpment
of a bluff or hill. To the west these dip lower and lower and
finally disappear beneath the bed of a stream, while they are
succeeded above by other ledges.

These sandstones are not barren of fossils; the more common
Carboniferous types being abundant in certain localities. Beds
of coal are reported from the vicinity of Okmulgee. At Henry-

188 Gould—CGeology of Parts of the Seminole,

ville,a few miles south of Okmulgee, extensive beds have been
located and are now being worked.

From Okmulgee to Sapulpa, thirty-five miles north, the
same geological conditions obtain. Massive ledges of sandstone
continue to give tone to the erosion forms. Two isolated buttes
a few miles east of the “ Frisco” railroad are so prominent as
to have received the name of “Twin Hills.” In the vicinity
of these buttes the only ledge of limestone seen on the trip,
except that in the Osage nation, was observed. The ledge is
not to exceed two feet thick and is cut in a remarkable manner
by joints running nearly at right angles. These joints are from
twelve to twenty inches apart and in many cases extend the
entire thickness of the ledge. As a result the limestone is cut
into regular cubical blocks. In a number of places where the
ledge is exposed in the bed of a stream these blocks have been
pried out and used for foundations or stone walls. This rock
requires very little dressing and will doubtless prove a source
of considerable income.

In the region around Sapulpa and between that place and
the Arkansas river at Tulsa, the sandstone ledges continue.
Buttes and narrow ridges bordered by high and steep bluffs
are frequent. ‘Taneha mound, five miles east of Sapulpa, is
perhaps the most typical of these. It is situated on the high
prairie with its base 100 feet or more above the level of the
Arkansas river at Tulsa. The sides of the hill are grass-covered
and do not reveal the strata except the more prominent ledges
of sandstone. The following section taken along the eastslope -
illustrates the general rock structure of the country:

Faneha Mound Section.

No. Feet.
10. Sandstone forming cap of mound__-. 10
9. (Slope i V2 ee ae ee ee 15
8. Sandstone forming prominent terraces 5
7. ' Slope’ Lcth: . hss Bee eS ee 40
6. Sandstone forming terraces --------- 10
5, Slope ... 0. 2) Ele ee ee
4. Sandstone forming a broad terrace... 5
3. pSlope. .. 2 240. dee eee 20
2. “mandstone . 2.) 52k eee 10
1. Slope from level of prairie 100 feet
above the level of the Arkansas... 50
otal, 2.236 ee a oe 195

Of this 195 feet of strata 40 feet consist of sandstone. The
remainder, or 155 feet, is chiefly arenaceous shale. From the
top of the mound a magnificent view of the surrounding
country may be obtained. To the south especially is the scene

Se
Er

Creek, Cherokee and Osage Nations. 189

of particular geological interest. The dip of the sandstone
ledges to the west is distinctly noticeable, and no fewer than
five “stair steps”” may be noticed from this point. Coal is
found in several places in the vicinity. From what I was able
to learn it occurs in at least two beds. On Coal creek, five
miles east of the mound, a vein three feet thick is reported.
Oil is also said to be present, although this can scarcely be
authenticated as yet.

The most eastern point reached on the trip, and the lowest
geologically, was the Dawson coal field in the west-southwest

-eorner of the Cherokee nation. In the vicinity of Dawson the

country is gently rolling. The coal is obtained by stripping.
At present it is taken from a depth of from ten to fifteen feet.
The rock dips quite strongly to the southwest. The following
section shows the location of the vein:

Dawson Coal Field Section.

ie Evenly laminated light brown shales with
regular cleavage lines and some concre-

CLOIDE So 2 See ie eg eee gn oe ne ee re)
em opie Se Be ee ee wd 24
2. Shales like No.4, grading upward fromNo.1 8
1. Massive gray or yellowish sandstone, be-
coming shaly above and grading into
IN Ome ee eee Ma ee dias ee el 15
“LE COyEG bs ash ec ARE 354

Other exposures of the same vein are found for several miles.
both north and south of Dawson. Onutcrops are reported from
numerous points along Bird creek all the way to Skiatook, a
distance of more than twenty miles. This promises to become
one of the most productive coal fields in the territory.
~ From Dawson to Pawhuska, a distance of 45 miles, the road
lay up the valley of Bird creek. The hills are often steep and
rugged and the bluffs are capped by ledges of massive or cross-
bedded sandstone. Although no opportunity afforded to secure
complete sections of the rocks of the region, the following (p.
190) is believed to present a fairly accurate provisional section
from Skiatook to the top of the bill west of Pawhuska, or, in
other words, from the upper coal beds to the base of the Flint
hills. The dip of the rock continues to be to the west and
southwest.

The three most noticeable features of the section are:
Ist. The great predominance of sandstones and sandy shales.
Of the entire section less than fifty feet consist of limestone.
The three ledges of limestone are located near the center of

the section and are well exposed on the bluffs below Lewis

190: Gould—Geology of Parts of the Seminole, ete.

Bird Creek Section.
No. - Feet.
9. Massive sandstones and arenaceous shales extending
from Lewis Rogers’ place, thirty miles southwest
of Pawhuska, to the top of the hill five miles, west

of Bes hases. fe eb doe So EE Se 600

8. Fossiliferous limestone .._.2-2922..:.2) eee 10

7. Wossiliferous sandstone and shale.._..__- === 50

6. Limestones with fossil shells and crinoids.__..__._- 5

5. Sandstones and shales... 2222-22. eee 100

4. Massive fossiliferous limestone __----.-- oe 20

3. Arenaceous shales with ledges of sandstone_......- 200
2. Two thin ledges of limestone containing great quan-
tities of fossil corals ‘‘ Camptophyllum torquium ”

in ledges. of sandy shale’ J. =... .-=5 22a 25

1. Sandstones and shales from Skiatook___._.-_-.-_-- 100

Total. 22 23. Sol 2 eee 1110

Rogers’. 2d. The strong and uniform dip of all the rocks to
the west. This dip will average perhaps ten to fifteen feet per
mile. 8d. The entire series is fossiliferous. This is the best
fossil field in the territory that has come to my knowledge, and
should be thoroughly studied. The ledges numbered 6, 7 and 8
particularly will reward investigation. All of these ledges
are well exposed on the bluff back of Ben. Avant’s farm,
thirty-five miles southeast of Pawhuska.

From near Pawhuska to Winfield, Kansas, our route lay
across the Flint hills. Massive ledges of limestone with flinty
concretions, alternating with beds of calcareous shale, composed
practically all the rock seen. The only sandstone noticed was
on Beaver creek and near Maple City, spoken of above. The
Flint hills have been too often described to require more than
a passing mention in this place.

The results of this trip may be summarized as follows:

1. The Flint hills do not extend as far south as the Seminole
country.

2. The sandstone, which is well developed in the eastern
part of Chautauqua County, Kansas, continues uninterruptedly
southward east of the Flint hills, beyond the North Canadian
river.

8. The eastern limit of the Red-beds in southern Oklahoma
is not far from the western part of the Seminole country.

4. A line of coal beds extends north and south near Bartles-
ville, Skiatook, Dawson, Tulsa, Okmulgee and Henryville.
These beds vary much in thickness.

5. There is no reason to doubt that gas and oil will even-
tually be found near these coal beds.

The University of Oklahoma,
Noy. 26, 1900.

C. 8. Prosser—Names for the formations, etc. 191

Art. XV.—Names for the formations of the Ohio Coal-
- measures ;* by CHARLES S. PROSSER.

FIELD work during the past three years has acquainted the
writer with the formations composing the Coal-measures of
southwestern Pennsylvania, Maryland and northern West Vir-
ginia. It was, therefore, quite natural in reviewing the classi-
fication of the Ohio formations that those of the Coal-measures
should be among the first to be considered.

The Ohio Geological Reports contain a wealth of statements
regarding the details of the formations and some that are
conflicting. The writer makes no claim to have harmonized
these various differences, but he has acquainted himself with
the general nature and limits of the formations, so that he is
able to compare the Ohio classification with that of the Appa-
lachian. ; |

Without attempting to trace the complete development, the
more important features of the classification of the Appalachian
Coal-measures may be briefly summarized.

Henry D. Rogers, in the final report of the First Geological
Survey of Pennsylvania, proposed and defined the following
divisions of the coal strata, or Seral series as he termed them,
which are arranged in descending order :

Upper Barren Coal-shales.

Upper Productive Coal-measures.

Lower Barren Coal-shales.

Lower Productive Coal-measures.

Seral conglomerate (or lowest division of the Coal-
measures. )+ ihe

Under the description of the divisions the names are slightly
modified and there is a lack of uniformity in the wording in
the several places in which the names occur, but the following,
omitting the conglomerate, is an approximation :

Newer Coal-shales or Upper Barren group.
Upper or Newer Coal-measures.

Older Coal-shales or Lower Barren group.
Older or Lower Coal-measures.{

~The Lower Barren group was defined as having “ for its

inferior limit the top of the Upper Freeport coal, and for its

superior boundary the bottom of the great Pittsburg bed.’§
This also fixed the top of the Lower Coal-measures, the base

* Presented to the tenth meeting of the Ohio State Academy of Science,

Columbus, December 27, 1900.

+ Geology Pennsylvania, vol. i, 1858, p. 109. :
t Ibid., vol. ii, pt. 1, pp. 16-20. SS ibids peas.

Am. Jour. So1.—Fourts SERIES, Vou. XI, No. 63.—Marcu, 1901.

——

192 C. 8S. Prosser—Names for the formations

of which was not so sharply defined, although it was stated in )

general that it rested directly on the conglomerate; but in the
anthracite region, where the two are closely united, Prof.
Rogers reported that “considerations of convenience dictate
that we place an arbitrary boundary at the bottom of the first
or lowest considerable coal-seam.”* The Upper or Newer Coal-
measures were defined as extending “from the bottom of the
Pittsburg coal to the top of the Waynesburg seam,”+ and the
Upper Barren group. contained the remainder of the coal rocks
_ which were found in the southwestern corner of the state.
From this classification has come the one in general use,

which is stated as follows, by Dana, in the last edition of his
Manual:

Upper Barren Measures.

Upper Productive Measures.

Lower Barren Measures.

Lower Productive Measures. ft

In 1872 Prof. Stevenson described the Coal-measure for-
mations as shown in Monongalia and Marion counties, West
Virginia, stating that he “thought it best to adopt the terms
used in the Geology of Pennsylvania and the Virginia Reports,
for, though they may not have been based on scientific grounds,
they are most convenient for description, as the rocks are here
developed.Ӥ Under the descriptions of the formations, or
groups as they were termed, names derived from geographical
terms were used as synonyms for the Lower and Upper Coal
groups, the limits of which differed somewhat from those
fixed by Rogers. :

The Lower Coal group or Allegheny river series extended
from “the Great Conglomerate” to the top of the Mahoning
sandstone. The base of the formation was drawn at a lower

horizon than has generally been the case in later classifications,

for it included the Tionesta sandstone and coal (Coals Nos. 18
and 20 of the section), while the higher coal (No. 14 of the
section) was correlated with the Brookville, which later has
come to be regarded as very near the base of the Allegheny
formation. The upper limit of the formation at the top of the
Mahoning sandstone also differed from that of the Lower Coal-
measures of Rogers, which was drawn at the top of the Upper
Freeport coal at the base of the Mahoning sandstone.

The Upper Coal group or Monongahela river series extended
from the base of the fire clay immediately underlying the Pitts-
burg coal to the top of the Waynesburg sandstone, which was
given as from 31 to 55 feet above the top of the Waynesburg
coal,@ while the Upper Coal-measures of Rogers extended

* Geology Pennsylvania, vol. i, 1858, p. 17. + libido. tg:

} Manual of Geology, 4th ed., 1895, p. 648.

§ Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. Philadelphia, 2d Ser., vol. xv, p. 16.
| Ibid., pp. 27-30. 4] Tord. p17.)

etiam

~s
:

of the Ohio Coal-measures. | 193

eon the base of the Pittsburg to the top of the Waynesburg
coal.

_ When the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania was
organized Mr. Franklin Platt was engaged as Assistant Geol-
ogist to describe the bituminous coal fields of western Penn-
sylvania, and, asa result of his field work in 1874, the following
year he published a table of Paleozoic formations in which
geographical names were used for those of the Coal-measures
with the exception of the Upper Barren Measures. The names
of the formations under consideration are as follows:

Upper Barren Measures.
( M. Brownsville (Washington) coal.
| L. Waynesburg coal.
Monongahela { K. Sewickley coal.
J. Redstone coal.
I. Pittsburg coal.
Middle Barren Measures.
Mahoning sandstone.

|
(
Conemaugh
E. Upper Freeport coal.
Freeport limestone.
D. Lower Freeport coal.
Freeport sandstone.
Allegheny < ©. Kittanning coal.
B’ Ferriferous coal.
| Ferriferous limestone.
B. Clarion coal.
| A

. Brookville coal.

Conglomerate No. XII, (Seral).*

It will be seen from the above that the Allegheny formation
extended from the base of the Brookville coal to the top of
the Upper Freeport coal; the Conemaugh formation from the
last mentioned horizon to the base of the Pittsburg coal, and
the limits of the Monongahela formation differed from those
of the Upper Coal-measures of Rogers in that they extended
from the base of the Pittsburg coal to the top of the Wash-

ington coal, or the one succeeding the Waynesburg coal.

The important point in connection with this classification is

that geographical names were used for the three formations

which compose the Coal-measures proper of Pennsylvania,
and the terms based upon the presence or absence of valuable
beds of coal abandoned, so that the classification was brought
into harmony with the names used for the older Paleozoic for-
mations. Modifications of this classification were published
later by Pratt+ and in 1877 he used the name Monongahela

* Second Geol. Sury. Penna., H, 1875, p. 8. :
+ Ibid., L, 1876, pp. 12, 17, 23; and H?, 1877, pp. xxii, xxiv.

Ro gee

194 C. S. Prosser—Names for the formations

River system to cover all the rocks from the highest Upper
Barren Measures to the base of the Upper Productive Coal
Measures, while those included between the horizon last men-
tioned and the top of the Pottsville conglomerate were called
the Allegheny River system.

Lesley also in the same year divided the Carboniferous system
into first the Monongahela River Coal Series, which included
the rocks from the highest of the Upper Barren Measures to
the base of the Upper Productive Coal-measures, and second
the Allegheny Liver Coal Series, which apparently comprised
all the rocks from the top of the Lower Barren Measures to
the base of the Pocono sandstone.* ,

In some respects these modified classifications appear less
desirable than the original one and, according to the practice of
the U. 8. Geological Survey which is now quite generally fol-
lowed by American geologists, the names Monongahela and
Allegheny having already been used for divisions of smaller
rank, were not available as names for these two divisions.

In 1876 Prof. Stevenson divided the Upper Barren series
into two groups, the upper one termed the Greene County
group, which included all the rocks above the Upper Washing-
ton limestone ; and the lower one, named the Washington
County group, which extended from the top of the Washington
limestone to the top of the Waynesburg sandstone, an horizon
some 80 feet above the Waynesburg main coal.t+

Professors Fontaine and I. C. White carefully studied the
flora of the Upper Barren Measures and reached the conclusion
that the “Upper Barrens of the Appalachian coal field are of
Permian age.” +

In 1891 Dr. I. C. White published his excellent work on the
“Stratigraphy of the bituminous coal fields of Pennsylvania,
Ohio and West Virginia,” in which he named the Upper Bar-
ren Measures the Dunkard Oreek series,§ stating that “the
rocks of this series... .. begin with the roof shales of the
Waynesburg coal and extend upward to the topmost beds of
the Appalachian region.”’|

In 1896 Messrs. N. H. Darton and Joseph A. Taff published
a description of the geological formations of the Piedmont
folio, covering the southern part of the extreme western portion
of Maryland and a larger area to the south of the North Branch
of the Potomac river in the northern part of West Virginia.
They gave new names to the Coal-measure formations derived
from geographic names occurring in the Piedmont quadrangle,
and in general the formations were not separated as they were

* Seeond Geol. Surv. Penna., H*, 1877, p. xxiii. + Ibid., K, p. 35.

t Ibid., Report PP, 1880, p. 119.
§ Bull. U. 8. Geol. Surv., No. 65, p. 19. || Ibid., p. 20.

—

of the Ohio Coul-measures. 195

in the earlier classifications. Their list of names, beginning
with the Conglomerate, is as follows:
1. The Blackwater sandstone, which represented the Potts-
ville conglomerate. 7

2. The Savage formation, which extended from the top of
the Blackwater sandstone or conglomerate to the top of the
Davis or Lower Kittanning coal and included nearly the lower
half of the Allegheny formation.

3. The Bayard formation, which extended from the top of
the Davis coal to the top of the sandstone overlying the Four-
foot or Barton coal. This formation contained the upper half

of the Allegheny and the lower part of the Conemaugh forma-

tion.

4, The Lairfax formation, which continued from the top of
the Bayard formation to the base of the Elkgarden or Pittsburg
coal and contained the remainder of the Conemaugh forma-
tion.

5. The Hikgarden formation, which contained the rocks
above the base of the Pittsburg coal, all of which, with perhaps
the exception of the highest, were in the Monongahela forma-
tion.*

Upon the organization of the Geological Survey of Ohio by
Dr. Newberry a thorough study of the coal deposits of the
state was undertaken and to the second report he contributed
a “Sketch of the Structure of the. Lower Coal Measures in
Northeastern Ohio.”t Dr. Newberry stated that “ North of the
National Road we have in Ohio, below the Barren Measures,
from six to eight workable seanis of coal, forming what is
known as the lower coal series.”{ Beginning with the lowest
seam, which was called Coal No. 1, they were described and
given numbers, the highest one being Coal No. 7,§ which was

stated to be “the highest workable seam of coal in Ohio below

fe. Pitisbure bed... ... It is overlaid by the great mass of
colored shales which form the Barren Coal Measures.” ||

At a later date all the names proposed by Prof. Rogers for
the Coal-measure formations of Pennsylvania were adopted
for those of Ohio, as shown by a “ Vertical section of the rocks
of Ohio” published in 1873, on which the Coal-measures are

composed of the following formations:

“Upper Coal Measures
Barren Measures £200) 16,4]
Lower Coal Measures

*Geologic Atlas of the United States; Folio 28, pp. 3, 4, 6 and ‘‘Columnar
Section.” .

+ Geol. Surv. Ohio. Report Progress in 1870, 1871, p. 14.

tIbid., p. 26. § Ibid., pp. 26-44. | Ibid., p. 43.

4] Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, vol. i, pt. i, facing p. 89.

196 C. S. Prosser—Names for the formations

In the report which followed, Dr. Newberry gave a detailed
account of the Carboniferous system of Ohio as then known,
and to the list of formations of the former section he added
the Upper Barren Measures with a thickness of 300 feet (?) and
continued the numbering of the principal coal seams as far as
13 inclusive, of which No. 1 indicated the lowest coal.* In
this classification, however, the base of the Lower Coal-meas-
ures was carried considerably lower than in Pennsylvania, so
that the division contained a considerable part of Rogers’ Seral —
Conglomerate, Coals Nos. 1, 2 and 3 belonging in the Con-
glomerate. ;

In 1884 the volume on Economic Geology appeared, contain-
ing Dr. Orton’s exhaustive account of the Lower Coal-measures
of Ohio. The classification of Rogers is quoted and explained,t
but the greater part of the Conglomerate was included in the
Lower Ooal-measures, since this formation began with the
lowest coal seam, as was the case in the earlier classification of
Newberry. Dr. Orton stated that “‘In point of fact, there is
no more marked separation between the highest coal seam of
the Conglomerate series and the lowest of the Productive
Measures than can be found between two coals of the latter
subdivision.”{ It was shown, however, that Coal No. 4 of
Newberry, occurring just below the Putnam Hill hmestone, was
probably equivalent to the Brookville Coal of Pennsylvania,
which in that state occurs at about the base of the Lower Pro-
ductive Measures or Allegheny formation.§

In 1888 the complete Rogers’ classification of Pennsylvania,
however, was adopted, as is shown in the following table:

‘‘Upper Barren Coal Measures -_-.------ 500 feet
Upper Productive Coal Measures. ----- - 200 feet
Lower Barren Coal Measures ----.----- 500 feet
Lower Productive Coal Measures. ------ 250 feet
Conglomerate ‘Group 2a cose 250 feet”’|

Regarding the change in the classification for the two lower
divisions from that of the preceding report, is the following
explanation: “In the review in Vol. V, the Conglomerate
series of Pennsylvania was included with the Lower Coal
Measures, though the boundaries of each were shown to be
clearly recognizable here. There are, however, less imperative
grounds for the separation in Ohio than in Pennsylvania and

* Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, vol. ii, pt. i, 1874, ‘Section of the Carboniferous
rocks of Ohio,” facing p. 81.
+ Rept. Geol. Surv., vol. v, pp. 1, 2.
1 Tbid., p. 10. SIbid., pp. 160, 230.
| Ibid., vol. vi, p. 3; see also ‘‘ Vertical section of the rocks of Ohio,” facing
. 4,

p

of the Ohio Coal-measures. 197

the Virginias, and if only the Ohio series were to be classified,
it is not probable that the divisions would have been made.
But they stand for great and conspicuous facts elsewhere, and
it probably would have been’ better to have maintained them
in our territory also. The separation will be recognized in this «
review.”*

The same classification was used by Dr. Orton in his last
report of the Ohio Survey,t+ which also contained a chapter on
“The Coal Fields of Ohio” in which he described the coal
seams of the Conglomerate Coal-measures, the Lower Coal- .
measures and the Upper Productive Measures.t

The Maryland Geological Survey has carefully considered
the Carboniferous formations and adopted the classification
shown in the following table, which gives the approximate
thickness and composition of the formations as exposed in
Georges Creek valley in the western part of Allegany county :

Georges Creek, Md., Section of the Coal-measures and Permian.

Mainly argillaceous shales, some thin

wenleird 400’ limestones and sandstones and an
400’. :
occasional thin layer of coal.
(| 2'— | Waynesburg (Koontz) coal.
| 116’+ | Shales and limestones.
Monongahela | 6’ |Sewickley (Tyson) coal and shale.
250 ee eae
100’— | Mainly argillaceous shales.
| 115
| aes Pittsburg (Elkgarden) or “ Fourteen-
aie foot” coal.
(| 144’ | Black and gray shales and thin sand-

| stones.

| 9’ | Franklin (Dirty nine-foot) coal, partly

Conemaugh eS shale.

| About 650’.

| "2' |Shales and sandstones.

| ea About one foot of coal.

Sbids, py 43.
+ Ibid., vol. vii, 1893, pp. 4, 36, 37 and “ Geological Scale of Ohio” facing p. 4.
{Ibid., pp. 255-291.

198 CO. S. Prosser—Names for the formations

|

Conemaugh |
About 650’. |
\

(

Allegheny |
300', :

l

187’

------

Sandy and bituminous shales and sand-
stones. |

Barton (Four-foot) coal.

Shales, fire-clay and thin bedded sand-
stone.

Partly sandstone, (Upper Mahoning
sandstone. )

Mahoning coal.

Massive sandstone alternating with
shales. Mahoning sandstone.

‘| Upper Freeport (Thomas) coal.

Fire clay and shales.

‘Coal

Shales and sandstones.
Upper Kittanning (?) coal.
Shales and sandstones.

Lower Kittanning or Davis (Six-foot)
coal.

Shales and sandstones.
Split Six-foot coal.

Fire clay, shales and thin bedded sand-
stones. In part of the field there
is the massive Homewood or Pied-
mont sandstone at top of the
Pottsville conglomerate.*

In Jennings and Braddock runs andon Dars Mountain there
are two beds of coal near the base of the Allegheny formation
which apparently do not occur in the lower part of Georges
Creek valley in the vicinity of Westernport and Piedmont.

The section of the lower part of the oe for this ane
of the field is approximately as follows:

* A more detailed account of these formations may be found in the report by
the Maryland Geological Survey on Allegany County, 1900, pp. 115-130, 166-180.

of the Ohio Coal-measures. 199

2’— 23’) Clarion (Parker) coal.

36’ | Thin sandstones at top with drab
argillaceous shales below. In
some localities there is a coal
seam 18’ above the Bluebaugh coal.

23'— | Brookville (Bluebaugh) coal. In the

ih thickest deposit 16” of shale
B33) occurs, 1’ below the top of the
WU) Se coal.

Homewood sandstone.*

The Maryland Geological Survey fully accepted the modern
ruling that the name of a formation should refer to some locality
at which the rocks are well exposed. For this reason the time-
honored names of Rogers as Lower Productive Measures, etc.,
which referred to the presence or absence of workable seams of
coal, were abandoned, and the names Allegheny, Conemaugh,
Monongahela and Dunkard were adopted. With the excep-
tion of Dunkard these are the oldest names, derived from geo-
graphical terms, proposed for the formations. In regard to the
Upper Barren Measures it was thought better to consider them
as one formation, hence the name Dunkard of Dr. White,
dropping the words “ Creek series” as he originally published
it, was used instead of the two earlier terms of Prof. Stevenson.

The names proposed by Messrs Darton and Taff were not
used because it was considered that the Rogers-Platt classifica-
tion, which also had priority, was a more satisfactory one.

In our review of the Coal-measure formations of Ohio we
have shown that in the final classification their limits corre-
spond to those of Pennsylvania, and, therefore, it is proposed
that the names recently adopted for them by the Maryland
Geological Survey be used for the same formations in Ohio.
This will involve the following changes in the nomenclature
of the Ohio formations:

Present names. Proposed names.
Upper Barren Coal Measures © = Dunkard formation.
Upper Productive Coal Measures = Monongahela formation.
Lower Barren Coal Measures = Conemaugh formation.

Lower Productive Coal Measures = Allegheny formation.
Columbus, O., December, 1900.

* This section of the Georges Creek valley is published with the permission of
Dr. Wm. Bullock Clark, State Geologist of Maryland.
Some information concerning the lower part of the formation was obtained

_ from Prof. James Hall’s report regarding the north fork of Jenning’s run as

abstracted in Macfarlane’s Coal-regions of America, 3d ed., 1877, p. 256.

200 Wortman—New American Species of Amphicyon.

ArT. XVI.—A Wew American Species of Amphieyon ; by
J. L. WorTMAN.

THE true genus Amphicyon has not hitherto been found in
this country, notwithstanding the fact that Leidy, Cope, and
Marsh have, at various times, referred certain specimens of
extinct dogs, having three true molars in the upper jaw, to this
group. Scott has satisfactorily shown that all the Amphi-
eyons of the American Tertiary heretofore described, belong
to genera quite different and distinct from the typical genus
Amphicyon of Europe.

While recently engaged in the examination of some remains -
of extinct Canidz in the Marsh Collection at the Peabody
Museum, I came across a beautifully preserved palatal portion
of a skull, from the Loup Fork Miocene deposits of Nebraska,
which I do not hesitate to refer to this Huropean genus. The
specimen in question includes all the superior series of teeth
with the exception of the incisors, a few premolars of the
right side, and the last upper molar of the left side.

As compared with the best known European species, Amphd-
cyon giganteus Laurill., from the Middle Miocene of France,
great similarity of structure is at once apparent. Like all the
Amphicyons the canines are unusually large and robust and
are provided with prominent cutting edges, both anteriorly and
posteriorly. The three anterior premolars are strikingly
reduced in size, the two anterior being separated from each
other and from the succeeding teeth by short diastemata. The
first premolar is implanted by a single fang, the second and
third by two. In comparison with the other teeth, the fourth
premolar, or superior sectorial, displays about the same propor-
tions as that of A. giganteus, but the internal cusp is less dis-
tinct; it appears as a low rounded swelling at the base of the
crown, supported by an independent root, and is not so distinct
as is usual in the Canide. The molars differ considerably
from those of A. giganteus in that the external portion of the
crown is less rounded, has a greater fore and aft extent and
the internal less, giving to it a more distinctly triangular
appearance, as in the true dogs. Another important difference
is. seen in the prominence and external position of the basal
cusp at the antero-external angle of the first molar in the
American species, in marked contrast with the internal posi-
tion and more reduced character of this element in the Euro-
pean species. It may be remarked that in their general
appearance the molars of the American form are decidedly
more dog-like, while those of the European species more closely
approach the structure displayed by the primitive bears.

Wortman—New American Species of Amphicyon. 201

After careful examination of the material at hand, I fail
_ to find any characters which would warrant me in placing
the present specimen in a genus distinct from Amphicyon,
although the specific characters seem to be somewhat unusually
accentuated. I propose, therefore, to refer to it under the
name of Amphicyon americanus.

The chief interest in the Amphicyon group lies in the fact
that it is through them that the ancestry of the modern bears
has been traced directly to a canine origin, apparently by the
most exact and satisfactory evidence. This evolution is sup-
posed to have taken place in Europe, and the conclusion has
been reached that from this exclusive area of origin they have
eradually spread to nearly all parts of the world. However
this may be, it is a matter of considerable interest to find one
of the ancestral links of the phylum in this country, and one,
~ moreover, which, so far as the superior molars are concerned, is
the most primitive yet known.

It is desirable, therefore, to inquire further into the rela-
tionship between this Amphicyon and certain other extinct
types of the Canide found in deposits of preceding age in this
country. I aim led to undertake this now for the sake of clear-
ness, however brief and imperfect the results may be, pending
a more complete study of the Eocene Carnivora which I hope
soon to publish.

One of the prime essentials in the way of relationship which
these earlier extinct Canide must exhibit, is the possession of
three true molars in the upper jaw, as the disappearance of
the last molar in any of them would certainly mean a two-
molared successor. The possession of three superior molars is
undoubtedly an archaic feature among the Canide, and this
condition was retained by some of the phyla until compara-
tively late in their developmental history. Others again suf-
fered an early reduction in the number of molars, particularly
in the superior series, but in the great majority of instances
this reduction has consisted in the disappearance of the last
molar only. It is somewhat remarkable to find that the molar
formula which characterizes the great bulk of the species of the
Canide to-day was fixed at least as early as the Upper Eocene ;
and not only has the number, but the general form and pro-
portions, of these teeth remained, up to the present time,
unusually constant in that phylum from which the modern
genus Canis was derived.

Of those types possessing three true molars in the superior
series, Paradaphenus, a genus established by Matthew and
myself,* is the only one which has thus far been found in the

* Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, June, 1899, p. 129.

202 Wortman—New American Species of Amphicyon.

Middle Miocene deposits of this country. It is represented by
at least two species from the John Day beds of Oregon and is
not uncommon. In the structure of the superior molars this
genus agrees closely with Amphicyon, in that the crowns are
symmetrical and much extended transversely ; the last molar,
moreover, is but little pushed inwards and the cusps and ridges
are relatively high and prominent. There is no apparent
reduction in the size of any of the premolars, a fact which
would indicate that any species of Paradaphenus thus far
known cannot be regarded as directly ancestral to Amphacyon.

In the underlying White River beds comes the genus
Daphenus Leidy, represented by at least four well-marked
species of rather common occurrence. In this group the
ridges and cusps of the molars are characteristically low and
blunt, the crowns of the upper molars are less symmetrical
transversely, and the third molar is pushed inward on a line
with the internal cusps. In any of the known species the
premolars are not reduced in size to any very noticeable extent.
It will be seen, therefore, that the genus is still further
removed from Amphicyon in its dental anatomy, and on this
account must be regarded as off the direct line of ancestry of
Amphicyon. Next below the White River species is found
the genus Prodaphenus W. and M.* from the Uinta or upper-
most Eocene, and although but a single specimen consisting of
a portion of a superior maxillary is known, yet it serves to
indicate with certainty the existence of a three-molared type of
the Canide in this horizon. This genus is again preceded in
the Bridger beds by Uintacyon Leidy, which has numerous
species reaching as far back as the Wasatch or Lower Eocene.

That which is of especial interest to us in this connection is
the fact that certain species of Uintacyon and the only known
species of Prodaphenus show a marked reduction in the size
of the premolars, possessing at the same time a type of molar
pattern which could have easily passed into that of Ampha-
cyon and thence into the bears. The likeness is not confined
to the upper molars, but extends to the lower molars and
canines as well. While the materials now known are perhaps ~
too fragmentary and scattering to hazard a definite opinion,
yet the resemblances between Amphicyon and these Hocene
forms are so striking that I cannot believe them altogether
due to accident. If this surmise of genetic affinity is correct
it will go far towards clearing up the origin of this peculiar
and important group of the Canide.

* Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., June, 1899, p. 115.

PSS SR
, ia

“
== uy y } 5 ae 2
=< % ay , NY \AVE ~~ * se hod
= Ket. A, Mi PQ)! LAY: 2
SS SQW | 5), A a
SSSSSsa0 55 y het NF Pe coy fain SLE
SEZz, ~«,, Z abl one
= < aeons

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==>

AMPHICYON AMERICANUS, Wortman.

Fig. A.—Left upper jaw, palatal view, natural size.
Fig. B.—Left upper jaw, side view, natural size.

Loup Fork beds, Niobrara River, Nebraska.
Type in Yale University Museum.

204 Wortman—New American Species of Amphicyon.

I give the following principal measurements :

mm.
Length of superior tooth series including canine... 134
Antero-posterior diameter of canine at base ------- 24
Length of true molar series .._.._ 22.2) ae eee 46
Transverse diameter of first superior molar ._--... 27
Antero-posterior diameter of superior sectorial.... 27
Width of palate at first molar including crowns... 98

My best thanks are due to Prof. C. E. Beecher, Curator of
the Geological Department of the Museum, for the opportunity
of making the necessary studies and publishing the above
results.

New Haven, Conn., Jan. 25,

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 205.

Art. XVII.—Studies in the Cyperacee; by THEo. Houm.
XV. Carices ( Vigne) astrostachye. (With five figures in
the text.) 3

In some previously published papers we have directed atten-
tion to the classification of the Carzces in “ Vigne,” “ Vig-
neastra”’ and “ Carices genuine” as the most natural method
under which the species may be arranged in sections or
‘“Coreges,”’ as suggested by Drejer in his Symbole Caricologice.
However, this author only treated some of “Carices genuine,”
although he fully recognized the stability of the “ Vigne,”
while “ Vigneastra” did not appear to him as being separable
from the paniculate distzgmatice. While maintaining the
Vignew, Drejer did not restrict this section to distigmatic
species alone, but he considered, also, certain tristigmatic
species, for instance C. macrocephala, as belonging to this sec-
tion; he admitted at the same time a number of distigmatic
heterostachyous species among the Carices genuine, even if
he considered this section as consisting of typically tristigmatic
species. The number of stigmata was, thus, of minor import-
ance to Drejer in disposing of the species in “ greges.” We
have already touched upon his views concerning the old sec-
tion “ Psyllophore,’ but hitherto we have not had an oppor-
tunity to discuss his ideas in regard to the arrangement of all
the Psyllophore under Carices genuine, as “forme hebetate”’
of these. It is, at least, the only way in which we can under-
stand his remark (1. ¢., p. 8), “ Constituunt ergo Psyllophoree
et Carices genuine unam maximeque naturalem sectionem,
.ete.,’ inasmuch as Drejer defined the Psyllophore as mono-
stachyous, and. the Vignew as possessing decompound spikes
(spica composita preeditas). Moreover, in describing the various
forms of perigynium, Drejer points out that, ‘omnes fere
forme perigyniorum, exceptis maxime evolutis, que apud
Carices inveniuntur, inter Psyllophoras quoque occurrunt.”
He compares thus the perigynium of 0. polytrichoides with
that of C. pallescens, and of C. Davalliana with that of C.
sempervirens, etc. Whatever his views were in respect to the
lesser developed types of Vzgnew, Drejer does not seem to
have considered any of these to be sought among the mono-
stachyous species, formerly called “ Psyllophore.” But his
work was left unfinished, and it is more than probable that he
would have altered his views, had he prosecuted his studies
further. |

Tuckermann, whose system of Carew was published just one
year earlier than Drejer’s, adopted Psyllophorw and Vignew

206 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacew.

with the same distinction “spica unica” and “spicules
plures”; further, he proposed ‘“ Vigneastra,” “ Leptantherw”
and “ Legitim@,’ the last mentioned being identical with
Carices genuine. This author, however, seems to have detected
some affinity to exist between certain Psyllophore (Dioice)
and Vignew (Stellulate), since he makes the following state-
ment about the former (Dzozce), “Stellulatas referentes.” In
a lately published paper upon South American Carices Rev.
G. Kiikenthal accepts Vignea, Vigneastra and FHucarex
(Carices genuine), and he recognizes five sections among the
Vignew: Muricate Fr., Zeemote Aschers, Canescentes Fr.,
Alate Kiikenth. and Capituligere Kiikenth. While this
author refers certain Psyllophore (Nardine Fr.) to Vignea,
he does not suggest these to represent lesser developed types
of any of the other sections, and the reason may be, that the
South American Capituligere: C. trichodes Steud., C. capi-
tata L. and C. caduca Boott, constitute a small and isolated
group of species with no immediate relatives among the higher
developed Vzgnew of that region, the extratropical South
America.

The systematic position of a number of monostachyous
species of Carex thus remains to be decided upon, and it seems
as if Tuckermann were the first author who felt warranted in
referring some of these to Vignew, the Diozce to the Stellu-
late, while both Drejer and Kiikenthal considered.several of
these as “formee hebetate of Carices genuine.” It may be that
the original type of Curex was dicecious and that it resembled
our monostachyous species, and that both Vzgnew and Carices
genuine developed from such monostachyous forms as two

parallel branches, a theory that has been discussed so excel- |

lently by a German author, August Schulz, in a paper upon the
morphology of Carices. There would in this way hardly be
any reason to object to the disposition of some of the mono-
stachyous species among Vignew as “ formee hebetatee :” lesser
developed types of which habit and structure might point
towards the earliest fundamental forms of the genus.

In looking over the Psyllophorew as this section is under-
stood by Tuckermann, it is evident that several of these species
have no other character in common than that taken from the
structure of the inflorescence, being an almost simple spike,
androgynous or sometimes dicecious. The purely staminate
inflorescence and the staminate portion of the androgynous
invariably represent true spikes, while the pistillate, as we
have described in previously published papers, are always
decompound, though less so in these species than in others,
where several pistillate spikelets may be united so as to form
spicate, more or less ramified inflorescences. In the Psyllo-

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacec. 207

phore the sectional character is thus: ‘spica unica simplicis-

- sima androgyna sive dioica,’ and Tuckermann divided these in

nine subsections: Dioicw, Nardine, Pulicares, Paucifiore,
Filifolie, Scirpine, Obtusate, Polytrichoidee and Lupestres,
of which the names readily dicate what species are com-
prised under these subsections. But on the other hand the
characterization of these minor sections is in several cases well
comparable with that of several of the Vignew and Carices
genuine, as defined by Tuckermann, with the only exception
of the lesser decompound inflorescence. We find among the
Dioice such species enumerated as C. diveca, etc., C. exilis
and even C. capitata L., the last mentioned being followed by
C. nardina Fr. (Vardine), and it seems strange that Tucker-
mann considered C. capitata as being such a close relative of
C. dioeca, rather than placing it under Vardinew. Elias Fries
in enumerating the Scandinavian Carices* has, also, the Psyl-
lophore classitied as his Monostachye distinct from his “Homo-
stachye:” Hyparrhene and Acroarrhene, while Kunth only
recognized Vignea and. Carex, the former containing all the
species with bifid, the latter those with trifid style, thus each
of these sections is represented by both mono-, homo- and
hetero-stachyous species. The number of stigmata, however,
is of little importance in classifying Carices, inasmuch as we
have already pointed out, the number of stigmata being by no
means a constant character in several species of Vignew and
Carices genuine. —

In regard to the distribution of the sexes, dicecious forms are
not restricted to the Psyllophore either, but occur among the
Vignew, e. g., C. sterilis Willd., C. Douglasw Boott, and occa-
sionally among the Carices genuine: C. Parryana Dew.,
besides that C. acuta L. sometimes occurs with purely stami-
nate spikes, the so-called variety anomala Lge., which has
been found in Denmark. The very interesting (. Bocttiana
Benth. is only known as dicecious, but Boottt referred it
nevertheless to Carices genuine on account of its close affinity
to C. Baltzelli Chapm. However these cases of dicecism may

well be considered as exceptional among Vignew and Carices:

genuine, while there are typically dicecious species among the
Psyllophore: C. dioeca, C. parallela, etc. The character
“spica unica” as applied to all the Psyllophore is, on the
other hand, not constant, and we remember for instance that
in both C. scérpoidea and ©. exilis additional, lateral spikes
may be developed, consisting of several pistillate flowers.
Drejer referred @. scirpoidea to his Sphwridiophore, and

* Fries Elias: Summa vegetabilium Scandinavie. Sectio prior. Upsala, 1846,

+ Boott, Francis: Illustrations of the genus Carex, vol. i, London, 1858, p. 16.
Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Series, Vou. XI, No. 63.—MarcH, 1901.

208 T. Holm—sStudies in the Cyperacee.

Boott* says of C. ewilis: “The existence of these distinct
spicule necessarily separate the species from the Psyllophore.
It proves the correctness of the remark of Drejer, that that
artificial group is to be considered as ‘forme hebetate Cari-
cum ; monostachye incipiunt, evaduntque pliostachye. The
evident affinity of C. ewilis is with the Stellulate ....3” a
similar suggestion was also made by Tuckermann, as men-
tioned above.

In. looking over the Vzgnew and Carices genuine mono-
stachyous specimens are sometimes met with, especially among
the latter, but such forms are hardly to be considered as typ-
ical, even if they may be quite common, for instance C.
typhina and C. squarrosa, both of which abound in the
vicinity of Washington, D. C., with a single gynecandrous
spike, subtended by several leaf-like bracts, indicating the sup-
pression of the lateral spikes; these forms have, also, been
found in many other places in the eastern United States, and
seem to predominate, the typical pliostachyous forms being
much less common in certain regions. It thus appears as if
the Psyllophore in general exhibit some characters by which
they may be distinguished from the other Carices: “spica
unica simplicissima androgyna sive dioica,” as indicated by
Tuckermann, but beyond this distinction most of the species
are readily noticed to be inseparable from Vzgnew or Carices
genumme. This becomes the more evident when we consider
the structure of utriculus, which furnishes such excellent char-
acters for distinguishing the species and even the “‘ greges,”
and is of much greater importance than those characters,
which are derived from the less decompound inflorescence,
the number of stigmata and the separation of the sexes in
some of the species. When speaking of utriculus, we must
admit, however, that this exhibits a peculiarity which seems
characteristic of a number of Psyllophore in contrast to the
Vigne and Carices genuine in general; and is evidently a
sign of lesser development. This is to be noticed in the ori-
fice of utriculus, which is unequally slit in the Dzowcew; thus
the upper margin is almost entire on the ventral face, but cut
down more or less deeply on the dorsal, the convex face. In
the higher developed forms, Vignew and Carices genuine, the
beak is mostly bidentate or cut down equally on both faces,
especially so in the latter. But this character, the unequally
slit orifice of utriculus, is not peculiar to all the Psyllophore
and is, moreover, to be observed in some of the Carices
genuine, as pointed out by Drejer. But otherwise the utricle
does not show any difference of importance, by which the
Psyllophore may be distinguished from the other Carices,

* Tbidem, p. 17.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacec. 209

neither in regard to the mere outline, when considered in
transverse section, or as to the miuor details of the anatomical
structure. The presence of a seta, which, as we have described
in previously published papers, depends only upon the pro-
longation of rhacheola, has by some authors been considered
as characteristic of Psyllophore, being especially well devel-
oped in C. microglochin, C. Frasert and several others, but is,
also, common to many species of Carices genuine. If we
finally compare the position or rather the direction of utricu-
lus in immature and mature specimens of the Dzozcw, we

* notice certain accordances with some of the other Carzces. In

C. dioeca, for instance, the utricles are erect during anthesis,
but spreading, when the fruit is mature. This change of
direction is, also, noticeable in the other species of Duoice
(excluding C. capitata), but is, moreover, characteristic. of a
number of other Carices with the spikes squarrose at maturity
(C. echinata, C. flava, C. Pseudocyperus, ete.), while in others
the utricles maintain their original erect position, being more

or less appressed to the rhachis as in C. vulgaris, C. misandra,

C. pratensis, ete.

In summarizing these general characters, those that were
formerly looked upon as being peculiar to the Psyllophore,
and those which they have in common with the other Carices,
we cannot consider these monostachyous species as constitut-
ing a section or grex distinct from the others, but we feel
more inclined to accept them as lesser developed types and
referable to the greges of Vignew and Carices genuine, in the

_ same way as we already outlined the Stenocarpe, including

C. lejocarpa and C. circinata as forme hebetatee of these.
In the present paper, it is our intention to demonstrate the
affinities of the Dzioicw, as understood by Tuckermann,
although we have felt obliged to exclude C. capitata L., which,
according to our opinion, is better placed among the Vardine
Fr., as already suggested by Rev. G. Kiikenthal. These
dicecious species are as follows: Carex dioeca L., C. gynocrates
Wormskj., C. parallela Lest., C. Duvalliana Sm. and C. exilis
Dew. However, monccions forms are known of all these
species and are so common in C. gynocrates and C. exilis, that
it is difficult to say whether these two are typically dicecious or
moncecious, and in regard to the former this was originally
described as a moncecious species with androgynous spike,
being the most prevalent form in Greenland. Since then the _
species has, also, been collected on the North American conti-
nent and in Kamtschatka as moneecious and dicecious, the latter
being undoubtedly the most frequent form in this country.
If Meyer’s (. Redowskyana be identical with C. gynocrates,
the plant from Kamtschatka is truly dicecious. To separate

210 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

these two forms, the moncecious from the dicecious, as distinet
species would not be advisable, inasmuch as we have found no
other distinction between these, neither morphological or
anatomical, than the varied distribution of the sexes, a char-
acter that seems of little import, scarcely even of varietal value,
C. gynocrates may be considered as being most frequently
dicecious, and among the large number of specimens which we
have examined from various parts of this country and from
Greenland, there were c. 400 dicecious individuals against
76 with androgynous spike. C. monosperma Macoun is among
these specimens, and we have failed to find any other distine-
tion between this and C. gynocrates than the smaller number
of pistillate flowers, often only one, at the base of the stami-
nate spike. If we consider the geographical distribution of
C. gynocrates, it seems as if the moncecious form is the most
prevalent in the north, judging from the specimens we have
examined, which were collected in Northern Labrador, Alaska
and Greenland, where we found this species probably at its
most northern limit, ‘‘Skarvefjceld,” on the island Disco, above
69° N. lat., where it oceurred only as monoecious.

In regard to C. ewilis, this species represents a still more
evolute stage, and occurs as dicecious or moneecious, mono- or
plio-stachyous. A gyneecandrous spike is frequently met
with in this species, besides that the female plant may possess
several lateral spikes, from one to six, at the base of the
terminal. Carex Davalliana exhibits a similar variation, pos-
sessing androgynous or gyneecandrous spikes besides purely
staminate or pistillate, and, moreover, a few pistillate fowers
may be found interspersed with staminate in the middle por-
tion of the spike. Although the male plant is very abundant
in Switzerland, Gaudin* states that the female is exceedingly
rare. If we now examine the monecious forms of C. diceca
and C’. parallela, we find these as being much rarer than in
the species mentioned above. Carew dioeca L. var. isogyna
and C. parallela var. androgyna possess only from one to three
pistillate flowers at the base of the otherwise staminate spike,
but these forms are only known from a very few localities in
Northern Europe. We have, thus, in the Deotcw an analo-
gous variation represented by all the species, but merely
depending upon distribution of sexes, while in C. exédis the
variation extends still further, the monostachyous inflorescence
passing over into a pliostachyous. The characterization for-
merly applied to these species “spica simplicissima androgyna
sive dioica” is actually applicable to each of these, besides that
one possesses occasionally a “ spica composita ” (C. exilzs).

* Gaudin, I., Flora Helvetica, vol. vi, 1830. p. 27.

T. Holm—sStudies in the Cyperacee. 211

In regard to the general habit of these species, C. Davalliana
and C. exilis possess a cespitose rhizome, while in the others
the rhizome is’stoloniferous ; in C. Davalliana var. Sieberiana
Opiz, by Fiegert considered as a hybrid between C. dioeca and
C. Davalliana, the so-called C. Miegertit Vollm.,+ the rhizome
is not so densely cespitose and often bears short stolons. A
very slender and stoloniferous rhizome is observable in both
the dicecious and moneecions forms of C. gynocrates. The
Jeaves are very narrow in all the species, and the cuim is terete
and hollow in C. dioeca, C. gynocrates, C. Davalliana, pentag-
onal in C. parallela and obtusely triangular in C. exlis. The
utricle is usually thickest at the base and tapers gradually
into a beak, the orifice of which is cut down on the dorsal face
so as to form aslit, but on the ventral side the upper margin
is almost entire or slightly emarginate. In C. exzlis, however,
the beak is bidentate with erect teeth. In the last mentioned
species, the utricle is, furthermore, a little winged and the
margins are very scabrous, especially above, in which character
it differs from the other species of the Diozcw. In C. dioeca
and (. exilis the ventral face of utriculus is flat in contrast to
the dorsal, which is distinctly convex ; in the other species both
faces are convex, and the ventral often prominently so in
C. gynocrates. Nerves are quite distinct on the dorsal face of
all the species, less so on the ventral, and are very faint in
CU. dioeca and C. parallela. The base of utriculus is thick
and spongy, especially after fecundation has taken place.

Another peculiarity common to the Dioice is the change of
direction of the utricle when the achenia are mature. While
thus utriculus is erect in these species during anthesis, it
gradually bends down later on and occupies a horizontal posi-
tion in C. gynocrates, C. Davalliana and C. exilis, or it
becomes merely spreading (suberect) as in C. diveca and C.
parallela.

The scale-like bracts (squame) which subtend the pistil-
late spikelets are persistent in these species, while they are
deciduous in some of the other Wonostachye, e. g., C. pulicarrs,
C. nigricans and C. pyrenaica, in which the utricles show a
similar change of direction after fecundation has taken place.

By possessing several morphological peculiarities in common,
the Dioicew may, thus, be considered as naturally allied species.
However, we do not feel satisfied with the arrangement of
these species as simply representing a section of their own and
separated from Vignea and Carices genuine only on account
of their lesser decompound inflorescence and their frequent
dicecism. It would seem more natural if these Diozcw could

*Vollmann, Fr., Hin Beitrag zur Carex-Flora der Umgebung von Regensburg.
(Denkschr. d. k. bot. Gesellsch. Regensburg, vol. vii; new series, vol. i, 1898.)

212 LT. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

be arranged with some of the higher developed “greges,” and
the extreme forms of C. exiles, those which possess several
lateral spikes at the base of the terminal, suggest some affinity
with (. echinata Murr., as already observed by Tuckermann
and Boott. In @. echinata and its allies the direction of
utriculus undergoes the same change as we have described as
characteristic of the Dioicw, and, moreover, the structure
itself of this little organ (utriculus) shows several analogies,
which seem to indicate some affinity to exist between these
species. We are, thus, more inclined to arrange the Dioice of
Tuckermann (excluding C. capztata) under Vignea rather than
under Carices genwine, and the reason is not so much because
they are distigmatic, but on account of the structure of utricu-
lus, which suggests affinities with Vegnea, but not with the
other Carices.

In regard to (. echinata Murr. a number of very diverse
species (C’. loliacea, C. canescens, ete.) have been considered as
its nearest allies by writers of different periods, who have
treated the genus. Nevertheless C. steri/is Willd.* is, beyond

* Having studied what Professor L. H. Bailey supposes to be ‘‘types” of
various species of Carex, this author arrived at the conciusion that C. echinata
Murr. from the Pacific slope appears to be the same as the European plant, but
that the type does not occur in the Hastern United States. At that time (1889)
Professor Bailey accepted C. echinata as an American species with some varieties,
among which the var. microstachys Boeckl was considered identical with C.
sterilis Willd. and C. scirpoides Schk. on the strength of some specimens. pre-
served in the herbaria of Willdenow and Schkuhr. A few years later (1893)
Prof. Bailey made still another disposition of the same species by eliminating
C. echinata altogether from the North American flora, stating that Francis Boott
many years ago ‘‘ questioned if the American plant is the same as the Huropean
C. echinata.” Weare not aware that Boott made this statement in regard to this
species in North America, but only so far as concerns specimens from ‘South of
the British provinces ” (Ill. genus Carex, vol. i, 56, 1858), which he could not
satisfactorily refer to the Huropean plant. While thus excluding C. echinata
from this continent, Prof. Bailey adopts C. sterilis Willd. as a species and identi-
cal with C. scirpoides Schk, of which he claims to have seen the originals.
Whether these specimens were the “original” or not, it must be borne in mind
that the old botanists did not work with types, and in most cases, it is nothing
but a mere guess whether this or that herbarium-sheet contains the specimen, or
part of it, from which the original diagnosis was drawn. And it appears to us
that this modern investigation of old specimens supposed to be types, arises from
inability to faithfully comprehend the descriptions. If, for instance, the old speci-
mens preserved of C. sterilis and C. scirpoides were ‘‘ the types,” and. moreover,
identically the same species,” one would necessarily expect to find the diagnoses
equally uniform; but this is not the case, at least not as these species were
understood by Willdenow. Let us, therefore, compare the most salient points in
the diagnoses of these three species, C. sterilis, C. scirpoides and C. echinata as
described by Willdenow with the one by Prof. Bailey, who has adopted C.
sterilis as identical with CO. scirpoides, and formerly even with C. echinata.

Willdenow. Inflorescence. Utriculus. Squamee.
C. sterilis. Spicis dioicis sub- fruct. ovatis com- ovate acute
senis alternis ob- presso-triquetris- capsulas sub-
longis contiguis. acuminatis, apice zequantes.

recurvis bicuspi-
datis.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacece. 213
doubt, a close ally, and C. elongatu L. and C. leviculmis Meins-
haus. show so many points in common with C. echinata, that
they may well be arranged in the same section; to these, we
think, may be added C. remota L., but only as a “forma des-
ciscens.” Thecentral type of the section seems best illustrated
by C. echinata Murr., the C. stellulata Good., from which we
have derived the name « astrostachywe” as "being the most
appropriate for this new section, while the other species may
be classified as follows:

Carices ( Vignee) astrostachye.
( C. dioeca L. . Bait

. parallela Leest.

. gynocrates Wormskj.

. Davalliana Sm.

. exilis Dew.

. echinata Murr.

. sterilis Willd.

. elongata L.

. leviculmis Meinshaus.

. remota L.

|
hebetatee

centrales

|
[

desciscens.

Further research will evidently prove that several other
species may be referable to this section, but we have not at
present been able to find any others in the very considerable
material of the genus which we have studied. It is readily
noticed from the above, that we have restricted the number of

Willdenow.
C. echinata.

Utriculus.
ovato-acuminatis
_bidentatis hori-
zontalibus.

Inflorescence.
Spica androgyna
composita, spicu-
lis subquaternis
remotiusculis in-
ferne masculis.

Squame.
ovatis acutis

ovatis bidentatis
compressis.

C. scirpoides. Spica andr. comp,
Spiculis subquat.
inferne masculis
subapproximatis,

ellipticis.

ellipticis obtusis.

Prof. Bailey :

)
C. sterilis. Willd. |
incl. C. scirpoides |
Schk. p

3 to 5 contiguous
spikes of which
the uppermost is
usually conspicu-
ously attenuated
at base by the
presence of stam-
inate flowers.

thin and flat, con-
Spicuously con-
tracted into ‘a
slender beak
which is nearly
or quite as long
as the body.

It is readily seen from the above, that Willdeuow had some reason for dis-
tinguishing these plants from each other, and that the collective diagnosis, as
presented by Prof. Bailey, is too vague to be considered.

214 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. —

allied species in a very considerable degree by omitting
C. canescens, CU. loliacea, C. tenella, C. leporina and several
others, which, according to our opinion, do not seem to belong
to this section, at least not when we consider the characters,
drawn from inflorescence and utriculus. We have enume-
rated Carex gynocrates as a species distinct from C. dioeca L.,
and we have done so after a careful study of a large number
of specimens from various regions, besides comparing these
with the excellent diagnosis presented by Drejer in his
“ Revisio critica Caricum borealium.” The habit of these two
species is the same, but it appears as if the spikes, “‘ squamee
and utriculi,” of C. gynocrates are generally paler and of. a
more dull brown color than those of (. dvoeca. Furthermore
the utricles are merely spreading (subarrecti) in C. dioeca, but
horizontal or sometimes almost reflexed in the other. Utriculus
is plano-convex and drawn out into a long, flat and scabrous
beak in C. dioeca, while in C. gynocrates this organ is nearly
gibbous (biconvex) and the beak is shorter in proportion to the
body, terete and a little curved. The scales (squamee) are
obtuse in C. dzoeca, but more or less acute in the latter
species. hese morphological characters we consider much
more important than those taken from the distribution of the
sexes, Inasmuch as androgynous spikes are, also, known in
C. dioeca, as mentioned in the preceding pages. It might
seem, however, as if these characters, possessed by C. gynocrates,
are not sufficient for distinguishing it as a species, and that it
simply represents a geographical variety of C. dioeca, a sug-
gestion that has been made by both Mr. C. B. Clarke and by
Rev. G. Kiikenthal “in litteris.”

If we examine the central forms, C. echinata and C. sterilis
show a structure of utricnlus which reminds us very much of
that of C. exilis, with the only difference that the base is
much broader in the former two species; otherwise the mar-
gins are distinctly winged, the beak scabrous and bidentate.
In @. elongata and C. leviculmis the.body of utriculus is nar-
rower and tapers more gradually into the beak, which is also
bidentate in these species, but less rough or nearly glabrous,
besides that the margins are not winged. When the achenes
are mature we notice in these species (forme centrales) the
same change of direction in the utricle as described as charac-
teristic of the Dzovcew (forme hebetate, and especially so in
O. echinata. In regard to C. remota this species possesses a
utricle of somewhat different structure, since the beak is not
pronounced, but bidentate and scabrous; the margins are nar-
rowly but plainly winged, and the base is somewhat thick and
spongy as in all the others ; at maturity the utricles are spread-
ing, and the species C. remota appears to us as inseparable

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 215

from the section, even if the structure of utriculus leads us to
consider it as a “‘ forma desciscens.” |

In respect to the general habit the central forms and C.
remota are all cespitose with long, narrow leaves and rather
weak culms; the spikes are small and, the uppermost at least,
gynecandrous or purely pistillate; they are mostly contiguous
but in C. /eviculmis they are distant, and especially so in
C. remota, in which, furthermore, the lower bracts, subtending
the spikes, are developed into long leaves, more or less over-
topping the inflorescence. The peculiar stellate appearance of
the mature spikes is common to all and suggests the affinity
with C. extlzs and its allies among the formerly so-called
Dioicw. There are, however, among the other species of
Vigne several which possess similarly spreading or even
horizontally directed utricles, but the shape of this organ,
besides its internal structure, seems very distinct from what we
have observed in the Astrostachye. The diagnosis of the sec-
tion, derived from the central forms, is as follows:

Carices ( Vignee) astrostachye.

Spikes gynecandrous or the lower ones purely pistillate,
sessile. Bracts not sheathing, short and filiform. Utricles
horizontally spreading at maturity, broad and spongy at the
base, glabrous, nervose, tapering into a distinct beak with
scabrous, winged margins and bidentate apex, the teeth erect ;
stigmas two. Mostly northern species. with light-brown or
greenish spikes. The lesser developed forms to be sought
among the Droice, of which C. exilis, especially, shows transi-
tion to C. echinata. C. remota may be considered as repre-
senting the limit of the section. }

When considering the geographical distribution of these
species, it appears as if only two are confined to this continent,
C. exilis and C. sterilis, of which the first is a very local plant,
only known from some localities in the northeastern section of
this country, New Jersey, New Foundland and Eastern Can-
ada; C. leviculmis is, also, quite rare, having been recorded
from a few places in Kamtschatka, Alaska and Oregon, also
from Idaho and Washington Territory, from where Mr. Kiiken-
thal states (in litteris) that he has received some specimens ;
C. gynocrates is known from the west coast of Greenland and
from a number of places on this continent especially in the
northern and western sections, and also from the Rocky
Mountains ; it occurs, furthermore, in Alaska and extends
from there to Kamtschatka and the Bajkal Mountains; C.
dioeca and C. parallela are inhabitants of the northern coun-
tries of Europe and Asia, and the latter species is not infre-

216 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

quent in the Arctic region and the higher mountains of
Norway; (C. Davalliana is a more southern type distributed
over Middle Enrope and some parts of Asia, Altai for instance ;
C. elongata shows a corresponding distribution, but extends a
little farther north, at least in Europe; C. remota accompanies
C. elongata, but seems to be more frequent and is, moreover,
known from Sikkim Himalaya, where it reaches an elevation
of 12,000 feet ;* it is, also, known from Japan. The widest
geographical range is, however, exhibited by C. echinata,
which is very abundant in Europe and Asia; besides it is, also,
known from North America and New Zealand; C. sterilis has
been reported only from this continent, from Canada to Caro-
hina (fide Boott). While thus the dicecious C, parallela and
C. dioeca appear to have their center of distribution farther
north than any of the others, the moncecious C. gynocrates,
although being much less frequent, exhibits a similar range in
contrast to its dicecious form, which is more southern. C.
exilis represents the most evolute stage of the “hebetatw”’ and
may be considered as a good illustration of the development of
the section in this country with its herd of C. echinata and
C. sterilis in a number of varieties, of which only the typical
C. echinata is distributed in the old world. The nearest allies
of C. echinata are, thus, to be sought in this country, where,
moreover, C. gynocrates and C. leviculmis have their geo-
graphical center. C. dioeca and C. parallela are, no doubt,
the oldest remnants of the section as this is preserved in recent
time, and actually demonstrate a closer affinity to C. exdlis
than to C. gynocrates and C. Davalliana, even if O. exilis may
be considered as younger than any of these. C. elongata and
C. remota possess certain points in common with the others,
and may represent the farthest developed types in the section.
While thus, considered from a geographical viewpoint, the
earlier types belong to the northern parts of the old world, the
more modern forms are represented farther south, not only in
Europe and Asia, but also in New Zealand and in this country.
It might seem strange that the “ formee hebetatze” of the sec-
tion are so remote from each other as they really are: C.
dioeca and C. parallela in Europe and Asia, C. gynocrates in
this country, without being connected with each other by some
circumpolar type; yet we must bear in mind that the develop-
ment of the section and the migration of the species is not by
any means to be fully explained by the present geographical
range oi a few old types, that are still in existence.

We have in the preceding pages given a brief account of
the morphological characters of the Astrostachye, and we

* Clarke, C. B., Cyperacee in Hooker’s Flora of British India, vol. vi, London,
1894, p. 699.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. OAT

might append to these some observations upon the internal
structure of the species in order to illustrate the section as
completely as possible.

The root.

Having examined roots of a number of specimens from
widely separated localities and of different age and develop-
ment, we have, nevertheless, failed to detect any anatomical
character of importance by which the “ forme hebetate”
might be distinguished from each other or from their allies
among the “centrales”’ and “ desciscentes.” Like most of the
other Carices examined, the root possesses a hypoderm of a
single layer inside the epidermis, and this tissue is thinwalled
in all the species of Astrostachye. The cortex is differen-
tiated into two zones, an outer and an inner, of which the
former is distinctly thickwalled in contrast to the inner, which
shows the usual tangential collapsing. ‘The endodermis is more
or less thickened, but as it seems constantly as an U-endo-
dermis; it is very heavily thickened in C. echinata, less so in
the other species. In C. gynocrates the endodermis showed
only a very slight thickening of the inner cell-wall in speci-
mens from arctic Greenland, while others from Canada, Alaska
and Wyoming showed a very pronounced thickening of both
the inner and radial cell-walls. The pericambium is usually
thinwalled or moderately thickened as in C. exiles, C. echinata,
C. sterilis and C. leviculmis ; it was found to be interrupted
by all the proto-hadrome vessels, without exception, in all the
species of the Astrostachyew The leptome and hadrome is
well developed, and the central portion of the root is occupied
by conjunctive tissue, which is quite thickwalled in all the
species, especially in C. exilis, C. echinata and C. sterilis.

In considering the development of the outer cortex, the
endodermis and the conjunctive tissue, the roots of these
species seem well supported in mechanical respect, and equally
well in species from bogs or woodlands.

The rhizome.

The rhizome of the “forme hebetate” is stoloniferous in
O. dioeca, C. gynocrates and C. parallela, but. cespitose in the
other species. Epidermis is. mostly thickwalled, and a hypo-
derm of a single stratum is noticeable inside the epidermis.
The cortical parenchyma is, also here, differentiated into two
zones, of which the outer is quite thickwalled. The endo-
dermis shows the same manner of thickening as observed in
the roots, and is especially thickwalled in C. parallela and C.
Dawalliana. The stereome occurs in C. parallela as a peri-
pheral band of small isolated groups near epidermis, but isin the

218 T.. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. —

other species only observable inside endodermis, where it
forms a few strata around the mestome-bundles. The arrange-
ment of the mestome-bundles is somewhat: variable in these
species ; in C. dzoeca and C. gynocrates, for instance, they form
one very regular band, while two in C. ewdlzs, three in C.
Davalliana, and in C. parallela they seem scattered without
order inside the endodermis; they occur mostly as collateral
and bicollateral, perihadromatic, together, but in C. gynocrates
we noticed only the collateral type in specimens from Green-
land, Alaska and Oanada, while in some rhizomes from
Wyoming the mestome-bundles showed a tendency to become
perihadromatic. Most of the mestome-bundles in C. Davalliana
were observed to be bicollateral, while only a very few showed
this structure in (C. ewilis. The pith occupies a very small
portion of the central-cylinder in C. parallela and C. Daval-
faana and is solid in these species; in the others, on the con-
trary, the pith is larger and broken in the middle so as to form
a wide central cavity.

The stem.

A triangular and solid stem is generally attributed to the
Cyperacee in contrast to a eylindric and hollow culm in the
Graminee. There are, however, many exceptions to this rule,
and in both orders; we have, already, called attention to the
outline of this organ in the ‘ forme: hebetate” of Astro-
stachye being mostly cylindric and hollow inside. Carex exdlis
is the only species of these in which the stem is triangular,
though merely obtusely; but if we examine the higher devel-
oped types we find the stem to be triangular in all the species
with the exception of C. echinata, in which it is almost regu-
larly hexagonal; the pith seems invariably broken down in
these species, as we, also, observed in the lesser devel-
oped types. The epidermis is quite thickwalled in all the
species and nearly glabrous, the development of prickle-like
projections being very scant except in C. elongata. The cor-
tical parenchyma consists of short palisades radiating towards
the center of the stem in the “ hebetate,” also in C. echinata,
C. sterilis and OC. elongata, while in C. leviculmis and C.
remota the bark is composed of polyedric cells and no distinet
palisades; intercellular spaces are very distinct in all the
species, and lacunes are present, one between each two mestome-
bundles; thus the cortical parenchyma does not represent any
very firm or solid tissue in these species, and is especially open
in C. elongata. Stereome occurs as hypodermal on the lep-
tome-side of the larger mestome-bundles, besides that it is,
also, developed on the hadrome-side of these, where it borders
on the pith; at the smaller mestome-bundles there is less stere-

T.. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacew. 219

A
ome, and, with the exception of C. lewviculmis (fig. 1), this
*is here separated from the epidermis by strata of cortical
parenchyma on the leptome side. It may be said about the
stereome in these species, that it is generally well developed
and seems to be especially thickwalled in C. leviculmis and
C. remota. In regard to the mestome-bundles, these are
arranged in one peripheral band and represent larger, in trans-
verse section oval, and. smaller, which are nearly orbicular in
outline; the parenchyma-sheath is thinwalled and the mestome-

Fig. 1. Transverse section of the stem of Carex leviculmis Meinshaus.
The cortex is painted black in the figure, lacunes are to be seen between the
mestome-bundles, and the central portion of the pith is broken down into a wide
cavity. x75.

sheath shows a distinct thickening of the inner cell-wall in all
the species, and to the same extent. The mestome-bundles are
thus of the same development as is usually observed in the
genus, and we might state besides, that we found no trace of
the inner chlorophyll-bearing sheath, which Haberlandt and
Rikh detected in some of the other genera of the order.

The leaf.

This organ exhibits a much greater variation in these species
than observed in the root, the rhizome and the stem. It is
mostly hemicylindric in the “hebetate,” at least in C. dioeca,
C. gynocrates (fig. 2) and C. ewilis, where this leaf-shape is
characteristic of both the male and female plant, besides in
moneecious specimens of C. gynocrates ; in C. parallela, on
the other hand, we noticed the leaf to be broader in the male
than in the female plant, and in 0. Davalliana the leaf is still
broader and almost carinate. In the central forms as well as

220 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

in C. remota we find the leaves to be almost flat with a distinct ,
keel as is characteristic. of the majority of the higher developed
Vignee and Carices genuine. In the “hebetate” the leaves
are smooth and mostly glabrous, with the exception of C.
Davalliana ; in the others, ‘“centrales and desciscentes,” we
find prickle-like projections to be quite abundant along the
margins and the midrib, rendering the leaves more or less
scabrous. Very characteristic in this respect is the leaf of

Fig. 2. Carex gynocrates Wormskj.; moncecious specimen from Wyoming ;
transverse section of leaf; mesophyll painted black; M.=midrib; E.=epidermis
of upper face. x120.

C. leviculmis (fig. 4), of which both surfaces show the develop-
ment of a number of obtuse papille. The cuticle is very
distinct and smooth in all the species, and the epidermis shows
relatively the same modifications as seen in most of the other
Carices: the cells being generally larger on the upper face
outside the mesophyll than on the lower. Bulliform cells are
well developed as a single group above the midrib in all the
central forms and in C. remota, besides that an additional
group of these may be seen in C. remota (tig. 3) above one of
the lateral mestome-bundles. The “ hebetate” are mostly
destitute of these bulliform cells, and it is only in the broader
leaves of C. parallela (male specimens) and of C. Davalliana
that some of the epidermal cells have attained such develop-
ment, although in a much smaller degree than in the “ forme
centrales.” If we consider epidermis of the lower surface and
outside the stereome, we notice the cells to be of a somewhat
different size and shape than in the surrounding stomatiferous
strata; the radial walls are less undulate and the cells often
shorter and narrower than those adjoining. In C. parallela
and in (. ewilis, for instance, these epidermal cells outside the
stereome are shorter than the others; in C. Davalliana, C.
sterilis, C. remota and C. leviculmis they are much narrower.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 221

but not shorter, while in C. echinata and C. elongata the same
cells are not only much narrower, but also shorter than the
others. ‘The stomata are restricted to the lower surface of the
leaf-blade outside the mesophyll; they are free in all species,
even in (. leviculmis with its numerous papille, and the
guard-cells are level epidermis in most of the species, with the
exception of (C. parallela, C. sterilis, C. elongata and C. levi-
culms, in which they are slightly projecting.

"amy

be )_f

1) . eo
gangs

S @ s) CLO~, ‘

Fig. 3. Carex remota L.; fig. 4, C. leviculmis Meinshaus.; fig. 5, C. echinata
Murr. Transverse sections of leaves; M.= midrib; E.= epidermis of upper
oa Ped in bulliform cells above the midrib; mesophyll painted black.

The mesophyll consists mostly of a homogeneous tissue of
short palisades vertical on the leaf-blade or radiating towards
the center of the mestome-bundles as we observed in C.
Davalliana ; in C. echinata, C. sterilis and C. leviculmis the
palisades are very short and often too irregular in shape to be
called “ palisades.” In C. remota the mesophyll is differen-
tiated into a ventral palisade- and dorsal pneumatic-tissue, this
species being, thus, the only one of the section that possesses
a typical bifacial leaf-blade. The cells of the mesophyll are

222 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

only occasionally closely packed in these species, and inter-
cellular spaces are often not only numerous, but also quite
wide; moreover, lacunes are observable in this tissue and are
very broad in all the species, in the “hebetatee,” the “ cen-
trales” and in C. remota (fig. 3).

The stereome is thickwalled and occurs as hypodermal
groups accompanying the mestome-bundles, or separated from
the epidermis by the mesophyll, or as isolated groups in the
leaf-margins. In the “ebetatw” there is only hypodermal
stereome on the leptome-side of the midrib, and also in the
margins of the blade, while the smaller mestome-bundles are
so deeply imbedded in the mesophyll that the stereome which
supports these does not extend to epidermis. In the higher
developed types (“ centrales,” etc.) there is usually hypodermal
stereome above and below the larger mestome-bundles, espe-
cially well developed in C. leviculmis (fig. 4), where it is
hypodermal on the lower surface at all the mestome-bundles,
even at the smallest ones. Considering the mestome-bundles,
these constitute only a single band in all the species, and are
surrounded bya thinwalled parenchyma-sheath and a mestome-
sheath, of which the inner wall is moderately thickened ; the
leptome and the hadrome exhibit the usual structure, and the
bundles occur as oval (in transverse section) or as nearly
orbicular.

The leaves of the Astrostachye exhibit certain modifica-
tions not only in respect to the outline of the leaf, but also in
the development of epidermis as bulliform cells or as papillee
(C. leviculmis) ; moreover, the bifacial leaf of C. remota seems
very exceptional, when we compare it with the nearly isolateral
leaves of the other species. The structure of C. exis,
although this seems to represent the highest developed type. of
the ‘“hebetatz,” at least morphologically, is actually identical
with that of the lower forms: C. dioeca and C. gynocrates,
while in both C. Davalliana and certain specimens of C.
parallela the leaf shows some resemblance to that of the
“centrales.” A small leaf-surface is characteristic of the *‘ hebe-
tate” in contrast to the other types, in spite of the fact that
several of these occupy the same kind of soil and live under
the same climatological conditions; even in C. gynocrates and
C. parallela from high northern latitudes the structure of such

specimens agree very well with that of others from more.

southern latitudes or from subalpine regions.

When we finally compare the “hebetatee” of Astrostachye
with those of some other sections, we do not observe the leaf-
blade uniformly narrow in all of these. We have described
the relatively broad leaf of C. lejocarpa OC. A. Mey. in con-
trast to that of C. circinata, both of the Stenocarpe ; further-

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 223

more in C. pulecaris the leaf is very narrow as in C. pyrenaica,
but broad in C. nigricans, their nearest ally; a relatively
_ broad blade is noticeable in the “hebetate” of Sphwridio-
_phore, e. g., C. scirpoidea and C. oreocharis, and in Lampro-
chlene: C. rupestris and C. obtusata.

Utriculus.

If it were not that this organ possesses such excellent
morphological characters, by which our species of Astrostachye
may be readily distinguished from each other, one would natu-
rally suppose that the number of species were much smaller
by examining the anatomical structure. The fact is, that
when we examine the structure of utriculus, we do not find
any points of importance by which these species may be dis-
tinguished anatomically. The differences are so slight and
seem merely to depend upon a relative broader or narrower
mesophyll and a larger-or smaller number of isolated stereome-
bundles, that none of these may be considered as being neither
constant or of sufficient importance to be used as anatomical
characters. Common to all is the broad mesophyll at the base
of utriculus, and the presence of only two mestome-bundles ;
furthermore, the stereome is equally well developed in these
species, not only as accompanying the mestome-bundles, but
also by occurring as isolated, hypodermal groups between these.
The number of these isolated stereome-bundles varies from 15
to 36, the strongest mechanical structure being possessed by
C. elongata, C. dioeca and C. gynocrates. The outer epidermis
is thickwalled in most of the species excepting C. remota and
C. leviculmis. |

When we finally compare the morphological and anatomical
characters with each other, it seems as if our species may be
naturally classified as representing a section of Vignew. The
transition from the ““ hebetate ” to the ‘‘ centrales ” seems very
gradual and as we have shown in the preceding, none of these
species possess characters that stand as isolated among the
others, neither in morphological or anatomical respects. If our
disposition of these species, classified as “ Astrostachy@,” may
prove to be correct or at least quite natural, our observations
have simply confirmed a suggestion, already proposed by both
Tuckermann and Boott, whose remarks upon the affinities
have been presented in the introduction to this paper.

Brookland, D. C., July, 1900.

Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Ssries, Vou. XI, No. 63.—Manrcu, 1901.
5

224 S. A. Hageman—A Just Intonation Piano.

Art. XVIIL—A Just Intonation Piano; by 8. A. HAGEMAN.

THE problem of tuning and transposition and just intona-
tion, the practical solution of which is the subject of this
paper, is one which does not need to be restated for the readers
to whom it will chiefly come. But for their convenience, and
- for the sake of logical completeness, the intervals of the two
scales true and tempered are here given.

Taking, as is usual, the C scale for illustration, the letters
designating the tones of a complete octave are given with the
intervals between, and the fractions proportioned to the vibra-
tion numbers immediately below each letter.

C2) 2 wad 2G if A? BSC
15

9 4 3 5
LY Be iho = Agee

Chord lengths may be had by simply inverting the above frac-
tions.

If, as is well known, we use, instead of these intervals, their
logarithms, we havea set of numbers that may be compared by
addition and subtraction and thus represent the actual magni-
tude of the intervals with a high degree of accuracy and con-
venience, especially for comparison with temperament.

The numbers 102, 91 and 56 are modified logarithms of the
above fractions and may replace them—in which case 100 and
50 will respectively represent the two intervals of the tempered
diatonic scale which is here given.

True scale C102 D91 E56 F 102 G91 A102 B56 C.
Tempered scale 100 =100 50 100 = 100 100 50

It is further desirable to append the complete duodene of C
as the most complete exhibition of all the tones and semitones.
of the octave as used.

BD D iF
ED G B
AD C E
Db F A

This is taken from the English translation of Sensations of
Tone by Helmholtz.

It is not considered necessary to explain these anew further
than to remark that, in this tabular arrangement of the com-
plete diatonic and chromatic scale, the intervals along the ver-
tical lines are pure fifths, and along horizontal lines pure
thirds. Thus their exact mathematical values are clearly
established.

S. A. Hageman—A Just Intonation Piano. 225

During the past century a number of efforts have been made
to construct keyboard instruments such as the organ so as to
meet the requirements of just intonation.

‘The problem has been considered an extremely difficult one
especially as regards the piano, and the unsatisfactory mechan-
ism heretofore devised has, in every instance, been practically
rejected by the musical public, though every true musician
would willingly sacrifice much to regain the inestimable beauty
and purity of just intervals.

Helmholtz, Blaserna, and Taylor and a long line of able and
eminent writers, have appropriately set forth the defects of
tempered intonation, its tendency to obscure theory, and its
blighting effects upon the essential beauties of music. But no
instrument has been brought forward that seemed so attractive
as the piano, with the licentious freedom of its tempered scales
—and not a few have even grown into a cultivated disregard
of its really great defects. But the tempered piano does not
quite take rank among the best musicians. It is denied a place
in the orchestra, and the most eminent vocalists and violinists
accept it reluctantly for purposes of accompaniment. One
writer even contemplates its final abandonment, along with
tempered intonation, apparently never dreaming that its faults
were capable of being remedied. Had it not been that it was
already installed in almost every household, it is quite probable
that even the complicated and cumbersome just intonation
organs, that have been offered, would have won the day, and
tempered intonation, the reproach of music, would have been,
at this moment, only an unpleasant memory.

It would be foreign to the scope and purpose of this paper
to enter into any extended discussion of the merits or demerits
of tempered intonation, but it is freely granted that—though
through long and dreary years, while voice and violin and
orchestra were alone struggling for truth—music has on the
one hand certainly suffered from its use, it has at the same
time, though in an imperfect manner, filled a gap of some two
centuries of almost hopeless waiting for better things.

And yet it has been by the piano and organ that the priceless
gems of musical masters from Bach to Wagner have been
brought, though in unworthy attire, into our daily lives and
made our common property. Their rehabiliment in fitting
garb has been the cherished desire of the writer and the results
attained are indicated in this paper.

It has been fully realized from the very first, that such a
work as the construction of a just intonation piano must deal
very gently with existing methods and mechanism. It must
change nothing, take nothing away, impose little or no addi-
tional exertion upon the player, be free from mechanical

226 S. A. Hageman—A Just Intonation Piano.

defects and intricacies,—and last but not least, make light
demands upon the purse.

The ordinary piano has, therefore, been taken as a founda-
tion for the new, and without taking from the player his
familiar instrument, he is enabled to instantly substitute, for
its tempered harmonies, mathematically just intonation in
twelve keys based on the twelve tempered chromatic intervals
of the octave.

The changes from one to the other of these twelve justly
intoned keys (each having its own complete chromatic scale),
or back to temper again, is under the instantaneous control of
the left foot, so that the right is left free to operate the damp-’
ers as usual.

The absolute uniformity of the tempered scale with its
twelve equal intervals makes it admirably suitable as a basis
for the necessary corrections, and its adoption as such essen-
tially simplified the problem.

The modification of the evenly tempered intervals, to make
them conform to those of true intonation, is effected by a line
of small metallic movable bridges.

Each unison has a separate bridge which is capable of being
moved toward the center of the string, thus shortening the
vibrating portion and raising the pitch, or, it may, by a con-
trary motion, cause a depression of the pitch. When the
instrument stands in temper the bridges will occupy the usual
line of the agraffe, which is set back far enough to make room
for them. Mechanism for the proper control of these bridges
is placed on the top of the wrest plank and at the back of the
piano and is actuated by intonation pedals which pass beneath,
at the left of the center. When an intonation pedal is pressed,
every bridge is instantly set, so as to give the mathematical
cord length for its tone in that key, in which position it
remains until reset by the same means.

In the instrument as at first constructed, there were thirteen
pedals, representing the twelve just keys and the even temper.
A muen simpler and better arrangement has been since adopted.

Description of Parts.—Fig. 1 is a vertical section of part of a
piano adjacent to one of the movable bridges, showing side eleva-
tion of string, movable bridge and parts related.

Fig. 2 is also a vertical section taken on the line X, at right
angles to the section of fig. 1, and is drawn to a larger scale.

The string, or group of strings forming one unison, 1s shown at
a, passes over the movable bridge 0 and the agraffe g to the wrest

inf:
‘ the extreme phases of vibration of the string are shown by
the dotted lines a’ a”. The rod eis attached to the bridge 8,

we ya nie

S. A. Hageman—A Just Intonation Piano. 227

passes through an opening in the agraffe and between the wrest
pins, and connects with the horizontal arm of lever (not shown)
at the top of the wrest plank.

au - RiGee!

|
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!

= ee
|

é = =e

= \S=2 | 2000
S5?£ ££ ( g X, iii

The movable bridge 6 has a concave bearing conforming to the
convex surface of the slide, or way, c, so that the bridge may
adjust itself to the plane of the strings constituting a unison and
insure equal pressure of all the strings of the unison.

The slide ¢, upon which the bridge moves, has its upper surface
parallel to the dotted line a’, thus equalizing the pressure of the
string upon the bridge at all points and avoiding undue and
unequal strain which would tend to put the piano out of tune.

At the top of the wrest plank is a seriesof lever arms actuating
the bridges. By making these arms proportional to the strings
to which they correspond, compensation is made for the varying
lengths of the strings so that a given amount of motion (in arc)
produces uniform change of pitch in all the strings.

These arms are attached to cylindrical rods which pass back to
the rear of the piano where the other arm of each is attached at
arightangle. The two arms and the connecting rod constitute a
lever of which the cylindrical rod is the axis of motion.

The lever arms at the back are furnished with octave con-
nections and on those pins are so placed that they are caught
when a pedal is pressed and brought into that precise position
that is required for the particular key that the pedal represents.

The entire just intonation mechanism including the eighty-
eight bridges is made up of only two hundred and fifty mova-
able parts, is not expensive nor difficult of construction, nor in
any manner readily susceptible of derangement, but is durable |
and reliable to the last degree.

228 S. A. Hageman—A Just Intonation Piano.

This construction is essentially different from all previous
just intonation instruments in that 7 acknowledges no tone
cycles, and consequently no compromise in intonation however
small.

Each semitone of the tempered chromatic scale is in turn
made the tonic or keynote of a separate just intonation scale
of twelve tones to the octave, whose intervals correspond to
those of the duodene given above.

This affords a complete and correct chromatic scale of just
intervals besides a complete diatonic scale on the third below
the tonic, whose seven tones bear the same relation to each
other as those of the key itself. These same twelve tones com-
prise also four complete minor scales, founded respectively on
the tonic, fourth, fifth and sixth, and having both the ascending
and descending forms. Perfect triads, either major or minor,
or both, are found upon all but one of the same twelve semi-
tones, all without any change of intonation or use of pedals.
But by using the pedals all these scales and chords may be
duplicated on any one of the twelve tempered semitones as a
tonic or key. Four dominant sept-chords, with resolutions on
tonic triads a fifth below, should also be included in this esti-

mate for each key. In addition to the twelve just keys as

above, tempered intonation is always instantly available in
response to pressure of a pedal.

These results summed up give one hundred and fifty-six
tones to the octave, or eleven hundred and forty-four in the
compass of seven and one-third octaves, against eight-eight in
the ordinary piano.

The changes of tonality are practically instantaneous and can
succeed each other in any order with great rapidity, if it were
necessary, but the resources of a single key are so great that
even in the most intricate music the pedal changes will be
quite few. Many harmonies and progressions that would
seem to involve foreign tones, do not require the use of the
pedal at all but are found perfect and true, within the limits of
the principal key in use at the time.

The way appears perfectly clear for the application of the
same general principles to pipe and reed organs without increas-
ing the number of pipes or reeds.

The result of familiarity with just intervals during the work
of construction and since the satisfactory completion of the
instruments now in use at my home in Cincinnati, fully con-
firms all that Helmholtz and others have said as to the inex-
pressible sweetness and beauty of pure harmonics.

Their clearness renders all music more intelligible as well as
agreeable, the musical sense is rapidly rendered more acute,
and tone perception and tone production matters of much

“eae

er ‘

S. A. Hageman—A Just Intonation Piano. 229

greater ease and precision, and as a natural consequence, tem-

pered intonation, and errors of tuning generally, rendered more
and more intolerable.

While any composition is greatly enhanced in beauty, there
runs through all—even bits of melody, simple chords, or scales
—a restful, satisfying effect that could hardly be conceived
without the actual experience.

It is the profound conviction of the writer that just intona-
tion in music is of the greatest importance.

Persons listening to the best orchestras often imagine that
they are hearing it in its perfection. This is far from being
true. Temperament has leavened it also, as is capable of
abundant proof.

As Helmholtz remarks—few modern mnsicians have ever
heard tone intonation, and consequently its superiority over

temperament is greatly underrated.

Cincinnati, O.

230 W. Hallock— Very on Atmospheric Radiation.

ArT. XIX.— Very on Atmospheric Radiation ;* by WitiiaAM
Hatocg.

Ir will require no long consideration to recognize that the ques-
tion of atmospheric radiation and absorption is one of funda-
mental importance in meteorology, and an equal reflection will
convince any physicist of experience of the extreme complexity
and difficulty of the search for its answer.

The problem is naturally divided into two parts: First, the
absorption, transmission and re-radiation by the atmosphere of
that energy which reaches it direct from the sun; that is, from a
source at a very high temperature. Second, the absorption,
transmission and re-radiation of the energy which comes to the
atmosphere from terrestial sources; that is, from a source at

medium temperatures. The curve of distribution of energy with .

reference to wave length is radically different in the case of the
two sources, the maximum for the sun lying in much shorter
wave lengths than in that for the earth. Here at the outset
is the difficult necessity of considering not only the total absorp-
tion or radiation, but its distribution as to wave length. Addtothis
the presence of water vapor in varying relative humidity, and
absolute quantity, and of CO,, and trouble enough is at once
apparent.

Such a research as this is one properly suited to the resources

of a Government Bureau, where a long series of exhaustive inves-
tigations may be carried on uninterruptedly by a competent
physicist, with liberal provision for all money needed for expen-
sive apparatus. In the present case the physicist alene with his
zeal, and but little money, seems to have been relied upon to
solve the riddle.

Prof. Very has carried out, with much skill and industry, a
highly laborious piece of experimental work, and this, with his
theoretical discussions, certainly constitute a most valuable con-
tribution to this important subject. At the same time, no one
better than he, can realize the still outstanding doubts which
cluster about the subject, and which leave the final solution of
the problem still indefinite.

Naturally the bolometer was chosen as the measuring instru-
ment, since Prof. Very had already had such valuable experience
with it. The Boys radio-micrometer or the Nichols radiometer
would have been more sensitive, but too often added delicacy is

urchased at the expense of serious disturbances and errors.

In “Method A,” fig. 1, two masses of air at different tem-
peratures, confined in long tubes with open ends, were alter-
nately interposed between a concave mirror and the bolometer

* Atmospheric Radiation: a Research conducted at the Allegheny Observatory
and at Providence, R. I.: submitted to Willis L. Moore, Chief U.S. Weather
Bureau, by Frank W. Very. Pp. 134, 4to, Washington, 1900—Bulletin G,
Weather Bureau, No. 221 (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture),

W. Hallock— Very on Atmospheric Radiation. 231

placed at its center of curvature. The concave mirror was of
slightly larger angular aperture than the bolometer case and was
kept at a constant temperature. The difficulties of manipulation
and the comparatively small effect due to the differences of tem-
perature of the air rendered this method unsatisfactory.

1
: 7 -
M 5

' Lo | l | |
n i fe. :

Fig. 1, diagram of ‘‘Method A.” M is a concave spherical mirror, concentric
with the bolometer strips at B. SS is the last screen in the opening of the
bolometer case. COC is one of the two air tubes interposed between the
mirror and the bolometer.

Considerable valuable data was obtained by ‘“ Method B,”
where a vertical current of air of varying rectangular cross sec-
tion and temperature was made to rise in front of the bolometer.
The air current always subtended a greater angle than the aper-
ture of the bolometer case. This method is similar to that used
by Hutchins,* whose conclusion that “radiation only takes place
when there is a fall of temperature within the limits of molecular
action” appears to Prof. Very not altogether warranted. In this
method the investigator is confronted with the question as to
what extent a part of the radiating mass of air absorbs the
radiations from another part. There can be no doubt that this”
takes place and that nothing is gained by increasing the thick-
ness of the mass beyond a certain limit. It must not be forgot-
ten, moreover, that this absorption is selective and does not affect
all wave lengths equally (cf. fig. 4).

2

[ft

Fig. 2, diagram of ‘Method ©.” C C is the air-tight cylinder. S is the disk
which can be moved near to, or far from, the rock-sall window W, by means of
the rod R, which runs through a stuffing box. The bolometer is located at B.

Perhaps the most satisfactory contributions were made by
“Method ©,” fig. 2. In this case an air-tight cylinder, five feet
long and one foot in diameter, was provided with a rock-salt
window at one end, and a stuffing box at the other. Through
the latter ran a rod carrying a disk on its inner end which nearly

* This Journal, vol. xliii, p. 357, May, 1892.

232 W. Hallock— Very on Atmospheric Radiation.

filled the cross-section of the cylinder. This disk was supposed
to remain at the same constant temperature as the gas, a greater
or less thickness of which was allowed to radiate out the salt
window, according as the disk was near to, or far from, that end
of the cylinder. This apparatus, if it had been tight and provided
with thoroughly satisfactory means of heating, would have given
even better results than it did. By these means the effect of
varying temperatures and pressures, relative humidities, and car-
bonic acid gas could be determined.

For example, it was found that for atmospheric pressure and
temperatures to 100° C. excess, and a thickness of 141°8°", the
ratio of radiation, air: CO, = 0°1885 /0°1254 = 1°50. The radia-
tion from steam was also tried, but the results were inconclusive.
“Method D” used the above cylinder to store compressed gases,
which after being heated in going through a hot brass tube were
caused to pass in front of the bolometer. In this way the rela-
tive radiation of air and steam, and clear and smoky air, were
studied. It appears that steam under certain conditions radiates
at least four times as much as air, and that the presence of con-
densed particles of water does not seriously affect the results.
A limited series of experiments seemed to show that the presence
of fine particles in the air, as in smoke, did not affect its radiation.

It is manifestly impossible to refer ever so briefly to the mass
of details and discussions; they must be studied in the original.
When we consider how much material for study is here presented,
and that too many government scientific publications are simply
narrations of undigested details, without proper consolidation and
abstraction, we must be grateful to Prof. Very for summarizing
his work as well as its extreme complexity will admit. Never-
theless it will only be practicable to extract here a few sentences :

‘“The direct effect of the sun’s rays is less on a normal surface
in the tropics than in temperate regions, and less at sea level than
upon a mountain top, owing to the difference in the aqueous
component of the air; and the ability of the solar radiation to
maintain a high temperature in the torrid zone or at sea level is
due to the accumulation of the thermal energy imparted to the
earth’s surface by reason of the retention of the escaping radia-
tion from that surface by a moist and highly absorbent atmos-
phere rather than to the direct power of the sunbeam.” (P.125.)

“*¢ Where the land is moist the changes in temperature are less
than where it is dry or arid,’ but it is the condition of the air and
not that of the soil which makes the radiation possible or impos-
sible.” (FP. az)

“Within moderate depths of only a few meters the radiation
of dry air, purified from carbon dioxide, increases quite uniformly
with the depth; the radiation of a 1-meter layer of purified air
at 50° C. and near atmospheric pressure (735™") as compared
with one at 0° C., is 0:00068 radim, representing a transformation
and transfer of thermal energy of 0°00068 small calories every
second through each square centimeter of limiting surface; the

> lpi

et lia

W. Hallock— Very on Atmospheric Radiation. 233

radiation of a like depth of carbon dioxide at the same tem
perature is three and one-half times that of air, or 0°00238 radim,

3

STE ETT
DELTA ERE
BAYA

{ vas 25 6 7 Maa BEERS)

Fig. 3. Approximate spectral energy-curve of air radiation, for moist air at
50° C. Wave-lengths laid off as abscissze.

4

0
100

ee
eer AR We LELELL
CCN Ieee
SMICCCUC ICCC
MC

|
ee eee
HUN se

Pere one 84" 4101, 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Us
"aps XL = 4

0 0 C0, C0, “ib H,0 ; 7,0 H,0 HO five? Py
H,0 ~ G 0,

Fig. 4. Curve of transmission of radiation by the earth’s atmosphere. Wave-
lengths as abscissze and percentage transmission as ordinates. The probable
cause of the absorption band is indicated in each case.

234 W. Hallock— Very on Atmospheric Radiation.

which is very nearly a maximum for this temperature, further
increase of the radiant depth being unattended by a correspond-
ing addition of radiant energy, showing that equilibrium between
radiation and emission has been almost reached at this depth;
the radiation from a layer of steam five feet deep at one-sixth of
atmospheric pressure is two and one-half times that from a like
body of dry air at temperatures near the boiling point of water,
and eight-tenths of the radiant emission from the black solid
body ; while for smaller depths the radiant power of water vapor
is relatively greater.” (P. 129.)

The accompanying diagrams, figs. 3 and 4, are reproduced
from the summary. Fig. 3 is a provisional energy-curve of the
radiation of moist air for the temperature +50° C. The positions
of the bands (from observations by Paschen, Rubens and Asch-
kinass) relate to the emission from aqueous vapor and carbon
dioxide with the exception of those of extreme wave length
provisionally assigned to nitrogen, oxygen, etc., from observa-
tions by Hutchins of the absorption of air radiation by quartz.
Fig. 4, the curve of transmission of radiation by the terrestrial
atmosphere, relates to a vertical transmission through a clear air
of moderate humidity, and shows the general fact of selective
absorption scattering of short waves with the progressive strength-
ening of band absorption in the infra-red, due to the gases indi-
cated (mainly water vapor), to finally a region of almost total
absorption provisionally attributed to the permanent gases of the
atmosphere.

In conclusion, it may not be amiss to call attention to the
important bearing which recent investigations on electrification
of gases, and their electrical behavior under the influence of
violet, ultra-violet, Becquerel and X-rays, is sure to have upon
the problems involved in meteorology.

Columbia University, Physical Laboratory.

Chemistry and Physics. 235

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND: PHYSICS.

1. Radio-active Lead.—Those substances that emit the remark-
able rays discovered by Becquerel have heretofore been found
associated with the uranium, thorium, barium, bismuth and tita-
nium extracted from minerals containing uranium and thorium.
HorMAnn and Srrauss have recently found active properties in
lead salts obtained from such minerals, viz., pitchblende, cleveite,
bréggerite, uranium mica, samarskite and euxenite, and they
believe that they have evidence of the existence of a new element
which resembles lead in many ways, but is quite different from
that metal in other respects. ‘The substance, like lead, gives a sul-
phide which is insoluble in dilute acids and in ammonium sulphide,
and a sulphate insoluble in dilute sulphuricacid. The chloride is
more readily soluble than lead chloride in pure water. In the
spark spectrum occurs a.violet line which does not belong to lead.
The equivalent weight of the substance is very different from.
that of lead, and the valency seems to be higher, since the sul-
phate liberates iodine from an acidified solution of potassium
iodide. ‘The authors think it probable that the element in ques-
tion is bivalent and quadrivalent and has an atomic weight of
over 260. The chloride and especially the sulphate fluoresce
under the action of cathode rays, and they thus acquire the
property of acting upon the photographic plate in the dark. It is
only after some months that they lose this activity, which
approaches in intensity that of the most active thorium or ura-
nium preparations. The present communication is merely a pre-
liminary notice, and further publications promised for the near
future will be awaited with interest.— Berichte, xxxiv, 8.

H. L. W.

2. Physiological Action of Radium Rays.—lIt has been noticed
by Watkuorr that the rays of radio-active barium produce
inflammation of the skin, similarly to Réntgenrays. This fact has
been confirmed by GirseL. The latter placed a double celluloid
capsule containing ‘27 g. of active barium bromide for two hours
in contact with the inner surface of the arm. At first there was
only a slight reddening of the skin, but after three or four weeks
a severe inflammation set in. Giesel found also that the radium
rays exert a similar action upon the leaves of plants; the chloro-
phy! disappears, and the exposed part takes on the yellow or
brown color of autumn.— Berichte, xxxili, 3569. H. L. W.

8. Chlorine Heptoxide.—This new substance, Cl,O,, which is
the anhydride of perchloric acid, has been prepared by Micuart
and Conn by the action of phosphorus pentoxide upon pure per-
chloric aeid. The reaction is a dangerous one on account of the
explosive nature of the product, and must be carried out very
gradually at a temperature of —10°. Chlorine heptoxide is a

236 Scientific Intelligence.

colorless, very volatile oil, boiling at 82°. On standing a day it
begins to turn yellow and after two or three days it is greenish
yellow and gives off a greenish gas. When brought into contact
with flame, or by a sharp percussion, it explodes with great
violence, but in comparison with other oxides of chlorine it shows.
great stability, and it may be poured on paper, wood or similar
organic matter with impunity, the oxide simply volatilizing in
the air.—Am. Chem. Jour., xxiii, 444. H. L. W.

4. The Non-Hxistence of Trivalent Carbon.—In a recent num-
ber of this Journal (vol. x, p. 458) mention was made of the sup-
posed existence of triphenylmethy], (C,H,),C, which would show
the existence of trivalent carbon. J. F. Norris has now discov-
ered facts which furnish an adequate explanation of Gomberg’s
results without the necessity of introducing any new principles.
He believes that the compound formed by the action of zine upon
triphenylchlormethane is probably diphenylphenylenemethane,
(C,H,),C:C,H,, an atom of hydrogen being removed along with
the chlorine atom. In spite of this new aspect of the matter,
Gomberg’s results possess great interest. The trivalent carbon
formula was advanced merely as a preliminary suggestion.—Am.
Chem. Jour, xxv, 117. H. Li. W-

5. Diffusion of Gold in Solid Lead at Ordinary Temperature.—
By placing cylinders of solid lead upon disks of gold for a period
of four years at a nearly constant temperature of about 18°, Sir
W. C. Rozerts-AvstTin has found that gold passed into the lead.
In the lowest layer of -75™™ gold was present to the extent of
1 oz. 6 dwt. per ton, while in a slice 7™™ from the surface of con-
tact there were found 15 dwt. per ton. It is caleulated that the
rate of diffusion is about 1/350,000 of that in molten lead.—Jour.
Chem. Soc., xxx, I, 9. H. L. W.

6. On Cerium.—The opinion expressed in recent literature that
cerium consists of at least two elements, is shown to be in all
probability without foundation by a careful investigation on the
large scale by G. B. Drosspacu. 250 kilograms of commercial
cerium carbonate were subjected to a long series of operations in
order to remove impurities, and finally double salts of cerous
nitrate with ammonium nitrate were subjected to systematic frac-
tional recrystallization. In the course of seven months more
than two hundred erystallizations were made, and fraetions
widely separated from one another showed no differences from
cerium preparations which could be obtained by the careful use
of older methods of purification. The cerium dioxide obtained
by igniting cerium nitrate in all cases showed a v pale yellowish
tint.— Berichte, xxxiii, 3506. H. L. W.

7, A Method for Crystallizing Substances without the Forma- .

tion of Crusts upon the Surface of the Liquid.—When a sub-
stance is crystallized by the slow evaporation of its solution,
crusts are often formed at the surface, and as evaporation con-
tinues from such crusts, any impurities that the liquid may con-
tain are likely to be enclosed and thus contaminate the product.

Chemistry und Physics. 2377

A. WrosLEWSEI has devised a method of evaporation by which
this difficulty is overcome. He places the solution from which
erystals are to be obtained in a cylinder the bottom of which is
closed with a parchment membrane, while the top is corked and
provided with a water trap. Evaporation takes place through
the membrane the lower side of which is exposed to air artificially
dried with calcium chloride. In the case of readily diffusible
salts a certain amount of dry crystals is formed upon the external
surface of the membrane, but this does not take place with dilute
‘solutions. Crystallization takes place within the cylindrical ves-
sel without the formation of crusts. The method is particularly
recommended for the crystallization of proteids.— Zeitschr. phys-
tkal. Chem., xxxvi, 84. . H. L. W.

8. On the velocity of the ionized phosphorus emanation in the *
absence of electric field; by C. Barus. (Communicated.)—In
Science (Feb. 9, 1900) I communicated a series of data on the
absorption of the emanation from phosphorus, in tubes of dif-
ferent diameter (27) and material. I have since brought my
results together and am now able to compute the velocity, 4, of
the ionized particle absolutely. I find A=2°65(V/ra)nV/V,,
where Vand V, are the liters per minute of air saturated with
phosphorus emanation needed to retain a field of constant color
in the steam tube, for lengths x and zero, respectively, of the
absorption tube of radius *.

The results are for tubing of gray rubber, 2r="64°™, ="28™/sec;
pure rubber, 27=°35™, k=32°™/sec; lead, 2r7=°63°", K="25°"/sec;
fender 32" G30 /sec ; glass, 2r = -29™, £= -27™ / sec.
These data show no relation to diameter or material. 1 conclude
that the ionized region is under a kind of osmotic pressure such
that for highly saturated phosphorus emanation the velocity of
particles is about 3 millimeters per second. This small velocity,
it will be noticed, is associated with large viscous resistances, 80
that the pressures are not necessarily small.

9. The Thermo-chemistry of the Alloys of Copper and Zine ;
by T. J. Baker, B.Sce., King Edward’s School, Birmingham.
Read January 17, 1901, before the Royal Society of London.*
(Abstract.)—The heats of formation of a number of alloys of
copper and zinc, containing those metals in very diverse propor-
tions, have been ascertained. The method consists in finding the
difference between the heats of dissolution, in suitable solvents,
of an alloy and of an equal weight of a mere mixture containing
the metals in the same proportion.

The first series of experiments was made with an aqueous solu-
tion of chlorine as solvent. Its application was limited to those
alloys containing less than 40 per cent of copper, as it was impos-
sible to obtain those richer in copper in a sufficiently fine state of
division to enable them to dissolve. ‘he results, though not
altogether satisfactory, showed that the heat of dissolution of an

* Advance proof from the author.

238 Scientific Intelligence.

alloy was sensibly less than that of the merely mixed metals.
Incidentally it was found that the equation Cl,.Aq = 2,600
(Thomsen’s “'Thermochemische Untersuchungen’) is erroneous
and, on inquiry, Professor Thomsen gave a corrected value, 4,870.
The author finds Cl,.Aq = 4,970. |

The most suitable solvents of the alloys are—

(a.) Mixture of ammonium chloride and ferric chloride solu-
tions.

(5.) Mixture of ammonium chloride and cupric chloride solu-
tions.

The chemical actions involved are simple reductions, and no
gases are evolved,

Two series of experiments made on twenty-one alloys yielded
very concordant results. They show that heat is evolved in the
formation of every alloy of copper and zine yet tested. A
sharply defined maximum heat of formation is found in the alloy
containing 32 per cent of copper, i. e., corresponding to the
formula CuZn,. It amounts to 52°5 calories per gram of alloy or
10,143 calories per gram-molecule. There is some evidence of a
sub-maximum in the alloy nearly corresponding to CuZn. From
these points there is a steady decrease in the heat of formation,
both in the case of alloys containing less than 32 per cent of cop-
per as the amount of copper decreases, and also in the case of
those containing more than 50 per cent of copper as the quantity
of copper increases. Ay

The results, in general, confirm the existence of intermetallic
compounds, and the values obtained are in accordance with those
demanded by Lord Kelvin’s calculation of the molecular dimen-
sions of copper and zinc. |

10. On the decrement of electrical oscillations in charging
condensers.—This paper is the work of two authors. A. F. Sun-
DELL has worked out the theory and Hs. Taxuiquist the experi-
mental appliances. It was found that after a relatively short
time reckoned from the beginning of the. charging the capacity
of a mica condenser reached the same value under oscillatory
charges as under direct charges. The method also give a means
of determining self-induction.—Ann. der Physik., No. 1, 1901,
pp. 72-98. FayiBe

11. Effect of amagnetic field on the discharges through a gas.—
Dr. Rt. 8. Wittons concludes from bis experiments that at pres-
sures below 5" the magnetic field decreased the electric force
near the cathode; this decrease depended upon the strength of
the field and the current. At higher pressures the magnet
increased the electric force. If the magnet caused the column
to striate it also caused the electric force to show periodic stria-
tions. The magnet generally caused the electric force at the
anode to increase.— Phil. Mag., pp. 250-260, Feb. 1901. 3. T.

12. Conductivity produced in gases by the motion of negatively
charged ions.—Professor TownsEND, of Oxford, England, had
previously shown that negatively charged ions moving through

te te all ~eplllag

Chemistry and Physics. 239

a gas produce other ions, although the force acting on them is

_ small compared with the force necessary to produce the ordinary

vacuum discharge. (Nature, vol. Ixii, Aug. 9, 1900.) In: the
present paper, he gives a more complete account of his investiga-
tions, and he is led to the conclusion that there is a great differ-
ence between the positive and the negative ions at low pressure,
and that the negative ions are much smaller than molecules.
There is not much difference between the rate of diffusion of the
positive and negative ions. The slow rate of diffusion may be
due to the negative ions being carried in groups of molecules,
and the rates of diffusion of positive and negative ions would
depend upon the size of such groups. When the current passes

‘between two electrodes, one inside the other, the conductivity,

when the electromotive force is small, is unaltered by reversing
the current. When this force is large, the conductivity depends
greatly on the direction of the force. The current obtained from
the inner positive electrode may be five or ten times greater than
that obtained when the inner electrode is negative. The reason
appears to be due to collisions if we attribute the production of
new ions to the negative ions. In order that new ions should
be produced by collisions, it is necessary that negative ions
should pass through the gas near the inner electrode where the
force is large. When the inner electrode is positive, all the nega-
tive lons pass through this region, and a large conductivity is
obtained. When the inner electrode is negative, only a few of the
negative ions pass through the space where the force is large and
the conductivity is much reduced. ‘The increase in conductivity
is due to the negative ions, and not to the positive ions. The
positive and negative ions therefore possess different physical

‘properties.— Phil. Mag., pp. 198-227, Feb., 1901. 1a

13. Recueil de Données Numériques publié par la Société
Francaise de Physique. Optique par H. Durer. Troisiéme
Fascicule, pp. 787-1318, with volume title page and contents.
Paris, 1900 (Gauthier-Villars).—This highly valuable compilation
of physical data (see this Journal, vii, 472) has now reached its
Third Part, which completes the volume on Optics. It contains
the following tables: Table XVII, Rotary Power of Crystalline
Bodies, including chiefly quartz and sodium chlorate; also other
crystallized substances. ‘Table XVIII, Rotary Powers of Bodies,
liquid or dissolved ; also those of vapors. Table XIX, Interfer-
ence Oolors, according to Newton, Wertheim, Quincke, and
Rollet. These tables are complete to the close of 1898. A Sup-
plement, pp. 1173-1305, brought down to the end of December,
1899, contains tables of wave-lengths; of refractive indices for

gases, liquids, and various important solids, etc. The whole is

printed with great clearness and full references are given to the

original authors.

14. One Thousand Problems in Physics ; by Witu1am H. Sny-
peR and Irvine O. Parmer. Pp. 142. Boston, 1900: Ginn &
Co.—This little volume contains well selected problems, especially
suited to the use of teachers of Physics in the secondary schools.

Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Series, Vou. XI, No. 63.—Marcu, 1901.
16

240 Scientific Intellegence.

Il. Grotocy AND MINERALOGY.

1. Maryland Geological Survey: Allegheny County ; Wm.
BuLtock CriarK, State Geologist. Pp. 1-323, plate i-xxx, fig-
ures 1-15, with Folio Atlas, 1900.—‘‘The present volume on
Allegheny County inaugurates a new series of reports dealing
with the physical features of the several counties of Maryland.
Not only the geology and mineral resources of Allegheny County
will be considered but also the physiography, soils, climate, hydro-
graphy, magnetic declination, forests and life characteristics.”
This is a tempting program and will attract the interest of readers,
as will the beautiful illustrations and fine appearance of the
volume.

The following list of formation names is adopted and prelim-
inary descriptions of them are given:

Cenozoic.
Pleistocene i. See aa _... Alluvial, ete.
Paleozoic.
Permian 2) 28h) le) 220 SS ee DD alee

( Monongahela
| Conemaugh
Allegheny
Carboniferous: Viti it avnns tee: + Pottsville

| Mauch Chunk

Greenbrier

| Pocono

( Hampshire

| Jennings
Devonian; At ook ose ee ee « Romney

| Oriskany

| Helderberg

( Salina

| Niagara
DODGED ig \ cymaeye ey amet eee mA RPE Sea wig 4 Clinton

| Tuscarora

| Juniata

In the absence of paleontological evidence we shall watch with
interest for the reasons for accepting the Niagara as one of the
formations of the series in this State. And the geological reader
will wonder on what basis the name Salina is applied to the rocks
so described in the report, and also on what grounds the 400 feet
of rocks ‘corresponding to the Tentaculite limestone of New
York” are separated from the so-called Salina and included in the
“Helderberg formation,” which is made the base of the Devo-
nian. Ww.

2. United States Geogolical Survey. C.D. Waxucortr, Direc-
tor.—The following publications of the Survey, bearing the date
1900 and for the most part not hitherto noticed, have been
received, viz:

~ Geology and Mineralogy. 241

Monograph. XXIX. The Eocene and Lower Oligocene Coral

Faunas of the United States, with Descriptions of a Few
Doubtfully Cretaceous Species, by T. Wayland Vaughan.
- 263 pp., 24 pl. [To be noticed later. |

} Bulletins—
163.

Flora of the Montana formation, by Frank Hall Knowlton.
Tksepp., 1.9) pl.

164. Reconnaissance in the Rio Grande Coal Fields of Texas,

165.
166.
LG7.

168.

169.
170.

17.

174.

176.

3.

by Thomas Wayland Vaughan, including a Report on
Igneous Rocks from the San Carlos Coal Field, by E. C. E.
Lord. 100 pp., 11 pl. and maps.

Contributions to the Geology of Maine, by Henry 8S. Wil-
liams and Herbert E. Gregory. 212 pp., 14 pl.

A Gazetteer of Utah, by Henry Gannett. 43 pp., 1 map.
Contributions to Chemistry and Mineralogy from the Lab-
oratory of the United States Geological Survey; Frank
W. Clarke, Chief Chemist. 308 pp.

Analyses of Rocks, Laboratory of the United States Geol-
ogical Survey, 1880 to 1899, tabulated by IF. W. Clarke,
Chief Chemist. 308 pp.

Altitudes in Alaska, by Henry Gannett. 13 pp.

Survey of the Boundary Line between Idaho and Montana
from the International Boundary to the Crest of the Bit-
terroot Mountains, by Richard Urquhart Goode. 67 pp.,
14 pl.

Baiidenes of the United States and of the Several States
and Territories, with an Outline of the History: of all
Important Changes of Territory (Second Edition), by
Henry Gannett. 142 pp., 53 pl.

. Bibliography and Index of North American Geology,

Paleontology, Petrology, and Mineralogy for the Year
1899, by Fred Boughton Weeks. 141 pp.

. Synopsis of American Fossil Bryozoa, including Bibli-

ography and Synonymy, by John M. Nickles and Ray S.
Bassler. 663 pp.

Survey of the Northwestern Boundary of the United States,
1857-1861, by Marcus Baker. 78 pp., 1 pl.

. Triangulation and Spirit Leveling in Indian Territory, by

Orla; Biteh:; 141 pp.; 1pl.
Some Principles and Methods of Rock Analysis, by W. F.
Hillebrand. 114 pp. - W.

Geological Survey of Michigan. Atrrep C. Lang, State -

Geologist. Vol. vii, Part III; Geological report of Sanilac
County, Michigan ; by C. H. Gorpon. Pp. 1-34, 5 Plates, 2
figures. 1900.—The rocks met with in Sanilac County, together
with those of Monroe and Huron Counties, described in parts I
and II, represent all the formations of the lower Peninsula

although these counties are situated in the southeast corner of

the State. Part I, vol. viii; Clays and Shales of Michigan, their
Properties and Uses; by H. Riss. Pp. 67, with four plates.

_

242 Scientific Intelligence.

This volume, edited by the State geologist, Prof. Alfred C. Lane,
contains the results reached by Dr. Ries in examining the clays
of Michigan. An account is given of the various localities and
also of the tests to which the clays from them have been subjected.
Ww.
“ 4, The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota.
The Twenty-fourth (and final) Annual Report for the years
1895-1898. N. H. WincueE x1, State Geologist. 1899. Pp. 1-
284.—The main body of this report consists of lists and notes of
rock samples, record of the field work, and indices, but the intro-
ductory statement by the State Geologist i is of special interest.
A brief review of the history of the Survey during its 27 years is
given. The Salt Spring lands of the State were early set apart
to be used for the prosecution of the Survey. The State Geol-
ogist estimates that through the agency of the State Geologist,
indemnity lands to the amount of 19,872 acres were discovered ;
these were transferred by the Legislature of 1885 to the Board
of Regents for the purpose of a Geological and Natural History
Survey. The Geological Sur vey of Minnesota has therefore been
endowed by grants of land, 18,771 acres of the Salt Spring lands
and 19,872 acres in 1885, Salsa a total of 38,643 acres.

The total cost of the Survey from 1872 to July 31, 1899, is
estimated to be $146,357.27. “The total revenue to the State as
shown in dollars that can be counted, in excess of the public good
that may come from the Survey,” is claimed to be $132,609.26.

The State Geologist is to be congratulated that he can make so
good a showing for his administration of the Survey of his State.

Ww.

5. The Pleistocene Geology of the South Central Sierra Nevada
with Especial Reference to the Origin of Yosemite Valley ; by
Henry Warp Turner.—Proceedings of the California Academy
of Sciences, 3d Series, Vol. i, No. 9, pp. 262-321, with 9 plates.—
As an introduction to the discussion of the origin of Yosemite
Valley, Mr. Turner reviews the orogenic movements of the Sierra
Nevada region and describes three pleistocene periods, Sierran,
Glacial and Recent. There is no common opinion regarding the
importance of glacial work in the formation of the valleys of the
Sierras. John Muir ascribes the topography of the entire moun-
tain system from base to summit to the work of glacial ice. Prof.
Whitney doubted the existence of any glaciation in the region.
Other writers have held intermediate positions. Because of this
wide variation in opinion, Turner has critically reéxamined the
evidence regarding the erosive power of ice, the origin of rock
basins and glacial cirques with special reference to the Sierras.
He concludes that ‘‘the theory that great canyons or even con-

siderable ravines are formed by the gouging action of ice does
not seem supported by the evidence,” and that ice erosion has not
been a controlling factor in the formation of Yosemite. That this
valley is the result of a drop fault was held by Whitney, Reyer

and Russell. The rocks, however, in general show no faulting —

Geology and Mineralogy. 243

structures and it is quite improbable that a graben 4,000 feet
deep would beso short and end so abruptly. Moreover, the steep
walls which suggest faulting are satisfactorily explained by the
system of vertical joints. Turner’s investigations support the
views of Becker and Branner that the Yosemite Valley “ was
formed by river erosion facilitated by strong jointing,” just as are
many other canyons of the Sierras. ‘‘That some faulting: has
occurred along the sheeted or jointed zones of granite about the
Yosemite is probable, but it is thought that this has resulted
rather in a more thorough shearing of the granite than in the
dropping down of wedges. Along such a sheared zone, the
streams would rapidly deepen their beds. Even where the rocks
are not sheared, but merely intersected with vertical joints, it is
easy to see how, as erosion progressed, the slabs would crumble
or tumble off along the joint planes, leaving vertical faces. If
now a tongue of ice should pass through the valley and clear out
the talus and other detritus and round off the projecting shoulders
and spurs, and as it retreats leave terminal moraines as barriers
to form the valiey floor, we seem to have sufficient means for the
accomplishment of all we now see in Yosemite Valley.” (Pp.
319-320.) H. E. G.
6. Geologishes Centralblatt; Anzeiger fiir Geologie, Petro-
graphie, Palaeontologie, und verwandte Wissenschaften ; edited
by K. Kemuackx. Vol. I, No. I, 32 pp., 8°. Leipzig (Gebrueder
Borntraeger).—This new journal has for its object the prompt
publication for those interested of brief abstracts of all important
contributions in geology and its allied sciences. A _ special
endeavor to accomplish this with the least possible delay is prom-
ised. The abstracts will appear in German, English and French.
In addition to the editor-in-chief, the names of seventy-eight
geologists, from all parts of the world, are given who will aid in
conducting the journal. The numbers are to appear every two
weeks. There can be no doubt that a publication of this kind, if
well carried out, will prove highly useful, and we wish it all suc-
cess. Lyne
7. Metasomatic Processes in Fissure Veins ; by WaLDEMAR
Linperen. (A paper read before the American Institute of Min-
ing Engineers, Feb., 1900. Author’s edition.)—The purpose of
the paper, as expressed in the author’s own words, is to collect
the scattered data relating to the alteration of rocks near fissures,
to indicate the principal active processes, to classify the veins, if
possible, according to the different phases of alteration accom-
panying them, and finally to draw some conclusions from the facts
thus grouped. In Part II of his paper Mr. Lindgren discusses
the various minerals developed by metasomatic processes 1n min-
eral veins, giving the origin, mode of replacement, etc. In Part
III he proposes fourteen different classes into which fissure veins
may be divided, naming each class according to the principal
metasomatic process found in it. Each class is discussed and
examples cited. For instance, Class No. 8 is that of Sericitic

244 : Scientific Intelligence.

and Calcitic Gold Silver Veins, and is illustrated by the gold
quartz veins of California. Some of the conclusions of the paper
are as follows: Almost all fissure veins are bordered by altered
zones, the character of the alteration differing widely in different
veins; that the alteration usually consists in the loss of certain
constituents and the introduction of new elements, chiefly CO, and
S; that the processes are such as can only be explained by
aqueous agencies acting under high pressure, temperature and
concentration while ascending along the fissure; that these
ascending waters are chiefly surface waters which after a cir-
cuitous underground route have found in a fissure an easy way to
return to the surface; and that most fissure veins are genetically
connected with bodies of intrusive rock which on cooling give off
volatile compounds of the heavy metals which on sizing meet
surface waters and are carried along by them and subsequently
deposited by their aid in the veins. (OW. EL F.
_ 8. Some Iowa Dolomites ; by Nicuotas Knieut. (Communi-
cated.)—The rocks herein described were analyzed in the chemical
laboratory of Cornell College under the direction of the writer.
The composition of the rocks varies from nearly typical dolomite
to admixtures in different proportions of calcium carbonate and
dolomite.

(1.) This is a bluish-drab saccharoidal rock, situated near the
base of the Iowa Devonian series, at Rochester, lowa. It is of
special interest because locally believed to contain silver. A
miner’s shaft, thirty feet deep, has been sunk to it, and several
analyses are said to have been made, showing a large amount of
silver. Professor W. H. Norton, of the lowa Geological Survey,
was unable to authenticate any of the analyses. He found no
geological grounds for the slightest suspicion of any precious
metal in these beds. This analysis was made not to disprove the
presence of silver, but to show the lithological change from the
subjacent dolomites of the Silurian. The specimen was analyzed
by Miss Minerva Herrinton, A.B.

CaO ey mae cae laa as 78°75 per cent

MeCO. ie 7 A Ge ote a ae.

Be O. and: AVA ss Ne ee OG! ae

5) 0 Nama Prac lt SA E 0-4

O's la ee apes ie 0-2 ye
99°61 “

The rock varies widely from a true dolomite, which contains
CaCO, 54°35, MgCO, 45°65.

(2.) The Coggon beds as described by Professor Norton in the
Reports of the Iowa Geological Survey, overlie the Gower stage
of the Silurian, and are immediately beneath the Otis beds of the
Wapsipinnicon stage,—the lowest Devonian terrane recognized
in Iowa. The lithological affinities of the Coggon are with the
Niagara, but the very meager fauna inclines rather toward the
Onondaga limestone of the Devonian. The specimen from

Geology and Mineralogy. 245

Bieler’s quarry in Cedar County, Iowa, was analyzed by Miss
Herrinton. a

Caw Oe Lik bho ISR A a) 58°2 per cent
ROO 0) 20 0) OW Te aoroe . i
He Owand A) O. -2 se Or On aS
SiO eee eee URE EM 0
99°8 66

This is not a true dolomite but more nearly approaches it than
the rock described in 1.

(3.) The Gower stage as defined by Professor Norton includes
two distinct lithological types: a hard crystalline rock used
extensively for lime and hitherto known as the Le Claire lime-
stone; and a granular evenly-bedded rock which furnishes the
best building stone in the State. This was, until recently, desig-
nated as the Anamosa beds, which have usually been assigned
rank as a distinct geological formation; but the lowa Geological
Survey, in its recent reports, has taken them to be but a litho-
logical phase of one formation. The name Gower has been
assigned them from the township in Cedar County in which the
important Bieler quarries are situated. Both types of rock are
found in the Bieler quarries. The following specimen of the
granular laminated building stone was analyzed by Miss Her-
rinton. It varies only slightly from a true dolomite.

GO iy vas et cee Le 56°4 per cent
131200) Pasa le eae ga (406
newOr andvAl Oost en ON SE
ue oie savuen ey visit 4 a Ufo &
100°1 o

(4.) Specimen of the Gower phase taken from the Mount Vernon
quarry. It was analyzed by Mr. EH. A. Rayner.

ANON bey, Se Ns ee 54:02 per cent
OO eee ake OP iL 44°73.
ie Or -and ALO. 7.20. 24200: Oral 3u3 53
SI bo EO aE ie oh een C0 ies
99°65 :

The rock is nearly a typical dolomite.

(5.) The rock at the Palisades, on the Cedar River, six miles
distant from Mount Vernon, is similar in composition to the
Mount Vernon rock. It is stratified but not granular. Building
stone occupies layers adjacent to others which are burned for
lime. The specimen was analyzed by Mr. G. Rh. Greaves.

CACO Ne TUR eh a 53°64 per cent
COA PF ie Ph 56 ASHER Ort laa
He Orand AlOoo uo 2 OF 52) +,
Ore apna) Sho ea 1 Qey ah

2

246 Serentyfic Intelligence.

(6.) This is of the same type as (3). It is a finely laminated
building stone, but crystalline instead of granular. The speci-
men analyzed by Miss Herrinton is from the large quarries at
Lime City, Iowa. It is nearly a dolomite in composition.

CaCO =. Rai 28 Cie eae 55°3 per cent

MOO. Bee oe cee ee ee 43°0

Be'O "and: iO = ee eee yd. pe

S16 Rape «hs gion etree Fes Ciel O56 faa
100°3 <

(7.) This is also a representative of the Gower limestone and of
the Le Claire lithological phase. The specimen was taken from
a ledge on Rock Creek, two and a half miles southwest of Tipton,
Iowa. The ledge is notable for its exceptionally high dip, reach-
ing 70°. It varies but little from true dolomite. The analysis
was made by G. R. Greaves.

WO NRA Ppa Rat aA a apie 55°76 per cent

OO cette ee 43°85

He OQ and Dey 2 eee O°26 ae

oho NAMM Mb? aber iia tnch Heys APA Mie
99°99 .

Each of the seven. specimens examined is nearly pure calcium
and magnesium carbonates. The admixtures of iron, alumina and
silica are quite insignificant.

9. Minerals of Ontario.—Professor Willet G. Miller, of Kings-
ton, has recently published in the Ninth Report of the Bureau of
Mines, Ontario (pp. 192-212), a list of the minerals found in the
Province of Ontario, with notes in regard to their occurrence and
characters. This paper is accompanied by a large map of the
mining district of Sudbury, with the location of the nickel.
deposits noted uponit. This gives an interesting representation
of the mineral wealth of this region. As is well ‘known, the ore
is chiefly pyrrhotite, carrying some nickel. The average of sev-
eral analyses for each of the five townships in the Sudbury dis-
trict gives amounts varying from 1°94 to 2°99 p.c. Pentlandite
and nickeliferous pyrite also occur in the region.

10. A Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks, with tables
on the determination of minerals ; by 8S. E. Tiztman. Pp. 176,
8vo, New York, 1900 (John Wiley & Sons).—This concise pre-
sentation of the principal facts of mineralogy, with brief accounts
of the important species, will be found useful by teachers who do
not want a more extended work. Some forty pages are devoted
to determinative tables, and the closing part of the volume deals
with common rocks of different types.

11. Los Minerales.—Su Descripcion y Analisis con especialidad
de los existentes enla Repablica Argentina, por el Dr. GUILLERMO
BopENBENDER. Pp. 306. Cérdoba; 1899.—Dr. Bodenbender

Botany. 247

has given here a brief description of the common mineral species
with particular reference to their occurrence in the Argentine
Republic. The volume is arranged so as to be suitable for pur-
poses of instruction.

III. Borany.

1. Monograph of the North American Umbellifere ; by J. M.
Cou.TEeR and J. N. Ross. (Contributions from the U. 8. National
Herbarium, vii, 1-256, 8vo, Washington, December 31, 1900.)—
It is more than twelve years since Messrs. Coulter and Rose pub-
lished their useful Revision of the North American Umbellifere.
During this interval much new material has been accumulated
toward the further clarification of this difficult group, and the
present welcome publication has expanded to some 250 pages.
Prefatory lists and tables show clearly the bibliography, statis-
tics and generic synonymy of the family, careful attention having
been devoted to the question of generic types. The generic key

‘is artificial, but is based, as must be the case in this group, pri-

marily upon fruit characters and inflorescence, much weight being
ascribed to the number and arrangement of the oil-tubes. In the
descriptive portion of the work the characterizations are mostly
rather brief, greater space than usual having been given to the
detailed citation of exsiccate, a feature which will render the
treatment—at least to the professional botanist—much clearer
and more valuable than the introduction of fuller descriptions.
There are a few habital plates and many clear and excellent text-
figures, mostly of the fruit.

Probably the most significant single change from the earlier
treatment is the separation (as Lomatium) of the American
plants hitherto referred to the genus Peucedanum, which is now
regarded by the authors as strictly gerontogeous. It is to be
regretted that the authors have felt it desirable to recast their
nomenclature according to the Rochester Code, notwithstanding
its serious defects, which have been often and clearly pointed
out, and which render its general acceptance impossible. The
geographic ranges assigned might, in some few instances, have
been extended; thus Leptocaulis echinatus Nutt. occurs in
Southern Missouri (Eggert). A few ranges are vaguely given
which might with a little trouble have been made more definite ;
thus Hrigenia bulbosa Nutt. is said to grow in the “ United
States and Canada east of the Great Plains,” but it is lacking in
New England and the maritime provinces. A more usual case
seems to be the repetition of a compiled traditional range not
fully borne out by the specimens examined. In this the authors
appear to have been too conservative; for, considering the vast
amount of material which they have studied—including all the
larger public and many private herbaria—who can say better
than they where a given American umbellifer occurs? It is,
therefore, disappointing to find them still reluctant to relegate to

248 Scientific Intelligence.

merited oblivion such venerable spooks as the New England
Thaspium aureum. Surely it is not only the privilege but the
duty of monographers to pass upon the validity ot old and
unsubstantiated reports.

In the interpretation of species the authors have on the whole
been cautious, yet several are launched (e. g., Hydrocotyle aus-
tralis and H. cuneata) which appear to rest upon fine technical
characters unaccompanied by habital differences of moment.
While not prepared to challenge the validity of any of these
species, we may say that they suggest the artificial category
rather than species distinct in nature. Species with the opposite
failing, in which distinctions of foliage and habit are unsubstan-
tiated by satisfactory or constant differences in flower or fruit,
are also found, as, for instance in the southern Cicuta Curtissii,
which would be ood enough provided the fruit maintained its
orbicular form and never exceeded the assigned 2™™ of length,
bat unfortunately it is variable in these regards and the northern
C. maculata sometimes has suborbicular fruit which falls short
of its ascribed length of 4™™. Similarly, a close scrutiny of the
problematic Stumm Carsonit Durand would have shown the
authors that the supposed technical distinctions are, even in the
original Pocono material, not invariably so strong as stated.
Indeed, in a considerable suite of specimens it is difficult to draw
a satisfactory line between this species and C. cicutwfolium, and
it is known that under certain circumstances (changes of water-
level) S. cicutefolium transforms itself into states simulating so
closely S. Carsonii, that, when so wide a variation is permitted to
the former, it seems highly artificial to separate the latter upon
trifling differences of degree.

In the successful elucidation of the Alaskan Colopleurum
Gmelini Ledeb. and separation of the nearly allied C. actci-
folium Coult. and Rose, of our northeastern flora, the authors
have rendered a considerable service.

Genera in the Umbellifere are apt to appear technical rather
than natural and this may be necessary in a group of such uni-
form floral structure and gradually varying habit, yet it is ques-
tionable whether technical subdivision is not carried too far when
such habitally identical plants as Zeptocaulis patens and Z.
divaricatus, with very similar fruit, are placed in separate genera
owing to the different number of oil-tubes. The logic of such a
course becomes still more doubtful when we see that the not
very remote genus Sanicula is permitted to have as many or as
few oil-tubes as it likes.

In several places the authors commit the common error of
describing thick bodies, like the fruit of Sanicula, with such terms
(of two dimensions) as orbicular, elliptical, or oval, instead of
/ globose, ovoid, ete. B,, i at
/ 2, Foundations of Botany; by JosepH Y. BERGEN. 8vo.
Pp. xii, 669. Boston, 1901 (Ginn & Co.).—Under the above title
Mr. Bergen has just issued what is virtually a revised edition of

ie

Botany. 249

his “ Klements of Botany.” Preserving all the valuable features

which have made the “EKlements” one of the most popular and

useful text-books of the last decade, Mr. Bergen has added con-
siderably to the laboratory exercises. upon plant anatomy and
physiology, increased the number of illustrations, replaced certain
figures by much better ones and incorporated a fuller treatment
of the cryptogams by Mr. A. B. Seymour. The work, which is
the outcome of many years of practical experience in teaching
botany, makes a pleasing impression throughout and at every
point bears evidence of care and good judgment. Appended to
the text-book is a partial flora, arranged in the sequence of
Engler and Prantl’s “‘ Nattirlichen Pflanzenfamilien,” and includ-
ing some seven hundred flowering plants selected from those
most available in spring time in our northeastern and middle
states. It is designed, of course, to familiarize the pupil with the
common plants of his region and bridge the difficulty which must
be encountered by a beginner in the immediate use of more com-
plete and technical manuals. Whether such a simplified flora
proves more helpful or misleading must depend largely upon the
experience and good sense of the teacher,—qualities which even
this well-nigh ideal text-book cannot wholly offset. Bi LR.

3. Flora of Vermont, a List of Fern and Seed Plants growing *
without Cultivation ; prepared by E. Brainzrp, L. R. Jones, and
W. W. Eecetxston. (Reprinted from the Twentieth Vermont Agri-
cultural Report; 8vo, 113 pp. Burlington, Vt.)—By its excellent
arrangement, clear typography, and copious annotation, the recent-
ly issued catalogue of Vermont plants makes a favorable impres-
sion. It isevidently the outcome of much active exploration by the
members of the Vermont Botanical Club, the results having been
carefully verified and arranged by the editors. Each entry in the
main catalogue rests upon plants personally examined by the com-
pilers except in a few cases in which other authorities, usually well-
known specialists, are cited. No attempt is made to swell the
bulk of the flora by repeating second hand reports or unverified
records. These, however, are appended in a sort of supplementary
limbo, where without lessening the trustworthiness of the main
catalogue, they will doubtless continue to stimulate renewed
search. The arrangement of families is in accordance with the
generally approved sequence of Engler and Prantl. The nomen-
clature is conservative and synonymy sufficient and well-selected.
With one or two exceptions the editors have considerately avoided
making new combinations, which they rightly regard out of place
in local floras of composite authorship. B. L. R.

4. Catalogue of the African Plants collected by Dr. Friedrich
Welwitsch in 1853-61. Dicotyledons, Part IV, Lentibulariacez
to Ceratophyllee; by Witiiam Pair Hiern. Pp. 785-1035.
London, 1900.—This catalogue of plants collected by Welwitsch
in one of the most interesting parts of Africa forms one of the
publications printed by order of the trustees of the British
Museum, and is an especially important contribution to our

250 — Seventific Intelligence.

knowledge of the distribution of plants in Africa. Contrary to
what one would have supposed, the Bignoniacee are represented
by very few species. Acanthaceze and Verbenacezew are only
fairly well represented and the same is true of Labiate, although
a considerable number of new species of the last-named order are
described. Of the Selaginee, which are abundant at the Cape,
none were known in West Tropical Africa previous to Wel-
witsch’s discovery of three species, which are said to be among
the most delightful of the plants of Huilla. “The negresses, who
are in general but little susceptible to the beauties of nature, are
in the habit of weaving in their head-dresses the flowering
branches of the two species of Selago.” The Proteacez, charac-
teristic plants farther south, are represented only by Leucaden-
dron with six species and Faurea with three species. The
Loranthacee, which increase progressively from the sea coast
towards the highlands of the interior and culminate in the moun-
tainous forests of Pungo Andongo and Huilla at an elevation
between 4,000 and 6,000 feet, are well represented by 28 species.
The Euphorbiacez are numerous and those near the sea shore
and on high plateaus have the cactus-like habit, while in the
mountainous wooded region are found foliaceous climbing and
arborescent species which resemble in habit orders like Convolvu-
laceze, Urticace and Leguminose. . W. G. F.

5. Botany: an Elementary Text for Schools; by L. H.
BaitEy. Pp. xiv+355, with 500 figures. New York, 1900 (The
Macmillan Company).—Two years ago, Professor Bailey pub-
lished his “ Lessons with Plants,” which soon became favorably
known to the botanical public. His new text is written in the
same spirit but is rather more comprehensive in its scope. The
book is divided into four parts: the first of these, occupying
rather more than half the volume, deals with “the plant itself”;
the second part treats “the plant in its environment”; the third
gives a short account of ‘histology, or the minute structure of
plants”; while the fourth, entitled ‘‘the kinds of plants,”
includes descriptions of a number of common wild and culti-
vated plants, with analytical keys to aid in their determination.
The subject-matter, written in the author’s usual style, requires
little comment. One cannot help being surprised, however, at
the admission of such topics as the ‘“ burst of spring” on page
40, and the “expressions of plants” on page 60. Possibly this
is explained by the introductory statement that the book was
written for the pupil rather than for the teacher. Although
some of the half-tone figures are inferior in quality, the illustra-
tions are, for the most part, satisfactory and well selected. Cer-
tain of them, however, might have been omitted without
detracting from the value of the book, figures 347 and 380, for
example, ‘bringing out essentially the same points. A.W. E.

6. Plant Life and Structure ; by Dr. KE. DENNeERT, translated
from the German by Clara KE. Skeat. Ppt viii +115, with 56
figures. London, 1960 (J. M. Dent).—This little volume is issued

|

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 251

as one of the Temple Primers. It gives a short account of the

plant’s various organs and of the work which they do. The
topics treated are divided under three headings: the internal
structure of plants (anatomy), the external organs of plants
(morphology), and the life of the plant (physiology). The book
is so concisely written that it is not always clear, and the general
reader might easily gain from it incorrect ideas about some of the
most important botanical facts. A. W. E.

TV. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative
Psychology ; by Jacques Loxzx. 8vo, pp. x, 309. New York,
1900 (G. P. Putnam’s Sons).—The motive of this very interesting
work is well stated by the author in the following words of the
preface: “It is the purpose of this book to serve as a short intro-
duction to the comparative physiology of the brain and central
nervous system. Physiology has thus far been essentially the
physiology of vertebrates. I am convinced, however, that for
the establishment of the laws of life-phenomena a broader basis
is necessary. Such a basis can be furnished only by a compara-
tive physiology which includes all classes of the animal kingdom.”
The nervous phenomena in meduse, ascidians, actinians, echin-
oderms, worms, arthropods and mollusks are discussed in suc-
cession, and then those of vertebrates. Prof. Loeb is strongly
anti-metaphysical, supposes all nervous and mental phenomena
due to physico-chemical changes in cell protoplasm, and regards
the dynamics of the process of association as the true problem
of brain. physiology. Whether its conclusions are accepted or
not, the book will be useful and interesting to the student of
biology as well as to the special student of physiology. The
metaphysical psychologist also might find mental stimulus in it.

: S. 1.8.

2. Microbes et Distillerie; par Lucren Livy. 8vo, pp. vi,
323. Paris, 1900 ( Carré et Naud).—The first and larger part of
this manual, intended specially for the use of distillers, gives a
concise account of the more important technique of microbiolog-
ical investigation and a review of the biology of the organisms
(here grouped under the general term microbes) which concern
the brewer and distiller. The description of the various forms of
yeast and their properties is of interest to the general biologist.
The second part is devoted to the theory of the application of
microbiology in the distillery. The book is fully illustrated with
diagramatic outline figures. gs Od

3. Der Gesang der Vogel, seine anatomischen und biologischen
Grundlagen ; von VALENTIN Hicker. 8vo, pp. vill, 102. Jena,
1900 (Gustav Fischer).—In the first part of this memoir Prof.
Hacker describes the structure of the vocal organs of birds
and points out important sexual differences in the anatomy of the
syrinx. In the larger and very interesting second part he dis-

252 Scientific Intelligence.

cusses the singing and other sound-producing instincts and their
significance in connection with wooing, pairing, ete. S.,L x8,

4. The O. 8. U. Naturalist, published by the Biological Club of
“the Ohio State University. “This new journal, commenced in
November, 1900, and to be published monthly from November to
June (50 cts. per year), is to be devoted especially to the Natural.
History of Ohio. The editor-in-chief is Prof. John H. Schaffner ;
he is aided by associate editors in five different departments.
The numbers already issued contain, among others, several inter-
esting botanical papers.

5. Ostwald’s Klassiker der Hxakten Wissenschaften. Leipzig,
1900 (Wilhelm Engelmann).—The following are recent additions
to this series of Scientific Classics, which becomes continually
more valuable as it gains more and more compieteness.

Nr. 5. Allgemeine Flachentheorie (Disquisitiones Generales circa Superficies -
Curvas); von Carl Friedrich Gauss (1827). Pp. 64.

Nr. 114. Briefe tuber Thicrische Hlektricitat: von Alessandro Volta (1792).
Pp. 161.

Nr. 115. Versuch tiber die Hygrometrie. I. Heft. I. Versuch Beschreibung
eines neuen vergleichbaren Hygrometers. II. Versuch Theorie der Hygrometrie.
von Horace Bénédicte des Saussure. Pp. 168.

Nr. 116. Die Darstellung ganz willktirlicher Funktionen durch Sinus- und
Cosinusreihen; von Lejeune Dirichlet (1837) und Note tiber eine Higenschaft der
Reihen, welche discontinuirliche Functionen darstellung; von Philipp Ludwig
Seidel (1847). Pp. 58. %

Nr. 117. Darstellende Geometrie von Gaspard Monge. (1798) Ubersetzt und
herausgegeben von Robert Haussner. Pp. 217.

Nr. 113. Galvanismus und Entdeckung des Saulenapparates 1796 bis 1800.
Von Alesandro Volta. Pp. 99.

6. The Director-General of the Geological Survey of the
United Kingdom.—The announcement has just reached us
(January 15th) that Sir Archibald Geikie has intimated his inten-
tion to retire from the post of Director-General of the Geological
Survey of the United Kingdom, an office which he has so ably
filled for the past twenty years, on March Ist next. In 1855, at
the age of 20, Sir A. Geikie became an Assistant on the Geolog-
ical Survey of Scotland, and he was made Director for Scotland
in 1867. In 1881 he was appointed to succeed Sir Andrew
Ramsay as Director-General of the Geological Survey of the
United Kingdom. He has seen forty-six years’ service, but is
now only in his 66th year. We rejoice to learn that Sir A.
Geikie has no intention of retiring {rom active participation in
geological work, and that neither his hammer nor his pen are to
be laid aside for some years to come.— Geol. Mag., February, 1901.

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FOURTH SERIES.]

Art. XX.—The Magnetic Theory of the Solar Corona; by
| FRANK H. BIGELow.

THE hypothesis that the sun’s corona is an appendage con-
trolled by a magnetic field, whose base is in a central nucleus,
‘and by an electric discharge radiation arising near the surface,
which together interacting upon small particles of electrically
charged matter arrange them in the observed curved rays, has
been making progress in recent years towards a firm theory.*
This view is so well known that we may pass at once to the
review of certain results of research which tend to sustain, if
not to confirm it. In my work, points were measured on pho-
tographs of the corona along the individual visible rays, and
discussed by the formule applying to the lines of force sur-
rounding a spherical magnet, modified to allow for projection
on a plane passing through the center of the sun perpendicular
to the line of sight from the earth. The invisible bases of the
rays were located by tracing back their visible portions to the
surface of the sun, and they were found to lie in narrow belts,
one in each hemisphere, which were located about 30 degrees
away from the poles, the polar zones themselves being denuded
of rays. The equatorial and midlatitude zones were filled
with an interlacing tangle of lines not subject to further mag-
netic classifications. :

In the year 1892, Pupint in America and Ebert{ in Ger-
many produced coronoidal discharges in poor vacua, by placing
a small conducting body inside a glass globe covered with tin

*The Solar Corona, Smithsonian Institution, 1889; this Journal, Nov., 1890,
July, 1891; Astron. Soc. Pac., No. 14, 1891, No. 16, 1891; Bulletin No. 21,

U. 8. Weather Bureau, 1898.
+ This Journal, April and June, 1892. t Chicago Congress, 1893.

Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourtu SErizes, Vou. XI, No. 64.—APpRIL, 1901.

254 Bigelow—Magnetic Theory of the Solar Corona.

foil and containing gas in a rarefied state, through which elec-
tric oscillating currents were made to pass. The electric
discharge rays as formed by experiment bore a strong resem-
blance to the visible coronal rays, in regard to mutual repul-
sion, helical rolling of the individual streamers, color and
instability, so that there was strong presumption in favor of
pursuing this analogue to its conclusion. However, Lord
Kelvin’s presidential address* on “The Sun’s Effect on Terres-
trial Magnetism,” came to the discouraging conclusion that the
work required to be done by the sun to produce the observed
terrestrial effects was too excessive to be considered practicable,
and this brought the subject to a standstill in the minds of
many for want of a convenient answer to this disconcerting
result. But continued researches by Bigelowt and Ellist on
the sun spots and the terrestrial magnetic field, have demon-
strated that Lord Kelvin’s view cannot be maintained, and
that there is in fact a continuous contact between the solar
and terrestrial forces. It may be remarked in passing that the
application of the formula for energy, from which the work
expended was computed, namely,

= oT Goa) + (Gy) + (se) = = cee

fails to take any account of secondary effects. Thus the solar
forces may set in operation such processes as ionization, which
modifies the magnetic field in the earth’s atmosphere in pro-
portion to some other factor than unity. The physies of the
case is evidently too complex to be solved in so simple a man-
ner as the above, and in the face of the well known continuous
and unmistakable testimony of the observations it cannot be
accepted as a barrier to further investigation.

The critical experiment has fortunately been made by H.
Ebert$ which goes far to clear up the entire subject and put
the theory on a working basis. I have made the following
translation of his note: “For the explanation of the most
important characteristics of the polar light phenomena, the
following experiments were made: Spheres, disks and eylin-
ders of iron and brass were exposed to the action of electro-
magnetic oscillations in spaces filled with rarefied gases; by
this means their surroundings were made to glow, and the
bodies mentioned were clothed with envelopes of light having
a ray structure, whose color and appearance was different

* Nature, Dec. 1, 1892; Astrophysics, Jan., 1893.
+ Bulletin No. 21, 1898;

t Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. Lxiii.
§ Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher u. Aerzte zu Libeck, 1895

}

Bigelow—Magnetic Theory of the Solar Corona. 255

according to the nature of the gas. Jf these rays were then
subjected to the lines of force of astrong magnetic field, the
following phenomena were seen :

(1). If the magnetic lines extended through the rarefied
region, they illuminated the basal portions of the rays of light.
If these disappeared, as when the gas was made too rarefied,
they also appeared again when the field was strengthened.

(2). The rays of light are strongest in a field of medium
strength. |

(3). They follow the direction of the magnetic lines of force.

(4). When the lines of force are very dense and impinge at
right angles to the surface of the iron body, the rays of light
are thrust to one side. Zhe polar collar of the magnetized
iron sphere, for ecample, was then entirely robbed of rays ;
the light structure surrounds the pole in the form of a ruffle,
the inner boundary of which follows the same direction as the
lines of force.”

Ebert makes an application of this valuable experiment to
an explanation of the aurora borealis and the solar corona. It
is evident that Pupin’s experiment was incomplete, in that it
lacked the organizing effect obtained by plunging the body
emitting coronoidal electrical discharges into a magnetic field,
and that the special phenomena observed in the corona of the
sun are remarkably matched in all details by the forces pro-
duced through the combined action of electrical discharges in
a magnetic field. My original result that the polar region of
the sun is robbed of its rays, and that the coronal lines coin-
cide in direction with the lines of magnetic force, is thus veri-
fied by experiment, and this is explained by the well known
theory of the deflection of cathode rays in a vacuum tube
under a magnetic field of force. The formula,* “= See
involves the theory alluded to, as can be seen by consulting
the references. The charged ions are deflected by a magnetic
field, and also by an electrostatic field. This argument, which
might be greatly expanded, carries with it the following con-
clusions, in my judgment :

(1) The photosphere of the sun is the seat of powerful
electric discharges which ionize portions of its material, or at
least set free minute particles of matter charged with electricity.
These are repelled outward in a coronoidal radiation and give
the forms seen in the disorganized streamers. (2) The nucleus
of the sun must be the seat of a powerful magnetic field
whose axis is near that of the sun’s axis of rotation, and whose
action upon the ions repels them from the polar zones, in

Jed. Thomson, Phil. Mag., Oct., 1897; J. Henry, Phil. Mag., Nov., 1898, ete.

256 Bigelow—Magnetie Theory of the Solar Corona.

accordance with Ebert’s experiment. (3) The equatorial regions
of the sun usually show that there is a tendency to form a
trumpet-shaped extension along the ecliptic, widening in pro-
portion to the distance from the sun. This is another evidence
of the fact of mutual electrical repulsion between the charged
ions of like sign, since the spreading is similar to that of the
cathode bundle in a vacuum tube. Hence we see that there is.
a tendency for the rays to diverge from the poles towards the
equator, and for the equatorial rays to spread in opposite direc-
tions towards the poles, the former under magnetic and the
latter under electrostatic forces of repulsion. The combined
effect is to accumulate the ions in a quadrantal or synelinal
structure near latitudes of 45 degrees, as is observed to be the
ease. The 11-year periodic change in the coronal structure is
probably due to a variation of the balance between these two
systems of forces, that of the magnetic polar structure domi-
nating in minimum years, that of the electrostatic development
in maximum years, and the quadrantal or compromise forma-
tion in the middle portions of the period. The polar rifts and
the visible rays are to be referred to the same principles* as.
control the formation of striz in the luminous vacuum tubes,
that is to the variation of density in the number of the ions
per unit volume. The rays are the places of recombinations
of the ions under excessive density of their number, and the
dark spaces are the loci of the ionization or dissociation, the
former occurring at the places of maximum and the latter at
places of minimum of the external impressed electric forces
which produce the coronoidal discharge. The details of sev-
eral experimental theories which are thus united for an expla-
nation of the sun’s corona, together with the promise of
further developments along the same lines is very encouraging.
The coronal pictures on a large scale taken in May, 1900, are
entirely in accord with this theory; also Professor Wood’st
comment on Abbott’s measurement of the coronal heat, that
the absence of heat rays is due to the smallness of the particles
of matter in the corona, which emit little incandescent light,
but reflect relatively more polarized light, may be understood
to indicate that there exists in the sun a true form of cathode
radiation, rather than the Réntgen or any other subform of
radiation. The objection that the sun’s high temperature is
fatal to the hypothesis that it possesses a strong magnetic field
is met in two ways. (1) The earth is very hot and yet carries
a magnetic field depending upon the material of the interior;
and (2) the great pressure in large bodies probably maintains

* J. J, Thomson, Phil. Mag., March, 1899. J. H. Jeans, Phil. Mag., March,

1900.
+ Science, February 1, 1901; Astrophysics, January, 1891.

Bigelow—Magnetic Theory of the Solar Corona. 257

magnetization and high temperature in combination in the
central portions.

Instructive as the preceding line of investigation has already
become it will doubtless be much more profitable in further
studies, such as it is possible to bestow whenever the minimum.
of the sun-spot period prevails. I hope to continue this
research on the coronal photographs, as soon as the results of
the eclipse of 1901 are in hand. The pictures of 1898, 1900
and 1901 may then be combined with the preceding computa-
tions, not only for a closer Jocation of the coronal poles, but
also for the period of revolution of the solar nucleus, as dis-
tinguished from that of the sun-spot belts, which are evidently
an atmospheric drift over a more stable central body. Weare
not, however, limited to this single line of attack on the prob-
lem of the solar magnetic field, but possess at another place
on the solar magnetic lines, namely, in the earth’s atmosphere,
an opening of equal validity, and apparently of a practical
nature. This has been gradually built up, as in the preceding
ease, out of several different researches, at first independent of
each other.

An example of the method employed for obtaining the
deflecting vectors in the earth’s magnetic field, which are
observed to be impressed upon its normal field, is contained in
“Solar and Terrestrial Magnetism,’ Chapter 3, Bulletin No.
21, W.B., 1898. The earth’s field is disturbed from its
normal form by the addition of forces whose direction in
space, whatever may be their cause, can be computed mechan-
ically by combining the residuals of the given rectangular
coordinate vectors into a single resultant vector located by
polar’ codrdinates. Taking the available magnetic stations in
different latitudes, 26 in number, and using the mean diurnal
elements, the horizontal force, the declination, and the vertical
force, so that no question of geographical longitude is involved,
the conclusion is reached that the disturbing vectors are
closely confined to north and south meridian planes; the
lengths and angles that the vectors make with the surface at
different latitudes are shown on Chart 10 of that chapter,
which represents one of the meridian sections described. This
is reproduced in the wave line of the adjacent diagram accom-
panying this paper, and it is indicated by the smooth inflexed
full line. The vector directions are here omitted, as they can
be readily explained by the theory of a permeable shell
immersed in an external magnetic field. The peculiar curva-
ture of the line that was found to bound the average length of
these vectors is, however, one that has been difficult to account
for, and has caused some students to doubt the reliability of
my result. But, in fact, it is now believed to be a substantial

258 Bigelow— Magnetic Theory of the Solar Corona.

proof of the correctness of the research, and also of the theory
by which it was interpreted. This curve has a minimum in
latitude about 60°, and a maximum in latitudes of about 30°,
speaking broadly ; on the contrary, the magnetic theory of the
distribution of force surrounding a permeable body in an
external magnetic field, shows that there is a maximum in the

Comparison of the Magnetic and Electric Vectors in Latitude.

axis of the field and a minimum at the equator. This comes
from the application of the formula for the normal component of

8 e t

the force, F,,— a I.cos @, and for the tangential component,
4 e e e e "
i I.sin 6, where I is the induced magnetization and @

the polar distance. The corresponding curve is drawn on the
diagram, and it is the curve without inflexion from the pole
to the equator. Therefore, we perceive that in the north mid-
latitudes something occurs which adds a component to diminish
the normal vector from an external magnetic field, and in the

Bigelow—Magnetic Theory of the Solar Corona. 259

south midlatitudes something which reinforces such vectors.

If we can give an explanation of these secondary variations,

then it follows that the undisturbed primary curve belongs to
an external magnetic field, and by inference in this case to the
solar field.

We turn for this purpose to a different research, which is
important in this connection. Bauer* has computed the mag-
netic line integrals around the several parallels of latitude
between 60° north and 60° south, and he found that instead
of the summation being zero on each parallel there resulted a
well defined variation which is distributed in latitude as shown
by the dotted curve of the same diagram. ‘This represents
such residuals as would be accounted for by the existence of
vertical currents of electricity in the atmosphere, downwards
in the tropics and upwards in the higher latitudes as shown by
the arrows for positive electrification. Although allowance
must be made for the crude materials used in both the above
investigations, arising out of the conditions of our scientific
observations, which ought to be remedied as soon as prac-
ticable, the correlation of these two sets of forces is too strik-
ing to be overlooked. The idea is suggested that whatever
accounts for one of them carries with it the explanation of the
other as well. Meteorologists have already recognized the
close connection that the electrical phenomenon has with the
conditions known to prevail in the earth’s atmosphere. Thus
Trabertt+ refers it to the mechanical transportation of elec-
tricity between the upper strata and the surface of the earth
through convective currents in connection with precipitation.
Elster and Geitelt refer the phenomenon of atmospheric elec-
tricity to the ionization of the atmosphere by solar radiation,
and include Bauer’s integration in its consequences. ‘This
theory may be summarized as follows, but the statement will
be carried a step further than the authors referred to above
have done. The electromagnetic energy of solar radiation is
partly transformed in the atmospheric molecules and atoms, so
that positive and negative ions are simultaneously given off;
by more rapid diffusion the§ negative ions separate from the
positive and produce the electrostatic strain potential observed
to exist in the atmosphere. This is confirmed in many ways
by Elster and Geitel’s analysis. These processes occur chiefly
in the latitudes which correspond with the Bauer diagram and
are associated with the atmospheric motions of circulation, so
that they may be adopted as a step in the right direction

* Vertical earth-air electric currents, Terrestrial Magnetism, March, 1897.
+ Meteorol. Zeitschrift, November, 1898.

¢ Terrestr. Mag., Dec., 1899; Meteorol. Zeitschr., May, 1900.

§ John Zeleny, Phil. Mag., July, 1898.

260 LBigelow—Magnetic Theory of the Solar Corcna.

towards a solution of the problem. But these same ions are
also vibrating and circulating electric charges, and hence they
generate a magnetic field about them, so that they may be
regarded as constituting minute magnets, Compare papers
on the magnetic field caused by moving electric charges, as
J. J. Thomson,* O. Heaviside,t H. M. Reese,{ and others.
The outcome of this theory is that the air is electrified and
also magnetized in sitw by the action of radiation on the
atomic constituents of it. Thus the two secondary compo-
nents of the above curves, namely the magnetic and the elec-
tric forces, are intelligible and can be attributed to one
fundamental atmospheric process. Furthermore, it will be
remembered that I have for several years insisted that sunlight |
acts upon the earth’s magnetic field as if it were itself a mag-
netic field, and that to this action the diurnal deflection of the
magnetic ‘needle is to be attributed. This was, evidently, an
imperfect statement for the theory of ionization recently
established, which was not developed at the time of my writ-
ing, but it is now perceived that the fundamental basis of the
conception is the same in each. This point is further illus-
trated in the International Cloud Report, Weather Bureau,
1898-99, page 476, where the diurnal wind components and
the magnetic deflecting vectors, taken hour by hour, are shown
to harmonize and point to one underlying system. ‘The wind
vectors are due to the heat contents produced by the radiation,
and the magnetic vectors to the ionization of the air induced
by the same cause. Thus the entire subject is placed on a
working basis, and it can be carried to a definite end by per-
fecting our magnetic and electric observations of the atmos-
phere. This position is greatly strengthened, also, by what
we know of the distribution of the components of the diurnal
variations of the barometric pressure§ of the magnetic deflect-
ing forces, and of the vapor tension of the atmosphere in lati-
tude. Thus, the first component term of the barometric pres-
sure is a maximum on the equator and disappears in latitudes
65°; it also vanishes at a moderate altitude above the surface
of the ground. The second term in the pressure breaks sharply
at the same latitude, and shifts about ninety degrees in the
polar regions. Likewise, the diurnal magnetic deflecting
forces break abruptly at 65° in latitude,| and reappear in the
polar zone at right angles to their place in lower latitudes.

- * Phil. Mag., July, 1889.
+ O. Heaviside, Phii. Mag. (5), xxxix, 1889.
+ H. M. Reese, Astrophysics, Sept., 1900.
§ International Cloud Report, Chapter 9, Weather Bureau Ann. Rep., 1898-99
Forthcoming Report on the Eclipse of Mav 28, 1900.
|| Bulletin No. 21, Chapter 4, 1898.

Bigelow—Magnetic Theory of the Solar Corona. 261

Now the distribution of the vapor tension is a function of the

temperature of the air, such that it is large at temperatures of

100 degrees Fahrenheit and small below freezing ; it, therefore,
accumulates over the tropics and gradually diminishes to the
poles so that the vapor pressure is very feeble beyond 65
degrees in latitude; at the same time, and for the same reason,

it disappears at moderate elevations, highest over the equator,

because the temperatures lower rapidly with the altitude. The
vapor contents of the air, therefore, practically occur in a
zone between 65 degrees of latitude, arching above the equator
to the height of 2 or 8 miles. It is just in this region that the
electric and magnetic effects in the air are found to take place,
and in proportion to the vapor tension, which of course meas-
ures the vapor contents; and also it is in this region that
principal terms of the diurnal barometric variation have their
locus. Furthermore, it will be shown in the Eclipse Report,
that the mean variation of the vapor tension in latitude has a
representative curve with the same flexure as shown in the
above diagram. It seems to me proper to infer that it is the
ionization of the vapor contents of the atmosphere which is at
once the cause of the phenomenon of the diurnal barometric
wave, the atmospheric electric potential and the magnetic
diurnal variations, which have, one and all, so long evaded the
efforts of research to comprehend. The functional relations
between pressure, electric current and voltage, and work

energy have been somewhat elaborated by Ebert.* If it can

be shown by experiment that a magnetic field is also produced
at the same time as the other effects of ionization, then it will
follow, not only that we-have reached the correct point of
view regarding these subjects, but that Terrestrial Magnetism
as a science is distinctly and properly a branch of Meteorology,
since its phenomena are produced by the sun’s radiation acting
on the constituents of the atmosphere in situ. This result
will relieve magneticians of the impracticable task of trying
to account for these effects by magnetic induction dependent
upon electrical currents which are assumed to traverse the
earth’s atmosphere, as if it were a good conductor. The evi-
dence is all against the existence of these electric currents In
the lower atmosphere, because the air is a powerful non-con-
ductor in these layers; if it be contended that in the rarefied
high strata the air becomes a good conductor, then it is noted
that the required magnetic and electrical effects are all located
in the lower strata where the aqueous vapor contents are
abundant. The fact that electrolytic action takes place readily

* Unsichtbare Vorginge bei elektrischen Gasentladungen, Sitzungber. k. bayer.
Akad. d. Wiss., 1898, Bd. xxviii, Heft IV. .

262 Bigelow—Magnetic Theory of the Solar Corona.

in water solutions also points to the aqueous vapor as the true
seat of the phenomenon of ionization rather than the adjacent
dry air constituents.

This argument could be pursued to great length, but it is
proper not to draw attention away from the main point of this
paper. We have stated that the coronal effects at the sun are
explained by a magnetic field in conjunction with an electric
discharge radiation acting upon ionized products; that the earth
is immersed in a true external magnetic field, and that the
variations on the normal type are expiained by the action of
the ionization in the atmosphere, the ions being generated by
the electromagnetic radiation. Other developments of this
subject, which have already been published, merely enforce the
theory that the earth is immersed in a magnetic field whose
base is in the sun, and which rotates with it in space. Conse-
quently the eleven-year period in the earth’s magnetic and
meteorological elements are caused by efficient internal solar
processes; the 26°68-day period by the sun’s axial rotation ;
the semi-annual inversion of the type curve by exposures to the
solar lines at the earth in different aspects, such that oppositely
directed couples are produced twice annually. It may be
stated finally, that the Weather Bureau is completing a rere-
duction of its barometric observations of the past 30 years toa
homogeneous system, and that from this improved data we
expect to obtain further developments along these lines.

Weather Bureau, Washington, DC:

i

Gould—Tertiary Springs of Western Kansas, etc. 263

Art. XXI.— Tertiary Springs of Western Kansas and
Oklahoma ; by CHARLES NEwTon GOULD.

THE western third of Kansas and a good part of north-
western Oklahoma are covered with the Tertiary formation.
This rock consists for the most part of a white or yellowish
clay with ledges and lenses of coarse sand and gravel inter-
spersed between. Ordinarily this formation covers the
level uplands of the region to the depth of from twenty to
that of several hundred feet. The streams have in many
cases cut their way through this rock into the underlying
formations, usually the Cretaceous or Permian. In many
instances the Tertiary may be recognized by one of two typ-
ical kind of rocks. Perhaps the most common of these con-
sists of rather precipitous chalky-white cliffs, often known
locally as gyp. cliffs (although there is no gypsum in their
composition). These are typical in northern Clark County
along the heads of Bluff, Bear and Sand Creeks. The other
kind is that of a very coarse, pebbly sandstone conglomerate.
This is often found along the bluffs of small streams and
sand-draws throughout the region. The pebbles are of all
sizes, shapes and colors, with white and pink predominating.
They are usually smooth and water-worn, having been washed
down from the Rocky Mountains during late geological time. .

‘It is these pebbles, set free from their matrix by the disinte-

gration of the rock, that cover the slopes and form the gravely

‘points on so many of our western hillsides.

The two kinds of rock spoken of above will serve to illus-
trate the character of the entire formiation. It consists of
alternating layers of clay, sand and gravel. Perhaps the clay
occupies the greater part of the thickness, but the two kinds
of rock do not occupy a definite position with regard to each
other. They are arranged in alternating layers one above the
other, now the clay predominating, now almost the entire
thickness being composed of sand and gravel. Sometimes
wells will penetrate more than 100 feet without encountering
gravel; again gravel and sand will be found all the way down.

Now it is well known that clay is impervious to water while
sand (and much more readily gravel) permits the compara-
tively rapid flow of water through its particles. The rain
water falling upon the surface of the soil will sink into the
ground until it strikes a ledge of gravel when it slowly seeps
through the porous material until it finds its way to a con-
siderable depth. If a well penetrates this gravel bed, water
will accumulate and furnish a supply relative to the thickness

264 Gould—Tertiary Springs of Western

of the bed and the amount of water it contains. But if the
gravel bed extends to a considerable depth below the surface,
the water, still seeking its lowest level, will continue to
descend until in order to reach a steady flow wells must pene-
trate to a great depth. Happily on the plains this condition
is not usually met with. The thickness of the Tertiary strata
will perhaps average not more than fifty feet. In many
places, it is true the rock is as much as 300 feet thick, but
ordinarily this is not the case. The underlying stratum is
usually either Cretaceous or Permian. In either case the
lower rock is impervious to water. The water-bearing gravels
lying on the impervious ledges soon become saturated and the
water will often rise many feet in the bed, sometimes in fact
nearly to the surface. A well, then, to reach a steady flow
need only to penetrate to the saturated gravels. From this it
follows that the wells throughout the region of the Tertiary
have as.a maximum depth the thickness of this formation, and
as a minimum the distance to the saturated sand and gravels.

The thickness to which the saturation extends depends upon a —

number of factors. Prominent among these are the slope of
the beds, the regularity of the underlying strata, the amount
of rainfall and the relative coarseness of the material which
carries the water. Of course there are a number of others but
they need not be considered in this connection.

The water that I have just been considering is the under-
* flow or “sheet water ”’ of popular phrase. Thousands of wells
in western Kansas and Oklahoma obtain a never failing supply
from this source. A popular but erroneous idea prevails in
many localities that a subterranean lake is present or even that
an underground river is flowing toward the sea. It is obvious
that these explanations have no foundation in fact.

The statement was made above that many of the streams of
the region have carved out a channel in the Tertiary and in
many instances into the underlying formations. This is true
at least in part for the following streams: Solomon, Sappa,
Prairie Dog, Saline, Smoky Hill, Walnut, Pawnee, Arkansas,
Ninnescah, Medicine, Bluff, Cimarron, Salt Fork, Beaver,
Wolf, Canadian, Eagle Chief, and Red River, with their -
numerous tributaries. The greater part of these streams either
take their rise in the Tertiary or else rising beyond, flow across
this formation for a considerable distance. In almost every
case they have cut down into the subjacent rocks, often hav-
ing carved out canyon-like valleys in them. <A person stand-
ing on the level Tertiary plain at a distance from the edge of
the valley may often be able to look across to the plain beyond
without being aware of the intervening valley. In other
instances the valleys are broad and shallow, being nothing but

Kansas and Oklahoma. 265:

gentle depressions in the prairie through which the stream
meanders across a sandy channel.

It is along these streams and usually at the point of contact
of the Tertiary above and the Cretaceous and Red-beds
beneath that the springs which form the title of this article
are located. Ordinarily the spring has carved for itself a
canyon, or at least is situated in one, often at its head. Some-
times, however, it bubbles up from the bottom of a sand-draw
or, it may be, from the almost level prairie. Now it is a single
bold spring issuing from a crevice in the rock and running off
down the canyon ; again, and perhaps more frequently, it takes
the form of a number of seepage springs coming out along a
line for a distance of perhaps 100 yards. In any case the
water is very pure, and is clear, cold and soft. It is the best
water found anywhere on the plains. In nearly every instance
the site of a Tertiary spring is marked by the presence of
trees and not infrequently they are the only trees anywhere in
the country—the upland plains being in most places a treeless
prairie. Some of the rarest bits of timber in all the plains
country are along these spring-fed canyons.

But the springs have an economic value. This is one of the
best cattle countries in the world. Grass grows luxuriantly.
Cattle may be ranged the year round. Bnt the question of
water supply is always a vital one in a grazing country. It is
often the first problem with which the stock man has to deal.
The presence or absence of water on a range often determines
whether or not it is a profitable grazing ground. There is a
saying on the plains, “The man that controls the water con-
trols the whole country.” A single Tertiary spring often
supplies the stock water for an area of several square miles,
and thus renders this region profitable. If the spring is suffi-
ciently strong to flow a steady stream no further notice need
be taken of it, and the cattle are permitted to drink directly
from the stream. If the spring is weak the water is often
piped into tanks or reservoirs to which the cattle have free
access. It frequently happens also that dwellings are located
near a favorite spring. Occasionally the water from a spring
will be piped through the kitchen, into the milk house, and
from there into a tank in the barn lot, furnishing an ample
supply for all purposes, and the surplus is then utilized to
irrigate a small garden. .

But Tertiary springs are utilized on a still larger scale.
Camp Supply, a military post in northwestern Oklahoma, is
situated on a flat prairie where Wolf and Beaver Creeks unite
to form the North Canadian. The underlying formation con-
sists of Red-beds in which the water is not only insufficient in
quantity but also poor in quality. Some three miles distant

266 Gould—Tertiary Springs of Western

among the sand hills across Beaver Oreek is a Tertiary spring.
A. reservoir was constructed just below this spring and a six-
inch main laid to the fort. The supply has proven fully
ample for the use of several hundreds of persons. 3

The city of Alva is located in the valley of Salt Fork. The
wells furnish plenty of water, but so strongly impregnated
with gypsum is it that it is unfit for use. The citizens are
compelled to buy all the water used. The water is hauled in
wagons from Elm Springs over two miles north, across the
river. Recently the city has purchased Elm Spring and a ten-
inch water main has been laid from it to the edge of town.
It is thought that the supply will be more than adequate for
the city.

Woodward in the valley of the North Canadian is similarly
situated. The water is impure and many of the people prefer
to pay for water that has been hauled from springs rather than
to use that from the wells. The question of laying a main to
some springs in the vicinity is being agitated and the project
will doubtless eventually be accomplished.

A few of the Tertiary springs throughout the region that
have come under my observation may be spoken of in this
connection. They are nearly all located in the southern tier
of counties in Kansas or the northern tier in Oklahoma, and
are perhaps all within fifty miles of the State line.

At Belvidere, Kansas, near the head of the Medicine River,
three creeks emptying into the river from the north are fed by
Tertiafy springs. These creeks are Soldier, Spring and
Thompson. On Soldier Creek is located the celebrated
Rockefeller horse ranch. One of the finest reservoirs in the
west has been made on this ranch by throwing a dam across
the creek. The water of Thompson Creek is turned into a
ditch and utilized for irrigating several hundred acres of land
on the Fullington ranch. Farther up the river, springs at
Greenleaf’s ranch and on Little Rocky canyon and Spring
Creek furnish large quantities of water. Meals’ Spring on
Otter Creek is known for miles as are the springs in Abel’s
pasture on Walker Creek.

Mule Creek, a perennial stream in Comanche County, is fed
by Tertiary Springs. The same is true of several creeks in
Clark County. On Kiger Creek in the western part of the
county a spring at the home of Wm. Funk supplies water for
irrigating a small garden. This is near the famous St. Jacob’s |
well and Big Basin. Still further west in Meade and Seward
Counties the various branches of the Cimarron are fed by
these springs.

The conditions in parts of northern Oklahoma do not differ
from those in southern Kansas. All along the escarpments

Kansas and Oklahoma. 267

where the highlands north of the streams break down into the
valleys springs issue at irregular intervals. Elm Spring, men-
tioned above as supplying the water for Alva, is but one of
scores on the north slope of Salt Fork. The same conditions
obtain for the Cimarron. The famous Cleo springs in southern
Woods County, near the mouth of Eagle Chief, consist of a
number of small springs which issue at the point of contact of
the Tertiary and Red-beds for a distance of a quarter of a mile
along the bluff. There is nearly enough water at this place

_to turn a mill, if it were utilized. The water is very pure,

but perhaps not more so than that from hundreds of similar
springs. It only seems more pure in contrast with the water
of the Red-beds of the Glass Mountains across the river,
which being strongly impregnated with gypsum and other salts
is unfit for drinking. Dozens of other springs along Eagle
Chief are perhaps just as pure, but do not furnish as much
water as those at Cleo.

Near the head of Bent’s canyon, a southern tributary to the
Cimarron at the Great Salt plain, there are a number of the
finest springs in Oklahoma. The canyon in its upper part has
been carved out of the high plains between the Cimarron and
the North Canadian. The gorge is perhaps fifty feet deep and
a quarter of a mile wide. As seen from a distance the course
of the canyon is marked by a strip of green meandering across
the brown sage brush plain. A dense growth of underbrush,
with an occasional large cottonwood or elm interspersed here
and there, with grape vines and Virginia creepers fills the
canyon. This is one of the rarest bits of timber anywhere in
western Oklahoma, the delight of a botanical collector. As is
usual the bottom of the canyon is cut down into the Red-beds
while the upper part is composed of Tertiary. The line of
contact may often be seen. There are half a dozen or more
springs within the distance of half a mile from each of whieh
flows a stream half as large asa man’s arm. In one case the
spring issues from the side of a cliff fifteen feet above the
stream. In another place the spring comes out in a little
amphitheater up a small canyon an hundred yards or more
from the main stream. A level bog covered with Monkey
flower and other aquatic plants fills the basin. Still another
spring a few rods further down stream supplies water for the
Bird and Hawkins ranch house.

Along the North Canadian, besides the springs at Camp
Supply and those near Woodward mentioned above, one of
the most noted of the springs is the Osage Spring in eastern
Woodward County. The tributaries to this river, particularly
Beaver and Wolf Creeks, take their rise in the Tertiary farther
west and are fed by springs from this formation. It is a

268 Gould—Tertiary Springs of Western Kansas, etc.

maxim on the plains that for steadiness of flow and purity of
water the North Canadian excels all other streams of the
region. ‘The reasons are obvious.

Throughout a great part of Oklahoma and southern Kansas
the water is not good. This region lies within the area of the
great Red-beds of the plains. This formation is composed for
the most part of reddish shales and clays containing great quan-
tities of salt and gypsum. The water in many wells is so
strongly impregnated with these minerals as to render it unfit
for use. In a region of this character a spring of such soft
water as those I have described constitutes a veritable oasis.
Not infrequently families haul their water for household use
for several miles. A whole neighborhood is often supplied
from a single spring. Fortunately it is usually the case that
the springs are located well up on the hills. As the country
develops and the people can afford it the water from these
springs will be carried to more and more towns and even to
farm houses. In dozens of localities in the region the final
solution of the now vexing problem of the water supply will
be found in the presence of Tertiary springs.

University of Oklahoma, Oct. 12, 1900.

tai we ES

Cilley—T. heory of Elasticity. 269

Art. XXII.—Some Fundamental Propositions in the Theory
of Elasticity. A study of primary or sef-balancing
stresses; by FRANK H. Cinuny, 8.B.*

LOOKING at two objects of precisely the same material, size,
shape and general appearance, it would at first seem that one
would be* warranted in regarding them as precisely alike and
applying to the one all conclusions which had been found to
apply to the other. Yet a little reflection will show that this
is by no means necessarily the case, and that, even where there
is no hidden difference in structure, there still may exist a dif-
ference in internal condition which will have most important
consequences.

Consider, for example, the specially prepared drop of glass
with a long slender tail known as a “ Prince Rupert drop” or
“tear,” and a precisely similar appearing drop of the same
glass, prepared simply by melting and drawing out a tail fol-
lowed by slow cooling. The two drops look just alike, yet
we know that there is a very important difference in their con-
ditions. For, break off the tail of the Prince Rupert drop and
it will explode like a bomb, breaking into innumerable frag-
ments, while the other not similarly prepared drop, if treated
in the same way, does nothing at all.

Two lamp chimneys, identical in appearance, are put on two
similar lamps. One breaks on the first lighting of the lamp,
the other endures indefinitely.

On a cold winter’s day as an electric car passes over a joint
in the rails a sharp explosion is heard: the rail has broken at
the joint. These joints had been firmly “ welded” the previ-
ous summer, but the rails had contracted much more than the
surrounding soil under the great fall in temperature.

After a spell of moist weather, windows, which ordinarily
would open with ease, stick. ‘The moisture has swelled the
wood,—and frame and sash are wedged firmly together.

Two bicycle wheels look just alike. - They are of the same
material and construction. Butif the spokes are gently struck
we find, not only that no two spokes give forth the same sound
but that the spokes of one wheel, on the whole, give forth a
much higher sound than those of the other wheel. They have
not been equally tightened, and one wheel is more ready to
buckle and break than the other.

* The present article, read before the American Association for the Advancement
of Science, Sec. D, New York, June, 1900, is based on an article prepared by the
writer in March of 1897 but never published. The earlier article contained all

the essential features of the present article, which is simply otherwise arranged,
popularized and less brief and abstract than the original.

AM. Jour. Sct.—Fourts Series, Vou. XI, No. 64 —Aprit, 1901.
18

270 Cilley—Fundamental Propositions in the

Two tennis raquets are seemingly the same. But one, when

struck, emits a much higher tone than the other. It is strung

tighter than the other.

A piece of wire has been bent repeatedly back and forth at
one point. Jt looks much the same there as at other points,
but we know it is much more ready to break there than else-
where. :

A sheet of brass has been run through between heavy rolls.
It looks like another sheet that has not had this experience,

but we know that it cannot be bent so sharply without break-

ing as the unrolled sheet.

So we could proceed, giving many other and familiar

instances of things that look alike while actually in very dif-
ferent conditions. And if we consider in what the difference
in condition consists we shall find in each instance that there

was a straining of one part of the body against another, that —

there existed a condition of initial or, as I prefer to call it,
‘‘ primary ” strain.

Of the existence of these primary strains frequently evi-
dence is only obtainable through the application of external
force until injury ensues, for elastic action up to this point is
usually practically unaffected by the presence of such strains.
Only occasionally, as in the case of the bicycle wheels and the
tennis raquets, is the contrary true and can non-injarious tests
disclose and define these strains. In this case acoustic tests
will perform this service ; with glass, polarized light answers
the same purpose. .

Among the more prominent causes of these primary strains
is sudden and unequal cooling from the molten state, the
Prince Rupert drop furnishing a startling example of this but
other cases being numerous, particularly among metal castings.
The lamp chimneys are partly examples of this but partly
examples of the consequences of sudden and unequal heating,
of which thick bottles and tumblers, broken by suddenly fill-
ing them with hot water, are further examples. Then there
are the consequences of the unequal expansiou and contraction
of different substances in contact. The breaking of the welded
rail was due to this, it being put under great strain by con-
tracting far more than the ground in which it lay. The same
thing occurs in masonry and iron construction where the iron
is firmly anchored to the masonry without any allowance for
expansion and contraction. Wood and iron when united cause
similar trouble, the swelling and shrinking of the wood from
varying moisture adding a further factor. Cement and con-
erete in setting also make trouble, and many other instances
could be found. And although this straining is usually objec-
tionable, in some cases it is put to good use as in the balance

eS

——

Theory of Elasticity. | 271

of a chronometer, where two metals of different expansibility
in combination serve to correct the normal effects of. change of
temperature. As a parallel to the effects of unequal heating
we have the effects of unequal swelling due to moisture.
Sometimes, as in the case of the windows, different parts are
differently affected ; sometimes, as with wood and rope, the
effect is different in different directions. Then we have the
effects of the cold working of material, as the cold rolling of
plates, the drawing of wire, the spinning of ductile metals,
shearing, punching, bending and twisting. Most metals, if
subjected to such operations and not relieved of the primary
stresses thus engendered, by subsequently annealing them, are
much less trustworthy under stress than before. And lastly
we may note the consequences of straining up parts of built-
up objects in their construction, as the tightening of nuts,
screws and wedges. [requently most serious and objectionable
strains are thus introduced and added to all others.

When we have a_ body supporting, —resisting, applied
forees,—loads ; what we generally wish to know is how well
able is that body to perform its duties, what are the actual
stresses and strains within it? We know, if the body be at
rest, that the stresses must be in equilibrium among them-
selves and with the bodily forces (as weight, magnetism, etc.)
and the surface tractions. We know that on any complete sec-
tion of the body the resultant must be equal and opposite to
the resultant of the bodily forces and surface tractions acting
on the part of the body cut off by the section. Thus, when
the section becomes sufficiently small and circumscribes an
elementary portion of the body, we obtain as consequence
three general differential (interior) equations of equilibrium
and three general ordinary (surface) equations of equilibrium.*

* Equations limiting actual stresses.

For interior points. For surface points.
fe ap eae |
emia GX AGE i Ae 4
= a ee IP+mU+nT =f
eee ee ay My) mos 38 6 $C)
Ox. OF 0% os aes Sarr
or 40S OR IT +mS+nk = J
—+ —+ —_-= —pZ

where with a system of rectangular codrdinates xyz the quantities P QR are the
actually existing and complete intensities of the normal components of the stress

in the planes of x, y and z respectively; SU are the intensities of the tangential
components of the stress in the planes of y and 2, z and a, & and y perpendicular
to #, y and z respectively; p is the density and X YZ the bodily forces per unit
yolume at the point (ayz); lmn are the direction cosines of the perpendicular to
the bounding surface at any point and FGHare the intensities of the surface
tractions at that point in the directions x, y and z respectively.

272. Oilley—Fundamental Propositions in the

These, the actual or total stresses in all bodies at rest, whether
solid or liquid, whether elastic or inelastic, whether homo-
geneous or heterogeneous, whether eeolotropic or isotropic,
must satisfy. But these equations have precisely the same
form as those for the changes in stress due to given applied
forces.* This has erroneously led to’the conelusion that the
changes in stress are the total stresses, whereas actually the
total stresses consist of two parts, one the changes in stress due
to applied forces, the other the (often preéxisting) self-balanc-
ing or primary stresses. The latter are ordinarily and ineor-
rectly neglected.

The primary stresses evidently must satisfy the condition
that the resultant stresses on any complete section shall be zero.
And in particular they must make the resultant stresses on any
elementary portion of the body zero. This leads to three dif-
ferential (interior) and three ordinary (surface) equations of
equilibrium, which primary stresses must satisfy.t These are
nothing (in form) but the ordinary general interior and surface
equations of equilibrium with all bodily forces and surface
tractions zero. It has incorrectly been assumed that these
equations had no solutions. other than zero, but since primary
stresses are real quantities which must satisfy these equations
it follows that other solutions than zero for these equations
exist. and have a real significance. Actually, as will later be
seen, the solutions are innumerable. |

Changes in stress due to applied forces—‘ the” stresses of
the ordinary theory of elasticity,—we know, theoretically, are
definitely determinable. This is rendered possible by these
changes in stress being definitely related to changes in strain
through stress-strain relations holding for the given body and
material, and by the changes in strain, if elastic, being related to
the displacements by certain geometrically necessary relations.
Wherever the stress-strain relations are definitely known, this

* Equations limiting changes in stress.
For interior points. For surface points.
OR gO Ue. OM
de by Oz
where PQR are the intensities of the normal components of the changes in

stress or stresses due to the bodily forces XYZ and surface tractions FGA while ©
STU are the intensities of the tangeutial components of these changes.

=—pX, ete. (1’) IP+mU+nT= F,ete. (27)

+ Equations limiting primary stresses.
For interior points. For surface points.
ie aye Soe , ete. (1°) (P)+m(U)+n(T) = 0, ete. (2°)
where (P)(Q)(R) are the intensities of the normal components of the primary
stresses aud (S)(7)(U) are the intensities of the tangential components of the
primary stresses.

Lheory of Hlasticity. 273

results first in three differential (interior) and three ordinary

(surface) equations between the changes in strain and the
bodily forces and surface tractions, and thence in three dif-
ferential (interior) and three ordinary (surface) equations
between the displacements and the bodily forces and surface
tractions, which equations then permit of definite solution.
These equations for isotropic bodies subject to ‘“ Hooke’s law”
are particularly well known.* ‘They are the subject of all the

* Here the strains are expressed in terms of the stresses through the relations

sel Q+R ess
7 B E ren
Oe) R+P saa s
fe o-oo b=— + (8)
Mein 34,0 asl
Oy E ees

where efg are the changes in elongation per unit in the directions 2, y and z;
abc are the changes in the shears in the planes of w, y andz; His “‘ Young’s
modulus;” o is the ratio of lateral contraction to longitudinal extension or ‘‘ Pois-
son’s ratio” and mw is the shearing modulus or modulus of rigidity. Between
these quantities and two others,—« the modulus of volumetric change or bulk
modulus and the coefficient A = k—3 u we have the relations
pe OB and. =)

A+ ps 3K +p 2(A + 1)

whence denoting the sum e+/f/+g by A (the change in the dilatation), we have
the converse solutions of (3’) giving stresses in terms of strains

P=AA+2%me S= a)
Q=AA+ 2uf DT =00 (67)
R= A+ 2g T= pe |

Introducing these converse solutions of the properties (3’) into the equations
(1’) and (2’) we deduce what are known as the equations of equilibrium of an
isotropic elastic solid in terms of the strains (actually the changes in strain).
These are

For interior points. For surface points.

Oc

)
ey | A ( ae
IA + u(2le+me+nb) =
() t) 0 a) |
: a Ss, f a ~)=—pY (Uv) AmA+ ple + 2mf+na)= che
|
J

OA de Ob
} = ig \= _
AEC be Oy. dz es

) de dy 02 And + w(lb+ma+t 2ng)= H

04 0b Oa Og

+ 2 =-—pZ

oa \ be * byt “be

The changes in strain are related to the displacements by the equations

Ou ow ov
aes ee
ov Ou ow

)
|
f=— 02 a aes f (9’)
|
J

oy Oz ony
Ow ag Ov i Ou
eres aay oy

274 Cilley—Fundamental Propositions in the

usual operations and transformations of the general mathe-
matical theory of elasticity. Only through their solution ean
the distortion of a body under given applied forces be cor-
rectly determined. Only through them may the changes in
stress and strain due to these applied forces become accurately
known. Except in certain cases of elastic instability their
solutions are definite and single valued. The supposed rela-
tions of stress to strain being exact, they supply us with exact
and definite results, but only as to changes in stress and strain,
not as to actual or total stresses and strains.

In the case of primary stresses and strains, however, no such
determination is possible. As with changes of stress due to
applied forces the stress-strain relations determine from the
differential (interior) and ordinary (surface) equations of equi-

librium between the primary stresses, corresponding equations:

between the strains.* But there are no further strain-dis-

where uw, v and w are the displacements in the directions of x, y and z respec-
d Ou OU Ow BS
tively. Thus A= Wi + ae ais Further denoting by @, @2, w3 the rates

of angular rotation about the axes of a, y and z respectively, we have

2\ oy Oz
1/ou owy | ;

me en a f ae
1/7 ov Ou ) |

@3 eed ==
aX On Oy J

; . : 0? 0? Oo tos
Finally let y? denote the operation —- + —— + ——~ and let dn’ be an element
Oe oy? 02? .

of the normal at the surface. Then we may write (7) and (8’) in terms of the
displacements in the forms

For interior points. For surface points
oA ) du }
Te a EN Pipa | AIA +n ( +m W—n 0s )= F
oA H 0)
(A+ 1) eer’ =— pY | (Va) AmA +2u( 55 +n@, — Los )=6 | (8'a)
I

|
oA | ”
Atm) — thyw= —pZ ; An& +2u(S“+10,—mo, )=H

and these are the usual equations of the theory of elasticity for the determina-
tion of the displacements w, v and w and thence the changes in strain and the dis-
tortion and finally, through the stress-strain relations, the changes in stress in
any isotropic elastic body, subject to Hooke’s law. Too frequently, however,
these latter are regarded as necessarily the actual or total stresses and strains.

*For elastic isotropic bodies subject to Hooke’s law the primary strains in

terms of the stresses are— and the primary stresses in terms of the
(P) : primary strains are—
+(R S
(e) = oe (@) = © ete. (3") (P)=A(A)+2u(e) (S)=/(a), ete. (6")

—— es

i
*
Ca

Theory of Elasticity. 275

_ placement relations in this case, for there are no displacements

corresponding to the primary strains. Thus, since the equa-
tions of equilibrium alone are insufficient, primary stresses and
strains are not mathematically determinable, a fact quite in
accordance with our knowledge of their possibility of infinite
variation. They are merely limited, not defined by the equa-
tions of equilibrium. They must satisfy these, they need
satisfy no others. Any of the infinitude of solutions of these
equations offer equally possible values (physical capacity for
resistance apart).

Although they are not mathematically definable, primary
stresses and strains may be physically defined. Primary
stresses are those which, applied to a portion of a body when
removed from the body, and at the same temperature, would
reduce that portion of the body to the form and proportions it
had when in the body, when the body was free from all bodily
and external forees,—while primary strains are the correspond-
ing strains. By cutting a body into more or less numerous
pieces and measuring the changes in these pieces resulting from
their release from the body, primary stresses and strains could
be experimentally determined. But except where they have
been systematically introduced or created, or can be deter-
mined by acoustic or optical methods, without such cutting
up they must remain, in general, essentially undeterminable.

‘Since primary stresses and strains are not mathematically
definable and actual stresses and strains have primary stresses
and strains as one component,* actual stresses and strains are
essentially mathematically indeterminate. Zhe theory of elas-
ticity alone does not, can not define the actual state of stress
and strain in any real body.

where (e) (f) (g) (a) (6) (c) are the primary strains. Substituting from (6") in (1")
and (2") we obtain

For interior points. For surface points.
0(A) d(e) od(c) 0(b) "
aan hele ane = — li yy A =0 t . 8
A ae +n(2 ag + ef + =) 0, ete (7") AX EHR) + ree) ,ete. (8")

_ as the equations limiting the primary strains.

* Absolute stresses are the sum of primary stresses and the changes in stress
due to applied forces, and absolute strains are the sum of the corresponding
primary strains and changes in strain or

P=(P)+P S=(S)+S,ete (11) e=(e)+e a =(a)+a, ete. (12)
whence simply by addition of (7') and (7") and of (8’) aud (8") we get

For interior points. For surface points.
ao 2 gee eee =——pX,ete.(7) ALA +u(2le +me +nb ), =F ete. (8)
ath (2 ant ay t ag) = PRete (0 # A?

for the equations limiting the actual or total strains in elastic isotropic bodies
subject to Hooke’s law. No further limits may, in general, be set to them.

276 Oilley—Fundamental Propositions in the

As in the case of primary stresses, we may define actual
stresses as those which, applied to a portion of a body when
removed from the body but still subject to the same bodily
forces and at the same temperature, would reduce that portion
of the body to the form and proportions it had when in the body
when the body was subject to the given external and bodily
forces,—and the actual strains will be the corresponding strains.

Actual stresses and strains are always real stresses and
strains. But the corresponding primary stresses and strains
may be fictitious because of such amount and character as to
make their separate existence physically impossible. Such a
state of affairs occurs when the removal of the bodily forces
and surface tractions would result in so considerable changes in
stresses and strains as to pass the elastic limits and lead to flow
or even rupture. Release from excessive compression would
involve such results, an illustration being found in the state of
stress.and strain in the earth’s interior, which will be further
considered presently. Certain states of stress and strain under
certain forces, then, can not be deduced from any physically
possible condition of the body when under other forces, nota-
bly when free from all bodily and external forces, through
mere elastic distortion, but necessarily involve flow or even
rupture of the material in the course of the transformation.
This fact is one of the first importance in all attempts to apply
the theory of elasticity to the explanation of cosmic phenom-
ena.

In the practical treatment of the question of actual stresses
and strains we are confronted with the facts that we are rarely
able to determine the actual state of stress and strain by non-
injurious observations, and that it is not permissible to cut the
body to pieces in order to determine them. So we are obliged
to make use of such knowledge as we possess of the history of
the body, supplement it with such non-injurious observations as
are possible and thence make the best guess we can as to the
probable state of stress and strain in the body under some
known condition as to outer and bodily forces. This guess
must conform to the general equations of equilibrium for
actual stresses and strains. Any state that satisfies them is,
(except for physical limitations) a possible state, while any
state not satisfying them can not possibly subsist as a state of
equilibrium. These equations, then, serve simply as guides,
furnishing criteria as to possible states of stress and strain.
But beyond this they cannot help us.

Often it is reasonable to assume no stress and strain when
there are no applied forces, and such is, consciously or uncon-
sciously, the usual procedure. But in some cases we know
that either under no applied forces there are certain fairly

Theory of Elasticity. 3 277

definite stresses and strains, or else that under certain applied

forces a certain condition of stress and strain exists. Or it
may be that we merely wish to investigate the consequences

of some supposed state of stress and strain. Whatever the

basis, we must eventually have asthe starting point for our
strictly mathematical investigations a definitely given state of
stress and strain under certain definite conditions as to temper-
ature and applied forces. Thence, if we know the stress-
strain relations that are true for the body and material under
consideration, by the ordinary procedure of the theory of elas-
ticity we may (theoretically) follow all subsequent elastic
changes in the body’s condition consequent on known changes
in the applied forces and temperature, with perfect certainty.
Here we are in the domain of exact analysis; cause and effect
follow in unquestionable sequence. But the foundation on
which the results are thus built, it must always be remembered,
was one furnished by imperfect observations or mere assump-
tions, and we must never permit ourselves to fall into the error
of attributing to our structure a security and certainty which
its base never offered. We should be sure that our subsequent
labors have introduced no further uncertainties, but never for-
get that those primarily existing must persist through our
entire work.

Let us now consider some simple illustrations of the applica-
tion of the principles of absolute and primary stresses and
strains.

First let us consider how a simple and fairly definite state
of primary stress and strain might be created. Imagine three
bars of the same material, relatively broad for their thickness,
relatively long for their breadth, practically the same in thick-
ness and in breadth, but not quite of equal length, one being a
trifle longer than the other two. Suppose the three bars were
placed side by side, and lightly clamped together, their larger
sides in contact and the longer bar in the middle; suppose
there was applied to the ends of the longer bar such a com-
pressive force that it was shortened to just the same length as
that of the other two bars, and then that the three bars were
firmly united by forcing some binding material between their
adjacent faces. Now suppose the compressive force removed
from the middle bar; it would expand, carrying with it the two
adjacent bars, supposing the binding material sufficiently strong,
and as a result we would have a composite bar built up of
three layers of equal thickness, the two outer layers subject to
tension, the middle layer to compression. It is evident that
the force of compression of the middle layer would equal the

‘sum of the tensions on the two side layers, that is, would be of

intensity double that in the side layers. That is, the center

278 Cilley—Fundamental Propositions im the

layer would be contracted twice as much as the side layers were
extended. It follows that the compression in the center layer
would be two-thirds its original compression, and the compres-
sive force and intensity of compression in it therefore two-

thirds that to which it was originally subjected. A little —

further consideration will show that, except near the ends, the
binding material is subject to no appreciable shearing stress.
Thus we have ‘created a fairly definite state of primary stress
and strain.

Now this state of primary stress and strain was derived from
a certain known state of stress and strain,—that in which the
middle layer was under a perfectly definite compressive stress,
and the side layers wholly free from stress,—by the removal of
the applied forces,—the compressive forces at the ends of the
middle thirds of the composite bar. The resulting changes in
stresses and strains would be those determined by the ordinary
theory of elasticity for this case, regardless of the compound
nature of the bar. Now, if the compressive forces had been
uniformly distributed over the entire ends of the compound
bar, their removal would simply have resulted in a uniform
change in stress over all sections of the compound bar, equal
in intensity (but opposite in kind) to the total compressive
force divided by the total area. When the end pressures are
concentrated on limited areas however, their removal does not
result in such a uniform change in stress. But, as Saint
Venant long since pointed out, in a body with relatively great
dimensions in other directions, as in the present case, the effect
of the local distribution of a force is purely local, and is inap-
preciable at a distance from it which is relatively considerable.
So in this case, except near the ends, the consequences of the
removal of the end pressures will be the same as though they
had been uniformly distributed over the ends. This enables
us to perceive very clearly what the primary stresses and
strains must be and even to follow them to some extent where
they lose their uniformity near the ends, and the binding
material becomes subject to considerable shearing stress.

We might easily conceive much more complex but definitely
strained built-up bodies, formed of numerous rods or of not
quite flat discs or of rings. The latter construction is fre-
quently employed in gun construction and its theory has
received considerable attention. Let us examine an allied

problem, a cylinder of uniform thickness, unlimited length and

subject to a given internal pressure, but no (sensible) external
pressure. We will suppose that the circular tension in the
cylinder is uniform from inside to outside, that the axial stress
is the same as if the tube were without stress when under no
pressure, and that there are no shearing stresses on the princi-

ee

Theory of Elasticity. 279

pal sections. Under these circumstances we find by considera-
tion of the equations of equilibrium* that the radial stress will
fall off from the interior to the exterior according to a simple
hyperbolic law. The ordinary solution of this problem, based
on the supposition of no stress when there is no pressure
on the tube, results in a circular stress much greater at the
interior than at the exterior, a varying radial stress, and an
axial] stress constant at all distances.

If we examine the strains we find the actual strainst to be a
circular extension decreasing from the inside out, a radial con-
traction decreasing from the inside out and an axial strain,
changing from extension at the inside to contraction at the out-
side. The shearing strains are all zero.

* Tet p, be the pressure inside the cylinder and Q the circular or tangential
stress constant at all distances from the axis. Let R, the axial stress, be the
same as the axial stress on the supposition of no primary stress, or R= R and
let the shearing stresses S T U all be zero. Then the conditions of equilibrium
simply require that the radial stress P shall satisfy the differential equation (in
circular coérdinates) |

OP i Ps Or P,= —p, (at inner surface)

ae + ara me and the surface conditions ee, met ender surtace)

These yield at once the relation P —Q Wes r, being the outer radius)
ie 8

whence Pi = —pi1=Q me) (7, being the inner radius) furnishes Q oe

Lg (Olsaenen

ri(r—r
and P=p, a ae The ordinary solution for no primary stress (see Love,
roa sek
Theo. of Elas., vol. I, art. 130) :
) 7? il 1
i 6 = pees Pr a — — iD = (radial strain—actually contraction)
Or = Fo’ — 11” \ 2(A+p) Qu

u "11 ( 1 Pin Po" » ' ; :
a — — — } (tangential strain—actually extension
I Yr roe —r;? 2(A + 1) i Qu 9 ( Tae ise i y )
g = 0 (axial strain) a= b=c=0 (shearing strains)
ae 4 Gi — eas ala zient (dilatation — positive and constant)
77? Atm
2
P= A+ 2pe = haa i mn) (= — pi at r=7, of course)
T° —T1" ip?

2
= A+ uf TP (1 ip “

To %_y,?
me a 2p, ; ;
R= A+ 2ug = Ps — 9o0—" +" (a constant tension
oes To 2__y,? ei. Tor —7112 ( ~ )

+ Our actual strains are—

e= of —o ee Pe 28 @ —o—207 Ut fice (radial strain—actu-
r

E E E Wma fant Tot?

ally contraction)

280 Cilley—Fundamental Propositions in the

If wecompare these with the strains of the ordinary solution
we will find them much more constant except for the axial
strain which is zero in the ordinary solution. This will be
most apparent if we consider the primary strains which, added
to the strains of the ordinary solution, give the strains of our
case. |

We find that the primary stresses are* a radial compression
diminishing from the interior layers of the ring in proceeding
towards either surface, a circular stress, compression at the
inner surface, tension at the outer surface and an axial stress

ae, @ es oN RM i ( ry “* ) : a
= = = 1 —o — 20° o — } ta tial st
f ia o z ae o ae as - ngen ~ strain
—actually extension)
ey RS NPN rr To+Tr
Hie _ =e Saas ( = : —2) (axial strain — varying from

extension to contraction)
At the inner boundary r= 7, these take the values

Lei

Tyas el ( l+o + 20? + (radial strain—actually contraction)
iH To—Ty Too —r"
ae pi Ler ; - F
a o — Lo? ) tangential strain—actually extension
LSS Pare Pia tere (tang y ion)
ron pi E 5 -
= 0 — axial strain—actually extensio
91 eee (axia ain— actually extension)
At the outer boundary 7 = 7, they take the values
= pi Un a \ 5 E :
€é = — —-{ o—— + 20? —_—_—_ _) (radial strain—actually contraction
: E ( To—11 ro —7y? ) be y )
fo = al (Re alee ‘s ) (tangential strain—actually extension)
E VSS Too —T 12 rs
aes , “
Jo = — ec (axial strain—actually contraction)

HE ryotny

We see that the radial strain at the inner surface exceeds that at the outer sur-

face by =. the tangential strain at the inner surface exceeds that at the
outer surface by om and the axial strain at the inner surface exceeds that at
Pa

the outer surface by o @? these latter being of opposite signs and nearly equal

amount. This all corresponds to the fact that the difference in stresses at the
inner and outer surfaces is simply the compression p, at the inner surface. The
law of variation of these strains is in each case simply hyperbolic (varyimg as the
reciprocal of the distance from the axis plus or minus a constant). .

* The primary stresses are

(P) = P— P= p, Sareea (radial stress—always compression)
Toi (7? — 7011)
r(ro?—11°)
according as 7? < Tor

(R)= R—R=0 (axial stress—nothing).

(tangential stress—is tension or compression

(O=0—0=5,

Theory of Hlasticity. 281

_ zero at all distances. The strains* are a circular (tangential)
strain varying from contraction at the inner surface to a some-
what smaller extension at the outer surface, while the strains
in the other two directions are simply the corresponding lateral
strains at the inner and outer surfaces and intermediate values
between. The primary stresses satisfy, as we should expect,
the proper equations of equilibrium. The state of primary
stress and strain will be very clear if we conceive it as similar
to that which exists when an outer tube of a gun is shrunk
onto an inner tube slightly too large to enter it when cold.
But of course in the case just discussed there is no discontinuity
such as would exist in the practical case mentioned above. As
to the practical possibility of producing such a state of strain
as has just been considered, nothing need here be said, for
we are merely interested in considering the consequences
of such a state of stress and strain could it be attained. It is
of great interest to note however that a somewhat similar state
of primary stress and strain with its consequent advantages in
increased elastic resistance would be obtained by systematically
and uniformly overstraining a tube by application of interior

* The primary strains are
ie) pe cee (RY Ds ori
E E E r(79? — 11”)
strain—extension inside changing to contraction outside)
(A= a 2 — =) = = oe 2
(i aaa )
tial strain—coutraction inside changing to extension outside)
= eae rae eae rors |=
E E EL r(r.?—11") ,
sion inside changing to contraction outside)

[(r Bt) (r — 7) —o(7? — ror1)] (radial

[.(7?—1ror1)— 4 (r—1o) (r—71)] (tangen-

2 | (axial strain—exten-

At the inner boundary 7 = 7; they take the values

Cea) = 0 (= +07 a =: (radial strain—actually extension)
4 0 1
2) — — ioe (A) =- — A (tangential strain —actually contraction)
(f,) = 0 (gi). = +or ; — (axial strain—actually extension)
0 1
At the outer boundary 7 = 7 they take the values
(Po) =0 (e.)) = — oe ; = (radial strain—actually contraction)
0 1
= eee ial st tuall tension)
(Qo) = Bere, (fs) =+ ee (tangential strain—actually ex
1
(Ro)=0 (9o)= —9o — —s (axial strain—actually contraction)
0 rh)

— Jee) ieee Saline ed :
We note that to i lb) = 0 and that = _q Satisfying the equations of

— equilibrium.

282 Cilley—Fundamental Propositions in the

pressure. Such a tube would evidently support much larger
pressures without overstrain than would a tube not so prepared.

As another illustration let us consider a rectangular beam
and let us suppose that on a cross section under a given bend-
ing moment the longitudinal fiber stresses do not vary simply
as the distance from the neutral axis, as in the ordinary theory
of beams, but that they vary according to a law which makes
them at first increase very rapidly as we leave the neutral axis,
but thereafter less and less rapidly, so that at last they are not
increasing at all as the outer fibers are reached.* It will at
once be seen that such a distribution would utilize the material
of the beam in a particularly effective manner. Not only the
outer fibers but the other fibers for some distance in would be
acting with nearly their full effective strength, and so, with the
same maximum fiber stress the moment resisted would be
largely increased, or the same moment would be resisted with
a considerably smaller maximum fiber stress. An increased
resistance of from twenty to twenty-five per cent could be
obtained from such a stress distribution, of course with a pro-
portionally larger deflection. Such a stress distribution is
similar to that which would result from systematically over-
straining a beam. It would perhaps pay to roll beams curved,

* Let the beam be of depth 2a and of width 20 and resist at the section under
consideration the moment M. Let the fiber stress vary with the departure from
the neutral axis (central) according to the law

i ts 2 ees
Y Wee (3-4) where Rj) = Ratx= +a
2a a?
oR — 1 3a? =
This makes —— = fy — E 2s or zero at x= +a, that is it makes #
ony 2a a?
constant as the outer fibers are reached.
h@ =o aaa a of? pe:
We have i Fy — (3- os) bas dis = $ Re ab
a 2a a?
= 5M — 6Me ao )
whence VE Toy = Bakb 3— 2
The stress by the ordinary solution involving no primary stress would be
ny ieee oe BL 3 Ma
R= Ry, — whence M= Fy — badx = —R,a*d and Ry = — — and k= ——
a eae 3 2 ab 2a°b
Thus the primary or self balancing stress which would remain if M were removed

Ma

8a°b

has the same sign as R and without has the opposite sign. We note that
“La +a

fe b(h) dx = 0 and b(R)axdx = 0 as they should. Under the distribution

wes 5a? apy
is(R)=R-—-R= (s — 7 which is zero at ¢ =+aV 3, within this value

—a
of stress here considered the same moment is supported with a maximum fiber

stress but five-sixths that for the beam without primary stress supporting the
same moment.

pa
) ie

Theory of Hlasticity. 283:

systematically overstrain them to make them straight, then use
them, having a care tu keep the right side up.

A very similar but simpler case is that of a circular shaft
subject to a twisting moment, in which the stress does not vary
simply as the distance from the axis, as in the ordinary theory.
of torsion without primary stress, but in such a manner that,.
under a given twisting moment, the stress increases at first
very rapidly as we leave the axis, but thereafter less and less
rapidly, so that at last it is not increasing at all as the outer
surface is reached.* Here again the distribution of stress.
imagined would considerably increase the resistance of the
shaft, say ten to fifteen per cent. Such a distribution would
result from systematically overstraining a shaft and suggests.
the preparation of shafts to be driven in one direction only, by
such preliminary overstraining.

The three foregoing illustrations have not only shown us
some solutions of the equations of equilibrium other than those

ordinarily recognized, and their bearing on actual cases, but
have further shown how it may be advantageous to introduce
definite primary stresses in certain cases, and how these stresses
may be produced. This has long been appreciated 3 in gun con-
struction but apparently not elsewhere. The illustrations
explain to us, moreover, why, in part at least, the elastic limit

*Let the shaft be of radius 7) and subject to the twisting moment &. Let the
shear vary with the departure from the center according to the law

= ie eo 2 425
S=S) its (3 _ =) where S> 18 the shear at’7r = 7p
27% o To .

0S 1 3r? =
This makes —— = So ee — 7) or zero at y= 7», that is, makes S constant.
or 279 To"

as the outer surface is reached. We have

me tg, ee
ME ae rSo ore —(3— mz) 2rd = — 1 Soro?

whence Sp Oe Sis Ss. oe — Zp We may take M constant and P =
TIT 9? TT 1* To"
Q@=R=0 T= 0=0. The ordinary solution has S= Sp =
0
r 1 2M 2 Mr
M= : r So ae wrar = —— Ti STo® So — aa == ane
To 2 Tro TT o
0

The primary or self balancing shear which would remain if the moment M were
sf 2 ie
removed is (S)= S— S = a 4—6 _) which is zero at r= 7) V 3, within
To 0

this has the same sign as S and without has opposite sign. We note that

i
A ° (8) arr dr = 0 as it should. Under the distribution of stress here con-
0
sidered the same moment is supported with a maximum shear but six-sevenths-
that for a shaft without primary stress supporting the same moment.

284 Cilley—Fundamental Propositions in the

is raised in certain cases by overstrain. Doubtless other factors
are prominent also in this phenomenon, especially in the case
of simple tension bars, although even there annular stresses
thus engendered may play an important part. This part of
the subject is pregnant with practical and valuable suggestions
for the engineer. .

It would be of great interest to enter into an analysis of some
of the primary stresses engendered by temperature changes on

the one hand, and those due to the tightening of parts in built-.

up constructions on the other hand. But the former in the
case of stresses due to the unequal cooling of castings, isa very
difficult subject, and in the case of ordinary temperature
stresses due to unequal expansion, is already well known. As
to the latter it presents many most interesting problems which
present time and space unfortunately forbid our considering.
It may be remarked however that in a majority of instances
the primary stresses thus engendered are local, as is also true
of most of the primary stresses due to cold working (shearing,
punching, ete.) of metals. A case in which primary stresses
introduced through construction are not local and are compar-
atively easy of consideration, is that of indeterminate frame-
works. The writer has elsewhere* presented some spécial
studies in this connection showing the desirability of avoiding
constructions in which primary stresses may occur, and the
necessity of considering these stresses where they may occur.

Probably few questions in structural engineering have caused
more controversy than the theory of the masonry arch.
Volumes have been written on the true position of the line of
resistance, methods innumerable have been developed for its
determination and the greatest diversity in practice and opinion
still rules in this connection. Apparently the present best
view tends to the treatment of the masonry arch on the same
lines as the metal arch, that is as an elastic arch, but with this
distinction, that the axial contraction be taken into considera-
tion as well as the flexure, an addition necessitated by the
usually considerable relative thickness of a masonry arch ring.
This is excellent as far as it goes but it is not sufficient. From
the manner of construction, flexibility of centers, employment
of mortar, decentering, etc., primary stresses (horizontal com-
ponent of reaction and moments at the abutments) of consid-
erable importance are almost certain to be introduced. They
should be studied and determined by observation as closely as
possible. Nowhere is better exemplified the fact that the true

* “Some Fundamental Propositions Relating to the Design of Frameworks” in
the Technology Quarterly, June, 1897, Boston, Mass.

“The Kxact Design of Indeterminate Frameworks” in Transactions of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, June, 1900, New York.

et agp pala at ?

bie os 28s “als

Theory of Hlasticity. 285

condition of stress and strain in a structure is not determinable
purely from equations of elasticity. If we are considering an

existing arch we can only know (since the arch stands) that the

line of resistance lies within certain more or less well defined
limits. On the other hand, because in a design we can pass
a line of resistance within certain limits it does not follow that
in the actual construction it will lie within those limits. This
will depend on the nature of the materials and on how the
construction is carried out. An arch designed “safe” by
drawing a line of resistance within the middle third may in
construction have that line pass without the middle third and
fail. Consider the additional uncertainties introduced through
masonry accessory to the arch band itself and through the man-
ner of loading, and it will be seen that the problem actually is
an exceedingly indeterminate, complex and at best uncertain
one.

Turning from engineering applications to the domains of
speculative science consider the application of the theory of
elasticity to the study of the inner condition of the earth. A
sphere of homogeneous, isotropic, elastic material, rigidly sub-

"ject to Hooke’s law, stressed only by its own gravitating force,

would engender strains, contraction tangentially increasing
from six at the surface to eleven at the center, and extension
radially of four at the surface changing to contraction radially
of eleven at the center. This is based on the value + for the
ratio of lateral contraction to elongation. But this solution*
is inadmissible in the case of the earth, not merely because in
its case the strains involved are far larger than those to which
the ordinary theory of elasticity applies, but because the char-
acter of the strains at the surface, contraction in one direction,
extension in that at right angles, would necessarily involve
rupture in the case of such great strains. As a matter of fact
no such stresses and strains are called for. We may have the
stresses and strains actually not varying from those of fluid
pressure (even though the material be exceedingly rigid) except
in so far as variations in density and departures from the figure
of equilibrium under the actual forces (including gravitation,
centrifugal force and tidal forces of sun and moon) call for
resistance. Thus the material of the earth need be called on -
only to have sufficient strength to resist the strains due to con-
tinental distribution, mountain elevations and tidal phenom-
ena. If known materials have ample strength to resist these
strains, as Prof. Darwin’s investigations would indicate,t
then it is shown that known materials are perfectly capable of
* See Love, Theory of Elasticity, Art. 127, vol. I.

+See various articles and also Thomson and Tait, Treatise on Natnral Phi-
losophy, vol. ii.

Am. Jour. Sci1.—Fourts Series, Vou. XI, No. 64.—APpRIL, 1901.
19

286 Cilley—Fundamental Propositions in the

satisfying the demands of mechanics in this connection. It
would be absurd to maintain in the face of known facts that
the earth had arrived at its present condition simply through
elastic distortion, and therefore that its condition could be
deduced from consideration of the elastic distortions of a
sphere originally free from all forces and all stresses and
strains. Nothing is more certain than that innumerable flows
and slips have occurred, and that, if the earth could be relieved
of all gravitational force and could stand the resulting change
of strains, it would then be found in a condition of great
primary stress and strain. It has been assumed, to overcome
the difficulties of the ordinary explanation which neglects these
evident facts, that the moduli of elasticity are not constant.
but are immensely greater under great stress than under the
stresses with which we are familar. This is quite possibly true.
and would greatly help out the old theory, but it certainly is
not the only and complete explanation, in fact no explanation .
can be complete which does not take into consideration the
possible differences between actual states of stress and strain
and the changes in stress and strain under applied forces, at

present alone considered by the theory of elasticity. This is

also true of many other problems in speculative science which
would take new shape and become comprehensible by aid of
the idea of primary and actual states of stress and strain.

Here closing our illustrations, there still remain some special
considerations worthy of attention, among which we may note
the following.

Primary stresses and strains are in their essence no different
from any other stresses and strains. They need be of no larger
amounts, they no more involve consideration of the higher
powers of the strains, than in the case of the changes in stress
and strain produced by applied forces, and they are governed
by the same stress-strain relations. These stress-strain relations
are fixed purely by the physical constitution of the body at
each point. The one peculiarity of the primary stressesis that
they are not the concomitant of external forces, appearing
and vanishing as these are applied and removed, and balanced
against them, but on the contrary may exist independently of
the external forces and are balanced among themselves. For
this reason primary stresses may properly be characterized by
the name “‘self-balancing stresses.” And the peculiarity of
primary strains is that they are not necessarily factors in the
distortion of a piece under external forces, bat may exist with-
out any such forces and without any necessary relations to dis-
placements such as the strain-displacement relations of the
usual theory.

)

Theory of Elasticity. 287

The fact that changes of stress and strain and therefore dis-
tortions due to applied forces are practically independent of
pre-existing stresses and strains has previously been mentioned
but not explained. The reason for this fact is very simple,
being the linear character of the stress-strain relations, the con-
sequences of Hooke’s law,—“ stress is proportional to strain.”
Where Hooke’s law closely holds, that is to say, within the
elastic limits of most bodies to which it is attempted to apply
the mathematical theory of elasticity, it makes no sensible dit-
ference in the elastic distortions due to applied forces whether
primary stresses and strains exist-or not. This probably
explains their entire neglect by the theoretical elastician, for
he has limited himself chiefly to investigations precisely within
these limits of proportional stress and strain, with the deter-
mination of distortions consequent on the application of given
forces, or the converse, as his one aim. Only when primary
strains were very great, as possibly in some castings, would
their presence noticeably affect distortions due to applied
forces, for the unstrained lengths to which all strains are
referred would then appreciably differ from the strained
lengths. But with metals within the elastic limits this never
becomes a very important factor. The real importance of the
existence of primary strains is that they cause a body to
become overstrained at a different time and place from what
would ordinarily be expected.

The idea of innumerable possible solutions of the general
stress or strain equations of equilibrium at first sight may seem
contrary to Kirchhofi’s celebrated demonstration of the unique-
ness of solution of the equations of elasticity.* But a closer

* Kirchhoff’s demonstration of the uniqueness of solution of the equations of
elasticity as given in Love’s Theory of Elasticity, vol. i, Art. 66(¢), pp. 123-4 is
(ec). If either the surface displacements or the surface tractions be given the
solution of the general equations of equilibrium is unique.

1°. Supposing the bodily forces and the surface tractions given, then, taking
W a quadratic function of the six strains, we have

a) Wise.
pias
also the general equations of equilibrium are three such as
Eee es rem ag (44)
Ox Oy Oz
and the boundary conditions are three such as
IP+mU4+nT=F (45)

If possible suppose there are two different solutions of these sets of equations,
and that the corresponding displacements are u,v, and U2V2W2 in the two solu-
tions. Then, writing

u’ = Uy — Ue v= V1 — V2 w' = Wy—Wo
we see that w'v'w' are a set of displacements which satisfy three such differential
equations as

B

288 Cilley—Fundamental Propositions in the

examination shows that this is not the case, for we find the
demonstration has reference only to changes in stress and strain
due to applied forces, that it depends on suppositions applica-
ble only to these changes, and therefore that it has no bearing
on and in no wise limits actual or total stresses and strains. A
misunderstanding among elasticians as to the scope of this
theorem of Kirchhoff is probably one reason for their neglect
to develop the general theory of primary stress and strain.
We may note in this connection that the validity of Kirchhoff’s
demonstration (as here given) is limited to cases of relatively
small displacements and to bodies subject to Hooke’s law. It
is not evident that the latter limitation is essential, for appar-
ently the distortions of bodies not subject to Hooke’s law, due
to applied forces, are quite as singly determinate as those of
bodies which are subject to that law.. The former limitation is
apparently quite necessary, for, where great displacements

OF > oO ae

me ag a 0 (46)
and three such boundary conditions as
IP +mU'+nT' = 0 (47)
where P’ ... . are the stresses corresponding to these displacements.

Now, by Green’s transformation

ee” dd yak
Af Kae eee + x) Se pee: ieee fe Loa b dee dy de
} aff {ur rmy rrr) Pines ebeie: | pT eeee Las
OW OW’ OW
SL (: Aes +f of S PSE See +e jer ey

where ef’ .... ¢c are the strains corresponding to the displacements u’v'w’,
Hence

ow 8oWw Ae |
My ental +f eye a) ds bastante ae ans xdydz=0 (48)

But from the form of W’ asa positive quadratic function, we know that the
expression under the integral sign is 2 W’ so that the integral is a sum of posi-
tive terms which can vanish only when e’ =f =... =c'=0. Thus the dis-
placements (w'v'w') are such as are possible for a rigid body, and the solution is
only indeterminate to the extent of such displacements.

2°. Supposing the bodily forces and surface displacements given, we take as
before, two solutions u,v,W, U2veW2 and form their differences u'v'w', then u'v'w
satisfy stress equatious like ;

Or " Ont oon
bz” dy Oz
and boundary conditions wu’ = 0 v'=0 w' = 0 at the surface. Thus we find that

| eC TRE a OW

De fF ay SE ts ip cee +c o xdy dz= 0
and hence e’ =0 ff/=0...c’=0 and the displacements are only indetermi-
nate to the extent of displacements possible for a rigid body. This indeterminate-

Theory of Elasticity. 289

may occur, at any rate in certain cases of elastic instability,
the possible states of equilibrium may be several.

Among the limiting conditions of changes in stresses and
strains,—the ordinary stresses and strains of the theory of elas-
ticity,—are what are known variously as the equations of com-
patibility or of continuity.* These simply state relations
which must subsist between the strains in order that the sum
of the products of the strains in a given direction with the dis-
tances, along any path whatsoever from one point to a second
point, shall be a quantity independent of the path taken,—the
displacement in the given direction of the one point with
respect to the other. These equations have no reference to
and do not apply to either primary or absolute strains, as will
be found by attempting to apply them to the primary strains
of the illustrations. The displacement of one point with |
respect to another accompanying the generation of primary
strains involves flows or slips, and strain sums alone will not
express it nor will they be equal along different paths between

ness is also removed, since ww are given at the surface, and if three points of a
rigid body be moved in a given manner the displacement of all points is determi-
nate.”

Examining the above demonstration, we note that it assumes that the stress
equations of equilibrium have solutions in terms of displacements, which can
only be true provided the stresses are functions of the displacements. So
Kirchhoff’s demonstration only applies to stresses that are functions of the dis-
placements, that is to say to changes in stress due to applied forces. This is
further confirmed by the use he makes of Green’s transformation. If we inte- ~
grate by parts we should simply get

ee nO? OF
ny = TN LE ne era du dy dz
Ox oY 0z
aff {eur TOC ERB ie Lica a SIS 3. t as
Ou p Oy’ Q' § ou’ cane Wl de du dz
VG les Say ahaa (ell dy ie t ¥y

and this last term only reduces to the form given by Kirchhoff providing that the

: saN ie du’ ov’ ow oy’ ‘
Stramse jf ....c are the derivatives —_— —— -. (— + — ) of the dis-
ou oY “\ oy Ox
placements and the stresses P’..... are the rates of change of the energy

_ function W' with respect to these strains. This is not true of primary stresses

and strains but only of changes in stress and strain due to applied forces.
* Love gives them in his Theory of Elasticity, Art. 66 (0), vol. 1 as follows:

ae, agit = EG 9, ve ab ora = ab ae Ger

oy? oa? dandy ~ dydz 0a? dxdy 020% |

oF 0? 07a 0? 02b 0c 02a

a ts a fe OYOz : a m oy? igi OYOZ be daoy ne
0g Cie et 070 029 ROG oa r 0b

On 02% .- 0z0% dxdy dz? dada dydz J

and these relations the changes in strain accompanying any elastic distorsion
must conform to.

290 Oilley—Fundamental Propositions, ete.

the two points, for the flows or slips along these paths will in
general have been different.. Moreover, often if not generally,
it would be very difficult to determine these flows or slips.

Asa last consideration let us note that, while the cireum-
stances that produce a condition of primary stress and strain
frequently involve changes in the physical constitution of a
body, such as a change from isotropy to zolotropy, the intro-
duction of magnetism, polymorphism, and even chemical modi-
fications, these are incidental and not necessary accompani-
ments of the existence of primary stress and strain.

We may conelude by stating that

Primary stresses are limited and limited only (capacity for
physical resistance apart) to such as will satisfy the general
differential and surface equations of equilibrium for the case
of no surface tractions and bodily forces ;

Primary strains are limited and limited only by the equa- 7
tions resulting from these through the application to them of
the stress-strain relations which are true for the material and
body under consideration ; |

Primary stresses and strains are not determinate purely by
mathematics ;

True or actual stresses and strains (of which primary stresses
and strains are a component) are limited but limited only and
are not and can not be defined through the equations of the
theory of elasticity alone.

J. Dewar— Boiling Point of Liquid Llydrogen. 291

Art. XXIII.—The Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen, deter-
mined by Hydrogen and Helium Gas Thermometers ;* by

James Dewar, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry at the
Royal Institution.

[Read before the Royal Society of London, February 7, 1901.]

In a former papert it was shown that a platinum-resistance
thermometer gave for the boiling point of hydrogen —238°-4
C., or 34°°6 absolute. As this value depended onan empirical
law correlating temperature and resistance which might break
down at such an exceptional temperature, and was in any case
deduced by a large extrapolation, it became necessary to have
recourse to the gas thermometer. |

In the present investigation the advantage claimed for the
constant-pressure gas thermometer over the constant-volume
thermometer is absent. The effect of high temperature com-
bined with large increase of pressure does not occur in these
experiments, where only very low temperatures and a maxi-
mum range of presssure of less than one atmosphere were
encountered. At the same time, before dispensing with the
effect of pressure upon the capacity of the reservoir of the
thermometer, it was carefully estimated and found that it could
not affect the volume of the reservoir by as much as 1/60,000th
part. This being determined a particular advantage results
from the use of the constant-volume form, because in its case
it is unnecessary to know the actual volume of the reservoir,
and of the “outside” space. It is only necessary to know the
ratio of these two volumes, and as this ratio appears only in the
small terms of the calculation it is not a serious factor in the
estimation of such low temperatures.

Two constant-volume thermometers (called No. and No.
IL) were employed, in each of which the volume of the reservoir
was about 40 ¢.c¢., and the ratio of the outside space to the
volume of the reservoir was 1/50 and 1/115 respectively. A
figure of the apparatus is shown in fig. 1 (p. 293), where A is the
thermometric bulb covered with a vacuum vessel to hold. the
liquid hydrogen, and be exhausted when necessary; B is the
manometric arrangement for adjusting the mercury at C to
constant volume, and D is the barometer. The readings were
made on a fixed scale by means of a telescope with cross wires
and lever attached. A similar telescope was permanently fixed
on the mark to which the volume had to be adjusted. It was
found convenient to use both telescopes on the same massive

* From an advance proof sent by the author

+On the Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen under Reduced Pressure, Roy.
Soe. Proc., 1898.

fit Abies yi aie
Sets auf im

04 mori Mf = ‘y = < | = ‘- Ma a ¥
coisa Ns tee ae ass is ee

. he Wf is
~*~
>

Ret oe

Nee

>> = mit - * .
4 ses > ; oS;
- Mand = chy Tk

202) St Dewar—Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen.

stand and to read the barometer placed alongside simultan-
eously. |

The formula of reduction used was that given by Chappuis
in the Travaux et Mémoires du Bureau International des
Poids et Mesures, vol. vi, p. 53, namely,

v V(1+8T) + Bh v |
(a )
(V.+ —_) Hh ( l+al' ne 1 = (Hof e)

where V, is volume of reservoir at 0° C.
T, temperature of reservoir, measured from 0° C.
v, volume of “outside” space at the temperature of the
room. |
t, temperature of the room.
a, coefficient of expansion of the thermometric gas.
8, coefficient of alteration of volume of reservoir, due to
change of pressure.
6, coefficient of expansion of substance of reservoir.
H,, initial pressure (in these experiments always reduced to
Oo
©).

H,+ 4, pressure at temperature T, after all corrections have
been made.

On putting 8 =0 as already explained, equation (1), by
algebraic transformation and without any approximation, was
altered into the form.

2734 + 2273

W here f=, 7348-27.’ (say) = T,@ (2)
Sant Gere
aR, =8P vd

(2)
Vi(i+aty
The gases used as thermometric substances were hydrogen,
oxygen, helium, and carbonic acid. The values of a adopted
in equation (3) were taken from Chappuis’ memoir, and were
0:00366254 for the first three and 0-00371634 for carbonic
acid. The reciprocals of these coefficients are 273-035 and
269°083. The number “273” which appears in @ is so nearly
equal to the reciprocal of the former value for a that it was
allowed to remain for the first three gases ; but in dealing with
carbonic acid it was replaced by 269-083. |
In these experiments T, is always negative, and numerically
less than 278, so that the value of @ is always greater than
unity; nevertheless it differs from it but slightly, its value
being unity when T, = —273° C., and rising to 1:02 when
T, = 0° C. in the case of thermometer No. 1, where x = 1/50.
It may be noted that when 6 is neglected, T, is the usual value

in which P, and P replace H, and H,+/4 and «=

293:

EXHAUST

J. Dewar—Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen.

294 J. Dewar—Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen.

given by Boyle’s law; there is a convenience, therefore, in this
form of Chappuis’ formula for approximation, because T, can
quickly be caleulated, and the correcting factor @ can be

applied later if desired.
In the first experiment (No. 1 of subjoined Table I) ther-
mometer No. 1 was filled with electrolytic hydrogen. The
initial pressure, (the pressure at 0° OC.) was almost three-eighths
of an atmosphere, and was taken low in order to obviate any
complication from condensation on the walls of the reservoir.
Two other possible causes might abnormally reduce the pres-
sure at very low temperatures; these were polymerisation and
the presence as impurity of small quantities of gases liquefying
above the boiling point of hydrogen. The measurement of the
density of the gas at its boiling point showed that there was
no polymerisation, and further proof of this was evident in the
constancy of the value of the boiling point when different
initial pressures were taken. To guard against the presence of
gases with a higher boiling point than hydrogen, the electroly-
tic hydrogen was allowed to pass continuously for eighteen
hours through the thermometric bulb before it was sealed off.
It was further calculated that an impurity of oxygen necessary
to reduce the boiling point of hydrogen by a degree would
amount to 3 per cent, a quantity too large to escape detection.
This experiment gave the boiling point of oxygen as — 182°-2,
and that of hydrogen as —253°: 0.
In the second experiment (No. 2) a new thermometer, No. it

was constructed with a much smaller value of w, and asa fur-
ther protection against the presence of impurities, palladium-
hydrogen was employed as the source of the gas. A rod of
palladium, weighing about 120 grams, kindly placed at my
disposal by Mr. George Matthey, F.R.S., was charged with
hydrogen in the manner described in my paper “On the
Absorption of Hydrogen by Palladium at High Temperatures
and Pressures,”* and subsequently used as the source of supply
to fill the thermometer. The initial | pressure was slightly less
than that in the first experiment; the corresponding results
were —182°°67 and —253°:37.+

The new thermometer was filled afresh (No. 4) with palla-
dium-hydrogen at an initial pressure rather less than one
atmosphere, and gave for the boiling point of hydrogen the
temperature —252°°8. This result is a confirmation of the
absence of polymerisation.

The next step was to compare these results with the results
of similar experiments made upon another gas whose boiling
paint fell within the range of easily determined temperatures ;

* Proc. Chem. Soc., 1897.
+ This thermometer gave 99°-7 for the boiling point of water.

i,
i.

J. Dewar— Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen. 295

and as a further precaution the gas used in the thermometer
was the vapor rising from the liquefied gas whose boiling
point was to be determined. The gas first selected was oxygen
(No. 5), and as an additional condition to be noted, the initial
pressure was made slightly more than an atmosphere, so that it
would be in a Van der Waal’s “ corresponding” state with the
hydrogen in the first two experiments, namely, the initial pres-
‘sure in each case was about 1/50 of the critical pressure. The
critical pressure of oxygen was taken about 51 atmospheres,

and that of the hydrogen about 18 atmospheres. There are

good reasons for believing that the critical pressure of hydro-

gen is more likely to be about 11 or 12 atmospheres. In the

event of the lower value being eventually found the more cor-
rect, the effect as between the oxygen thermometer and the
hydrogen thermometer will be to make the boiling point of
hydrogen a little too high. The result obtained from this

experiment was to place the boiling point of oxygen at

—182°-29, thus corroborating in a satisfactory manner the
reliability of the method of determining the boiling point of
hydrogen.

The question still remained, how far is a gas thermometer
to be trusted at temperatures in the neighborhood of the boil-
ing point of the gas with which it is filled? To answer this

question the oxygen thermometer was used to determine the
boiling point of liquid air (No. 7) in which a gold-resistance

thermometer was simultaneously immersed. The gold ther-
mometer had been previously tested and found to give correct
indications of temperature down to temperatures not only well
below the point in question, but lower than those obtainable
by any other metal thermometer. In the result the oxygen
thermometer gave —189°°61, and the gold thermometer
—189°-68, as the temperature of that particular sample of air
boiling at atmospheric pressure.

For another method of comparison this oxygen thermometer
was practically discharged (No. 8) until its initial pregsure was
nearly the same as that in the first hydrogen thermometers.
In this state it gave the boiling point of oxygen as —182°°95,
establishing again the reliability of the method.

'As an extreme test of the method, I charged. the thermom- -

eter No. II with carbonic acid (No. 11) at an initial pressure

again a little less than one atmosphere, and used it to deter-
mine the boiling point of dry CO,; the result was —78°:22,
which is the correct value.

Hence it appears that either.a simple or a compound gas at

an initial pressure somewhat less than one atmosphere may be

relied on to determine temperatures down to its own boiling

‘s 4 _ point.

296 =JS. Dewar— Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen.

Another thermometric substance at our disposal as suitable
for determining the boiling point of hydrogen, as hydrogen
had been in determining that of oxygen, is helium. The early
experiments of Olszewski and my own later ones showed that.
pure helium is less condensible than hydrogen, and that the
production of liquid or solid products by cooling Bath helium
to the temperatures of boiling and solid hydrogen was only
partial, and resulted from the presence of other gases undefined
at the time the first experiments were made. The mode of
separating the helium from the gases given off by the King’s
Well at Bath is fully described in my paper on “The Lique-
faction of Air and the Detection of Impurities.”*

If the neon, present as impurity in the Bath helium which
was used, should reach its saturation pressure about the boiling
point of hydrogen the values given by this thermometer of the
boiling point of hydrogen would be too low. In order to avoid
this, the crude helium extracted from the Bath gas was passed
through a U-tube cooled by liquid hydrogen to condense out
the known impurities, oxygen, nitrogen and argon. In my
paper “On the Application of Liquid Hydrogen to the produc-
tion of High Vacua,” + it was shown that at the temperature of
boiling hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and argon have no meas-
ureable tension of vapor, and that the only known gases
uncondensed in air after such cooling were hydrogen, helium,
and neon. This same neon material occurs in the gas derived
from the Bath wells. A sample of helium prepared as above
described, which had been passed over red-hot oxide of copper
to remove any hydrogen, was found by Lord Rayleigh to.
have a refractivity of 0-132. The refractivity of Ramsay’s
pure helium being 0°1238, and that of neon 0°2345, it results
that my helium contained some 7-4 per cent of neon, accord-
ing to the refractivity measurements. This would make the
partial tension of the neon in the helium thermometer cooled
in the liquid hydrogen to be about 4 mm., and this being taken
as the saturation pressure the boiling point of neon is about
34° absolute. The initial pressure (No. 9) was taken rather
less than an atmosphere, and the temperature of the boiling
point of hydrogen was given by this thermometer as — 252°°68.
A further observation was taken on another occasion with the
same thermometer, and the value was —252°°84. The fact
that the boiling point of hydrogen, as determined by the
helium thermometer, is in substantial agreement with the
results obtained by the use of hydrogen itself is a conclusive:
proof that no partial condensation of the neon bad occurred. |

* Chem. Soe. Proc., 1897. + Roy. Soc. Proc., 1898.

i we sia: ae

J. Dewar—Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen. 297

Of the remaining experiments in Table I, (No. 3) was made
in order to show the effect of a very small initial pressure, one.
sixth of an atmosphere. The results were unsatisfactory,
owing to the sticking of the mercury giving uncertain readings.
In this case an error in the reading of a low pressure has six
times as great an effect as if the initial pressure had been about
an atmosphere. If the temperature deduced for the boiling
point of oxygen is corrected, and the same factor of correction
applied to the observed liquid hydrogen boiling point, then it
becomes—251°°4.

It is of particular moment to have some estimate of how far
errors in the observed quantities employed in Chappuis’ formula
affect the final value of T.

In the case of an error in ¢, on differentiating equation (2)
we get |

—2(273+T,)
*(273 +¢—aT,)’ e (4)

ioe /oy, 7 — is°, T, = — 180°; then dT = 0-00339 dz, or
it would need an alteration of 23° inZto alter T by 1/100th of a

éT=T

degree at the boiling point of oxygen. In the same circum-

stances when T, = — 250, dT = 0:00136 dt, so that an altera-
tion of between 7° and 8° in the value of ¢ would only affect
the boiling point of hydrogen by 1/100th of a degree.

From equation (4) the error in T varies with x very nearly.
This for the second thermometer where # = 1/115, a variation
of ¢ to the extent of 6°, would only affect the boiling point of
oxygen by 1/100th of adegree ; and it would require an altera-
tion of 17° in ¢ to affect the boiling point of hydrogen to the
Same extent.

In Table I the values of ¢ enclosed in brackets are assumed
values ; this investigation shows that no serious error is involved
in these assumptions.

In the ease of an error in P,, a similar process gives

ay (a—8)P 273 +t

ee (GE aey | es ere,
If #=1/50, ¢=13°. P,=760mm.; T,=—180°; dT =0:3563
dP, so that an error of 1 mm. in P would only alter the boil-
ing point of oxygen by a third of a degree. In the same cir-
cumstances at — 250°, dT = 0°3516 dP, which is practically
the same result at the boiling point of hydrogen as at that of
oxygen.

For the second thermometer these two equations become

At — 180°, dT = 0°3575 dP.
At — 250°, dT = 0°3548 dP.

dP (5)

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J. Dewar— Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen. 299

In each of the last four results if [pes < 760™™ the formule
1
become respectively

a’ = nX 0°3563 dP, and dT = nX0°3516 dP,
dT = nX0°3575 dP, and dT = nx 0°3548 dP;

in other words, any error in reading P is magnified in its
effect on T, directly in proportion as P, is diminished. This
affords some explanation of the weakness of the results in
Experiment (No. 3).
In like manner, from an error in P,, we get
P dT
(60) 2. oP
here ang 1/50, 2= 13°, P, = 760. mm.,. T, = —180°;
adY = — 01188 dP,, or an error of 1 mm. in. P, would only
alter the boiling point of oxygen by a ninth of a degree; but
with the same data at — 250°, dT = —0-0264dP,,, so that the boil-
ing point of hydrogen would only be altered by a tenth of a
degree for a change of 4 mm. on an initial pressure of about
one atmosphere.

ap, (6)

. : 1 ; ie he
In this case also if ar x 760" we get similar results to
those in the case of P, namely,

For «= 1/50, dT=—nX0°1188 dP, and dT = —nX 00264 dP...
Por,2@=1/115, dT = —nX 01192 dP, and dT = —n x 0°0266 dP.

The general results of an error in either P, or P is, that the
more reliable experiments are those in which the initial pres-
sure is as high as possible. Hence Nos. 4, 9,10 are in this
respect the most reliable for hydrogen. Also it is of much
more importance that P should be accurate than that P, should
be so; in fact, for hydrogen an error in P has 14 times as
much effect as the same error in P.,.

We can verify these results from Table I. In Experiment
(No. 2), where P, = 4+ x 760 nearly, we have two readings—
one at the boiling point, the other in solid hydrogen, namely,
19°7 mm. and 14:4 mm., whose difference is 5:3 mm. This
corresponds to d@T=3 X 0°3516 (— 5:3) degrees, or 5°:59.
The calculated temperatures for these pressures are — 2538°°37
and — 258°°66, whose difference is 5°°29, a satisfactory agree-
ment. ;

If we compare Experiments Nos. 4 and 9, in both of which
the same value of a is used, we can pass from the former to.
the latter by the formula

300) A. Dewar—Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen.

dT =—0°0266 dP, +0°3548 dP,

in which @P, = — 11 mm. and dP, = — 05 mm. whence dT =
‘0°"152 ; the observed result is — 259°: 683 + 252°°806 or 0°°128,
which is also satisfactory and explains how so great a drop as
11 mm. in P, has, nevertheless, so slight an affect on the result.

An alteration in the value 6 x has but little relative affect
-on the results. As before we have

(273 +0)(273+T,)

OO Cet a ot
ie 1/50; 7 — is aen 3
At T,=—180°, dT=—57'085 da,
At It = —-250°, dT=—19°4205 da,

and for the second siesactees (2 = 1/115) in like cirecum-
‘stances,

AT=—57'895 dz.
and dV=—19°802 dx.

For instance, if # were altered from 1/50 to 1/80 the result
would be to raise the boiling point of oxygen by 0°-43 and that
-of hydrogen by 0°15.

Finally, the alteration of a for any particular gas being in
any case small affects the value of T practically only in its
main factor T,. To hundredths of a degree, therefore, the
change in T is inversely proportional to the change i in a, or, in
other words, is directly proportional to the corresponding
absolute zero.

For instance, in Experiment (No. 11) had we used the same
value of a as for hydrogen the boiling point of dry CO, would
have been — 79°35.

The following table shows what alterations would be required
for each of the thermometers, 1 in the values of ¢, P, P,, and x
‘to alter the boiling point of oxygen or that of hydrogen by
1/10 or 1/100 of a degree. The table is calculated for 7=13°;
and in the cases of P and P, the initial pressure is taken to be
about 1/nth of an atmosphere.

Thus, for example, if the initial pressure in either thermom-
eter were about half an atmosphere an error of 1/7 mm. in
reading P would alter T by a tenth of a degree.

If we take the average values given by these expentnena as
being the most probable, then the boiling point of oxygen is
— 182°°5 and that of hydrogen is — 252°°5. ‘The temperature
found for the boiling point of oxygen agrees with the mean
results of Wroblewski, Olszewski, and others. If the boiling
point of oxygen is made — [82% ‘which is the highest value it

at B.P. of H

J. Dewar—Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen. 301

TABLE II.
Thermometer Thermometer Alteration
Nos: No. 2. OFT,
if at B.P. of O 94° 6° 1°
at B.P. of H pees ps 100
C:280 Ore
at B.P. of O peasy 3
Pe P of 0°285 0°282 10
ie : er
0°842 0°839
at B.P. of O g °
P n n =
peep ofr | Bue ty
res n n
1 at B.P. of O | 0°88 per cent. | 2°00 per cent. 13
De ee 5°81 ce 100

can have then an equal addition to the hydrogen value must
follow, making it then — 252° or 21° absolute. In a future
communication the temperature of solid hydrogen will be dis-
cussed.

I am indebted to Mr. J. D. H. Dickson, M.A., of St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge, for help in the theoretical discus-
sion of the results, and to Mr. Robert Lennox, F.C.S., for able
assistance in the conduct of the experiments.

_ Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Surizs, Vou. XI, No. 64.—ApRIL, 1901.

302 E. W. Scripture—Nature of Vowels.

Art. XXIV.—On the Nature of. Vowels; by EH. W.
ScRIPTURE, Yale University.

' THE speech curves, which are discussed in this paper, were
traced off with great accuracy from several gramophene plates
by a specially constructed apparatus. The method is essen-
tially as follows: The rubber gramophone plate is slowly
rotated (once in 5 hours) in such a way that the curve travels
under a fine steel point. The point is thus deflected sidewise
according to the vibrations in the speech curve; its movement
is magnified by a system of levers and is recorded on a surface
of smoked paper. An earlier form of this apparatus has
already been described* ; the present form will be described
later. ae
The curves, shown in fig. 1, are from a plate containing the
nursery rhyme of Cock Robin, spoken by an American. The

equation beneath the figure indicates the relation between

length and time. ,

~ The curve for / shows a series of vibrations in which each
group resembles the neighboring one while there is a gradual
change in character from a typical form for the @ in the first
part, to a typical form for the 2 in the second part, of the
diphthong az of which the pronoun J is composed. In the
first portion there appears a succession of strong vibrations
each followed by a series of weaker ones. These strong vibra-
tions recur at periods of steadily decreasing length.

If we consider separately each group of vibrations begin-
ning with a strong one, we find that it is, aside from minor
details, the typical curve of a vibration initiated by a blow and
dying away by friction, for which the equation is

: CRIS
Y= Oe Seem pi?
where y is the elongation at the moment’t, a the amplitude, e
the basis of the natural series of logarithms, & a factor repre-
senting friction and Z’ the periodic time.

The succeeding groups of vibrations following the first
group are of the same form but of steadily increasing ampli-
tude. They recur at steadily decreasing intervals. The
formula for each group is approximately the same except for
the difference in amplitude. The vibrations are evidently
aroused by a series of blows of steadily increasing strength at
steadily decreasing intervals.

* Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, vol. vii.

ee a

304 EL W. Scripture—Nature of Vowels.

It seems clear that these vibrations represent the free vibra-

tions of the air in the mouth cavity aroused by a series of

sudden blows and that these sudden blows are due to explo-
sive openings of the vocal cords. In spite of this fact it seems
permissible to use the term “resonance vibrations” to include

these free vibrations of a cavity aroused by a blow as well as

the vibrations of a cavity impressed upon it by a source of
continuous vibration.

The tone from the cords results from the succession of

strong vibrations that mark off groups. The period of the
tone from the vocal cords is represented by the distance from
the strong vibration at the beginning of each group to the
strong one at the beginning of the following group. :

The complexities of the small vibrations indicate the pres-
ence of several partial tones. These complexities change
steadily from the beginning of the vowel onward as the pitch
rises in a way to indicate the presence of at least the following
partials: 1, the fundamental cord tone consisting of a series of
explosions rising from a period of 0-017 (59, frequency) to.
one of 0°0052s (192, frequency); 2, a constant resonance tone
of 0-0034° period (294, frequency); 38, a constant resonance
tone of 0:0013* period (769, frequency) and 4, higher resonance
tones undergoing change.

The combined rise in pitch and in amplitude seen in the @is
found in all cases of Z that have been examined.

The minor complexities in the vibrations disappear at about
one-third of the distance from the left on the second line in

the figure. At the same time the amplitude is strongly:
increased. Shortly afterward: the amplitude decreases and

finally reaches zero. Throughout the whole latter half the
curve has an entirely different character from that of the first
half; we are probably quite safe in considering it the curve of
2 in the diphthong az. Throughout the ¢ the groups consist
of two vibrations, one slightly stronger than the other. The
period fora gronp 0:00528 (192, frequency) remains constant till
near the end, where it lengthens to about 0-01228 (82, frequency).
The resonance vibration forming half of each group remains
constant at 0:0026* (3884, frequency) through nearly all of the
a. Toward the close it still apparently remains at the same
period, producing phenomena of interference as the group
period is lengthened. The maintenance of pitch till near the

end, in spite of the fall in amplitude, occurs in all the cases of ©

{that have been examined.

From the curve for 7 it seems justifiable to conclude that the
voca! cords emit explosions instead of sinusoid puffs of air
here as well as in the a. The explosion produces a strong free
vibration in the mouth cavity which is followed by another

it aaa accep apis

EW. Seripture—Nature of Vowels. 305

of diminished amplitude. This would be followed by a third
of still less amplitude, just as in a, but a new explosion from
the cords occurs at just that moment. The coincidence of
double the period of the resonance tone with the period of the
cord explosions explains the rapid rise in amplitude when the
cord tone rises sufliciently to produce the coincidence.

The maximum is followed by a relaxation in the force of
breath, but the two tones maintain the same relation for a con-
siderable time. As the sound finally dies away, the cords also
relax, both breath and pitch falling together.

In my the m vibrations are too faint for accurate measure-
ment. The @ resembles somewhat but not closely the a of J.
The period of the cord explosions remains constant at 0-0074°
(135, frequency) instead of decreasing. The lower resonance
tone has a period in the neighborhood of 0-00225 (455, fre-
quency); it apparently undergoes a slow change from the
beginning of the @ to the z.

The last third of the curve somewhat resembles the 7 por-
tion of 7. There is, however, only a faint rise in amplitude,
and the 2 portion is very brief. The vibrations in this portion
are in groups of three; the groups have a period of 0-:0074°
(135, frequency) constant to the end. The vibrations within
the group have a period one-third that of the group itself,
indicating a constant resonance tone of 0:0025 (400, frequency).

In the @ of parson the cord tone rises from a period of
0-00908 (111, frequency) to one of 0:00725 (139, frequency) and
falls again to the pitch from which it started. There are indi-
cations of a constant resonance tone of 0°00225 (455, frequency)
and of higher tones with changing periods. In respect to
the pitch of the lowest resonance tone there is more agree-
ment of this @ with that of my, yet the form of the curve
resembles that of a in / more closely than that in my. The
peculiarity of my seems to lie chiefly in the suddenness with
which the vibrations within a group fall in amplitude after
the initial strong vibration. In both parson and J the a-vibra-
tions die away less quickly. Such differences may perhaps find
their explanation either in the greater friction in the free
vibratory movement in the mouth (less rigidity of the walls ?)
or in the sharper character of the cord explosions in the case
of my.

The eurve for @ in saw him indicates a quite different vocal
action from that present in a. Instead of a strong initial
vibration followed by decreasing ones the earlier portion of
the vowel shows groups that contain at least two strong vibra-
tions. It is presumably the case that the cord explosions are
of a more gradual character or else that .the action of friction
is much, less. Even later in the vowel where there is appar-

306 £. W. Scripture—Nature of Vowels.

ently only one very strong vibration in a group, this probably
occurs because the lower portion of the second one is cut off
by interference with another partial tone. In amplitude the
vowel slowly increases and then decreases.

The cord tone starting with a period of 0:00725 (189, fre-
quency) remains at this pitch for a time and then falls to

00080 in period (125, frequency.) A lower resonance tone

with a period of 0-0026% (385, frequency) is apparently present.

The last part of the line shows the vibrations for 2, resem-
bling those for 2 in az of J and my. ‘There is no / in the
spoken sounds or in the record. The m is just begun where
the record is cut off. The grouping in the @ is in threes. The

cord tone of 2 starts with a period of 0-0083* (121, frequency)

and steadily rises to one of 0-00725 (189, frequency) in the m.
The lower resonance tone has a period of about 0°00255 (400,
frequency).

The curve for the @ of caught exhibits.a decided difference |

from that for the @ of saw, although both vowels are generally
supposed to be the same. The @ of caught shows a quick and
strong increase in amplitude followed by a rather sudden
decrease. Its pitch is approximately constant. The initial
strong vibration of a group is followed by very much weaker
vibrations; the vocal action resembles that in @ rather than in
the @ of saw. Yet in the last few groups there is a marked
change to a form indicating a condition between that of @ in
saw and that of 2.

The cord tone rises from a period of 000745 (135, frequency)
to one of 0°0064* (156, frequency) but falls again in the last
few periods. The lower resonance tone seems to have a period
of about 0:0024* (417, frequency)... Other tones of higher
pitch are present.

In the e in said the vocal action is seen to differ essentially
from that in @ or @ and to resemble somewhat closely that of 2.
There is much less indication of the explosive character of the
cords. There are three resonance vibrations to each group.
The pitch of the cord tone is nearly constant at 0:0072° period
(139, frequency); the lower resonance tone has a period of
0:0024§ (417, frequency). There are minor fluctuations in the
curve that indicate higher resonance tones. The amplitude
increases steadily until the vowel is ended rather abruptly by
the change to d.

The preceding account gives in general the pitch of only the
lowest resonance tone in each vowel. A determination for the
higher tones would require more elaborate methods. It is
probable that the higher tones are quite as important for the
vowel characters as the lowest ones. The disagreement in the
accounts of various investigators in regard to the tones found

nen eine te

ae

Ly. W. Scripture—Nature of Vowels. 307

in the vowels arises partly from finding different resonance
tones.

The curves in fig. 1 furnish data concerning the physical
characteristics of vowels that seem to justify the following
conclusions :

1. The movement of the air in the mouth cavity is a free
vibration and not a forced one. ‘This is the theory first stated
by Willis in 1830.* It was criticised by Wheatstone,+ whose
overtone theory developed by Helmholtzt has been almost
universally accepted. This latter theory asserts that the mouth
cavity acts as a resonator reinforcing one of the overtones of
the vocal cords. The mouth tone must adjust itself constantly .
to one of the harmonics of the cord tone. The careful meas-
urements of Hermann§ show clearly that the mouth tone

“remains constant for the same vowel sung on different notes.

Hermann’s curves were obtained with great care; they give
results for sung vowels that are consistent only with the earlier
theory. The curves of spoken vowels given in fig. 1 show
that the mouth tone is constant even while the cord tone is
steadily changing. It follows from these facts that the period
of the mouth tone is independent of the period of the cord
tone and that there is no necessary relation between the adjust-
ment of the size of the mouth cavity and the tension of the
vocal cords. If the period of the mouth vibration is inde-
pendent, it must be the period of the free or natural vibration.

2. The cord movements in the vowels are of the nature of
explosive openings and not of the uszal vibratory form found
in most musical instrnments. According to Hermann, it is an
essential of the vowel character that the cords should emit a
series of puffs separated by intervals of silence. Such a series
would be similar to that emitted by a siren with a series of
holes passing before an air jet. This series of puffs is very
evident in the first part of the Z in fig. 1; there is no sug-
gestion of a vibratory movement of the cords. This peculiarity
has led to the queer statement that talking machines are deaf
to the cord tones. The failure of vowel machines, like that of
Helmholtz, to produce perfect vowels by adding simple tones
together, and of harmonic curve tracers, like that of Preece and
Stroh, to produce more than distant resemblances to vowel
curves by compounding sine waves, is a natural one, if the cords
do not make vibratory movements.

This view is also supported by the following facts. A vibra-
tory body, whatever its natural period, when acted upon by a
force varying harmonically, must itself vibrate with the period

* Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc. + London and Westminster Review, 1837.
t Lehre v. d. Tonempfindungen. 2 ne ”
§ Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., vols. xlv, xlvii, xlviii, liii, lvili, 1x1.

308 E. W. Scripture—Nature of Vowels.

of the impressed force. If the variations of the acting force
are of the nature of a sum of harmonics, the period impressed —
will be that of one of them. If the cords acted like most
musical instruments, their vibrations could be properly treated
as the sum of a series of harmonics and the mouth tone would
necessarily be one of them. “The forced vibrations of the
mouth cavity can include only harmonie partials of the larynx
note. * .

It has been shown above that the mouth tone is inharmonie
to the cord tone and that it is a free vibration. It follows that
the cord vibrations are not of the nature of the sum of a
series of harmonics. Hermann draws the conclusion that the
vibrations of the cords must be of an explosive nature, to
which a harmonic analysis is not applicable. To this it has
been answered that when the mouth tone is high in relation to’
the cord tone, the treatment by analysis into a series of har-
monics may not be applicable and that this may not disturb
the usual views of resonance, but that, when the natural period
of the mouth cavity is not distant from the cord period, the
cavity must vibrate: with a period that is harmonic to the cord
period.+ Rayleigh apparently does not regard the deductions:
of Hermann as conclusive. The issue seems clearly presented
in the curves of the nature of those in fig. 1. In the first part
of the vowel a in J the cord tone rises steadily till it is only
about a duodecime below the mouth tone, and yet the mouth
tone remains constant with no attempt at becoming one of the
harmonics of the cord tone. Continuing along the curve, we
find that beyond the middle the period of the mouth vibration
is somewhat lengthened while that of the cord vibration con-
tinues to become shorter. In the latter third of the curve the
vibrations are clearly in groups of twos, alternate ones being
stronger. As the change from the @ portion to the 2 portion
is continuous without anything like a break that might indicate
a sudden readjustment of the cords, each pair of waves in the
z, portion must belong to one cord vibration and each single
wave must represent a mouth vibration. The mouth period is
slightly less than half the cord period. Thus even when the
two tones used in forming the vowel 7 are nearly in the relation
of a simple musical interval, there is no accommodation of one
to the other. Itis to be noticed that the first vibration of
each pair in the 2 is stronger than the second, just as in the @
portion the first vibration is stronger than the following ones.
It is worthy of remark that the relative strengths are not the
same in the two cases and that the character of the explosion
from the cords must differ to some extent in the two halves of
av. Similar conditions are found in the other vowels.

* Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, § 397. + Rayleigh, § 397.

Ly. W. Scripture—Nature of Vowels. 309

Such relations between the cord vibrations and the mouth

_vibrations are incompatible with the theoretical requirements

on the supposition of the harmonic nature of the cord vibra-
tion. The conclusion seems quite justifiable that the cords
emit a series of pufis, or explosions of air, instead of vibrating
regularly back and forth. |

These conclusions are apparently inconsistent with the treat-
ment of the vocal apparatus as a reed pipe; various sugges-
tions for a modified treatment are gathered into the following
theory :

The vocal bands, including the vocal muscles (thyroary-
tenoid) and their ligamentous edges, vibrate by compression
and not by movement in the axial direction of the larynx.
Even acoustic strings set in action by a blast of air vibrate
transversely to the current of air ;* in the vocal bands this would
result in a compression movement. The vibration of the vocal
bands may be like that of a cushion struck by a billiard ball
and not like that of a membrane. The possibility of such a
eushion-action seems to have been first suggested by Ewald.t+
The suggestion is favored by the fact that the vocal bands are
not of a nature and shape to readily vibrate transversely. The
true shape is indicated in fig. 2; the usual diagrams in works
outside those specially pertaining to laryngology
give a quite erroneous idea of them. The vocal 2.
bands aa@ suggest a pair of cushions suitable for
compression, and nota pair of membranes. When
the bands are closed by the action of the carti-
lages, the air is retained behind them until the
pressure is great enough to force them open, the Q@j]\@
pressure being regulated by the tension of the
vocal muscles constituting the bands. When
they have been forced apart to emit the puff of
air, they close again and remain closed until the
pressure is again sufficient for opening them.

The curious relation between the rise of pitch of the cord tone
and the increase in the force of the puff, as shown in the first
part of the / curve in fig. 1, would naturally result from a grad-
ual tightening of the vocal muscles. In general, it may be
said, there will be a relation between period and amplitude in
a cord tone as long as the breathing pressure remains constant.

Such a theory would be in accord with the most carefully
determined experimental results and there seem to be no serl-
ous objections to it from what is known of the action of
vibrating bodies.

* Rayleigh, Phil. Mag., 1879, p. 161.
+ Heymann’s Handbuch d. Laryngologie u. Rhinologie, 180, Wien 1898

310 C. Barus— Behavior of the Phosphorus

Art. XXV.—Wote on the Behavior of the Phosphorus
Emanation in Spherical Condensers ; by C. BARus.

1. IN my earlier experiments* it was assumed that condi-
tions could be so chosen (swift air current, highly active
ionizer, etc.), as to make the decay of ionization within the
medium a negligible factor. Such an assumption is naturally
precarious, and the following experiments with spherical con-
densers were planned with particular reference to the term
ignored. In using this apparatus, moreover, no ions can
escape, which is the case, for instance, with plate condensers.t
The. results show, I think, that decay due to the mutual
destruction of the ions is not in evidence; that on the con-
trary, the enclosed air at a distance from the phosphorus grid

behaves either as though it contains a greater number of ions ©

than those which reach it from the source, or otherwise, as if
in strong fields the number of ions is not as large as Ohm’s
law requires.

2. The closed spherical condenser was installed with its

[a eee | | Ba
* Science, xi, 201, 1900; Phys. Review, x, p..257, 1900; This Journal, March,
1901. | Science, March, 1901.

“se

Emanation in Spherical Condensers. 311

- outer surface* permanently put to earth and its inner surface

(always very small) in contact with the needle of a charged
electrometer, the intervening space being air ionized by a
piece of phosphorus about as large as a split pea, suspended
at the center.

A series of K6nig’s resonators seemed very suitable for the
purpose, as they were at hand in a large range of diameters,
and fig. 1 shows the adjustment. A is the brass resonator,

- put to earth by the plug and wire £ & the curl of wire mak-

ing the inner face of the condenser, and holding the spherule
of phosphorus, P. C is an insulating glass tube about 30™
long, through which the electrical charge is conveyed along a
thin copper wire JL), to be dissipated in the condenser. B& is
thus in contact with the electrometer, and the capacity of the
latter, about 90°, is always largeas compared with the conden-
sers (less than 1°).

3. Leaving the results as a whole to be discussed elsewhere,
I will merely instance the following example chosen at ran-
dom from a large number. In order to estimate the variability
of the ionizing source (due to temperature, environment and
other conditions which I have not yet made out) condenser A6
was treated as a standard and observations made with it before
and after those for each of the other condensers. The obser-
vations for a single condenser consisted of 6 potential readings
(scale parts suffice) taken at intervals of one minute. From
these [ computed the constants in the last column, to be pre-
sently explained.

4. If, as in my preceding experiments, the motion of the ion
is supposedly independent of the potential difference, V, and of
the concentration (m particles per cub. cm.), or if the effect of
the potential gradient, V//?, is but a negligible contribution to
the number of ions which are absorbed by the (outer) surface

of the condenser distant from the emanating phosphorus, then

the accumulation in.an elementary spherical shell of radius
will be 47rk.d(r°n)/dr.dr, per second. Here k is what I have
ealled the absorption velocity ; kn denotes the number of ions
absorbed per square em. per second. The decay within the
element is per second, h’n747r°dr, if k’ be the number vanish-
ing per second per cub. em., when n=1. Hence d(7*n)/dr =
(k'/k)n?r; or if n, be the number of ions at a distance 1

from the center, 7((k'/k)n(1—7)+7r)=n,/n. If decay be

ignored, k’=0, and n,=mnr’, which as is otherwise clear, is
independent of £ also. 5

Now the electric conduction is dependent on the number of
ions which reach the external shell (7 = 2), or — dQ/dt= —
Od V/di= 47 I? U.V/R.ne, where @ denotes the charge, C the

*In the present instance left open around the stem. The closed condenser/is

_ liable to introduce hurtful conduction where the stem enters.

nian ceded

0. Barus—Behavior of the Phosphorus

312

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‘SyJOA OF =A ‘snuoydsoyd Aq poziuol winIpau ev [HLM JoSUpuOD [voLIoYyds Jo oovyeoT—'aTAV],

Limanation in Spherical Condensers. 313

capacity of the condenser, and where U is the mutual velocity
of the ions and ¢ the (average) charge of each. Since n=n,/7",
—d(log V)/dt=(4reU/C)(n,/R). Here the first term is

obtainable from the observations directly, 4reU/C= K isa

constant, , expresses the waning intensity of the ionizing
phosphoric source, and /? is the external radius of the conden-
ser selected. The equation therefore admits of being tested.
The integral value is V = V,e~(@7¢U™/CRi which in a
general way suggests the observations. In the above table
n,K is computed for each case. ,

5. I have also represented the quantity »,A graphically in
the chart, fig. 2, to show the outstanding dependence on the
radius / of the condenser, obtaining a curve which here as else-
where is sinuous in outline but ascends from low values of the
radii of the condensers. The situation is referable to the fluc-
tuation of the intensity of the phosphorus ionizer, and to una-
voidable conduction. To show this I have numbered the
points in the order of measurement: thus point 8, which is too
high, corresponds to arise in the standard from point 7 to point
9; point 4 being too low, toa fall from point 3 to 5; ete., remem-
bering that the standard affords a means of suggesting the
reason of the discrepancy, not of eliminating it. Waiving
further discussion, I will state my conclusion, that the quantity
n, increases from the values for small condensers rapidly to
constant values for larger condensers, attaining the latter when
the radius exceeds 4 cm. Since A =47eU//C contains no
variables, it follows that ,, the number of ions at 1 cm. from
the center is relatively greater for larger than for smaller con-
densers, though the limit is soon reached as stated. But as the
initial potential difference, V,, is the same throughout (40 volts),
the fields for the smaller condensers are greater. Hence without
stopping to reconstruct the above theory, the general inference
of §1 may be asserted. The experiments of the next para-
graph, however, in which larger condensers are used and strong
fields applied directly, showed me that in my smallest conden-
sers the current may be 20 or 30 per cent too small. This is
due to the easy access of air and the loss of ions around the
stem (fig. 1), which with small condensers is necessarily a much
more serious discrepancy than with large condensers. It fol-
lows that the initial parts of the curve, fig. 2, are considerably
too low. Indeed it seems to me a more probable inference,

that with an ideal adjustment and a constant ionizer this curve

would become appreciably horizontal and 7, constant through-
out, compatibly with Ohm’s law.

6. In addition to the above experiments with series of con-
densers, I completed a number of correlative tests by varying
the potential difference of the same condenser from 20 to 300

314 C. Barus—Behavior of the Phosphorus, ete.

volts. Three condensers (K2, A= 11:7; K4, R=6-5; K8,
R=3°5 em.) were treated in this way, admitting of electric
fields from 2 to 90 volts/em. The observations were made as
above in sextuplets, and from these both the current, ds/dt,
(arbitrarily in scale parts of the electrometer), and the constant,
n,K, were computed. The results however, owing to the
variability of the phosphorus (whether due to this method of
applying electric fields or to incidental causes, I do not know),
are complicated, particularly in the case of weak fields. It
will suffice therefore to give a graphic digest (fig. 3) of the
data for K8, the smallest condenser selected, as this admits of
the greatest variation of field. The curvature of the line
ds/dt, shows that Ohm’s law is not quite obeyed as the fields
grow stronger; i.e., the number of ions is not indefinitely
larget. Nevertheless the limit is as yet far off, showing that
but a small part of the ions convey current even in fields of 100
volt/em. It happens moreover, that the phosphorus for these
experiments showed weak ionizing power. Usually the ioniza-
tion was 50 per cent stronger and the curves more nearly
straight. In case of K2 (#=11.7 em.), the line ds/di,
observed up to 20 volt/em was quite straight, the condenser
being the largest, admitting of best adjustment.

Corresponding with the values of ds/dt, the curve n, shows
a downward slope and therefore a decreasing number of avail-
able ions (m,) as the fields increase in intensity from 20 to 100
volts percm. The value of m, computed from figure 2 (7,4
= 00120, whence n,=4 x 10* if 7 is about 1 cm/sec. and e
about 2 10-" coulombs) agrees very well with the value given
in Science (March, 1900, n,=8X10*) and obtained for plate
condensers under the same limitations. |

Brown University,
Providence, R. I.

* Science, xi, p. 4. 1900.

t+In §4 eis the average charge per particle. In reference to electrons a coeffi-
cient is thus implied; for all that I showed in my experiments with tubes is that
the number of ions conveying current is proportional to.the total number present.

SPR RCN aia oe nr ORs Fc
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Ey

Bell— Remarkable Concretions of Ottawa County, Kan. 315

Arr. XXVI.—The remarkable Concretions of Ottawa County,

Kansas; by W. T. BEtt.

SITUATED on the side of a low hiil, near Pawnee Gap,

about three miles from Minneapolis, in Ottawa County, Kansas,

is a group of curious rocks, that have excited the wonder of
the ignorant and the speculations of many who call them-
selves geologists.

Locally, this deposit, consisting of more than fifty detached
specimens, is known as “‘ Rock City”; and scattered masses of
the same formation may be seen at various places on the higher
land in the neighborhood, especially at the locality known as
The Cliff. |

As will be seen from the illustrations, these rocks are for

_the most part nearly spherical in shape, and some of them are

more than twelve feet in diameter.
They have been embedded in, and most of these specimens

still rest on, a coarse soft sandstone, of a light color, which

wearing away, has left these harder bodies exposed. In some
cases the supporting sandstone has been so nearly removed
as to allow the rocks to topple over ; while other pieces have
become fractured, and portions have fallen or slid from the
part that still retains its upright position. These fractures are
not on flat planes, but are conchoidal, and nearly all horizontal ;
the few that approach a vertical direction being zigzaged and
interrupted.

In the sandstone under some of these masses is a band or

_ layer five or six inches in thickness, of a dark reddish color,

316 Bell—Remarkable Ooncretions of Ottawa County, Kan.

resembling iron; and these saucer-like layers are separated
from the spheres above by an interval of several inches, as
shown in fig. 2, where a portion of the material that once filled
this space has been removed.

These titanic marbles have been weathered to a dull gray
color, and in their crevices several species of small ferns are
growing; probably Pedleas and Cheilanthes.

Where freshly broken, these rocks are almost white, have a
crystalline appearance, and by artificial light, when held in
certain positions, reflect a silvery luster. Treated with hydro-

chloric acid in a test tube, fragments effervesce freely, staining
the acid yellowish, and leaving only a few particles of what
seems to be silica.

One writer claims that these are glacial bowlders; but it
seems unnecessary to make use of any argument to refute this
view. A state geologist of Kansas has announced that they
are corals but adduces no proofs; possibly for the reason that
there are none. If he had visited The Cliff, and noted the
hemispherical cavity near its top, from which one of these
round masses had been dislodged, and had then,gone below,
and carefully examined the mass itself, and tested a portion of
it, he would have found that it was identical with the larger
pieces at Rock City ; and a more rigid search there would have
failed to show any coralline structure, but would have shown

that they are concretionary masses of crystalline limestone, —

most of them still in place. |
In Hitchcock’s Geology, an illustration and brief notice is
given of similar masses in shale, found near Muscatine, Lowa.
Franklin, Pa. r

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Chemistry and Physics. 317

SOCTENTIFIC INYERELETGENCE.

J. CHEMISTRY AND PHysICcSs.

1. Ammonium Bromide and the Atomic Weight of Nitrogen.
—A portion of the classical work of Stas upon atomic weights
has been repeated by ALEXANDER Scorr at the Davy Faraday
Research Laboratory of the Royal Institution in London. He
has worked chiefly upon the ratio between the weights of silver
and ammonium bromide. The materials used were prepared in
various ways with the greatest care, and it seems that the silver
and ammonium bromide used were even purer than the products
employed by Stas. The equivalent of ammonium bromide, com-
pared with silver as 107°93, from the average of a number of
closely agreeing results, was found to be 97°995, while Stas found
98°023. The difference, amounting to about one part in 3000, is
apparently most satisfactorily explained by supposing that Stas’s
ammonium bromide contained a little impurity, probably plati-
num. Scott has made also two determinations of the equivalent
of ammonium chloride, and in this case also the result, 53°516, is
slightly lower than that of Stas, 53:°532. When the molecular
weight of ammonium is calculated from Stas’s value for ammo-
nium bromide and ammonium chioride, the results, 18°077 and
18°075, agree extremely well, but from Scott’s results the numbers,

_ 18°059 and 18°040, show a much less satisfactory agreement.

This discrepancy possibly points to the presence of an impurity
in the silver used for the present investigation, but this supposi-
tion is not very probable because Scott’s ratio of silver to bromine,
as shown by the weight of silver bromide produced by a given
weight of silver, agrees exactly with that found by Stas. Further
work will be required to explain the matter.—Jour. Chem. Soe.,
Ixxix, 147. . H. L. W.

2. The Combustion of Gases.—The remarkable effect of small
quantities of propylene and other hydrocarbons in preventing the
explosion of detonating gas, which was observed by S. Tanrar,
was mentioned in a recent number of this Journal (this vol. p. 86).
The same author has now published some further observations
upon the subject. .

A mixture of 1500°° of detonating gas (2H,+0,) with 250°° of
propylene, C,H,, was placed in a gas-holder. Upon allowing the
mixture to excape, it burned quietly in the air with a luminous
flame. When it was passed through a tube which was heated to
redness at one spot, the gas was ignited at the hot place and the
resulting flame moved slowly toward the inlet end of the tube and
was extinguished at about 20™ from the point of ignition. This

was repeated again and again as unburnt gas arrived at the

heated spot, but the phenomenon varied more or less according to
the rate of flow of the gas and the length of the heated part of

Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourta Surizs, Vou. XI, No. 64,—Aprit, 1901.
21

¢

318 - Scientifie Intelligence.

the tube. The products escaping from the tube contained no car-
bon dioxide, but consisted chiefly of carbon monoxide and hydro-
gen, with a little propylene and oxygen. The original mixture
of gases could not be exploded by an electric spark, but combus-
tion gradually took place on continued sparking. When 28°
were thus treated until no further change in volume took place,
there remained 25'15°°. The original gas contained 4°° of propyl-
ene, but only enough oxygen to burn 2°7° to carbon monoxide
and water according to the equation, |

C,H, + 30, = 3CO + 3H,0,

from which it isto be observed that, since the water is condensed,
the contraction would correspond to the volume of the propylene
thus burnt. The calculated contraction 2°7° corresponds very
closely with that actually observed, 2°85°°, so that it is evident
that very little of the hydrogen in the mixture was oxidized.—
Zeitschr. physikal. Chem., xxxvi, 225. H. L. W.

3. A Peculiar Blue Color produced when Potassium and

Sodium Sulphocyanides are Heated.—It has been noticed by
W. B. Girzs that the sulphocyanides under consideration become
intensely blue when they are heated to low redness. Upon cool-
ing, the color disappears, and it may be repeatedly produced with
the same sample if care is taken not to decompose the substance
to too great an extent. If the salts contain much alkaline car-
bonate or hydroxide as impurity, the color does not make its
appearance. The author is unable to explain fully the cause of
the reaction, but believes that it is in some way connected with
the liberation of sulphur by the decomposition of the sulphocyanide.
He finds, however, that the addition of an excess of the sulphur
destroys the color.— Chem. News, |xxxiii, 61. H. L. W.

4. A Method of obtaining Crystals of difficultly Crystalliza-
ble Substances.—A. RUMPLER gives the following method of crys-
tallizing substances which are soluble in water, but insoluble in
alcohol: The substance is dissolved in water, alcohol is added
until a slight turbidity is produced, when the latter is removed
by filtration or the addition of a few drops of water. The clear
solution is then placed in a desiccator over quick-lime. Since the
lime absorbs water, but not alcohol, the liquid becomes stronger
in alcohol as evaporation goes on, instead of losing alcohol more
rapidly than water, as would be the case in evaporating in the air
or over sulphuric acid, this leads to the crystallization of the sub-
stance in case it is capable of forming crystals.— Berichte, xxxlii,
3474, Bi. Lye

5. The Elimination of Methane in the Atmosphere.—It is well
known that considerable quantities of methane, or marsh gas, are
continually passing into the atmosphere, particularly from the
fermentation in the absence of air of substances containing cellu-
lose. Since there is no considerable accumulation of this gas in
the air, it isevident that it must be removed therefrom in some
manner. V. Ursain has studied this matter and has found in the

=e

a leet

————

Chemistry and Physics. 319

first place that the gas is very slowly attacked by strongly ozon-
ized air, so that the theory of oxidation by atmospheric ozone is
very improbable. He has also examined the action of living
plants upon air containing small quantities of the gas. The
plants were hermetically sealed in glass vessels containing moist-
ened sand for the roots and about 1300° of air mixed with a
known volume of methane, which varied from 4; to A; of the
total volume. After exposures of from six to eleven days the
methane remaining in the air was determined by combustion. It
was found that from 20 to 82° of methane were absorbed by the
plants, quantities which usually represented much more than half
of theamounts taken. The author believes that he has demonstrated
that it is vegetation which prevents the accumulation of methane
in the atmosphere.— Comptes rendus, cxxxii, 334. H. L. W.

6. An Introduction to Modern Scientific Chemistry, by Dr.\
Lassar—Coun. Translated from the second German Kdition by
M. M. Patrison Muir. 12 mo., pp. vill, 348. New York, 1901.
(D. Van Nostrand Company.)—This book presents the subject in
the form of popular lectures suited for university extension stu-
dents and general readers. The difficult task of putting scientific
elementary chemistry into an interesting form has been very sat-
isfactorily accomplished, and the work will be useful, not only to
beginners in chemistry, but also to teachers who are studying the
methods of presenting the subject. A good feature is the intro-
duction of a simple treatment of organic chemistry which is
more comprehensive than is usual in works on elementary chemis- |
try, and even such subjects as the isomeric benzene derivatives,
the asymmetric carbon atom, and the alkaloids are briefly consid-
ered. The short discussion of agricultural chemistry is particu-
larly well done, and there are many other excellent features.
Where so much has been crowded into a small space, it is hardly
fair to notice omissions, but it seems that the modern theories of
solution should have received mention. Certain equations, how-
ever, that are given, for example,

K — OH + NO, — OH = NO, — OK + H,9,

make it seem probable that the author is not in sympathy with
the ionic hypothesis. Very few errors in regard to facts have
been noticed, but a mistake is made where it is stated that in gun
cotton, C,H,N,O,,, there is plenty of oxygen to burn the carbon
to carbon dioxide, and the hydrogen to water. The book is sup-
plied with 58 illustrations by the author. Some of these show a
little weakness in perspective, but they answer their purpose
admirably and bring out clearly the important points. .
Ey Ley We

7. Ausgewdhlie Methoden der Analytischen Chemie, von Prof.
Dr. A. Cuassen. Erster Band. 8 vo, pp. xx, 940, Braunsch-
weig, 1901, (Vieweg und Sohn). This work is intended as a guide
for the practical analytical chemist. The present volume is upon
the metals. It takes up their qualitative reactions as wellas their

320 Scientific Intelligence.

quantitative determination by gravimetric, volumetric and elec-
trolytic methods. Special attention is given to cases of technical
importance, and to a large number of rare elements. The book
will be of great value to analytical chemists generally, as it con-
tains descriptions of many processes that previously have not
been readily accessible, and also gives much excellent advice in
regard to the selection ‘of methods. The author does not claim
to include every reliable analytical method, as he has generally
given preference to those with which he is familiar. It is surpris-
ing that the use of the Gooch crucible is not generally recom-
mended in this book, for, in advising the use of tared filter papers
for many things, and in neglecting the uses of this accurate
method of weighing precipitates, the author, in common with
most German chemists, is a quarter of a century behind the times.
H. L. W.

8. Radiation Law of Dark Bodies.—F. PAascHEN enters-into a
discussion of a theoretical law stated by Wien, which is deduced
from thermo-dynamical considerations. Paschen’s observations
were made with prisms of fluor-spar, through which the rays were
successively reflected by means of mirrors; and a bolometer was
used to detect the heat rays. -Wien’s lawi is shown to hold within
certain regions, and the analogous law of Planck, is found to hold
more generally over the whole region of the observations. An
article by Wien in the same number of the Annalen answers a
criticism of Planck in regard to the fundamental assumptions of
Wien.— Ann. der Physik, No. 2, 1901, pp. 277-298; pp. 422-424.

TET:

9. Unipolar Induction.—Most_ physical cabinets contain an
apparatus to illustrate the rotation of a magnet about a current
which is conveyed axially through the magnet. This rotation is
generally attributed to unipolar induction. A discussion of the
reality of the existence of this inductive action has continued
through the past two years. Lecher* maintained that the effect
is due to the leading-in wires. E. HacEnsacu in a leading
article of the Annalen der Physik, maintains that the rotation
of the magnet is a true phenomenon and falls under Biot and
Savart’s law, which states that an infinitely long straight
current acts upon a magnetic pole with a force which is pro-
portional to the current strength and to the strength of the
pole and is inversely proportional to the distance. Laplace
proved that a stream element acts upon a magnetic pole with a
force which is inversely proportional to the square of the dis-
tance, and Biot showed that it is proportional to the sine of the
angle which the direction of the current makes with the line con-
necting both elements.

The author enters into a discussion of Ampére’s laws, Grass-
man’s law, and the Biot-Savart law in relation to this experiment.
— Ann. der Physik, No. 2, 1901, pp. 233-276. See

10. Effect of Electricity on Bacteria —In a lecture delivered at

* Wied. Ann., lxix, p. 781, 1899.

pies

Chemistry and Physics. 321

the Royal Institution of Great Britain, by Dr. ALLan MacrapyEn,
Director of the Jenner Institute of Preventive Medicine, it is
stated that there is little or no evidence that electricity has a
direct effect upon bacterial life. The effects produced appear to ©
be of an indirect character, due to the development of heat or to
the products of electrolysis.— Nature, p. 359, Feb. 7, 1901.
J.T.
11. Electric Convection.—M. V. Cremixu has repeated his
original experiments with additional precautions, and believes
that under the conditions of the experiments of Rowland and
Himstedt, electric convection produces no magnetic eftect.—
Comptes Rendus, Feb. 11, 1901. i,t
12. Preservation of Photographic Records.—Dr. W. J. S.
LocxyER has called attention to the disappearance of feeble
photographic impressions during the lapse of time, and speaks of
various methods of intensification. Mr. Chapman Jones discusses
the subject and shows that the photographic film should consist
of pure silver in clean gelatine. Ammonia, ferrous oxalate, and
potassium cyanide should not be used. Long washing is insisted
upon. Acid fixing baths should not be used. The exposed pho-
tographic image should be protected from the air. Prints should
be taken from the negatives as soon as possible: for deteriora-
tion probably goes on even if the above precautions are taken.—
Nature, p. 373, Feb. 14, 1901. ain
13. The Eclipse Cyclone and the Diurnal Cyclone. The latest
publication of the Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Har-
vard College (Vol. xliii, Part I) contains an interesting paper by
Prof. HW. Hetm Crayton on the cyclonic disturbance produced at
the time of the total eclipse of May 8th, 1900, as the result of the
accompanying fallof air temperature. The circulation of the wind,
blowing spirally outward from the center, and the form of the
pressure-curve accompanying it, correspond closely to the type of
cold-air cyclone developed by Ferrel. Special interest attaches
to this eclipse cyclone because of the simplicity of the phenomena
with which it is connected, the complication due to vapor conden-
sation or conflicting air currents present in the ordinary cyclone
being here entirely absent. The results show that a fall of tem-

_ perature of a few degrees is capable of developing a typical cold-

aircycloneina wonderfully short time. Further, the eclipse cyclone
showed no apparent lag due to the inertia of the air, but moved
on continuously with the eclipse shadow at the rate of some two
thousand miles an hour, being dissipated almost instantly in its
rear. Hence the motion has a certain analogy to wave-motion, a
given particle of air not moving more than five miles as a maxi-
mum during the passage of the eclipse.

In the light of this investigation, the author goes on to show
that the double diurnal period long noted in the atmospheric

i pressure, is probably due to independent diurnal cyclones of the

two types recognized by Ferrel, one developed by the cold of
night and the other by the heatof day. This theory when closely

|
|
|
iat
i} |
i}
I) |
i) |

322 Scientifie Intelligence.

examined, furnishes an explanation for various attendant phe-
nomena, for example, a third maximum of pressure in‘ high lati-

tudes in winter, the so-called inversion in the diurnal: period near
the pole, and other points.

14. An attempt to show that the earth being a magnet drags

‘ ether with it; by Wrettam Rotts. (Communicated.)—The

writer has carried on a series of experiments, designed to show

PLAN OF INCOMING RAYS :

Fig. 1. Plan of Refractometer.

whether a revolving magnet, and hence the earth, drags ether with
it. Although the results were not conclusive, one of the methods
used is mentioned here, since the refractometer employed is likely

Chemistry and Physics. 323

to be useful for other purposes, such as examining the passage of
light through solutions at rest or in motion. :

‘The apparatus, as shown in the accompanying figures, con-
sisted of a refractometer in which each half-beam went out and
back by different paths. The paths of one half-beam were
between two iron disks one centimeter apart which could be
rotated in either direction and magnetized by the observer while

Fig. 2. Refractometer and Revolving Magnets.

examining the fringes in the telescope. A shift of the fringes
was observed, but it was impossible to estimate how large a factor
instrumental errors were in the result. It is proposed to repeat
the experiments later with better apparatus. bans
15. On the Presence of Gallium in the Sun. An investigation
has recently been published by W. N. Harriuy and Huan -
Ramace, in the Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin
Society (Volume vii), on the wave-lengths of the principal
lines of the spectrum of gallium. The values obtained for
the two prominent lines are 4172214 and 4033:125. These
measurements were made on the reversed lines obtained with an

are spectrum of iron containing a large proportion of the residue
from ignition of gallium ferrocyanide. Atter a minute examina-

tion of the solar spectrum, the conclusion is reached that this
element, which has been shown by the same authors to be
widely distributed in minute quantities in the crust of the earth,
to be present in the pumice and volcanic dust from New Zealand
and Krakatoa and associated with nickel and cobalt in iron
meteorites, is also present in the sun. The solar lines determined

; | 324 Scientific Intelligence.

i as 4172:122 and 4033°'112 are probably identical with the gallium
lines above noted. The proportion of the element present is
probably small as compared with that of iron, the solar spectrum
i being fairly imitated by the are spectrum of blast furnace iron
containing one-thirty thousandth of its weight of gallium.

| Lie “GronoGy

V1. Geology of the Boston Basin; by Wittiam O. Crossy.

Vol. I, Part II]. The Blue Hills Complex. Boston Society of
eo Natural History. Occasional Papers IV; pp. 289-694, 24 plates
| and maps, 24 figures—The Blue Hills Complex is an area of
Hl granitic rocks and Cambrian strata which constitutes the highest
remnant of the New England peneplain to be found on the
Atlantic Coast line south of New Hampshire. The Cambrian
strata are calcareous slates and belong both to the Olenellus and
t the Paradoxides zone. At sume time not later than the Devonian
these Cambrian strata were invaded by igneous rocks. The
I igneous types include granitic phases of one parent batholite ;
intrusive diabases, quartz porphyries and felsites; extrusive apo-
rhyolites. The theory ot formation of the Complex is given by

| Prof. Crosby as follows: The magma from which the’ granitic

rocks were crystallized was produced by the fusion of the floor
upon which the Cambrian strata. were originally deposited.
Mr! ‘“'This fusion, however, only extended up to a certain uneven sur-
\ face, which surface now constitutes the demarcation between the
hi, granitic series and the Cambrian. Above this surface or upper
ie limit of fusion the Cambrian formations retained their stratiform
I or bedded disposition and rested as a crust of hard and brittle
i | rocks upon the magma, subject to its metamorphic influences.
There is abundant evidence that while resting upon this plastic
magma the crust was violently disturbed, folded, crumpled and in
places shattered.” The closing event in the development of the
hard rocks of the Blue Hills Complex was the making of an
extensive series of basic dikes. :

In addition to the study of the petrography and general
geology of the region (pp. 325-542), the surface geology has
been mapped and described by Prof. Crosby (pp. 542-564) and a
special paper is added by A. W. Grabau on “ Lake Bouvé,” an
extinct glacial lake of large extent in the southern part of the
Boston basin. The last chapter in the book is also by Dr.
Grabau and deals with the paleontology of the Cambrian ter-
ranes of the Boston basin. The fossils are described in detail
and figured (pp. 614-694). Unfortunately the book has been
printed with no table of contents and no index. HW. E. G.

2. The University Geological Survey of Kansas. Conducted
under authority of the Board of Regents of the University of
Kansas. Vol. VI. Paleontology. Part If. Carboniferous and
Cretaceous. S. W. Wixtiston, Paleontologist. 1900. Pp. 1-516;
plates 1-Lxxu1.—The following three papers are included in this

Geology. 325

volume: Part I, ‘Carboniferous Invertebrates,” by Mr. Joshua

_ W. Beede, is a doctorate thesis, in which descriptions and figures

of all the species in the writer’s hands are given, none of which
appear here for the first time. Several of the species were origi-
nally described by the author in vol. viii of the Kansas University
Quarterly. The paper makes a satisfactory illustrated catalogue
of part of the known Carboniferous species of the State.

In the second paper, Prof. Williston makes a definite contribu-
tion to our knowledge of the very unsatisfactory, but still
important, group of Cretaceous teeth of Selachians and Pycno-
donts.

The third paper, by Mr. Alban Stewart, is the report of a
thorough investigation of a valuable collection of specimens rep-
resenting the Teleosts of the Upper Cretaceous, in which detailed
descriptions and measurements are given of the specimens in
hand. At the close, the author has tabulated the known range
of American Cretaceous genera of Teleosts, and, further, has
presented a table of genera of Teleost fishes from the Upper Cre-
taceous of various parts of the world.

The volume is the sixth of the series of volumes prepared by
the University Geological Survey of Kansas, which are intended
to be manuals for the use of students and the people of Kansas,
rather than pure records of new discoveries. w.

3. The Orange River Ground-Moraine.—The subject of the
glaciation of South Africa by land ice is one which has been
often discussed, and about which various opinions have been
expressed. An important contribution has been recently made

by A. W. Rocers and E. H. L. Scuwarz, in vol. xi of the

Transactions of the Philosophical Society of South Africa (Sep-
tember, 1900). They describe a peculiar conglomerate which
covers a wide area in the divisions of Prieska and Hopetown in
the northern part of Cape Colony. This is regarded as probably
continuous with the Dwyka conglomerate of the southern Carroo,
which has been thought to be of glacial origin; their exact rela-
tion, however, is uncertain. The Prieska conglomerate has in
part a distinct till-like character; in part it seems to be stratified,
but it carries large numbers of scratched pebbles and bowlders.
The maximum thickness is estimated as some hundreds of feet,
although the absence of sections at many localities leaves this in
doubt. At one point the thickness beneath the shale exposed is
only thirty feet; but the suggestion is made that the shale may
have originally lain between two bands of conglomerate. ‘The
rocky surface underlying the conglomerate, usually quartzite or
granite, shows at several localities an unmistakably glacial char-
acter, which is well brought out in a series of plates accompany-
ing this article. The surface of the quartzite, for example, is
smooth and rounded with distinct striz having a general trend of
N.N.E. to S.S.W.; this is on the gently inclined northern slopes
of the mounds. The southern. sides, on the other hand, which
are like the roches moutonnés of Switzerland, are rough and

326 Scientific Intelligence.

unscratched. The Prieska conglomerate passes under the so-
called Kimberley shales or under the lowest sheets of dolerite at
the bottom of the shales. No evidence was found to support the
idea of Greene that the Kimberley shales rest upon the denuded
surfaces of Dwyka and Ecca beds.

- 4, The Founders of Geology ; by Sir ArcurBpaLD GEIKIE. Pp.
297. Baltimore, 1901 (Johns Hopkins Press).—The highly inter-
esting, and permanently valuable, course of lectures delivered by
Sir Archibald Geikie at Baltimore in 1897 have recently been
published in attractive form. As is well known, these lectures
formed the first of the series of the George Huntington Williams
Memorial Lectures on the Principles of Geology, established
through the generosity of Mrs. Williams, under the auspices of
the Geological Department of the Johns Hopkins University. A
second series of lectures was delivered a year since, by Prof. W.
C. Brégger (this Journal, June, 1900, p. 456).

5. Das Gesetz der Wistenbildung in Gegenwart und Vorzeit
von JoHANNES WaLtTHER. Pp. 175 with 50 illustrations. Berlin,
1900 (Dietrich Reimer).—Some years since, an interesting volume
was published by the present author on Denudation in the Desert
(this Journal, xlii, 177, 1891). He has now taken up the allied
subject of the formation of desert regions both at present and in
the past. He notes that the problem of the desert in general is
involved in that of the history of regions having no drainage
outlets; for although it is not true that every desert is without
outlet, nor is every such region a desert, yet both phenomena
are closely connected together. Of the entire land surface of
the globe, estimated at 130,000,000 square kilometers, about one-
fifth belongs to regions where the drainage is without outlet. Of
these, 12,000,000 square kilometers belong to Asia, 7,000,000 to
Australia, 4,000,000 to Africa, and 1:3 millions to America. If
we go back in geological time, even as far as the Miocene, we
find these areas largely increased ; hence the importance of this
aspect of the subject.

The special topics discussed by the author are the dry weather-
ing due chiefly to change of temperature, deflation or the effect of
winds, also the action of flowing waters. Other interesting
chapters are those devoted to the deposition of gravel or mud,
of lake loess and sand.dunes; further the desert flora and fauna;
the saline deposits, etc. The author has brought to the discus-
sion of the subject a thorough knowledge of the various points,
made more definite from his own personal observations; he has
illustrated his text with excellent figures, and thus the volume as a
whole is very suggestive from the scientific standpoint as well as
being thoroughly readable.

ie ZooLnogy.

1. Recent papers relating to the fauna of the Bermudas, with
. Conn. Acad. Sci., Vol. X, Part 2,
are nine papers on this subject, viz: |

Zoology. 327

(1) The Air-breathing Mollusks of the Bermudas. By Henry

A. Pilsbry. Plate 62.

(2) Additions to the Ichthyological Fauna of the Bermudas,
from the collections of the Yale Expedition of 1898. By Samuel
Garman.

(3) Additions to the Marine Mollusca of the Bermudas. By
A. HE. Verrill and Katharine J. Bush. Plates 63-65.

(4) The Nudibranchs and naked Tectibranchs of the Bermudas.
By A. E. Verrill. Plate 66.

(5) Additions to the Anthozoa and Hydrozoa of the Bermudas.
By A. E. Verrill. | Plates 67-69.

(6) Additions to the Crustacea and Pycnogonida of the Ber-
mudas. -By A. E. Verrill. Plate 70.

(7) Additions to the Echinoderms of the Bermudas. By A. E.
Verrill.

(8) Additions to the Tunicata and Molluscoidea of the Ber-
mudas. By A. E. Verrill. Plate 70.

(9) Additions to the Turbellaria, Nemertina and Annelida 6f
the Bermudas, with Revisions of some New England genera and

species. By A. E. Verrill. Plate 70.

Besides the above, Dr. W. M. Rankin has recently published
“The Crustacea of the Bermuda Islands” (Annals N. York
Acad., xii, p. 521, 1900), and Prof. H. L. Clark has published
two papers on the Bermuda Echinoderms (op. cit., xi, p. 407,
1898, and vol. xii, p. 117, 1899). .

The nine papers first mentioned are preliminary to a much
fuller report on the Fauna of the Bermudas, now nearly com-
pleted by the writer, which is to be freely illustrated. It is
intended to supply a want long felt by numerous students of

zoology who annually visit the Bermudas, Bahamas, and other

West Indian Islands. The marine fauna of the Bermudas is
largely a colony from the West Indies.

These preliminary papers give, however, a much fuller idea of
the character and extent of the Bermudian fauna than any
previous works, relating to the same groups.

Mr. Pilsbry’s paper on the terrestrial mollusks is complete, up
to date. It includes 41 species. Of the truly terrestrial forms
all except 15 species are supposed to have been introduced in

comparatively modern times, and several quite recently. Six

species: Helicina convexa, Thysanophora hypolepta, and Poecil-
ozonites with four species, are endemic and not known else-
where. The latter genus is the most remarkable, and its largest
species (P. Welsoni) is extinct, but it occurs abundantly in the
eolian limestone, sometimes in strata exposed only at low tide,
thus showing that it lived on the islands before their partial sub-
mergence, and indicating the comparatively great antiquity of
the genus. Its nearest allies are now found in the eastern
United States. The Rumina decolluta is now the most abundant
land shell. It was introduced accidentally, about 1876, probably

on plants from Teneriffe or the Cape Verde Islands by Governor

328 Scientific Intelligence.

Lefroy. It was first recorded by Bartram in 1879. A single
specimen was found by J. M. Jones in the governor’s grounds in»
1877. It spread very gradually, at first, from. Hamilton, as a
center, until in a few years it became an important horticultural
pest, for it has but few natural enemies in the islands. Mr.
Garman describes three small rare fishes, dredged in shallow
water. One of these is new (Lrosmophycis Verrilliz), another
( Gobius stigmaturus) was previously known only from the orig-
inal type, of which the origin was not known.

In the paper on Anthozoa, etc., several species of corals, gor-
goniz and actinians are for the first time recorded from Bermuda.
The most important additions to the reef corals are Orbicella
cavernosa, O. annularis, and Plesiastrea Goodet, (sp. nov.), all
large, massive species. The animal of Madracis decactis is
described and figured for the first time. It has 20 tentacles. The
current erroneous descriptions of the polyps of Stderastr@a are
corrected. Other genera are revised. Five new species of Acti-
naria are described. Seven gorgonians are added to the fauna,
including Muricea muricata and one very large new species
(Hunicea grandis).

In Dr. Rankin’s paper on the Crustacea, 57 species of Malacos-
traca are enumerated.*

In the paper on Crustacea by the writer, 25 additional Mala-
costraca are recorded, not including a few that are synonymous
with some in Dr. Rankin’s list. Miss M. J. Rathbun has since
sent me the names of a few additional species,t viz: Scyllarides

* This is exclusive of ‘‘ Pandalus tenuicornus” (p. 544) introduced by an error,
and Alpheus Edwardsii. A specimen of the latter sent to me by Dr. Rankin is
the young of his A. hippothoé, var. bahamensis, which he also sent to me. This
is apparently a form of A. heterochelis Say.

+ Miss Rathbun has also determined some of those that were left doubtful in
my list. The shrimp mentioned under Pontonidze (p. 579) is Gnathophyllum
Americanum (Guerin). The ‘ Paguristes?” (p. 578) is a new species of hermit
crab, viz: Clbanarius Verrillii Rathbun, sp. nov.

‘The chelipeds are similar in shape but noticeably unequal, the propodus of
the right being = the length of the left. The distal margin of the carpus of both
chelipeds is in Jine with the end of the eyes. The merus of the larger cheliped is
two-thirds as high as long; its outer surface is marked by a few short, faint
rugose lines; the upper margin is similarly rugose. The carpus is furnished
with rough granules above and along the distal margin; there is a large tubercle
on the outer surface. The palm is subrectangular, about equally long and high ;
upper margin convex. The margins are rough with granules; the outer surface
is nearly smooth. Both fingers are stout and deflexed, and gape widely; the
inner margins are very unevenly toothed; the upper margin of the dactylus is
bordered by two rows of sharp granules. The fingers are excavated at the tips,
which are white.

The smaller cheliped differs not only in being shorter and narrower but in hay-
ing the upper margin of the carpus and propodus cut into stout spines increasing
in size distally. A similar large spine is on the upper margin of the dactylus at
the proximal third. The right cheliped is more hairy than the left, with long
light hairs.

Colors.—In formalin a_ pinkish-white or yellowish-white ground-color with
small roundish spots of bright yellowish-red or orange which are most numerous
along the upper and distal margins of the segments of the legs, where they tend

eo Ve ey ee

Zoology. 329

latus and S. sculptus (U. S. Nat. Mus., coll. Dr. T. H. Bean);
Hippolyte acuminatus (coll. Goode); and Domecia hispida (call.
Yale Exp., 1898). To these should be added Hippolyte bidentata
Bate, making the total number of species 87, now known.*

Two new species of Pycnogonida, the only ones known in the
region, are described and figured.

In the paper on the marine Mollusca a large number of species
(about 80) are added to the fauna, and most of them are figured.
Of these 25 species are described as new. This makes the total
number about 350. In the article on Nudibranchs, etec., nine new
species are described, including a very large Aplysia and a new
genus ( Pleurobranchopsis), allied to Pleurobranchus, but without
ashell. In the three papers on echinoderms about 40 species are
recorded, including numerous additions to the fauna, but no new
species, except Synapta acanthia, described by Prof. Clark (1899,
p. 134). Of Tunicata four new species are described, including a
large and elegantly colored Diazona (D. picta), and three others
are added to the fauna. The compound ascidians, which are
numerous, have not been worked up. A small reddish brachio-
pod ( Cistella cistellula) was found attached to the under side of
corals in Harrington Sound. It agrees closely with specimens
from Naples. Several Bryozoa are recorded for the first time,
and two remarkable new species are described.+ One of: these
( Caulibugula armata) is the type of a new genus, allied to Bugula,
but it has an articulated stem; the other (Barentsia timida) is
allied to Pedicellina.

In the ninth paper, two new planarians and two new nemerteans
are described, and a previously known species of each group’is
recorded, both of which are found at Naples. These orders are
sparsely represented at Bermuda and none had been recorded
previously except the terrestrial Zetrastemma agricola. Of
Gephyrea 4 species are recorded, two of which (Aspidosiphon
spinulosum and Golfingia elongata) are new. Of Annelida 60
new species are described and at least 10 others are added to the
fauna, which about trebles the known species. About 25 of the
new species are Syllidz. Several. new genera are described and

to form irregular transverse bands. There are four bands on each of the pro-
podal and terminal joints of the second and third pairs of legs; chele and eye-
stalks spotted with red.” (M. J. Rathbun.)

Total length about 40™™. It becomes much larger.

Bermudas, 4 large and 1 small specimen (coll. Dr. F. V. Hamlin); Yale Mus. and
U.S. Nat. Mus.

*The marine Isopoda have been worked out by Miss Richardson, who enu- -
merates 23 species. About 25 species of Amphipoda were also collected by the
_ Yale party. An undetermined fresh-water ostracode crustacean was found
abundantly in a rain-water cistern at Bailey Bay. ‘

+ Another remarkable new bryozoan often occurs at Bermuda:

Amathia Goodei V., sp.nov. This forms large, intricately branched clusters,
4 or 5 inches high and broad, with the branches thick, soft, and flaccid, and more
or less anastomosing, often 2 to 3™™ in diameter. The zodids are numerous,
arranged in large, dense, elongated clusters, composed of several close rows,
which often nearly or quite surround the stem. and extend for some distance
below the nodes, but are scarcely at all spiral (coll. of G. Browne Goode).

330 Scientific Intelligence.

| other genera are revised, including certain New England genera and
| species. Several necessary changes in nomenclature are also made.
i In this connection, it may be of interest to mention that a
| second Bermudian species of lizard, similar to, and perhaps iden-
tical with, the Blue-tailed Lizard of the eastern U. States, is in
the Yale Museum. As preserved in alcohol, its body is green,
| without stripes; tail bluish green; head dark brown. Length
\ about 5 inches. A. Be M.
_“ 2 Trans. Conn. Acad. Science, Vol. X, Part 2, pp. 301-698.
| ~ 1900. New Haven.—This part contains a Revision of certain West
q Indian Ophiurans with a Faunal Catalogue of all West Indian
species, with their distribution (pp. 301-387, 2 plates), by A. E.
Verrill; the Hawaiian Hepatice of the tribe Jubuloidex, by
i! Dr. A. W. Evans (pp. 387-463, 16 plates); Notes on some type-
specimens of Myxomycetes in the New York State Museum, by
q W. C. Sturgis (pp. 463-491, pl. 62), and also nine papers relating
: to the fauna of the awe below. |

3. Zoological Results based on Material from New Britain,
New Guinea, Loyalty Islands and elsewhere, collected during the
| years 1895, 1896, and 1897; by Artraur Witirny. Part V
4 (December, 1900). Pp. 531-690. Cambridge, 1899 (University
1) Press).—Part V of this valuable series* contains the following
papers: A description of the Entozoa collected by Dr. Willey
ty during his sojourn in the Western Pacific, by Arthur E. Shipley ;
| pp. 531-568, plates L1v-tv1. On some South Pacific Nemertines
collected by Dr. Willey, by R. C. Punnett, pp. 569-584, plates
LV1I-LxI. On the young of the Robber Crab, by L. A. Borra-
daile; pp. 585-590, with figures in the text. Anatomy of Neo-
helia porcellana (Moseley), by Edith M. Pratt; pp. 591-602,
plates Lx1r and Lxim. On a new blind snake from Lifu, Loyalty
Islands, by G. A. Boulenger; pp. 603-605, with figures in the
text. On Crustacea brought by Dr. Willey from the South Seas,
by Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing; pp. 605-690, plates LxIv—LXxIv.

IV. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. Lecons de Physiologie Expérimentale, par R. Dusois et
K. Couvreur. Pp. 380, 303 gravures. Paris, 1900 (G. Carré
et C. Naud).— With the increasing tendency to teach physiology
as an experimental science has come the demand for manuals
which will assist the student in his practical work. ‘The volume
under consideration is the outcome of the experience gained by —
the authors in directing the courses in experimental physiology
at the University of Lyons. It differs from most of its predeces-
sors in the detail with which the experimental technique peculiar
to physiology has been presented. An acquaintance with the
more important phenomena of living organisms is assumed, and
the directions given are intended to be sufficiently explicit to
guide the student in the laboratory. ‘The diversity of topics con-
sidered, and more particularly the unusual mode of presentation

* See this Journal, vii, 79, 322; viii, 398; x, 89.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 331

will make the book helpful to those who are interested in the

_ investigation of physiological problems, as well as to the student

of medicine.

The first part of the Legons takes up the graphic method and
its applications, together with a consideration of the chief forms
of apparatus and instruments ordinarily employed in the physio-
logical laboratory. This is followed by a study of the general
properties of nerves, nervous centers and muscles, of respiration
and the phenomena of the circulation. The parts on alimenta-

tion are treated largely from the standpoint of the physiological

chemist, while the older methods for studying the more purely
physiological functions of the digestive glands are also outlined
at some length. The book concludes with a chapter on animal
heat and calorimetry. Over three hundred figures and drawings
illustrate the text; and like the methods and apparatus described,
they are taken almost entirely from French sources. L. B. M.

2. Webster's International Dictionary, New Edition, with a
Supplement of 238 pages, containing 25,000 additional words and
phrases. Springfield, Mass. (G. C. Merriam & Co.), 1900.—This
standard work has been very much improved and increased in
value by the addition of large numbers of scientific and other terms
that have come into more common use since the publication of the
previous edition in 1890. These additional terms relate to every
department of science and have been defined by numerous special-
ists. In general Biology, and in systematic and structural Botany
and Zodlogy the number of additional words is particularly not-
iceable, in accordance with the recent rapid progress in these
departments of science. In Zodlogy a large number of native or
market names of West Indian, South African, Australian, and
East Indian fishes, birds and other tropical forms, have been
added, largely due to the recently increased interest, on the part
of the English speaking peoples, in these tropical regions. Over
sixty species of the fishes of Porto Rico, Jamaica, Cuba and the
Bermudas are illustrated by cuts. There are over three hundred
new zoological figures. A considerable part of these illustrate
insects injurious to agricultural crops, or to fruit and shade trees
in America. Most of these insects are grouped under the name
of the tree or plant that they most damage, which will enable
one unfamiliar with technical entomology to find and identify
insects by the damage that they do. In too many dictionaries
the insects, fishes, birds, etc., are placed under their tech-
nical scientific names, or else under improvised “ book-names”’
that have never come into general use and are known only
to specialists, which renders it very difficult for one not a
specialist to find the information desired, even when it is
contained inthe book. In Botany the names of most of the orders
and larger groups of plants have been introduced, with brief
definitions. A considerable number of new Ethnological terms
has been added, many of them relating to the races and tribes of
the Philippines and other oriental countries. A large number of

332 Scientific Intelligence.

new words in various departments, that are current in Australia,
New Zealand, and in India, have been introduced, when they
have found a place i in English literature.

- 3. The National Standardizing Bureau.—Near the close of
the last session of Congress, an act was passed establishing a
“ National Standardizing Bureau,” the functions of which are
stated as follows: “The custody of the standards; the com-
parison of the standards used in scientific investigations, engi-
neering, manufacturing, commerce, and educational institutions
with the standards adopted or recognized by the Government ;
the construction, when necessary, of standards, their multiples
and sub-divisions ; the testing and calibration of standard meas-
uring apparatus; the solution of problems which arise in connec-
tion with standards; the determination of physical constants and
the properties of materials, when such data are of great import-
ance to scientific or manufacturing interests and are not to be
obtained of sufficient accuracy elsewhere.” The appropriation
made in behalf of this end, both for officers and for buildings, is
sufficiently liberal to insure the work being undertaken promptly
and with satisfactory thoroughness. Prof. S. W. Stratton of
the University of Chicago has been appointed Director of the
Bureau; this choice meets with general approval.

OBITUARY.

Dr. Grorcte Mercer Dawson, Director of the Geological
Survey of Canada, died on March 2, after a brief illness. He was the
eldest son of Sir John William Dawson, who died in November,
1899. Dr. Dawson’s contributions to the advancement of geology
have been numerous and valuable. In the year 1875 his report
on the “Geology and Resources of the 49th Parallel,” at once
established his position as a keen observer, an indefatigable
investigator, and a man of more than ordinary powers of wide
generalization. Upon the retirement of Mr. Selwyn, he became
Director of the Survey in 1896, since which time he has con-
ducted the Survey with great energy and administrative ability.
The results of his latest investigations were summarized in his
address upon “the Physical History of the Rocky Mountain
region of Canada,” delivered by him as President of the Geo-
logical Society of America, in December last; this address is
published in the number of Science which recorded his death (vol.
xill, p.401). Dr. Dawson’s mastery of the geology of the northern
part of the American continent makes the loss to American geology
most deeply felt; and notwithstanding all he has accomplished,
his sudden departure leaves his life work unfinished. - —

Professor CHarLEsS HERMITE, the eminent French mathema-
tician, died in January last at the age of seventy-eight.

M. ApoteuE Cuatin, the French botanist, died on January 13,
at the age of eighty-seven.

Dr. J. C. Acarpu of Lund, the veteran Swedish botanist, well
known for his work on marine Algz, died on January 17 in a his
eighty-eighth year.

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FOURTH SERIES.]

Arr, XXVII.—Studies of Locene Mammalia in the Marsh
ce Peabody Museum; by J. L. Wortman. With
ate Y.

PART I. CARNIVORA.

INTRODUCTION.

In pursuance of an understanding had with the late Professor
Marsh shortly before his death, the writer has recently under-
taken the study of the more important materials in the
splendid collection of Kocene Mammalia in the Marsh Collec-
tion of the Peabody Museum, with the object of presenting a
full account of the structure and relationship of those forms,
as far as revealed by the remains at»present known. This
material was derived almost exclusively from the Bridger and
Uinta Basins of Wyoming and Utah, but less extensive collec-
tions from the Eocene Basin of the San Juan of New Mexico
are also included. The first collections of fossils from these
localities were gathered in 1870, by the Yale Expedition into
the Western Bad Lands, under the enthusiastic leadership of
Professor Marsh himself. For four succeeding years, expedi-
tions of a similar character were organized, equipped, and Jed
into the fossil-bearing horizons of the West by this indefati-
gable student of paleontology, to whom the science is so deeply
indebted. Later, for a number of years, Professor Marsh
employed regularly trained collectors to search for fossils in the
Bad Lands of these basins. The collections resulting from these
sources have a richness and significance, perhaps unrivaled by
any similar one in the world. The importance of the subject
to the student of Mammalogy can scarcely be over-estimated,
since these epochs witnessed the beginnings and branching off
of many groups destined to play such a prominent part in

Am, Jour. Sc1.—Fourta Srerizs, Vou. XI, No. 65.—May, 1901.

334 Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the

succeeding mammalian development. This fact was fully
appreciated by Professor Marsh, and he spared neither pains nor
expense in making the collections as complete as possible.

In 1871, he issued his first paper descriptive of these dis-
coveries, in this Journal (vol. 11, August, 1871) and in succeeding
years many publications in the same Journal were added. A
few groups, Dinocerata, Coryphodontia, and Tillodontia, were
described and illustrated 72 extenso, but by far the larger part of
the collection has either not been studied or only a few specimens
described in a brief preliminary way, mostly without illustration.
For many years prior to his death, he had fully recognized the
importance and desirability of having this subject, which the
press of many matters had prevented his undertaking, finally
and fully investigated for the sake of the advancement of the
science. The Trustees of the Museum have, therefore, gener-
ously placed at my disposal this entire collection for study and
publication, and it is to be earnestly hoped that the results
obtained will prove commensurate with the importance of the
undertaking. It is a source of the keenest regret to the author
that the investigation could not have been made under the
tutorship of the master whose ripe judgment and kindly
advice would have proved so helpful and such a tower of
strength in the preparation of the work. The subject will be
considered group by group, omitting those that have been
already fully published. The first of the series deals with
the Carnivora, after which the Primates and other orders will
follow. A consideration of the relationship of the horizons
in which these fossils occur will be reserved for the latter part
of the paper. ae

Part I. CaRnivoRa.

In this group, I mean to include all those forms which are
usually classified as the modern Carnivora, together with their
extinct representatives commonly arranged under the ordinal
group Creodonta. That all the modern Carnivores have arisen
from and are directly traceable to what has been formerly
known as the Creodonta is now coming to be so well estab-
lished that from time to time it becomes necessary to modify
our ideas of their classification and arrangement. According to
the present state of evidence it seems probable that there were
at least three if not more points of contact where the two
groups actually unite. For this reason the distinction of one
from the other becomes a more and more difficult task. I
purpose, therefore, in the following treatise to consider the
entire series as constituting a single homogeneous order, the
origin of which dates back to Pretertiary times, along with the
Edentates, Ungulates, and very probably, also, with the Insec-

1
|

Se
ms

we

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 335

tivores, Rodents, Primates, etc. There is as yet little or no

evidence which throws any light upon their origin, and until
the Cretaceous ancestors of the Monodelphs are more certainly
known, the problem will of necessity remain obscure.

There appears to be a sort of vague belief that the Car-
nivora have arisen from the Insectivora, and one frequently
hears the expression “ Insectivore-creodont ancestors.” Now,

as a matter of fact, the Insectivora, as we at present know them,

are not more primitive than a large majority of the Creodonts;
but on the contrary, with very few exceptions, all the living
Insectivores are considerably specialized, and even those that
do exhibit a more or less generalized structure are far removed
from the typical, ideal ancestor of the Carnivores. Nor do
the few known fossil Insectivores help us much towards such
a belief, for in all of them, as far as we know, the peculiar con-
formation of the anterior part of the skull is almost as strongly
marked as it is in their living representatives. The very
general enlargement of the premaxillee and modification of the
incisors, with the reduction or disappearance of the canine,
constitute one of the striking osteological peculiarities by means
of which they may nearly always be distinguished from any
known Oreodont or Carnassident.

It would appear from the present trend of the evidence that
we shall be compelled eventually to return to the old idea of a
direct Marsupial ancestry of all the Monodelphian orders. By
this I do not mean to imply that the living Marsupials are

these ancestors, for the reason that they have in all probability

secondarily acquired a number of modernized features which
remove them considerably from the hypothetical progenitors.
Their peculiarities in the matter of the replacement of the
teeth, the increased number of incisors in the carnivorous and
insectivorous forms, and the inflection of the angle of the jaw,
we may readily believe to have been acquired, and did not
belong to their Mesozoic ancestors. Im fact it has already
been shown that the increased number of incisors is due to a
development and partial retention of a first and second set.
Whatever may be said of the derivation of the other orders,
the Mesozoic representatives of the carnivorous Marsupials
are not tar removed from the hypothetical forms, to which, it
seems to me, the present evidence points with no doubtful
signs, as the ancestors of the Carnivora. Although we know
them from but a few fragments, yet the striking resemblances
which these bear to the corresponding parts of the living
carnivorous Marsupials, leave little doubt that their structure
was very similar. If we subtract from the skeleton of some
of the more typical living Marsupial Carnivores, such as the
Sarcophiles, Dasyures, Thylacynes, and Opossums, those char-

336 Wortman—Studies of Hocene Mammalia in the

acters which we may assume are specialized or secondarily
acquired, we shall have left an assemblage of primitive features
which must have certainly belonged to the ancestors of the
Carnivores. These are especially seen in (1) the narrow more
or less elongated type of skull, much constricted behind the
orbits, (2) the stout, heavy zygomata, (8) the large lachrymal,
spreading out upon the face, (4) the prominent sagittal crest
terminating in a rather high, overhanging occiput, (5) the
relatively large, downwardly projecting paroccipitals, (6) the
double condyloid foramen, (7) the peculiar thickening of the
posterior border of the palate, (8) the large hatchet-shaped
neural spine of the axis, (9) the large size of the lumbar verte-
bree as compared with the dorsals, and their tendency in some
forms (Opossums) to develop the double tongue and groove
articulations, (10) the large deltoid crest and characteristically
broad distal end of the humerus, (11) the fusion of the
scaphoid and centrale (Opossums, M/yrmecobius, and Dasyures),
(12) the subequal size of ulna and radius, (13) the large size of
the lesser trochanter of the femur, (14) the large size of the
fibula and its extensive articulation with the proximal surface of
the astragalus instead of upon its outside, and (15) the very
primitive form of the astragalus. To these may also be added,
(16) the small size of the brain, (17) the dorso-lumbar vertebree
formula of 19, and (18) the posterior spreading of the nasals so
as to exclude contact between frontals and maxillary in front.
With respect to the forms of the teeth, they are with few excep-
tions primitive.

Now nearly all the foregoing characters are actually possessed
in varying degrees by some members of the Creodonta, as far, at
least, as we know them; andif the replacement of the dentition
were complete instead of partial, and the so-called first molar of
the carnivorous Marsupials, which is undoubtedly homolo-
gous with a persistent last milk molar of the diphyodont
dentition, were replaced by a permanent simpler successor, as is
invariably the case where its succession is accomplished, the
analogy would then be complete and there would be no diffi-
culties whatever in deriving the Creodonts from this source.
In like manner the origin of the Insectivora would be trace-
able to a form similar to Wyrmecobius. That the inflection of
the angle of the jaw and the partial repression of the second
set of teeth were secondarily acquired, is rendered probable
from the recent discovery of Matthew* in which it would
appear likely that both these characters have been acquired by
the Mesonychide, among the Creodonts. Just what the
Cretaceous Marsupials, when more fully known, will show
with respect to these characters cannot now be predicted ;

* Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., January, 1901.

niga

Marsh Collection, Peabody Musewn. 337

but we do know that such a type as Didelphops Marsh, in its

- dentition and palate, resembles the living carnivorous Marsupials,

and it is to some such type in particular that I would refer the
origin of the Creodonta. —

The classification herein adopted with respect to the major
divisions of the Carnivora is essentially that of Flower and
Lyddeker in their work upon the Mammalia, with the excep-
tion that I have substituted for their name “Carnivora Vera”
the subordinal term Carnassidentia. We shall then have the
three suborders,—Creodonta, Carnassidentia, and Pinnipedia,
but the difficulties of determining the limits and framing
exact and satisfactory definitions for these groups, especially
the two former, are just as great when considered as suborders
as they are considered as orders. Two main features of their
organization have hitherto been used to separate the Creodonts
from the higher Carnivora or Carnassidentia, viz: the union of

certain elements of the carpus and the modification of particular

teeth into a sectorial or carnassial dentition. The relative
importance of these two sets of characters in constructing
the primary divisions of our classification is of course a matter
upon which different opinions are held. Speaking for myself,
I am convinced that the tooth characters are of greater
moment in making these primary divisions than the union or
non-union of certain carpal elements, for the reason that the
ununited carpals are undoubtedly expressive of a generalized
condition, which applied to all phyletic lines of this series in the
early stages of their existence, and cannot, therefore, give the
faintest hint of the breaking up into subordinate series. It is,
moreover, largely dependent upon time, since. later than a
given epoch these carpals are united and earlier than this they
are free, in any group belonging to the order.

If, on the other hand, we base our primary divisions upon
the modifications of the teeth, we have from almost the earliest

deposits in which we have knowledge of the remains of this

group, many of the various phyla more or less distinctly out-
lined. Thus, as early as the Torrejon, we find representatives
of the Viverravidee, which not only have the teeth constructed
upon the same identical pattern as that of certain living Car-
nassidentia, but the number is exactly the same. In the suc-
ceeding Wasatch, representatives of the modern Canids and
Felids appeared, while the various lines of the Creodonta may
be said to have been fully established by this time.

The one distinguishing feature of the dentition of the Car-

_nassidentia.is found in the fact that the fourth superior pre-

molar and the first inferior molar have been exclusively
developed into carnassial teeth. Some of the living represen-
tatives, such as the Bears and Raccoons, have largely lost the

3388 Wortman—NStudies of Hocene Mammalia in the

more typical structure of these teeth, but the evidence is very
strong in favor of their derivation from ancestors in which the
earnassials were well developed.* In the Creodonta, on the
other hand, if carnassial teeth are developed they are not con-
fined to the fourth superior premolar and the first inferior
molar, but usually consist of a varying number of molars in
each series. In some of the older types there are no carnassials
developed, the molars being intermediate in structure ; while in
others they are of a pronounced tubercular form. The three
suborders would then be divided and defined as follows:

\

Suborder Creodonta.

Carnassial teeth present or absent; when present, not consisting
exclusively of fourth superior premolar and first inferior molar.
Scaphoid, lunar,-and centrale of the carpus very generally free.
Ungual phalanges broad, depressed and fissured, or laterally com-
pressed and pointed. The following families are included :
Oxyclenide, Arctocyonidz, Mesonychide, Oxyznide, and Hyzeno-
dontide.

Suborder Carnassidentia.

Carnassial teeth present and always consisting of the fourth
superior premolar and first inferior molar. Scaphoid, lunar, and
centrale of the carpus, very generally united. Ungual phalanges
compressed and pointed.

The following families are included: Viverravide Viverride,
Hyeenide, Protelidz, Palzeonictidz, Felide, Canide, Procyonide,
Ursidz, and Mustelide.

Suborder Pinnipedia.

Limbs modified for progression in the water ; no carnassials ;
scaphoid, lunar, and centrale united. Ungual phalanges greatly
modified by enormous development of subungual processes.

Families : Otariide, Trichechidx, Phocide. |

SUBORDER CARNASSIDENTIA.

Family Canide.

The study of the Eocene Canide is attended with no little
difficulty, owing in large measure to the insufficient and frag-
mentary materials upon which the types of the respective
genera have been based. While fortunately these are not

* Matthew has (loc. cit., p. 17) quite recently discussed the relationship of the
Arctocyonidz, a family of the Creodonta from the Torrejon and Wasatch of this
country and Hurope, to the modern Bears. Arguing from the structure’ of the
feet and teeth, he believes that they make certain distinctive approaches towards
the Ursidee and may have been ancestral to them. Had he taken the trouble to
compare the feet of Clenodon with a living Opossum or a Dasyure, he would have
found such a striking similarity of structure in every detail, with the possible
exception of the astragalus, that he would have concluded that the Arctocyonides
are much nearer to the Marsupials in these characters than to the Bears.

ee ae

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 339

numerous, yet with such imperfect specimens it is not an easy
matter to correctly determine their limits and relationships
nor to refer other more complete material to them with
certainty and exactness. Any attempt must, therefore, be
regarded as tentative to a large extent, at least until such time
as the acquisition of more complete specimens will throw addi-
tional light upon the structure and organization of the types.

The genera which have been proposed for these dogs are
three in number, viz: Vulpavus, proposed by Marsh in 1871
upon a first superior molar tooth; Uintacyon, proposed by
Leidy in 1872 upon an anomalous lower jaw, with the teeth
considerably damaged, and J/iacis, proposed by Cope in 1872
upon a fragment of a lower jaw bearing the penultimate
molar. It will be seen, therefore, that in no case is there asso-
ciation of upper and lower teeth in one specimen, so that in
the absence of any additional specimens which display charac-
ters exactly like the types, the reference of other more or less
fragmentary material to them must, at best, be attended with
an element of uncertainty.

In the matter of the synonymy of these generic names I
have elsewhere expressed the opinion* that the type specimen
of Cope’s Mzacis belongs to the same genus as that previously
described by Marsh under the name of Vulpavus; but in the
absence of superior molars in the former, this cannot be
demonstrated with absolute certainty. After the study of a
much wider range of specimens than were at my disposal
when this conclusion was reached, I can see no reason to ques-
tion the correctness of this view.

Fortunately the relationship of the type species of U/z¢ntacyon
can now be determined with a reasonable degree of certainty
and satisfaction. In the present collection a specimen in which
there are upper and lower molars associated, shows that it is
quite distinct from Vulpavus. While the number of superior

molars cannot now be stated, they may nevertheless be assumed

to be three; this assumption is based upon (1) the relative size
of the second molar, the presence of which is indicated by its
alveolus, and (2) upon its striking resemblance to the three-

-molared Oligocene Daphenus series, of which there can be

little doubt that it was the forerunner. The main distinction
between Vulpavus and Uintacyon has hitherto been supposed
to rest upon the number of superior molars. Vulpavus was
thought to have but two and Uintacyon three, but it now
transpires that some of the species of Vulpavus have a third
molar, and it is no doubt true of all of them; in fact it seems
highly improbable that there are any species of Canids in the
Bridger which had less than three superior molars. The dis-

* Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. History, June 21, 1899, p. 110.

340 Wortman—Studies of Hocene Mammalia wm the

tinctions between the two genera are seen in the following
characters: in Vudpavus the jaw is relatively slender, the heel
of the inferior sectorial is comparatively small and _ basin-
shaped, the second and third lower molars have sharp cusps,
the main internal cusp of the first superior molar is large,
lunate, and connected with the outer cusps by an anterior and
posterior ridge upon which intermediates are developed, and
there is a postero-internal cusp. In Usntacyon, on the other
hand, the jaw is thicker and more robust, the heel of the
inferior sectorial is small and cutting, the cusps of the suc-
ceeding molars are low and obtuse, the main internal cusp of
the first superior molar is more conic and connected with the
external cusps by a ridge in front only, and there is no pos-
terior internal cusp. ,

A third group having the jaw characters of Untacyon, as
faras known, is represented by a few scattering fragments.
In this group-the premolars are much reduced in size and the
canine is laterally flattened. Members of this latter group are
found in the Wind River and Wasatch deposits, which carries
thera well back towards the base of the Eocene. That they
represent a distinct and independent phylum there can be little
doubt, and one, moreover, that is known to have left descendants
in the succeeding Uinta beds. 2

If, upon further investigation, it should be found that the
scaphoid, lunar, and centrale of the carpus are separate, which
is not altogether improbable, the question will then arise as to
whether they should be properly classed in the Canidge or
Viverravidee or whether they should be placed in a distinct
family by themselves. According to the previous and perhaps
more common acceptation of the limits of the Creodonta they
would without doubt be placed in this suborder, but I believe
with Schlosser that they stand much nearer to the Carnassi-
dentia and, as I will presently attempt to show, were the
immediate progenitors of the two and probably three main
branches of the canine phylum. If we range them with
Viverravus in the Viverravide we shall fail to express
by such a classification the distinctive and important posi-
tions which these two genera hold with respect to the
canine and viverrine branches of the Carnassidentia. There
now appears to be little doubt that when the evidence is more
complete than it is at present, it will be found that the
Canidee and Viverravidee were derived from a common ances-
tor. That the separation of these two genera took place,
however, previous to the deposition of the Torrejon beds is.
evidenced by the fact that a species of Viverravus, with all
the distinctive dental characteristics of this genus, is found
therein, and we must therefore look to an earlier date for the

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 341

actual convergence of the two groups. If the Viverravidee
were the forerunners of the civets, which appears from
present evidence to be exceedingly probable, then the dogs and
civets have had a common origin, as has been so frequently
insisted upon by Scott.

Vulpavus Marsh.

Vulpes, a fox; and avus, a grandfather. Amer, Jour. Sci. 3d ser., vol. xi, p.
124, Aug., 1871. MMiacis Cope (in part). Paleont., Bull., No. 3, Aug. 7, 1872, p. 2;
Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., p. 470, 1872: Tertiary Vertebrata, 1884, p. 301. Vul-
pavus Wortman and Matthew, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., June, 1899, p. 118.

A group of small dogs limited in their vertical distribution, so
far as at present known, to the Bridger Horizon. They are
characterized by having the dental formula I. 3, C. +, Pm. 4, M. 3,
with the relative proportions of the lower molars nearly
the same as in the modern genus Canis. The antero-external
angle of the first superior, and to a less degree that of the second
superior molar, is drawn out, and produced into more or less of a
cutting blade. The external cusps are unequal in size, the ante-
rior being the larger. The hind foot is pentadactyle, the astraga-
lus little grooved, and the femur has a third trochanter. The
humerus has a powerful deltoid crest and supinator ridge, and
there is a large entepicondylar foramen. The articulations of the
lumbar vertebrz are not complex as in some Creodonts but plane
as in most Carnivores. The claws are compressed, sharp pointed,
and unfissured. ‘The carpus is unknown.

Vulpavus palustris Marsh.

Professor Marsh, in describing the remains upon which this
genus and species were primarily established, included a por-
tion of a right superior maxillary, carrying the fourth pre-
molar and the roots of the three succeeding molars. Since
this specimen agrees so perfectly in every respect with a
species of the genus Sinopa Leidy, and differs in such impor-
tant characters from the accompanying
molar, it may be confidently excluded
from any further consideration in this
connection. The type, figure 1, consists
of a first superior molar tooth of the
right side, with the antero-external angle
missing ; otherwise the crown of the
tooth is in a perfect state of preserva- FqurEl.— Vulpavus
tion. The specimen indicates an animal palustris Marsh; first
considerably smaller than the common Red Superior meat: cum
Fox with which Professor Marsh compared (Type.)
it in his original description. The composi-
tion of the tooth crown, and the arrangement of the component
cusps and ridges indubitably stamp it as belonging to a mem-

342 Wortman—Studies of Hocene Mammalia in the

ber of the Canide, and the name Vulpavus was most happily
chosen, since it is not only the forerunner of the foxes in name
but is so in fact.

Like most of the Canide the crown is composed of two
principal external cusps, a large lunate internal ridge enclosing
a central depression or valley, together with a more internal
and posterior ledge-like elevation arising from the cingulum.
The external portion of the crown is very different from the
corresponding part of this tooth in any of the Miocene, Plio-
cene, or modern species of dogs, but resembles that of the
great majority of the older and contemporary Creodonts. This
consists in its external expansion, and the formation of a rela-
tively broad shelf-like area between the external margin of
the crown and the two external cusps. Associated with this
is the drawing out of the external angles, both anterior and
posterior in this species, and the disposition to form cutting
blades of these parts of the crown. While the antero-external
part of the tooth is broken away in the type specimen, there
can be little doubt, from its great similarity in structure to the
nearly related species described below, that this angle was
present and prominent.

Of the two external cusps, the anterior is by far the larger
and more prominent, and as this character appears to be con-
stant in all the species thus far known, it may be taken as of
generic significance. The crescentic ridge thickens consider-
ably at its internal angle into a low, stout, more or less trihedral
eusp which forms its most prominent part. External to this
the ridge is interrupted by two, less prominent, anterior and
posterior intermediate cusps situated about midway of the
tooth crown on the respective borders which they occupy.
The postero-internal cingular cusp is unusually broad and
thick for such an early species of the Canidae, in fact almost
equaling in this respect some of the modern species. The
summit of this cusp is closely connected with the cingulum
which is developed around the entire crown.

The locality of this specimen, which is the only one in the
collection, is Grizzly Buttes. This locates it near the base of
the horizon ; it was found by Professor Marsh.

The following measurements are given:

mm
Transverse diameter of posterior part of crown..-- ---. 8
Antero-posterior diameter in middle of crown. _..----- 4°5

Vulpavus Hargeri sp. nov. (Plate V.)

Two specimens of this species, which include a considerable
part of the skeleton, are contained in the collection. From
these a fairly accurate knowledge of a large part of the

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 343

osteology may be obtained. In one, which is here selected as
the type, figures 2 and 3, the larger portion of the anterior
moiety of the skull, together with a few fragments of other
bones of the skeleton, are preserved, while in the other, parts
of the skull, vertebre, one hind limb complete, parts of
fore limb, ribs, etc., are present in more or less perfect condi-
tion. There is one other specimen in which there are upper
and lower teeth in association, and in this specimen the alveolus
for the third superior molar is clearly shown.

Skull and Dentition.—The facial portion of the skull is suffi-
ciently preserved to admit of description; this together with
some fragments of the base of the skulland the larger part of the
cranial vault serve to give a reasonably accurate idea of the skull.
As compared with the Red Fox, the muzzle is shorter and less
slender, resembling in this respect the Miocene Cynodictis
gregarius, with which it agrees fairly well in size. The orbit
is relatively larger than in this latter species, holding about the
same proportions as that seen in the fox. Its anterior edge
lies over the anterior half of the sectorial as in Cynodictis,
while in the fox the orbit is more posterior. The infra-
orbital foramen is larger and occupies its usual position on the
side of the face; its postericr edge is a little more posterior
than in Cynodictis, coinciding with the anterior border of the
superior sectorial as in the fox. The skull is much con-
stricted behind the orbits as in Cynodictis, in marked
contrast with the relatively broad area of this region in the
fox. There is a distinct postorbita: process present, although
it is small as in Cynodictis. The lachrymal has the same
relative size and proportions in the three genera and is not
spread out on the face; there is a small lachrymal tubercle
present, which is less conspicuous in Cynodéctzs and absent in
the fox. The two converging branches from the postorbital
process unite just in front of the postorbital constriction to
form a sagittal crest of moderate proportions just as in the case
of the Miocene Cynodictis. In a large majority if not all the
foxes, as is well known, these branches do not unite until near
the lambdoidal crest, leaving a large lyrate area in this region of
the skull. The development of this lyrate area is no doubt
due to a progressive widening of the anterior part of the
brain. In all modern species the postorbital constriction 1s
very much less than in either the Miocene or Eocene forms.
The zygomatic arches are well developed and display a some-
what greater degree of stoutness than that of Cynodictis and
the fox.

A portion of a left squamosal exhibiting the glenoid fossa is
sufficiently preserved to indicate the existence of an unusually
broad postglenoid process; this is divided by a deep notch

344 Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the

into an external and an internal portion of which the external
is the larger. The office of this notch, which appears to be a
part of a foramen, is not altogether clear, but it is a matter of
much interest to note that a similar arrangement is seen in
the skull of the carnivorous Marsupials. Placed internal to
and close to the edge of the fossa is seen the opening of the
foramen ovale, much closer in fact than in any species of dog
with which I am acquainted. This condition would seem to
indicate a narrow brain ease, which would be in keeping with
the position of the species in the time scale. The position of
the foramen is posterior to the fossa as in the Marsupials, and
not anterior or opposite to it as in Cynodictis and the
modern dogs. Posterior to the glenoid is seen the opening
of a rather large postglenoid foramen.

The lower jaw, figure 2, is relatively a little stouter than that
of Cynodictis and considerably more so than that of the fox ; its
inferior contour is like that of the typical dogs, being deepest
in the region of the inferior sectorial, tapering thence for-
wards, and more or less curved posteriorly. The symphysis
is short, extending to beneath the anterior border of the
premolar as in Cynodzictis. In the fox the symphysis is larger
and more extended, reaching backward to beneath the anterior
border of the third premolar. The angle is broken away in
all the specimens of this species in the collection, but the base
indicates that it was present and of apparently the same
proportions as in Cynodictis. There is an appearance of a
slight degree of inflection having been present. The mas-
seteric fossa is relatively large and deep, occupying quite one-
third the entire length of the jaw; it has about the same
proportions as in Cynodictis but is considerably smaller in the
fox. The coronoid is much damaged, but there is evidence of
its goodly proportions, both as regards breadth and height.
The condyle is somewhat heavier and of greater transverse
extent than in either the Miocene or recent genera.

With the exception of the last superior molar and the superior
incisors, the dentition can be fully described. The canines are
of moderate size, more or less oval in cross-section at the base,
and well pointed. Of the inferior premolars the first is small,
single-rooted, with a somewhat conical crown, and separated
from the canine and. second premolar by short diastemata.
The second hasa flattened pointed crown, is implanted by two
roots, and separated from the tooth in advance by a diastema.
The third and fourth are larger two-rooted teeth with laterally
compressed conical crowns having distinct anterior and pos-
terior basal cusps. The third has in addition to these a faintly
marked accessory cusp developed upon the posterior border of
the crown.

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 345

The first molar, or sectorial, bears the unmistakable stamp
of an early or primitive condition of this tooth in the Car-
nassidentia. This is particularly noticeable in the great
elevation of the trigon above the heel, in the large size of the
internal cusp and the arrangement of the cusps of the trigon
in the form of an isosceles triangle, in the obliquity of the
principal shear to the axis of the jaw, and the development of
a posterior shear. In the sectorial of Cynodictis or of a modern
dog, the trigon is less elevated, the principal shear is more in

FIGURE 2.—Left lower jaw Vulpavus Hargeri Wortman; crown view; one and
one-half natural size. (Type.)

line with the jaw axis, the internal cusp of the trigon is
reduced, and the posterior shear has practically disappeared.
Of the trigon the external or principal cusp is unusually high
and prominent; it has a distinctly trihedral form, with the
anterior cutting edge but little produced, in marked contrast
with that of Cynodictis or the fox, in which the whole cusp is
laterally flattened and the anterior edge drawn out into a
cutting blade. The anterior cusp is prominent and relatively
thick; its posterior edge is extended and forms the more
important blade of the principal shear. The internal cusp is
large and with the principal outer cusp forms a posterior,
transverse shear of considerable efficiency, which bites against
the anterior edge of the first superior molar. The heel or
talon is proportionally small; it is made up of an inner basin-
shaped and an outer vertically beveled part, divided from each
other by an antero-posterior median ridge, which is terminated
behind by a rounded cusp and continued forwards to the base of
the trigon. The inner boundary of the basin is furnished by a
ridge of moderate proportions which curves around posteriorly °
to join the median cusp, inclosing between it and the median
ridge a concavity. The antero-posterior ridge joins the base
of the trigon immediately posterior to and beneath the notch
which separates the blades of the posterior or transverse shear.
The extent to which this outer beveled portion of the heel is
developed varies much in the different species of Canidae; it
has to do apparently with the pushing inwards of the principal

' external cusps of the first superior molar, for when they have

346 Wortman—Studies of Hocene Mammalia in the

an internal position the beveled portion is largeas in the present
species, and when they have an external position the beveled
portion is reduced and its position is taken by the basin-
shaped part. Taking the present species as one extreme and
the modern dogs as the other, the genus Cynodictis stands
about midway between the two in this respect.

The second molar is a diminished copy of the sectorial with
the exception that the trigon is much less in height, and there are
less distinctive shears developed among the elements of the
trigon. The cusps as well as the heel have approximately the
same relations to each other. In Cynodictis and the modern
dogs this tooth, as well as the succeeding one, has lost all
traces of the sectorial structure. The third molar is still more
reduced, being relatively as small as in. the modern species;
the crown, however, still retains traces of the tuberculo-sectorial
pattern, although but faintly. | |

FIGURE 3.—Left upper jaw of Vulpavus Hargeri Wortman ; crown view ; oneand
one-half natural size. (Type.)

Of the superior dentition, figure 3, the canines are of moderate
size and pointed, resembling those of the Miocene Cynodietis.
The first premolar is a small single-rooted tooth placed
close to the base of the canine; a short diastema intervenes
between itand the second. Thesecond and third are, asis usual
among the Canide, two rooted, with laterally flattened, pointed
crowns; the third has a posterior basal and accessory cusp
like the corresponding tooth in Cynodictis. The superior secto-
rial displays the usual form seen in the Canidge, although in
some respects it is primitive. The two external cusps are *
large and modified into very efficient shearing blades. At the
‘ base of the large antero-external cusp is seen a small tubercle
which recalls the structure of the superior sectorial among the
carnivorous viverrines. In this latter group, however, it is
larger and more distinct, while among the cats and hyenas it
has been developed into a powerful third blade. The genus
Alurodon, a dog-like mammal from the Loup Fork Miocene
of America, likewise exhibits this cusp but in a less degree of
development. The internal cusp is unusually large and has an
anterior position, displaying about the same proportions as are

preserved, so that it is impossible

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 347

observable in Herpestes or Viverriculus. It is much larger
than in the corresponding tooth of either Cynodictis or
the fox. |

The molars display the same generalized characters as those
of the type species V. palustris already described, and, notwith-
standing some minor specific differences, they are undoubtedly
indicative of the same genus. The anterior border of the
crown of the first molar is relatively much elongated in a
transverse direction. The two external cusps, of which the
anterior is the larger, are placed well inwards, and a considerable
ledge-like area which is broadest in front intervenes between
them and the external border. The postero-external angle is

-more or less rounded, and is not produced into a sharp crest

as in the type species V. palustris. The large internal cusp
is not as lunate in character as in the type species but is more
pointed and distinctly separated from the rather large anterior
intermediate, the posterior intermediate being small. The
postero-internal cusp, which is so highly characteristic of nearly
all species of the Canidee, may be said to be practically absent ;
a rather strong development of the cingulum marks its posi-
tion, however, but even this is somewhat variable in the
several specimens in which itis shown. The almost total
absence of this cusp is in marked contrast. with its strong

_ development in the type species. The crown of the second

molar is almost an exact copy of that of the first; it is, how-
ever, smaller and all the cusps are less distinct. The third
molar is not preserved, but its presence is indicated by the
alveoli in the two specimens in
which it is shown. It was small
and vestigial in character.
Vertebrw.—T here are compara-
tively few of the cervical or
dorso-lumbar series of vertebree

to give an account of either their
number or characters. Some
fragments of the lumbars, in
which the zygapophyses are
fairly perfect, indicate that their. Fieures 4, 5.—Caudal vertebra of
centra were large as in the early Vulpavus Hargeri ; natural size. (Co-
Carnivora and that their articu- "P°?
lations were not complex as in :
many Creodonts. Some well-preserved caudals, figures 4 and 5,
show that the tail was large and presumably of good lengtn.
Scapula and Fore Limb.—The head of the scapula presents
the same pyriform, cup-shaped glenoid cavity as that seen in

348 Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia.

the fox, but the coracoid is larger and more elongate as in

Cynodictis. The neck is short, the spine

s rises abruptly, close to the glenoid border,

and terminates in an overhanging acromion

and metacromion. There is not enough of

the bone preserved to indicate the relations

of the fossee with certainty, but they were

apparently like those of Cynodictis as
described by Scott.*

The humerus, figure 9, is broken in the
region of its proximal third and does not
give the character of the head of the bone.
The most conspicuous feature of the shaft
is the development on its anterior surface of
the very large and prominent deltoid crest,
which extends more than half way to the
distal end. Associated with this are seen
the unusually prominent supinator ridge and
internal condyle, all of which serve to give
to the bone a combination of characters
hitherto completely unknown among the
Canide. The entepicondylar foramen is
- present but there is no anconeal perforation.
ae es e = ae ‘ The anconeal and anticubital fosse are dis-
Wrantndn Gaara gre, tinct and the articular surface is of unusual

transverse extent, as it is in the cats and
viverrines, and very different from the modern dogs.

The radius, figure 6, resembles that of the civets much more
than of the modern dogs. The shaft is slightly curved and
moderately flattened. The head is cup-shaped and subcircular
in outline, indicating power of complete pronation and supina-
tion; the tubercle for the insertion of the biceps is strong and
that for the principal pronator of the fore arm is unusually
well developed. The distal end is broken so as to destroy
a considerable part of the articular surface for the carpus.
Judging from what is preserved of this surface, however,
there was apparently no division into separate scaphoid and
lunar facets. This would seem to indicate a consolidated
scapho-lunar, but this evidence is not altogether reliable.

* Trans. Philos. Soc. Phila., vol. ix, p. 381, 1898.
[To be continued. |

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.

Skull of Vulpavus Hargeri Wortman ; side view ; one and one-half natural
size (Type).

Duane— Velocity of Chemical Reactions. 349

Art. XX VIII.—On the Velocity of Chemical Reactions ; by
- Wiuitiam DUANE.

In investigating the laws of physical chemistry it is expe-
dient for the physicist to devise and develop the methods of
measurement, and for the chemist to apply them. In the fol-
lowing pages are described two methods of measuring the
velocity of chemical reactions. The velocity of a chemical
reaction is the rate at which a chemical compound appears or
disappears during that reaction. The changes in the quantity
of this compound present during successive intervals of time
are measured by the changes in some property of the chemical
system during the intervals. This property is usually either
a chemical or a physical one.

In the first of the following methods the basis of the
measurement is the change in the index of refraction of the
system, and in the second the change in its volume.

The first method is applicable to those chemical systems .

| only that are transparent. It is substantially the following.

Rays of light from an illuminated slit S (Fig. 1) passing through
a long focus lens L and the tube a bcd form a distant image
S, of S. The slit S is perpendicular to the plane of the
diagram which represents a horizontal section of the appa-
ratus. The tube abcd has plane glass ends a b and cd;
and a plane glass plate a ¢ divides it into two wedge-shaped
compartments. The ends a 6 and ¢d are not quite parallel
to each other, so that if the two compartments are filled with
liquids having the same index of refraction there will be a
slight resultant refraction of the light rays that pass through
the tube. The rays of light that pass outside of the tube
therefore will form an image §, a little to one side of S,. It
is evident that if the liquid in one compartment (the wedge
acd for instance) is undergoing a chemical change its index
of refraction in general will vary and the image 8, will move
sideways. The distance that S, has moved will be a measure
of the change that has taken place in the index of refraction
and, therefore, of the amount of substance in ac d, that has
reacted. The displacements of S, can be determined by com-
paring its distances from S, which remains stationary.

Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Smrizs, Vou. XI, No. 65.—May, 1901.

350 Duane— Velocity of Chemical Reactions.

In order to obtain a complete record of the position of 8, a
photographic plate $,S, is placed in a vertical position at the
images S, and 8, and just in front of it a screen. A nar-
row horizontal slit cut in the screen allows a small part of the
light only to pass through. At any instant of time, there-
fore, there will be two small spots of light on the plate at the
intersections of the two images §, and 8, with the projection
of the slit on the plate. A system of cog-wheels allows the
photographic plate to fall slowly during the reaction so that
two lines are drawn on it, one of them straight due to the
fixed image 8, and the other curved due to the moving image
S,. The curved line represents the reaction in that the absyssas
are proportional to the intervals of time and the ordinates rep-
resent (but are not proportional to) the quantities of the sub-
stance that have reacted. After the reaction is completed the
plate is drawn up and lowered again and the image §, traces a
third line that is practically straight. This line may be taken
as the zero line and the distances between it and the curved
one are (at least in some cases) proportional to the amounts of
the original compounds left in the solution.

2

Fig. 2 isa reduced copy of a photograph representing the in-
version of a 25 per cent solution of cane sugar, the inversion being
accelerated by the addition of hydrochloric acid. The middle
horizontal line represents the position of the image 8, twenty-
four hours after the reaction had started. The vertical lines
were drawn with a dividing engine after the plate had been
developed. The distance between two successive lines repre-

Duoane— Velocity of Chemical Reactions. 351

sents fifteen minutes. This distance was determined on a
separate plate by lighting a magnesium burner for an instant
every hour at some distance in front of the horizontal slit, and
by measuring on the dividing engine the distance between the
lines thus formed. A heavy vertical line to the extreme right
of the plate (not seen in the copy) is a magnesium flash-light
line and represents the instant at which the hydrochloric acid
and sugar solution were mixed.

The photographic plate was fastened in a frame hung on a
fine iron wire that was wrapped around a cylinder on the axle
of one of the wheels in the works of a clock. The escape-
ment: of the clock was operated by an electro-magnet the cir-
euit of which was made and broken by the swing of the
pendulum of a standard clock. On account of the escape-
ment the downward motion of the plate was by jerks, but as
each jerk carried the plate only about ~,th of a mm. this is
not apparent from the photograph.

It is evident from the way in which the fifteen-minute
lines are drawn that no correction need be made for the shrink-
age of the gelatine films, for practically the same shrinkage
takes place on one plate as on another. The shrinkage too
reduces all the ordinates of the curve in the same proportion,
and if the relative positions of the images are always deter-

mined by measurements on a photographic plate no correction

need be applied to the ordinates.

The object of having two wedge-shaped compartments is to
reduce the dispersion of the light passing through them as much
as possible, indeed white light from an incandescent lamp can
be used. The solution in the wedge a 0 d is the same as that
in acd except that in it the reaction has already taken place.
Under these circumstances the indices of refraction in the two
wedges are very nearly equal and a slow change of a few
degrees in temperature does not displace the image 8, since
such a change affects the index of refraction in both solutions
practically to the same extent. ,

In the above described experiment the dimensions of the
apparatus were as follows: SL (Fig. 1) = 150; LS, = 250™;
ab =1™; ad =5°3™; Lb = 15™, approximately. The breadth
of the slit in front of the figure was °2™, and its distance from
the figure about °3°™.

That the distance of the image §, at any time from its final
position after the reaction has been completed is very approx1-
mately proportional to the amount of cane sugar left in the
solution at that time, may be seen from the following reason-
ing. The proof is based upon the assumptions that the density

: ee ee
d and the specific index of refraction —~—. . > of the solution
m+2 a

352 Duane— Velocity of Chemical Reactions.

(where m is the ordinary index of refraction) are additive
functions of the constituents (see Nernst, Zheoretasche Chemie).
Granting these, it follows that the difference between the

value of zeal at any time and its final value must be propor-
v%

+2
tional to the amount z of cane sugar remaining at that time.
Denoting this difference by A we have
ie == Ke
2
Approximately for small changes

Pye | “se dh fies pein 67 re
mi+2- du \n?+2 ~ (n? +2)
2 9 2
Hence An = gee kez
67

If n (Fig. 3) is the index of refraction of the already reacted
solution
n sin 8 fe sin (a+ Aa)
ne” vsle? ) fe ssunie
= 1— cotasin Aa
approximately, and therefore,

: nN, An
COG si Ag =)
n n
An

2 Cota

or sin Aa =

If D is the distance from the solution to the screen
y _ sin Aa

D ~ cos Aa’
.*. y = Dsin Aa approximately

Hence
2 2
pe
nm Cota
nm does not vary more than ‘1 per cent and if m lies between
(n?-+2)*
2

1:3 and 1:4, which it usually does, the expression is

practically constant.

Hence y is proportional to 2, or the displacement of the
image from its final position is proportional to the quantity of
cane sugar in the solution.

Duane— Velocity of Chemical Reactions. 353

Whether or not y is proportional to z in any particular case
should and can be tested experimentally as follows. Take
equal quantities by weight of a solution that has already
_ reacted and of one that is just beginning to react. Mix them
together and obtain a curve as above. This mixture is equiva-
lent to a solution that has reacted half way, and the total change
in the position of 8, as indicated by the curve should be 4
that in the case of the original solution. Such a curve photo-
graphed for the inversion of sugar proved the proportionality
to within about 4 of a percent. If y is found not to be pro-
portional to z a number of mixtures must be made with vary-
ing quantities of new and old solutions, and the relation
between y and 2 determined.

The distances between the lines on the photographic plate
corresponding to the different instants of time can be meas-
ured by means of a micrometer microscope of low power. I
have found it more satisfactory, however, to place a glass scale
over the plate and take the readings with a small lens, illumi-
nating both scale and plate by means of a mirror below them.

The following table contains the results of such measure-
ments on the plate representing the inversion of sugar. The
first ‘column contains the time ¢ expressed in minutes; the
second, the distances y in centimeters between the curve and
the line drawn 24 hours later (the value of y for ¢ = 0 being
extrapolated), and the third, the percentage of cane sugar left
in the solution.

k

’ oa 23026
0 25°5 25° 00535
15 21°2 20°78

30 179 17°54 "00490
45 15°4 15°09 "00463
60 13°25 12°99 "00454
75 11°3 11°07 "00455
70 9°75, 9°56 "00449
105 8°5 8°33 00441
120 74 7°25 "00435
135 6:4 6:27 00433
150 5°05 5°44 "00431
165 4°85 4°75 "00427
180 4°3 4°22 "00412
195 3°95 3°87 "00405
210 3°6 3°03 "003895
225 3°3 3°23 "00385

According to Gouldberg and Waage’s law the rate at which
the cane sugar disappears should be proportional to the amount

left in the solution. Hence = —-—khz

354 Duane— Velocity of Chemical Reactions.

Or integrating between 7, and @

E e, Zz
k (t—t,) = log, Ba 2°3026 log,, a
2°3026 Zz
fg ee ee 10 pall
rn ra ene

| k

The third column in the table contains the values of PRCETy
calculated by this formula, using the value ¢, = 15 minutes so
as to avoid extrapolation. It appears that # as calculated above

o

is not a constant. The decrease in its value indicates that the
velocity of the reaction is greater at the beginning or less at
the end than would be expected from Gouldberg and Waage’s
law. During the reaction, of course, the amount of water
present changes perceptibly, but not enough to account for the
large variation of & The total change during the entire reac-
tion is less than 2 per cent. The deviation from Gouldberg
and Waage’s law may be due to the relatively large quantity
of hydrochlorie acid in the solution. To decide whether it is
or not will be the object of further investigation.

The second method is based upon the change in the volume
of the chemical system during the reaction. In order to meas-
ure the change in volume the system is placed in a spiral glass
tube (Fig. 4), on one end of which is sealed a capillary tube A B
and on the other end a ground stopper and cup C. The react-
ing system may fill the entire spiral or only a part of it, the
rest being filled with a liquid that does not combine with the
given system. If the volume increases during the reaction,
the cup A and most of the tube A B are filled with mercury.
If the volume decreases, the cup and only a small part of the
tube are filled. Evidently during the change of volume the
mercury is drawn in or pushed out through the capillary tube
and the positions of the end of the mercury column measure
the amount of change.

tt re Nn

2 ST PAGEL EP FIO w Ei: aS SD

=p ANS

ee eS ee oe

a
aT Skog
>.

By

5 Pasa ae
ip Neate BIS

Duane— Velocity of Chemical Reactions. 355

The particular form represented (Fig. 4) was adopted, first,
in order that the temperature of the system should remain that
of a bath in which the spiral is immersed owing to the large
surface presented to the bath; and second, in order that the
tube might be filled, and the first reading of the position of
the mercury column taken as soon after the reaction started as
possible. The liquid is first poured in at C and allowed to fill
the spiral, the tube A B and the cup A. Mercury is then
poured into A and finally the stopper inserted at C. A little
practice in manipulating the stopper and tilting the whole
tube will enable one to set the dividing surface between the
mercury and the other liquid at any desired point in the capil-
lary tube. The tube A Bis graduated or a graduated scale is
fastened to it.

In most cases the change in the volume of a system is small.
Hence, if the temperature of the apparatus varies during the
reaction, even by a small amount, the consequent change in
volume will be a large fraction perhaps of the change we wish
to measure. It is, therefore, necessary to immerse the spiral
tube in a delicate thermostat. In the following experiment on
the inversion of a 25 per cent solution of cane sugar the
electrical thermostat described by my assistant Mr. Lory and
myself in this Journal for March, 1900, was used. The tem-
perature of the bath did not vary as much as 574,,th of a degree
except once, and then the variation was only about ;,,,5th of a
degree. ;

In this experiment the spiral tube contained about 100° of
the solution. The length of the capillary tube A B was 36™,
and its cross section about 1%°™™. The temperature was
aa. O(a ©.

The first two columns of the following table contain the
readings of the end of the mercury column, on a metal scale
attached to the capillary tube, together with the corresponding
intervals of time ¢ in minutes.

After allowing the apparatus to stand 24 hours and the
reaction to become practically completed, the bath was heated
up again to 25°-872 C., allowing all of the mercury which had
been drawn into the spiral to run out. The end of the mer-
cury column then stood at the mark °20, which is the zero cor-
responding to zero quantity of cane sugar in the solution.
The third column in the table contains the readings referred
to this zero. :

Under the assumption that the volume of the solution is an
additive function of the constituents, these latter distances rep-
resenting the changes in volame should be proportional to the
quantities of cane sugar left in solution. The last column

\

356 Duane— Velocity of Chemical Reactions.

R x
contains the values of ee: calculated from the formula

k 1 2

== log —-

03096 “it Gas

k
t em. cm. 23096
0

20 34°55 34°35
4] 29°66 29°46 °00318
55 26°87 26°67 "00314
70 24°28 24°08 °00308
85 Qieow 21°41 °00316
100 19°88 19°63 "003038
115 17°86 17°66 "003804
130 16:12 15°92 "00303
145 14°99 14°79 "00292
160 13°80 13°60 "00287
175 12°70 12°50 "00284
190 11°85 11°65 "00276
205 10°96 10°76 “O02 7.2
22.0 10°63 10°43 "00259
235 9°92 9°72 "00255
250 9°37 a ry "00249
265 . 8°80 8°60 "00245

We see that & decreases, indicating as before that the velocity
is less rapid at the end than would be expected from Gould-
berg and Waage’s law.

If desired, a 1 complete record of the position of the mercury
column could be obtained by any of the methods for recording
the readings of a mercury thermometer.

The chief advantages of the above described methods are,
first that the chemical system is not disturbed during the reac-
tion; second, that no time is lost in titration or other chemical
tests for the state of the system, thus making it possible to
investigate rapid reactions; third, that it is not necessary for |
the experimenter to make observations during the reaction,
which is a tedious piece of work if the velocity is very small;
and fourth, the curves are drawn by purely mechanical
processes, thus avoiding the influence of the personal equation.

A third method' based upon the change in the index of
refraction of the chemical system as measured by the motion
of interference bands is being perfected.

In conclusion I wish to thank my assistant, Mr. F. C. Blake,
for the care with which he has helped me obtain the above
data. He and his brother, Mr. J. C. Blake, are at work apply-
ing the methods to hitherto uninvestigated reactions.

Hale Physical Laboratory,
University of Colorado.

Tufts—Transmission of Sound, ete. 357

~

Art. XXIX.—The Transmission of Sound through porous
. materials ; by F. L. Turts, Ph.D.

A FEW years ago some experiments were made by the author
for the purpose of determining the relative conductivities of
different porous materials for sound waves. The methods
employed at that time were comparatively crude, and while
the data obtained could not be relied upon for great accuracy,
they showed unmistakably that when two porous materials dif-
fer noticeably in the resistance offered to the transmission of
sound, they also differ, in approximately the same way, in the
resistance offered to the flow of a current of air through them.*
When [| attempted to obtain numerical results expressing the
relative resistances offered by a number of different porous
materials to the transmission of sound, I found that deter-
minations made under different conditions gave results which
varied to some extent. Some rather rough measurements of
the relative resistances offered by these same materials to the
transmission of air through them under different pressures,
also showed variations greater than could be readily accounted
for. It therefore seemed desirable to make a more careful
comparison of the two phenomena.

For this purpose three different porous materials were
selected, and in order not to introduce unnecessary complica-
tions, granular materials were chosen, the granules of which
consisted of ordinary lead shot: a very considerable uniformity
in the size and shape of the granules composing any one of the
materials was thus obtained, and it was found that the packing
of the material produced little or no difference in its conduc-
tivity. The coarsest material used consisted of a shot 4°37"
in diameter. This will be referred to as material A ; an inter-
mediate material composed of a shot 2°79™™ in diameter will
be designated by the letter B, and the material having the
finest granules, a shot 1:22™™ in diameter, will be called C.
When a cylindrical vessel was filled with any one of these
materials, it was found that about 40 per cent of the volume
of the vessel was still occupied by air, and this percentage was
practically the same whether the coarsest material, A, or the
finest, C, was used.

In the first part of this paper, I shall describe the experi-
ments for determining the variations in the resistances offered
by the three materials A, B, and ©, to the flow of air through
them under different pressures. In the second part the

* Science (N. S.) ix, 219-220, 1899

358 Tufts—Transmission of Sound

experiments for ‘determining the variations in the resistances
offered by these same materials to the to and fro motion of the
air particles of a sound wave will be given.

a]
s

[o}
fo]

CO:

Ss

ZG

Fig. 1

Flow of air through granular materials.

The apparatus employed in studying the flow of air through
the three sizes of shot is shown schematically in fig. 1. It
consists essentially of a tube, T, about 75 centimeters long
and 2°5 centimeters inside diameter, provided at p with a
partition of wire gauze the meshes of which are fine enough
to prevent the smallest shot from falling through. Near
either end of this tube are connected side tubes, ¢ and 7’, to
which are attached respectively the two arms of a water
manometer, M. The upper end of the tube, T, is connected
though a cock, S, with a source of compressed air, and the
lower end of the tube is connected to a gas-meter, G. In

i
Parr,

through Porous Materials. 359

using the apparatus the tube, T, would be disconnected from
the source of compressed air, and one of the sizes of shot, B
for example, poured into it till the desired length of shot
column had been added. ‘The tube would then be reconnected
to the compressed air-pipe, and the cock, §, turned till the
manometer indicated the desired difference in air pressure
between the two ends of the column of shot. The rate of flow
of air through the shot would be measured by noting with a
stop-watch the time required for a definite volume of air,
usually one cubic foot, to pass through the meter. The data
recorded would be the size of shot, A, B or C; the length in
centimeters of the column of shot in the tube; the difference
in pressure between the two ends of the column, given by the
manometer in centimeters of water, and the time in seconds
required for a given volume of air to flow through the shot.
The first experiments were for the purpose of ascertaining

_ the relation between the resistance offered by a granular mate-

\

rial to the flow of air and the length or thickness of the mate-
rial used. The length of a column of shot, C for example, was
made equal to 10, 20, 30, ete. centimeters successively, and the
difference in pressure between the two ends of the column was
made respectively 1, 2, 3, ete. centimeters of water. Under
these conditions the times required for a given volume of air
to flow through the different lengths of the material were
found to be equal.

For convenience in stating the results of these experiments,
the term pressure-gradient will be used to designate the
quotient obtained by dividing the difference in pressure between
the two ends of a column of shot by the length of the column.
It represents the difference in pressure per unit length of the
material. Using this term, the results of the above experi-
ments may be stated as follows:

For a given size of shot and a given pressure-gradient, the
rate of flow of air through the shot 1s independent of the length
of column used. This is equivalent to the statement that, other
things being equal, the resistance offered by one of these mate-
rials to the flow of air through it, is directly proportional to
the length or thickness of the material used.

Experiments were conducted with pressure-gradients rang-
ing from 1, to about + of a centimeter of water per centimeter
length of material, and the columns of shot were varied in
length from 5 to 70 centimeters. All three sizes of shot were
experimented with, and no marked deviation from the above
law was found within these limits.

The next experiments were for the purpose of studying the
relation between the increase in difference of pressure between
the two ends of a column of shot, and the increased flow of air

360 Tufts—Transmission of Sound

throughit. Thedata given in Table I are typical of the results
obtained.

The length of the column of shot used in this particular case
was 69 centimeters. The successive differences in pressure
between the two ends of the column are given in centimeters
of water in the first column of the table headed M. The
columns headed A, B and O, give the times in seconds required
for a tenth of a cubic foot of air to flow through the materials
A, Band C respectively, under the corresponding differences in
pressure indicated in the first column. The next three columns
of the table contain the products of the pressures into the cor-
responding times of flow through the three sizes of shot A, B
and O respectively. An examination of these products shows

TABLE I,
it A B C MxA MxB MxC C/Ay C78
i 48°5 101°0 484°0 48 101 484 10°0 4°8
2 31°5d 59°0 283°0 63 118 566 8°9 4°8
4 19:1 31°1 150°0 76 124 600 Theis) 4°8
8 13°6 20°6 79:0 105 165 632 5°8 3°8
16 S°1 13°1 39°0 130 210 624 4°8 2°9
26 6°4 9°7 24°0 166 252 624 hae 2°4

that the times of flow through the different materials decreases
less rapidly than the pressure-gradient increases. This differ-
ence in rates is much more marked for the coarse materials, A
and b, than for the finer material O, and for all of the mate-
rials is more noticeable for the lower than for the higher pres-
sure-gradients. As a result of this, the ratio of the time
required fora given volume of air to flow through C to the time
required to flow through A or B at the same pressure, given in
the columns headed C/A and C/B respectively, is seen to be
different for different pressures. A comparison of these ratios
shows that they decrease in value as the pressure-gradient
increases. The results of the experiments may be summed up
in the following statement :

As the pressure-gradient for either of the materials A, B or
C is increased, the rate of flow of air through the material
increases less ‘rapidly than the pressure-gradient, within the
range of pressures investigated. This difference of ratio of
increase is more noticeable for the coarse than. for the fine
shot, and as a result of this, the numbers expressing the rela-
tive rates of flow of air through A and B as compared to C,
become smaller as the pressure-gradient increases. This is
equivalent to the statement that the resistances offered by the
three sizes of shot to the flow of air through them, become
more nearly equal as the pressure-gradient increases. The
pressure-gradients used varied from 0:01 to 0°60 of a centi-
meter of water per centimeter length of material.

e_—_-

a

— ag r=

through Porous Materials. 361

Flow of sound through granular materials.

These experiments were undertaken for the purpose of ascer-
taining if there were any variations in the resistances offered
by the materials A, B and C, to the transmission of sound
through them, corresponding to the variations already detected
in the case of air currents. A number of different forms of
apparatus were used in studying the relation between the
resistance offered by such materials to the transmission of
sound and the thickness of the material used. The form of
apparatus which seemed least subject to disturbing influences is
shown schematically in fig. 2.

Fig. 2

It consists essentially of athin rubber membrane h, stretched
over a brass ring, which fits snugly in the opening through the
block of wood, B. To the center of the membrane is attached
a rectangular index of tinfoil, D, having a very narrow
slit cut in it near its outer end. A microscope, M, provided
with a micrometer ocular, is so mounted that it can be
focused on the slit in the index, the slit being illuminated by a
lamp, L. A tray, T, three centimeters deep, and about three
centimeters in diameter, provided with a bottom of wire
gauze, sits snugly on the block, directly over the membrane,
and in itis placed the granular material under investigation.
The application of alittle cement around the edges of the tray

makes an air-tight joint between it and the block, B. Thus

the membrane together with the air in the tray above it forms

362 Tufts—Transmission of Sound

a single vibrating system, and any vibration of the membrane
must be accompanied by a to and fro motion of the air in the
tray. The block containing the membrane, microscope and
tray was mounted onasuitable support, about fifty centimeters
above an organ pipe, O, provided with a sliding piston, P,
so that the effective length of the pipe could be varied, and
the pipe thus brought in unison with the fundamental note of
the apparatus above it. The organ-pipe was connected to a
source of compressed air, and by means of a suitably placed
stop-cock and manometer, the pressure at which the pipe was
blown was kept constant. When the note emitted by the pipe
was of about the same pitch with the fundamental note of the
membrane, this would be set in quite violent vibration, and the
amplitude of the vibration could be determined by measuring
with the microscope the width of the band of light produced
by the vibration of the slit, A.

A few preliminary experiments indicated that when the
fundamental note of the membrane was as low as two hundred
vibrations per second, no appreciable change in the fundamental
note of the system, composed of the membrane and air in the
tray above it, was produced by the gradual addition of shot to
the tray. Under this condition, the diminution in the ampli-
tude of vibration of the membrane, when shot is poured into
the tray, is due chiefly to the increased resistance offered by
the shot to the to and fro motion of the air particles, and only
a very small amount is due to the slight change produced in
the fundamental note of the system composed of the mem-
brane and air in the tray.

In the experiments for the purpose of comparing the resist-
ance of different thicknesses of the granular materials, the
organ pipe was tuned to the vibrating system, R and T, and
blown at a constant pressure. The amplitude of vibrations of
the membrane was measured after each addition of a half cen-
timeter thickness of shot. The differences between the recip-
recals of these amplitudes should theoretically be proportional
to the resistances offered by the various thicknesses of shot
introduced. ‘The data given in Table II are representative of
the results obtained.

TABLE II.
A B C At B' C' A'/T B/E C'/T
60°0 60°0 60°0
24°0 18°0 105 -0250 -0889 _:0786 +0250 +0889 -0786
157021150 55> 0500, -0743.. °1652.. °0250) 703 7G. eaa2s
10°5 G5 4:0 :0786. °1167 °2834,. -0262, > -OseSraeuale
8°5 655 3°0:. "1010, "1500... 3167 :0252)) sOawaes
6°5 5°0 20 AA 72h elSss.. "4834 >. 9254 0367 °0967
5°5 4°0 2:0, *1652, -°2334:.°4834 °0275 0S8Suaaue

ese
5 pt...

through Porous Materials. 363

The note used in this particular case was about 150 vibra-
tions per second. The numbers in the first column of the
table headed T represent the thickness, in half centimeters, of
the material in the tray. The next three columns, A, B and
C respectively, contain the amplitudes of vibration of the
membrane, in eightieths of a millimeter, after the addition to
the tray of the corresponding thicknesses of the different mate-
rials A, B, and C respectively. The numbers given in the
columns headed A’, B’, and C’, are obtained by subtracting the
reciprocal of the amplitude of vibration with the empty tray
in place, from the reciprocals of the amplitudes of vibrations
when 1, 2, 3, etc. half centimeters of one of the three sizes of
shot A, B, or C, had been placed in the tray. These numbers
should be, theoretically, proportional to the resistances offered
by 1, 2, 3, ete. half centimeters of the different materials used.
In the last three columns of the table, headed A’/T, B’/T and
Q’/T, are given the quotients obtained by dividing these num-
bers by the corresponding thickness of the material. An
examination of these quotients shows them to be practically
constant foragiven size of shot. The variations are no greater
than can be accounted for by experimental errors, since the
amplitudes of vibration could not be read toa greater accuracy
than two or three units in the first place of decimals, thus mak-
ing the percentage error greater for small than for large
amplitudes. Experiments with much modified forms of the
apparatus indicated the same relation between resistance and
thickness. This relation may be stated as follows: The
resistance offered by granular materials to the to and fro
motion of the air particles in a sound-wave is proportional to
the thickness of the material, other things being equal. Hence
the relation between resistance and thickness is the same as was
found to hold for direct currents of air.

Observations were also made upon the transmission of sound
and of direct currents of air through porous materials of a woven
texture, such as cheese cloth, cambric and cotton flannel, and
also through materials like felting and cotton batting. With
such materials it was much more difficult to obtain consistent
results than with shot, owing to variations in packing. By
subjecting the materials always to the same pressure, the
variation due to packing was almost eliminated, and the results
then showed that the resistance which such materials offered
to the transmission of sound and of direct currents of air, was
directly proportional to the thickness or number of layers of
the material used, as was the case with granular materials.

364 Tufts— Transmission of Sound, ete.

For practical purposes, it is quite important to know the
comparative opacity of equal thicknesses of different substances
to sound waves, that is, the relative resistances they oppose to
the transmission of sound. Determinations of the relative
resistances offered by different materials showed considerable
variations, according to the conditions under which the mate-
rials were compared. lor example: a comparison of the resist-
ances offered by the two sizes of shot, A and C, to the trans-
mission of sound, made in another set of experiments, showed
that when the materials were placed near the node of a station-
ary sound-wave the finer shot, C, opposed only twice as much
resistance to the to and fro motion of the air particles as the
coarser material A, while if the comparison was made near a
loop, C offered over ten times as much resistance as A. Experi-
ments are now in progress for the purpose of studying the varia-
tions in the relative resistances of the three materials, A, B and
C, to the transmission of sound. The resistances offered by equal
thicknesses of the different materials have been compared at
different positions, with respect to the nodes of a stationary
sound-wave. ‘The results so far obtained seem to warrant the
conclusion that the relative resistance of C, as compared to
either A or B, varies according. to the distance of the material
from the node of the stationary sound-wave. Diminishing the
distance from the node has the same effect upon the relative
resistances of the materials to the transmission of sound that
increasing the pressure-gradient has upon the relative resistances.
of the same materials to the transmission of air currents.

Physical Laboratory of Columbia University,
Noy. 17, 1900.

nS oni ot

Crook— Yoke with intercepted Magnetic Circuit, etc. 365

Art. XXX.—On a@ Yoke with intercepted Magnetic Circuit
for measuring [Hysteresis ; by ZENO Crook, A.M., Fellow
in Physies, University of Nebraska.

HopxkiInson’s bar and yoke method of studying the mag-:
netic hysteresis in iron necessitates either breaking the con-
tinuity of the magnetic circuit in the specimen to be examined
or using the “step up” method. In many instances it is

impossible to break the magnetic circuit as in the first method,

while the “step up” method cannot be used when it is desir-
able to determine the magnetic flux without varying the same.
For example, if we wish to study the effect on the magnetic

1

n

mM
ANI
CC |
gee | " o aaa
CO
M

flux of an electric current it is impossible to break the mag-
netic circuit or vary the same during the observations. These
difficulties may, however, be overcome by measuring the flux
in the yoke itself. This method has been resorted to by
Koepsel and others in direct-reading permeameters. In all
these instruments, however, the air gap is so large that the
reluctance of the circuit is very much increased.

*These difficulties are overcome in a yoke designed by
Professor D. B. Brace and constructed for him by Messrs.
Siemens and Halske of Berlin. This yoke was forged from
the best Norway iron and carefully annealed. Its cross-sec-
tion is 100[_]em. and the mean length of its magnetic cireult
is 54°™, It is divided into two like parts. The two halves,
fig. 1, are mounted on a solid base and so arranged that the

Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourts Suries, Vou. XI, No. 65.—May, 1901.
24

366 Crook— Yoke with intercepted Magnetic Circuit

slot S may be varied in width or be completely closed up at

pleasure. Usually, however, the width is reduced to one or

two-tenths of a millimeter. It was found that even within

these narrow limits it was possible to use a test coil of suffi-

cient number of turns to give accurate readings for weak
fields. This coil C was constructed so that the total induction

in the yoke would pass through it. It consisted of 125 turns

of No. 46 double silk-covered wire between two thin sheets

of mica. That part of the coil which had to pass through the

slot was made of one layer of wire and the total thickness was.
such as to pass with perfect freedom through the slot when

the latter was adjusted to a width not greater than 025°". Its

resistance was approximately 1000 ohms.

2

The specimens of iron or steel to be tested are shaped into
cylindrical rods 40 long with a cross-section of °28[ ]cm.
These fit into cylindrical grooves in the ends of the yoke and
are clamped in place by iron covers and brass set screws. The
magnetizing solenoid should be as small as possible. The
solenoid which was used was constructed for another purpose
and was much larger than necessary for bars of these dimen-
sions. This solenoid “M” was 19 long and consisted of
1000 turns of No. 16 double covered copper wire. It was
wound in nine layers on a brass spool, the inside diameter of
which was 275°". The rod when in position is coaxial with —
this coil.

The induction in the yoke is easily measured by jerking the
test-coil from the slot and reading the deflection produced on
the ballistic galvanometer. To determine the induction in —

——-_

+ Jor measuring Hysteresis. 367

‘ the rod it is necessary to know the leakage coefficient of the
} yoke, or the ratio of the induction in the rod to that in the
yoke. A test of the leakage coefficient for different induc-
tions is shown in fig. 2. |

chee li: nabs

---~ > = “ADOTONHOSL 30 JLNLILENI CLA7ONHO VERVE

EE
}
=
os
Sen eaeeae! 4
: rt -
f
ma :
i ia zal
} i
T T
FE a Ht
a et mon eae
ee Gaeen tt
‘ U4 ; Pert + —— stapes r
? qantas en enaee Pan
ey. et eacuenan as am :
s=b :
"i seer ees
oy i Ee i t Et
Nf raw
P Sana Sena tert
t t ; f + a
ae siiieseit HH
5 rH { i q
: SAE 7
oa Het aa
r EEE a ag
vs = f rs i i
~~ = 5 ie 1 seariai =m
< t cH cos
atin EEE cH
‘-6 i — rt Tho T 1
es ECCC EEE i ret L ra i
+3 See SEES EEE
Ay a i im HEH Poort 1
= ‘ + or FERECEE EACH
=, mt i rr 1 it n n
Pa) 1 u + i f am Ht Peet TE 1
5 awa t Es rH i } tot t i
- = : ES peer eeees aoe eeaeea Geese
° H rare Ba a ott
; estas Sbaavauvatvasaoecezataas sesgatezad gaveesaecatess
We : Eee FREER sted epatspebalctatskee sete t HH Bone
—— aa rg AE TTT ETS 44
4 4 =: at cE Pee
a t i + iam ee a0 rH
ye SSE aagaaal eae
4 T T CT Lt i 1T i 1
E HEESIECEE aes eeeecestettoooes Ear Heer
= = i 7. ue Reece eaoeae
bs srmeaaads: ie {Sune SEER wes peopEcEEES nee
ae onaeauen! = aa calaet jog begins posed wanns Cescucaucacnaesenna
” reef EERE RE
rT r rrr cS Tr -t
3 t oe ore f seanaeezas f Bass ue
== Sher poe At
z u mt = Ee Bass oH
= sears I FERRE EEA Poy
4 Hi Sune tugeagaeanm ee
wt i beret (onduoumea © EEANEEE
= rey eae jaime : Bids
: oe eel Po NSE
Mi onng poaae eras — Shins snag anes Gueaseneucscus aye
-— sees pages = SS pei aues
moa SEGEe E a0 rm co Ht aaa
—- ieee i. Bee aga SuSE SEREE Sees mavens
- saan o qf oeeweuel ae
i f oe
+ + i ate tr t
sy ai
; Ht

For observing its induction, a coil of fine wire was wound
closely around the rod and the ends brought out and connected
with a three-way switch, so that the induction for the same
magnetizing current could be successively observed in the rod
and in the yoke.

368 Crook— Yoke with intercepted Magnetic Circuit, ete.

The first curve taken is represented by the dotted line.
This shows that because of the large inside diameter of the
magnetizing solenoid, as compared with the diameter of the
rod, the induction in the yoke became greater than that in the
rod when the rod approached saturation,

Compensating coils of a few turns were wound around the
yoke, as shown by 2 and 7’, and were connected in series with |
the magnetizing solenoid. As the current increases in them
they tend to increase the leakage of the yoke, and when prop-
erly adjusted by a suitable number of turns gave the curve
of leakage coefficients represented by the full line.

It is seen that this curve is almost a straight line and could
be made more nearly so by a proper relation of the size of the
iron rod and the magnetizing solenoid. If the rod werea
little larger or the magnetizing solenoid. a little smaller the
dotted curve would not drop so rapidly and the full curve
would be more nearly a straight line.

Even with the proportions used in this yoke the deviation
from a constant value is so small that the error is negligible in
taking the leakage coefficient constant. This form of yoke
may thus be used for scientific measurements, as it gives, prac-
tically, a perfect hysteresis cycle. ‘This is well shown in the
curves in fig. 3, which were obtained by multiplying the induc-
tions in the yoke by this coefficient. The use of the yoke for
studying the demagnetizing action of electric currents, with-
out interrupting the magnetic circuit or varying the same by
means of the solenoid, is illustrated in these curves. The first
one gives the cycle when no alternate current is passing
through the rod, the second the cycle when the current density
is 2°5 amperes per square millimeter and the third when the
current density is 10 amperes per square millimeter. The con-
venience and accuracy of this method for this class of measure-
ments indicate its general utility over the more common type
of yokes.

Physical Laboratory, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.

Dt LOM Gane pe gs heat 2 cee

ee ee
aS % gtk ere eet

CU. H. Warren—Mineralogicul Notes. . 869

ArT. XX XI.— Mineralogical Notes ; by C. H. Warren.

THE minerals which are described in this paper were pre-
sented for the purpose of study to the Mineralogical Labora-
tory of the Sheffield Scientific School by the gentlemen whose
names appear beyond, and to whom the writer takes pleasure
in expressing his thanks. The materials were kindly placed at
the writer’s disposal by Prof. 8. L. Penfield, and the investi-
gations were made in the Sheftield Mineralogical Laboratoty
while the writer was connected with that institution.

Anorthite Crystals from Franklin Furnace, N. J.

The first specimens received, showing the anorthite crystals,
were found by Mr. Wm. Niven, of New York City, in the
limestone quarry near the railroad station, at Franklin, and
later some of the same mineral was received from Mr. Hancock,
of Burlington, N. J. The crystals are of a dull gray color,
tabular in habit and vary in size from individuals a few milli-
meters in diameter to large flat tables, 13°" long, 1° wide and
2 to 3™ in thickness. They are few in number and are
imbedded in the white crystalline limestone characteristic of
that region. Flakes of graphite are plentifully sprinkled
through the limestone and are plainly visible in the anorthite

erystals themselves. As stated by Mr. Niven, the position in

the quarry from which the specimens came was close to the
contact of the limestone and the granite, and it is interesting to
note here that anorthite has been noticed by Lacroix* as a
contact mineral in limestones of the Pyrenees. It is probable

that the Franklin mineral is of similar origin.

Although the faces of the crystals are dull and their solid

angles and edges are somewhat rounded, sufficiently good

reflections of the signal were obtained on some of the crystals

_ to identify the following forms:

ce 001, ‘m 110, y 201, OF Ie
bin010, M 110, pe WA,

Below are given the measured angles with the correspond-

ing values calculated from the fundamentals established by
Marignac.t

* Carte Géoligique de la France, No. 64, vol. x, 1898-9.
+ Kk., Min. Russl., iv, 200, 1862.

370 C. H. Warren—Mineralogical Notes.

Measured. Calculated.

GaN) = 001 A O10 86° 85°50"
Ginn. = 001s, Woe 66 65 58
enw ="001 X10 GO 3 69 20
CLA y= 001 201g — 80 48 81 14
CA p = Ula 54 20 Sy: Sea I
Ch O = 00 aa ee 59 (poor) Dime
BD Am = O10 Wi I10s— 5S AS 4
b AM = 010 Qj 110) = 62 323 62 264
The RMT = VOU 59 32 59 29

The accompanying figures, 1 and 2, illustrate the habits of
the crystals.

On the base ot some of the better crystals a series of fine
striations can be seen, due to twinning after the pericline law.
The trace of the rhombic section can be seen in the striations
on the faces, m, 110, JZ, 110, and 6, 010. A section cut from

1 D)

ee >

one of the crystals parallel to c, 001, when examined under the
microscope, showed a considerable amount of calcite and
other inclusions in addition to the flakes of graphite already
alluded to. Some of these inclusions are undoubtedly water,
as is indicated by the strongly marked, dark borders and
by the presence of a considerable amount of water in the min-
eral as shown by the analysis. The extinction measured on
the base, 001, using a Bertrand ocular and monochromatic
light, was — 40°.

A few of the smaller erystals were chosen for analysis.
The included calcite was estimated by determining the amount
of carbon dioxide evolved when the powdered mineral was
treated with hydrochloric acid, and calculating from this the
equivalent amount of calcium carbonate. After separating
the silica in the usual manner it was dissolved in potassium
hydroxide solution and thus separated from the small amount
of graphite, which was afterwards weighed on a Gooch cru-

C. H. Warren—Mineralogical Notes. 371

cible. The water was weighed directly by the method of
Penfield.*
_ The results of the analysis are as follows:

Mol. ratio.
<0 40'16%4 + 60 = 669 2°00
A ee 34°89. + 102 = -342 1°02
20 ES"26 Gis S64 6326 "O7
NEG BO aa trace
UO) 5°30
Be. = 11°69
Graphite. =. 2 18

100°48

The ratio of SiO,: Al,O,: CaO is nearly 2:1:1 as required
by the formula of anorthite, CaAJ,(Si0O,),.

Feldspar Crystals, from Raven Hill, Cripple Creek, Colorado.

The feldspar crystals were collected by Dr. Whitman Cross
of Washington, D. C., while engaged in making the geolog-
ical survey of the Cripple Creek region. They occur in con-
siderable numbers imbedded in a rather soft, light gray rock,
apparently of phonolytic character, the exact nature of which
is unknown, no petrographical study of the rock having thus
far been made. It is light gray in color, much altered in
appearance and occurs, as we are informed by Dr. Cross, as a
narrow dike cutting through the andesitic breccia of Raven
Hill, Prospect Shaft, on the eastern slope above the Moose
Mine.

The feldspar crystals, which vary in size from individuals
5™™ in length and 3™™ in diameter to those 15™™ in length,
10™” in width and 8™™ in thickness, are of a light gray color
like their matrix, and have undergone some alteration on their
surface. The habit of the crystal is unusual in that the form
y, 201, is very prominent, while other forms 6, 010; c, 001,
and m, 110, are relatively small, fig. 3. Twinning after the
Carlsbad law is common and gives rise to an appearance repre-
sented by fig. 4. In a large number of instances the crystals
form peculiar aggregates, sometimes several crystals penetrat-
ing through each other. No simple twinning relations other
than according to the Carlsbad Jaw could be discovered.

The forms observed were: c, 001, 6, 010, m, 110, and
y, 201, and below are the augles measured with a contact gon1-
ometer, also the calculated values.

* This Journal, xlviii, July, 1894.

372 C. H. Warren—Mineralogical Notes.

Measured, Calculated.
mom = 110, n 10 ole 617,03)
Mm A 0. == 110 j4gOlOy aoe 59 234
Cnn. == O01 Ae 67 47
CA.Y = 001 [A 201,60 80 18

_ Sections parallel to both cleavages were prepared and showed

on 6,010, an extinction of +9° to +10°, and on e¢, 001, one
approximately parallel to the @ axis. Under crossed nicols the
sections show a difference of shading or cloudiness, indicating
that the crystals are not of homogeneous structure. Kaolini-
zation has commenced to some extent and a small amount of a

‘id

white lustrous mica can be seen. The large extinction-angle,
+9° to +10° on 010, would seem to indicate a soda-orthoelase.

Crystals of Iron Wolframite from South Dakota.

The Wolframite crystals were sent by Mr. W. M. Foote of
Philadelphia, Pa., but the exact locality from which they were
obtained could not be ascertained. The crystals, the largest of
which are about 4™™ long and not over 1™™ in thickness, are
found filling numerous small cavities in a highly siliceous rock.
They are elongated in the direction of the ortho-axis, and, as
the ortho-pinacoid and base are the most prominent forms, the
crystals present the appearance of a nearly rectangular prism.
This prism is given a wedge-shaped
termination by the development of
the several prism faces, as can be
seen from fig. 5. The majority
of the crystals show a decided vici-
nal development of their faces and
other irregularities. By using a
strong illumination and the 6 ocular
with a Fuess reflection goniometer satisfactory measurements
were obtained from one of the smaller and more perfect erys-
tals. The following forms were identified, of which the prism
2, 7°11:0, is new:

a 100, * e O0% s 210, i 102, ae
BOLO)" aie? eaO: t7'11:0, ,° y 102, Ae

Be I

C. H. Warren—Mineralogical Notes. 373

The measured angles and their corresponding calculated
values are given beyond, the later being taken from the funda-
mentals established by Des Cloiseaux* for wolframite :

Measured. Calculated.
mee se == 100K 001 - = 89° 25! 89° 21’
mee, = - 110 pn 110° = 100 19 LOO: va
eo LILO 7 010 =: 50 22 50 184
fee b= 210, 210° = 134 45 1384 554
eee ee FO 11-0. = 74 51 Ra 59
ea 100%, 102 = 61-45 61 54
pee 00 A102: =" 638 62 54
Weer == TOO 011 ==" 89.. 35 89 31
Pee TO A PE = 55 84 55 28

Considering the character of the faces the foregoing meas-
ured and calculated values show a satisfactory agreement. The
chief interest connected with this mineral is that it gives
almost no reaction for manganese, indicating that its composi-
tion is very nearly that of an iron tungstate, FeWO,. So far as
known to the writer, it is the first occurrence of a variety of
this mineral free from manganese, and it is to be hoped that
more may be learned of its place of occurrence.

Pseudomorphs of Wolframite after Scheelite from Trumbull, Conn.

Pseudomorphs of wolframite after scheelite have been
known for some time to occur at Trumbull, Conn., where they
are found in a highly siliceous vein associated with pyrite and
a little native bismuth. The pseudomorphs attain a consider-
able size, sometimes measuring 3 or 4" in diameter, and usually
present the habit of the simple
pyramid common to scheelite, 2,
111, often modified by the pyra-
mid of the second order e, 101.
The accompanying figure repre-
sents a somewhat more compli-
eated habit and was drawn from
a fine crystal kindly loaned by Mr.
Lazard Cahn of New York. The
most prominent form is e, 101, truncated by 0, 102, and termi-
nated by a basal plane c. The corners are modified by pyra-
mids, of the first order p, 111, and of the third order s, 1381.
The angles of the crystal measured with a contact goniometer
show a satisfactory agreement with the corresponding angles
given for scheelite. A number of crystals showed, on break-
ing, a light colored core of scheelite still remaining within the
black exterior of wolframite.

* Am. Ch. Phys., xix, 168, 1870.

374 Holborn and Day—Expansion of Certain

ae XXXII. —On the Expansion of Certain Metals at High
Temperatures; by Lupwiag HoLBorn and ArRrHurR L.
Day.

[Communication from the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg
Germany. |

THE expansion of bodies at high temperatures has been so
little studied that the records are few and only indifferently
accurate. We therefore devised a new method and applied it
to the determination of the expansion of platin-iridium and of
porcelain up to 1000° for use in our recent measurements with
the gas thermometer and extended it afterward to various other
metals. Platinum, palladium and nickel were investigated up
to the same temperature, silver to near its melting point, con-
stantan to 500° and finally a single sort each of iron and steel
to 750°, these being of especial interest not only on account of
their special magnetic properties, but on account of their wide
technical application.

On account of the difficulty in heating considerabie lengths of
a metal uniformly, observations have usually been made hereto-
fore upon short pieces with necessarily diminished accuracy, or
the attempt at uniform heating has been entirely abandoned and
the bar allowed to project out of the oven at both ends, these
cold ends being provided with the marks upon which the
expansion observations are made. In the latter case the mean
temperature of the bar is determined with the gas thermometer
or by an electrical resistance method.

This method has the disadvantage that the variation of the
expansion with the temperature cannot be properly observed.

The arrangement of the apparatus in our experiments has
been already described.* A bar one-half meter in length, of
the metal to be investigated, is enclosed in an electrically heated
porcelain tube considerably longer than the bar. In this way
we obtained not only expansions of considerable magnitude (as
much as 9™™ in some cases), but also a very uniform tempera-
ture along the bar, the exact distribution of which was meas-
ured and not merely a mean value.

Measurement of the Length.—The expansion was measured
with the eye-piece micrometers of two fixed microscopes
arranged to observe certain marks near the ends of the bar.
The whole system was so solidly mounted upon a heavy stone
pillar that after several days’ observing no displacement of the
microscopes could be observed equal in magnitude to the
errors of observation. The differences observed between the

* Ludwig Holborn and Arthur L. Day, this Journal (IV), ae 171, 1900, also
Annalen der Physik, ii, 505, 1900.

$

&
Metals at High Temperatures. 375

lengths of the various bars before and after heating conse-
quently correspond to permanent variations in the lengths of
the bars. This fact was also several times confirmed by meas-
urements before and after heating, with a comparator.

An accidental disturbance of the adjustment is not wholly
impossible however, and we therefore referred the expansion
to the length of the cold bar as observed immediately before
the heating rather than after, as the latter measurement could
not be made until the following day after the oven had cooled
down. The amounts of such slight differences as were ob-
served are recorded in their proper places. The preliminary
heating of the bar to remove mechanical strains and inhomo-
geneities in the metal is not taken into account of course
in this connection. The permanent change in the length of
a new bar after the first heating is often very considerable,
hence each bar was always first subjected to a single prelimi-
nary heating to the highest temperature to be used in the sub-
sequent measurements.

It may be further mentioned that the length represented by
one turn of the micrometer screw was determined directly from
the readings at the temperature of the room, the interval be-

- tween the marks on the bar having been determined independ-

ently in advance upon the comparator.

The remaining details of the length measurement will appear
from the example given in detail further on.

Measurement of the Temperature.—During the expansion
observations the temperature of the middle of the bar alone
was measured, a thermo-element whose bare hot junction lay
upon the bar at its middle point being used for the purpose.
The fall in the temperature toward the ends was determined
separately by observations at points on each side of the center,
the element being moved along the bar and the differences as
compared with the center measured by direct comparison.

Two different oven tubes were used in the course of the
series of observations here described. The first was wound
with nickel wire 2™™ in diameter and proved fairly satisfactory,
but in the hope of increasing the uniformity of temperature
distribution a second tube was prepared with 1:2™" wire in
trifilar winding, which proved much better. We also tried
rewinding the first coil with the heavier wire, but soon became
convinced that although it is much more durable it is less well
adapted to heating such a long and slender tube.

It is a matter of the greatest care to arrange the windings on
such a tube so as to produce uniform temperature distribution.
Some very painstaking trials yielded considerably poorer results
than those here communicated. On the second tube men-
tioned, and the most successful one we obtained, the windings

376 Holborn and Day—Expansion of Certain

are considerably nearer together toward the ends than in the
center, but to compensate, the fall in temperature near the
two openings through which the observations were made, is
hardly possible without tremendously over-compensating the
adjoining sections. ‘he reason lies in the fact that one whole
turn of wire is lost at the openings.

The presence of the bar also contributed something toward
equalizing the temperature through its own conductivity. This
was especially noticeable in the case of silver (6™™ in diameter)
when compared with platinum and palladium (each 5™™ in
diameter), for example.

Table I contains observations of the temperature distribution
in the two tubes.

Nickel is included with this series for a special reason.
Between the two measurements with nickel to 750° a consider-
able interval of time intervened, during which the oven was
used for other purposes. These two series therefore show very
clearly that the distribution of temperature suffers little from
the oxidation of the oven coil with use.

Table I shows the differences of temperature in microvolts
observed at eight points along the bar as compared with the
middle. The relation between the thermo-electric force and
the temperature for the element used is contained in Table
XVI of the original investigation (loc. cit., p. 186). The tem-
perature gradient is then obtained sraphically and the mean, A,
algebraically added to the reading at the middle point to obtain
the mean temperature of the bar.

The observations were always begun with a series of readings
at the temperature of the room, which was measured by intro-
ducing a mercury thermometer into the oven tube, then at the
points 250, 500, 750 and 1000° as nearly as the oven could be
regulated. In certain cases the intermediate temperatures 375,
625 and 875° were also observed. .No point below 250° was
attempted on account of the diminished sensitiveness of the
thermo-element at the lower temperatures. or observations
in this region it would be better to substitute a bath for which
the arrangement of the apparatus and the heating arrange-
ments could be readily adapted. It would indeed be perfectly
possible to carry on these observations in a niter bath to above
600° with a perfectly uniform distribution of temperature
throughout the length of the bar by properly insulating the
oven coil.

1. Platinum.

The platinum bar, as well as the two immediately following,
were prepared from chemically pure material and placed at our
disposal through the courtesy of the firm of Heraus in Hanau,

é Metals at High Temperatures. 377
TABLE I,
Temperature Distribution in the Oven (in Microvolts).
Platinum.
oe ee Oven Tube I. Oven Tube II.
250° | 500° | 750° | 1000° ||} 250° | 500° | 750° | 1000°
ip ee ee |
6° Rast SO OME 17 O-LO 1+ B54 46.4 77
12 ss — 33/— 23/4 27)+ 25)/4+56 |+125) 4183 4-227
is He —170)/—230)'—250|/—443!|\+79 |+157,4+189 +171
23 a — 282|—310|—610 —900||—79 = 196) 2asi—2y1
6o™ West + 57)/+170)+230\+335)— 5 |+ O94 49 + 99
12 i + 73)/+220!4315)/+540) +38 |+135| +238 +342
19 ag — 62)/— 5 O'+ 53)/+89 |+227' +345 +398
es a ala —210}|—250|/— 380 —480)—12 |+ 42— 9—143
A — 441— 1114+ 414 51)|/+25 J+ 64'4+11614135
Temperature Distribution in the Oven (MV).
Oven Tube 11.
ae contor of Palladium. Silver.
oven.
250° | 500° | 750° | 1000° || 250° | 500° | 750° | 875°
6°™ Kast + 13)4+ 29)/+ 55+ 80)}+ 3 |+ 21/4 35/4 19
12 a + 59 +128 +180 +236)+47 |+107|+150 4+ 142
Sr, + 80 +155) +188 -+164|| +78 |+140|+ 163] +125
23 re —100 —165 —210'—402),—84 |—174|—220 —344
6" West J— T+ 12)+ 53)+ 94//4+ 1 /4+ 15/4 52/4 20
12 + 52)4+148)+ 269) + 356)|+238 |+ 82)/+153)/4+177
ie + 95 +233)/+358)+399|/+48 |+133 +217) +2238
23 + 12/+ 34/— 3\—129|)\4+ 3 |4+ 48/— 29\+4+ 11
A + 31+ 77/+124/4+135/4+16 |+ 4914+ 80!4 62
ee ae oater at Oven Tube IJ.—Nickel.
oven. 250° 375° 500° 750° | 750° | 1000°
6™ Kast PtGa, OF) 7 | -- h9.1) + 57 | +82
ds +64 | + 91 | +124 | +196 || +191 | +258
oer. = +89 |} +117 | +147 | +194 +168 | +196
Boor. —87 | —111 | —150 | —205 —226 | —337
6" West 4) 5 15 | + 26) + 64 || + 75 | +120
hoe <6 +55 | +110 | +163 | +303 || +3833 | +458
wo), +99 | +177 | +248 | +405 || +445 | +509
93° «Os eda. 2001 4 21 2 ae
A +381 + 741 +109 +152 | +185

378 Holborn and Day—Expansion of Certain

Germany. Some 5™™ from the end of each bar plane surfaces
were filed and polished upon it in the plane of the axis and
upor these five fine divisions were ruled at millimeter intervals.
The bar of platinum, which was 5™™ in thickness, was measured
in both the oven tubes described.
By way of example, a full series of actual readings of the
microscope is contained in Table Ia. The micrometer readings
are represented by F and EF” for the fixed wires, I, HI], ... V
and I’, Il’, . . V’ for the settings of the movable wires upon
the ruled divisions on the two ends of the bar respectively.
The temperatures in degrees or microvolts are contained under 7.
At each temperature (20°, 250°, 500°, 750°, 1000° and then
19° after the oven had cooled down) two sets of readings were
made each containing settings upon each division of the bar and
the fixed microscope cross-wire in their proper succession—the
first in the forward, the second in the backward direction of
the micrometer screw. This symmetry served to minimize the
effect of a slight creeping of the bar such as was often notice-
able at the higher temperatures. ‘The series also included five
observations of the temperature at proper intervals.

mm}

From the observations the displacement of the various divis-
ions during the change of temperature from @ to @’ was caleu-
lated and is entered for each separately in Table 16. A
positive sign indicating that the displacement has taken place
toward the end being read. The columns Jf and J/’ contain
the intervals expressed in turns of the micrometer screw (7 and
r’) and the corresponding values reduced to millimeters, the
sums being then brought together under 2. For the remain-
ing observations only the values of dJ/, WM’ and »& are given.
Table Ic contains these values for the observations made
upon the platinum bar which was heated in the first oven tube
on the first two days and in the second on the remaining. It will
be seen that the corresponding values of » agree extremely well.

The + values are then corrected slightly to correspond to the
round numbers 0°, 250°, etc., by the use of an approximate
formula for the expansion A, of the bar from which the re-

; axr :
quired values of - were obtained.

The values of ¢ observed at the middle point of the bar
require to be corrected for the fall in temperature toward the
ends as described above. These are contained in Table Id, in
which only 2”, the mean of each two corresponding values of &,
is given.

Metals at High Temperatures.
ae
=

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Holborn and Day— Expans

380

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Metals at High Temperatures. 381

TABLE Ie,
Platinum Bar,

~M M’ |

(mm.)| (mm.) | (mm.) : ain a i

(mm.) | (mm.), Gumi)

Feb. 24 | 19°9° 19:9° |
1900 MV/0°799 0°249 |1°048 ||1912 MV/0°799| 0:257! 1°056
4255 0°680| 0°541 |1°221 ||4265 10°653 | 0°564 | 1:217
6830 0°312 | 0°990 |1°302 ||6838 0-294! 0°985 | 1°279
9649 1°143 0°239 |1°382 ||9660 1°213 0°198 | 1°411

® Feb. 27. | 17°8° 17°8°
1920 MV/|0°794; 0:275 |1:069 ||1926 MV0-798| 0:280) 1:078

4250 0°548| 0°664 |1:212 ||4256 0°554| 0°645/ 1:199

6823 0°525 0°759 |1°284 ||6823 0-498 |. 0°786 | 1:284

9639 1:022| 0°345 |1:367 ||9631 1°055| 0°334 | 1:389
June 16 | 20°3° 20°3°
1813 MV|0°669 | 0°375 |1:044 ||1822 MV/0°669| 0°357 | 1:026
4132 1-417°/—0°217 |1-200 | 4143 1°425 |—0°219 | 1206
6600 1°449 |—0°191 |1°258 |/6615 11-469 | —0-222 | 1°247
9422 1°812 |—0°395 |1°417 ||9429 1°810 | —0°397 | 1°413

> June 20 | 20°1° 20°1°
4 4190 MV |2°634 |—0°375 |2:259 ||4200 MV\2°638 | —0°379 | 2°259
6564 ‘+1°381 | —0°156 |1°225 ||6570 1°403 | —0°186 | 1°217
9365 1-736 |—0°328 |1°408 ||9384 1°751 |—0°343 | 1-408

TABLE I] d.
Platinum Bar.
>’ (mm.) A (mm.)
t Oven Tube I. Oven Tube II.
Feb. 24. Feb. 27. June 16, June 20. Observed. Calculated.

0 0

PU Le 1116 | 2289 tue, | 15112

1°196 1°192 1°184

| 9° 2°304
oo 1271 1-268 1°270 1:285 hay 7
750 344 1334 1386 1:377 aes. gp Be iG
1000 1 4934 4-928

In connection with this table it should be mentioned that
the platinum bar was heated for the first time on Feb. 23,
when X,=2°306™ was observed at 500° and A,=4°986 at 1000°.
‘After cooling, an increase in the total length amounting to
0-084™" was measured. These permanent changes in the length
of the bar for the subsequent four days’ observations contained
in the table were 0:020, 0°028, —0:007 and —0:004 respec-
tively. :
Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Serizs, Vou. XI, No. 65.—May, 1901.

382 Holborn and Day—FLxpansion of Certain

The agreement in the observations up to 750° is most satis-
factory throughout; in the interval between 750° and 1000°,
however, a discrepancy appears between the observations in the
two oven tubes amounting to 1 per cent of the total expansion.
The expansion A, of the bar (in «) may be expressed by the
quadratic formula :

A,=4'288E+ 0:0006400? (y)

The mean distance between the marks on the two ends
amounted to 483°5™™ at 0°, hence the expansion* of a unit bar
would be

A= {8868t + 1°32427}10-
Benoitt obtained for the expansion of pure platinum measured
between the temperatures 0° and 75° by Fizeau’s method, the
formula 3 |

A= {8901¢+1°2147110-°

The expansions obtained by extrapolation of this formula do
not differ from ours by an amount equal to 1 per cent until
1000° is reached—a remarkable agreement considering the
magnitude measured and the range of temperature involved.

9. Palladium.

The measurements upon palladium are contained in Tables
IIa and IId and were all made in the second oven tube except
the preliminary heating at the beginning. For this, values of

TABLE Ila.
Palladium Bar.

:
i M M’ > F M M’ D3

(mm.)} (mm.) | (mm.) (mm.)| (mm.) | (mm.)

Pyne 20 :
June 26 ann wry |1"349| 07036 [1-885 ee wry 1362 | 07018 | 1-380
ibe 1482] 0-176 1-608 [655 (1484| 0-177 | 1-611
aay 1197 | 0-596 [1-728 || oe 1198} 0°515| 1-713
Bate 1689| 0-197 [1-886 | 0902 1718! 0-172 | 1:888

ee Lad

June 28 te wey|1212| 0-289 [1-451 ie wev|t'199] 0-252 | 1°451
ee 1805 | 0-224 /1-529 ||772 1:347| 0°198| 1545
pa 1-928 |—0-205 [1-723 [208° 1°934 |—0-222 | 1-712
ogi, (2"318|—0-424 1-889 [99 —|a-820 |0-498 | 1-894

* The earlier formula published elsewhere (loc. cit., p. 174) was based upon the

observations with the first oven tube only.

+ Benoit, Trav. et Mem. du Bureau international, vi, 1, 1888.

Metals at High Temperatures. 383
TABLE ITO.
Palladium Bar.
t =’ (mm.) As (mm.)
June 26, June 28, Observed. Calculated.
oe 1-476 1°470 0
250 1611 1616 [erg 1°475
500 ) vu 3°087 3°082
1°729 1°739
750 1:88 1°858 4°82] 4:821
1000 6°689 6°692

the expansion at 250°, 500° and 750°, equal to 1°617, 1-720 and
1-840 respectively, were obtained. A permanent increase in
length after the preliminary heating amounting to 0:024™™ was
observed ; the permanent changes after succeeding heatings in
no case amounted to 0-01™".

The expansion of the bar employed may be represented by

As == 5°636¢ + 0:0010627(u)
Tts length at 0° was 482-9, whence
A = {11670¢ + 2°187¢7}10—°
3. Platin-iridium ($0 Pt, 20 Ir).
The series of measurements upon the platin-iridium bar

_ which are contained in the Tables [Ila and II were all made

TABLE IIa.
Platin-iridium Bar.
M M’ -
t (mm.) (mm.) (mm.)
-0°
mas 0°850 0°318 1°168
6757 ) 2 Or636 0°592 1°228
vel 0°969 0°322 1°291
9569 f 1-045 ees eo
| 5 27 1°316
9560 | 1043 0°273
e ° :
‘ 0°654 0°462 LEG
ae 0°607 0°604 D211
: : 1°352
9598 1°163 0°189
.Q0
1843 0°664 0°456 1°120
4170 0°411 0°813 1°224
ae 1°786 —0°450 1°336
: —0°4638 1°334
aeaa er Oe

384: Holborn and Day—Eapansion of Certain
TABLE III 6.
i x” (mm.) As (mm.)
Jan. 19. Jan. 24. Jan. 26. Observed. Calculated,
O 1-031 1:033 1:034 6 0
250 1:033 1033
500 1°130 B Ras bo Loo 2°150 O15]
750 1*202 1:204 HOS) 3°35 7 3°355
1:277 1°308 ( 1:294 ae Eu
1000 1°280 L287
1°280

in the first oven tube. Being the first observations made, the
above described scheme was not exactly followed. For the
temperatures below 1000° only a single set of measurements
‘was made upon this bar; it had received a preliminary heating
like the others however. The length at 0° was 483:1™™ and
the formulee are

As

= 3'960¢ + 0:00068527(1)
A=

| 61980), eddies ies

4, Silver.

The silver bar was 6™™ in thickness and carried seven divi-
sions at each end, notwithstanding which the expansion was so
great that not all the divisions were visible at all temperatures.

The preliminary heating was carried up to 900° and the per-
manent increase in the length which resulted amounted to
0°13". The silver became very soft at this temperature and -
could with difficulty be prevented from sagging slightly.
Partly for this reason probably, and partly because the perma-
nent changes in the length after heating were larger than with ~
any of the other bars, the observations at the higher tempera-

tures disagree somewhat more widely among themselves. The
last observation at 875° is not included in the calculation. The
TABLE IV a.
Silver Bar.
‘ AD) Me > M MS) tas
(mm.)| (mm.) | (mm.) (mm.) | (mm.) | (mam.)
20°2° oye
Jone 22 ryan My L226 (0945 [2-161 re wry ldt26e [0-989 le18I
4088 2°254 |0°386 |2°640 4103 2°287 |0°407 |2°644
6548 2°802 |0°'096 |2°898 6548 2°815 |0:073 2/888
June 23 ae rv 0'149 2°32 2°176 =e My O'111 |2304 [2-193
4116 1:905 |0°771 |2°676 4132 1°878 |0°785 |2°658
6516 1°340 |1°487 |2°827 658] 1°394 |1°456 |2°850
7937 1°049 |0°603 |1°652 7949 1°014 |0°637 |1°651

Metals at High Temperatures. B85

measurements upon the silver bar as well as upon all those fol-
lowing it were carried out in the second oven tube only.
Tables [Va and IVé contain the individual measurements.

TABLE LV 0.

Silver Bar.
i >’ (mm.) As (mm.)
June 22. June 23. Observed. Calculated.
0° mrt 0 0
250 2252 a08 27356 2°356
2°640 2°640 s
. 000 2°970 9-99] 4°996 52002
750 1649 7941 7°938
875 Sh 9°590 9°515

The first day’s heating produced a permanent increase in the
length amounting to 0:027™™, the second 0:039"". The length
at the close was 484°1™™ at 0°’ The formule are

As = 8'844¢ + 0°0023207(1)
Ne 182706 -/4-79387h10-°

5. Nickel.

The nickel bar (6"™" in thickness) was at first ruled with five
scale divisions on each end like the others and the observations
only extended to 750°. In spite of the fact that the metal
tarnished when heated, the divisions remained clear and sharp
throughout until, at the close of the third series of observations,
the temperature was carried up to 1000°. At this temperature
not only did the divisions disappear but the surface and the
contour lines of the bar could scarcely be distinguished from
the oven background. |

To remedy this a small thin platinum plate was prepared,
some 5X5™™ in size and 0°5™™ thick aud shoved into carefully
filed dove-tail grooves in the bar so as to sit tightly in place
with its polished surface in exactly the same position which
the lost marks upon the nickel had occupied. Upon this
platinum surface which of course also lay in the axis of the
bar, new divisions were ruled and used in the two subsequent
series of observations. If we assume from the ratio of the
lengths that 1 per cent of the expansion is due to the platinum,
the result will be influenced only 0-01(5'78—3°57)=0-02™™ at
750°. |

The length of the bar during the first observations was
482-67" at 0°; after the insertion of the platinum plates the
new sets of divisions proved to be 0:2" further apart. The
last observations are corrected for this increase in the length ~
of the bar.

386

Holborn and Day—Expansion of Certain

The nickel differed from the metals already described in that
the permanent changes in the total length were in the opposite
direction ; the bar after cooling was always shorter than before
—after the first two series, 0°024™™ and 0:018™", and after the
last two, 0°016™" and 0:035™™, respectively.

The observations (Table Va and Vd) can be represented by

a quadratic formula only above 375°.

The measured expan-

TABLE Va.
Nickel Bar.
Sa
: M M’ > M Mewes
(mm.) |; (mm.) (mm.) (mm.) | (mm.) (mm.)
21 O Ate)

June 30 ae wry |2'354| 0:22 [1581 ae Mv|!377) 0:218 | 1595
Lane 1548) 0°407 1-955 | 005 1:542| 0°415 | 1°957
eae 1257) 0882 /2°139 | 8 1:261| 0°865 | 2°126

aS) .Q0°

July 2 te My 1'102| 0:469/1:571 meee Mv 1142) 0°463 | 1605
ann 0°953 | 0°088 |0-991 |i545. 0-941 | 0-029 | 0-970
ee 0°651) 0°330 0-981 | 74, 0°639| 0343 | 0°982
pe 1-286 | 0°863 |2°149 |[- 1:°306| 0°848 | 27154
907:9° 909°

July 4 re Mv 0937 | 0°673 1-609 ae My 0°953| 0°648 | 1601
bes 1-766 | 0°202 |1'968 ||, 005 1°753| 0°218/ 1971
ee 5 1314| 0-822 [2136 ||, 1°325 | 0°814 | 2°139

«FO 2QO

Sept. 18 ae Mv 2°674 |—0:005 [5-669 es Mv 2°671 |—0°018 | 5-658

eG 2°591 |—0°205 |2°386 || 90-4 9-612 | —0°222 | 2°390
AP Ao
Sept. 19 a wey 2942 |—0-271 [5-671 a Mev "939 | 0-275 | 5-664
ee 2°495 |—0°158 |2°337 | 90.4, 2°505 |—0°179 | 2°326
TABLE V 0.
Nickel Bar.
P >" (mm.) As (mm.)
June 30. July 2. July 4. Sept.18. Sept. 19. Observed. Calculated.
O° BGT Ee Os Bit 0 0

a59 0) Lore aes mee 1685 (1°724)

375 +1957 gg, ¢ 1958 - 5770 - 5748 — 2°660 2661

200) oe5 O° Deer ane 3648 ee

750 Basis) oat en 5779

1000 2) ean ar ees 8-095 8-096

ae

a

et ore

tne i

NR ne ee
ae Se ae ride Oy pega ann nips
a Tagen oe ean ET 2

Metals at High Temperatures. SOE

‘sion at 250° falls out of the curve entirely as may be seen at.
once by calculating = This exceptional behavior was not

unexpected, however, on account of the change which takes
place in nickel in the neighborhood of 300° where its magnetic
properties disappear.

Below this temperature therefore the formule

As= 6°496¢ + 0°0016027(,1)
A = {13460¢ + 3°315¢7}10°

do not apply: the term in the first power is there smaller while
the quadratic term increases.

6. Constantan (60 Cu, 40 Ni).

The electrical conductivity as well as the thermo-electrical
properties of constantan are peculiar, but in its expansion it
differs little from other alloys. It has a coefficient correspond-
ing to about the mean of those of the component metals.

The bar used was 6™™ in diameter and the scale divisions
drawn upon the metal itself as with the earlier metals described,
in consequence of which the marks grew fainter as the oxida-
tion increased although the observations were only extended to
500°. The permanent changes in the total length reached a
maximum value of about 0°01". The length at 0° was
483°0"™.

The results (Tables VIa and VId) may be expressed by the
following formule :

As==-7°156¢ + 0°0019427(u)
A = {14810¢ + 402427} 10-°

TABLE Via.

Constantan Bar.

F M” M’ = M M’
. (mm)} (mm.) | (mm.) | (mm.)} (mm.) | (mm.)

Ly aca RT
are mee A 6 1a,

Sept. 24 /17°9° 17-9°

- Sept. 25 |17:9° 17:9°

1°854 |—0°023 !1°831 1877 |—0°057 | 1:820
1818 MV|.. 1821 MV\,.., ;
Ade 2-215 |—0°125 /2-090 ||) 02 2-187 | —0°100 | 2-087

= yey7|1°7238 | 0-090 |1°818 1-750} 0°052 | 1-802

hore MV 11.374 |—0-348 |1-026 eae MV ''1-366 |—0°335 | 1-031
. . “9 ha . ° .

4007 0°72] 0056 1-028 454, [0956 | 0-068 | 1-019

388 Holborn and Day—Lxpansion of Certain
TABLE VI8,
Constantan Bar.
; >’ (mm.) As (mm.)
ue Sept. 24. Sept. 25. Observed. Calculated.
os 1-916 1-903 e
250 1040 1°910 1°910
375 2°159 1'106 2°950 2°956
4°063 4°063

i. Wrought Iron.

The bar of wrought iron as well as the steel bar described
below were provided, before beginning the observations, with
small platinum plates carrying the scale divisions, in the same
way as the nickel bar above. One of the scale intervals at
one end of the iron bar increased in length some 0:03™™ in
consequence of the heating, nearly all of it occurring during
the first day. None of the other divisions showed any notice-
able change. The observations were not continued above 750°
in order to avoid the permanent changes in the nature of metal
such as occur in steel especially after long continued heating
to high temperatures, The magnetic metals are known to

TABLE Vila.
Tron Bar.
F M M’ Da t M M’ DF
(mm.) | (mm.) | (mm.) (mm.)| (mm.) | (mm.)
July 19 ie my|l267| 0-227 /1-494 ate mey|!277| 0-211 | 1-488.
fees 1-872 |—0°030 |1-842 ||, 702 © ‘1-857 | 0-024 | 1-833
a5e4 «(1823 0170/1903 5) |1-854) 0120) 1-68
Aa) oleae
July 21 ae My |2'259 | 0-207 1-466 eo Mvy/1'294| 0°16 | 1-460
ogo (1266 |—0°364 0-902 | 50°" *' /1-947 |0°349 | 0-898
tory 0°987 | —0°038 0-959 75. (0-966 | 0-014 | 0-952
: - ; : -Aasn9 :
ses 1951] 0-039 1-990 [22/7 (2-004 | 0-087 | 1977
cS, Ae 9090+R°
July 25 one my [1'384| 07129 /1-463 ae my 1376 | 07098 | 1-469
toes (2"348|—0°478 |1°875 103. (2-805 | 0-453 | 1852
sig (0968 | 07016 0-979 | 502 0-956) 0-086 | 0-992
seeg (188/188 |1-000 |3-8° ‘(1-218 | 0-211 | 1-002

Metals at High Temperatures. 389
TABLE VITd.
Tron Bar.

F >’ (mm.) As (mm.)
July 19. July 21. July 25. Observed. Calculated.

0° sk ek 0 0
250 ae es ron 1571 1571
375 + 1°890 0-979 1°889 2°476 2°475
500 3°459 3°459
625 0°990 4449 (4:522)
750 neat ao? 0-964 5419 (5-664)

show an independent increase in length upon being magnetized,
which must at least be considered here. We should expect -
with iron and steel in the weak field of the heating coil (at

250° H=30, at 500° H=42 at the middle point of the bar) a
lengthening of the order of magnitude 5x 10~ of the length,*

which for these measurements would be entirely negligible.
The iron bar (thickness 6") was 482°7™ long at 0° and showed
a permanent change after the three heatings of 0°01, —0-025
and —0:025™™ respectively.
Tables Vila and VIIé contain the measurements, ee are

‘very well represented by a parabola up to 500°.

The equations are

As = 5°650¢ + 0:0025427()
A = {11705¢ + 5°25407110—°

Above 500° the expansion increases less rapidly.

8. Steel.

In order that the difference in the nature of the material —
be as large as possible, a bar of steel with a high percentage of
carbon was chosen.

The original length of the bar (thickness 6™) at 0° was
482-8" and decreased 0°10" during the first heating, but the
subsequent changes did not exceed 0:04™™

The observations are contained in the Tables VIIa and
VIII8.

If the curves

As== 474282 + 0°0040227()
A= 49st 4833607} 10-

be laid out through the points 250° and 500° the observed

value at 375° falls wide. The expansion of steel seems to be
somewhat irregular even below 500°.

* Ewing, Induction in Iron, § 143.

390 Holborn and Day—Kzpansion of Certain Metals, ete.

TABLE Villa.

M
(mm.)
July 6 |19°7° :
1801 MV| 0?
40801 ban cee
aoe eae
July 16 |20°5° ;
1824 Mv? 98!
cane. ees
Fee wa LA
299°
July 17 [1813 Mv/t080
teen bee
carat; i eee
eng (oo NOwaal
: July 6.
i 1361
375 1866
500
a 1582

Steel Bar.
M’ = t M M’ =
(mm.) | (mm.) (mm.)| (mm.) | (mm.)
19°77
0°436 |1°286 1809 MV 0°854| 0°441
0°400 |1°853 4088 1°463| 0°397
anne 1571 6540 1°435 | 0°145
Bx)
0°319 |1°300 ee MV 1°007 | 0°298
—0°047 |0°876 2913 0°914 |—0°041
0°394 |1°022 414] 0°609| 0°399
290
0204 /1:284||79 5 yy7(l108) 0178
0°229 |1°842 4060 1°595| 0°2386
0°445 |1°000 5269 0°550| 0°4438
0:090 |0°701 0°640| 0:076
. TaBLe VIITO.
>’ (mm.) A; (mm.)
July 16. July 17. Observed. Calculated.
1°360 1°357 0 0
0°896 1.871 1°359 (1°359)
0°9538 : 2°255 (2°227)
0979 3°221 (3°221)
0°704 4°200 (4°341)
4°904

(5°586)

a

eee eiere: 4

Chemistry und Physics. 391

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. Sulphur Hexafluoride, Thionyl Fluoride, and Sulphuryl
Fluoride-—Motssan and Leserav have recently described several
new gases containing sulpburand fluorine. Sulphur hexafluoride,
SF, 1s produced when gaseous fluorine is brought into contact
with sulphur. The sulphur immediately takes fire and burns
with a bright flame. The gas thus produced is very remarkable
for its great stability, as it has neither taste nor odor, and is
not decomposed by water nor even by caustic potash solution.
Although very rich in fluorine, the colorless gas, in its inertness,
resembles nitrogen rather than the chlorides of sulphur. It is
slightly soluble in water. At —55° it solidifies to a white crys-
talline mass which melts and then boils at a temperature a little
above its point of solidification. It is not attacked by fused lead
chromate, fused caustic potash nor by copper oxide at a low red
heat. Sodium may be fused in contact with the gas without
action taking place, but when the sodium is brought to the boil-
ing point combination takes place with incandescence.

Thionyl] fluoride, SOF,, is prepared by the action of fluorine
upon thionyl chloride, and also by the reaction of arsenious
fluoride with thionyl chloride. It is a colorless gas which fumes
slightly in moist air, and which has a disagreeable, suffocating
odor. It is decomposed by water at the ordinary temperature,
with the formation of sulphur dioxide and hydrofluoric acid. In
general it is much more active than sulphur hexafluoride.

Sulphuryl fluoride, SO,F,, is most conveniently prepared by
the combination of fluorine and sulphur dioxide. These gases
burn when brought together if the combustion is started by
means of a hot platinum wire. This is a remarkably stable gas,
but it is not quite as inactive as SF,. It is colorless and odor-
less, does not act upon water even at 150°, but is decomposed by
aqueous or alcoholic caustic potash with the formation of potas-
sium fluoride and sulphate. It becomes liquid at —52°, solidifies
when exposed to the temperature of liquid oxygen, and melts at

—120°. It reacts with many substances at high temperatures.—

Oo fi.. €xxx, 865, 1436: cxxi, 374. H. L. W.
2. The Molecular Weight of Ozone.—The molecule O, is gen-
erally admitted to belong to ozone, but the facts upon which this
assumption is based possibly leave some room for doubt in regard
to the matter. A. LapEnsurG, therefore, has devised a new
method for determining the specific gravity of this gas. He
weighed a glass globe filled with dry oxygen, then filled it with
some of the same sample of oxygen after it had been ozonized
and weighed again at the same temperature and pressure. After
this he absorbed the ozone by means of oil of turpentine, and

392 Scientific Intelligence.

thus determined the volume which it had occupied. These data
sufficed for ascertaining the weight of ozone compared with that
of oxygen, and several determinations made in this way served to
confirm the accepted view in regard to the molecular weight of
this substance.— Berichte, xxxiv, 631. H. L. W.

3. The Preparation of Chlorine from Sodium Chlorate.—Since
sodium chlorate is now produced on the large scale as a very
pure product, and since this salt is extremely soluble in water,
C. GRAEBE recommends its use for preparing chlorine gas in the
laboratory by allowing the concentrated solution to flow slowly —
into boiling dilute hydrochloric acid. This is a modification of
the method recommended by Gooch and Kreider, in which warm
hydrochloric acid is allowed to act upon lumps of previously
fused potassium chlorate in a Kipp generator.

Graebe finds that his process yields chlorine containing only
about 5 per cent of chlorine dioxide. For small quantities of the
gas he uses hydrochloric acid of 1:10 specific gravity, while for
larger quantities he prefers 1°12 acid. The acid can be used until
the strength has fallen to 5 or 6 percent. With 100° of 1°10
acid about 16 g. of chlorine can be obtained, and with the stronger
acid, about 20 g. 1g. of sodium chlorate yields about 2 g. of
chlorine. The solution of this salt is made by dissolving 100 g.
of it in 120 to 150° of hot water and afterwards diluting to 200°,
so that 1° corresponds to a gram of chlorine. <A special cylin-
drical, graduated dropping funnel is recommended, and the end

of its stem should dip under the surface of the acid and be drawn

out and bent upward.— Berichte, xxxiv, 645. H. L. W.

4. New Alkaloids in Tobacco.—Heretofore only a single alka-
loid, nicotine, has been found in tobacco, although most other
alkaloid-yielding plants have been found to contain a number of
these bodies. Picrer and Rorscny have now shown that tobacco
contains several alkaloids in addition to nicotine, and, _ conse-
quently, that this plant is not an exception to the general rule.
These chemists used the aqueous extract, concentrated in a
vacuum, of 100 kg. of dried Kentucky tobacco. The liquid
amounted to about 11°4 kg. and contained about 10 per cent of
nicotine. After adding caustic soda and distilling with steam,
both the residual liquid and the crude volatile alkaloid were
examined for new bases. From the former, by extraction with
ether and subsequent purification, two alkaloids were obtained.
One of them, a liquid boiling at 266-268°, to which the name
Nicoteine is given, gave analytical results corresponding to the
formula C,,H,,N,. ‘The other, called Wicotelline, was obtained as
a solid from a higher-boiling fraction. This melts at 147-148°,
and apparently has the formula C,H,N,. By a somewhat
intricate process a third alkaloid, called Vicotimine, was extracted
from the large mass of crude nicotine. This base boils at about
250°, which is several degrees higher than the boiling-point of
nicotine. It shows great similarity to the latter alkaloid and is
believed to be isomeric with it.

PS RSPTES i Sae e
SST
7

= a o a
a i a aia

eee

Chemistry and Physics. 393

The following formule are given for the alkaloids of tobacco:

sic LCOS ae lo Wires pe
INTGOUMMNIMC eS oi oy, a en IN
PNiC@RemGe joes jo Co aN
Micoteline. ches LEO EN,

The following table is given as a rough estimate of the quanti-

ties of these alkaloids in 10 kg. of the concentrated tobacco

extract: |
INTeOqTHe: Ber eAPs 026 sos NO COne:
INWeGteIMeM ee PSE) 2 20 oe
Nicotimines 22 ed 5 g.
Nicotelline Si oe ee 1 g.

Only one of the new alkaloids, nicoteine, has been tested in
regard to its physiological action. ‘This appears to be even more
poisonous than nicotine itself.— Berichte, xxxiv, 696. 4H. L. W.

5. The Hydrate of Sulphuryl Chloride.—Bakyer and VILLIGER
have found that when sulphuryl chloride, SO,Cl, is poured into
ice-cold water a beautifully crystallized hydrate is formed, which,
curiously enough, has not been previously noticed. ‘The sub-
stance has the appearance of camphor, is only very slightly solu-
ble in water at 0°, and in small quantities remains unchanged for
hours under ice-cold water. When the hydrate is slightly
warmed with water an oil separates which appears to be
unchanged sulphuryl chloride, for the hydrate is formed again
upon cooling. Analysis showed that the compound probably has
the composition represented by the formula SO,Cl,.15H,O.—
Berichte, xxxiv, 736. H. L. W.

6. The Action of Hydrogen Peroxide upon Silver Oxide.—
According to Thenard these two substances reduce each other with
the formation of oxygen, water and metallic silver. Berthelot
advanced the view, however, that in this reaction only the extra
oxygen of the hydrogen peroxide is evolved, while the oxygen
given up by a part of the silver is retained by another part of it
in the form of a higher oxide of that metal. Baryerr and Viz-
LIGER have now shown clearly that Thenard’s view is entirely
correct, and that Berthelot was wrong in regard to this matter.
Since finely divided metallic silver exerts a powerful catalytic
action upon hydrogen peroxide, it is difficult to reduce silver
oxide completely by means of a solution of this substance. By
using about five times the theoretical quantity of hydrogen per-
oxide, however, and adding it slowly with thorough agitation,
Baeyer and Villiger have obtained a practically complete reac-
tion, and have found no evidence of the formation of a higher
oxide of silver. They have shown also that more oxygen is

always evolved when hydrogen peroxide acts upon silver oxide

than when it acts upon a simple catalytic substance like finely

_ divided platinum or silver, and that, under the proper conditions,

the volume of oxygen given off corresponds to Thenard’s theory.
— Berichte, xxxiv, 749. H. L. W.

394 Scientifie Intelligence.

7. Action of Alcohol on Metals with which it comes in Contact.
—After allowing pure 95 per cent alcohol to act upon several
metals for a period of six months in corked flasks, Dr. Matmisac
has found that a considerable amount of action took place in
several cases. With copper, there was no turbidity, and no resi-
due was left upon evaporating some of the alcohol. With tin
there was a decided turbidity, but the filtered alcohol gave a
hardly observable residue. In the cases of zinc, lead, iron, and
galvanized iron, there were considerable amounts of turbidity,
and the filtered alcohol in each case left a decided residue, which
was rather large in the case of lead. These experiments have an
important bearing upon the choice of vessels used for the storage
of alcohol.-_- Chem. News, |xxxili, 115. H. L. W.

8. On the Excitation and Measure of Sine Currents.—One of
the greatest needs in the subject of electrical measurements is an
apparatus which will produce sine currents. The theory of
periodic currents presupposes an accurate sinusoidal variation;
but the instruments which are used to test the theory give in
nu case hitherto true sine waves. Max Wren describes in a
leading article a method which seems to be a valuable one. The
sine waves are produced by the revolution of a brass wheel
in the periphery of which are numerous insertions of pieces
of soft iron. This wheel is the analogue of the perforated disc
of the syren in the subject of acoustics. The wheel revolves
between stationary poles of an electromagnet, upon which are
induction coils, in which the sinusoidal variations are produced.
By means of a condenser the circuit is tuned to resonance, and
accurate sine waves are produced, since by the tuning the har-
monics are rendered weak, and only the fundamental tone of the
circuit is preserved.—Ann. der Physik., No. 3, 1901, pp. 427-

458. Ae

9. Metallic Reflection of Electrical Waves.—Righi has described
an experiment in which he claimed to have observed elliptical
polarization of electrical waves at metallic surfaccs. Kart F.
LinpDMAN quotes the theoretical conclusion of Poincaré and of
Drude, to prove the impossibility of this for waves certainly 10°™
in length. He concludes that this elliptical polarization does not
exist, and he finds that the electrical waves are linear polarized.
The results of Righi are attributed to some unexplained disturb-
ance.—Ann. der Physik., No. 3, 1901, pp. 617-637. teats

10. The Light Transparency of Hydrogen.—V.ScHuMANN, the
author of the remarkable paper on very short wave-lengths of
light in a vacuum, has shown that a layer of hydrogen gas is
very transparent to light and allows the shortest waves to pass
through it unabsorbed. He found, however, strange inconsist-
encies in his work, and in the present paper explains their cause.
In the earlier experiments the gas was led into the apparatus
through a rubber tube, and the use of this tube was found to
lessen the transparency of the hydrogen. When it was dispensed
with and great care was taken in preserving the hydrogen from

Bae eS
“A ea

Geology and Natural History. 395

contamination, it was found that hydrogen transmits the shortest
waves as well as a vacuum.—Avnn. der Physik, No. 3, 1901, pp.
642-645. J. T.
11. Measurement of the Réntgen Rays by means of Selenitum.—
F. HimstTEDT, in an investigation on the X-rays and the Becquerel
rays, shows that these rays alter the resistance of selenium, and
he hopes to devise a plan for the qualitative measurement of these
rays.—Ann. der Physik, No. 3, 1901, pp. 531-536. Sp
12. The Effect of the Réntgen Rays and the Becquerel Rays on
the Hye.—Giesel has shown that a preparation of radium laid
upon the eyelid gives a sensation as if the entire eye was filled -
with light. EF. Himsrepr and W. A. Nace have made a careful
examination of this phenomenon, and also of the effect of the
X-rays on the eye. They show that a fluorescence is excited in
the organs of the eye which produces the sensation of light.
Their work confirms the investigations of previous observers and
somewhat extends them.—Ann. der Physik, No. 3, pp. 5387-552,
1901. J. T.

II. GroLoGcgy AND NATURAL HISTORY.

1, The Hocene and Lower Oligocene Coral Faunas of the
United States, with descriptions of a few doubtfully Cretaceous
species; by T. Wayzianp VaucHan. -Monograph, vol. xxxix,
pp. 263, 24 pl. U. 8. Geological Survey. Washington, 1900.—
Upon taking up the study of the Tertiary corals, Mr. Vaughan
set for himself the task of defining every species presenting
good and identifiable figures, showing their stratigraphic range
and geographic distribution ; then, secondly, he sought to deter-
mine from the study of the corals, the bathymetric conditions
under which they lived and were buried ; and thirdly, to trace,
so far as practicable, the affinities of the forms met with. He
brought to the solution fine equipment and excellent collections,
and has performed his task well. The descriptions and delinea-
tions of species appear to be all that could be wished for. The
questions : what is a species? and how to classify corals? have
been conscientiously met and judiciously handled, but the author,
like other workers in this field, leaves the burden of proposing
something better than the current system to those who will
follow. 3

The study of the bathymetric distribution of the species on a
basis of known depths at which corresponding genera are now
living leads to the conclusion that the faunas of the Eocene and
Oligocene under investigation lived at only moderate depth, not
over 100 fathoms, and 18 out of 24 genera now live in water less
than 50 fathoms deep. The author gives valuable statistics
regarding the bathymetric values of the faunas of the several
formations studied. An excellent account of the morphology of
the Madreporarian coral skeleton is given, which will be helpful
to students. \

The volume is a distinct contribution to the systematic knowl-
edge of Tertiary corals. w.

396 Scientific Intelligence.

v 2. On the presence of a. Limestone Conglomerate in the Lead
region of St. Francis Co., Missouri; by Frank L. Nason.
(Communicated.)—For the past two months, the writer has been
engaged in geological work in the disseminated lead fields in St.
Francis County, Missouri. During the progress of the work a
heavy bed (or beds) of limestone conglomerate has been discovered
separating the St. Joseph, or Bonne Terre, limestones from the
formation known as the Potosi. The interstitial filling of this
conglomerate is a pure coarsely crystalline limestone, in sharp
distinction to the magnesian limestone or dolomite which forms
the pebbles. The interstitial part is filled with fragments of
trilobites, brachiopods and _ possibly crinoid stems, all undeter-
mined at present. I wish to announce now this discovery, which
is of great importance geologically and promises to be of even
greater importance economically in relation to the disseminated
lead deposits of this section of Missouri. In a few weeks I hope
to publish a geological section showing the relative position of
the conglomerate with reference to the St. Joseph limestones
and the Potosi.

3. New Species of Cambrian fossils from Cape Breton ; by
G. F. Marrusrw, Nat. Hist. Society of New Brunswick Bulletin,
vol. iv, p. 219, with a plate. (Abstract by the author.)—In this
paper on fossils from the Upper Cambrian of Cape Breton, nine
new species and forms are described. These are referred to the
several zones of Parabolina, Peltura and Dictyonema. ‘The
internal features of the valves of several of the Brachiopods are
described and figured. .An enlarged figure shows the compli-
cated structure of the group of central muscles in Lingulella. <A
new Schizambon described is a minute orbicular form from the —
Dictyonema zone. This and a new Acrotreta have’/been found
also in the Cambrian Basin at St. John, N. B., Canada.

The trilobites are of three genera, Parabolina, Sphzroph-
thalmus and Agnostus. The first genus is represented by a
species with a strongly arched front to the cephalic shield, but in
other respects strongly resembles the European forms referred to
this genus. The Agnostus is a fine example of A. trisectus of
Salter, but differing in the markings of the surface of the shield
and in having a tubercle at the back of the rhachis of the
pygidium.

4. Geological Survey of Western ‘Australia.—YThe Annual
Report for the year 1899 has been recently issued. It contains
an account of the Greenbushes tin fields, by the Government
geologist, A. Giss Mairtanp, with a detailed geological map;
also of various gold fields, chiefly in the Coolgardie district,
accompanied by geological maps. The mineralogist, Mr. Edward
S. Simpson, gives results of assays of some twelve samples of
native gold, in part nuggets, but chiefly from quartz reefs. Most
of them show the presence of a considerable percentage of silver,
from 3°5 to 10% p. c. The lowest specific gravity observed
(14°66): is that of the “ Bobby Dazzler”? nugget, which yielded

Geology and Natural History. 397

gold 76°81, silver 23:04, copper and iron 0°15. The purest speci-
men was a sample of sponge gold from Boulder, East Coolgardie ;
this yielded gold 99°91, silver 0:09.

Some further information is given in regard to the problemat-
ical tantalo-niobate from the tin-bearing gravels at Greenbushes,
called by Goyder stibiotantalite. (Dana Min., App. I, p. 64.)
This allows of a somewhat fuller description of the mineral than
has been given before, and the hope is held out that material
pure enough for complete analysis may ke separated. Associated
with this mineral, grains of metallic tin wereidentified. Cobalt-
iferous asbolite has been found at Norseman and Kanowna; it is
associated with gold, at the latter place being often studded with
minute crystals.

5. Geology of Texas.—The Transactions of the Texas Academy
of Science for 1899, volume iii, contains a summary, prepared by
Prof. F, W. Simonps, of publications on the Geology of Texas up
to the end of 1896; a brief summary of the contents of each
paper is given.

6. Concretions from the Champlain Clays of the Connecticut
Valley ; by J. M. Arms SuHetpon. With one hundred and sixty
illustrations by Katharine Peirson Ramsay, L. R. Martin, and
F.S.and M. E. Allen. Pp. 45, pl. 1-x1v, 4to. Boston, 1900.—The
author has given in this volume an interesting and exhaustive
account of the concretions found in the Connecticut Valley clays.
They were collected at different points between Dummerston, |
Vermont, and Deerfield, Massachusetts. The method of occur-
rence is fully described and the origin, chemical composition, and
other points are discussed with all necessary detail. A consider-
able series of analyses shows a substantially uniform composition,
differing somewhat for samples from different layers. The
memoir closes with a full bibliography; it is illustrated by a
series of fourteen admirable heliotype plates, which leave noth-
ing to be desired in the way of presenting the varieties of form
and structure.

7. Study of the Gabbroid Rocks of Minnesota.—The elaborate
memoir by ALEXANDER N. WINCHELL, containing a mineralog-
ical and petrographic study of the gabbroid rocks of Minnesota,
and more particularly of the plagioclastyes, noticed on page 89 of
this volume of the Journal and republished in the American
Geologist (volume xxvi), has been recently issued in pamphlet
form. | |
8. On the Flow of Marble under Pressure.—The full memoir
by Apams and Nicotson on this subject, of which an abstract
was given in the number of this Journal for November last
(p. 401), has recently been issued (pp. 363-401 of vol. cxev, Pt. A
of the Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London).
The plates and other illustrations accompanying it add much to
the clearness of the description and increase the general interest
of the subject.

Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Series, Vou. XI, No. 65 —May, 1901.
26

398 Scientific Intelligence.

9. The Flora of Cheshire (400 pp., 8vo, Longmans, Green
& Co.) is a carefully prepared work compiled by Mr. SPENCER
Moore from the manuscripts of the late Lord de Tabley. The
extraordinary versatility of the author is well portrayed in an
introductory biographical sketch. Chiefly known as a poet, dram-
atist, and novelist, Lord de Tabley found time to write seriously
upon the federal coinage of Ancient Greece, produce a note-
worthy work upon bookplates, and prepare the botanical manu-
scripts of remarkable detail from which the present posthumous
work has been compiled. The Flora contains neither technical
descriptions nor keys. There is a careful physico-botanical
account of the different sections of the region covered, a list of
and some notes upon the persons concerned in the past with
Cheshire botany, an extensive list of works consulted, and finally
the body of the catalogue, which is restricted to the spermato-
phytes, pteridophytes, and Characew. In looking over its pages
one is impressed chiefly by the extraordinary minnteness and
detail with which habitats and stations have been recorded. A
single instance chosen at random will suffice to show the nature
of the work in this regard. One of the meadow grasses is said
to be “ Plentiful in one spot on the shore of the Dee near Park-
gate (destroyed in this locality, 1854); amongst shingle and
at the base of the wall in the first field enclosure north of Park-
gate; in the sandy tract commencing under the garden wall of
the house at Old Quay a mile south of Parkgate; and seen now
and again between the colliery and the gravel pit on that side of
Benton Point, 1873.” While all this may be of some interest to
the local observer for whom, of course, it was primarily intended
—if indeed the author ever expected that it would see light in
print—yet, considered as a scientific publication, it’ runs far into
the realm of the casual, if not the trivial. There is, further-
more, no synonymy, little bibliography except in relation to
ranges, and finally a curious lack of those comparative or descrip-
tive notes upon local varieties, in fact, of observations upon the
plants themselves aside from their abundance and stations.
In all these respects this stout volume is almost as barren as a
mere list would be. B. L. RB.

10. A preliminary list of the Spermatophyta of North Dakota ;
by Henry L. BotiteEy and Lawrence R. Warpron (Bulletin
No. 46 of the North Dakota Experiment Station).—No catalogue
of the plants of North Dakota has heretofore been published and
the present list is thus a piece of pioneering work. As such it
will, notwithstanding its manifest and frankly confessed incom-
pleteness, prove useful. It is furthermore of no small interest as
showing for the first time in concise form the general nature of
the vegetation in what is, as to its floral conditions, probably
the most uniform of our larger states. <A striking character-
istic noticeable in the vegetation, as shown in this catalogue, is
that nearly all of the species are those of wide range, endemic or
truly local plants being almost unknown in the state. Another

ae

Miscellaneous Intelligence. — 399

feature of the flora which is noteworthy is the extreme paucity of
Species in certain usually well represented families; thus but 41
yperacece are recorded. This, it is true, may well be due largely
to the difficulty of the group and the fact that many species
present in the flora have yet to be discriminated and recorded.
The same explanation, however, can hardly apply to the Hricacee,
of which but one species, or to the ferns, of which only two species,
Cystopteris fragilis and Onoclea Struthiopteris, are recorded for
any part of the state. Bes Rt

III. MisckELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. The new Star in Perseus.—As a culminating result of the
vigilance with which Dr. THomas D. ANDERSON of Edinburgh,
Scotland, has watched the northern heavens and which has far-
nished us with some two dozen new variable stars in the past few
years, a new star in Perseus was discovered by him on February
21 at 14 hours 40 min. Greenwich mean time. It was then a
little brighter than a third magnitude star and shone with a
bluish-white light. The northern sky is now so extensively
patrolled by photography that for the first time in the history of
sudden apparitions of new stars we are able to say almost defi-

nitely when the outburst took place. A photograph taken at

Harvard on February 19 shows no trace of the star, though stars
to the eleventh magnitude are impressed, and a valuable plate
secured by A. Stanley Williams, of Hove, Sussex, England, 28
hours before the discovery by Dr. Anderson, makes it certain that
the new star must have then been fainter than a twelfth magni-
tude star. We are, therefore, able to time the occurrence within
14 hours. |

The star continued to increase in brilliancy until February 23,
when it was estimated at Harvard as of the magnitude 0:0, that
is about a quarter magnitude, or about 25 per cent brighter than
any star in the northern hemisphere, and only falling below Sirius
and Canopus in the southern sky. ‘This brilliancy has only been
surpassed by temporary stars twice in historic records, once in
1572 and again in 1604, the two new stars described by Tycho
and Kepler. On February 24 when the nova was first seen at
the Yale Observatory, in broad daylight, it had already fallen to
equality with Capella and diminished during the day tully half a
magnitude. Since then the decline has been slow and steady
with occasional fluctuations, and about April 1 it. was of the fifth
magnitude or 100 times fainter than at its maximum; and the
color had gradually changed to an orange hue.

The most interesting and valuable features of the apparition will
doubtless be found in the spectroscopic results. At present all the
data have of course not been collated and discussed, but it seems
certain that an earlier stage of development has been observed
than on any previous new star. The first observations at
Harvard, on February 22, show a spectrum quite unlike that of

400 Scientific Intellagence.

other new stars, being continuous with a number of dark lines,

and a few inconspicuous bright lines. By February 24, however,
the star seems to have attained the stage observed in the new
star in Auriga in 1892, as there appear two superposed and
slightly separated spectra, one of dark and one of bright lines,
elther showing the presence of two bodies with enormous relative
velocities or, more likely, some remarkable physical conditions
in one body alone. The interpretation of the totality of the
phenomena presented by this star will doubtless prove very
valuable for our knowledge of the constitution and formation of
the stellar universe. Ww. L. E.

2. National Academy of Sciences.—The annual meeting of
the National Academy was held in Washington, April 16-18th.
The list of papers presented is given below. Professor Alexander
Agassiz was elected President in place of Dr. Wolcott Gibbs, who
resigned in April, 1900. Dr. Arnold Hague was elected Home
Secretary and Professor Ira Remsen Foreign Secretary. The
following gentlemen were made members of the Academy: Dr.
George F. Becker of Washington, Prof. J. McK. Cattell and
T. M. Prudden of New York, Prof. E. H. Moore of Chicago and
Prof. E. F. Nichols of Ithaca. The titles of papers presented are
as follows :

Henry L. Assot: The climatology of the Isthmus of Panama.

R. S. Woopwarp: The effects of secular cooling and meteoric dust on the
length of the terrestrial day.

ALPpHEUS Hyatt: The use of formule in demonstrating the relations of the
life history of an individual to the evolution of its group.

EK. B. Witson: Artificial parthenogenesis and its relation to normal fertiliza-
tion.

CARL Barus: Simultaneous volumetric and electric graduation of the condensa-
tion tube.

W.O. Atwater: Table of results of an experimental inquiry regarding the
nutritive action of alcobol.

THEO. GILL: The significance of the dissimilar limbs of the Ornithopodous
Dinosaurs.

J. W. POWELL: The place of Mind in Nature. The foundation of Mind.

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL: Conditions affecting the fertility of sheep and the
sex of their offspring.

8. P. LANGLEY: The new spectrum.

3. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for
the year ending June 30th, 1900. Pp. 117, with 18 plates.
Washington, 1900.—Prof. Langley’s annual report gives a sum-
mary of the year’s work by the Smithsonian Institution in its
many directions of useful activity. The appendixes which follow
the formal report contain more detailed statements in regard to
some of the departments ; as, the National Museum, the Zoolog-
ical Garden, the International Exchange Service, and the Astro-
physical Observatory, etc. The last report, by Mr. C. G. Abbot,
Aid-in-charge, is especially interesting, since it details, with
numerous illustrations, the work done by the Smithsonian party
at the total eclipse of May, 1900. Mr. Abbot gives the follow-
ing summary of the work of the Observatory :

Pe.

noe AM aie

et

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 401

“The operations of the Astrophysical Observatory during the
past year have been distinguished, first, by the publication of the
first volume of its Annals, in which the infra-red solar spectrum
is the main topic; second, by progress in the preparation of a
highly sensitive, steady, and magnetically shielded galvanometer;
third, by observations of the total solar eclipse, in which excel-
lent large-scale photographs of the corona were secured, the
coronal extensions photographed to upward of three diameters
from the moon’s limb, the absence of intra-mercurial planets
above the fourth magnitude made nearly certain and the presence
of several such between the fifth and seventh magnitude rendered
as probable as single photographs can do, and finally, in which
the small but measurable intensity of the total radiations and the
effectively low temperature of the inner corona were observed by
the aid of the bolometer.”

4. Memorial of George Brown Goode.—Report of the U.S.
National Museum, Part II. Pp. 515, with 109 plates. Washington,
1901 (Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year
ending June 30th, 1897).—This volume is devoted to a Memorial
of Dr. George Brown Goode, giving alsoa selection of his papers on
Museums and the History of Science in America. It opens with
an account of the memorial exercises held to commemorate the
life and services of Dr. Goode, on February 13th, 1897, with the
addresses by Prof. Langley and others, delivered at that time.
A memoir by Prof. Langley follows (pp. 41-61). The remainder
of the volume is devoted to the re-publication of some of the
papers by Dr. Goode. Dr. Goode’s services to science were so
important ; his study of museums in general so thorough, and his
labors in behalf of the one of which he was in charge so active
and fruitful; his example as a man was so inspiring, that this

_volume must interest and benefit a large number of readers.

The opening paper discusses museum-history and gives an
account of the older museums of the world. Another paper
describes the origin and development of the U.S. National
Museum ; others are of general character and deal with museum
administration and the progress of museums in the future. The
discussions of the beginning of Natural History in America, and
of American science in general, which are given in other papers,
are most interesting, and bring together much material which it
would be difficult to find in any other place. The volume is
enriched by upwards of one hundred portraits of notable men,
who, as scientists, explorers or statesmen, contributed to the
advancement of science in this country.

5. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey: Report of the Superin-
tendent for the year from July Ist, 1898 to June 30th, 1899.
Pp. 964, 4to, with numerous plates and maps. Washington,
1900.—The annual volume of the U. 8S. Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey contains the usual summary of the work, geodetic, hydro-
graphic, magnetic, tidal, etc., which has been carried on in
different parts of the country. This is followed by a series of

Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Series, Vou. XI, No. 65.—May, 1901.
27

402 Scientific Intelligence.

appendixes, one of which contains the statement of the progress
made by the International Geodetic Association for the Measure-
ment of the Earth. Another gives an exhaustive statement of
work done in accurate leveling in the country with detailed
observations. Still another describes the progress of the mag-
netic survey of North Carolina, recently inaugurated and con-
ducted under the combined auspices of the Coast Survey and the
State Geological Survey. This is accompanied by a declination
map for the State. The concluding appendix, though brief, is
particularly interesting as detailing the general magnetic work of
the Survey, now under the charge of Dr. L. A. Bauer. Dr.
Bauer has made a minute study of the earth’s magnetism for a
number of years, and the outlines given here of the investiga-
tions that it is proposed to carry on gives reason to hope that
great progress may be made in this direction in the near future.

6. La Navigation Sous-marine ; par Mauricn Gacrr. Pp.
472, 12mo. Paris, 1901 (Librairie Polytechnique, Ch. Béranger).
—This compact volume contains a full summary of the subject of
sub-marine navigation. It treats first of its history; then the
theory involved is elaborated, and finally detailed descriptions
are given of the various more or less successful modern attempts
to solve the difficult problems involved. In this department the
French have accomplished much and this work will be read with
interest by all those whom the subject concerns.

7. Geological Survey of Great Britain.—Myr. J. J. H. Teall,
President of the Royal Geological Society, has been chosen
Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United King-
dom (see p. 252). s

8. Geological Survey of Canada.—The Directorship of the
Geological Survey of Canada, left vacant by the death of Dr.

George M. Dawson, has been filled by the appointment of Dr. .

‘Robert Bell.
OBITUARY.

Dr. Henry A. Rowrann, Professor of Physics at the Johns
Hopkins University and one of the Associate Editors of this
Journal, died at bis home in Baltimore on Tuesday, April 16th,
at the age of fifty-two years. A notice is deferred until a later
number.

Proressor GrorcEe F. Firzaerautp, of the University of
Dublin, died on February 21 at the age of forty-nine. He occu-
pied a high place among English physicists and his scientific
papers were of great value though not very numerous; the most
important of them is a memoir (1878) on the “ electro-magnetic
theory of the reflexion and refraction of light.” A movement for
the founding of a memorial to Prof. Fitzgerald has been inaugu-
rated; it is proposed to give it the form of an endowment of
research in physical science by advanced students.

Proressor Curistian EF. Lirken, the able Danish zoologist,
died on February 6 at the age of sixty-three years.

TH B

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FOURTH SERIES.]

ArT. XXXIII.—The New Spectrum; by 8. P. LANGLEY.
With Plate VII.

THE writer, (at the concluding meeting of the National
Academy of Sciences on April 18th,) remarked on the disad-
vantages in the matter of interest of the work of the physicist,
which he was about to show them, to that of the biologist,
which was concerned with the ever absorbing problem of life.
He had, however, something which seemed to him of interest

even in this respect, to speak of, for it included some indica-

tions he believed to be new, pointing the way to future knowl-
edge of the connection of terrestrial life with that physical
ereator of all life, the sun.

He had to present to the Academy a book embodying the
labor of twenty years; though at this late hour he could
scarcely more than show the volume with a mention of the
leading captions of its subject. What he had to say, then,
would be understood as only a sort of introductory description
of the contents of the work in question, which was entitled
“Volume I of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory
of the Smithsonian Institution.”

In illustration of a principal feature of this book, the
Academy saw before them on the wall an extended solar ‘spec-
trum,* only a small portion of the beginning of which, on the
left, was the visible spectrum known to Sir Isaac Newton.
This was the familiar visible colored spectrum which we all
have seen and know something of, even if our special studies
are in other fields.

* The references in this article are to the map in the present number (Plate VII).
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourra Series, Vou. XI, No. 66.—JUNE, 19801.

2
a eee 23s Pine

a osanian |

2

ead

404 S. P. Langley—New Spectrum.

It is chiefly this visible part, which has been hitherto the
seat of prolonged spectroscopic investigation, from a little
beyond the violet, at a wave-length of somewhat less than 0/4
down to the extreme red, which is generally considered to
terminate at the almost invisible line A, whose wave- -length is
0*:76. On the scale of the actual wave-length of light, then,
where the unit of measurement (L") is zjo5 of a millimeter,
the length of the visible spectrum is 0”-36.

The undue importance which this visible region has as-
sumed, not only in the eyes of the public but in the work of
the spectroscopist, is easily intelligible, being due primarily to
the evident fact that we all possess, as a gift from nature,
a wonderful instrument for noting the sun’s energy in this
part, and in this part only.

While then this part alone can be seen by all, yet the idea of
its undue importance is also owing to the circumstance that the
operation of the ordinary prism gives an immensely extended
linear depiction of the really small amount of energy in this
visible part. There is also a region beyond the violet, most
insignificant in energy and invisible to the eye, and the associa-
tion of this linear extension due to the prism, with the accident
that the salts of silver used in photography are extraordinarily
sensitive to these short wave-length rays, so that they can
depict them even through the most extreme enfeeblement of
the energy involved in “producing them, also makes this part
have undue prominence. ‘This action of the prism and of the.
photograph is local, then, and peculiar to the short wave-lengths;
and owing to it, all but special students of the subject are, as a
rule, under a wholly erroneous impression of the relative im-
portance of what is visible and what is not. The spectrum
has really no positive dimension, being extended at one end or
the other according to the use of the prism or grating employed
in producing it. Perhaps the only fair measurement for dis-
playing a linear representation of the energy would be that
of a special scheme, which the writer had proposed, in which
the energy is everywhere the same;* but this presentation
is unusual, and would not be generally intelligible without
explanation.

The map before us will be intelligible when it is stated that
it is, as to the infra-red, an exact representation of that part of
the spectrum given by a rock-salt prism. The visible and
ultra-violet spectrum given here is not exact, for the reason that
it would take over a hundred feet of map ‘to depict it on the
prismatic scale, though this is caused by but a small fraction of
the sun’s energy; so monstrous is the exaggeration due to the
dispersion of the prism.

* This Journal, III, xxvii, p. 169, 1884.

S. P. Langley—New Spectrum. 405

Looking then at the map; first, in the spectrum on the left
and beyond 0/4 is the ultra-violet region, in fact almost invis-
ibly small, but which in most photographs shows over a hun-
dred times larger than the whole infra-red. It really contains
much less than one-hundredth part of the total solar energy
which exists. Beyond it is the visible spectrum, containing
perhaps one-fifth the energy of the infra-red.

As the writer has elsewhere said, “the amount of energy,
in any region of the spectrum, such as that in any color, or
between any two specified limits, is a definite quantity, fixed
by facts, which are independent of our choice, such as the
nature of the radiant body or the absorption which the ray has
undergone. Beyond this, Nature has no law which must
govern us.”

Everything in the linear presentation, then, depends on the
scale adopted. In other words, if we have the lengths propor-
tionable to the energies, the familiar prismatic representation
enormously exaggerates the importance of the visible, and still
more of the ultra-violet region, and similarly the grating spec-
trum exaggerates that of the infra-red region. Now he had
given, on the map before them, and through the whole infra-red,
the exact rock salt prismatic spectrum, but for the purpose of
obtaining a length which represented (though insufficiently)
that of the visible spectrum, he had laid the latter down on the
average dispersion in the infra-red, which was perhaps as fair a
plan as could be taken for showing the approximate relation
of the two fields of energy in an intelligible way, though it gave
the visible energy too small.

Let us recall, then, at the risk of iteration, that in spite of
the familiar extended photographie spectra of the hundreds of
lines shown in the ultra-violet, and in those of the colored
spectrum, it is not here that the real creative energy of the
sun/is to be studied, but elsewhere, on the right of the drawing,
in the infra-red. Looking to the spectrum as thus delineated,
next to the invisible ultra-violet comes the visible or New-
tonian spectrum, which is here somewhat insufficiently shown,
and on the right extends the great invisible spectrum in which
four-fifths of the solar energies are now known to exist.

Of this immense invisible region nothing was known until
the year 1800,* when Sir William Herschel found heat there
with the thermometer.

After that little was donet (except an ingenious experiment

_* Philosophical Transactions, vol. xc, p. 284, 1800.
_ +Itshould, however, be mentioned that an important paper by Draper (London,
Ed. Dublin Phil. Mag., May, 1843) was published in 1843 in which he appears to
claim the discovery of the group here called por and which is now known to have

406 S. P. Langley—New Spectrum.

by Sir John Herschel* to show that the heat was not continuous)
till the first drawing of the energy curve by Lamansky,} in 1871,
which, on account of its great importance in the history of the
subject, is given on the map. It consists of the energy curves
of the visible spectrum, and beyond ‘it, on the right, (and in
illustration of what has just been said it will be seen how
relatively small these latter appear) of three depressions indi-
cating lapses of heat in the infra-red. It is almost impossible
to tell what these lapses are meant for, without a scale of some
kind (which he does not furnish), but they probably indicate
something, going down to near a wave-length of 1”. It is
obvious that the detail is of the very crudest, and yet this
drawing of Lamansky’s was remarkable as the first drawing of
the energy spectrum. It attracted general attention, and was
the immediate cause of the writer’s taking up his researches
in this direction.

It seems proper to state here that the true wave-lengths
were at that time most imperfectly known, but that in 1884,
and later in 1885,{ they were completely determined by the
writer as far as the end of what he has called “the new spec-
trum” at a wave-length of 5:3.

The upper portion of the infra-red is quite accessible to
photography, and the next important publication in this direc-
tion was that of Captain Abney,§ which gave the photographic
spectrum down to about 1-1, much beyond which photography
has never gone since.

From the time of seeing Lamansky’s drawing, the writer had
grown interested in this work, but found the thermopile, the
instrument of his predecessors, and the most delicate then
known to science, insufficient in the feeble heat of the grating
spectrum, and about 1880 he had invented the bolometer| and
was using it in that year for these researches. ‘This may per-
haps seem the place to speak of this instrument, though with
the later developments which have made it what it is to-day,

a wave-length of less than 1”. (Its true wave-length was not determined till
much later.) Later, Fizeau seems to have found further irregularities of this heat
as long ago as 1847, and of its location, obtaining his wave-lengths by means
of interference bands. His instrumental processes, though correct in theory,
were not exact in practice; and yet it seems pretty clear that he obtained some
sort of recognition of a something indicating heat, as far down as the great region
immediately above 2 on our present charts. Mouton (Comptes Rendus, 1879)
contirmed this observation of Fizeau’s, and contrived to get at least an approxi-

mate wave-length of the point where the spectrum (to him) ended, at about 1/8.
* Philosophical Transactions, vol. cxxx, p. 1, 1840.
+ Monatsberichte der k. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Dec., 1871.
+ This Journal, March, 1884, and August, L886.
§ Philosophical Transactions, vol. clxxi, p. 653, 1880.
Actinic Balance, this Journal, 3d series, vol. xxi, p. 187, 1881.

S. P. Langley—New Spectrum. 407

it has grown to something very different from what it was
then.

It has, in fact, since found very general acceptance among
physicists, especially since it has lately reached a degree of
accuracy, as well as of delicacy, which would have appeared
impossible to the inventor himself in its early days.

It may be considered in several relations, but notably as to
three: (1) its sensitiveness to small amounts of heat; (2) the
accuracy of measurement of those small amounts; and (3) the
accuracy of its measurements of the position of the source of
heat.

As to the first, it is well known that the principle of the
instrument depends on the forming of a Wheatstone bridge,
by the means of two strips of platinum or other metal, of
narrow width and still more limited thickness, one of which
only is exposed to the radiation. In some bolometers in use,
for instance, the strip is a tenth of a millimeter, or one
two-hundred-and-fiftieth of an inch in width; and yet it is
to be described as only a kind of tape, since its thickness is
less than a tenth of this.

The use of the instrument is then based on the well-known
fact that the heating of an ordinary metallic conductor in-
creases its resistance, and this law is found to hold good in
quantities so small that they approach the physically infini-
tesimal. In the actual bolometers, for instance, the two arms
of a Wheatstone bridge are formed of two strips of platinum, »
side by side, one of which is exposed to the heat and the other
sheltered. The warming of the exposed one increases its
resistance and causes a deflection of the galvanometer.

It was considered to be remarkable twenty years ago that
the change of temperature of one ten-thousandth of a degree
Centigrade could be registered; it is believed at present that
with the consecutive improvements of the original instrument
and others, including those which Mr. Abbot, of the Smith-
sonian Institution Observatory, has lately introduced into its
attendant galvanometer, that less than one one-hundred-mil-
lionth of a degree in the change of temperature of the strip can
be registered. ‘This indicates the sensitiveness of the instru-
ment to heat.

As to the second relation, some measures have been made
on the steadiest light source obtainable. With ordinary photo-
metric measures of its intensity one might expect a probable
error of about one per cent. The error with the bolometer
was insensible by any means that could be applied to test it.
It is at any rate less than ;2,; of one per cent. If we imagine
an absolutely invisible spectrum, in which there nevertheless
are interruptions of energy similar to those which the eye shows

408 S. P. Langley—New Spectrum.

us in the visible, then the bolometer, whose sensitive strip
passes over a dark line in the spectrum, visible or invisible
(since what is darkness to the eye is cold to it), gives a deflec-
tion on the side of cold, and in the warmer interval between
two lines a deflection on the side of heat; these deflections
being proportionate to the cause, within the degree of accuracy
just stated. .

The third quality, the accuracy of its measures of position,
is better seen by a comparison and a statement, for if we look
back to the indications of the lower part of Lamansky’s draw-
ing, we may see that at least a considerable fraction of a
degree of error must exist there in such a vague delineation.
Now in contrast with this early record, the bolometer has been
brought to grope in the dark, and to thus feel the presence of
narrow Fraunhofer-like lines by their cooler temperature alone,
with an error of the order of that in refined astronomical
measurement; that is to say, the probable error, in a mean of
six observations of the relative position of one of these invis-
ible lines, is less than one second of are; a statement which
the astronomer, perhaps, who knows what an illusive thing a
second of are is, can best appreciate.

The results of the writer’s labors with the bolometer in the
years 1880 and 1881, and in part of his expedition in the latter
year to Mount Whitney, were given at the Southampton meet-
ing of the British Association for the Advancement of Science
in 1882.* During these two years, very many thousand gal-
vanometer readings were taken by a most tryingly slow pro-
cess, to give the twenty or more interruptions shown at that
time, below the limit at 1“1 of Abney’s photographs. The
bolometer has been called an eye which sees in the dark, but
at that time the “eye” was not fairly open, and having then
not been brought to its present rapidity of use, the early results
were attained only by such unlimited repetition, and almost
infinite patience was needed till what was inaccurate was elim-
inated. :

Several hundreds at least of galvanometer readings were
then taken to establish the place of each of the above twenty
lines during the two years when they were being hunted for,
and this patience so far found its reward, that they have never
required any material alteration since, but only additions such
as the writer can now give. The part below 1-1 he then pre-
sented (at the Southampton meeting of the British Associa-
tion) as having been mapped for the first time. Mouton had
two years before obtained crude indications of heat as far as

* Report British Association, 1882. Nature xxvi, 1882.

S. P. Langley—New Spectrum. 409

1”-8, and Abney had, as stated, obtained relatively complete
photographs of the upper infra-red extending to about this
point (1%-1). }

The writer had already determined for the first time by the
bolometer, at Allegheny and on Mt. Whitney, the wave-lengths
of some much remoter regions, including the region then first
discovered by him and here called “‘the new spectrum,” and
was able to state that the terminal ray of the solar spectrum,
whose presence had then been certainly felt by the bolometer,
had a wave-length of about 4-8 or nearly two octaves below
the “great A” of Fraunhofer.

He stated in this communication of 1882, that the galva-
nometer then responded readily to changes of temperature in
the bolometer strip of much less than one ten-thousandth of
a degree Centigrade (as has just been said it now responds to
changes of less than one one-hundred-millionth;) and he added
“since it is one and the same solar energy whose manifestations
are called ‘light’ or ‘heat’ according to the medium which
interprets them, what is ‘light’ to the eye is ‘ heat’ to the bolo-
meter, and what is seen as a dark line by the eye is felt as
a cold line by the sentient instrument. Accordingly if lines
-analogons to the dark ‘Fraunhofer’ lines exist in this invis-
ible region, they will appear (if I may so speak) to the bolo-
meter as cold bands, and this hair-like strip of platinum is
moved along in the invisible part of the spectrum, till the gal-
vanometer indicates the all but infinitesimal change of tem-
perature caused by its contact with such a ‘cold band.’ The
whole work, it will be seen, is necessarily very slow; it is in
fact a long groping in the dark, and it demands extreme
patience.”

At that time it may be said to have been shown that these
interruptions were due to the existence of something like dark
lines or bands resembling what are known as the Fraunhofer
lines in the upper spectrum, but apart from what the writer
had done, no one then surmised how far this spectrum ex-
tended, nor perhaps what these explorations really meant.
They may be compared to actual journeys into this dark conti-
nent, if it may be so called, which extended so far beyond those
of previous explorers that the determination of positions by the
writer, corresponding somewhat to longitudes determined by the
terrestrial explorer in anew country, was by those who had not
been so far, but had conceived an inadequate idea of the extent
of the country, treated as erroneous and impossible.

A-necessary limit to the farthest infra-red was in 1880 sup-
posed to exist near the wave-length 1”. Doctor John Draper,*

Site Proceedings of the American Academy, vol. xvi, p. 233, 1880.

410 S. P. Langley—New Spectrum.

for instance, announced in other terms that the extreme end
of the invisible spectrum might from theoretical considerations
be probably estimated at something less than the wave-length
of 1“-0, whence it followed that the above value of 1”8 was
impossibie, .and still more that of 2”:8.. If in this connection
we revert to our map, where the visible spectrum has an
extent in wave-lengths of -0":36, then, on that same scale, the
length of the entire possible spectrum, visible and invisible,
was fixed by Draper at the point there shown near the band
pot. In still other words, according to him, the very end of
any spectrum at all would be less than 3 on a seale in which
the visible spectrum was 1. Doctor Draper’s authority was
deservedly respected, and this citation of his remarks is made
only to show the view then entertained by eminent men of
science. | :

_ Now the writer had proved by actual measurement that it
extended far beyond this point, and had announced, as the
result of experiment, that it extended at any rate to about three
times the utmost length then assigned from theoretical reasons,
founded on the then universally accepted formula of Cauchy,
which was later discredited by the direct experimental evi-
dence given of its falsity by the bolometer.

The bolometer then, which is wholly independent of light
as a sensation and notes it only as a manifestation of energy,
first lays down the spectrum by curves of energy from which
the linear spectrum is in turn derived. ;

There must now be explained, however, briefly, the way in
which these energy curves, which are the basis of all, have
actually been produced here. riotg

In making the map of the energy curves it should be re-
membered that when an invisible band or line is suspected its
presence is revealed by the change of temperature in the bolo-
meter strips affecting the needle of the galvanometer, causing
this needle to swing this way or that; let us suppose to the |
left if from cold, and the right if from heat. The writer’s
first method was to have one person to note the exposure; an-
other to note the extent of the deflection, and a third to note
the part of the spectrum in which it occurred. For reasons
into which he does not enter, this old plan was, as he has
already said, tedious in the extreme, and required as has been
said hundreds of observations to fix with approximate accuracy
the position in wave-length of one invisible line. It has been
stated that only about twenty such lines had been mapped out
in nearly two years of assiduous work prior to 1881, and if a
thousand such lines existed, it was apparent that 50 years
would be required to denote them. |

The writer then devised a second apparatus to be used in
connection with the bolometer. This apparatus was simple in

Am Jour. Sci, Vol. XI, 1201 ENERGY SPECTRUM.
PLATE Vil.

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SF wroemem

NEW SPECTRUM

Redu-tion from Large Map of the infrared Solar Spectrum of 9 60° Rock-Salt Prism, |Energy Curyes and Line Spectrum from Bologiphs of 1898.

Observations of S. P. Langley with the assistance of C. G. Abbot.

ee ee Se ee

S. P. Langley—D. ew Spectrum. 411°

theory though it has taken a dozen years to make it work well
in practice, but it is working at last, and with this the maps in
this volume of the “Annals” and that before us have been
chiefly made. It is almost entirely antomatic, and as it is now
used, a thousand inflections can be delineated in a single hour,
much better than this could have been done in the half cen-
tury of work just referred to.

Briefly, the method is this. A great rock salt prism (for a
glass one would not transmit these lower rays nor could they
easily be detected in the overlapping spectra of the grating)
is obtained of such purity and accuracy of figure, and so well
sheltered from moisture, that its clearness and its indications
compare favorably, even in the visible spectrum, with those
of the most perfect prism of glass, with the additional advantage
that it is permeable to the extreme infra-red rays in question.
This prism rests on a large azimuth circle turned by clock-
work of the extremest precision, which causes the spectrum to
move slowly along, and in one minute of time, for example,
to move exactly one minute of are of its length, before the
strip of the bolometer, bringing this successively in contact
with one invisible line and another. Since what is blackness
to the eye is cold to the bolometer, the contact of the black
lines chills the strip and increases the electric current. The
bolometer is connected bya cable with the galvanometer, whose
consequent swing to the right or the left is photographically
registered on a plate which the same clockwork causes to move
synchronously and uniformly up or down, by exactly one centi-
meter of space for the corresponding minute. Dy this means
the energy curve of an invisible region, which directly is
wholly inaccessible to photography, is photographed upon the
dlate. \

Let it be noted that whatever the relation of the movement
of the spectrum to that of the plate is, (and different ones
might be adopted) it is absolutely synchronous,—at least to
such a degree that an error in the position of one of these
invisible lines can be determined, as has been stated, with the

order of precision of the astronomical measurement of visible

things.

The results were before them in the energy curves and the
linear infra-red spectrum containing over seven handred invis-
ible lines. This is more than the number of visible ones in
Kirchoff & Bunsen’s charts. The position of each line is fixed
from a mean of at least six independent determinations with
the accuracy stated above.

The reader will perhaps gather a clearer idea of this action
if he imagines the map before him hung up at right angles to
its actual position, so that a rise in the energy curve given

412 S. P. Langley—New Spectrum.

would be seen to correspond to a deflection to the right, and a
fall, to one to the left; for in this way the deflections were
written down on the moving photographic plate from which
this print has been made. The writer was now speaking of
the refinements of the most recent practice; but there was
something in this retrospect of the instrument’s early use
which brought up a personal reminiscence which he asked the
Academy to indulge him in alluding to.

This was that of one day in 1881, nearly twenty years ago,
when being near the summit of Mt. Whitney in the Sierra
Nevada, at an altitude of 12,000 feet, he there with this newly
invented instrument was working in this invisible spectrum.
His previous experience had been that of most scientific men,
that very few discoveries come with a surprise; and that they are
usually the summation of the patient work of years.

In this case, almost the only one in his experience, he had
the sensations of one who makes a discovery. He went down
the spectrum, noting the evidence of invisible heat die out on the
scale of the instrument, until he came to the apparent end even
of the invisible, beyond which the most prolonged researches
of investigators up to that time had shown nothing. There he
watched the indications grow fainter and fainter until they
too ceased at the point where the French investigators be-
lieved they had found the very end of theend. By some happy
thought he pushed the indications of this delicate instrument
into the region still beyond. In the still air of this lofty
region, the sunbeams passed unimpeded by the mists of the
lower earth, and the curve of heat, which had fallen to noth-
ing, began to rise again. There was something there. For
he found, suddenly and unexpectedly, a new spectrum of great
extent, wholly unknown to science and whose presence was
revealed by the new instrument, the bolometer. |

This new spectrum is given on the map, where it will be
observed that while the work of the photograph (much more
detailed than that of the bolometer where it can be used at all)
has been stated to extend, as far as regular mapping is con-
cerned, to about 1“-1: that everything beyond this is due to the
bolometer, except that early French investigators had found
evidence of heat extending to 1/8. Still beyond that wltvma
thule, this region, which he has ventured to call the “New
Spectrum,” extends. It will be found between wave-lengths
1“-8 and 5“:3 on the map.

The speaker had been much indebted to others for the per-
fection to which the apparatus, and especially the galvanom-
eter, had been brought. He was under obligations particu-
larly to Mr. Abbot, for assistance in many ways, which he had

S. P. Langley— New Spectrum. 413

tried to acknowledge in the volume; but before closing this
most inadequate account of it, he would like to draw attention
to one feature which was not represented in the spectrum map
before them, although it would be found in the book. -

During early years the impression had been made upon him
that there were changes in the spectrum at different periods of
the year. Some of these changes might be in the sun itself ;
the major portion of those he was immediately speaking of, he
believed, were rather referable to absorptions in the earth’s
atmosphere. :

Now these early impressions had been confirmed by the
work of the observatory in recent years, and charts given in
the volume would show that the sun, (being always supposed
to be at about the same altitude, and its rays to traverse about
the same absorbing quantity of the earth’s atmosphere,) the

_ energy spectrum was distinctly different in spring, in summer,
-in autumn, and in winter. The lateness of the hour prevented

him from enlarging on this latter profoundly interesting sub-
ject. He would only briefly point out the direction of these
changes, which were not perhaps to be called conspicuous, but
which seemed to be very clearly brought out as certainly exist-
ing. With regard to them he would only observe, what all
would probably agree to, that while it has long been known
that all life upon the earth—without exception—is maintained

‘by the sun, it is only recently that we seem to be coming by

various paths, and among them by steps such as these, to look
forward to the possibility of a knowledge which has yet been
hidden to us, of the way in which the sun maintains it. We
were hardly beginning to see yet how this could be done, but
we were beginning to see that it might later be known, and to
see how the seasons, which wrote their coming upon the records
of the spectrum, might in the future have their effects upon
the crops, prevised in ways somewhat similar to those previsions
made day by day by the Weather Bureau, but in ways infinitely
more far-reaching; and that these might be made from the
direct study of the sun.

We are yet, it is true, far from able to prophesy as to coming
years of plenty and of famine, but it is hardly too much to say
that recent studies of others as well as of the writer strongly
point in the direction of some such future power of prediction.

414 OO. Fisher— Leival Theories of Cosmogony.

Art. XXXIV.—On Rival Theories of Cosmogony ye by the
Rev. O, fisHur, MAS iGis:

THE nebular hypothesis of the origin of the earth has
of late been brought into competition with a meteoric theory,
which supposes that our globe has been built up out of the
conglomeration of a swarm of meteorites gradually falling in ;
that it was never melted at its surface, and that it owes its
internal high temperature to gravitational action upon the
materials of which it is composed. Professor Chamberlin of
Chicagot is of opinion that these meteorites formed “a swarm
or belt revolving about the sun in the general neighborhood of
the present orbit of the earth.” If that was the case they did
not belong to the class of meteorites which we still encounter ©
in the shape of “stones” and “irons” that reach us from
regions, as it is believed, beyond the solar system, although
they may be supposed to have been petrologically similar.

“Probably physicists would feel no difficulty in admitting
that an earth so formed would continually assume the sphe-
roidal shape appropriate to the speed of rotation, so that any
objection on that score may be passed over.

It is not intended either to advocate or oppose the meteoric
theory, but it may be useful to draw attention to some consid-
erations which may help us to form an opinion upon its merits,
as contrasted with the nebular hypothesis.

In the first place, if the meteorites were similarly consti-
tuted to those which sporadically reach us now, a difficulty,
perhaps more apparent than real, arises in lemene; because,
although no elements occur in these which do not also occur in
our rocks, nevertheless they differ greatly in the arrangement
of these elements. For instance, free silica, which is one of
, the most abundant constituents of terrestrial rocks, is not
known in that form in meteorites.{ It may perhaps be con-
ceded that a swarm of meteors, being as it were thrown into
hotchpot, the minerals might emerge ~ rearranged in such com-
binations as we find in the earth’s crust, and that the deeper
strata, which are concealed from us, might become proportion-
ally poor in those common minerals, having by loss of them
enriched the more superficial rocks which we can examine.
The possibility of such a process involves considerations upon
which we shall enter further on.

Ignorant as we are about the internal constitution of the

* Received from the Author.

+ Journal of Geology, ‘‘On hypotheses bearing on climatic changes,” 1897.
Science, June 30th, 1899, ‘‘On Lord Kelvin’s estimate of the age of the world.”

+ Sir Norman Lockyer, ‘‘The Meteoric Hypothesis,” p. 23.

O. Fisher—Rival Theories of Cosmogony. 415

- earth, there are two things about which we may feel tolerably
certain, and these are, first, that the law-of internal density is
fairly represented by what is known as Laplace’s law, which
depends upon the assumption that the increase of the square
of the density varies as the increase of the pressure. Hence
we can decide approximately what the density will be at any
given depth. The other fact, upon which we may feel assured, -
is the high internal temperature of the earth. It is proposed
to enquire how these facts may severally be accounted for on
the meteoric theory.

Let us consider first the question of densities. If the earth
was built up of meteorites, these may be expected to have
come in promiscuously—not all the heavy ones first and the
lighter last. _We may provisionally assume that their average
density may have been nearly that of the present surface den-
sity, usually taken as 2°75. If this is too low, the arguments
based upon it will not be affected in any great degree.

The high central densities may then be due to one of two
causes, to compression, or to a higher intrinsic density owing
to a rearrangement of the material. And first of compression.

In the Appendix to my “Physics of the Earth’s Crust,” I
have said that, “‘ In order to form an idea of the nature of the
matter of the interior which would cause density to vary
according to Laplace’s law, let us suppose a globe unaffected
by gravity composed of layers of varying compressibility, but
of density everywhere the same as that of surface rock, and
then suppose gravity to act upon it, and to reduce it to the
size and density of the existing earth. This will give an idea
of the law of compressibility of matter of surface density at
various depths, which would be suitable to sustain the pres-
sure, so as to bring the law of density into accordance with
Laplace’s law.”* 3 |

Since the pressure and density at a given depth are fixed
quantities, it follows that the compressibility at that depth
must have a special value if the pressure there is to reduce
matter of surface density to the required local density. For
if the compressibility is too great the matter will become too
dense, and if it is too small it will not become dense enough.
The result which I obtained shows that the compressibility
must decrease rapidly as the density increases, for, if the com-
pressibility were to remain the same all the way down, the
material in the lower depths would be very much more dense
than, according to Laplace’s formula, it actually is. My formula
shows that in order to obtain this special compressibility meas-
ured in atmospheres per square foot at the depth where the
density is p, we have merely to divide 3°6069 x 10~° by the

* Appendix to “Physics of the Earth’s Crust,” p. 30, 1891.

416 O. Hisher— Rival Theories of Cosmogony.

value of p (p +s) using s for the surface density. Thus for
instance at the depth:of 400 miles, where by Laplace’s law the
density is 3°88, the compressibility would have to be 3°6069 x
10-° + 3°88 x (8°88 + 2°75), which makes it 1:4021 x 10~.
This may be looked upon as a small compressibility, seeing -
that the compressibility of water similarly measured is 4°78 x
10-° or nearly forty times as great. The condensation at this
depth would be (8°88 — 2°75) + 3°88 or about 0:29 and conse-
quently the linear dimension would be reduced by about one
tenth.

At the center the compressibility similarly measured would
be very small, viz., 2°55 x 10-’ while the condensation would
be large, viz., 0°744.

It appears, therefore, that if matter of the density of rock at
the earth’s surface can be reduced to the density matter has in
the deep interior, it must at one and the same time be capable
of being compressed into a much smaller volume than it origi-
nally occupied, and also it must be in a condition to require
enormous pressure to effect that condensation. Now it does
not seenr probable that any solid substance would possess these
properties, nor yet a liquid, bnt a hot gas would. Hence we
seem driven to the alternative to enquire whether the deep
interior consists of surface rock in the state of a heated gas, or
whether it consists of matter such as iron or other metals
intrinsically of the required density and either in a solid or
a liquid state ; because if the matter be gaseous, there would
be no segregation of elements in it.

The above alternative when applied to the meteoric theory
leads us to enquire in the first place whether rocky matter
could by any amount of heat be reduced to the state of gas.
The competing nebular hypothesis assumes that it can. Sec-
ondly, if that be the case, could the gas be compressed until it —
became more dense than the matter was in its solid state? It
would be difficult to prove that it could not. Thirdly, would
the necessary temperature be acquired under these cireum-
stances? On this point I have made some calculations, and it
appears that the temperatures produced by the condensation
would be so inconceivably high that no substance capable of
vaporisation could withstand them.

These caleulations cannot of course pretend to any degree
of accuracy, because they assume that the specific heat through-
out the process of condensation continues as at first, although
no increase of specific heat could alter the order of their mag-
nitude; neither do they take account of the latent heat
absorbed in passing from the solid to the fluid states. Never-
theless the results will be sufficient for the enquiry at hand. —
But before passing on to the question of temperatures, and

O. Fisher—Rival Theories of Cosmogony. 417

reverting to the expression for the compressibility, measured
in atmospheres per square foot, which would reduce matter of
the density of surface rock (s) to the density (p) which obtains
at a given depth, it is as already stated 3°6069 x 10-° + p(p +5).
Now this gives a law of compressibility for all depths, and if
we follow it up to the surface, giving to p the value s, we.
obtain the corresponding compressibility for surface rocks, viz.,

3°6069 XK 10~° + 2 (2°75)* or 2°3847 x 10~°.

Jt will be interesting to enquire whether this value, which has

been obtained without any reference to experiment, comes any-
where near the value of the compressibility of surface rock as
determined by actual trial.

~ Jt does not appear that any direct measurements of the com-
pressibility of rocks have been carried out; but the values of
Young’s modulus (M), and of the modulus of rigidity (”), have
been obtained in some instances. From these the compressi-
bility 1/4 can be found by a known formula.* It is obvious
that any experiment which gives 1/k negative must be set
aside as fallacious.

All the estimates which have been made have been recorded
in C.G.S. units. Dr. Knott} gives certain constants which he
considers a ‘‘fair approximation” in the case of “ fairly solid
rocks.” From these it is possible to calculate their compressi-
bility by the formula, and it comes out 6°67 x 107”.

Dr. H. Nagaoka has also measured these constants for many
rocks and has found for six different specimens of granite the
following values of Young’s modulus M, and the coefiicient of
rigidity 2. ;

ipticd Z 3 4 5 6
M 42°31 as: 19°68 14°98 2848 10°93 hoy
n 18°43 13°99 6°89 5°05 4°47 4°43 xO”

Since & must be positive No. 5 must be rejected. No. 2 is
not complete. The values of 1/# (the compressibility) caleu-
lated for the remaining four are

In C. G. S. units. Tn atmospheres.
(ils 4:99.. 107" 5 Ke LO
(aie 2-3. x 107" a hOis
(4) k= 5:74 x 107” ik ele
(6) 1/4 = 14:46 x 10-” 14. 5¢ Log?
amduiMnotus l/—- 6:6. Xx 10- 83% HOS:
SD) iG] a2 = ==.

+ Transactions Seismological Soc. of Japan, vol. xii, p. 119, 1888.
tSee Publications of Earthquake Investigation Committee in Foreign Lan-
guages, vol. iv, p. 58. Tokio, 1900.

418 O. Fisher— Rival Theories of Cosmogony.

All these were measured in ©. G.S. units, in which the unit
of pressure is one dyne per square centimeter. To convert the
value of the compressibility 2°3847 x 10-° which we have
obtained theoretically for atmospheric pressure into the same
C.G.S. units, we must divide it by 1-014 x 10° and the result is

1 /le = 2°352 x 10-.

It is certainly not a little remarkable how closely this value
ranges with those found by experiment. It is of the same
order of magnitude but rather smaller than the average. But
it will be noticed that Dr. Knott says of his experiments that -
they were made on “fairly solid rock” and our calculation
clearly would refer to rocks thoroughly solid, for the specific
gravity of surface rock which enters into our calculations has
no reference to rigidity. We might, therefore, expect our
value to be small.

We find here a somewhat strong presumption in pote of
the view that the earth consists throughout of matter not very
dissimilar from what we know at the surface, and that the
internal densities are due rather to condensation than to the
presence of heavier substances such as metals. But it is nota
proof of this.

Let us next consider what the alternative view of the greater
density towards the center being due to heavy metals involves.
We may probably dismiss the supposition that these all fell in
first, and only regard them as segregated from a uniform mass
of some kind, and having gravitated towards the center. This
implies a condition of liquidity. If the materials were solid
this separation could not have occurred. Now the only force
that we know of that could cause the denser materials to move
by a kind of convection towards the center is gravity; and in
a solid gravity would not have that effect. Moreover, it must
not be forgotten that gravity continually diminishes as we go
deeper into the earth, and that at the center bodies have
actually no weight. It is greatest at the surface, and if not
competent to segregate downwards the heavy particles of a
rock at the surface, which we know it is not, still less could it
have that effect near the earth’s center.

Neither can we attribute this segregation to pressure; for
pressures act equally upon the surface of heavy or light mate-
rials. If we had a layer of mixed shot and sand, no steady
pressure laid upon it would force the shot to the bottom and
bring the sand to the top.

Te seems, therefore, that the view that the denser materials
in the interior consist of heavy metals necessitates a condition
of liquidity of the whole, which accords more readily with the
nebular than with the meteoric theory of its origin. For we

O. Fisher—Rival Theories of Cosmogony. 419

may imagine that in a nebular mass cooling from the exterior,
the first change from a nebulous or gaseous state would be the
formation of a rain of condensed particles falling downwards,
which would continue until the whole mass became liquid, and
thus the heavier elements would begin to collect towards the
center. In this case the highest possible interior temperature
would be that at which the gaseous first assumed the liquid
condition under the pressure at the depth. ,
Paradoxical as it appears, it is therefore possible that the

temperature in the interior may have been rendered higher by

a conglomeration of cold solid meteorites than by the cooling
of a nebula.

We have no means of judging whether the meteorites would
come in rapidly or slowly, but in either case if we take no
account of the heat arising from impact, the amount produced
by condensation would be the same; the only difference in the
two cases being that it would be generated in a less or greater
time. In the meanwhile a covering of a badly conducting
material would concurrently accumulate, preventing the rapid
escape of this heat, and at the same time increasing the pres-
sure, the compression, and the heat.

To form an idea of the temperature which would be pro-
duced by the condensation of matter of surface density to the
density now existing at any given depth within the earth, not
taking into account its diffusion by conduction or otherwise,
we require to know the work which has been expended upon
it. Now we can estimate this in the following manner. Con-
ceive the earth to have been built up of meteorites falling in,
so that shell after shell accumulated until the globe attained
its present size. Then, fixing the attention upon a particular
unit volume, say a cubit foot, of the substance, and omitting
atmospheric pressure, it would successively be subject to every
degree of pressure from zero, when the shell of which it
formed a part was not covered up, until the present pressure
was reached, when it was buried to the depth at which it now

lies. If then we know the relation between the pressure and

the compression at every depth at the present moment, it will
give us the relation between the pressure and the compression
which that particular volume has obeyed during the course of

ages; that is to say, we can judge how much compression any

given pressure would have produced in the substance under
the conditions involved.

Laplace’s law of density being based upon the assumption
that the increase of. pressure within the earth is proportional
to the increase of the square of the density, in terms of a
pressure of one pound upon the square foot, this leads to the

Am. Jour. Sco1.—FourtH Serizes, Vou. XI, No. 66.—JuNnezE, 1901.
29

420 O. Fisher— Rival Theories of Cosmogony.

result, that the pressure at the depth where the density is p is
equalito bo C10" (9) — ss

If: we accept Laplace’s law, this expresses a fact, whether the
increase of density is due to condensation by pressure or to
increased density in the intrinsic nature of the matter. But if
we assume that the increase of density is caused solely by the
pressure, then the above relation gives the amount of pressure
which would reduce matter of density s to matter of density
p under the circumstances existing within the earth. It will
therefore remain true if the matter changes its state from solid
to liquid, and from liquid to gas. If, for instance, we wished
to apply a pressure which would reduce surface rock to the den-
sity 3, it ought to be 5°9 & 10’ (9 — 2°75") = 8-481 x 10’ pounds
per square foot, supposing no heat be allowed to escape. If the
experiment could be made, it would afford a test of the truth
or otherwise of the present hypothesis.

When we know the relation between the pressure and the
condensation which it would produce, it is feasible to estimate
the heat which would be generated, and also the temperature,
provided we assume the specific heat of the substance, which
for surface rock has been determined. For instance, at the
depth of 0-1 of the radius, or about 400 miles deep, where the
density would be 3°88, the temperature produced by condensa-
tion would be 1:2608 x 10° Fahr., or 7:0044 x 10* Cent., while
at the center the figures would reach 2°7756 x 10° Fahr., or
1:0242 x 10° Cent. It seems at any rate that the meteoric
theory would not fall short of accounting for temperatures as
high as might be desired. It must at the same time be remem-
bered that much of this heat would not be called into exis-
tence until the snbstance into which it was, as it were, being
squeezed, had already been deeply buried under a badly con-
ducting covering, so that the escape of the heat would not
take place as fast as it was generated, as would probably be the
case with heat generated at the surface by impacts. Thus the
hypothesis that the present high internal temperatures are due
to compression seems quite admissible.

We may compare the above named temperatures with some
that are known. Acheson, for instance, obtains 6500° Fahr. in
his Carborundum electric furnace, and 3300° Fahr. has been
obtained by the oxyhydrogen flame. These temperatures are
contemptible compared with those mentioned above. The
Hon. Clarence King, prolonging Dr. Barus’ line* for the melt-
ing point of diabase (which is 1170° C. at the earth’s surface)
to the earth’s center, gives the temperature 76000° Cent., which
is of the same order of magnitude as condensation would pro-
duce at only 400 miles depth.

* This Journal, Jan., 1893, p. 7.

O. Fisher—Rival Theories of Cosmogony. 491

But an observation of interest as bearing upon the present
question was made by Professor Bartoli. He found that the
temperature of the lava issuing from a subterranean outlet at
Etna was 1060° C. or 1932° Fahr.

Now if we calculate the increase of density corresponding
to the above temperature it comes out 0°120. The rate of
increase of density near the surface is about 0°056 for 20
miles. Hence the depth, at which this lava temperature would
according to the hypothesis be produced, would be about 48
miles. If we calculate the depth at which the same tempera-
ture might now be expected to occur with the commonly
accepted gradient of 1° Fahr. for 60 feet, it appears to be 22
miles. It seems then that the hypothesis, that the internal
densities are due to the condensation of matter of surface den-
sity, will not account for a temperature gradient originally as
high as at present. Nevertheless the above observation upon
the temperature of lava, and the comparatively small depth,
20 miles, at which condensation of rock would be capable of
producing it, together with the small amount of condensation
necessary, viz., 0'041, render it quite probable that fusion may
have ensued in the deep interior without the necessity of a
greater amount of condensation than such materials might be
supposed capable of under the enormous pressure to which
they would be subjected, even allowing for the increase of the
melting point under pressure. In this case we might accept
the second alternative, and attribute the high density of the
more central parts to the accumulation of the heavier elements
by gravitation. In this manner the materials of iron meteor-
ites would fall toward the center. It will be noticed that a
compression less than would be requisite of itself to produce
the necessary density would be sufficient to produce the requis-
ite temperature for fusion. But while any stratum was cooling
by the conduction upwards of its own heat of compression, it
would be receiving heat from regions below, where, so long as
condensation was going on, the materials would grow hotter
and hotter. It seems therefore possible that the upper layers,
forming what we call the crust of the earth, may have received
sufficient heat supplied from-below to render the temperature
gradient at the present time higher than it was originally, and
that even those Archean rocks, which are by many thought to
have been once melted, do not necessarily prove that the earth
was not built of cold meteorites.

The presence of water upon the earth has to be accounted
for, and the meteoric theory does not easily lend itself for this
purpose. Not only is water present in the ocean and in the
atmosphere, but also in a state of solution in the interior, as is
testified by the enormous amount of steam emitted by vol-

‘N

429 O. Fisher—Lival Theories of Cosmogony.

canoes, and by cooling lava. It does not seem possible that
molten rock can imbibe water from without, because it would
be driven away instead of attracted, since the superficial ten-
sion of a substance diminishes as the temperature rises.* The
writer has given his views (whatever they may be worth) upon
this question in his Physics of the Earth’s Crustt where he
assumes the truth of the Nebular Hypothesis. He does not
hold a brief for either theory. If the above remarks prove of
any service in assisting in elucidating the question of the
greater probability of either theory, his object will be gained.
Astronomical considerations he leaves to astronomers, among
whom there does not at present appear to be unanimity of
opinion plat the subject.

* Maxwell’s Heat, 5th ed., p. 294.
+ 2d ed, p. 148.

Cambridge, England.

IAT Re

G. Rh. Wieland— American Fossil Cycads. 493

Art. XXXV.—A Study of some American Fossil Cycads.

Part IV.* On the Microsporangiate Fructification of
Cycadeoideat ; by G. R. WIELAND.

In this Journal for March, 1899, the writer presented in a
preliminary manner the first definite knowledge of male fructi-
fication in the Bennettitaceee.t This was done at some length,
although the materials then studied represented only the
beginnings of the great collections now available, while the
nature of the preservation in the examples first selected for
investigation somewhat obscured the characters of certain
structures of fundamental importance. But these studies
have now so far progressed that the writer feels that it is
necessary to return to this topic. Its final consideration is,
however, reserved for a monograph on the entire subject, at
present actively in course of preparation.

In the contribution just mentioned, after describing the

principal parts present in the pollen-bearing fructification of

Cycadeoidea ingens Ward, the writer noted the archaic type
of the sori, and distinctly stated their Marattiaceous character,
together with the fact of the exceedingly clear additional testi-
mony which these hitherto unknown fructifications offered in
favor of the belief in the direct descent of the Cycads from
such tree ferns as the Marattaceze. Moreover, in describing
the arrangement of the fundamental parts, the writer said :

“ With regard to the homologies of these structures several

facts are wortby of mention. The radial divisions occurring in

the summit (of the fructification) are found to persist for a con-
siderable distance downwards, and under the microscope are seen
to consist in two lignified layers a single cell in thickness. They
correspond to the twelve vertices of soral distribution mentioned
above, and their presence is against the idea that the soriferal

axis is derived from the fusion of the sporophylls of a male cone

like that, for instance, of. Zamia integrifolia. Another and

much more tenable hypothesis is that the soriferal (sorus-bearing)

axis is a series of twelve fused leaves (or fronds) with their sorus-
bearing pinnules turned inwards.”

* Parts I-III of these studies appeared serially in this Journal for March,
April, and May, 1899.

+ It is deemed advisable to retain for the present the generic name Cycadeoidea
Buckland, although it is, of course, certain that if Bennettites is to stand, as it
probably must, there are well-marked American species of this genus. The
writer will defer proposing any changes of generic or other names until making
a final publication.

t A Study of some American Fossil Cycads, Part I. The Male Flower of
Cyc adeoidea, with Plates II-IV, pp. 219-226, Fourth Series, Vol]. VII.

the bisporangiate strobilus.

494 G. R. Wieland—American Fossil Cycads.

The above interpretation and conception of the male cycad
inflorescences of the type then considered, I have now, from
extended study of much additional material in a far superior
state of preservation, confirmed as wholly correct and express-
ing their nature with precision. Defined in more detail,
this unexpanded fructification or strobilus is a series of from
twelve to twenty closely appressed fertile, morphologically
Marattiacean fronds, of semicircinnate prefoliation (or better,
inflexed prefloration), with twenty or more pairs each of simple
and reduced synangia-bearing pinnules,—these fronds being
inserted so closely as to appear on the same level, and fusing
basally so as to form an hypogynous staminate disk enclosing

1

( )
6b
D W
C4 AA
VRE Sle
MOA AS Re Vy
[ ONC NGS . SO y
YY ho ‘ Y
f LON am Bs “4 /
A (Lo ON 40/\ iN Ds yy
[ ao eof N'Y OV
OS N | i ead (All
| ea ekyy% WA
NN SN 177 HY |
\ Ra a a Ny Al ij
AUN / A WA
(WS FN \ 1G WY
\ | /G YG
| IN | 78 fy
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FIGURE 1.—Cycadeoidea. Diagrammatic sketch of longitudinal section through

At the center is the apical cone closely invested by
a zone of short-stalked abortive (?) ovules and interseminal scales.

On the left”
is a single frond of the hypogynous staminate disk, with much reduced pinnules

bearing densely crowded synangia. On the right a similar fertile frond is arbi-
trarily shown in an expanded position. Exterior to the fronds are the hairy
bracts. About 2 natural size. 4

strobilus.

a receptacle ending as a conical-shaped abortive (?) ovulate
The essential organs are surrounded and in the

earlier stages enclosed by a series of acuminate and regularly
imbricating hairy bracts, the entire inflorescence developing
between the leaf bases, and later emerging, as in the case of
the well known functionally ovulate strobili of Cycadeoidea

ae eS

G. R. Wieland—American Fossil Cycads. 425

(Bennettites) Gibsonianus and Morierer. See figure 1. Plates
III and IV, given in Part I of these studies, may also be
referred to. |

In the inflorescence first studied there is, as was then men-
tioned, a large slightly conical central cavity with much chal-
eedonized borders covered by a druse of quartz crystals,
beneath which in just one small area about a millimeter in
length and inside the innermost synangia, there was originally
noticed a slight palisading which was at the time regarded as
simply an accident of silicification. But as verified over and
over since from material in the most wonderful degree of
preservation and beautiful differentiation of tissues by a natural
iron staining, this small area indicated a notable fact had we
known how to interpret it. The central axis, or receptacle,
bearing the fertile fronds with their petioles folded back once
adaxially, terminates as a much elongated conical, and prob-
ably in most if not in all cases abortive, ovulate axis. This
central and apical structure is preserved in several instances in
such perfection of essential parts and bundle systems that not-
withstanding its young and undeveloped condition, and the
minuteness of its ovules, the most accurate comparisons can be
made between it and obviously functional ovulate strobili.
That these apical ovulate axes are of essentially the same
structure as the more rotund to distinctly globular and much
larger seed-bearing strobili borne on the same trunk in the
case of such species as Cycadeoidea dacotensis, Marshiana,
and some others, admits of no doubt. All the evidence in
favor of the absence in these latter of fugacious organs of
staminate character, and their solely feminine function, cannot
now be conveniently given. But it led the writer to announce
Cycadean Monececism for the first time in this Journal for
August, 1899 (vide page 164). The evidence which I have
thus far been able to produce points well nigh indubitably in
the case of the species just mentioned to a moncecious condi-
tion, the pollen-bearing axis being in this case morphologically
but not functionally bisporangiate. The existence and impor-
- tance of these bisporangiate axes was first announced by the
present writer in the Yale Scientific Monthly for March, 1900,
at which time somewhat extended study of them had already
been made.

Before taking up the subject of what I here designate the
staminate fronds, several remarks concerning data now con-
sidered in part may be recorded.

The presence.on the same trunk of markedly different and
much larger ovulate strobili surrounded, so far as my sections
thus far completed show, by sterile bracts only, would indicate,

426 G. R. Wieland—American Fossil Cycads.

as just stated, that the ovulate portion of the microspore bear-
ing axis 7s abortive. But that it was once not far previous in
the history of these plants strictly functional, is scarcely to be
questioned from the perfection with which it has persisted in
the presence of similar but more robust seed-bearing axes
which have failed to produce basally, fertile microspore bear-
ing fronds. This bisporangiate axis is, therefore, very signifi-
cant, though in a lesser degree paralleled by the even closer
association of staminate and ovulate organs in Welwitchia mira-
bilis, or Tumboa, among the existing Gymnosperms. It also
recalls the fact that, as suggested by Schimper (Zittel’s Handbuch,
Palaeophytologie LI, page 247), Cordatanthus Penjont may have
borne apical ovulate structures after the manner of Welwiatschia.
My present view of the central axis is that it represents a syn-
thesis of carpellary but not staminate leaves, as suggested in
the case of Willcamsonia by Saporta (Plantes Jurassiques),
and that it may further be regarded as essentially a modified
cone. The ovulate inflorescence of these Cycads, therefore,

underwent far more evolution than the staminate organs by

which it was surrounded, the latter retaining a quite primitive
structure. Though as will be again noted, the case is in this
respect exactly paralleled from the opposite side in the living
Cycas, where the staminate organs are modified and arranged
in conical order, while the carpels have retained a very primi-
tive form and position. Although difficult hence to surmise
whether the bisporangiate axis is the most primitive condition
leading into the gymnosperms, it is at least clear that it occurs
more frequently in the older forms, and that in this group the
process of evolution has led away from such an axis by grada-
tions of moncecism and finally dicecism.

It might be hastily said that these bisporangiate axes show
no more essential relationship to angiospermous flowers than
do the gymnosperm strobili hitherto known. And certainly
the testimony of fundamental importance which they do offer
has mainly to do with transitional stages between the Pterido-
phytes and the Gymnosperms. But this suggestion is here
emphasized: While the staminate disk surrounding the ovu-
late axis of Cycadeoidea indicates primarily an evolution
terminating, so far as now possible to trace, in the Gymno-
sperms, the juxtaposition of parts is exceedingly suggestive of
the possibility, of not the manner as well, of angiosperm devel-
opment directly from pteridophytic forms. For in these
strobili the sporophylls are organized into a flower, as I justly
applied the term in Part I of these studies, foreshadowing
distinctly the characteristic angiospermous arrangement of
stamens inserted on a shortened axis about an ovulate center,
apical and sometimes strobilar as seen in Liréodendron. On

G. R. Wieland—American Fossil Cycads. hee

the basis of evidence afforded rather by the ovulate inflores-
cence, Saporta in his study of the French Bennettitaceze given
in his Plantes Jurassiques, has introduced for this group
together with Yuccites, Goniolina, and several others, the
name proangiosperms. And Scott has thus stated his opinion :
“If by the name proangiosperms we simply mean to indicate
plants with a near approach to angiospermous structure with-
out implying any relationship to the class angiosperms as now
existing, the Bennettiteze may well be called proangiosperms.”
This latter view is seen to be distinctly strengthened by the
additional evidence here adduced.

The term staminate frond, as above introduced, will, how-
ever, certainly be found a necessary and convenient one, it
being quite evident that the “male flowers” of Gingko, for
instance, have also retained traces of frond structure character-
izing forms ancestral to this genus, an intermediate stage of
which is seen in Bavera Miinstercana Heer from the Rhit of
Baireuth. These latter also recall the “stamens ” of Cordattes.

Before more particularized deductions can, however, be
attempted with any degree of safety whatever, this investigation
must be carried much further. For while the plants from
which the facts of the present contribution have been deter-
mined were not only preserved at such a critically important
stage in their fructification, but of their life history as well,
the very extent of the comparisons possible makes their com-
pleted study a prior necessity. While it is true that their
proliferous habit has greatly aided and simplified their investi-
gation up to a certain point, a particular fructification as
selected for study requires much comparison, as it represents a
particular stage of development, as a rule one somewhat previ-
ous to that of maturity. Whereas the mature fruit represents,
of course, the last stage in a series of changes certainly here
requiring a year or more. It is hence necessary to bear in
mind that in the case of very young stages of ovulate strobili
certain structures may be undeveloped—to say nothing of the
exigencies of silicification! Again in the maturer stages it is
necessary to determine whether or not fugacious organs have
earlier been present. The facts as announced are, therefore,
the writer’s present interpretation as based on observations
which he hopes very greatly to extend before dealing with the
subject finally, the entire arrangement of fructification as here
described being, as the reader will have already noted, exactly
the one most capable of variation and the most difficult to
delimit. Happily at the same time the wealth of additional
knowledge furnished by these structures promises to equal all
that the most sanguine paleobotanist could have hoped for.

428 G. R. Wieland—American Fossil Cycads.

As now understood, however, in Cycadeoidea dacotensis
Macbride, @. Marshiana Ward, and several other species,
moncecism is indicated. In the series of species which includes
Cycadeoidea (or Lennettites), Geibsonianus, Morierei, and
Wielandi, there is every probability of dicecism. While in
the forms immediately ancestral to those under discussion, and
as now seems possible, including Cycadeordea etrusca, it is
probable that the fructifications were potentially bisporangiate
and had continued so from far back towards the time when
ancestral Marattiaceze attained heterospory. It is hence not
unlikely that within the next few years all these forms of
fructification will be found very definitely exhibited in cycadean
forms of the Mesozoic.

The description of the expanded flowers with complete
restorations of typical forms of these cyeads in full leaf and |
fruit, all the details for which are now at hand, being reserved
for the final publication, it remains to consider briefly the
microsporophylls, or staminate fronds, and also to present cer-
tain general conclusions based upon their structure and strobilar
association.

The Staminate Fronds.

As has been explained above, the most fundamental feature
of the bisporangiate strobilus is a staminate or pollen-bearing
frond. The petiole of each frond, as seen in unexpanded stro-
bili which have begun to emerge from the surrounding leaf
bases, and which bear approximately mature pollen, is about
10 centimeters in entire length as folded back once adaxially
along the central ovulate axis. The pinnules inserted on all
that portion of the petiole as seen to rise and then curve inwards
to form a member of the still folded group, are simple, very
thickly set with synangia in nodes, and folded back in closely
appressed drooping pairs towards the axis of the receptacle,
between the ascending and descending segments of the petiole.
(See figure 1.) But on the upper portions of the frond as
seen in this infolded position, or inflexed prefloration, turned
downward and lying closely appressed to the surface of the
central ovulate cone, the pinnules lie in an outwardly and then
more and more upwardly directed position, though of course
becoming more and more inconspicuous towards the tip of the
frond. And it is also a very interesting fact that the upper
portion of the petiole is at first much compressed laterally, but
as the tip is approached becomes expanded into a broad lamina
much as in the ovulate fronds of Cycas. Of the pairs of sim-
ple pinnules there are about twenty, including the abortive and
smaller ones near the base of the frond as well as those near the
tip, the first and last fertile ones bearing but a single synangium.

G. Lt. Wieland—American Fossil Cycads. 429

The largest pinnules are borne on the central portions of the
frond. They are 1°5 centimeters in length and bear from twenty
to thirty synangia attached to eight or ten closely set nodes.
There is here seen, therefore, in the arrangement, form and pre»
foliation a characteristic fern frond, although in the vascular
bundles, the entire system of which is indicated by beautifully

_ preserved xylem, there is an advance in the direction of the

cycads, by the way, we venture to think of structures of cycado-
filicinian type. Thestatement previously made that this frond is
morphologically Marattiacean is however based more particularly
on the histology of the synargia. Their resemblance to those
of living Marattiaceze is a striking one, and involves facts of
far-reaching significance. In size, position, arrangement of
the sporangia in two parallel rows extending the full length
of the synangium, and in dehiscence, they resemble such spe-
cies as Marattia levis, or cicutefolia, there being a tendency
to greater breadth, a larger number of sporangia, and a slight
variation in contour due to appression in interlocking series.
But comparisons may be made quite final since the micro-
scopic structure of these silicified synangia is preserved entire,
bearing in mind that certain cell layers may have already
broken down in life at the particular stages of development
approaching maturity which most freely permit study. Asa
matter of convenience, I shall hence describe more fully than
I have previously, the typical sorus, or better synangium, as
seen in such representative species as Cycadeoidea ingens,
upon which the first descriptions were based, and C. dacotensis,
also briefly mentioned and figured in Part III of these studies.
(This Journal, May, 1899, Plate X, figures 17 and 18, with
text figures 3-16.) |

The pendent synangia, as stated, are thickly set in nodes,
being borne on very short stems. See figures 2 and 3.

Externally the synangium is covered by a layer of heavy |
walled palisaded cells a single cell in thickness, thickest near
the base of the synangium, and thinning out somewhat as it
approaches the apical median line, which is that of dehiscence.
Just inside this outer palisaded tissue there is a layer of thin-
walled hypodermal cells, also usually a single cell in thickness
along the lateral wall of the synangium where the individual
cells readily collapse, but growing smaller celled and firmer
about the bases of the sporangial loculi, and widening out to
form the principal ground tissue of the short stem of the
synangium as it becomes confluent with the sporophyll. Next
to the parenchyma layer lie the sporangial loculi, delimited
by deeply iron-stained bands made up of wholly indistinct
cell remnants apparently septal in character, with much col-

lapsed pollen adhering. No other tissue than that indicated

430 G. Rh. Wieland—American Fossil Oycads.

by these bands separated the adjacent loculi. On the inner
side of each row of loculi as thus delimited there is, finally, a

A ,

MAE AS

ia

linn

“gies
oa

\
‘

y
»

> 1] es
ay —— Dy!
SS BE pas ee OL ae
es
sor

+S

Ni

iv Yip
FY

e

SS

FIGURE 2.— Cycadeoidea dacotensis Macbride.
synangia. In the central synangium the outer covering of heavy walled pris-
matic cells is seen to be followed by a thin-walled layer. Adhering to this are
the sporangial loculi closely ranged on each side of the synangium in two rows.
Each loculus is delimited by bands of collapsed cells with adhering pollen grains,
and each row of loculi is bounded on the inner side by well defined tissue a single
cell in thickness, except between the angles of adjacent loculi, where there is a
thickness of several cells. This layer thus bounds the two opposed inner faces
of the synangium. It is usually split on the median line of the sporangia, and
the striate appearance of its elongate cells when cut obliquely is indicated in
several instances.

The tips of the three synangia on the ‘left side of the figure are seen to be
oriented nearly at right angles to the others, being cut very obliquely. At the
lower left-hand corner portions of two transversely cut sporophylls are seen.
x 30. (Based on section figured in Part III of these studies, Plate X, figure 17.

G. R. Wieland—American Fossil Oycads. 431.
well defined layer of small elongate cells, a single cell in thick-
ness, or several cells in thickness between the angles formed

_ by adjacent sporangia, and thus covering the entire inner face

of the synangium, as early cleft down to the sporangial bases.
(See figure 3.)

Along the inner middle surface of each sporangium this
tissue weakens to form a well marked dehiscent line, along
which splitting is frequently seen to have taken place in unex-
panded stages of frond growth, though 3
such premature dehiscence is probably 3
due to the process of silicification.

Reeapitulating, then, the principal fea-
tures of the synangium are: First, the
outer palisaded wall tissue; second, the
delicate thin-walled layer usually collaps-
ing or failing of well marked preservation ;
third, the sporangial loculi containing
much well-preserved pollen but delimited
only by dessicated pollen grains or col-
lapsed remains of cells; and fourth, the
thin elongate-celled layer bounding the
suleus between the two rows of sporan-
gia :—dehiscence of the synangium taking
place early along the median apical line,
and of the sporangium, longitudinally
along the inner median line, as in the
genus Marattia, not Dane.

Regarding the character of the tissue
bounding the sporangial loculi a word
remains to be said. The yellowish-brown pyguae3.— Cycadeoidea

»

iron-stained band, mentioned above, is
more distinct in the less advanced stages
observed thus far, but in all cases the
collapsed remains of cells composing it so
uniformly lack structure that it has not
yet proven possible to determine the true
character of the locular wall, as to whether
wholly septal, or in part tapetal. It
would appear, however, that it may have
been two cells in thickness, rather than
one, in this respect approaching the con-

dacotensis Macbride. Lon-
gitudinal transverse sec-
tion through a synangium,
showing attachment to
the sporophyll, the sev-
eral layers of the synan-
gial wall, its dehiscence,
the attachment of the
sporangia, and the median
sulcus or fissure between
them. The basal but-
tressing of the outer wall
is characteristic. x 37.

dition of the crushed double layer of wall cells observed by
Lang in Stangeria paradoxa. See Lang, Studies in the
Development and Morphology of Cycadean Sporangia, Plate
XXII, figures 15 and 16. If by any chance the colored band
represents a long persistent but finally crushed tapetum, the
condition represented would be quite identical layer by layer

432 G. Le. Wieland—American Fossil Cycads.

of cells (in the transverse longitudinal section only) with that
seen in a similar section of a nearly mature sporangium of
Angiopterts evecta given by Campbell in his “ Mosses and
Ferns,” fig. 143. The greatest difference would lie, of course,
in the absence of a rudimentary annulus, and the strong
development in the present forms of the outer prismatic layer
with the projection of its two valves beyond the sporangia to
meet lip-like on the line of dehiscence. It should be stated
that it would appear from the investigations of Bower (Studies
in the Morphology of Spore Producing Members) that the con-
dition figured by Campbell is not the usual one observed in
Angiopteris. If, however, it should approximate the condi-
tion seen in these fossil forms, we would then have indicated
in them imperfect septation of the loculi carried to a high
degree, an anomalous condition reguenthy noted in both Dane
and Marattia by Bower (loe. cit.).

While, then, these cycad synangia may ‘recall or suggest other
members of the living Marattiaceee than J/arattia, it is with
this genus that they may most closely be compared, agreeing
with ; it, as they do, in all essential structural details, as well as
in dehiscence, and doubtless also in development plurilocularly
from a single enclosed mass of sporogenous tissue. In fact
the parallel to dlarattia is seen to be so close that had the
present structures been found isolated they might hitherto
have been referred directly to this genus, no pollen being pre-
served, unless indeed the remarkably strong and uniform pal-
isading of the outer layer, and its projection, as mentioned
above, beyond the sporangia into two lips meeting over the
sulcus between the two synangial halves, might have been con-
sidered characters of generic value. While it is quite possi-
ble that some little known Marattiacean forms may also show
a stronger development of the outer layer, it is not probable, the
heavy development seen in these cycads being apparently
secondary, and mainly due to the necessity for resistant strength
in the walls of the individual sporangia in their closely
appressed position before the inflorescence emerged fully from
the armor.

Among extinct members of the Marrattiacese, Scolecopteris
elegans Zenker of the Permian, long since so well and fully
described by Strasburger (Jenaische Zeitschrift, vii, 1874), is
likewise practically identical both in preservation and general
structure, including the bundles of the sporophyll. The main
distinction is, of course, in the lack of continuity in the outer
synangical wall, and the reduced number of the sporangia.
But as has been pointed out by Stur (Carbon Flora der Schatz-
larer Schichten) and later further emphasized by Bower (loc.
cit.), there is so much of transition in the amount of fusion

G. RB. Wieland—American Fossil Cycads. 433

between the sporangia of even the living Marattiacean genera,
as is seen on passing from the free sporangia of Angzopteris
to the fused sporangia of Marattia, that in considering rela-
tionships, forms with free sporangia or with sporangia arranged
circularly, must not be neglected as in the wider sense unre-
lated—a fact which it is well to bear in mind since it must now
necessarily be extended to the cycadaceous forms as well.

One other observation in this connection I shall also make.
As fully stated by Bower in his indispensable work just cited,
_ while the evidence of development is in favor of the Marat-
tian or Synangial type, developing from a single sporogenous
mass, as being older than the Angzopteris type with free spo-
rangia—an idea opposed to that of Stur (cited above), there
has been hitherto no direct paleontological evidence either
way. But now should the Lennettitacee and the living cyeads
not be polyphyletic, the latter have suffered a breaking up of
the synangium which may well have been paralleled by a
similar separation in the Marattiaceee. In this category. of
pollen sac separation and reduction the Gingkoacez may appar-
ently be likewise included. The occasional occurrence of
pollen sacs in groups of three in the living Gingko, as sug-
gested by Thibaut (Recherches sur l’appareil male des Gym-
nospermes), may represent a primitive condition. And Baera
Minsteriana from the Rhat with asteriate groups of seven
pollen sacs may certainly be regarded as still more primitive.
There would therefore appear to have been, following an
original soral septation, a more or less progressive separation
of sporangia and reduction in their number in the Marat-
tiaceze, cycads, and Gingkoaceex.. Certainly if the facts observed
here cannot be construed as offering inferential testimony from
the paleontological side in favor of Bower’s supposition, they
do not interpose any facts against it. In accordance with this
view I incline to believe that the Bennettitean synangium is
slightly more archaic in form than that of any of the living
Marattian genera except perhaps Dane, with which, as
pointed out above, the comparison is not quite direct.

Now further as to forms presenting analogous synangia or
sori. From the foregoing description it is clear that Urna-
topteris, Crossotheca, and especially Calymmatotheca may be
considered as distinctly related by reason of their synangial
forms. But these are all dimorphic ferns as hitherto viewed,
with reduced fertile pinnules suggesting those above described,
and at once carrying the relationship of these Mesozoic cyeads,
themselves dimorphic as well, back to the Cycadofilices.
Hence from the variations in form seen in the Marittiacean
sorus, and no doubt also paralleled in the Cyeads, at may be at
once stated that so far as we may infer from isolated fructifica-

434 G. R. Wieland—American Fossil Cycads.

tions it must, until additional fortunate discoveries are made,
as they doubtless will be, remain difficult to judge from isolated
fruits of the Marattian type whether or not they belong to
plants that have acquired the seed-bearing habit. When, how-
ever, preservation is unusually good the microspores may show
either pollen or spore characters, as in the case respectively of
the present forms and Scolecopteris elegans. At all events, an
extraordinary interest will henceforth attach itself to fructifi-
cations of the Calymmatothecan, and Scolecopteran type, as
well as to the possibility of accompanying macrosporophylls.

It is of importance to add that the presence, in these cycada-
ceous forms, of a central ovulate axis surrounded by an asteriate
series of staminate fronds with basally adnate petioles, sheds a
flood of clear light on the nature of Wallcamsonia, —a subject
which has vexed paleobotany for thirty years. The axes which
Williamson and Saporta have described as male (see William-
son, Trans. Lin. Soc., Vol. XX VI, Plate 52, and many figures
in Paleontologie Francaise, Plantes Jurassiques, par Marquis
de Saporta,) are doubtless mostly ovulate inflorescences around
the bases of which were inserted the peculiar disks they have
illustrated, which may be interpreted as staminate rather than
“carpellary.” Though that the central axis could terminate in
an asteriate growth is not wholly impossible. Such growths could
also be ovuliferous if apical and central, and calyxate if basal,
there being here great possibility of variant structures.

However, in the writer’s opinion the most important possi-
bility suggested by the staminate fronds above described is as
to the character of fructification in the Cycadofilices. If we ~
are permitted to imagine, as we surely are, a plant vegetatively
like Lyginodendron, and either moneecious or dicecious, with
microsporophylls like those of the staminate fronds of Cycad-
eoidea, and macrosporophylls like those of Cycas, do we not
picture an ancestral form which almost beyond donbt existed
and may any day be found? The existence of cones in the
presence of both these simple types of micro- and macro-
sporophylls is from the preceding descriptions now manifestly
possible. In the presence of such facts it is yet more patent
that there are peculiar possibilities of structure of great interest
in the case of such fructifications as that of Cycadospadia
Milleryensis. (See Scott’s Studies in Fossil Botany, p. 371.)
Likewise, Anomozamites minor Brogn, from the Rhat of
Scania, as restored by Nathorst, is seen to occupy a position
of unique importance. It certainly becomes more than ever
probable that the dimorphism of various paleozoic plants
usually referred to the ferns is intimately connected with

—paee
ny

a dal ie ta

GG. R. Wieand—American Fossil Cycads. 435

forms of heterospory and the acquiring of the seed habit by
types immediately ancestral to the cycads or other gymno-
sperms, if not also to the angiosperms. fae

It is, however, if we clearly apprehend the significance. of
the above described structures, as hitherto held, difficult to
believe that the existing cycads could have been derived
directly from the Bennettitaceee. The evidence at present
wholly favors the belief that the former represent a line of
descent from an ancestral stock common to both, which under-
went alteration of both macro- and microsporophylls on elon-
gate axes resulting in true cones, with the exception of the
macrosporophylls of Cycas, whtich have retained a quite primi-
tive type and position. On the contrary, in the Bennetti-
taceze, it is the microsporophylls which remain primitive, while
the macrosporophylls have undergone an extreme of altera-
tion and consolidation, albeit on ancient lines of development
finding their nearest known analogy in Cordaites, and perhaps
Gingko. It appears from the facts now at hand that both
cycadean branches may not haye passed through precisely the
same evolutionary sequence of hetorospory, bi- or mono-
sporangiate, moncecious, and finally dicecious fructification.

It now becomes possible for the first time to consider the tax-
onomic position of the living and fossil cyeads in the light of
a clear knowledge of those structures and characters of funda-
mental importance in classification. It is quite evident that
there is more resemblance between these two important groups
than would be indicated by classification as the Cycadales and
the Bennettitales. The lateral fructification of the latter
group, while a distinctive feature, is not a profound difference.
For if Williamson’s restoration of Zama gigas be correct, as
now appears probable, this genus did not bear lateral fructi-
fications, and is hence in this respect intermediate. Nor are
the frequent adventitious buds and branches of certain living
eyeads to be overlooked.

On weighing the new evidence as carefully as possible, and
bearing in mind that the staminate fronds of Cycadeoidea
form a connecting link qualitatively of the same value as the
carpophylls of Cycas, it becomes wholly clear that these fossils
are true cycads and form an order, or perhaps preferably a
sub-order, of equal rank with the living cyeads. The classifi-
cation already suggested by Professor Scott, I, . therefore,
believe to be a natural one. He says in his Studies in Fossil
Botany, p. 474, “It appears then that there are at present
known to us three distinct families of Cycadales. On the one
hand the Zamiez and the Cycadex, still existing, and together
constituting the order Oycadacez; and on the other the Ben-

Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Series, Vou. XI, No. 66.—JuUnz, 1901.
30

436 G. R. Wieland—American Fossil Cycads.

nettiteze, wholly extinct, and so different as to merit ordinal
rank.”

In their leaf structures these two orders are essentially sim-
ilar. In trunk structure there is a well-marked minor dif-
ference affording a convenient means of separation,—the leaf
traces (but not always the peduncle traces) of the Cycadacez
arising as secondary cortical bundles, while those of the Bennet-
titaceze are primary, passing out directly from the xylem zone.

In fructification the basis of separation rests on the fact that
in the Cycadacez the microsporophylls are always organized
into a distinct cone, while the macrosporophylls may retain
primitive characters as carpellary leaves. In the Bennettitacese
the opposite holds true. The microspores are borne on primi-
tive pollinial leaves, while the macrospores are organized into
an ancient type of cone.

It may be remarked that the gap between Cycas and the
other living cycads is clearly lessened by the analogy afforded
by the staminate fronds of the Bennettitacee. The living
eycads may hence most conveniently be held as composed of
two divisions of equal value, the Cycadezx and Zamiee.

Yale Museum, New Haven, Conn., April 20, 1901.

Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia, ete. 437

Art. XXX VI.—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the Marsh
Collection, Peabody Museum; by J. L. WortMAn. With
late: V I.

[Continued from page 348.]

Pelvis and Hind Limb.—The pelvis is somewhat frag-
mentary and displays the character of the pelvic girdle in
but an imperfect manner. An ischium and an anterior por-
tion of an ilium are all that remain of it. The ischium
is relatively much longer and more slender than that of
either the ichneumon or fox and in this respect resembles
Cynodictis. The ischial tuberosities are only slightly devel-
oped as in the civets and quite lack that broad characteristic
expansion of the modern Canids. The obturator foramen was
_apparently longer than in either the fox or ichneumon and
extended well forwards beneath the acetabulum as in the dogs,
differing in this respect from the ichneumon, in which it is
more posterior. The cotyloid notch of the acetabulum is wide
as it is in both the viverrines and Canids. Only the anterior
part of the ilium is preserved, and this, like that in Cynodictzs,
exhibits a narrow dorsal depression and a wider ventral con-
cavity separated by a longitudinal ridge.

The femur, figure 7, has many peculiarities of its own, but on
the whole it may be said to be much more dog-like than civet-
like. The shaft is well rounded and hasa slight backward curva-
ture as in all the Canids and not perfectly straight as it is in the
carnivorous civets in general. Of the proximal extremity the
head is hemispherical and set upon the shaft by a rather short
thick neck. The greater trochanter rises above the head and
is of considerable fore and aft extent; the digital fossa is deep
and roomy. The lesser trochanter is proportionally very large
and placed upon the inner border of the shaft just below the
head. According to Scott’s description of Cynodictis, it is
smaller and more external in this form. There is a distinct
intertrochanteric line and a moderately well-developed third
trochanter. The distal end of the bone exhibits well-devel-
oped condyles with the rotular groove, passing well up on the
anterior border. The intercondylar notch is deep and the con-
dyles project well backwards behind the axis of the shaft.

The tibia, figure 8, is a little shorter than the femur; the shaft
is somewhat flattened in the proximal half of its extent and the
cnemial crest is prolonged downwards, occupying quite one-third
of the entire surface of the bone. This is in marked contrast
with its shortness in the modern Canide. The head is relatively
broad and overhangs the vertical axis of the shaft to a marked
extent, the double tibial spine being rather indistinct. The
lower portion of the shaft is subround in cross-section and dis-

‘

438 Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the

plays upon its outer surface a well-marked interosseous ridge.

The distal extremity has a large thickened internal malle>

olusy upon the internal and posterior surface of which is seen a
deep tendinal sulcus. The articular surface shows but little
grooving where it touches the astragalus. .

The shaft of the fibula exhibits but little reduction when
placed in comparison with the modern Canids. The head of

the bone is relatively large with considerable fore and aft pro-

jections, and the proximal part of the shaft is sharply divided

into three surfaces by as many distinct ridges; of these latter

-T
co

_ Figures 7, 8, 9.— Right femur, tibia, fibula; and humerus of V. Hargeri
Wortman; three-fourths natural size. (Cotype.)

the anterior and posterior soon disappear below, but the internal
is continued down the shaft as a sharp interosseous ridge. In
keeping with the unreduced character of the bone, the distal
end is large and prominent. The usual obliquely placed articu-
lar facet by which it touches the astragalus is present, but there
is no evidence of a calcaneal facet. Behind and to the outer
side is seen a prominent bony process which is deeply grooved
for the passage of flexor-tendons. . 3

of that of the fox; the susten-

_wide shallow groove and is not

-The euboid facet is much like

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. — —- +489

The Pes.—The hind foot, of which there isan almost complete

specimen preserved, figure 10, exhibits, as do the other bones of

the hind limb, a wide departure from that of the modern Canids.

The astragalus betrays the primitive character of the foot in

the following important particulars: The tibial trochlea is
little grooved; the head is proportionally large and has an
oblique position ; the transverse plane of the navicular facet
coincides very nearly with that
of the trochlear facet; and an
astragalar foramen is present,
though small. The calcaneal
facet is rather wide and shallow,
lacking the deep saddle-shape

tacular facet is very convex from
before backwards, is separated
from the calcaneal facet by a

continuous with the navicular
articulation.

The caleaneum has a moder-
ately elongated tuber of about
the same proportions as seen in
the fox; the astragalar’ facet is
very convex but without the
distinctly angular pattern of the
recent Canids. The swstentacu-
lum tali is relatively broad and.
has a shallow cup-shaped facet.

that of the fox, and there is a
large caleaneal tubercle present.
The navicular differs quite con-
siderably from that of the fox,
in that it has a less vertical
depth, and a squarish outline |
when viewed from above. It ©
is, moreover, larger and broader, fi elf
having the tubercle located ce

at the postero-internal angle | \

Metead sot ou the posterior’ - .

border as in the fox. Inas- FIGURE 10.—Right hind foot _of
much as this character, in asso- ieseey Wort ee
ciation with that of the head of

the astragalus, has to do with the position of the foot in walk-
ing, it may be taken not only as an index of the inferior organi-

zation of the pes, but it may also be taken to indicate that if the

440 Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the

limb is carried in the fore and aft plane of the body, the outer
edge of the sole of the foot touches the ground and the
plantar surfaces are directed more or less inwards. This sub-
ject will be again referred to on a subsequent page. The remain-
ing bones of the tarsus do not present any characters of
especial interest. They resemble the corresponding bones of the
fox with the exception of the internal cuneiform, which is
large and functional for the support of the hallux. It has
the same form as that of Herpestes but is proportionally broader
and heavier, which would indicate a less degree of reduction
for the hallux than in this species.

There are only four metatarsals of the foot preserved, that
for the hallux being missing. When these bones are carefully
articulated, they show that the toes were more spreading than .
those of Herpestes and somewhat less than those of the otter.
They entirely lack that highly compressed form and closely
interlocking arrangement seen in the fox. The distal ends are
characteristically broad, with hemispherical heads and well-
developed plantar keels. They resemble the corresponding
bones of Cynodictis very closely in these particulars, and differ
greatly from those of the fox, in which there is a distinctive
‘“‘square-cut” appearance. The third metatarsal is slightly the
longest and strongest bone of the series; the fourth is a little
smaller and a trifle shorter; the second and fifth were appar-
ently of about equal length, but the shaft of the second is con-
siderably the stouter of the two. Their proportional length
is much less than those of Cynodzctis, in which the hind foot
had already begun to assume the more compressed, elongated
form of the modern dogs.

If we take the length of the ischium from the posterior
border of the acetabulum, as a more or less fixed length and
compare the length of the metatarsals with it, the hind foot of
Vulpavus will be found to be as short as it is in Herpestes.
Compared with this measurement, the following proportions
of the different segments of the hind limb in several species
are given herewith:

Length of | Length Length Length
Ischium. of Mt. IV. of Tibia. of Femur.
Herpestes 2. 100 117 274 282
Vulpaunis 2 ecee 100 ney. 314 326
Cynodictis i... 100 154 368 363
V ules: -24,08 vege 100 220 490 435

That is to say, taking the ischial length as 100, the meta-
tarsal length in Herpestes is 117, the tibial length 274 and the
femoral length 282 per cent of the ischial length, ete. I have
been compelled to estimate the ischial length in Cynodictis,
which when correctly ascertained may give slightly different
percentages from those above recorded, but it may be assumed

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 441

that they are approximately correct. It will be seen from the
above table that the relative proportions of the hind-limb
bones and foot of Vulpavus place it much lower in the scale
than Cynodictrs. In this respect it is indeed the most primi-
tive canine limb known. |
The first phalanges are relatively short, rather broad proxi-
mally and much curved; this latter feature is as much or even
more marked than it is in the felines, which is somewhat sur-
prising. Were these bones found isolated, they would pass
very readily for those of a cat. The middle or second pha-—
langes are of moderate length and distally unsymmetrical like
those of the cat, but not to such a marked 11
extent. This undoubtedly indicates a cer-
tain degree of retractility of the claws which
the animal in all probability possessed.
There isasingle claw or ungual phalanx pre-
served in nearly perfect condition, figure 11, __ Fi¢vR= 11.—Ungual
; phalanx of V. Hargeri
and the base of asecond much damaged ; these Worimnan- natural size.
show that they were compressed and pointed ;
and not flattened and fissured as in many contemporary Creodonts.
I give the following principal measurements :

, mm.
Length of superior dentition from anterior border of
canine to posterior border of second molar -.-.------ 40°
Penetn of first and second molars._.--...--..-=.----+-- 8°5
Antero-posterior diameter of first molar._-...-.-.----- 5°5
Antero-posterior diameter of second molar .---_----.--- 3°0
Length of superior sectorial, outside border _-.._---_--- 8°5
Length of premolar series including diastemata --.-- ---- 17°5
Transverse diameter of superior sectorial ---..--------- : 16°5
Transverse diameter of first molar__------.----------- 10°
Transverse diameter of second molar _-...-.-.--------- 5°5
Length of inferior dental series to anterior border of |
Ce (oe AE IE SANE | Dott ee ed 45°00
Length of jaw from anterior border of canine to condyle 74°5
Meme pieor mrenor molars 2 5... 2. 22.2252 22----- Tse
Length of inferior premolars including diastemata. --- -- 23°5
Depth of jaw at posterior border of sectorial --- ---- -- ia
Transverse diameter of distal end of humerus. --- ---- -- 23°5
Length of ischium from posterior border of acetabulum_* 34°
ene mar temp. 2 ee ali ee lee LBs
Length of tibia __-_.--.-- ed pte ti fee 107°
Length of foot exclusive of ungual phalanx ---.-------- 106°
MN Rl iiaGansuce:.. 2 Peso kotor te oe ee) 1 BO
iieneth-ot fourth metatarsal 21 -.-22--2-- s2.+-.-..5--- 40°
Length of first phalanx of third digit......--.-------- 18°
Length of second phalanx of third digit....--.--.-.---- 12°5
Shem ur GAlCaneuMms eS. oe. b- 3. e dbl es eres < 28°0
Meno astiagallis i220 22 000 L222 eset cee Le oo
Bie tmegirastracdis 2.260.422... . Le bia. Se 12-5

£

449 Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the

Comparison with the Viverrines.

It will be observed from a consideration of the inhundieve
detailed above, that Vwlpavus approaches the carnivorous
civets quite closely i in many of the more important features of
its osteology. Indeed, it would appear that the interval
between these ancient Canids and the civets is actually less than
it is between Vudpavus and the fox. A comparison of Vulpavus
with such a form as the living Veverrzcula or Herpestes
reveals the following rather striking resemblances: (1) The
postorbital constriction of the skull is considerable; (2) the
superior molars display the same peculiar elongation of the
anterior part of the crown and the internal cusp of the
ae sectorial is large; (8) the principal shear of the
interior sectorial is very oblique and there is a distinet posterior
shear present which bites against the anterior edge of the first
superior molar ; (4) the distal end of the humerus is broad,
the supinator ridge is large, there is no intercondylar perforation,
and an entepicondylar foramen is present; (5) the radius is
short, the head circular, and there was power of complete pro-
nation and supination ; (6) the ischial tuberosities are small ;
(7) the limbs are not elongated ; (8) the feet are pentadac-
tyle; (9) the femur is longer ‘than the tibia, the cnemial
crest is elongate, and the fibula is little reduced and not applied
to the tibia; (10) the head of the astragalus is placed
obliquely upon the body, and the transverse plane of the
navicular articulation coincides with the transverse plane of —
the trochlea; (11) the hallux is little reduced, the feet are
relatively broad and the metapodials are not oreatly appressed
and interlocking.

These resemblances would dndboubtedl be greatly augmented
did we compare the Eocene ancestors of the viverrines with
the species under consideration, but notwithstanding these
similarities of structure, many of. which may be looked upon
as primitive characters more or less common to all the early
Carnivora, there yet remain cértain unmistakable features
which stamp it as belonging to the canine phylum. In the
structure of the superior molars as has already been stated,
there is a very decided tendency to the formation of a poste-
rior internal cusp from the cingulum. Among the Carnivora
this is exclusively dog-like and completely unknown in the
Viverride... On. the other hand, there is a distinct anterior
basal cusp upon the superior ‘sectorial of all the civets
wherever this tooth displays the laniary structure, whereas,
with one-exception it is absent in all the Canide. The inferior
molars are both in number and general structure much more
dog-like than civet- like. Nov viverrine is known in fla there

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 443

are three true molars in either the upper or lower jaw.
Although the typical genus Viverra is known with reason-
able certainty from the Upper Eocene deposits of Europe, the
molar formula is remarkably persistent, being two above and

below. ‘The femur again shows in its incipient backward

curvature, as well asin the lateral position of the lesser
trochanter, that Vulpavus is more nearly allied to the dogs
than to the civets. | |

But this evidence from the incomplete skeletal remains,

while it is very strongly presumptive of canine relationship, is

not at the same time absolutely conclusive. It, however,
receives powerful additional support from a consideration of
the forms intervening between it and Cynodictis of the
Oligocene, of the canine affinities, of which there cannot be
the slightest question. From the Washakie Beds, which appear
to be somewhat later than the Bridger, comes the genus

_ Neovulpavus, in which the superior molars had been reduced

to two, giving the molar formula of the modern genus Canis.
In the succeeding Uinta or Uppermost Eocene stage the genus
Procynodictis furnishes a nearer approach in the structure of

the molars, in that the two external cusps are subequal in size,

are more widely separated and the antero-external angle is less

‘prominent. In the carpus, the scaphoid, lunar, and centrale

were fused into a scapholunar and the feet were much lke
those of Cynodictis. It will thus be seen that the evidence as

far as it is obtainable points very strongly to a genetic rela-
tionship between Vulpavus and Cynodictis, and from this

latter without doubt sprang a large number of the modern
species of the Canide.

Progressive Modification of the Canide.

_ Regarding this, then, as the oldest and most primitive link in

the true canine phylum that has yet been discovered, it is a
matter of more than passing interest to examine into the bear-
ing of its osteological structure upon the origin and evolution

of the central group of the living dogs. The characters in

which this group has shown evolution may be summarized as
follows: The brain has increased greatly in size, both rela-
tively and actually, having been especially widened in front ;

_ the superior molars have been modified in structure, in that

they have largely lost that characteristic anterior transverse
elongation so common to the Hocene types, but have, on the
other hand, developed a large postero-internal cusp from the
cingulum and a strong tendency to the formation of a second
posterior internal cusp; the number of the superior molars

has been reduced to two, the sectorial of the superior series

444. Wortman—Studies of Hocene Mammalia in the

has developed a more perfect shearing apparatus and the inter-
nal cusp has been reduced ; in the inferior series, the sectorial
has been modified into a more perfect shearing organ by the
enlargement and lateral flattening of the two external cusps of
the trigon, by their more perfect alignment with the long
axis of the jaw, with a concomitant reduction in size of the inter-
nal cusp, the disappearance of the posterior shear and the
widening of the heel; the cusps of the posterior molars have
been reduced and their tuberculo-sectorial pattern lost; in
the atlas the alee have increased in size and have developed a
peculiar and characteristic arrangement of the foramina for
the passage of the vertebral artery; the lumbar vertebree have
been greatly reduced in size in comparison with the dorsals ; the
ischial tuberosities have increased in size, the body of the ischium
has become shortened and the obturator foramen reduced ;
the femur has been lengthened, the shaft has developed an

antero-posterior curvature, the neck of the bone elongated, the .

lesser trochanter reduced in size and the third trochanter has
disappeared ; the tibia has been lengthened, the enemial crest
shortened and the distal trochlea deeply grooved; the shaft
of the fibula has been reduced to a thin lamella of bone which
has become applied to the shaft of the tibia for a large part of
its extent; the hind foot has been compressed and greatly
elongated, the astragalus deeply grooved, and the navicular
narrowed ; the metatarsals have become proximally flattened,
closely appressed and have developed a characteristic “square-
cut” appearance of the distal ends; the hallux has disappeared
and the internal cuneiform has been reduced to a vestige; the
phalanges have been slightly shortened and those of the
middle row have largely lost their distal asymmetry; in the
forelimb the humerus has been elongated, the deltoid crest
and supinator ridge greatly reduced, the entepicondylar fora-
men has disappeared, the intercondylar perforation formed and
the distal end of the bone greatly narrowed; the ulna and
radius have been greatly elongated, and the head of the radius
flattened so as to-considerably restrict the power of pronation
and supination.

The three species at present known may be distinguished as
follows:

Posterior external angle of first superior molar more
-or less extended and cutting; a strong postero-
intemal usp ie! sages Breas etl ees V. palustris
Posterior external angle of first superior molar
rounded; postero-internal cusp small and consist- 5
ing of no more than a cingulum__--....--..---- V. Hargeri
Species considerably smaller than the two preceding V. parvivorus

“x

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 445

The above species is named in honor of the late Mr. Oscar
Harger, whose work in connection with the early Yale Expe-
ditions is so well and favorably known. The locality of the
type and cotype is Henry’s Fork, Bridger Basin, Wyoming, and
the specimens were found by Messrs. Oscar Harger and F. S.
Weeks of the Expedition of 1873. Two other fragmentary
examples are from Point Gulch, near Henry’s Fork.

Neovulpavus washakius, gen. et sp. nov.

Vulpavus palustris Wortman and Matthew, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., June,
1899, p. 118.

It is now evident that the species published by Dr. Matthew
and myself, under the name Vulpavus palustris, is distinct
from the typical representative of the genus above described.
The difference consists in the loss of the third superior molar,
and as this is in direct line of progressive modification towards
Cynodictis and represents an intermediate step between Pvo-
cynodictis and Vulpavus, it may be regarded as a distinct genus,
for which the above name is proposed. With the exception of
the loss of the third molar, it agrees closely with Vulpavus.
The type is from the Washakie Basin, and is preserved in the
American Museum Oollection ; its catalogue number is 2305.
It was fully described and figured in the Bulletin of the Ameri-
can Museum, 1899, p. 118. 3

Uintacyon Leidy.

Uinta, a local name; and Cyon, a dog. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1872, p.
277; Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Western Territories, 1873. p. 118. Miacis
Cope (in part). Proce. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1872, p. 470; Tertiary Vertebrata, 1884.
Miacis Scott. Jour. Phila. Acad., vol.i, 1886. Uintacyon Wortman and Matthew.
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1899, p. 110.

Typically small or medium sized imperfectly known Canids,
with dentition I,, C;, Pmz, Ms, having an inferior sectorial with
a disproportionally large trigon and small, low, cutting, or slightly
basin-shaped heel; cusps of succeeding molars, low and blunt.
First superior molar, in type species, with anterior border much
elongated, the two external cusps unequal in size, and the inter-
nal cusp without posterior transverse lunate ridge. Jaw, either
short and deep, or elongated and shallow. Premolars unreduced.

Uintacyon edax Leidy.

This species was established by Leidy upon an imperfect
and anomalous lower jaw, in which there are five premolars
instead of four. The sectorial is damaged in such a way as
not to display satisfactorily the characters of the heel, but it
seems highly probable that it was made up of a cutting ridge,

446 Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the

as mentioned above. ‘There is a single specimen in the collec-
tion, which I refer to this species, and which, although a little
smaller than the type, agrees with it so perfectly in other
respects as to leave little doubt of the identity of the two. It
consists of the anterior part of the right mandibular ramus, igure
12, carrying the canine and the alveoli for the incisors and first
premolar, together with the posterior part of the jaw contain-
‘ing the first and second molars. Fortunately the first superior
molars of both sides are present. The alveoli indicate the
existence of three incisors, the second of which was pushed
well back out of the transverse line, as in the Canidz in
general. The canine is of moderate size, oval in cross-section,
and surrounded by a faint cingulum at its base. The first pre-
molar is not preserved, but the alveolus shows that it was
small, single-rooted, and placed a short distance behind the

12

FIGURE 12.—Right ramus of Uintacyon edax Leidy; outside view.

FIGURE 13.—First and second lower molars of same specimen; inside view.
FiguRE 14.—First lower molar of same; crown view.

Figure 15.—First left upper molar of same; crown view.

All the figures are three halves natural size.

canine. The second and third premolars .are missing; the
fourth displays the usual pointed crown without an. anterior
basal cusp, but a strong posterior accessory cusp is developed.
As compared with the corresponding tooth of Vulpavus
Flargeri, the accessory cusp of this tooth is much stronger, but
the heel is less prominent. It does not appear that the pre-
molars were reduced in size, at least abnormally so, since those
of the type are of the proportions usually seen in the Canide.
The sectorial, figures 12-14, has a relatively smaller antero-pos-
terior diameter than that of Vulpavus, the trigon having very
much the same shape and disposition of its parts. The principal
shear is very oblique and there is a well-developed posterior shear.
In the structure of the heel, however, the two genera are very

— Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. AAT

different. In this species of Uintacyon the heel is smaller,
and is composed of a single median cutting ridge, which is
highest behind. On the inner border the cingulum is very slightly
elevated, giving a faint indication of the basin of Vulpavus, but

- this is so inconsiderable that the heel may be said to be cut-

ting. The second inferior molar, figures 12 and 13, may be
described as having a very reduced trigon with the anterior
cusp obsolete, a very small internal cusp and a cutting heel.
As compared with that of Vulpavus, the cusps are much
lower and more obtuse. The last molar is not preserved in
the specimen under discussion, but judging from the type
Specimen it was small. and single-rooted, with the cusps more
or less vestigial.

The crown of the first superior molar, figure 15, in its exter-
nal part, bears a very striking resemblance to that of Vulpaqvuus,
but internally, the two are quite distinct. As in that génus,
the antero-external angle is produced and formed into a sharp
cutting blade, separated from the antero-external cusp by a
deep slit-like notch; this blade, together with the sharp ante-
rior transverse ridge, bites effectively against the shears of the
posterior cusps of the trigon. ‘The postero-external angle is
rounded. Between the base of the external cusps and the
outer border of the crown is a relatively broad area, the outer
edge of which is occupied by the cingulum. The external
cusps have a flattened conical form, the edges of which are
sharp, the anterior being the larger and more prominent of
the two. The internal cusp is more or less conical and is

- somewhat extended posteriorly; it is connected with the

antero-external cusp by a sharp transverse ridge, which is
interrupted near its middle portion by a distinct anterior inter-
mediate cusp. The posterior transverse ridge, which is very
generally present in tritubercular teeth of this character is
entirely absent. The cingulum, although more or less distinct
upon the inner face of the crown, does not develop any

-postero-internal cusp.

The jaw is moderately long, rather shallow vertically, and
of somewhat more than average thickness transversely. It
has a distinctive breadth and “ square-cut”’ appearance of the

-symphyseal region which is not shown in Vulpavus.

I give the following measurements :

a mm.
WemiOeGi bid, IN 2 -s-- ---- ---~ --2 soe 15°5
Wenathi as anverior sectorial $4. .225 42.4 -) «2224 eee ely
Miduh at anterior sectorial} ..2..-. ...-..-<'.- 2, Adee
Hemeiipoisecond molar. cf: b. 2. .4)- 2+ -\L4 se ae -tnenaege fp his
-Depth of jaw at anterior border of sectorial ........----- 9°5
Depth of jaw at posterior border of Pm.z--.----..------ 8°
Thickness of jaw at posterior border of Pm.;.--.-------- 4:

448 Wortman—sStudies of Hocene Mammatia in the

The specimen is from the lower part of the Bridger Beds,
and was found by R. E. Son.

A larger species, U/. voraz, was established by Leidy, from
the same ‘horizon, upon a fragment of a lower jaw in which the
heel of the sectorial and the penultimate molar are preserved.
The heel of the sectorial is not so trenchant.
as in the preceding species, but exhibits a
more or less intermediate condition between
the basin-shaped and cutting forms. Sub-
sequently Scott described another species
(Miacis bathygnathus) from the Bridger, in

Figure 16,— First Which the greater part of the lower jaws
superior molar of Uinia- and some few fragments of the skeleton are
cyon voraa(?); natural preserved; but it would appear that it is
ar not distinct from U. vorax. The jaws are
short and deep, the symphyseal region abruptly rounded, and
the premolars, as indicated by their alveoli, were not reduced
in size below the normal; the canine, moreover, was more or
less laterally compressed at its base. The few skeletal frag-
ments exhibit characters of the early dogs. In this connec-
tion, I give a figure (figure 16) of a first superior molar, which
probably belongs to this species. A third species from the
Washakie, U. pugnax, displays the same jaw characters as
U7. vorax, but very little is known of it. A fourth species,
U. brevirostris, was described by Cope from the Wind River
Beds, and this species has also been identified from fragmen-
tary remains from the Wasatch of the Big Horn Valley,
clearly showing that the genus is of very ancient origin.

It now appears, even from this fragmentary evidence, that
the direct connection between this group and the genus
Daphenus of the White River Oligocene is so exceedingly
probable, that it may be hypothetically assumed, notwithstand-
ing the fact that the intermediate stages in the Uinta are as
yet to a large extent wanting. The genus from this latter
horizon, to which Matthew and myself gave the name Pro-
daphenus, is more probably a member of a line leading to
Amphicyon. This is strongly suggested by the fact that the
third superior premolar, and presumably the two anterior
ones, are considerably reduced in size, a feature that does not
occur in any known species of Daphenus, but does occur and
constitutes one of the characteristic peculiarities of the genus
Amphicyon. |

The typical speciesof U/2ntacyon, U. edaa, finds a highly prob-
able successor in Daphenus vetws, in which the heel of the
lower sectorial, as well as that of the second molar, are tren-
chant, and the lower jaw is slender and elongate, with marked
traces of the characteristic abruptness of the mental region so

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 449

common in the Bridger species. I give in this connection (Plate
VI) a drawing of a well-preserved skull of this species in the
Marsh Collection, from the White River Bad Lands of Nebraska, .
on account of the apparently important position which it holds
with reference to the origin of certain living species. It has
been suggested by Matthew and myself,* that Daphenus
vetus was the direct forerunner of Zemnocyon of the John
Day Miocene, which in turn passed by gradual transition into
the living Dohles, or Red Dogs of India. If this chain of
ancestry is correct, the evidence in favor of which seems to
be very direct and positive, it establishes a long and eventful
history for this phylum.

Daphenus Dodget Scott, on the other hand, may be
regarded as the successor of the short-jawed species of Uin-
tacyon, of which U. vorax is a good type, and here again the
characters, as far as we know them, fit with apparent accuracy.
Daphenus Dodgei is known from a lower jaw only, and may,
as suggested by Seott,* prove to be a distinct genus. Further-
more, it will not be surprising to find that it had already
developed a reduced dentition, and was leading into the short-
jawed dogs of the John Day, such as Oligobunus, Enhydro-
cyon, Hycenocyon, and thence through an unknown type,
into the living Bush Dogs, Jetecyon, of the South American
tropics.

Prodaphonus Wortman and Matthew.

Prodaphenus Wortman and Matthew. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hists 1899;
p. 114.

In this group I arrange all those short-jawed dogs of the
Eocene in which the size of the premolars, with the exception
of the fourth superior, is much reduced. The dental formula
is not fully known, bnt is very probably I.3, C.4 Pm.4, M. 3.
The canines are large and more or less laterally flattened, the
heel of the inferior sectorial is basin-shaped, the anterior
border of the superior molars extended transversely, the two
external cusps are unequal in size and the postero-internal
cingular cusp is small or absent.

The genus was established upon an incomplete superior
dental series from the Uinta deposits and was unfortunately
named. At the time, it was thought to be related to Daphenus,
but it is now perfectly evident that it belongs to another line.
The only other group of Canidee thus far known in which this
combination of characters occurs is the Amphicyon series, and
as this begins abruptly in Europe in beds corresponding

* hoceit, po 115.

+ Notes on the Canidz of the White River Oligocene. Trans. Amer. Philos.
Soc., 1898.

450 Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia, ete.

in age to the American White River Oligocene or earlier, our
Uinta species of this group may well have been their ancestors.

At least three species are known, the oldest of which,

P. promicrodon, comes from the Wasatch of the Big Horn
Valley. In this species the fourth lower premolar is not
reduced but those anterior toit are quite small; the first
premolar is single-rooted and the second and third are two-
rooted. A second species, P. canavus, from the Wind River,
shows the fourth premolar in the lower series reduced but the
second premolar has two roots. . |

A fragment of .a lower jaw in the collection, which I
provisionally refer to the Uinta species P. Scotti, figure 17,

shows the second premolar relatively very small and implanted

by a single root.

It will thus be seen, from a consideration of what has already
been said, that there were at least three, and probably four
distinct lines of canine ancestry —
already established in the Bridger.
One of these led from Vulpavus
through WVeovulpavus and Pro-
cynodictis directly into the Oligo-
cene and Miocene Cynodictis,
which without much doubt. was
the main axis from which all the
living species of Canzs have been
derived. The second leads out
through Uintacyon edax, Daphe-
nus vetus and Temnocyon, into the

—+ eee

living Cyon and possibly also into | Fieure 17.—Anterior portion of

halves natural size.

Prodaphenus into Amphicyon
and thence into the Bears.. The fourth is more hypothetieal, but
was possibly split off from Uintacyon, passing into Daphenus
Dodgei and thence into the succeeding short-jawed dogs of the
Miocene and the living Bush Dogs. : |

Peabody Museum, Yale University.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XI, 1901. Plate VI.

Y

iy)
UU)
? yy

EXPLANATION OF PuaTE VI.

-

Skull of Daphenus vetus Leidy ; three-fourths natural size; side view and

crown view of first and second lower molars; one and one-eighth natural
size.

oe

Wells and Metzger—Coesium-Antimonious Fluorides. 451

Art. XXX VII.—On the Cesium-Antimonious Fluorides
and Some Other Double Halides of Antimony ; by H. L.
WELLS and F. J. METZGER.

WE have made a thorough study of the double salts formed
by cesium fluoride and antimonious fluoride with the result
that five compounds have been prepared. This is an unusual
number for a series of double salts, and it gives a good illus-
tration of the facility with which cesium forms such com-

pounds.
The salts to be described have the following formule :

Type.

aS CsF'3SbF,

AQ CsF-2SbF,

4:7 4CsF-7SbF,

We CsEF‘SbF,

2 Pl 2C0sE'SbF,,.

The previously described antimonious double fluorides, all
of which were prepared by F'ltickiger,® are as follows:

Type. :
Lea KF‘SbF,,
2:1 2KE-SbF,, 2LiFSbF,, 2NH,F‘SbF,.

3:1 3NaKF-SbF.. |

The following chlorides, bromides and iodides have been
described :

Type.
1:2 RbCl-2S8bCl,.*

4 8NH,I-4SbI,-9H,0.+
1 a |

NH,CISbCl.,t NH,I-‘SbI,-2H,0.8, KI-SbI,-H,0,$
RbCI-SbCl,.**
3:2 3KI-2SblI,-3H,0,+ 3Nal-2SbI,-12H,0,+ 3NH,I-2SbI,3H,0,+
sRbCL-28bCl,*, 3RbBr-2SbBr,,* 3RbI-2SbI,,*

3CsCl-28bC]..++

2:1 2NHCI-SbCI,,t 2NH,CI‘SbCI,H,O,tt 2KCl-SbCI,,88
2K CL-SbCl,-2H,0.***

7:3+++ 7RbCI3SbCI,,** 7RbBr3sSbBr,,* 7KCI-3SbCl,,ttt
7KBr-3SbBr,"8H, Otft

3:1 3NH,CISbCI,131,0,{t [3KCISbCl,tt], 3NaCl-SbCl,.tt
4:1 4NH,ISbI,-3H,0.4 |
® Pogg. Ann., Ixxxvii, 245 [1852].
* Wheeler, this Journal (3), xlvi, 269. + Schaffer, Pogg. Ann., cix, 611.
_{ Deherain, C. r., lii, 734. § Nicklés, C. r., li, 1097.

'** Remsen and Saunders, Am. Chem. Jour., xiv, 152.

++ Setterberg, Ofversigt K. Vetensk. Akad. Férhandl, 1882, 23; Remsen and |
Saunders, loc. cit.

tt Poggiale, C. r., xx, 1180. It is probable according to Herty, Am. Chem.
Jour., xv, 81, that 3KCl‘SbCl; does not exist.

S§ Jacquelaine; Poggiale, loc. cit.; Benedict, Proc. Am. Acad, xxix, 212.

*** Benedict, loc. cit. +++ This type was described as 23: 10; see Wells
and Foote, this Journal, iii, 461. ttt Herty, loc. cit.

Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtTs SERIES, Vou. XI, No. 66 —JuNE, 1901.

452° Wells and Metzger— cis al F luorides

Upon comparing the cesium double fluorides with the salts
already known, it is to be noticed that two types of the former,
1:3 and 4:7, do not occur among the latter, and that the
Dee oe 82, (5 3, 38 21 emda. a types were not found among
the cxsium-antimonious fluorides. ‘The absence of a3 : 2 fluor-
ide is remarkable, since the salt 83CsCl-2SbC], is very spar-
ingly soluble, and ‘because this is a very prominent type among
the chlorides, bromides, and iodides. It is evident that a close
relation does not exist between the casium-antimonious fluor-
ides and the other antimonious double halides, and that the
types of the former could not have been predicted from a
consideration of the latter. In range, the cesium double
fluorides extend farther at the antimony end than the others,
while they do not extend as far at the alkali-metal end of the
series of types.

When all the types of antimonious double halides are con-
sidered, they are remarkable for their large number, ten. This
number is probably greater than is the case with any other
negative. element.. .The types, 1:3, 1:2, 4): (0 sea,

8:2,2:1,7:38,3:1and4: 1, with two or three exceptions, -

are the simplest that can exist in such number between the
two extremes, and arithmetically they extend almost as far in
one direction as the other.

Method of preparation.—Solutions of cesium fluoride and
antimonious fluoride were prepared by treating cesium car-
bonate and antimonious oxide, each with an excess of pure
hydrofluoric acid. To the antimonious solution the cesium
salt was gradually added in small quantities, and after each
addition the liquid was evaporated and cooled until erystalliza-
tion took place. If a homogeneous product was obtained a
' portion was removed for analysis, and the process was con-
tinued until finally the liquid contained a very large excess of
ceesium fluoride. In every case the products were carefully
inspected to make sure that they were not mixtures, and at
least two crops of a salt were always prepared under somewhat
different conditions, and were shown by analysis to be identi-
cal in composition before they were accepted as true com-
pounds.

Method of analysis.—The crystals were carefully dried by
pressing between filter papers, and the portions to be analyzed
were preserved in glass weighing tubes which were coated
within with a very thin layer of paraffine. For the determina-
tion of antimony and cesium a portion was heated in a plati-
num crucible with concentrated sulphuric acid until all the
hydrofluoric acid was removed, the residue was dissolved in
hydrochloric acid, antimony was precipitated as sulphide, col-
lected on a Gooch crucible and weighed after drying in a

fie <q ee ented eee e~

and Some Other Double Halides of Antimony. 453

small oven containing carbon dioxide. Ossium was weighed
as normal sulphate. Fluorine was determined by converting
it into silicon fluoride, collecting the latter in water, and_
titrating with sodium hydroxide, according to a modification
of Offermann’s method. The results of these fluorine deter-
minations were invariably somewhat too low, as we found by
testing the method with pure potassium silicon fluoride ; hence
the chief value of these determinations consists in showing
that the salts under investigation were not oxy-compounds.

1:2 Cesium-Antimonious Fluoride, CsF-2SbF,—This
salt was obtained in the form of beautiful, transparent needles
by adding 2 or 28 of cesium fluoride to a solution of about 50%
of antimonious fluoride in somewhat dilute hydrofluoric acid
solution, heating to boiling and cooling. Two separate crops
gave the following results upon analysis:

Calculated for Found.
CsSboF*. ; TY:
Cesium. (20. 26°28 96°44 ree
LIMO.) J 2 47°43 47°36 47°42
Mimerne. oo. 2 26°28 95°28 esp’

1:3 Cesium-Antimonious Fluoride, CsF:3SbF,—\ This
salt crystallizes in the form of stout, transparent prisms. It
was obtained by evaporating the mother-liquors from the pre-
ceding compound and cooling, or by the use of somewhat less
cesium fluoride in proportion to the antimonious fluoride in a
more concentrated solution. Two crops gave the following

results :
Calculated for Found.
CsSb3F io. 1 II.
CEST) en is 19°47 17°81 17°60
Antimony Ra (athe aed b 52°95 53°89
Hivorme 2. 2. 27°82 OO 1 26°84

The rather wide variation of the results from the calculated
quantities is probably due to the fact that the crystals were
taken from a very concentrated antimonious fluoride solution
and were consequently not quite pure, even after careful dry-
ing on paper.

4:7 Cesium-Antimonious Fluoride, 4Csk-7SbF,.—This
salt crystallizes in transparent plates, and is formed in the
presence of a little larger proportion of cesium fluoride than
the preceding compounds. I[t was obtained, for instance, upon
adding about 4% of cesium fluoride to a mother-liquor from the
last salt and crystallizing by cooling. Two crops gave the
following results:

454 Wells and Metzger—Cwsium-Antimonious Fluorides

Calculated for Found.
Cs,Sb7Fo5. his ET:
Cresiwm 22.2... 28°80 28°99 eg
PACILIMLOUY 22 45°47 46°02 46:03
Hitvorine . oot s2 05°73 24°58 24°61

We cannot say that we are absolutely sure about the formula
of this apparently complicated double salt. It cannot be a
1:2 compound, for not only is it entirely distinct in appear-
ance from CsI'-2SbF,, but coming as it does from a strong
antimony solution, the results would naturally come too high
rather than too low for antimony. The results vary too widely
from a 2:3 ratio to make that probable, but they approach
somewhat more closely the 3:5 ratio. The following caleula-
tions will show that we have selected the most probable
formula:

Calculated for Calculated for Caleulated for
CseSb3Fi3. Cs3Sb5F yx. CsSboF,.
31°86 : 29°75 26°28
43°11 44°75 AT °43
25°03 25°50 26°28

1:1 Cesium-Antimonious Fluoride, CsF:SbF,.—In the
presence of still greater proportions of cesium fluoride this
salt is produced by cooling the properly concentrated solution.
It forms square prisms, the ends of which are not usually
modified by any planes. Three crops gave the following
analysis :

Calculated for Found.
CsSbF 4. 1; ile SRB
Cresium 2. seer 40°43 41°44 41°19 sae
Antimony ---..- 36°47 35°85 35°66 dar O2
Eluorime ye. 2< 23-10 23:0 es Sanne

2;1 Cesium-Antimonious Fluoride, 2Cs¥’SbF,.—This
salt is formed under a wide range of conditions when cesium
fluoride is present in large excess in comparison with the
antimonious fluoride. It crystallizes in apparently rhombic
prisms, which are often somewhat flattened. Four crops,
made under very different conditions, gave the following
results :

Calculated for Found.
Cs.SbF;. ii 1BR TL. EY
Cragin ee ee SO) 54°81 Pe 2e Levare
Antimony -.----- 24°95 24°72 24°59 24°92 24°64
Higorimej. 72a. 19:75 19°42 Bg ti eee He

By the use of very concentrated cesium fluoride solutions
with comparatively small amounts of antimonious fluoride, no

and Some Other Double Halides of Antimony. 455

evidence was obtained of the existence of any double salt con-
taining more cesium fluoride than the one just described.

Cesium-Antimonious Iodide, 3Csl-2SbI,.—It appears that
no compound of cesium iodide with antimonious iodide has
been described. The sparingly soluble chloride, 30sCl-2SbCl,
is well known, and this was the only double chloride that
Remsen and Saunders* were able to prepare, although four
rubidium-antimonious chlorides are known. It is evident that
the slight solubility of czesium-antimonious chloride makes it
impossible to prepare concentrated solutions of the component
chlorides and consequently prevents the formation of salts of
other types. We have found that an iodide which corresponds
in composition to the chloride can be readily prepared. It is
sparingly soluble in hydriodic acid solutions, and it exists in
two distinct forms, one of which is brick-red and apparently
octahedral in form, while the other is yellow and occurs in
thin hexagonal plates. The octahedral salt was prepared by
mixing antimonious iodide and czesium iodide in rather strong
hydriodie acid solutions, while the yellow hexagonal salt was
made in much less strongly acid solutions, particularly upon
diluting them with water, boiling, and cooling. ‘T'wo crops of
each form were analyzed as follows:

Found
Calculated for Red salt. Yellow salt.
CssSbelo. K iG II
Ovsimm- 2... 2... 22°39 23°46 Ja DIV acts
AMLIMONY 2. -. = - Regn oi 13°91 13°19 14°36. 14°52
Todmerees ss. 64°14 62°98 rate 63°03

This was the only double iodide that we were able to obtain.

There is little doubt that a corresponding bromide exists,
for we observed, while engaged in work with another object
in view, that a yellow precipitate is produced when the bro-
mides of cesium and trivalent antimony are brought together
in solution. Having overlooked the fact that the compound
had not been described, we neglected to analyze the product.

Cesium-Antimonie Halides.—So little is known concern-
ing the double halides of quinquivalent elements that it seemed
desirable to study the cxzsium-antimoniec compounds. Setter-
bergt has described a single double chloride, CsCl‘SbCl,, and
we have confirmed his result, but by using widely varying
conditions we have been unable to prepare any other com-
pound. Setterberg’s salt crystallizes in long, colorless, trans-
parent needles. <A crop of it gave the following results upon
analysis :

* Loe. cit. + Loc. cit.

456 Wells and Meteger-— Casium-Antimonious Fluorides.

Caleulated for

CsSbClg. Found.
CREST, «21s se cep ee 98:54 29°14
PMMEIOTOOY. ©. Foo. 2 ite ee eee 25°75 - p 208o
Cihlorine | .2) 2 oa eee NDE | 43°94

We have extended our investigation to antimonic fluoride
and czesium fluoride, but the results were disappointing from
the fact that we were able to prepare but one double salt,
while Marignac* has described two potassium antimonic
fluorides. Either cesium in this case unexpectedly fails to
show as great a tendency to form double salts as does potas-
sium, or else we have failed to find the proper conditions for
producing them.

The salt obtained by us apparently contains hydroxyl,
although prepared in strong hydrofluoric acid solutions, and
has the formula OsF-SbF,OH. — It erystallizes on cooling
warm, rather concentrated solutions in the form of bundles of
transparent needles. Two crops gave the following analyses:

Calculated for Found.
CsSbF;0H8. dbs ae
Casini 2. 38 os 36°44 31° Gd Baie
Antimony ...--- 32°87 31°82 31°72
Filvormene? =. >- 26°03 25°54 26°18
itydrexyi. 22. 4°66 [4°87] aii

Sheffield Scientific School, April, 1901.

* Liebig’s Ann., cxlv, 237.

<
4
k
7

J. W. Richards—‘ Mohawkite.”’ 457

Arr. XX XVIII—“ Mohawkite” ; by JosrpH W. RicHarps.

Dr. Korenieé has given the name Mohawkite to the nickel-
iferous and cobaltiferous variety of domeykite found at the
Mohawk mine. He bases this on his analyses, corresponding
to (Cu,Ni,Co),As.*

Dr. Ledoux published the results of an analysis of a mineral
from the same mine,t which corresponded closely to (Cu,Ni,
Co),As, and which he proposed should be called Mohawkite.

Dr. Koenig, however, throws doubt upon the formula obtained

by Ledoux; also claims that if Cu,As does exist, a new name
must be found for it, as he has preémpted the name Mohawkite
for his variety of domeykite. The object of this communica-
tion is to substantiate Ledoux’s analysis and formula, and
thereby prove the existence of the new species (Cu,Ni,Co),As.

Last autumn the writer received from Foote, of Philadelphia,
a specimen from the Mohawk mine marked “ Mohawkite ?”
Analysis of the material, completely freed from gangue, gave

“TPN Gio EE a tee ee Sree ee 70°8%
teens eT. LO
enietecl mien eee OF kk Sel. trace
VEST LL RON alco) a 0°60
Arsenic (by difference) .------- 22°8
100°0
The atomic ratios from the above are
70°8 7)
C Be Fe ity Segre 1. = 1 dha
oe 63:4 |
; i 1pa5
6°4
OG 1) ee ee se OO ge |
Be.
: 22°8
Arsenic... ..----.. —— = 0°304
io
; : 1°225 :
Hence the atomic ratio. .--- waar 4:003 and the formula
(Cu,Co,Ni), As.

Dr. Ledoux’s analysis, as calculated by Koenig, gives the

: i ne bee fe ;
corresponding atomic ratio ee 4066. Koenig, however,

makes a slight mistake in adding the basic valences, and the

*This Journal, December, 1900. Zeitschr. fir Krystallographie und Miner-
alogie, xxxiv, 70 (1901).
+ Engineering and Mining Journal, April 7, 1900.

458 J. W. Richards—‘ Mohawkite.”

correspondence is still closer. I have re-calculated Ledoux’s

results, as follows:
Atomic ratios.

Capper 2°-s 4508-6 1:082 |
Cobalt 222. se" 12 Or020 4 ee
Nickel erases 6°55 0°112 ooo
Tron Oe 0°23 0°004
Salphur 2 22>" 0°53 0°017
Arsenie 2520 22°67 0°302

Assuming the sulphur to be present as RS, we subtract its
ratio 0-017 from that of the bases, and there remains 1°201.

_ Ledoux’s ratio is, therefore, 120k — ies

I would propose the name Ledowwite for the compound
Cu,As, the existence of which no longer appears doubtful. It
carries small percentages of cobalt and nickel and is similar in
appearance to algodonite, with density 7-8 (Ledoux) or 8°07
(Richards). The latter was taken on clean material free
from gangue.

Mineralogical Laboratory,

Lehigh University, April 5, 1901.

pte ee ee Ge el ere oo.”
rea nie een a ue i

psaiteei: ars

= pre e

ot. Mole =) Wp ys ee

Henry Augustus Rowland. 459

HENRY AUGUSTUS ROWLAND.

“A GREAT man has fallen in the ranks—great in talents,
great in-achievements, great in renown.” So spoke President
Gilman to the faculty and students of the Johns Hopkins
University assembled to do the last honors to their departed
colleague and teacher; and the words awoke a sympathetic
echo in every heart.

Henry Augustus Rowland was born at Honesdale, Pa.,
Noy. 27, 1848. He studied engineering at the Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, in Troy, where he received the degree
of C.E. in 1870. He spent a short time in railroad engineer-
ing, and became teacher of science for 1871-72 at Wooster
College. The following year, 1872, he returned to Troy as
instructor, and was soon made assistant professor, in which
position he remained until 1875, when he was invited to Balti-
more; but before taking up his duties there he spent some
time in Europe. He had already published an important
article on Magnetic Permeability, which brought him into
notice. Professor Rowland sent this to Clerk-Maxwell, in
Cambridge, England, who replied that he regretted the Royal
Society was not in session, that he might present this work
to them, but that he would do the next best thing, namely,
send it to the Philosophical Magazine; and as Rowland was
so far away, he would himself correct the proof sheets.

While in Europe Rowland went to Berlin and carried out
one of his most important researches, proving that a moving
charge of static electricity, like a current, sets up a magnetic
field.

Returning to America, he became one of the little band of
professors, already famous or soon to become so, who were
brought together to form the Johns Hopkins University, and
he remained at the head of the physical department until his
death, April 16,1901. His energies were given to research
and to the instruction of his graduate students, but his influ-
ence was felt in the whole university, and even the under-
graduates received a great stimulus in their studies by the

example of his steady and successful work.

460 Henry Augustus Rowland.

We shall not attempt here a close analysis of Professor
Rowland’s contributions to science, alist of the most important
is given below ; as aman of unique genius his work will always
remain, but at the present time we feel more drawn to speak
of his personal character than of his achievements.

In two public addresses (before the American Association
for the Advancement of Science in 1888, and before the
American Physical Society in 1899) he set forth his ideas of
what should be the aims and methods of the scientific man.
Both breathe the same spirit—utter dissatisfaction with what
is mediocre, and longing for what is great and important ;
great contempt for sham, and high appreciation of the labors
of those who have unselfishly devoted their lives to the
advance of pure science.

In the first he speaks of American science as “a thing of
the future”; in the second he recognizes that some steps have
been taken and that there are a number of students entirely
given up to the pursuit of pure science; and he a out the
great problems awaiting solution.

Like all great men, he felt that the work he had undertaken
was the most important work a man could do; he spoke of
physical science as ‘‘a science above all sciences, which deals
with the foundation of the Universe, with the constitution of
matter, . ... with the ether of space... . ,” and he threw
himself into it with all his heart and soul.

As a result he thoroughly mastered his subject and his
native genius gave him a quick and sure insight into natural
phenomena. This last gave him a confidence in his own con-
clusions and he bowed to no one but his peers.

During his connection with the University he held weekly
conferences on the current literature of physical science, and
it was probably on these occasions that he did most to help his
students to broad and deep conceptions of pbysical laws. His
criticisms were very severe, but they were not captious ; it was
always his method to examine an investigation closely, to see
what errors were committed and to show how such errors
could be avoided. His own investigations fully show the
result of this painstaking care.

He thoroughly appreciated the importance of organized

Henry Augustus Rowland. 461

knowledge, and valued an experiment or research in propor-
tion to the amount of light it threw on theory, and to the
extent that it connected and unified other phenomena. I
believe it was Maxwell’s beautiful electromagnetic theory of
light that so strongly attracted him to that subject, by showing
a relation between phenomena apparently so independent as
light and electricity. It is a fact that when he began his
lectures on light in 1884 he developed the electromagnetic
and elastic-solid theories side by side, pointing out their simi-
larities and differences and noting the difficulties inherent in
each.

He was not an experimentalist who experimented for its
own sake, but he twas a natural philosopher, seeking to solve
the great problems of physical science, and he made use of all
the means he could command to accomplish his purpose—
experiment or pure reasoning, or more commonly the eembi-
nation of the two. His absorption in research did not allow
him to give very much time to his students; but the steadiness
of his work, and the brilliant suggestions which he made from
time to time, were more stimulating than greater personal
attention would have been from a man of less genius.

As we look back over the last twenty-five years and see the
change in the character of physical science in America, and
consider the great influence Professor Rowland has had in
effecting this change, we appreciate something of the work he
has done and realize the great loss his death means to physical
science in America and in the world.

Professor Rowland’s work has received the recognition it
deserved and he has been the recipient of many honors; he
received the honorary degrees—Ph.D., Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, 1880; LL.D., Yale Waren 1895, Princeton Uni-
versity, 1896. He was an officer of the Tee of Honor of
France; Rumford Medallist of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences ; Draper Medallist of the National Academy
of Sciences ; Matteucci Medallist (Italian), and he received the
prize of the Venetian Institute for his work on the ‘* Mechani-
eal Equivalent of Heat.” Among the many learned bodies in
which he was eleeted a member we will only mention the
Royal Society of London; the Physical Society of London ;

5 a flenry Augustus Rowland.

the French Academy of Sciences; the Royal Astronomical
Society of England ; the Royal Academy of Sciences, Berlin ;
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston; the
National Academy of Sciences, Washington ; and the Ameri-
can Physical Society, of which he was the first president.

Harry Frievpinc Retr.
Johns Hopkins Univ., May 14, 1901.

The following is a list of Professor Rowland’s most impor-
tant papers :

On the magnetic permeability and the maximum of magnetisation of iron, steel
and nickel; Phil. Mag, xlvi, August, 1873; reprinted in this Journal, December,
1873. :

On the magnetic permeability and maximum of magnaetisation of nickel and
cobalt; Phil. Mag. xlviii, 1874.

Studies on magnetic distribution; this Journal, x. 1875; Phil. Mag., 1, 1875.

On the magnetic effect of convection currents: Preliminary statements: Sitzb.
Akad. Berlin, 1876; Phil. Mag., ii, 1876; this Journal, xii, 1876; Ann. Chim.
Phys., xii, 1877. Full paper: this Journal, xv, 1878. Note: Phil) Magi yu,
1879.

Research on the absolute unit of electrical resistance; this Journal, xv, 1878;
Electr. techn. Ztschr.. vi, 1885.

On electric absorption in crystals; Am. Journ. Math., i, 1878.

Preliminary notes on Mr. Hall’s recent discovery; Am. Journ. Math., ii, 1879;
Phil. Mag., ix, 1880.

On the mechanical equivalent of heat, with subsidiary researches on the varia-
tions of the mercury from the air-thermometer and on the variation of the specific
heat of water; Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. xv, 1880; published separately,
Boston, 1880; Prize essay of the Venetian Institute, 1881.

Electric absorption of crystals (with H. L. Nichols); Phil. Mag., xi, 1881.

Preliminary notice of results accomplished in the manufacture and the theory
of concave gratings for optical purposes; Phil. Mag., xiii, 1882; Johns Hopkins
Univ. Cire., 20, 1882.

Article on the “Screw”: Encycl. Brit., 1886.

Relative wave-lengths of the lines of the solar spectrum; this Journal, xxxiii,
1887; Phil. Mag., xxiii, 1887.

Table of standard wave-lengths; Johns Hopkins Univ. Cire., 73, 1889; Phil.
Mag., xxvii, 1889.

On the electro-magnetic effect of convection currents (with C. T. Hutchinson) ;
Phil, Mag., xxvii, 1889.

Gratings in theory and practice; Astr. and Astr.-Phys., xii, 1893; Phil. Mag.,
xxxv, 1893.

A new table of standard wave-lengths: Astr. aud Astr.-Phys., xii, 1893; Phil.
Mag., xxxvi, 1893; also Johns Hopkins Univ. Cire., 106, 1893.

On a table of standard wave-lengths of the spectral lines; Mem. of Amer.
Acad., xii, 1896.

Electrical measurements by alternating currents; this Journal, iv, 1897;
Phil. Mag., xlv, 1898.

Some new methods for the measurement of self-inductance, mutual inductance
and capacity (with T. D. Penniman); Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ., vol. xvii, 1898 ;
also this Journal, viii, 35, 1899.

Se a ae

Chemistry and Physics. 463

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. FRadio-active Lead.—It was recently mentioned in this
Journal (this vol., p. 235) that Hormann and Srrauss had
obtained, according to the usual analytical methods, from the
minerals pitchblende, bréggerite, uranium mica, and samarskite,
a radio-active lead sulphate which loses its activity after several
months, but regains it under the influence of cathode rays. These
investigators have now published a description of a continuation
of their work. In their previous article they mentioned the fact
that by the fractional crystallization of the lead chloride prepared
from the active sulphate a more soluble portion was obtained
which appeared to contain a new radio-active element, but it now
appears that while a substance with unusual chemical properties
may thus be obtained from pitchblende (but not from brégger-
ite), this supposed new element has no radio-active properties.
The authors believe, however, that there is another new element
in the more soluble fractions obtained from lead chloride, but
they admit that it approaches lead in its properties much more
closely than the other one, and now they are not certain that this
substance is the cause of the radio-activity. While the previous
article raised the hope that a definite radio-active element would
be obtained, the present article is disappointing in regard to the
matter. As far as the supposed new elements are concerned,
they would be interesting as such, even without possessing the
power to emit Becquerel’s rays; but so many mixtures have
heretofore been brought forward as elements that one is inclined
to be skeptical about such announcements.— Berichte, xxxiv, 907.

H. L. W.

2. The Zirconia of Huxenite from Brevig.—The discoveries of
new elements are usually rare occurrences in the.present period
of chemical development, but now, in addition to the supposed
new elements from pitchblende and broggerite that have been
mentioned in the preceding notice, an unknown element, or two,
from euxenite is announced from the same laboratory in Munich.
In extracting the small amount of lead from euxenite Hormann
and Pranpti treated the sulphuric acid residue with “basic”
ammonium tartrate and obtained in solution not only lead, but
titanium and zirconium. The latter possessed properties which
made the presence of an unknown oxide seem probable, and by a
series of operations an oxide was obtained which appeared to the
investigators to be practically free from all previously known
substances. It is distinguished from zirconia in being precipi-
tated by an excess of ammonium carbonate and in giving no tur-
meric reaction. The authors say that it gives no precipitate with
oxalic acid, ‘‘even when the mineral acid has been previously

464 Scientifie Intelligence.

neutralized with ammonia to the point of turbidity.” If they
always did this in applying the oxalic acid test, there is every
reason to suppose that their new oxide is largely thoria, for they
precipitated in the presence of. ammonium oxalate in separating
from the earths of the cerium and yttrium groups, and thorium
oxalate is well known to be soluble in ammonium salts. There
is a marked resemblance to thoria in the description of the prop-
erties and reactions of the earth, but it is evidently not pure
thoria, for the equivalent found, 44°4,is much too low for that
oxide. ‘To the substance the name “ Kuxenerde” is given, which
would probably correspond to euxenium for the metal. It may
be mentioned that these authors have found another unknown
substance in euxenite, which they think may be related to tanta-
lum, but has a more marked basic character.— Berichte, xxxiii,
1064. a We

3. The Action of Radium Rays upon Selenium.—EKuGENE
Buiocu has recently described some experiments upon the effect
of the rays emitted from radio-active barium carbonate upon the

electric conductivity of selenium. It has long been known that —

the action of light diminishes the resistance of this element, and
it has been shown also that the Rontgen rays have a similar
action. The experiments under consideration now show that
Becquerel’s rays produce the same effect, but apparently to a
slighter degree. The investigation was made with a sample of
barium carbonate which possessed an activity about 1000 times
that of ordinary uranium.— C. #., cxxii, 914. H. L. W.

4, The Reducing-power of Magnesium and Aluminum.—A
number of striking experiments, based upon the affinity of these
metals for oxygen, are described by A. Dusory. One of these
which seems to be novel, although extremely simple, consists in
placing moistened magnesium or aluminum powder upon a scori-
fier or porous plate, covering the mixture with dry magnesium
and igniting. As soon as the combustion reaches the moistened
part an exceedingly brilliant flame appears, which is due to the
reaction of magnesium with water-vapor. The magnesia that is
jormed is left in long filaments. Another interesting experiment
is the action of aluminum upon alumina. Four atoms of the
metal to one molecule of the oxide are mixed, and upon ignition
they react with vivid incandescence, forming, it is stated, the
oxide Al,O.— C. &., cxxxii, 826. H. L. W.

5. A Method of Determining Atomic Weights, Based upon
the Transparency of Substances to the X-Rays.—Soon after the
discovery of the Réntgen rays it was recognized that the trans-
parency of substances to them depended upon the atomic weights
of the elements contained in the substances. LL. BrENotst, who
has made a study of this matter, has now applied this behavior
to the determination of the atomic weight of indium. If this
metal is bivalent its atomic weight is 75°6, but if trivalent it is
113°4.. The higher valency is the more probable one. Using an
organic compound of indium and the metal itself, Benoist has

oF ,

Chemistry and Physics. 465

compared their behavior with that of arsenic, silver and cadmium
and their compounds and finds that the atomic weight of indium
is near that of silver (108), and not similar to that of arsenic (75).
This method supplies an interesting and novel means of confirm-
ing atomic weights.— C. #., cxxxii, 772. Buh Ww.

6. The Presence of Platinum upon an Egyptian Hieroglyphic
Inscription.—In examining a metallic specimen covered with
hieroglyphic characters, found at Thebes and probably belonging
to a period corresponding to the seventh century of our era, Ber-
THELOT has found a small thin piece of hammered metal used in
forming one of the characters, which, from its resistance to sol-
vents and the nature of the solution obtained, was evidently an
alloy of platinum with the closely related metals, such as is fre-
quently found native. It is Berthelot’s opinion that the Egyp-
tians must have distinguished the difference between this sub-
stance and silver if it was often encountered, but it remains for

future investigation to show whether they often used platinum or

not. He is not aware that platinum has ever been found in
Egypt or in other parts of Africa or in Arabia.—C. &#., xxxii,
732. H. L. W.

7. A Generalization from Trouton’s Law.—An empirical rela-
tion between heat of vaporization, measured at the normal boil-
ing point, and the absolute temperature of the boiling point of
substances, was observed by Trouton in 1844. This is expressed
by the formula,

: L
—__— K
a
and it. was found that K varies from 20 to 26.

In 1887 Le Chatelier observed that the dissociable metallo-
ammonia compounds yield for - values (27°8, 28°7, 29°1) which
are near the preceding; Q being the heat of fixation of the
ammonia gas, and T’ the absolute temperature at which the com-
pound has a tension of 760™™. Le Chatelier showed further that —

if one calculate ns for the following dissociable compounds,
Pd,H, CaCoO,, IrO,, C,N,, Ca(OH),, which disengage gases other
than ammonia, the values 23, 23°4, 24:3, 27°8 and 27°8 are
obtained, which are almost identical with the preceding. Le.
Chatelier drew the conclusion that the equation

Qa,
hare Sia
is a consequence of the laws of chemical equilibrium.

Recent investigations show that the higher values, in the neigh-
borhood of 24 to 26, furnished by Trouton’s relation, are given
by liquids that have condensed molecules, while the non-polymer-
ized, normal liquids give very constant values which are near 21

or 22. On the other hand, the quotient : gives a value that is

466 Scientific Intelligence.

quite constant, but higher, in the vicinity of 30 to 32. Since we
have then a value for dissociation that is decidedly higher than
that for vaporization, Le Chatelier’s law appears no longer to be
a generalization of Trouton’s, but merely an analogous law.

_ Having presented this matter as abstracted above, pE Forc-
AND advances the belief that Le Chatelier’s idea that the same
statement applies without exception to all phenomena of vapori-
zation, allotropic transformation and dissociation, ought to be
retained in science, and we should have

Lhe Qe

A ae T ya Weill eh
but that the statement of the bo and the value of L should be
slightly modified.

In Trouton’s formula, L is the heat of liquefaction of any gas;
in Le Chatelier’s, Q comprises three terms, L heat of liquefaction
of a gaseous molecule, 8 heat of solidification of this liquid moie-
cule, gy heat of combination of this solid molecule with a solid
body to form a solid compound without change of physical con-
dition, or, in other words, supplementary heat of solidification.

The two terms : and det
they become so, and the values of the two will be almost con-
stant at about 30,if we add in the first a term S representing the
heat of solidification. We have then for all bodies,

L+S L+S8S+4+¢

GP ae nc
where qg is always positive and T”’ always greater than T. The
general law may be expressed as follows: ‘In all physical or
chemical phenomena, the heat of solidification of any gas is pro-
portional to its temperature of vaporization under atmospheric
pressure.”— C. &., cxxxil, 879. H. L. W.

8. Die wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen der analytischen Chemie,
von W. OstwaLp. Dritte vermehrte Auflage. 8vo, pp. xii, 221.
Leipsic, 1901 (Wilhelm Engelmann).—The influence that this
book has exerted in causing the ionic theory to be accepted and
practically applied by chemists generally has been very great,
and the service that it has rendered to teachers and students of
analytical chemistry, in explaining many facts that were well
recognized but not understood, has been of the greatest impor-
tance. This third edition of the book in an enlarged and improved
form, appearing within seven years after the first issue, is heart-
ily welcomed. H. Tn We

9. Spectrum of Carbon Compounds.—In view of the possible
appearance of a new comet the paper of Professor A. SMirTHELLS
on the carbon spectra is of great interest. He discusses the spec-
tra of cyanogen, of carbon disulphide, and the Swan spectrum, and
points out the danger of ‘drawing conclusions from spectra
appearing in exhausted glass vessels which are due to contami-
nations from the constituents of the vessels.— Phil. Mag., April
1901, pp. 476-503. J.T.

are evidently not comparable, but

Chenistry and Physics. 467

10. Absorption of Gas in a Crookes Tube-—The anomalous
behavior of X-ray tubes has been the subject of many investiga-
tions, and it is generally supposed that gases are occluded by the
metallic terminals and by the glass tubes. In order to properly
exhaust a tube it is necessary to subject it for a long time to elec-
tric discharges and to external heat. Mr. R. 8S. Wittow has
investigated this absorption of gases and concludes from experi-
ment with electrodeless tubes that the absorption is largely due
to the character of the glass employed. Jena glass absorbs
hydrogen to only asmall amount: soda glass to a large amount.
The absorption is due to a chemical combination with the glass.
In general hydrogen is absorbed less than air or nitrogen.— Phil.
Mag., April 1901, pp. 503-517. | nga

11. Mechanical Movements of Wires produced by Electrical Dis-
charges which also make these Movements luminous.—W hen oscil-
lating discharges are sent over wires these become luminous under
certain conditions and apparently show stationary electric waves.
Various investigators have described this phenomenon and have
measured wave-lengths, which they have considered true wave-
lengths due to the capacity and self-induction of the circuit. O.
Viox, however, considers that these luminous effects are merely
mechanical vibrations due to the electric spark of a much lower
period than those which would arise from true electric oscilla-
tions, and that the nodes and ventral segments are rendered visi-
ble by a species of negative brush discharge along the vibrating
wires.—Ann. der Physik., No. 4, 1901, pp. 734-761. beau

12. The Band Spectrum of Oxidesof Aluminum and Nitrogen.
—Various authors have attributed the band spectrum observed
in the spectrum of aluminum between wave-lengths 5162°05 and
4470°63 to aluminum. G. Brernprt finds, however, that this band
spectrum disappears when the spectrum of aluminum is obtained
in hydrogen gas, and becomes very strong when oxygen is sub-
stituted for hydrogen. He therefore attributes this band spec-
trum to oxides of aluminum. He also gives a very complete
table of the wave-lengths of the constituents of the bands of
nitrogen.— Ann. der Physik., No. 4, 1901, pp. 788-793. 3. 7.

13. Hlectricité et Optique. La Lumiere et les Théories Llec-
trodynamiques, par H. Poincar&. Deuxiéme- édition, revue et
complétée par J. Bronprn et EH. Nicuntcksa. Pages x, 641.
Paris 1901 (Georges Carré et C. Naud).—The first half of this
remarkable book is nearly a repetition of the lectures given at
the Sorbonne in 1888 and 1890, except for the suppression of the
section relating to the experiments of Hertz, omitted because this
subject is treated in detail in the author’s work on Electric Oscil-
lations, and for the addition of a little more than one hundred
pages which extends the general discussion of electromagnetic
theories of bodies at rest by including those of Ampére and of
Weber. The latter half of the book, also divided into two parts,
contains the lectures of 1899. These are devoted to a compari-
son of the different theories relative to the electrodynamics of

Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourta SEriEs, Vou. XI, No. 66—Junz, 1901.

468 Scientific Intelligence.

bodies in movement and of which the principles are those of
Hertz, of Lorentz, and of Larmor.

Very interesting, as giving an insight into the intellectual atti-
tude of the author, and well worth quoting, are the following
paragraphs from his preface :—

*‘ Although none of these theories seems to me entirely satis-
factory, each of them contains without doubt a portion of truth
and a comparison may be instructive.” ... “Of all, that of
Lorentz appears to me to correspond most nearly with the facts.”

He adds that it is possible that the recent investigations of
Cremieu, should they be confirmed, may completely alter our
ideas concerning the electrodynamics of bodies in movement.

Doubtless the instructed student of electricity will turn with
the liveliest interest to Part Third of the book, which is given
to the discussion of the merits and defects of the latest theories
of electricity. It is quite impossible to give here even the barest
outline of a review which occupies nearly three hundred pages of
most acute criticism presented with almost unexampled clearness -
and. with a mastery ot analytical methods which few scholars will
be able to fully comprehend without strenuous effort. The
author’s exposition of the various theories which he is about to
submit to critical analysis is singularly lucid and satisfactory,
and it offers unusual temptation for a reviewer to give numerous
quotations, but selection from such a wealth of examples would
be as difficult as to do justice in any translation.

Part Four, consisting of a little more than fifty pages, is given
to a general discussion of points in electrical and optical theories
suggested by the recent work of Larmor. The method of this
part is somewhat different from that of the preceding portions
being more discursive and of an obviously less final form; but
there is a certain charm due to these very features which the
reader would not willingly miss.

As a result of a careful inspection of this work, we are impelled
to say that no book comparable with it as a source of intellectual
stimulus to the qualified student of physics or so full of sugges-
tiveness has appeared for a long time. Cx Ss, He

JER GEOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY.

1. United States Geological Survey, 21st Annual Report of the
Director; by Cuartes D. Watcortr. ‘Pp. 1-204, with 3 maps,
1 figure, 1900.—The total appropriations made for the fiscal year
1899-1900 for the work of the U. 8S. Geological Survey was
$834,240.89. The expenditure of this amount was distributed
over a very large field of investigations, carried on in all parts of
the country. The work accomplished during this year was, in
general, a continuation of that of previous years and with sub-
stantially the same organization. The Director calls especial
attention, in his report, to the following branches of the work,
viz: The survey of the Forest Reserves, the explorations in

Geology and Natural History. 469

Alaska, the hydrographic work, the reorganization of the Geologic
Branch, the division of Mines and Mining, the Insular surveys.

The reorganization of the Geological Branch of the Survey has
become necessary on account of the growth and complexity of
the work and the increased demands upon the director in admin-
istrating the whole bureau. The several branches of the geologic
work were placed in charge of specialists, who should supervise
the scientific investigations of their several divisions.

The following divisions were made and officers placed in charge :

Division of Areal Geology: Bailey Willis, Geologist in charge.

Division of Pleistocene Geology: T. C. Chamberlin, Geologist
in charge.

Division of Paleontology: T. W. Stanton, Paleontologist in
charge.

Division of Pre-Cambrian and Metamorphic Geology: C. R. Van
Hise, Geologist in charge.

‘Division of Mining and Mineral Resources: D. T. Day, Geologist
in charge.

Division of Economic Geology: 8S. F. Emmons, Geologist in

: charge of section of Metalliferous Ores : C. W. Hayes, Geol-
ogist in charge of section of non-Metalliferous Economic
Deposits, ete.

Division of Physical and Chemical Research: G. F. Becker,
Geologist in charge.

The authority of these chiefs of division is restricted to the
supervision of the scientific work, the administrative direction
remaining in the hands of the director. At the same time the
individual geologist is left free to make use of the facts observed
within his own field. ,

The Director explains at some length the relation of the
Government Survey to Mines and Mining, and urges the provi-
sion of means for more fully organizing and conducting a Divi-
sion of Mines and Mining. He says, p. 45: “The establishment
of a division of mines and mining within the survey would
broaden the scope of its work and admit of a more direct applica-
tion of the energies of the survey to the mining industry. Ina
general way such a division should be charged with the promo-
tion of the mining industry of the country as a whole, as far as
it can be done by a government organization, and in such way
as not to interfere with the work of state organizations on the
one hand or with the professional business of individuals on the
other.”

In response to a resolution passed by the Senate, the Director
submitted a report to the Secretary of the Interior on the present
condition of surveys in the islands now under the jurisdiction of
the United States ; together with recommendation of plans for
furthering the topographic and geological surveys in Porto Rico,
the Hawaiian Islands, the Philippines and Cuba.

The summary account of the detailed work of the Survey

470 Scientific Intelligence.

shows a most satisfactory continuation and progress of the work
of the survey in all its several departments.

At the close of the report is printed a biographic sketch, by
Arnold Hague, of Othniel Charles Marsh, whose recent death
interrupted the important investigations in vertebrate paleontol-
ogy which he had been carrying on for the Survey, for many
years. Ww.
2. The Physiography of Acadia; by Rerernatp A. Daty.
Bull. Museum Comp. Zool., vol. xxxvili; pp. 78-102, 11 plates.—
Acadian land forms are shown to consist primarily of two planes
of denudation which are essentially subaerial and referable to two
cycles of geographic development. The topographic history of
the region is believed by Dr. Daly to be closely similar to that
of New England and the Southern Appalachians. H. E. G.

3. Carte Géologique du. Massif du Mont Blane; par L.
Durarc et L. Mrazec. Comptoir Min. et Geol., Suisse, Genéve.—

This map is designed primarily to accompany the work of Duparc.

and Mrazec on Mount Blanc. The scale is 1/50,000, the relief is
very clearly shown, and the glaciers with their morainal materials
stand out almost asin a model. The map is a valuable addition
to a laboratory outfit. H. E. G.

4, The mineral constituents of dust and soot from various
sources.—A minute spectroscopic investigation has recently been
carried on by W. N. Hartiry and Hues Ramacs of samples of
dust and soot from various sources. These included, for example,
the solid matter which fell in a hail storm in April, 1897, at
Dublin; similar matter collected in March, 1896; pumice from
the Krakatoa eruption of 1883, etc. The examination was
extended to sooty matter deposited from the air on the outskirts
of Dublin in November, 1897; and also to soot and flue dust
obtained direct from gas works and iron furnaces.

The atmospheric dust from the clouds was found to be some-
what regular in composition—each specimen appearing to contain
the same proportions of iron, nickel, calcium, copper, potassium,
and sodium; the proportion of carbonaceous matter was small.

There was a very considerable difference between the dust from

sleet, snow, and hail suddenly precipitated, the difference being
in the proportion of. lead, which, in the dust from sleet, is much
larger than in the other specimens. The dust of November,
1897, which fell in a clear, calm night, was uniform in composi-
tion; it was magnetic, and its general similarity to meteorites
made it reasonably clear that the material was to be regarded as
of cosmic origin.

The examination of the spectra of specimens of volcanic dust
proved that the heavy metals were, without exception, in com-
paratively small proportions—lead and iron, for example—while
lime, magnesia, and the alkalies were the chief basic constituents.

Chimney soot from different sources was found to be charac-
terized by the small proportion of iron in most specimens and of
metals precipitated as hydroxides; its large proportion of lime

Geology and Natural History. 471

and the greater variability in the proportions of its different con-
stituents distinguished it from other kinds of dust collected from
the clouds or in the open air. The flwe dust was found to contain,
conspicuously, lead, silver and copper; also considerable quanti-
ties relatively of nickel and manganese; further, rubidium, gal-
lium, indium, and thallium. ‘The common presence of nickel
shows that when found in dust from the clouds it is not proof of
a source other than terrestrial. ‘The authors call attention to the
remarkably wide distribution of gallium. It occurs in all alumin-
ous minerals, in many iron ores and in atmospheric and flue dust
from various sources; the species bauxite contains it in larger
proportion than any other mineral.—Proc. Roy. Soc., Feb. 21,
1901.

5. Studies in Fossil Botany ; by DuNkinFIELD HENRy Scorr.
Honorary Keeper of the Jodrell Laboratory, Royal Gardens, Kew,
533 pp., 12mo, with double page frontispiece and 152 illustrations
in text. London, 1900.—In the fourteen lectures constituting
Professor Scott’s studies the statement is abundantly sustained
that; “ At the present day happily fossil botany is an eminently
progressive branch of science.” These lectures are not offered as
a text, but rather as a general discussion of salient and funda-
mental facts with a taxonomic bearing. They are limited to the
Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms, and even in the case of these
the forms from the older formations, wHence the beginnings of
lines of descent are naturally tobe expected, receive the more
extended treatment, the object being, in the words of Count
Solms-Laubach,—‘‘ to complete the natural system.”

This work is admirably suited to the general reader as well as
the student. No writer on the subject excels Professor Scott in

an easy clearness, while a particular excellence rests in his ability
to state simply and give with precision the work of his confreres.
The concluding paragraph finds a suitable place here :—‘‘ Only

twelve years ago it was said that fossil botany had contributed

little to our knowledge of the affinities of plants. Whether true
or not at the time it was made, such a statement would not hold
good now. Our whole conception of two at least of the great
divisions of the vegetablle kingdom—the Pteridophyta and the
Gymnosperms—and of their mutual relations, is already pro-
foundly influenced by the study of the ancient forms. Far
greater results may be confidently expected from further research,
but, by the work already accomplished, fossil botany has borne
no small part in the advancement of our knowledge of the affini-
ties of plants.” This work is most earnestly recommended to the
attention of all interested in this subject. G. R. W.

6. Hlora of Western Middle California; by Wiis Linn
Jepson, Ph.D. Pp. 625, 8vo. Encina Ieuklialeade Co., Berke-
ley, Calif., £3901. Prof. Jepson’s well-conceived and carefully
executed flora is a welcome addition to the literature of American
botany. It is the outcome of some ten years’ intensive study of
the flora of central California, dufing which the author has passed

=

472 Scientefie Lntelligence.

repeatedly from close field observations to yet more detailed
comparisons in the herbarium—an alternation of method by
which alone a good manual can be made. Prof. Jepson has also
taken pains to consult hundreds of types in the larger eastern
herbaria, thereby adding much to the accuracy and authority of
his work. The descriptions are full without such length as to
obscure differential characteristics. Their greatest merit, how-
ever, is that they are based upon personal familiarity with the
plants themselves, and the element of compilation, which cannot
be entirely excluded from any such work, is here reduced to a
minimum. There are also excellent and very complete keys
which, to judge from cursory examination, are much clearer than

in any work previously dealing with the flora of California. The

common names assigned are in many cases unfamiliar at least to
the Easterner and add a feature of interest from their originality
and imaginative character. Owl’s Clover (Orthocarpus), Pop-
corn Flower (Plagiobotrys), Inside-out Flower (Vancouveria),
Mule Fat (Baccharis), Hill Man Root (Echinocystis), and Milk-
maids (Dentaria), are examples.

In the difficult matter of scientific nomenclature Prof. Jepson
has been eclectic, adopting, on the whole, a course by which he
has considerately avoided the making of new combinations or
adding to the existing confusion. In the arrangement of the
manual, the now generally approved sequence has been followed,
which is determined primarily by the degree of connation, adna-
tion, and irregularity of the floral parts. In this arrangement,
however, it seems to us that the anthor is in error in placing in
the ascending scale the Cichorieze before the Asteroidez and
other groups of the Composite in which zygomorphy is much less

pronounced. While it is easy to see how the strougly zygomor- ’

phic corollas of the dandelion, for instance, have resulted from
the gradual modification of the tubular actinomorphie corolla,
the reverse development seems highly improbable.

In no point does Prof. Jepson’s work commend itself more
highly than in the excellent judgment which he shows in the
matter of specified limits and in conserving intact certain large
and natural genera like Oenothera, Mimulus, etc., recently sub-
jected to a technical splitting as unpractical as it is artificial.

B. tusks
/ % Grand Rapids Flora; by Emma J. Cotx. Pp. 17, royal
8vo, with map. Grand Rapids, Mich., 1891.—Miss Cole’s recently
issued catalogue of the flowering plants and ferns of Grand
Rapids records 1290 species growing within an area 24 miles
square. “ In the sequence of families Engler & Prantl’s great work
has been followed. In this respect, as in other matters, the cata-
logue exhibits advanced methods and possesses an up-to-date
character. It is evident that no small care has been given to
recent segregations of species since the results of such work are
recorded with considerable discrimination. The scientific nomen-
clature is wisely conservative, without entire adherence to any

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 473

particular work. Considerable synonymy is given and also such
vernacular names as are sanctioned by usage. Habitats, stations,
frequency, and dates of flowering are concisely stated, and alto-
gether the work is a model of its kind. The area covered pre-
sents considerable diversity and the flora is accordingly rather
rich. It presents, as we should expect from its latitude and
geological formation, an analogy to that of middle New England.
There is, however, a more southern strain in the vegetation, as
evinced by the presence of such plants as Gymnocladus, Asimina,
Jeffersonia, Cercis, etc., several of which must here approach
their northern limit. There is, of course, also a prairie element,
shown in such genera as Lepachys, Heliopsis, Amorpha, etc., not
found in New England. Several species are lacking in the Flora
which may be sought in the region with considerable likelihood of
success, as for instance, Taraxacum erythrospermum, Goodyera
tesselata, Helianthemum majus, and Camelina microcarpa.
SS Oe 3

8. The Variations of a newly-arisen Species of Medusa; by 4
ALFRED GoLpsBorouGH Mayer. Pp. 27, with two plates. The
Macmillan Co. New York, 1901.—This memoir forms the first
number of volume I of the Science Bulletins of the Museum of
the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences.

IJ. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian
Institution, volume 1; byS. P. Laneuery, Director, aided by C. G.
Axspot. Large 4to; pp. 266, with 32 plates. Washington, 1901.
—The publication of the first volume of the Annals of the Astro-
physical Observatory at Washington is an event of no small
importance, since it records the culmination of the investigations
that have been carried on for so many years by Professor Lang-
ley and under his direction, in the study of the invisible infra-red
solar spectrum. This work may be said to have had its begin-
ning twenty years ago in connection with the author’s study of
the solar radiation with the bolometer—then a new instrument—
on the summit of Mt. Whitney in California, at an altitude of
12,000 feet. Since 1890, observations have been carried on at
Washington in the modest astrophysical observatory under the
direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution at Wash-
ington. Since January, 1896, Mr. C. G. Abbot has been the Aid
Acting in Charge, and by him many of the recent observations
have been made.

Any extended review of this remarkable volume is made unne-
cessary here from the fact that a discussion of the results it contains
is given by Professor Langley as the leading article of the pres-
ent number. It will certainly be minutely studied, and with the
greatest interest by all those concerned in this important depart-
ment; its development of the subject, whether as regards descrip-
tion of instruments employed and methods of observation, dis-
cussion of measurements obtained, and the graphical presenta-
tion of the results, leaves nothing to be desired.

474 Screntifie Intelligence.

2. Report of the U. S. National Museum. Pp. xv,598. Wash-
ington, 1901. (Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution, showing the operations, expenditures,
and condition of the institution for the year ending June 30,
1899.)—The report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion tor the year ending June 30th, 1899, was announced in the
last number, p. 400. We have now the accompanying report of
the U. 8. National Museum giving the account of additions to
the museum and other related points for the same period, by
the Assistant Secretary, Mr. Richard Rathbun; to this are added
also the reports of the Head Curators. Of the accompanying
papers, forming Part II, the most extensive (pp. 153-483) is that
by Mr. George P. Merrill, entitled a Guide to the Collections in
the Section of Applied Geology in the National Museum ; the
Non-metallic Minerals. This paper, also published as a separate
volume, contains much more that is interesting and of general
value than might be anticipated from its title, since the author
has brought together a large amount of material, much of which
is new, particularly in regard to the occurrence of species
described. Accompanying these descriptions are numerous plates
showing quarry exposures, specimens of striking character, and
other similar points. _ Two other interesting papers in the volume
are by O. T. Mason on ethnological subjects.

3. The Journal of Hygiene. Edited by Groree H. F. Nurrary
in conjunction with Joan 8S. Hatpane, and Artaur NEWSHOLME.
Vol. i, No. 1, pp. 152. (University Press, Cambridge ; price five
shillings, )\—This new journal, to be published quarterly in vol-
umes of about 500 pages, has been established to fill the obvious
need of an English publication containing original contributions
on the subject of hygiene. It will embrace papers on all the
different scientific lines which converge upon this department,
and will also include discussions of administrative and practical
questions. Of the papers contained in this number may be men-

tioned the following - two studies of the Anopheles and its distri-

-bution in England, in relation to malaria; another on pathogenic
microbes in milk; on the artificial modifications of toxine with
special reference to immunity ; on the utility of isolated hos-
pitals in the case of scarlet fever.

4. Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College.
Recent publications are the following:

Vol. XLV. A Photometric Durchmusterung, including all stars
of the magnitude 7°5 and brighter, north of declination —40°,
observed with the meridian photometer during the year 1895— 98;
by Epwarp ©. Picxerine, Director. of the Observatory. Pp. re
330. 1901.

Volume XLI, No. 6. On the Forms and Images in Stellar
Photography; by Epwarp 8. Kine. Pp. 153-187, with Plate vi.

a ee

INDEX TO VOLUME XI.

A

Academy of Sciences, National,meet-
ing at Washington, 400.

Acadia, Physiography of, Daly, 470.

Adams, E. P., circular magnetiza-
tion and magnetic permeability,175.

Air, spectrum of volatile gases in,
Liveing and Dewar, 154; presence
of hydrogen in, Rayleigh, 165.

Albuquerque Sheet, geology, Herrick
and Johnson, 171.

American Museum of Natural His-
tory, gift to, 174.

Astronomical Observatory, Harvard
University, annals 173, 474.

Astrophysical Observatory at Wash-
ington, work of, Abbot, 401; Lang-
ley, 403, 473.

Atmospheric air, see Air.

— radiation, Very on, Hallock, 2380.

Australia, Western, Geol. Survey,396.

B

Bailey, L. H., Elementary Botany,
200.

Barus, C., apparent hysteresis in tor-
sional magnetostriction, 97; veloc-
ity of the ionized phosphorus
emanation, 237; phosphorus ema-
nation in spherical condensers, 310.

Becquerel rays, 395.

— See radio-active.

BOTANY.

African plants collected by Dr.
Welwitsch, Hiern, 249.

Coffee plant, diseases and enemies,
Delacroix, 92.

Cyperaceze, studies in, xv, Holm,
205.

EKrigenia bulbosa, Holm, 63.

Flora of California, Jepson, 471.

— of Cheshire, Moore, 398.

— of Grand Rapids, Mich., Cole,
472.

— of Vermont, Brainerd, Jones and
Eggleston, 249.

Oedogoniacez, Hirn, 98.

Plant Life and Structure, Dennert,
250.

Platydorina, Kofoid, 94. __

Sclerotiniae, Woronin, 94.

Spermatophyta of North Dakota,
Bolley and Waldron, 398.

Umbelliferze, No. American, Coul-
ter and Rose, 247.

Cc

Canada, Geological Survey, 402;
general index, 170.
— minerals of, Hoffmann, 149.
Carbon compounds, spectrum, Smi-
thells, 466.
Chemical Analysis, Qualitative, Sel-
lers, 164.

Bell, W. T., concretions of Ottawa | Chemistry, Analytical, Classen, 319 ;

_ Co., Kansas, 315.
Bergen, J. Y., Foundations of Bot-
any, 248.

Bermudas, fauna of, papers on, 326,
300.

Bigelow, F. H., magnetic theory of
the Solar Corona, 253.

Birds, anatomy of, Hacker, 251.

Boston Basin, geology of, Crosby,324.

Botany, elementary, Bailey, 250.

— Foundations of, Bergen, 248.

— Studies in Fossil, Scott, 471.

Ostwald, 466.
— Introduction to Modern Scien-
tific, Lassar-Cohn, 319.

CHEMISTRY.

Acetylene, combustion in air with
oxygen, Bourgerel, 87.

Alcohol, action on metals, Malmé-
jac, 394.

Aluminum oxides, spectrum, 467.

Ammonium amalgam, Coehn, 163.

— bromide, Scott, 317.

* This Index contains the general heads, BOTANY, CHEMISTRY (incl. chem. physics), GEOLOGY,
MINERALS, OBITUARY, RocKs, and under each the titles of Articles referring thereto are
mentioned,

476

CHEMISTRY.

Argon and its companions, Ramsay
and Travers, 166.

Atomic weights, method of deter-
mining, Benoist, 464.

Cesium-antimonious fluorides,
Wells and Metzger, 4951.

Carbon compounds, spectrum, 466.

— non-existence of trivalent, Nor-
ris, 236.

Cerium, Drossbach, 236.

Chemical reactions, velocity of,
Duane, 349.

Chlorine, preparation from sodium
chlorate, Graebe, 392.

— heptoxide, Michael and Conn,
285.

Chromium in acids, phenomena
connected with solution of, Ost-
wald, 84.

Crystals, method for obtaining,
Wroblewski, 236; Riimpler, 318.

Diethyl peroxide, Baeyer and Vil-
liger, 162.

Gallium in the sun, Hartley and
Ramage, 323.

Gases in air, Liveing and Dewar,154.

— combustion of, Tantar, 86, 317.

Gold, diffusion in solid lead, Rob-
erts-Austin, 236.

Helium, 166, 154.

Hydrate of sulphuryl chloride,
Baeyer and Viiliger, 398.

Hydrogen, boiling point of, Dewar,
291; in air, Rayleigh, 165.

— peroxide, action upon silver
oxide, Baeyer and Villiger, 393.

— telluride, Ernyei, 163.

Krypton, Ladenbure and Kruegel,
85, 166.

Lead, radio-active,
Strauss, 235, 463.

Magnesium and aluminum, Duboin,
464,

Methane elimination in the atmos-

_ phere, Urbain, 318.

Neon, properties, 154, 166.

Ozone, molecular weight,
burg, 391.

Phosphorus, emanation from, Bar-

Hofmann and

Laden-

us, 237 ; in spherical condensers,
310

Platinum, loss of weight when
heated, 164.

— presence upon an Egyptian in-
scription, 465.

Potassium and sodium _ sulphocy-
anides, color when heated, Giles,
318.

Radium rays, action upon selenium,
Bloch, 464.

INDEX.

%

Radium rays, physiological action,
Walkhoff, 235.

Sulphur hexafluoride, etc.,
and Lebeau, 391.

Tobacco, new alkaloids in, Pictet
and Rotschy, 392.

Trouton’s law, generalization from,
465.

Xenon, properties, 166.

Zirconia of euxenite, Hofmann and
Prandtl, 463.

Cilley, F. H., theory of elasticity, 269.

Classen, A., Analytical Chemistry,
319.

Clayton, H. H., eclipse cyclone, 321.

Conductivities of double salts, Lind-
say, 164.

Connecticut Academy of Sciences,
330.

Copper and Zinc, thermo-chemistry of
alloys of, Baker, 237.

Corona, Solar, theory, Bigelow, 253.

Cosmogony, theories of, O. Fisher,
414.

Crook, Z., yoke with intercepted
magnetic circuit, for measuring
hysteresis, 365.

Crystals, method of obtaining, Rim-
pler, 318 ; Wroblewski, 286.

Moissan

Cycads, American fossil, Wieland,
423.
D
Davison, C., velocity of seismic
waves, 95.

Day, A. L., melting point of gold,
145; expansion of metals at high
temperatures, BYES

Derby, O. A., occurrence of topaz,
Ouro Preto, Brazil, 20.

Deserts, formation of, Walther, 326.

Dewar, J., spectrum of the volatile
gases of atmospheric air, 154; boil-
ing point of hydrogen, 291. _-

Douglass, E., new species of Mery-
cocheerus in Montana, 73.

Duane, W., velocity of chemical re-
actions, 349.

E
Earth, theories of origin, Fisher, 414.

Earthquake waves in the ocean, 99. -

Eclipse cyclone, Clayton, 321. .

Elasticity, theory of, Cilley, 269.

Electric charge, effect of magnetic
field upon, Cremieu, 87.

— conductivity produced in gases,
Townsend, 238; of double salts,
Lindsay. 164.

— convection, Cremieu, 87, 321.

De -<y a a are tenn

INDEX. | ATT

Electric discharge, mechanical move-
ments of wires, produced by, Viol,
467.

— oscillations in charging conden-
sers, Sundell and Tallquist, 238.

— waves, metallic reflection, Lind-
man, 394.

Electricity effect on bacteria, Mac-
fadyen, 320.

Electricity and Optics, Poincaré, 467.

Electron theory of metals, Drude, 88. |

Ether, possible magnetic effect of
earth on, Rollins, 322.

F

Farrington, O. C., metallic veins of |
the Farmington meteorite, 60. |

Fauna of the Bermudas, papers relat-
tng to, 326.

Fisher, O., theories of cosmogony, |
414; |

Flora of West Middle California,
Jepson, 471.

Florida, Tertiary fauna of, Dall, 170. |

Fossil, see GEOLOGY.

G |

Gas in a Crookes tube, absorption,
' Willow, 467.
Gases, present in air, 154, 165, 166. |

Geikie, A., Founders of Geology, 326.

GEOLOGICAL REPORTS.

Canada, 402; general index, Dow- |
ling, 170.

Great Britain, 252, 402.

Kansas, University Survey, 324.

Maryland, 240.

Michigan, vol. vii, pt. III., 241.
Minnesota, vol. v, 88; 24th Annual
Report, 242.
United States, 240, 395 ; 21st Annual

report, Walcott, 468.
Western Australia, Maitland, 396.
Geologisches Centralblatt, Keil-
hack, 248.

GEOLOGY.

Albuquerque Sheet, Herrick and
Johnson, 171.

Amphicyon, new species, Wort-
man, 200.

Boston Basin, geology, Crosby, 324.

Cambrian fossils, new from Cape
Breton, Matthew, 396.

Concretions from clays of Connec-
ticut Valley, Sheldon, 397.

— of Ottawa County, Kansas, 315.

Cosmogony, rival theories, Fisher,
414.

Creosaurus, Williston, 111.

ey as American fossil, Wieland,
28.

Deserts, law of the formation of,
Walther, 326.
Kocene and lower Oligocene coral
faunas of U. 8., Vaughan, 395.
— Mammalia in the Marsh collec-
tion, Wortmann, 333, 437.

Fossil Botany, Studies in, Scott,
471.

Gabbroid rocks of Minnesota,
Winchell, 89, 397.

Glaciers, periodic variations, Forel, .
168

Ground-Moraine, Orange River. So.
Africa, Rogers and Schwarz, 325.

Indian Territory, geology, etc.,
Gould, 185.
Limestone conglomerate in the lead
region of Missouri, Nason, 396,
Marble, flow of under pressure,
Adams and Nicolson, 397.

Merycocherus in Montana, Doug-
lass, 73.

Mesozoic Fossils, vol. i, pt. IV.,
Whiteaves, 171.

Metasomatic processes in fissure
veins, Lindgren, 243.

Ohio Coal-measures, Prosser, 191.

Pleistocene geology of the Sierra
Nevada, Turner, 242.

Tertiary fauna of Florida, Dall, 170.

— springs of West. Kansas and
Oklahoma, Gould, 268.

Texas, geolog. papers from 1886-
1896, Simonds, 170.

— region, physical geography, Hill,
90.

Geology, Founders of, Geikie, 326.
Glaciers, see GEOLOGY.
Gold, melting point of; Holborn and

Day, 145.

Goode, George Brown, Memorial, 401.
Gould, C. N., geology of Indian Ter-

ritory, etc., 185; Tértiary Springs of
West. Kansas and Oklahoma, 263.

H

Hageman, S. A., a just intonation

piano, 224.

Hallock, W., Very on atmospheric

radiation, 230.

Harvard Astronomical Observatory,

publications, 173, 474.

Hill, R. T., physical geography of

the Texas region, 90.

Hoffman, G. C., new minerals in

Canada, 149.

478

Holborn, L., melting point of gold,
145; expansion of metals at high
temperatures, 374

Holm, T., Erigenia bulbosa, 63 ; stud-
ies in the Cyperacez, xv, 200.

Hydrogen, boiling point, Dewar, 291 ;
light transparency of, Schumann,
394; present in air, Rayleigh, 160.

Hygiene, Journal of, English, 474.

Hysteresis, apparent, in torsional
magnetostriction, Barus, 97.

— measurement of, Crook, 365.

I

Indian Territory, etc,, geology, Gould,
185.

Indian village, old, Udden, 95.

Induction, unipolar, Lecher, 87;
Hagenbach, 320.

Ions, producing conductivity, 238.

Italy, volcanoes of central, Sabatini,
sly

J

Jepson, W.L., Flora of West Middle
California, 471.

K

Kansas, University geological survey,
a24,
Knight, N., Iowa dolomites, 244.

We

Langley, S. P., the new spectrum,
408; annals of Astrophysical Ob-
servatory, 473.

Lassar-Cohn, introduction to Mod-
ern Scientific Chemistry, 319.

Liveing, S. D., spectrum of the more
volatile gases of atmospheric air, 154.

M

Magnetic effect of the earth on the
ether, attempt to show, Rollins, 322.

— field, effect on discharges through
a gas, Willow, 288.

Magnetization, circular, and mag-
netic permeability, Trowbridge and
Adams, 175.

Magnetostriction, Barus, 97.

Maryland Geological Survey, Clark,
240.

Matthew, G. F., new Cambrian fos-
sils from Cape Breton, 396.

Mechanics, Slate, 174.

Metals, electron theory of, Drude, 88.

— expansion at high temperatures,
Holborn and Day, 374,

INDEX.

Meteorite, Farmington, Kansas,
metallic veins, Farrington, 60.

Methane, elimination in the atmos-
phere, Urbain, 318.

Metzger, F. J., caesium-antimonius
fluorides, 451.

Michigan Geol. Survey, vol. vii, pt.
TIT, Lane, 241.

Microbes et Distillerie, Lévy, 251.

Mineral constituents of dust and
soot, Hartley and Ramage, 470.

Mineralogy, Rutley, 92.

MINERALS.

Anorthite crystals, New Jersey, 369.

Badenite, Roumania, 91. Brosten-
ite, Roumania, 92.

Corundum, N. Carolina, Lewis, 92.

Danalite, Canada, 151.

Feldspar crystals, Colorado, 371.

Iron wolframite, South Dakota, 372.

Lepidolite, Quebec, 149. Ledoux-
ite, 457.

Mohawkite, 457.

Newberyite, Yukon district, 149.

Scheelite pseudomorphs, Connecti-
cut, 378. Schorlomite, British
Columbia, 150. Spodumene, Can-

ada, 152. Struvite, Yukon dis-
trict, 149.
Thulite, Maryland, 171. Topaz,

Brazil, 25.

Uranophane, Quebec, 152.
Wolframite, iron, So. Dakota, 372.
Zoisite, Maryland, 171.

Minerals of the Argentine Republic,
Bodenbender, 246.

— and Rocks, Textbook of, Tillman,
246.

Minnesota, Geol. Survey, 88; 242.

— study of gabbroid rocks, Wia-
chell, 89, 397.

N

Nason, F. L., limestone conglomer-

ate in the lead region of Missouri,

396.
Navigation, Sub-Marine, Gaget, 402.
Norway, Official Publication of the
. Paris Exhibition, 174.

O

OBITUARY—
Agardh, J. C., 382.
Chatin, A., 382.
Dawson, G. M., 382.
Fitzgerald, George F,, 402.
Hermite, C., 382.
Litken, C. F., 402. %
Rowland, Henry A., 402.

igs tris cad ting eeidervenicanensy le ee ee ee

INDEX.

Ohio State University Naturalist, 252.
Ontario, minerals of, Miller, 246.
Ores, deposition of, Van Hise, 90;
Lindgren, 248.
Ostwald, W., Analytical Chemistry,
~ 466.
Ostwald’s Klassiker
Wissenschaften, 202.

der exakten

P

Penfield, S. L., stereographic pro-
jection, and its possibilities, 1, 119.

Perseus, new star in, Anderson, 399.

Piano, a just intonation, Hagemann,
224. :

Phasenlehre, Roozeboom, 165.

Phosphorus emanation, velocity of
the ionized, Barus, 287; action in
spherical condensers, 310.

Photographic records, preservation
of, Lockyer, 321.

Physical data, compilation of, 239,

Physics, Problems in, Snyder and
Palmer, 239.

Physiology of the Brain, Loeb, 251..

— Experimental, Dubois and Cou-
vreur, 300, |

Poincaré, H., EHlectricité et Optique,
467.

Projection, stereographic, Penfield,

de td i

Prosser, C. S., names of formations

of Ohio Coal-measures, 191.
R

Radiation law of dark bodies,
Paschen, 320.

Radio-active lead, 235, 463; barium
carbonate, 464.

Reid, H. F., obituary notice of H.
A. Rowland, 459.

Richards, J. W., ‘‘ Mohawkite” and
Ledouxite, 457.

Rollins, W., attempt to show the

magnetic effect of the earth on the
ether, 822.

ROCKS.

Charnockite series in Peninsular
India, Holland, 89.

Corundum-bearing,
Lewis, 92.

Dolomites, Iowa, Knight, 244.

Eruptive, about Ménerville, Algiers,
Duparce, Pearce and Ritter, 89.

Gabbroid, of Minnesota, Winchell,
89, 397.

N. Carolina,

479

Glaucophane schists, chemical study,
Washington, 35.
Marble, flow under pressure, Adams
and Nicolson, 397. :
Rontgen rays, measured by means of
selenium, Himstedt, 395.
— and Becquerel rays, effect on the
eye, Himstedt and Nagel, 395. ,
Roumania, minerals, Poni, 91.
Rowland, H. A., obituary notice,
Reid, 459.
Rutley, F., mineralogy, 92.

Ss

Schimper, microscopic investigation
of foods, 96.
ee D. H., Studies in Fossil Botany,
iy
Scripture, E. W., Yale Psychological
che ea? 168; nature of vowels,
02.
Seismic waves in the ocean, velocity,
Davison, 95.
Sellers, Chemical Analysis, 164.
Sine currents, excitation and measure
of, Wien, 34.
Slate, F., Mechanics, 174.
Smithsonian Institution, report, 400,
473, 474.
Soils, field operations of the division
of, Whitney, 91.

Solar Corona, magnetic theory, Bige-
low, 253.

Sound, transmission through porous
material, Tufts, 357.

Spectrum, the new, Langley, 408.

— of aluminum and nitrogen oxides,
467; of carbon compounds, 466.
Standardizing Bureau, national, 382.

Star, Nova Persei, Anderson, 399.
Stereographic projection, Penfield,
i Adios

Sun, see Solar.

ac

Telegraphone, Poulsen, 166.
Telegraphy, wireless, Slaby and
Arco, 165. .
Texas, geology of, from 1886-1896,

Simonds, 170.

Tillman, S. E., Textbook of Min-
erals and Rocks, 246.

Trancontinental triangulation,
Schott, 172.

Trowbridge, J., circular magnetiza-
tion and magnetic permeability,
175.

Tufts, F. L., transmission of sound
through porous material, 357.

480 INDEX.

U Warren, C. H., mineralogical notes, _
Udden, old Indian village, 95. ote
Unipolar induction, Lecker,
Hagenback, 320.
United States Coast Survey, 401.
— Geological Survey, Walcott, 240, Wrohnelt cater rupter, 88. -

87; Washington, H. S., chemical study —
of glaucophane schists, 35
Webster’s International Dictionary,
BOL.

395, 468. iv
— National Museum Report, 474. eae ae ee ) ee 7
a 9 / S

Wieland, G. R., American ae ,

Vv cycads, 423. 4

Williston, S. W., Dinosaurian eons
Van Hise, C. R., deposition of ores, Creosaurus, 111.
90. Wortman, J. L., new American
Veins, formation of eseure Lind-| species of Amphicyon, 200; Eocene
gren, 243. Mammalia in the Marsh collection,
Velocity of seismic waves, Davison, 300, 437.

95.

Very, atmospheric radiation, 230.

Volcanoes of central Italy, Sabatini, rs
rate le Psychol 1 Laborat
Vowels, nature of, Scripture, 302. Tee rect clogica ee a feel
W Ze
Walther, J., das Gesetz der Wiisten- | Zoological results on material from
bildung, 826. Western Pacific, Willey, 330.

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New Collections of Rocks and Thin Sections. —

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_ types of rocks which I was fortunate enough to collect during the
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(Such rocks as Monchiquite, Tinguaite, Leucitsyenite, Gautéite, Boro- —

lanite, Ijolithe, Jacupirangite, etc., etc.)

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Dr. H. Rosenbusch’s book, ‘‘ Elemente der Petrographie,”’ and contains
only rocks and sections of the crystalline schists and sedimentary rocks,
thus forming a

Supplement to the collection of 250 Specimens.

Price of collection A, 30 specimens, size 8% : 11 cm.=-~.-__---- 13.50
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. gonietees of Minerals, Fossils, Meteorites purchased oe cash: or
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RHENISH MINERAL OFFICE,

BONN-ON- RHINE, GERMANY.

3
q

sins ila saleieasgal ee eee

ibrarian U. S. Nat. Museum.

THE

m= AMERICAN
| JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,

Epitor: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

PROFESSORS Gio] Li, GOODALE; JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
W.G. FARLOW anp WM.M. DAVIS, or CAMBRIDGE,

_ Proressors A. as VERRILL, HENRY S. WILLIAMS, anp
jeg te PIRSSON, oF New Haven,

Pearson GEORGE F. BARKER, oF PHILADELPHIA,
_ Proressor H. A. ROWLAND, OF BALTIMORE,
‘Mr. J. S. DILLER, or Wasutncrton.

4

FOURTH SERIES.
VOL. XI—[WHOLE NUMBER, CuXI]
No. 61.—JANUARY, 190.

WITH PLATE I.

“NEW HAVEN, CON NECTICUT.
£9 OL

| THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET. | 9

©

Epekly.: mie dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to oe
s of count ries in 1 the, Postal Union. Remittances should
regist red letters, or bans, checks, — As

POLISHED SPECIMENS |

Sodalite: fine Rose Quartz, Opalized Wood, Amazon Stone, tre
eh, cent Green Opal, Variscite, Turquois, Chrysoprase, — Labrador
-. Queensland Precious Opal in the rock, White Cliffs (N.S. W a Preci

. Opal banded, Rutilated Quartz, Banded Malachite and Az ite, :
.. thite, Australian Malachite, Moss Agate, Agates various, \ imsitey: |.
ete., etc., at 50c. to $8.00 each. A few wonderfully fine Opals at $ 00° Ae
‘bay GO $15. 00 each, including some desirable cut stones. : Boseual ee ; roa nh

' >

similar prices.

MINERAL COLLECTIONS

Ranging from 75c. to $9.10 and upwards.’ Handsome qaarere oak — nee
cases with lifting trays, or the larger and more commodious drawer
cabinets are included,—not only to make a better display, but to. avoid _
confusion and mistakes. Careful preparation, ‘combined | with the.
“standard” quality of our educational material, have established a
merited reputation for our ie ia, to sustain ve no trouble | or
expense is spared. j i

POLYADELPHITE

=

ure puifeet: and development Bioueet out the clear cut faepen ae i
4 in fine contrast to the cream-colored Calcite. SRDS ae by. 3r er cee
by 4" and larger, 50c. to $4.00. ‘ Poste
Jeffersonite, Hornblende, Apatite, Tourmaline, the Fine! ores. ae ;
associations are all well displayed. Leucophoenicite, Nasonite, Hardy :
stonite and Hancockite. One specimen of Glaucochroite, $25. sree

it’s worth every cent of it! Two or three others, $1.00 to $6. oe re

-N ICCOLITE | Bi :
Interesting from a new locality—Tasmania. The find closely |
bles the ore from Germany, but shows associations to better
50c. to $3.00. : OT Ae

Et Ge Gorge kes MINERAL

FORMERLY DR. A. E. FOOTE,

WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager.
EsTaBLISHED 1876.

PHILADELPHIA,
1317 Arch Street. .

i Anica ea anime Min,

“ai

N NeW SPECIES FROM GREENLAND.

_ None of them ever before offered for els in America.

Also in the same consignment 5 -Polylithionite, 29 Steen-
strupite. These minerals are now in the Custom House
and will doubtless be on sale about January Ist. Their
value is in the neighborhood of $500.

SCANDINAVIAN MINERALS.

Just Arrived. An unusually good lot of Scandinavian
minerals including Braunite «led, Homilite, Pyrochroitte,
Knopite, Native Lead, Linnaeite. Gadolinite als, Cobaltite
als.

a Pp ‘POLISHED SECTIONS OF QUARTZ ENCLOSING TOUR-
is MALINE.

+. We haye cut a number of remarkably attractive sections from crystals of the
ites: Tourmaline-Quartz. at right angles to the vertical axis. Hach section is
~ polished on both sides and shows many tufts of Tourmaline needles; some of them
_ also show beautiful smoky phantoms, 50c. to $1.50.

Lay MATRIX TURQUOIS SPECIMENS.

A small lot of very choice matrix specimens of rich-blue Turquois, also frag-
_ ments suitable for cutting into gems. 10c. to $2.50.

- -‘ SUTTROP MILKY QUARTZ Stem nee a

800 mmeommonly fine and large crystals, 5c. to 35c.

FLUORITE OCTAHEDRONS.

$3 The recent work done at our Westmoreland, N. H. Fluorite Mine has enabled
us to secure a new-supply of magnificent cleavage octahedrons of emerald-green
a tes} i0¢. to $1.50.

MINERALS FROM FRANKLIN FURNACE.
: eras zine-manganese variety of Wollastonite, of beautiful pink color; 10c. to
ay ae 50.
% Leucophoenicite. good specimens, 25c. to $2.00.
_ Rhodonite, cabinet size groups of crystals of good color, 50c. to 33.50; also
as ede fine cleavages, 10c. to 50c.
ie - Caswellite, excellent specimens, 10c. to $2.00.

OTHER RECENT ADDITIONS.

Fe | Parisite, Montana. Excellent matrix specimens, showing one or more termi-
nated or doubly-terminated crystals, } to # inch long; $3.60 ‘to $10.00. .

Datolite. A new find at West Paterson. Choice groups of brilliant cr ystals,
‘eS Bees to $2.00.
ai ja Flexible Sandstone from India, remarkable (!) specimens, $1.50 to $3.00.
~ _ _ Deweylite. best ever seen, 1(’c. to $1.00.

~ Oovellite, superfine, 25e to $5.00.

2 netinolite, gemmy green crystals and groups, 10c. to $2.00. q
5000 Ohio Selenites, Powellite, Twin Sapphires, Roseite, Stibiodomeykite and
other’ Mohawk Mine minerals, etc., etc.

124 pp. Ilustrated Catalogue, giving Dana Species number, hardness, specific a ¥
ay ty, Eee composition and formula of every mineral, 25¢ i in paper, 50c. in

CE EST Oya Oe OLR oO gil thee ad
COTS, PEROT NEL SUS aCe
jaf ss Tay Salah *
, ae ee e :
al 4

INDEX TO VOLUMES Lx. Price ite. Dott
Now ready. Orders should be given at once, as the edition 1 is limited, —

CONTENTS. nchoek

, Page

Art. I —Stereographic Projection and its Poastbiiias from ‘
a Graphical Standpoint; by 8. L. PENFIELD (With
Plate; I.) i. 0 Meee a ee ah ee et

II.—Mode of Occurrence of Topaz near Ouro Preto, Brazil s
by Ov AL DeRey gett ei ee

III.—Chemical Study of the Glaucophane Schists ; by i. ‘Ss.

W ASHINGTON G2 Ue Sc oe a 85)
IV.—Nature of the Metallic Veins of the Farmiieene aes

Meteorite; by O. C. Farrineron.--.-.-------.- Pyeng 60.
V.—Erigenia ee Nuttss oy. 2. | TLOUM 2s oka oes ee 3
VIL—New Species of Merycocherus in Montana, Part Il;

by BE. DeuGnass. 2 0h. eS ey en, ae 2

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Periodic Phenomena connected with the Bolntien ue
Chromium in Acids, W. OStwALD, 84.—Krypton, LADENBURG and KRUEGEL,
85.—Combustion of Gases, S. TANTAR, 86 —Combustion of Acetylene in Air
enriched with Oxygen, G. L. BoURGEREL: Inverse effect of a magnetic field —
upon an electric charge. M. V. CremiEU: Electrical Convection, M. V. —
CREMIEU: Unipolar Induction, EK. Lecurer, 87.—Hlectron theory of metals, dee
DrRuvE: Simple modification of the Wehnelt interrupter, 88. :

Geology and Mineralogy—Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota,
Vol. V, N. H. Winowenn and U. 8. Grant, 88.—Etude mineralogique et
pétrographique des Roches gabbroiques de PEtat de Minnesota, Etats Unis, et
plus specialment des Anorthosites, A. N. WINCHELL: Roches Eruptives des
Environs de Ménerville, Algérie, L. Duparc, F. Pearce and H. RitreR: Char- —
nockite Series, a group of Archean Hypersthenic rocks in Peninsular India, T.
H. Houtianp: Geologische Skizze der Besitzung Jushno-Saoserk und des Berges —
Deneshkin Kamen in nordlichen Ural, F. Lonwinson-Lussine, 89.—Some Prin-
ciples controlling Deposition of Ores, C. R. Van Hise: Physical Geography

- of the Texas Region, R T, Hint, 90.—Field Operations of the Division of Soils,
1899, M. Wuitwey: Etudes sur les Minéraux de la Roumanie, P. Pont, 91.-
Mineralogy, F. Rutter: Corundum and the Basic Scie Rocks of ‘West.
ern North Carolin§, J. O. Lewis, 92.

und Iconographie der cou es en Be He "ren, 93: —Ueber Sclerorintn
cinerea and Sclerotinia fructigena, M. Woronin: Platydorina, a new Genus of
the Family Volvocidae, from the Plankton of 5 Iilinois River, C. A, » ROR
aS

C. Davison: Old Indian vVilloce, J. a ae 95. dyer zur pa ‘Sak
ischen’ Untersuchung der vegetabilischen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, ee
W. ScHIMPER, 96. See

.

THE

AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

-

Epitror: EDWARD S. DANA...

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Prornssons GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
W.G. FARLOW AND WM. M. DAVIS, or CAMBRIDGE,

: “Prowessons A. E. VERRILL, HENRY S. WILLIAMS, anp
L. Y. PIRSSON, or New HAVEN,

PROFESSOR GEORGE F. BARKER, oF PHILADELPHIA,
-Proressor H. A. ROWLAND, or Battimore,
Mr. J. S. DILLER, oF WASHINGTON. |

FOURTH SERIES.
VOL. XI—-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXL]

‘No. 62.—FEBRUARY, 1901.

‘WITH PLATES II-IV.

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
1901.

TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET.

Six dollars per year. $6.4 40 to countries in the Postal :
should be 2 made aber ne neo orders, ‘Tegistered

mt adi.

‘'

present prices will tend to make them even more so. Crystals, 5c,
_ per aozen to 75c. each. Groups for cabinet purposes 50c. “ $2. bike

per pound. Quartz after Gypsum. in curious rosette-like crystalliza-— es = j

oxide of silicon—50c. to $4.00. tna 9 SR

from the same locality.

- group of particularly brilliant crystals at $17.50.
rich in silver.. Typical examples 50c.,each.

_Iustrous, and of remarkable quality. $2.00 per pound.

FONTAINEBLEAU LI

An uriegnatied assortment of groups and. Sele: crystals.
well-known locality above mentioned. A large stock w
through our Paris house, an advance shipment of which
reached us. They’re too well known to need special description,

aa} She Oa Sa

Also from France, representing an important variety of Opal, Bosak oe
im cabinet specimens at 50c. each, or for educational purposes at 50c.

tions, from Paris. Interesting specimens when considered individually, on ee.
but more particularly so when associated with the rare Lutecite—an —

CANADA ZIRCON

Twins and simple crystals of unusual lustre and perfection, Not ae
large lot and not even large crystals,’ but their Phe is. ae
gemmy. Neatly trimmed with firm bases, 50c. to $2.00. . .

NADORITE ig ee oN =

Nearly 50 typical specimens of this rare lead ma antiinnie com-
pound, many crystallized in the thin tabular habit characteristic of the
species. Senarmontite and Valentinite, also Algerian minerals con-

taining antimony are well represented and reasonably tices Cabinet
specimens from 50c. to $4.00. ’

CERUSSITE, SARDINIA

Clusters of columnar and aciealag crystallizations, in fine retienlaene
masses of snow white and gray, sometimes on a brown limonite gangue. — See
Beautiful specimens undoubtedly, but delicate and liable to fracture, —
unless mounted in our new glass-cover. black boxes. They serve not

only for protection, but as articles adding to the effectiveness of a
drawer’s display. Cabinet specimens so mounted—d0c. to $3.50. = ~*~ in ae

Kermesite, Green Anglesite, Senarmontite, en ete, aes: 4 .

OTHER NOTEWORTHY ARRIVALS. oe tear y ats 2 a
Tetrahedrite, Hungary. A few neat cabinet specimens and one large : a

Bornite, argentiferous from Tasmania. Beautifully iridescent and
Covellite, Montana. Fine masses 2 by 8 to 6 by 8, wondrously

Cut Stones. Gem material recently secured yielded fine green, a
white, and pink Tourmalines, Golden Beryl, Aquamarine, Chrysoberyl —
(Cats-eye), Spessartite, Peridot, Hiddenite, Garnets various, and. Opals
in abundance. Prices the lowest.

““Twistem” crystal holders, fully nickeled, strong and of neat pat- oe ies
tern. Holds the mineral securely and displays to the best Raph ee eee
all crystal faces. Packed 12 in a box, 50c. per dozen. era

Foot MID? ERAT so

FORMERLY DR. A. E. FOOTE,
WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager.
ESTABLISHED 1876. Ne)
PHILADELPHIA, | > “PARIS, aie
1317 Arch Street. MONE oc ain 24 Rue du Champ de Ma

STRALIAN MINERALS.

A large a most important consignment has just
reached us from Australia, embracing quite a number of
_miuerals never before or but- rarely “offered for sale in
America, besides many very choice specimens of the”
well-known Broken Hill minerals which were first promi-
nently brought to the attention of mineral collectors in
general by our large purchases a few years since. The
shipment has been unpacked and inspected, but is not
yet priced up and may not be on sale before February
16th. A partial list of the thousand or more specimens
follows:
Atacamite ; 240 good cabinet and museum size speci-
_ mens, mostly well crystallized.
Cuprite ; 25 matrix groups and 300 small groups and loose crystals, some
exceedingly fine.
Copper ; 35 small and cabinet size eroups, many of remarkably well-formed
pony stale, others beautifully arborescent.
_ Cobaltite and Smaltite; 50 cabinet size specimens, including a number of
: excellent matrix groups of crystals.
_ Molybdenite; 40 showy specimens.
- Sylvanite ; 13 excellent specimens from the new find in West Australia,
— Gold ; 50 assorted specimens, a number very good.
: - Selenite ; 10 good, lenticular crystals.
Be - Cassiterite; 8 specimens, partly crystallized or in large rolled pebbles.
Azurite; a very few extra fine loose crystals and matrix specimens.
Chalcopyrite ; 10 large interesting crystals and groups.
Pyromorphite ; 20 brown groups, some of them extra fine.
_. Embolite and Gerargyrite; 60 specimens, large and small, many splendid
pg enna
Iodyrite ; 20 specimens, several extra fine.
-Cerussite and Anglesite; 80 specimens, many of them in exceedingly fine
- onystal and groups.
Stolzite ; 6 crystallized specimens. ‘
. -Marshite ; one large group.
Le ‘Smithsonite; 10 excellently crystallized.

REMARKABLE MILLERITES FROM IOWA. -

We now have on sale a most remarkable collection of Specimens of matted
a adidten of Millerite on crystallized Calciter or enclosed in Calcite. Besides a
show case full of museum-size specimens there are three drawers full of cabinet
sizes. Prices very reasonable.

gi

EXTRA CHOICE STILBITE AND CHABAZITE.

- Just received ; over a hundred extraordinarily beautiful red Chabazites, with.
79 - excellent sheaves of richly-colored Stilbite; 10c. to 75c.

A NEW IMPORTATION OF SWISS MINERALS.

Rose “Fluorite erystals on matrix, fine Brookites, Heulandite, Smoky Quartz, Be
ey ae tile, etc. JA small lot of extra good, little specimens.

3) OTHER RECENT ADDITIONS.

se Nine. new mineral species from Greenland; splendid matrix specimens of Parisite
from Montana; many new species and ‘interesting minerals from Franklin ;
2 beautiful, emerald-greeen cleavage octahedrons of Fluorite ; splendid Covellite :
- choice groups of Datolite; polished sections of Quartz enclosing Tourmaline
needles; choice polished Williamesite ; remarkable Flexible Sandstone ; and hosts"
of other desirable minerals.

Ves

124 pp. Illustrated Catalogue, giving Dana Species number, hardness, specific
ravity, chemical Se and formula of every mineral, 25c. in paper, 50c.
elc

GEO. L. ENGLISH & Co., wbiceniber
and 814 Greenwich Street (S. W. Corner of Jane Street), New York (ity.

>
: :
Zan ph o.

ats a rs

say Lie 2 a

ees. va

ee

— Ti
oa € By 2
Pear rN ak ns ee ip NS ee le ae)

-

-
ohn

hd Seek b be,

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a ee.
*

LOE at aa area eens

INDEX TO VOLUMES I-X. Price One Dollar. :
Now ready. -Orders should oe given at once, as the edition is. linatted,

-

CONTENTS.

Arr. VII. —Apparent Hysteresis in Torsional Magnetostre: | ‘a
tion, and its relation to Viscosity; by C. Barus..-.... 9

VIUI.—Dinosaurian Genus Creosaurus, “Marsh ; Bras. Wat
Wilriston tlie Duca oe oe 8 pce shee oan

Ix — —Stereographic Projection and its Possibilities, from a
Graphical Standpoint; by S. L. PENFIELD. — (With
Plates II, HI and IV. ) SOU RE SES

X.—Melting Point of Gold; by L. Horzorn and A. Sin Day 14 x

XI.—New mineral occurrences in Canada; by G. C. Horr. nee ge
TNL ACISTINT 5 at. Sangh leek vs AE ad St ee RN PL ie ee eee 149

XII.—Spectrum of the more Volatile Gases of Atmospheric _
Air, which are not Condensed at the Temperature OL ae
Liquid Hydrogen; by 8. D. Liverne and Da ares “154

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Diethyl Peroxide, BaryeR and Ee eS Pe ey
Ammonium Amalgam, A. Copun: Hydrogen Telluride, ERNyxI, 163.—Conduc- —
tivities of some Double Salts as Compared with the Conductivities of. Mixtures —
.of their Constituents, F. Livpsay: Cause of the Loss in Weight of Commercial
Platinum when Heated, R. W. Hawi: Elementary Treatise on Qualitative
Chemical Analysis, J. B. SELLERS, 164. —Bedeutung der Phasenlehre, H. W.
B. Roozesoom: Visibility of Hydrogen in Air, Lord RAYLEIGH: Wireless
Telegraphy, SLABYy and Count ARcO, 165. —Telegraphone, V. POULSEN: Proper- |
ties of Argon and its Companions, W. Ramsay and M. W. TRAVERS, 166— en
Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, E. W. ScriPrurRE, 168. ae,

Geology and Mineralogy —Periodic Variations of Glaciers, F. A. FOREL, 168.—
Contributions to the Tertiary Fauna of Florida, W. H. Dau: Record of the
Geology of Texas for the decade ending December 31, 1896, F. W. Smmonps:
Geological Survey of Canada, G. M. Dawson: Report on the Geology and
Natural Resources of the Country traversed by the Yellow Head Pass Route —
from Edmonton to Téte Jaune Cache, comprising portions of Alberta and
British Columbia, J. McEvoy, 170. Mesozoic Fossils, Vol. I, Pt IV. On
some additional or imperfectly understood fossils from the Cretaceous Rocks of
the Queen Charlotte Islands, with a revised list of the species from these rock: "
J. F. WHITEAVES: Geology of the Albuquerque Sheet, C. L. Hmrrick and |_
D. W. Jonnson: I Vuleani dell’ Italia Centrale. Parte I. Vulcano Mae
Sasi Gocurene of Aoyste and Thulite near Balboa 111s Be

an Elementary Exposition for Students in Physics, F. SLatTsE:
Diary and Scientific Hand-book for 1901, 174.

y

THE

AMERICAN

Eprror: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE-EDITORS

io ~ Proressor H. A. ROWLAND, oF BALTIMORE, Be
aa “Mr. J. S. DILLER, or WasuHINcToN.

ee N

FOURTH SERIES.

~ VOL. XI—[WHOLE NUMBER, OLXI.]

4

Ne eae ss ot ee

No. 63.—MARCH, 1901. ,

|
|
|
ib nh hag

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
1901.

THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, I25 TEMPLE STREET.
he

Bite: ed enaee per year. $6.40 to.countries in the .Postal
ces should be made either by money eee atin.
k checks poe ey on a or Syeda | | ‘RSiigSS :

+

a
=

——————

=_
=

=

a

Bars

FOREIGN MINERALS AND RARI

We take pleasure in calling ‘3 the notice of Collactoinn nw
and attractive minerals contained in a shipment of twenty-o1
received by way of our Paris store. ‘Mail orders will receive
attention, and the privileges of our ‘‘ approval system” are cheerf: y
extended to purchasers wishing to make personal selections. As yet |
we ate not prepared to place more than a small portion of the entire —
consignment on sale, but enumerated enone those most interesting : are
the following : — IA adits ine A,

4 ity

STOLZITE. : ae

unobtainable in other than high eed specimens. ‘The one tee
offered from 50c. to $2.00 is unrivaled—but of course we have finer
crystallizations ranging from $9.00 to $15.00. ;

HESSITE WITH KARELINITE. " Adi re sich

Both rare minerals of important composition. Material. secured i
small, representing however an interesting association. “$2. 00 each, |

BISMUTITE. = * )"'} 90m

From Queensland. Typical examples, 50c. to $7. 00. A rarity from,
any locality,—doubly so from a new one. sas

OPAL REPLACING SHELL. . 9)

Curious alterations found at White Cliffs, N.S. W., show, ‘iwi a
replacement of the shell by translucent Opal,—sometimes of gem qual- |
ity. Original form is retained perfectly and only the opalescent lustre _
marks the distinction. <A limited stock reasonably priced. 50c. to $4. 00. 3

+

TWINNED AMETHYST AND ROCK CRYSTAL. ten ae :

Polished sections 4} inch in thickness cut from a Brazilian crystal |
exhibit curious markings not unlike the Chiastolite figures. A dark —
colored Amethyst alternating with clear Rock Crystal forms a striking —
contrast. An interesting phenomenon. Six specimens, we i ge to
poietea |

A

WOLFRAMITE. eG

Typical cleavage examples of the mineral from Aroentane Republic,
No crystallizations as yet, but we hope to secure them. ee shied and»:

$1.00.
A FEW OF THE RARE SPECIES.

Raspite, a twinned monoclinic occurrence of. lead tungstate come au
Broken Hill; new form of Mimetite associated with Gibbsite from
Tasmania ; Roepperite, Broken Hill; Mimetite, Bolivia; Thenardite,
Bolivia ; Beudantite crystals; Crookesite, Percylite, Schwartzem
bergite, Krennerite, Kalgoorlite, Calaverite crystals, etc., etc. sa

EDUCATIONAL COLLECTIONS. LABORATORY MATERIAL, —
_ GEMS AND PRECIOUS STONES. = %.

it ie) OE) 8 Ba MET Ee A CO.
FORMERLY DR. A. E,. FOOTE, — Ara S aney
WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager. ee ae
ESTABLISHED 1876. “4 wages oe |
PHILADELPHIA, ) 2 PARISZ a
1817 Arch Street. P 24 Rue du Champ de M

We take pleasure in announcing that we have removed
to 3 and5 WEST 18TH St., first door West of Fifth Avenue,
where with much more attractive salesrooms, many addi-
tions to our stock, and convenience of location, we hope
to serve our customers much more acceptably in the
future than in the past. The confusion incident to moy-
ing has delayed the placing on sale of many recent
accessions, but we will have our salesrooms in order for

our
SPRING OPENING
ON SATURDAY, MARCH 2d AT 1 P. M.

bs AUSTRALIAN MINERALS.
as ae Australian shipment will then be placed on sale. Its many attractive

“specimens are described in our Spring’ Bulletin, to which and our announcements
last eon reference should be made. ~

i¥
vo
--

ab
Spe a |

~~~ NOVA SCOTIA ZEOLITES.

“We now have in stock the most beautiful Nova Scotia Zeolites we have ever
seen. Extraordinarily fine groups of salmon-colored Chabazite in i} to 3-
-ineh erystals, 15c. to $1.00. Stilbite in singularly choice sheaves of rich color,
both alone and on salmon-colored Chabazite, 15c. to $1.00. Also several hundred
esate excellent student specimens at 5c. to l5c. 5

< fi,

"MOHAWKITE, STIBIODOMEYKITE AND WHITNEYITE.

Sx a certified by Prof. G. A. Koenig.

ee ‘Mohawkite, nearly pure, metallic masses, 35c. to $3.50.
‘Stibiodomeykite, nearly pure, metallic masses, 25c. to $2.50.
as Sia ange and Whitneyite, equally good at same paces:
ae ey,

NEW ‘COLORADO RHODOCHROSITE, HUBNERITE, ETC.

Just received from a new locality, groups of delicate pink Rhodochrosite,
some associated with green fluorite, very beautiful, 35c. to $6.00.

- Hiibnerite, extra choice; 25c. to $3.00.
ePphalerite; eronne of fine, black erystals of rare forms, 25c. to $2.00.

OUR SPRING BULLETIN

4s: now in press and will be ready for distribution by March first. Its beautiful
illustrations of the many minerals recently added to our stock, and the more than
a ees descriptions, will make it, we trust, of exceptional interest to

: 24 todas Tlustrated Catalogue, giving Dana Species number, hardness, specific
gan chemical composition and formula of every mineral, 25c. in paper, 50c.

es L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, .

Dealers in Scientific Minerals,
to 3 and 5 West 18th Street, First door west of Fifth Avenue, ob York City.

a _ Every specimen. before it is labeled, has been tested and the correctness of the —

a

Pal

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=

—— — pe are -

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= =
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of a baie age ey eee =

INDEX TO VOLUMES EX. Price One Dottar. nee

| Now ready. Orders should be given at once,.as the edition 1 is limited,

.

CONTENTS. Y's

—

Art. XIII.—Circular Magnetization and Midereee aan
bility; by J. TrowsripGE and H. P. ApAms ...._-_2- 175 :
XIV.—Notes on the Geology of Parts of the Seminole, — | J
Creek, Cherokee and Osage Nations ; ; by C. N. Goutp 185 | J
XV.—Names for the formations of the Ohio Coal- measures ; uy

Page:

a

by C.'5. “PRossHB ows 7f 2 2a Seo 191 as Ey
XVI—New American Species of Amphicyon; by J. i sc it

W ORTMAN 2 DL 2 aL Oe eee 200 |f |
XVII.—Studies in the Cyperaceew, No. XV; by T. How -- 205 | fF
XVIII.—Just Intonation Piano; by S. A. Hacueman _..-.. 224 |f

XIX.—Very on Atmospheric Radiation; by W. Hatxock - 230 NE ite

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIG HNCGE.

Chemistry and Physics—Radio- active Lead, HOFFMANN and STRAUSS: Physiolog-
ical Action of Radium Rays, Watguorr: Chlorine Heptoxide, MICHAEL and
‘Conn, 235.—Non-Existence of Trivalent Carbon, J. F. Norris: Diffusion of —
Gold in Solid Lead at Ordinary Temperature, W. C. ROBERTS- AUSTIN : lenge th Mi Mee ce
G. B. Drosspacu: Method for Crystallizing Substances without the Formation |§
of Crusts upon the Surface of the Liquid, A. WROBLEWSKI, 236.—Veloclty of |
the ionized phosphorus emanation in the absence of electric field, C. BARUS:
Thermo-chemistry of the alloys of copper and zinc, T. J. BaKER, 237.—Decre-
ment of electrical oscillations in charging condensers, A. F. SuNDELD and Hy.
TALLQUIST: Effect of a magnetic field on the, discharges through a gas, R. Sig
WILLoNS: Conductivity produced in gases by the motion of negatively charged —
ions, TOWNSEND, 238. —Recueil de Données Numériques publié par la Société
Francaise de Phy sique, H. Durer: One Thousand Problems in Physics, Sos Ho
SnypER and I. 0. Patmnr, 239.

Geology and Mineralogy—Maryland Geological Survey : Ancohohe Couneg: W: B
CLaRK: U. S. Geologial Survey, ©. ie Watcort, 240.—Geological Survey of
Michigan, A. C. LAnn, 241.—Geological and N atural History Survey of Minne- |—
sota, N. H. WINCHELL: Pleistocene Geology of the South Central Sierra Nevada | §
with especial reference to tbe Origin of Yosemite Valley, H. W. TURNER, 242,
—Geologisches Centralblatt: Metasomatic Processes in Fissure Veins, W- LIND- — ah
GREN, 243.—Some Iowa Dolomites, N. Kyignt, 244.—Minerals of Ontario:
Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks, with tables on the determination
of minerals, S. E. T1upmMan: Los Minerales, G. BODENBENDER, 246. =

Botany—Monograph of the North American Umbelliferse, J. M. COULTER and =
N. Ross, 247.—Foundations of Botany, J. Y. Bergen, 248.— Flora of Vermont:
Catalogue of the African Plants collected by Dr. Friedrich Welwitsch in 1853-61. :,
W. P. Hinrn, 249.—Botany: an Elementary Text for Schools, L. H. Balwey:
Plant Life and Structure, E. DENNERT, 250. Re:

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Comparative Physiology of the. Brain Saale
Comparative Psychology, J. Los: Microbes et Distillerie, L. Livy: Gesang
der Vogel, seine anatomischen und biologischen Grundlagen, V. HACKER, 251. st
—O. S. U. Naturalist: Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften :
Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, 252. — eis

blished by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

-

(Rinks

AMERICAN

_Eprror: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

T v. PIRSSON, or NEw pew

- PROFESSOR HA: ROWLAND, OF BALTIMORE,
Mr. J. Si. DILLER, OF WASHINGTON.

FOURTH SERIES.

> ~ YOU. XI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXI.

No. 64.—APRIL, 1901.

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
EO 1

‘onthity. Six dollars per year. $6. 40 to countries in the Postal
neces should be made either by money orders, BK ace
hecks ead on New York banks).

“APRIL, 1901.

ER a LT ener Rte
RECA’ IMAG fea ee
ey ‘ - y

early in April, and saan from lists received, we can then offer a
series of the newest European minerals at minimum ee r |

.

KIOLITE, INESITE, MELANOTEKITE, ha ce %

TASMANIA.

timbering opened a fresh deposit of eeoueuta! : s exe
“TYPES do not differ from those received in previous shiphoen
the quality and perfection of crystallization place them far in advan
any hitherto offered from'this store. Picture mentally, single crys
three to five inches in length ; add if you can, perfect termination, r
color and translucent quality—and the idea conveyed will jack hal
beauty of the original.

Send us one of the aboye sums and we will ship prepaid a a ‘selection
approval, with the certainty of your acceptance.

Oot MINERAL o

FORMERLY DR. A. E. FOOTE,
; WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager.

ESTABLISHED 1876.

PH ILADELPH IA,
1317 Arch Street.

Possibly never before have we given the place of honor

in our advertisements to Nova Scotia Zeolites. The

_ remarkable beauty and real scientific merit of the speci-
mens recently secured make it difficult fo too highly
honor them. Never before haye we had in stock, never
have we even seen, such exceedingly beautiful specimens
of Stilbite and Chabazite as these. Fine groups of salmon-

colored Chabazite, 1 x 14 inches, 15¢.; 2x2, 35c.;
2x 3, 50ce. to T5c.; larger sizes, $1.00 to $2.00. Stil-
bite in singularly fine sheaves, both alone and on salmon-
colored Chabazite crystals, at same prices. Gmelinite,
fine specimens, 15c. to $1.50.

_. -—~—s SUPERB SICILIAN SULPHURS.

Just received direct from the mine, a small consignment of very choice’ groups
f highly lustrous sulphur crystals ranging from 3 x 4 inches up to 16x12x8
and in price from $2.00 to $25.00; alsoa small assortment of loose crystals and
all groups at 5e. to 25c.

at)

> BEAUTIFUL COLEMANITE GEODES.

few geodes of Colemanite in exceptionally brilliant crystals, $1.00 to $1.50.

oa 6 CORUNDUM CRYSTALS.
Rca An assortment of small Carolina corundum crystals exhibiting by parallel hexa-
ms the lines of growth, 10c. to 35c.
SHED SECTIONS OF QUARTZ ENCLOSING TOURMA-
Praha LINE. . 7

e idea of the beauty of these sections may be obtained from the illustration
in our Spring Bulletin. We added to our stock during March sections of -

t crystals we have cut up, some of them being also exceptionally choice.
about 25c. per square inch, or 25c. to $3.50.

oe ily be oe) Rr iad Mireds : .
_ MOHAWKITE, STIBIODOMEYKITE AND WHITNEYITE.

3)

A new lot of over 40 nearly pure masses of those most desirable metallic min-
_ erals has been determined and is now on sale. See our Spring Bulletin. 35c. to
OUR SPRING BULLETIN ISSUED MARCH rst,

4 pages, 29 illustrations, will be sent free to anyone desiring it. It describes
_ maany other recent additions to our stock and gives a compiete list of Mineralogi-
eal Books, ; d

Tilustrated Catalogue, giving Dana Species number, hardness, specific

GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists,
“SG oe Dealers in Scientific Minerals,
to 8 and 5 West 18th Street, First door west of Fifth Avenue, New York City,

2 er erinry ts aes

a ——————

INDEX TO YOLUMES F-X. Price One Dollar.
Now ready. Orders should be given at once, as the edition is limited,

CONTENTS.

Pade
Art. XX.—Magnetic Theory of the Solar Corona; by F. H.
BIGELOW

XXI. ene Springs of Western Kansas and Oklahoma;
by CoN. GouEp ie. oo ea

XXII.—Fundamental Propositions in the Theory of Elas-
ticity: A study of primary or self-balancing stresses; ,
by F.H..Crriay ooo eo ee

X XIIT.—Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen, determined by
Hydrogen and Helium Gas Thermometers ;
Dewar

XXIV.—Nature of Vowels; by E. W. Scriprure

XXV.—Behavior of the Phosphorts Emanation in Spherical
Condensers; by C. Barus

Wika i Ganstetions of Ottawa County, Kansas; by W. T.
BELL. [UL ao. CNL Oe ee

(

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics— Ammonium Bromide and the Atomic Weight of Nitro-
gen, A. Scott: Combustion of Gases, S. TANTAR, 317.—Peculiar Blue Color
produced when Potassium and Sodium Sulphocyanides are Heated, W. B.
Gites: Method of obtaining Orystals of difficultly Crystallizable Substances, A.
RUMPLER: Elimination of Methane in the Atmosphere, V. URBAIN, 318.—
Introduction to Modern Scientific Chemistry, Lassar-Coun: Ausgew#hite
Methoden der Analytischen Chemie, A. CLASSEN, 319.—Radiation Law of Dark
Bodies, F. PASCHEN: Unipolar Induction, E. HAGENBACH: Effect of Electricity
on Bacteria, A. MAcFADYN, 320.—Electric Corvection, M. V. Cremizu: Pre-
servation of Photographic Records, W. J. 8. Lockyer: Eclipse Cyclone and
the Diurnal Cyclone, H. H. Clayton, 321.—Attempt to show that the earth
being a magnet draws ether with it, W. RoLiins, 322.—Presence of Gallium in
the Sun, W. N. Hartley and H. RaMAGE, 323.

Geology—Geology of the Boston Basin, W. O. CrosBy: University Gestopaanet
Survey of Kansas, S. W. WILLISTON, 324.—Orange River Ground-Moraine, A.
W. Rogers and EH. H. L. Scuwarz, 325.—Founders of Geology, A. GEIKIE:
Gesetz der Wistenbildung in Gegenwart und Vorzeit, J. WALTHER, 326.

Zoology—Recent papers relating to the fauna of the Bermudas, 326.—Trans. Conn.
Acad. Science: Zoological Results based on Material from New Britain, New
Guinea, Loyalty Islands and elsewhere, A. WILLEY, 330.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Lecons de Physiologie Expérimentale, R.
Dusois et KE. CouvREuR, 330.—Webster’s International Dictionary, New eee.
331.—The National Standardizing Bureau, 332.

Obituary—GEORGE MERCER DAawsON: CHARLES HERMITE:» ADOLPHE Cnarw:
J. C. AGARDH, 332.

aD taj CW 3S

a9

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN ‘in 1818.

a AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,

Epitor: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

__ PROFESSORS GEO. L. GDODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
- W.G.FARLOW anp WM.M. DAVIS, oF Camprince,

_ Proressors A. E. VERRILL, HENRY S. WILLIAMS, anp
aS _L. V. PIRSSON, or New Haven,

z

a Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA,
ge Mr. J. S. DILLER, or WaAsutncrTon.

FOURTH SERIES.

- VOL. XI—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXL]

No. 65.—MAY, 1901.

WITH PLATE V.

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
it OOL

_ THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET.

blished monthly. Six dollars per year. $6.40 to countries in the Postal
1 Remittances should be made either by money orders, registered
ters, or bank checks (preferably on New York banks).

Thy an Nd

Librarian U.S. Nat. Museum. | 3 - | Bol |
PMs 4

years. i
eS SE even in comparison with our present stale of. prices. per me
they will find ready purchasers we feel assured, and list. a few of
most striking. es ae ea
st IBNITE.

Individuals and pees brilliantly terminated.

net size. 50c. to $4.00. a
BARITE. Wonderfully franebanent with brilliant faces ona
modifications. In quality they are much superior to our former stock,
the penetrating crystals of Stibnite offering an association and ae a
of unusual interest. 50c. to $3.00. i 2
TETRAHEDRITE and CHALCOPYRITE from icanree
types are well known, but some of the groups now on hand would e
difficult to duplicate in any but the re collections. Bi 50. to ee 00.

usually ‘‘inter-formed ” ate quartz eS
SPHAROSIDERITE, ORPIMENT,
MARCASITE, DOLOMITE, :
“KENNGOTTITE ” (MIARGYRITE). ates

ADDENDA

TO, OUR ANNOUNCEMENT “OF FOREIGN —
APRIL NUMBER. , Be

GALEN OBISMUTITE. A few good examples of. fats interesting: ee
mineral. Characteristic specimens from 50c. to $3.50. fe

‘priced, yet firsts class : ; brilliantly crystallized. 50c. to $5. 00, é
STILBITE;,: HEULANDITE sid: “BPISTICBITE. West 0 er

many varieties and colorings sure to find ready purchasers, _ Icels

the locality. 50c. to $4.00. — / :

SULVANITE pens ee

8Cu.eS ‘ V Ss : i .

From Burra Burra, South Australia. Several specimens on sale,
it takes no glass to penne the miner al. Typical examples, $1.0
$8.00 each. (4 nl ie

FORMERLY DR. A. E. FOOTE,

WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager.
ESTABLISHED 1876. .

PHILADELPHIA,
1317 Arch Street.

Crookesite has always ranked as one of the rarest of
rare minerals, being found sparingly in but one locality
in Sweden. It is a selenide of copper, Thallium (!) and
silver. We now have twenty good specimens at 50c. to
$20 00, some of them showing associated Berzelianitte,
another very rare selenide of copper. Several specimens
of the rare selenide of copper and silver, Eucatrite, are

_ also in stock,

OTHER VERY RARE MINERALS.

A few other very rare minerals in stock just now are
worthy of, mention: Livingstonite, Frieseite, Wapplerite,
fe " Pellurite, Cenosite, Marshite, Raspite, Pyroaurite, “Aphthitalite, Connellite, Whe-
ke wellite. Aguilarite, Sulfoborite.
NATIVE LEAD FROM FRANKLIN.

A few specimens have just come in from Franklin Furnace.

: LOOSE CRYSTALS OF SPHALERITE.
200 uncommonly good loose crystals of Sphalerite, 5c. to 25c.

A LARGE ENGLISH IMPORTATION.

The growing ‘scarcity of all of the English minerals has persuaded us to lay in
an abundant stock while yet it is possible to obtain them. Most of the English
iron mines are now closed and the prospect is that the matchless Fluorites,
_ Barites, Calcites, ete., for which they have so long been noted, will become as
‘scarce as the fine Arizona red Wulfenites. once so abundant. Several thousand
choice specimens have just arrived. The descriptions given in our Spring Bulle-
pi 2 un papery in peneral to this importation.

Rene th SICILIAN SULPHURS.
| Every specimen in the consignment advertised last month is sold.

SUTTROP MILKY QUARTZ CRYSTALS.

___ ! We now have on sale the best collection we have ever seen of these model-like
_ crystals, a new lot having arrived during April. 5c. to 25c.

‘ | DOMEYKITE.

esr (A 819. 50 specimen from any of the old localities is not as good as one at ‘5c.
hy trom the Mohawk Mine. Our stock is unrivaled.
_ Stibiodomeykite, a new antimonious variety, 35c. to $2.50.
_ Mohawkite, a new arsenide of copper, nickel and cobalt, 50c. to $3.50.

75 te om . _. TRIDESCENT PYRITE CONCRETIONS.
“ & : : Strikingly beautiful specimens, 25c. to $9.00. A new find in New Jersey.
tae OUR SPRING BULLETIN.
Ext aaee 29 illustrations, will be sent free to anyone desiring it. It describes

piscy other recent additions to our stock and gives a compiete list of Mineralogi-

--124-page Tilustrated Catalogue, giving Dana Species number, crystal system,
“hardness, specific gravity, chemical composition and formula of every mineral,
25e. in paper.

\ pee Mlustrated Price-Lists, also Bulletins and Circulars, free.

GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists,

Dealers in Scientific Heck tie

F,

bg t. fx = : < > 2 >= ~ | x. <b ur : - a
Ce Ee, ehh See eT Ng EC A See eno

=a
»

INDEX TO VOLUMES I-X. Price One Dollar. |
Now ready. Orders should be given at once, as the edition is limited.

i

Ye ee ON

Wx]
hs eee

\ j 5

| 9 | ; | a |
= | CONTENTS. Ba f
4 a
i" Arr, XXVII.—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the Marsh ae,

=>
ae

. te

eae

Collection, Peabody Museum; by J. L. Worrman.
With Plate V

XXVIII.—Velocity of Chemical Reactions; by W. Duanz-

XXIX.—Transmission of Sound through porous materials ;
by F. L. Turts

XX X.—Yoke with intercepted Magnetic Circuit for measur-
ing Hysteresis; by Z. Crook

XX XI.—Mineralogical Notes; by C. H. Warrin

XXXII.—Expansion of Certain Metals at High Tes
tures; by L. Horzporn and A. L. Day

4
2s

5 a fae:
es
SE

Ei

pa gcd

Ps
~

en eae

here
ake |

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Sylphur Hexafluoride, Thionyl Fluoride, and Sulphuryl —
Fluoride, MoissAN and LEBEAU: Molecular Weight of Ozone, A. LADENBURG, —
391.—Preparation of Chlorine from Sodium Chlorate, C. GRAEBE: New Alka-—
loids in Tobacco, PicteT and Rotscuy. 392.—Hydrate of Sulphuryl Chloride, —
BABYER and VILLIGER: Action of Hydrogen Peroxide upon Silver Oxide,
BAEYER and VILLIGER, 393.—Action of Alcohol on Metals with which it comes —
in Contact, MAtmMEsac: Excitation and Measure of Sine Currents, M..WIEN: ~
Metallic Reflection of Electrical Waves, K. F. LinpmMan: Light Transparency
of Hydrogen, V. SCHUMANN, 394.—Measurement of the Réntgen Rays by means
of Selenium, F. HIMSTEDT: Effect of the Réntgen Rays and the ers Baye ,
on the Kye, F. HiMsteptT and W. A. NAGEL, 395.

Geology and Natural Histor y—Eocene and Lower Oligocene Coral Faunas of
the United States, T. W. VAUGHAN, 395.—Presence of a Limestone Conglomer-
ate in the Lead region of St. Francis Co., Mo., F. L. Nason: New Species of —
Cambrian from Cape Breton, G. F. MATTHEW: Geological Survey of Western —
Australia, A. G. MaITLANp, 396.—Geology of Texas, F. W. SrmonpDs: Concre-
tions from the Champlain Clays of the Connecticut Valley, J. M. A. SHELDON: _
Study of the Gabbroid Rocks of Minnesota, A. N. WINCHELL: Flow of Marble is
under Pressure, ADAMS and NICOLSON; 397.—Flora of Cheshire, 8. Moore:

Preliminary list of the Spermatophyta of North Dakota, H. L. BOLLEY and L.
R. WaLpRON, 398.

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Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—New Star in Perseus, T. D. ANDERSON,
399.—National Academy of Sciences: Report of the Secretary of the Smith- a
sonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1900, 400.—Memorial of George ‘é
Brown Goode: U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 401.—La Navigation Sous- —

marine, M. GAGET: Geological Survey of Great Britain: Geological Survey of :.
Canada, 402. : R

Obituary—Dr. Henry A. RowLanp: Professor Gzorce F. FITZGERALD: Peo i
fessor CHRISTIAN F. ‘LorKey, 402.

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THE

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_ AMERICAN
OURNAL OF SCIENCE.

____ Eprtor: EDWARD S. DANA.

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Beas : ASSOCIATE EDITORS —
ns GEO. es: GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,

L. Vv. PIRSSON, or NEw ian

| is GEORGE F. BARKER, or Purtapsrpnta,
_ Mr J. S. DILLER, or Wasurncron.

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FOURTH SERIES.
a VoL. ‘XI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLX1
No. 66.—JUNE, 1901.

WITH PLATES VI-—VII.

"NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
1901.

| 4 Six dollars per year. $6.40 to countries in the Postal
‘should be made either by money nivsaits, Teme
ably on New banks). Mae, heat Eat)

York

e

WAC | TAKE PLEASURE IN ANNOUNCING fhe com:
yi pletion of our “stock re-arrangement” and believe a

ames’) few brief explanations of the changes will be of interest
to our Sabie Much valuable time and a great deal of work
have been liberally spent, but the results obtained amply sepey
the inconvenience of such an investment.

The “cabinet stock,” including. specimens valued at 50¢. and
upwards, is arranged in ‘‘ Dana” order, each specimen plainly
labeled and priced. Single crystals, 50c. each and over, are also
included.

The “educational stock” comprises specimens below 50e. in-
value, and is arranged in a complete series apart from the cabinet

material. Customers purchasing specimens in quantity for
instruction or class use, will find this division particularly con-—
venient. ae

The “crystal stock,” divided under the six systems, includes —
single crystals 10c. per dozen to 30c. each. | Thousands of crystals

"can be examined with dispatch, as every opportunity is offered to

further rapid inspection.

A WORD CONCERNING PRICES.

Upon March 1, 1901, we undertook a series of reductions,
principally affecting standard stock, though many minerals re-
ceived direct from sources of supply were included. A thorough ~
revision was given to prices upon European specimens, and we
believe our stock will now compare favorably with that of most
European dealers. Reductions from 20% to 50% frequently

rar ¥ : : Biter a Ni
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applied to an entire species. With such sweeping discounts our
stock cannot fail to create a favorable impression upon the judi-
cious purchaser, while our service we endeavor to make perfectly —
satisfactory. Prices, to which we strictly adhere, will be found
uniform throughout the stoek of both our Philadelphia and Paris x

houses.

We offer apologies to many of our customers for Biren
delays in filling orders received during the past few months, but
believe that increased facilities, combined with an earnest and
intelligent desire to please, will render future service unrivaled.

Trial orders solicited:. “Approval system” upon orders for
cabinet material. ee

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"OO EVE?) MC LON TE Ee Ae ee
FORMERLY DR. A. E. FOOTE,
WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager.
ESTABLISHED 1876.

PHILADELPHIA, PARIS, a
1317 Arch Street. 24 Rue du Champ de Mars. : ae

- -

Choice crystals of Molybdenite have always been high
priced and not at all common. We take pleasure, there-
fore, in announcing a lot of several hundred from a new
locality in the far west which we are able to sell at the
lowest prices ever known. 10c. to $1.50e The crystals
are well formed, one inch to four inches in diameter, and
have low pyramids about 40° and 55°.

EXCELLENT FLEXIBLE SANDSTONE.

Mr. Williams recently visited North Carolina expressly
for Flexible Sandstone. The result is that we have a
large lot of splendid specimens and are able to sell them
very cheaply. Pieces 3x 1 inches, 5c.; 5x2 inches, 10c.; 7x2, 20c.; on up to
13 x 24, 75¢., and even larger specimens. At these prices the mineral is not
half as expensive as that from India. Every collector should have a specimen
of this most curious mineral.

RARE MINERALS FROM AN OLD COLLECTION.

Several hundred specimens were recently purchased from an old collection,
including Roeperite. Bementite, Pa. Amethyst, French Creek Chalcopyrite, Cubic
Spinels, Japan Stibnites. Hungarian Opal, Siberian Emeralds and Beryl, Atlasite,
Huchroite, Laugite, Lettsomite, Serpierite. Connellite, Libethenite, Manganite,
Dawsonite, Partzite, extra fine Cumberland Mimetite and Pyromorphite, etc.

CROOKESITE.

Twenty specimens of this excessively rare mineral were recently received, some
associated with Berzelianite and Hucairite, 50c. to $20.00.

OTHER IMPORTANT RECENT ADDITIONS.

Mohawkite, Stibiodomeykite, Domeykite from the Mohawk Mine, each piece
tested.

Parisite, doubly terminated crystals in matrix.

Australian Atacamite, Cerussite, Anglesite, Pyromorphite, Iodyrite, Embolite,
Cuprite. Marshite, Stolzite, etc.

. New and rare species from (Greenland.

¥ridescent Pyrite from New Jersey. fine Milky Quartz crystals from Suttrop,
Lead from Franklin, showy massive Bornite, Allerite in radiating needles from
Antwerp, many fine Barites, Calcites, Fluorites, Hematite and Quartz, Sphaler-
ites, etc., from England.

OUR SPRING BULLETIN.

24 pages, 29 illustrations, will be sent free to anyone desiring it. It describes
many other recent additions to our stock and gives a compiete list of Mineralogi-
eal Books.

‘124-page Illustrated Catalogue, giving Dana Species number, crystal system,
hardness, specific gravity, chemical composition and formula of every mineral,
25c. in paper.

44-page Illustrated Price-Lists, also Bulletins and Circulars, free.

GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists,
Dealers in Scientific Minerals,
3 and 5 West 18th Street, New York City.

INDEX TO VOLUMES I-X. Price

CONTENTS.

Art. XXXIII.—The New Spectrum; by S. P. LANGLEY.
With Plate VIT accede sgh ee

XX XIV.—Rival Theories of Cosmogony; by O. Fisumr-.-

XXXV.—Study of some American Fossil Cycads. Part PVicne
Microsporangiate Fructification of Cycadeoidea; by G.
R. Wieianp

XXXVI.—Studies of Eocene Maihalia in the Marsh Col-
lection, Peabody Museum; by J. L. Worrman. With
Plate VI

XXX VII.—Cesium-Antimonious Wigordes and Some Diner

Double Halides of maha pithy Be: L. Wetts and F.
J. METZGER. 00s.

Henry Augustus Rowland

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Radio-active Lead, HOFMANN and STRAUSS: ‘Zirconia of
Euxenite from Brevig, HOFMANN and PRANDTL, 463.—Action of Radium Rays
upon Selenium, E. BLocH: Reducing-power of Magnesium and Aluminum, mae
Dusoin: Method of Determining Atomic Weights, Based upon the Transparency
of Substances to the X-Rays, L. Benoist, 464.—Presence of Platinum upon an |
Egyptian Hieroglyphic Inscription, BERTHELOT: Generalization from Trouton’s |
Law, DE Forcanp, 465.— Wissenschaftliche Grundlagen der analytischen — aie
Chemie, W. OstwaLp: Specirum of Carbon Compounds, os SMITHELLS, 466.— |
‘Absorption of Gasin a Crookes Tube, R. 8. WiLtLow: Mechanical Movements —
of Wires produced by Electrical Discharges which ee make these Movements
luminous, O. Viou: Band Spectrum of Oxides of Aluminum and Nitrogen, G.
BERNDT: Electricité et Optique; La Lumiére et les Théories Electrodynam-
iques, H, PorncaRs, 467.

Geology and Natural History—U. 8. Geological siren, 21st Anata) Report ah
the Director, C. D. Watcort, 468.—Physiography of Acadia, R. Dany: Carte
Géologique du Massif du Mont Blane, L. Duparc and L. MRazec: Miner
constituents of dust and soot from various sources, W. N. HarrbEy and H.
RAMAGE, 470.—Studies in Fossil Botany, D. H. Scort: Flora of Western Mid
dle California, W. L. Jepson 471.—Grand Rapids Flora, E. J. Coe 472. —
Variations of a newly-arisen Species of Medusa, A. G. MAYER, 473. oh Bie ay

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Annals of the Astrophysical Obsenvatenee of.
the Smithsonian Institution, S, P. Lanerey and C. G. Appor, 473.—Report
of the U.S. National Museum : Journal of Hygiene: Annals of the
ical Observatory of Harvard College, E. ©. PrcKERING and E. S. Krv@, :

InpEX TO VouuME XI, 475.

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