RA Me AM AREA A Nhat Gy My AD Mie Rte Ae Me RAE MN oP Naa noth nimi ite RN 5 he My fe A Oe AN alten Det tbe elie Dat Bhan he fan He thane ba thins. ohn Me hm Hohn! - eteos | ool Be natin iene eaten. a tchcieicnn eiatagon wantin aetna inoue eteainteo Brice . a re eae ee See ee elton Dade Mah fin Th ) seen 513 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Crystallized Chlorophyl, WILLSTATTER and BENz: Mercury Peroxide, Von ANTROPOFF, 520.—Supposed New Element in Thorianite, C. pe B. Evans: Stereochemistry, A. W. STEWART, 021.— Condensation of Water Vapor in the Presence of Radium Emanation, Mme. Curie: Anode Rays, GEHRCKE and REICHENHEIM : Handbuch der Spectro- scopie, H. Kayser, 522.—Refrigeration, J. W. ANpERSON: Introduction to Metallography, P. GoERENS, 524.—Lehrbuch der theoretischen Hlelktro- chemie auf thermodynamischer Grundlage, J. J. van Laar: Compara- tive Electro-Physiology, J. C. Bos, 525. Geology—New Zealand Geological Survey, 626.—Geological Survey of Western Australia: Geological Survey of Canada, 527.—The Ankylo- sauride, B. Brown: Revision of the American Eocene Horses, W. GRANGER: Ideas on the Origin of Flight, Dr. B. F. Noposa, 528.—Traité de Géologie I, Les Phénoménes géologiques, E. Hava: Key for the Deter- mination of the Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections, A. JOHANNSEN, 529. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Monograph of the British Annelids, W. OC. MolInrosp, 580—Selectionsprinzip und Probleme der Artbildung, Dr. L. Puhate: Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithso- nian Institution, C. G. Aspot, 531.—Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, W. L. Moore: Field Columbian Museum, O. C. FarrineG- TON, 032.—Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences: Uni- versity of California Publications in American Archeclogy and Ethnol- ogy : Medico-Physical Works of John Mayow, 553.—Graphic Alegbra, A. SCHULTZE: Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften: Decapod Crustacea of the Bermudas, Part 1, A. KE. Verricy, 5984. Yr. Uyrus Adler, Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum. VOL. XXV. JANUARY, 1908. Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Epiror: EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS ~ Proressors GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or Camsrincs, Proressorss ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS, L. V. PIRSSON anp H. E. GREGORY, or New Haven, Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA, Proressor HENRY S. WILLIAMS, or Irnaca, Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Banrmore, Me. J. S. DILLER, or Wasuineton. FOURTH SERIES VOL. XXV—[ WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXYV.] No. 145—JANUARY, 1908. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 1908 THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 123 TEMPLE STREET. 3 | LS EN Published monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries im the Postal Union ; $6.25 to Canada. Remittances should be made either by money orders, registered letters, or bank checks (preferably on New York banks). os Oe BA dg t “ REMARKABLE CONSIGNMENT OF Rare and Choice Minerals. This remarkable consignment consists of so many fine specimens that our limited space will not permit us to do justice to them. We are therefore preparing a descriptive list which can be had for the asking, and will be ready for mailing on January Ist. At the same time if you are interested in any of these specimens it would be well to lose no time, but either call, or order them sent on approval, as most of them cannot be duplicated for any money when those on hand are sold. We eall especial attention to the fine Kuclase crystals, advertised, three of which are believed to be the largest in the world. Also to the Russian min- erals and the remarkable California and Texas Mercury specimens. There are also a fine lot of English and Hungarian minerals, We give below a brief list of the most remarkable of them ; the figure in front represents the number of specimens : 10 Emeralds, Bogota ; Siberia ; Salz- burg 8 Aquamarines, Siberia ; Brazil. 6 Alexandrites, Ural. 100 Topaz, Schneckenstein. 8 Anatase, Binnenthal, and Koller- graben. 5 Euclase, largest ever found, Brazil. ) Torbernite, Tincroft, Cornwall. 6 Staurolite and Cyanite, Mt. Cam- pione. 3 Dioptase, Kirghes Steppes. 8 Crocoite, Ural ; Tasmania. 3) Chalcophyllite, Redruth, 8 Chrysoprase, Silesia, gem mate- rial. 6 Beautiful groups of Dauphine. 5 Hyacinth in basalt, Oelbereg, Siebengebirge ; in lava, Nieder- mendig, Hifel. Pyropes in serpentine, Zoeblitz. Essonite, Ala, Piedmont, choice. Terlinguaite, Terlingua, Texas. Montroydite, a) z Calomel, Terlingua, Texas. Quartz, wm WWD 2 Polybasite, Durango, Mexico. 7 Benitoite, San Benito Co., Cal. 53 Semseyite, and Galenite, Felsé- banya. 2 Hessite, Botes, Hungary. 5 Cryst. Gold in matrix. 30 Silver specimens, Calumet, Mich. 10 Cryst. Silver, Mexico. 6 Choice Aragonite, different local. 20 Choice Garnets, different local. 15 Diamond, erystals, different colors, Africa. 25 Remarkable Tourmalines, differ- ent colors, Mesa Grande, Cal. 6 Zinkenite, Nevada. 3 Copalite on coal, Castle Gate, Utah. 10 Hausmannite, new locality, Cum- berland. 3 Cerargyrite, Leadville, Colo. 6 Zeophyllite, new, from Radzein. 8 Herderite, Poland, Maine. 6 Blue & White Topax xls, Romana Com Cal: Fine lot of Turquois, Mexico and California. Fine lot of Cobalt minerals. CUT GEMS. We have every known cut gem and semi-precious stones. SCIENTIFIC RUBIES. We have a fine lot of these fine gems, from Paris, from 1/2 to 4 k. Further particulars cheerfully furnished. A. H. PETEREIL, 81—83 Fulton Street, New York City. he ee THE me RICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES] Art. I.—Contributions to the Geology of Rhode Island : I. Notes on the History and Geology of Iron Mine Hill, Cumberland ; by B. L. Jonnson. UU. The Petrography and Mineralogy of Iron Mine Hill, Cumberlund ; by C. H. WARREN. Introduction —During the spring of 1905, one of the authors (Johnson) made a geological study of the occurrence of the ultra-basie, titaniferous rock, familiar to petrographers, _from the publications of Proreccon M. EK. Wadsworth, under the name of cumberlandite. A geological map of the region and a brief petrographical study of the surrounding rocks as well as of the cumberlandite itself was made. The results of this work were presented as a graduating thesis in the geolog- ical option of the course in Mining Engineering at the Massa- -chusetts Institute of Technology. In comparing the results with those of other observers in the field, it was found that a fuller knowledge of the relations existing between the cumberlandite and the surrounding for- mations had been secured, and it was deemed desirable to place these on record. It was also noted that no satisfactory chem- ical analysis of the cumberlandite had ever been made, and that consequently the existing petrographical descriptions are all inadequate for so inter esting and unusual a rock. Accord- ingly, a rather complete petrological study of the rock and its altered forms has been made by one of the authors (Warren), the results of which are also presented in the following pages. Am. Jour. ScI.—FouRTH SERIES, VOL. X XV, No. 145.—January, 1908. 2 Johnson and Warren—Geology of Phode Island. Part I—Wotes on the History and Geology of Iron Mine Hill, Cumberland, R. I. Location and Topography.—The cumberlandite forms a rather conspicuous ridge, known locally as “ Iron Mine Hill,” situated in the northeastern corner of the state of Rhode Island, in the town of Cumberland, and about three miles in a nearly easterly direction from the town of Woonsocket. The locality is easily reached from the latter city by taking a trolley ear marked “ Manville” for a distance of about two miles to a point known as Chipman’s Corner, and thence walking for about a mile due east. The locality may also be reached by leaving the Boston and Providence R.R., Franklin Div., at a station known as “Diamond Hill” and walking thence for about two miles along the main Woonsocket road, ‘taking the first turn to the left and following it for a few rods. An idea of the general topography of the region may be obtained from an examination of the Providence and Franklin quadrangles of the topographical map of the U. 8. Geological Survey. The relief is not great and the hills for the most part rise to approximately the same altitude, which will not exceed much over 100 feet above the surrounding country nor 400 to 500 feet above the sea-level. The country is heavily drift- covered, and much of the present topography is due to the glacial deposits. The area is drained by the Blackstone river, which runs in a southerly direction a mile to the west. Historical. ill composed of a rock of such high density and unusual appearance as the cum- berlandite doubtless attracted attention to it at an early date. That it was a possible ore of iron appears to have been known at the beginning of the eighteenth century, for in 1703 the rock was mixed with hematite from Cranston, R. I., and smelted for iron by one Philip Brown. It is stated that his foundry was located in the town of Cumberland, but just where, the writer has so far been unable to discover. It is also said that a part of the cannon used against Louisburg in 1745 were cast at this forge. From time to time since, mostly in the early and middle part of the present century, attempts have been made to use the rock as an ore of iron by mixing it with high grade ores at many smelters in New York, Pennsylvania, and New England. Old excavations on the side of the hill indicate that a total of at least several thousand tons has been taken out, and according to Professor Shaler, loose bowlders of the rock, which were once abundant on and about the hill, have been extensively collected and shipped away for use as ore and for other purposes. The relatively low percentage of iron (80 to Johnson and Warren—Geology of Rhode Island. 3 32 per cent) in the rock and the high percentage of titanium appear to have prevented any considerable use of it for the production of iron notwithstanding the enormous amount easily available. More recently, the “Cumberland Iron Trap Rock Company” attempted to work the deposits for road-metal and erected a plant for crushing the rock, but for one reason or another the enterprise failed. Many references to the geology, petrology, and economic aspects of the cumberlandite may be found in the literature. For a list of the more important papers the reader is referred to the bibliography which will be found at the end of the article. Dr. Robinson, in his book entitled ‘A Catalog of American Minerals, with their localities,’ published about 1825, writes under “ Cumberland, R. I., magnetic oxide of iron; two miles N.N.E. of the meeting house on the left of the Wrentham road, is an immense bed constituting a hill. Most of this ore is a metalliferous porphyry, having crystals of feldspar in the iron.” Professor Edward Hitchcock in 1833, in his report on the geology of Massachusetts, gives a brief description of the rock and its occurrence. Dr. Charles T. Jackson was, however, the first to give a description of the hill in any detail. In his report on the geology of Rhode Island published in 1840, we find the general dimensions of the hill given and a geological section along a north-south line. He also comments briefly on its origin, expressing the belief that it was “ protruded through the granite and gneiss at the same epoch with the elevation of numerous serpentine veins which occur in this vicinity.” He gives a chemical analysis, the first, it is believed, that is recorded. In 1841 Professor Hitchcock expresses himself as believing that the iron ore should be looked upon as belonging to the metamorphic slates of the region, “or rather lying at their juncture with the unstratified rocks (granites, ete.).” He seems for some reason inclined to the belief that the rock will be found to be strongly impregnated with manganese. Benjamin Silliman, Jr., in reviewing Dr. Jackson’s book shortly after its publication, appears to agree with him as to its origin, and believes that in this respect it may resemble the iron ores of Missouri. In 1869, and again in 1872, Mr. R. H. Thurston published a chemical analysis, the mean of several (source unknown to the author), and seems to have been the first to have mentioned the presence of ilmenite in the rock. Analyses of the ore by one, Dr. Chilton, were also published in the New York Tribune 4 Johnson and Warren—Geology of Rhode Island. of 1873 and reproduce? with slight changes by Mr. Holley in 1879 in the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. He also gives figures for phosphorus, total iron, and silica, as determined at the laboratory of the Bethlehem Steel works. The first good description of the cumberlandite was made by Professor M. E. Wadsworth in 1881. He gives its micro- scopical characteristics for the first time, describing it as a rock composed essentially of olivine, or its alteration products, and titaniferous magnetite, containing locally porphyritically- devel- oped feldspar as an abnormal constituent. He’ concludes that it is a basic eruptive rock. A short historical account of the hill accompanies the description. In 1881, J. D. Dana, reviewing Wadsworth’s paper, con- cludes that the “ Rhode Island magnetite is also of metamor- phic origin,” basing his conclusion partly on Wadsworth’s statement that the nearest rock is a mica schist some hundreds of feet distant, and partly on a comparison of the occurrence with those of certain New Jersey magnetite deposits to which a metamorphic origin was assigned by Professor C. H. Cook. In 1884 Wadsworth published his “ Lithological Studies,” etc., and in them he devotes considerable space to the macro- and microscopic description of the rock. He classes it asa “ Terrestrial Pallasite,” viz.,a rock possessing a texture similar to the meteorites and composed of a sporge-like matrix of native iron, pyrrhotite, or their secondary products such as magnetite, enclosing olivine with or without other accessory miner als. He expresses the belief that the matrix, in the present case magnetite, will be found to pass in depth into the unoxidized metallic iron. He proposed the name Cumberlandite for this and closely similar rocks. The altered types of the cumber- landite are described in some detail in this paper as well as the feldspathic, original type. He seems here to have looked upon the feldspar as an abnormal constituent of the rock. In an appendix he gives a tabulated list of the existing analyses, but makes no particular use of them, doubtless recognizing their poor character. Dr. Wadsworth seems later to have become aware of the original role of the feldspar in the rock and its subsequent replacement by alteration products, for in 1889 he writes of it,—‘‘ a rock composed of a spongiform mass of titan- iferous magnetite, containing abundant olivine and more or less feldspar. This is the ore in its unchanged condition as found on one side of the hill, but it passes into more altered forms on the topand other side. In the altered forms the feld- spar and olivine are changed to serpentine, actinolite, and even into tale and dolomite, while the magnetite is diminished in quantity. In the hand: specimens the least altered condition Johnson and Warren—Geology of [?hede Island. 5 shows as a dark resinous, crystalline, splintery and compact mass, holding porphyritically enclosed feldspar. This, in the altered forms, passes into a rock, having the same oroundmass but with the feldspar altered into patches of a dar ke green, fine- grained, serpentine product. By further alteration the rock changes to a dark grey, serpentinous rock, spotted with the decomposition produets of iron. In the altered forms short brilliant erystals of actinolite are to be seen and the rock often shows a schistose structure.” Again in 1893 he again refers to the cumberlandite in one of his reports to the Michigan Geological Survey and gives two analyses by Protessor R. L. Packard to show the general composition of the rock. These analyses are the best analyses of the rock heretofore made, and appear to be essentially cor- rect except for certain omissions, notably the alkalis. time Theory Found No. grm. em® percent hr. mi. grm. grm. per cent ( 1) 50 300 epi 3 61°48 trace ( 2) 50 200 1°25 3 30 61°48 50°88 82°8 ( 3) 50 200 1°25 4 61°48 rays Waray) 83°8 ( 4) 50 200 10 3 61°48 52°60 85°9 ( oO 200 25 3 61°48 47°12 76°6 B 200 Le25 1 f ° . o9) ( 6) 50 200 1:95 1 30 61°48 : 43°80 ak - _ 200 2/5 2 Ne é pape ( 7) 50 900 1:95 9 61°48 48°78 79°3 e 200 1°25 2 30 : ae : ( 8) 50 200 1:95 9 30) 61:48 49°70 80°8 200 10 ] 2 : ( 9) 50 200 10 9 61°48 52°17 84:9 _ 200 10 1 ° De 8 oy (10) 50 900 10 9 61°48 52°48 85°4 200 10 i 30 . Pidpie oy) (11) 50 2.00 10 3 61°48 52°89 86°2 200 10 2 10 9) “4 . RAeQH of (12 50 200 10 3 30 61°48 54°85 89°2 Ss 200 25 2 30 ‘ s ne (13) 50 200 on 9 30 61°48 54°89 89°35 200 10 2 (14) 50 . 200 10 1 30 61°48 55°34 90:0 200 10 2 30 200 25 2, othe (15) 50 200 25 3 a 61°48 DOOM 90°4 200 25 5} 30 To learn whether any traces of benzoic ester had been car- ried along with the alcoholic vapors to the condenser during 42, Phelps and Osborne—Ksterification of Benzoic Acid. esterification, the acid alcoholic distillate was chilled with ice, diluted with three or four times its volume of water, and shaken out three times in a separating funnel with fresh por- tions of ether. The ethereal solution thus obtained was treated with an excess of sodium carbonate in solution, washed with distilled water and fractioned 7m vacuo in the manner described above, to separate the low-boiling impurities, largely ether, alcohol, and water, and finally to distil any benzoic ester. The distillates in case of experiments (2), (4), (6), (8), (10) and (13) of Table I were tested in this way. In no ease was there evidence of even the faintest trace of benzoic ester in the dis- tillate. When 1 grm. of benzoic ester was mixed with 200° of ordinary alcohol containing 1 per cent of hydrochloric acid, diluted, and treated as described in case of the distillates men- tioned above, it was found that ester to the amount of 0°85 orm. was recovered. The sources of loss in the recovery of benzoic ester were studied. When 75 grm. of pure benzoic ester were shaken out in a separating funnel with a solution of sodium carbonate containing ice, separated from this solution, washed with dis- tilled water, and united with the portions of ester carried on mechanically and recovered from the water solutions by shak- ing out three times with fresh portions of ether, it was found that the weight of ester recovered on distilling the ethereal solution under dinumished pressure was less than the amount taken by only 0°25 grm. In all of the experiments of Table I alcohol as free from water as it can be made by repeated distillations over calcium oxide was used. This was used alone or was charged with dry hydrochloric acid in the proportions indicated in the table. In experiment (1) of Table I all low-boiling impurities were removed from the material remaining in the second flask by a vacuum fractionation. Then all material that would distil at the higher heat (150°) of the acid bath was collected in the 100™" flask. After diluting this material with water, extract- ing with ether three times and fractioning 7 vacuo, it was found that only enough benzoic ester remained in the receiver to give odor. In the remaining experiments of series A of the table the ester found in the second flask at the end of me time indicated was recovered without further treatment: 1 series B water and all other material found with the ester were removed so far as possible by fractioning in vacuo. This was done by heating the flask in which esterification took place in a water bath finally at 60° with the pressure on the manometer registering 15™", this pressure and temperature being main- tained fifteen minutes. A fresh portion of alcohol with hydrochloric acid was then driven into the portion remaining Phelps and Osborne—Esterification of Benzoie Acid. 43 in the flask, as was done when the first masses of benzoic acid were esterified. In case of experiments (14) and (15) the vacuum fractionation was repeated, and a third portion of the alcoholic mixture was driven as before into the esterifying mass. It would seem from experiment (1) of series A of Table I that under the conditions imposed the esterification of benzoic acid with ethyl alcohol alone does not proceed far enough to pro- duce benzoic ester in appreciable amounts. The presence of hydrochloric acid as shown by the remaining experiments of series A causes the esterification to proceed, but so large an amount of it as 25 per cent is not advantageous if the time of sending all vapors into the esterifying mass is the same in all cases; for, it was observed that on heating the alcoholic hydro- chlorie acid of so high concentration as 25 per cent only the acid was driven over during the first part of the experiment, and consequently the time of the action of the alcohol on the benzoic acid was made correspondingly shorter. Results in series B seem to indicate that removing by a vacuum fraction- ation the water formed during the esterification that takes place with a given alcoholic mixture driven more rapidly into the flask containing the benzoic acid is not so efficient in pro- ducing esterification as is allowing half that amount of alcoholic vapor “with the hydrochloric acid to act for the same interval. This is shown by comparing (38) with (7), and (4) with (9) and (10), although in the last cases the difference is not so marked as perhaps might be expected from a consideration of the amounts of hydrochloric acid introduced. The difference in the yield where 25 per cent acid was used, in experiments (5) and (13), is due probably to the difference in the times during which the alcoholic mixture was passing into the flask contain- ing the benzoic acid. Experiments (14) and (15) seem to indicate that with the concentrations used, removing the water a second time does not increase the efficiency of the | process for the same time of action, even though more of the alcoholic mixture is used. This is seen by comparing experiments (12) and (14). On comparing (13) and (15) it is seen that neither increasing the amount of alcohol, lengthening the time beyond three hours, nor removing the water a second time materially helps esterification. It seems clear that the complete esteritfica- tion of a given mass of benzoic acid with ethyl aleohol and hydrochloric acid would be a matter of some difficulty. All of the experiments of series A in Table II show the action of zine chloride in assisting the esterification of benzoic acid with alcohol alone as well as with the same alcoholic mix- tures used for the work given in Table I; and in series B the action of zine chloride in ethyl alcohol of 88°8 per cent purity 44 Phelps and Osborne—Esterification of Benzoic Acid. made to contain 1°25 per cent of hydrochloric acid by the addi- tion of enough pure, concentrated, aqueous hydrochloric acid is given. The benzoic acid was esterified in the apparatus described above for the experiments recorded in Table I. In experiments (1) to (9) and (19) the ester was purified in the same way as. stated above for the experiments in Table I. In all remaining experiments excepting (10) in which zine chloride was present in amounts larger than 1 grm., the process of purification was the same excepting that the mass was washed as free from zine salt as possible by shak- ing in the separating funnel with water before neutralizing with sodium carbonate. In experiment (10) the process of purification was peculiar: after all the aleohol had been driven over into the second flask the mass of material was freed from low-boiling impurities by a vacuum fractionation, then what- ever ester had been produced was distilled into the receiver by heating the 250° flask to 150° for some time, the ester was extracted with ether from this solution after ‘diluting with water, the extract was fractioned zm vacwo, and the ester recovered in this way was weighed. It is evident from experiment (10) of Table II that zine chloride with ethyl alcohol esterifies benzoic acid only in small amount. In presence of hydrochloric acid, however, it tends to make the esterification more complete. In experiment (8) of Table IL the presence of 0°5 grm. of zine chloride so influences the course of action that a yield of benzoic ester greater by 2°8 per cent is obtained in half the time from given amounts of ethyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid than in experi- ment (3) of Table I, where conditions were otherwise similar. In experiment (1) of Table II, in the presence of 1 grm. of zine chloride, in a little more than half the time and with twenty per cent of the hydrochloric acid, the amount of alcohol being the same, the yield was larger by 1-1 per cent than in experiment (2) of Table I. | In experiment (3) of Table I, in the presence of 0°5 grm. of zine chloride and in a little more than half the time, the increase in the yield amounted to 3°8 per cent over that obtained in experiment (2) of Table I under conditions otherwise similar. In experiment (8) of Table II, in which 10 per cent of hydrochloric acid and 1 grm. of zine chloride were used, the amount of alcohol being the same, there is an increase of 6-4 per cent of ester over the amount found in experiment (4) of Table I, although the time is a third less. In experiment (12), in which 10 erm. of zinc chloride were used, the yield is 13 per cent better than in experiment (4) of Table ‘I, made under conditions otherwise similar. A comparison of experiment (15) of Table II with (5) of Table I shows that, with 10 grm. of zine chloride and Phelps and Osborne—Esterification of Benzoic Acid. 45 TaBLeE II. A Benzoie ester Benzoic Aleohol with HCl Reaction — —~— — acid ZnCl, — —-—— time Theory Found Per No. grm. grm. em®. percent hr. mi. grm. grm. cent ( 1) 50 1 ee ee 9 61°48 51°58 83:9 Cec ea 61-48 56-71 92-2 ( 3) 50 0°5 200 1°25 2 61:48 53:26 86:6 ( 4) 50 i 200 1°25 50 CIA Saw 4A Sil 71.29 ( 5) 50 1 200 1325 2 61°48 52°86 86:0 ( 6) 50 1 300 IL SO2t5) 2 BMCabey AOS <= BXG°33 ( 7) 50 1 300 2 3 61:48 60°27 98:0 ( 8) SO 1 200 10 2 6L:48 °° 56°73 — 92:3 ( 9) 50 1 ZO OVS 25 2. CIA Sr oN A Sey SS7 (10) 50 10 300 One 1 30 61°48 0°86 1°4 Gi) 5.0: 10 200 N25 50 61:48 53°42 869 (12) 50 10 200 1°25 2 61:48 60°79 98:9 ((TES3)) XO) My S210) 309 1 265 2 30 61°48 60°91 99-1 (14) 50 10 200 10 2 61°48 53°18 86°5 (15) 50 10 200 25 2 61°48 55°23 89:8 (16) 50 10 400 Le 4 61°48 61°48 1000 (17) 50 25 200 1°25 1 30 GIRASY Vo 2 308 V8 oe: (18) 50 25 200 1 W55 5 61:48 53°30) 867% B (19) 50 1 200 12.5 2, 61°48 38:10 62:0 (20) 50 10 200 1°25 2 61°48 52°40 85:2 (21) 50 10 400 1°25 2 45 G48. 53°33" 186°8 (22) 50 10 400 1°25 5 61°48 56°48 91°8 (23) 50 25 200 1G) 2 61°48 52°83 85°9 the same amounts of alcohol containing 25 per cent of hydro- chloric acid, the esterification is better by 13°2 per cent in one- third less time. In studying the results recorded in Table II, a comparison of experiments (4) with (5), (6) with (7), (11) with (12), (17) with (18), and (21) with (22) shows that esterification is more complete if the time of the reaction is reasonably prolonged. It is not possible to control suitably a uniform flow of vapors to the second flask if the action is very greatly prolonged. The total amount of alcohol passed in a given time into the second flask regulates the yield of ester, as is seen from a com- parison of experiments (5) and (6). The amount of zinc chloride, in the concentrations used, affects the amount of the final product, as is shown in comparing (8) and (5) with (12), and (4) with (11). The increase of zine chloride to 25 grm. does not seem to offer any advantage over the use of 10 grm., as is 46 Phelps and Osborne—Esterification of Benzoic Acid. evident from a comparison of (17) and (18) with (12), and of (20) with (23). If certain concentrations of zine chloride and hydrochloric acid are taken with a suitable amount of alcohol it is possible to obtain yields of ester’ either theoretical or very nearly so, as is seen in (12), (13) and (16). With greater con- centrations of mineral acid ‘and the same amount of zine chloride more alcohol and longer time for the esterification are required. With asmaller amount of zine chloride more alcohol and a longer time are necessary to obtain equally desirable results. From a comparison of the results in series A with those of series B it is clear that the alcoholic mixture made of alcohol TABLE III. A Benzoic ester Benzoic Reaction = —— — acid Alcohol H.SO, time Theory Found No. grm. em? germ. ages) Saeut, germ. grm. per cent (1) 50 200 0°5 2 20 61°48 56°14 91-3 ( PN) 0) 300 O°5 2 30 61°48 59°82 97°3 ( 3) 50 200 1 45 61°48 50°59 82°3 ( 4) 50 200 1 2 30 61°48 61°15 99°5 ( 5) 50 300 ] 45 61°48 53°43 86°9 (6) 50 100 2 2 61°48 55°80 90°8 (Cm) 200 2 45 61°48 60°18 97°9 ( 8) 50 200 2 3 61°48 61°52 100°0 ( GO 200 2 3 15 61°48 61°83 100°0 (10) 50 120 10 ] 45 61°48 58°38 95°0 (11) 50 200 pS) 5 20 61°48 57°81 94°0 (12) 50 200 50 3 61°48 57:81 94-0 (13) 50 200 50 3 61°48 57°88 94:2 (14) 50 ae 20 ; 6148 59°95 97:5 B (15) 50 300 2 3 61°48 58°00 94°3 (16) 50 300 2 3 61°48 57°98 94°3 (MN )), $530) 300 50 3 61°48 53°11 86°4 of 88°8 per cent purity does not esterify the benzoic acid as completely as does the purer alcohol. The time during which esterification goes on is also a factor. By comparing (20) and (21) it is seen that the yield of ester is increased 5 per cent by increasing the time during which the reaction was allowed to take place. It is clear here, too, that the increase, within limits, in the proportion of zine chloride to the other reagents produces a larger amount of ester, as may be seen by compar- ing (18), (19) and (22). Phelps and Osborne—Esterrfication of Benzoie Acid. 47 In the work given in Table III the arrangement of flasks described above was made use of; and the ester was recovered as stated above except in case of experiments (13) and (17), where the mass of impure ester was shaken in the separating funnel with ice before neutralizing with sodium carbonate in solution, and the strongly acid wash water was neutralized with sodium carbonate before extracting with ether. In the experiments of series A ethyl alcohol made as free from water as possible was used, and in those of series B alcohol 88-8 per cent pure. It was observed that ethyl ether could be detected by its characteristic odor in the distillate, and the amount seemed to be proportional to the quantity of sulphuric acid used. From the results recorded it is evident here, also, that the esterification goes on slowly. For, though a larger amount of alcohol is used in experiment (5), 13-4 per cent less of ester is obtained than in (4), where the time was more than ‘three times as long. Too great concentration of the mineral acid is not desirable, and this becomes obvious when experi- ments (8) and (9) are compared with (12) and (13), or when (15) and (16) are compared with (17). For some reason, with the absolute alcohol the greater concentration of the sulphuric acid has diminished the yield 6 per cent from the theoretical yield obtained under the other conditions, and with alcohol of 88°S per cent purity 8 per cent less of the ester is obtained. In experiments (13) and (17) the mass of sulphuric acid was removed by shaking first th ice before neutralizing with sodium carbonate. It is interesting to note that in a given time, as is seen in experiments (5) and (7), that with a smaller amount of alcohol and twice as much sulphurie acid the ester produced is 11 per cent greater; in experiments (7), (8), and (9) it is interesting to see that with the same proportions of all reagents the increase of time is alone enough to completely esterify all of the benzoic acid. In comparing (11) and (14) it is seen that the vacuum fractionation seems to have been advantageous. From the experiments of series B, where a larger amount of 88°8 per cent alcohol was used with 2 grm. of sulphuric acid, the yield is almost 6 per cent poorer than in the cases where, with other conditions remaining the same, it was theoretical, and 8 per cent poorer where the larger masses of sulphuric acid were used. Although the impure ester was always treated with an excess of sodium carbonate and the shaking vigorous and prolonged for some minutes to neutralize all acidic substances, it was sometimes found that the ester held a small amount of benzoic acid. This showed itself as a residue in the flask from which the ester was distilled under diminished pressure. It was identified by the melting point, 121°, after recrystallizing from 48 Phelps and Osborne—KEsterification of Benzoic Acid. water. This was done in experiment (8) of Table I, (14) of Table II, and (16) of Table III. Special tests were made to ascertain whether the ester might contain condensation products. The boiling point observed on redistillation of the ester obtained in experiment (8) of Table II was found to be constant within two-tenths of a degree. There was no evidence of condensation products of higher boiling point in the material remaining in the flask from which the ester was distilled. Nor were indications of material of differ- ent character obtained in redistilling the combined products of all remaining experiments recor ded in this paper. ‘The experi- ence was similar when the crude ester produced in presence of 25 grm. of zine chloride was distilled at once after shaking with water in a separating funnel. Seventy-five grams of redistilled ethyl benzoic ester boiling within two-tenths of a degree were treated for three-quarters of an hour in the apparatus for esterification, in presence of 25 grm. of zine chloride with 200° of absolute alcohol containing 1°25 per cent of hydrochloric acid, and then recovered in the usual way. The recovered product weighed 74:7 grm., and upon redistilla- tion it appeared to be pure ethyl benzoate. It is evident that in esterifying benzoic acid by the use of ethyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid, or ethyl alcohol and zine chloride with hydrochloric acid, the amount of ethyl benzoate produced will, naturally, vary with the proportions of the reagents used and with the time during which the action takes place. Further, with the time of action given and such pro- portions as are here used, if the conditions as to the amount of alcohol in the first place, the amount of either hydrochloric acid, zine chloride and hydrochloric acid, or sulphuric acid in the second case, and the length of time of the action in the third case are considered by themselves, it appears that, within limits, an increase in the proportion of any allows a falling off — in the proportion of any other of these. Finally, it is plain that with certain proportions of reagents and sufficient time of action, a quantitative yield, or nearly such, of ethyl benzoic ester is easily obtainable. In our experiments the yield of ester never exceeded 90 per cent when benzoic acid, alcohol, and hydrochloric acid’ were the reagents. The theoretical yield was obtained when 50 grm. of benzoic acid and 2 germ. of sulphuric acid were treated for three hours with 200™ of absolute alcohol, or for four hours with 400° of absolute alcohol charged with 1:25 per cent of hydrochloric acid and 10 grm. of zine chloride. Howell— Description of the Williamstown Meteorite. 49 Art. III.— Description of the Williamstown Meteorite ; by Epwin EH. Hows tt. Tuts siderite was secured from A. E. Ashcraft, who found it April 25, 1892, on his farm in Grant Co., Kentucky, three miles north of Williamstown. It is a thin flat rectangular mass, measuring 12X16 inches; it is 24+ inches thick in the center thinning to a blunt edge at either end, looking not unlike a large double- -edeed vax.) Whe total ‘Weight of the mass was 68 lbs., or about 31 kilos, and had a specific gravity of 81. It was entire when it reached me with the exception of a few ounces broken from one of the thin edges. We have cut the iron into a number of sections which etch very readily, show- ing it to be a typical octahedrite, of medium coarseness, as seen in the accompanying full-size cut of one of the smaller sections. It will be seen from this cut also that the kamacite bands are massed together to a con- siderable extent, leaving an unusually small number of pless- ite blocks; these when deeply etched are seen to be crossed by minute parallel, broken threads of teenite. In addition to the three regular distinet systems of kamacite bands there is another, less regular, system of broader bands averaging in width about 8™™, which cross the other bands, uninterruptedly in some cases, for a distance of fee ellie apparent thickness of these bands is greatly exagger- ated by the angle at which they are cut. Comparison of sections shows that while the other systems are cut at approximately Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourtn Serises, Vout. XXV, No. 145.—January, 1908. 4 50 LHowell—Description of the Williamstown Meteorite. right angles, these broader bands are cut at an angle of 60° or 70°, which would seem to show that in reality ‘they are no thicker than the others. Unfortunately our cut shows these bands but faintly. Troilite seemes to be pretty generally distributed through the mass, but mostly in very small grains, although the cuttings revealed one nodule # inches in diameter and - two others of about $ inch each. The total amount of this mineral, however, is small, as might have been inferred from the specitic gravity, and the general smoothness of the surface. I am indebted to Mr. Wirt Tassin of the U. 8S. National Museum for a chemical analysis of this iron and some notes on its structure as follows: = The structure of the etched face is octahedral. The three alloys—kamacite, teenite and plessite—are present. The kama- cite bands are of average length, and the lamellae vary in width from 0*5 to 15°", ~The teenite bands are of capillary size and are often irregular in trend and distribution. Occasionally the fairly uniform crystalline structure is interrupted by broad irregular bands which have a length about twice that of their width. Here and there are nodules of troilite, some of which enclose carbonaceous matter. These troilite nodules are usually bounded by a thin line of schreibersite. The material available for analysis gave :— IS) ie ae ee tei ome penta 91°54 SN eae ee ech AE ah ok a oa 7°26 (CO se eee See oe een e 0°52 LOT eae Detatese ts Man ts seer ire ry 0°03 Cink shies ha chee aa wees Ca (OEO is | BAe ce oben pew VE tap en hes a eh 0°12 RS ea ee Tae eee emma (abr Cysts a en a te ee 0-004 Slee aed Brahe (ey ys nee trace 99°694 T. D. A. Cockerel—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. 51 Arr. IV.—Deseriptions of Tertiary Insects; by T. D. A. CocKERELL. (1) A CorEorrErRous Larva FROM THE GREEN RIVER SHALES. Tue larva here described occurs in the red shales of Green River, Wyoming, and is represented in the Yale University Museum by a good specimen, with the reverse. The name of the collector is unknown. In appearance the insect very closely resembles the larva of Carabus truncaticollis Fisch., well figured by Kincaid in Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 2, pl. "xxii. Carabites kincaidi sp. nov. Fig. Length about 22™", width in the middle a trifle over 4, dl 2 3 Figs. 1, 2. Platypedia primigenia x 2. Fig. 38. Carabites kincaidi x 2. narrowing somewhat caudally, the widest point however a little posterior to the middle; head small, about 13™" diameter ; pronotum about 3”™ broad and 2@™ long, thus "much shorter than in modern Carabus, and not especially differentiated from the other segments ; seoments formed as in Carabus, more than twice as broad as long, with the lateral hind margins angulate in the same manner and degree as in C. truncaticollis. The segments. are dark, with the sections colorless, and there are indications of a median longitudinal light line. The details of the caudal end cannot be made out. 52 T. D. A. Cockerell—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. This may well be the larva of the genus Veothanes Seudder, described from the Green River beds : but as this cannot be demonstrated, I leave it in the blanket venus Carabites. It is dedicated to ‘Ghe writer who first described and figured the larva of an American Carabus. It is to be remarked that the Mormolucoides articulatus Hitcheock, from the Trias of Turner’s Falls, Mass., is extraor- dinarily like a Carabid lar va, and resembles the present insect in the relatively small head and short prothorax. The lateral hind corners of the segments in the J/ormolucoides are very much more produced, herein agreeing better with the larva of Silpha. (2) A Cicapa From FLORISSANT, COLORADO. Platypedia primigenia sp. nov. Figs. 1, 2. Length about 23™™ (the apex of abdomen is lost); thorax 9™™ long and 8 high | deep); compared with the living P. putname Uhler, the body i is larger and more robust, and the head is directed downwards , 80 that the frontal outline, in lateral view, is much more nearly vertical ; the robust anterior legs are well preserved, and appear to be asin P. putnam? ; as in the living species, the femora are black, and the coxee, seen from behind, pallid; length of anterior femur and coxa 4", of tibia 31. wings hyaline, with dark veins, as in the recent species, the large triangular second ulnar cell being normal for the genus. Com par ed with P. putnam, the following differences in the details of the venation are apparent : (1) The fourth apical cell has its inner point lower, so that the lower side of its basal end is not quite half as long as the upper. (2) The seventh apical is narrower, its length being at least twice its breadth. (3) The eighth apical is longer. Florissant, Station 14 (Wiimatte P. Cockerell, 1907). One specimen, with reverse, in Yale University Museum. P. putnami Uliler is found in Colorado to-day; a specimen before me was collected by Mr. C. DeVoss in Gregory Jafion, Boulder Co., Colorado, July, 1907. ye primigenia will be easily known from Lithocicada perita Ckll. by the shape of the eighth apical cell, and from Cicada grandiosa Scudd. by the much smaller size. Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. 53 Art. V.—The Stratigraphy of the Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico ;* by H. W. Suimer and Mirprep E. Broperrr. Intreduction Description of localities Summary Description of species Summary INTRODUCTION. Tuts paper grew out of a week’s trip in central New Mexico from Albuquerque to Great Neck and Cabezon, remnants of | mldbezon j Shaw SE *The field work was done by the seniorauthor in connection with a geolog- ical excursion through New Mexico, Arizona, and Utahin the summer of 1906. The trip was largely made possible through the kindness of the Mass. Insti- tute of Technology, Harvard University, and private individuals. 54 Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. ancient voleanoes. After leaving the Albuquerque mesa (Ter- tiary) the only sedimentary rocks crossed were grayish brown Cretaceous sandstones and shales. These strata have the slight but prevailingly northerly dip of the plateau province, except where given a westerly dip through the influence of the Naci- miento mountain uplift to the east. This slight dip helps to make the country one of flat-topped mesas and ‘broad level val- leys; to this general appearance the old level flood plain of the Rio Puerco contributes. The mesas are frequently capped with lava flows. Projecting up through these strata in the Puerco valley, west and northwest of Prieta mesa, are the many volcanic necks and dikes for which this region is famous.* These strata are mostly unfossiliferous, but when remains of organisms do occur they are present in considerable numbers ; 5 exemples of such fossil-bearing horizons are the “gastropod zone” and the “cephalopod zone,” as given in the generalized sections of Herrick and Johnson. } In the region traversed the most conspicuous zone wasa well- marked bed of friable shale, frequently 25 to 50 feet thick, carrying calcareous concretions (septaria) and bearing both in the concretions and in the surrounding bed an abundant fauna, consisting mainly of well preserved cephalopods , gastropods and pelecy pods. The concretions average 1$ to 3 feet in diameter and are seamed by dark calcite bands. They consist of a yellowish-brown shale with a calcareous cement. In all the sections examined this zone occurs between beds of a dark, friable, easily eroded shale. The shale above has a thickness of 50 to 75 feet and is capped by a 5 to 10-foot bed of a brownish yellow sandstone ; this latter, being more resistant than the dark shale below, caps t the cliffs. The septaria zone shows at times as the top ‘of a cliff but more usually as a line of small hummocks, due to the fact that the septaria weather more slowly than the embedding shales. Upon this series of beds rests to the west about 100 feet of mle shale, capped by about 50 feet of very resistant sandstone. These characters of the septaria zone remain approximately constant wherever examined,—the northwest corner of the Albuquerque sheet, the southwest portion of the Jemez sheet, and the eastern part of the Mt. Taylorsheet. The more detailed descnipi ons of the various portions are given below. * A paper on these necks by Douglas W. Johnson will appear in the bulletin of the G. 8. A. +C. L. Herrick andD. W. Johnson. The geology of the Albuquerque sheet, Bull. Univ. New Mexico, vol. ii, part 1. Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. 5d Fossils were collected at Great Neck, Neck 14 (a mile south- west of Casa Salazar), Neck 3, and at three localities on the road southeast of Cabezon. Description of Localities. Great Neck.—The almost horizontal Cretaceous strata show at its base the septaria zone with a thickness of about 50 feet The septaria zone south of Salazar; the septaria lie weathered out upon the surface. occupying the upper portion. The only fossil found here was Gryphea newberryi Stanton. This was found below the sep- taria zone in the plain at the foot of Great Neck. As viewed from the foot of Great Neck, the strata at the sides of Chivato and Prieta mesas dip gently north. Upon their beveled edges rest remnants of the once extensive lava flows. The septaria zone at Great Neck is about 700 feet higher, according to the map contours, than at Salazar, eight miles north, where it is found at the level of the town. From Great Neck to Salazar its thickness of about 50 feet continues rather constant. It is below the middle of a dark shale about 100 feet thick; this shale is capped by a more nese sandy bed of 10 feet (this is the top bed of fig. 2). Neck 8, south of Salazar, has Gretaceous strata extending almost to the top on the eastern side. The septaria zone lies at its base. Salazar. — Fossils were collected from the septaria zone at 56 Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. the base of the agglomerate neck illustrated in fig. 2, on the western side of the road. This neck is composed almost en- tirely of agglomerate with very many huge bowlders of sandstone, shale, ete. The approximately horizontal shaly sandstone of 2 A volcanic neck of agglomerate, one mile southwest of Salazar. The septaria bed is somewhat in the foreground. The black shale occupies the main portion of the slope and is capped by a resistant sandy bed. the surrounding strata has been baked black for three feet from the neck. The fossils identified from this locality were: — Placenticeras ? rotundatum Johnson ? Prionocyclus wyomingensis Meek Lima utahensis Stanton Stantonoceras stantoni Johnson Scaphites sp. Turritella whitei var. stantoni 8. and B. ? Ostrea lugubris Conrad Turritella whitei and Ostrea lugubris, according to Stanton, do not occur above the Colorado formation. Prionocyclus wyomingensis is characteristic of the Fort Benton. Lima utahensis occurs with a Colorado fauna in the upper Kanab valley, Utah. Placenticeras ? rotundatum is found by Johnson in the Fort Pierre of the Cerrillos Hills, New Mexico, while Shimer and Blodgett— Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. 57 he cites Stantonoceras stantoni as from strata of Cretaceous age. The fauna is thus of undoubted Colorado age, though the presence of the Placenticeras ? rotundatum would indicate that it was not of the lowest Fort Benton. The slight northerly dip of these beds causes the septaria zone with its capping of sandstone, seen immediately south of Salazar at about the level of the town, to disappear a short distance north of the town beneath the flood plain of the Rio Puerco. The succeeding strata thus brought into view consist of an alter- nation of dark shales and brownish yellow shaly sandstones. This alternation continues practically to the divide southwest of Cabezon peak with a much greater predominance of sandstone in the upper beds entered to the north. Thus asthe river flows south it enters lower and lower beds. Neck 3.— At the eastern side of this neck some fossils were collected from the strata on the western side of the road at distances varying from 30 to 100 feet from the base of the neck. These fossiliferous beds are yellowish shaly sandstones. The following fossils were found here : Trigonarca depressa White Lucina cf. subundata H. and M. Preria linguiformis (K. and 8.) Solemya ? obscura Stanton Pinna sp. Actwon propinquus Stanton Plant remains in extremely minute fragments are very abun- dant in many strata. Actwon propinguus and Solemya ? obscura were found by Stanton in the Pugnellus sandstone (upper Fort Benton) of Colorado, and thus are there characteristic of the Fort Benton. Pteria linguifor mis is of Montana age and the type of Lucina subundata of Fort Pierre, though this latter is found at U pper Kanab, associated also with a Colorado fauna. Zrigonarca depressa las apparently not been found outside the valley of the Rio Puerco; the type was found in lower strata six miles south of Salazar on the east side of the river. While thus two species are characteristic of the upper Fort Benton and one of the Montana, with one occurring in both, an uppermost Fort Benton age for the fauna would appear to ‘be indicated, unless we suppose that the apparent absence of clear water here dur- ing Niobrara time would cause the absence of the typical Nio- brara fauna and a persistence of the Fort Benton fauna to Montana times. These strata under such a supposition might represent the Niobrara time without the typical Niobrara fauna. fossiliferous stations southeast of Cabezon peak.—A little northeast of Prieta mesa, as the road enters the Jemez sheet, and thence to Sierrita mesa, the strata have a slight westerly 58 Shimer und Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. dip ; this dip increases toward the Nacimiento mountains lying to the east. Thus under the influence of the Nacimiento moun- tain uplift, these strata have a westerly dip practically to the western limits of the Albuquerque and Jemez sheets, though at this distance from the mountains it is very faint. West of ‘this, the strata take again the slight but dominant northward dip characteristic of the plateau strata as a whole, lying north of the old land of southern New Mexico and Arizona. A fossiliferous septaria zone appears again on the southwest- ern corner of the Jemez sheet (locality AD, It forms a solid stratum about five feet thick and occurs in the midst of a dark shale which is capped by a thin sandstone stratum. Above this sandstone to the west is seen the steep eastern face of another dark shale capped by a thick, heavy-bedded sandstone. The two following fossils were found in this locality : Prionotropis woolgari (Mantell) Placenticeras placenta (Dekay) The first species is a good Fort Benton index fossil. The second, though much more characteristic of the Montana, is also rarely found in the Colorado formation. These fossils thus in- dicate an age not earlier than upper Fort Benton. ‘This finds confirmation in the presence of the Fort Pierre species, Astarte evansi, in but shghtly higher strata to the northwest, though this would leave but little thickness for the presence of Niobrara between. Along the Cabezon road a short distance east of Cabezon peak, aspecimen of Astarte evansi (H, and M.) Whitfield was found in thin-bedded sandstone. This species, so far as the writers know, is restricted to the Fort Pierre. On the northwestern portion of the Albuquerque sheet at locality B the following section was noted : Brownish yellow sandstone ; fossiliferous -_--10 feet. Yellow shales ; Roasitiarena : Tin aiy,enS eae se 30 feet. Black shale ; apparently unfossiliferous .__. ..20 feet. The following fossils were collected here: Gryphea newberryi Stanton Inoceranvus lubiatus (Schlotheim) I. dimidius var. labiatoides 8. and B. ? Yoldia subelliptica Stanton Anomia propatoris White Ostrea lugubris Conrad O. anomioides var. nanus Johnson Cardium pauperculum Meek Turritella whitei var. stantoni 8. and B. Lunatia concinna (H. and M.) Prioniropis hyatti Stanton P. woolgari (Mantell) Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. 59 Of these fossils the following are cited by Stanton* as not ranging above the Colorado: Gryphea newberryi, [nocera- mus labiatus, L. dimidius, Ostrea lugubris, Cardium pau-- perculum, this is also true of the genus Prionotropis, while P. woolgari is characteristic of the Fort Benton. Yoldia sub- elliptica and Anomia propatoris are characteristic of the Pug- nellus sandstone (upper Fort Benton) in Colorado. Lunatia concinna occurs in the upper Kanab valley in Utah associated with a Colorado fauna. Ostrea anomioides var. nanus has been found only in the Fort Pierre of the Cerrillos Hills, New Mexico.+ Thus all except the last indicate a Colorado age for the strata, while the presence of this last variety and the forms characteristic of the Pugnellus sandstone give it a late Fort Benton aspect. Summary. The area under consideration is near the central part of New Mexico and is mapped on the eastern edge of the Mt. Taylor sheet and the southwestern and northwestern corners respectively of the Jemez and Albuquerque sheets. The road traveled followed up the Puerco river valley, on the western side of the Prieta mesa, as far as the village of Cabezon, thence bending southeast down the eastern side of the mesa. A well-marked zone bearing calcareous septaria was observed along the western side of the mesa from the base of Great Neck near contour line 6500, north to Salazar at contour line 5800, where it disappears from view beneath the old flood plain of the Rio Puerco. The fossils collected from this zone show the strata to be of Colorado age, probably of the Fort Benton. A fossiliferous zone likewise characterized by septaria sim- ilar to those on the western side of the Prieta mesa was noted on the northeastern side. The fauna, however, is entirely dif- ferent from that on the opposite side and the beds were found at an altitude 300 feet higher than that southwest of Salazar,— a difference too great to be offset by the slight westerly dip. Hence it is evident that at least two septaria zones are pres- ent in the Cretaceous strata of the Puerco valley, though in no one place were two such zones noted even in sections of a thousand feet. Evidence of still another such zoue is sug- gested in the almost totally distinct fauna of the “cephalopod zone” mentioned by Herrick and Johnson as occurring on the southwest corner of the Albuquerque sheet. Their faunal list is as follows: *U.8.G. 8. Bull. 106, p. 48. +D. W. Johnson, Geology of the Cerrillos Hills, New Mexico School of Mines Quart. 1903, Jan.-Oct. 60 Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. Ostrea lugubris Conrad O. translucida M, and H. ?O. sannionensis White Caryates veta Whitfield Pinna petrina White Sphenodiscus lenticulare (Owen) Buchiceras swallovi (Shumard) Placenticeras placenta (Dekay) P. costata Herrick and Johnson Eeogyra leviuscula Roemer = E.. columbella Meek Liopistha concentrica Stanton Camptonectes symmetricus Herrick and Johnson Baculites gracilis Shumard Prionotropis woolgari (Mantell) The strata vary in age from the Fort Benton at Great Neck to doubtful Fort Pierre east of Cabezon; this latter determi- nation was made upon but one fossil, Astarte evanst. The other faunas, especially those from Necks 14, 3 and from local- ity B show a commingling of many specimens of the Colorado formation with a few of the Montana. This would apparently indicate an upper Fort Benton age for the beds, unless we sup- pose that the apparent absence of clear water in this region during Niobrara times would cause the absence of the typical Niobrara fauna and the persistence of the Fort Benton fauna to Montana times. Under such a supposition, some of these intermediate strata would represent the Niobrara time, with- out the presence of the typical Niobrara fauna. The strata where penetrated by the igneous rocks (dikes, necks, ete.) maintain their normal dip even up to contact with the joneous rock, nor do they show much more jointing near such contact than away from it. The baking of these sandy shales is comparatively ‘slight. At Neck 4, south of Salazar, con- tact metamorphism is shown for only three feet from the narrow igneous intrusion. At Neck 5 an excellent contact is ~ seen on the western side. The shales are here baked black for 10 feet; for the next 15 feet the baking is slight, the shales being darker than the unaltered beds, while beyond 25 or 30 feet the strata are practically unchanged. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES. Mollusca. PELECYPODA. Ostrea lugubris Conrad. (Bull. U. S. G. S. 106, p. 48.) Agrees with description in size, general shape, and in plica- tions and concentric lines. Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. 61 One specimen of larger size than OQ. lugubris as described by Conrad may be classed with O. bellaplicata or O. blacki, although Stanton regards all as the same species, O. lugubris being a form dwarfed by conditions. Locality and positionn—Found rarely in brownish shales along the road fifteen miles southeast of Cabezon in the north- western part of the Albuquerque sheet, and in similar shales along the road one mile southwest of Casa Salazar. The strata of both localities are Fort Benton. O. anomioides var. naniws Johnson. (The Geology of the Cerrillos Hills, New Mexico, by Douglas W. Johnson. School of Mines Quart. 1908, p. 118.) Specimens agree with type description. This variety differs from the species anomioides only in being smaller and thus more delicate. Locality and position,—Common in a dark sandy shale in the northwest corner of the Albuquerque sheet, fifteen miles southeast of Cabezon. The strata are of uppermost Fort Benton age. Gryphea newberryi Stanton. (Bull. U.S. G. S. 106, p. 60.) Agrees with description in all respects except the radiating strie, which are absent in ourspecimens. This may be due to imperfect preservation. Locality and position,—A single specimen was found in the sandy shales of Fort Benton age at the foot of Great Neck, and several in the brownish shales of upper Fort Benton along the road fifteen miles southeast of Cabezon. Inoceramus labiatus Schlotheim. (Bull. U. S. G. S. 106, p. 77.) Well preserved internal mold of one specimen. Locality and position,—The specimen was found east of the road in brownish yellow sandy shales of upper Fort Benton or possibly Niobrara age, fifteen miles southeast of Cabezon. I, dimidius var. labiutoides nov. var. (Fig. 3.) The specimens are well preserved and agree with the species description in every particular except the surface markings. Here minor concentric folds cover the larger folds and inter- spaces alike. There are usually from two to four minor folds between consecutive major ones. The major ones become less and less prominent toward the beak, but the minor ones con- tinue to be almost as strong over the umbo. Named from J. labiatus because of similarity of surface markings. Locality and position—This variety occurs “yather abun- dantly ina gray shaly sandstone of upper Fort Benton age. 62 Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. The specimens were found along the road fifteen miles south- east of Cabezon on the northwestern part of the Albuquerque sheet. The type specimen is now in the collection of the Boston Society of Natural History ; catalogue number 13,542. Inoceramus dimidius var. labiatoides nov. var. Pteria linguiformis E. and §. (U. 8. G. S. Terr. ix, p. 32.) A somewhat imperfect right valve of a young specimen. As far as can be seen it agrees with the original description i in shape of shell, relative length of hinge line, position and obli- quity of beaks, and, as far as preserved, the surface ornamen- tation. Locality and position,—A_ single specimen was found in a yellowish, rather heavy-bedded sandstone at the foot of Neck 3, on its northwestern side. The strata are of uppermost Fort Benton or possibly of Niobrara age. Trigonarca depressa White. (U. S. G. S. Bull. 106, p. 93.) The specimens agree closely with the original description in size and shape of shell, and in ornamentation, though the broad, Hat, radiating costes are faintly visible only upon the younger shells. The prominent, radiating, raised line on the flattened triangular space posterior to the umbonal ridge is wanting. A ridge covered with radiating vascular grooves extends around the interior of the valve some distance from its margin; this shows rather conspicuously on the internal mold. Locality and position,—This species is present in very great numbers in the heavy-bedded brownish sandstone at the north- western foot of Neck 38 in strata of upper Fort Benton or possibly of Niobrara age. In layers it occurs so abundantly as to make up the rock mass. The type of the species was found some fifteen miles farther down the Rio Puerco valley. It has also been found by Herrick and Johnson southeast of the Prieta mesa. oo Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. 63 Astarte evansi (II. and M.) Whitfield. (Rep. Geol. Black Hills, p. 413.) The individuals of this species are well preserved. The surface ornamentation is usually of broad, concentric undula- tions, separated by narrow interspaces. Loeality and position,—This species is abundant in the yel- lowish sandy shales along the road five miles southeast of Cabe- zon. It is a fairly good index fossil of the Fort Pierre which, taken with its stratigraphic position, may be sufficient to refer these strata provisionally to the Fort Pierre, even though but this one species was found here. Lima utahensis Stanton. (Bull. U. S. G. S. 106, p. 71.) Two specimens, an internal and an external mold, are repre- sented in our collectious. They agree perfectly with the description in every respect except size, our specimens being less than half as large as Stanton’s type, which is from the upper Kanab valley of Utah. Locality and position, —In dark sandy shales of Fort Benton age, one mile southwest of Casa Salazar at Neck 14. Only two specimens were found. Cardium pauperculum Meek. (Bull US: Ge S106; pp: 99>) A single well preserved internal mold of this species was found in brownish shales on the eastern side of the road fif- teen miles southeast of Cabezon at locality B. The strata are uppermost Fort Benton. ? Yoldia subelliptica Stanton. (Bull. U. 8. G. S. 106, p. 94.) A poorly preserved internal mold is referred with extreme doubt to this species. It occurs in a dark brown sandstone at locality B. Lucina cf. subundata H. and M. (Bull. U. 8. G. S. 106, p. 97.) An internal and a poor external mold. Specimens imper- fect. Agree with original description in marginal outline as far as retained, position, shape and prominence of the beaks. Slight traces of concentric striz are present near the margin, but no radiating striz. Shells slightly smaller than those of original description. Locality and position,—This species was found associated with Zrigonarca depressa at the foot of Neck 3. Age is uppermost Fort Benton or possibly Niobrara. 64 Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. Solemya ? obscura Stanton. (Bull. U. 8. G. S. 106, p. 95.) Our single specimen agrees with the original description in size, general shape, growth lines, and in the position of the beak. Locality and position,x—Occurs with Vrigonarca depressa at Neck 3 , Anomia propatoris White. (Bull. U. 8. G. 8. 106, p. 67.) Specimens agree closely with the type except that they are slightly irregular in shape. Locality and position—This species is rather abundant in layers in a dark sandy shale on the eastern side of the road fifteen miles southeast of Cabezon on the northwestern portion of the Albuquerque sheet. The strata are uppermost Fort Benton. GASTROPODA. Turritella whitet var stantoni n. var. Shell rather large, 20 to 35"™" long with diameter of the last whorl 10 to 12". Sides straight. Sutures broadly but rather shallowly impressed. Larger shells have from 18 to 20 whorls. Surface of each whorl marked with three to five compressed and elevated spirals, separated by wider interspaces which are either smooth or covered by finer revolving strie. The larger spirals upon the larger whorls ure rarely nodose. The apical angle varies from 15° to 17 Tits variety differs from the species 7. whzted in that it has fewer large spirals, the smaller ones usually absent, and the larger ones very seldom nodose (but one nodose spiral was noted). This form evidently completely agrees with the varie- tal form from Colorado noted by Stanton but not named by him.* With these differences so constant over such a wide terri- tory, it seems to us that for the sake of stratigraphic exactness a distinction should be made. This variety differs from Z. galisteoensis Johnson in its shorter whorls and smaller apical angle. That form has 10 whorls in a length of 30™" from the apex of the shell, and according to the pictures the apical angle is about 20°. The finer intermediate revolving striz are totally absent m that species. A Ur SaGa io bulll 0G patois Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. 65 Locality and position.—This variety occurs in very great abundance in layers in a dark shaly sandstone, one mile south- west of Casa Salazar at Neck 14. In places it constitutes the mass of the rock. In age the strata are Fort Benton. It is also found quite abundantly southeast of Cabezon at locality B associated with Ostrea anomioides var. nanus. The type specimen is now in the collection of the Boston Society of Natural History ; catalogue number 13,343. Lunatia coneinna M. and H. (Bull. U. S. G. 8. 108, p. 134.) A single specimen of this species was found. Locality and position,—In a brownish sandstone of upper- most Fort Benton age. Actwon propinguus Stanton. (Bull Ue SG Ss) L0G spall.) Specimen imperfect and only a small portion of the shell retained upon the internal mold. Agrees with the description in size, shape, ornamentation, as far as visible, and in shape and size of aperture. The columella is not visible. Locality and position,n—Found rarely in the brownish sand- stones at Neck 3, northwestern side, in strata of uppermost Fort Benton or possibly Niobrara age. CEPHALOPODA. AMMONOIDEA. Placenticeras placenta Dekay. (Bull. U.S. G. S. 106, p. 169.) Our specimen measures in width of last whorl 2-6 inches ; in thickness of shell 1°5 inches. It agrees with Meek’s descrip- tion in general form, size of umbilicus, nature of volutions, shape of aperture and condition of the surface. There is, how- ever, no evidence of nodes or other prominences, and the periphery is more narrowly truncate than is shown in Meek’s figure. Septa not very clearly shown. Locality and position,—The single specimen was found in a brownish yellow sandstone twelve miles southeast of Oabezon at locality A. Associated with it was Prionotropis woolgari, a typical Fort Benton species, but the stratigraphic relations in the field are such as to make the formation either uppermost | Fort Benton or Niobrara, since Astarte evansi was found in abundance in slightly higher strata a short distance to the northwest, while slightly lower strata to the southeast contain a mixture of Fort Benton and Montana species. Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SEeries, Vou. XXV, No. 145.—January, 1908. 5 66 Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mewico. P. ? rotundatum Johnson. (Geol. Cerrillos Hills, p. 185.) Our specimens agree quite closely with the type description. Locality and position, —They were found in a septarium.in the midst of a dark shaly sandstone a mile southwest of Casa Salazar at Neck 14. Age of strata is Fort Benton. ? Prionocyclus wyomingensis Meek. (Bull. U. S. G. S. 106, p. 171.) External mold of a part of a volution. May be referred to this species. Locality and position,—It was found in a brownish yellow sandstone at the foot of Neck 14, one mile southwest of Casa Salazar. The strata are Fort Benton. Prionotropis hyatti Stanton. (Bull. U. S. G. S. 106, p. 176.) A young specimen of this species measures # inch in diameter and consists of four whorls. The costz are too unequal for the form to be the young of P. woolgari and the keel is too prominent. This species was found by Stanton’ in the Pugnellus sandstone (upper Fort Benton) of Colorado. The genus, according to him, is not found above the Colorado formation. Locality and position,—Two young specimens of this species were found at locality B on the northwestern corner of the Albuquerque sheet, in a dark shaly sandstone of uppermost Fort Benton age. P. woolgari Lea (Bull. U. 8..G. 8. 106, p. 174.) Three Ae were found with diameter 7, 5, and 4 inches respectively. The largest specimen agrees with Meek’s deserip- tion in general size ‘and shape. The outer whorl, however, shows a flattening and broadening of cost unlike the wing- like appearance noted in his description, and is more quad- rangular in outline. The specimen of medium size resembles the first and second whorls of the larger except that the whole is flatter, with larger umbilicus and less prominent nodes and cost. This larger specimen seems to show gerontic charac- teristics and to be intermediate in stage between the type specimen and the gerontic individual described by Johnson in the Geology of the Cerrillos Hills, page 142. The smallest specimen of this species is a little over a half inch in diameter, and is composed of three whorls. It has developed no nodes on the simple ribs, while the keel is low with a well developed flattening of the shell on each side of it. Shimer and Blodgett—Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico. 67 Locality and position,—Two specimens of this species were found in a brownish yellow sandstone at locality A, twelve miles southeast of Cabezon. The strata are of wppermost Fort Benton age or possibly Niobrara. A fragment of another specimen was found at locality B in a brown sandstone of upper Fort Benton age. Scaphites sp. Several external molds, with a narrow but deep umbilicus and radiating ribs increasing by implantation are referred to this genus. One looks very much like S. ventricosum. Loeality and position,—Found in a dark calcareous shale, one mile southwest of Casa Salazar, at Neck 14; they were associated with fossils of Fort Benton age. ¥ Summary. The specimens are, as a rule, comparatively well preserved considering: that they usually occur on arenaceous beds. The character of the beds likewise explains the predominance of pelecypods over other classes. Moreover the presence in sev- eral of the beds of an abundance of plant fragments indicates also the comparative nearness of land areas. As suggestive of an unfavorable environment, it is interest- ing to note the presence of several dwarf var ieties of mollusks in various localities in New Mexico, as well as at times extend- ing north into Colorado. Lima utahensis Stanton attained here only about one half the size to which it grew at the type locality ‘‘ southeast of Paria, Utah,” and in the upper Kanab valley, Utah. Ostrea anomioides var. nanus Johnson is a dwarf form of the species O. anomioides Meek. Lucina subundata H. and M. occurs in the Rio Puerco valley shghtly smaller than in Utah. The type of Ostrea lugubris Conrad was obtained from the old Santa Fé trail east of Canadian river, New Mexico; it is spoken of by Stanton as a dwarfed form which, under fay- orable conditions, grows much lar ger into the forms O. blackii and O. bellaplicata. This small form»of O. lugubris is some- what common also in the Mt. Taylor region of New Mexico. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Geological Department. 68 W. D. Matthew—Mammalian Migrations Arr. VI.— Mammalian Migrations between Hurope and North America; by W. D. Matrunw.* Deprret advocates a more continuous interchange of faunz during the Tertiary between Europe and North America than we of the American Museum of Natural History are disposed to admit. But not so much more as one might infer. He pointed out evidences for interchange in Puerco and Torrejon, Wasatch, Wind River, then a br eak, then in Lower and Middle Oligocene and, I think, in Middle and Upper Miocene, in Plio- cene and Pleistocene. This is.not very far from Osborn’s view. Personally, I think there is no good evidence for Wind River connection, for Middle Oligocene or for Upper Eocene con- nection. To me the evidence appears thus:—In the Basal Eocene the faunee were closely related, the results presumably of an extensive migration at the end of the Cretaceous. In the Wasatch a large immigrant fauna appears in both countries which I regard provisionally as of Asiatic origin ; then inde- pendent development till the end of the Eocene. At the begin- ning of the Oligocene here, and in the Upper Eocene of Eure ope and North America, there appears a large new immigrant fauna, which may also be referred to Asiatic origin. Then as far as I ean see, there was independent development until the Middle Miocene, when several important, modernized types appear in this country, which had been appearing in Europe in the Oligo- cene, Lower and Middle Miocene. The fauna of the Upper Miocene in America seems to me mainly or entirely of autoch- thonic origin, but in the Pliocene a further interchange takes place, again in the Lower Pleistocene, and in the late Pleisto- cene, between Old and New world. This means practically continuous interchange in the late Tertiary, more interrupted in the early part. As for the route, as I recall Depéret’s remarks, he spoke of that across Bering straits as the most probable, and regretted that our lack of knowledge of the Tertiary land formations of Asia prevented us from proving or disproving this route. I admit quite freely that Depéret’s conclusions follow from his data, on the face of the evidence. But when the returns are as fragmentary as in the European Eocene, I think we have aright to go behind them. His assumption is that because a * This important statement is in response to a letter asking for further information in regard to the view expressed by Depéret, at the recent Seventh International Zoological Congress, that there was constant intermigration of mammals between Europe and America. The same authority further believes that the great similarities between the faunz of Hurope and America can not be explained on the basis of considerable parallel development.—C. SCHUCHERT. between Europe and North America. 69 eroup of admittedly American origin does not appear in Europe until the Middle Eocene, that there must have been a connection in the Middle Eocene. But, unless we find also groups of European (Old World) origin which first appear in America in the Middle Eocene, we should look into the matter and test the possibility of the first group having migrated from America to Europe in the Lower Eocene, but not being as yet reported from the Lower Eocene formations of Europe. The test would of course be identity of the Middle Eocene genus in Europe and America. If divergent, or merely paralleling in certain respects the evolution of the North American series as observed in Lower and Middle Eocene stages, I think its occurrence may be explained as a consequence of Lower Eocene rather than of Middle Eocene migration. In illustration of these statements, the following example will explain my meaning: Sinopa and Tritemnodon oceur in Lower and Middle Eocene in North America,—fairly distinct genera in the Bridger; almost indistinguishable in Lower Eocene. American species have peculiarly elongate premolars, throwing them a little out of the direct ancestry of later Hyzenodonts. Sinopa occurs in the Middle Eocene of Switzerland. ‘“‘ Sinopa” ethiopica occurs in the Upper Eocene of Africa. The Euro- pean and African species apparently do not have the elongate premolars; they are known only from jaws but apparently correspond with Sinopa and Tritemnodon, respectively, in stage of evolution towards Hywnodon. Cynohyenodon of European Oligocene is very little advanced over “SS.” ethiopiea, and might be directly descended from the European or African species. Now if we simply take the recorded occurrence of genera as a basis, we must conclude that Scmopa originated in North America in Lower Kocene, crossed over to Europe in the Middle Eocene and thence to Africa in the Upper Eocene. A more detailed study brings out the following points : (1) The American species of Sinopa and Tritemnodon paralleled the Old World series, but developed independently from their sudden appearance in the Lower Eocene (Wasatch) to their disappearance in the Middle Eocene (Washakie). They cannot have been directly ancestral to the later Hyznodonts, but represent side branches which left no descendants. (2) The European and African species are more nearly in the line of ancestry of the later Hyzenodonts, but are too conserva- tive to be ancestral to the large and highly specialized Hyano- don and Pterodon. (3) The latter genera appear in the Upper Eocene and Oligo- cene of Europe and Africa, and Oligocene of North America, - accompanying and soon displacing smaller and more conserva- 70 W. D. Matthew—Mammalian Migrations. tive genera (Cynohyenodon, Quercyrtherium) im Europe, which may be of autochthonic origin. (4) No Hyzenodonts are found in the Middle Eocene of Afriea. These facts seem to indicate an outside region, probably Asia, for the center of development and dispersion of the Hyzenodonts. Thence they reached North America in Lower Eocene, developed till Middle Eocene and became extinct. They reached Europe in Middle or* Lower Eocene and Africa in Upper Eocene. In Upper Eocene higher stages in the evolu- tion of the race (Pterodon, Hywnodon) invade Europe and Africa and spread to America’ in Lower Oligocene. The dis- tribution of this family is more or less completely paralleled by several other faunal groups. Inference from the above as to early Tertiary continental connections: [| = separation; <——- =union permitting in- termigration ; ? = doubtful. | Middle Oligocene, North America | Asia< — Europe ? Africa Lower Oligocene, North America< -—> Asia< —> Europe ? Africa Upper Eocene, North America || Asia<~ — Europe || Asia< + Africa Middle -‘ North America || Asia< — Europe || Africa Lower a North America< —> Asia < —> Europe || Africa Basal He Asia || North America< — Europe|| Africa This is of course only a working hypothesis which, in my opinion, accords best with the data as far as I know them. In brief, it is that Asia is and has been the great center of evolu- tion and dispersion of the dominant mammalian types ; in the other continents, the course of evolution has been—aside from a few well-known exceptions—alternately an autochthonic fau- nal development and a series of waves of migration from the highly progressive faunas of the great Asiatic land mass, according as the continents were separated from or connected with it. The principal exceptions are the Proboscidea, of Afri- can origin, the true Edentates of South American develop- ment and doubtful origin, the Camels, of North American origin,—probably other groups, if we knew something about the fauna of the early Tertiary of Asia. * “Or Lower” because, although Sinopa has not been found in strata of Sparnacien time of Europe, several of its associated genera of the Wasatch do occur there and the fauna is very imperfectly known. W. T. Schaller—Notes on Powellite and Molybdite. 71 Arr. VII. — Wotes on Powellite and Molybdite ; by Watpemar T. ScHALLER.* 1. Powellite from Llano Co., Texas.—The specimens of powellite from Barringer Hill, Texas, described in this paper were received through the kindness of Mr. Wm. E. Hidden and represent a small lot that was found in January, 1907. According to Mr. Hidden, who generously placed the material at the writer’s disposal, the specimens are similar to those found by him in 1889 and referred to molybdite.t The rein- vestigation of this mineral was undertaken as it had been sug- gested that it was probably a natural occurrence of the tr ioxide of molybdenum, the writer having shown in a previous papery that molybdite was a hydrous ferric molybdate. Analysis showed, however, that this mineral from Barringer Hill is a caleinm molybdate and is referable to powellite. As received by the writer, the mineral is in loose pieces, some over a centimeter wide, ‘associated with, coating and often entirely replacing, molybdenite. In fact, the powellite forms a pseudomorph after the sulphide of molybdenum, the foliated structure of the latter being frequently retained. The dirty white to gray mineral, sometimes stained brown by iron oxide, breaks up into small glistening scales which, when rubbed between the fingers, crumble to a pearly powder which adheres to the skin and resembles in appearance some varieties of fine- grained tale. Under the microscope, the mineral shows double refraction but no crystal outline. The individual crystal units are very minute, the specimens being aggregates of very fine scales. AN density determination was made on about 0°8 gram of the powdered sample. The pycnometer method was used and the determination was carried out with care at a temperature of 25° The value obtained for the sample is 4°153, which when cor- rected for impurities, as described beyond, gives 4:23. Hid- den§ found the value 4:004, which would indicate that his sample contained more impurities than the writer’s. Analysis of this mineral gave the following results, the min- eral dissolving readily in HCl. Qualitative tests failed to show the presence of any tungstic oxide. The mineral is difficultly fusible and gives, at the most, only a trace of water in the closed tube. CAO eee aes Bisel 5 a Nel ae eee 27°46 MoO iinaeheri G0!) Olean ee 67°90 Mosstonsiomig er s2 2 / te aa ee ay) 2233 MOS sbi iei ne, is 5 ale ape WTS () SLO sera ds eae tae Da 88 100°07 * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. + This Journal, xxxviii, 485, 1889. t Tbid., xxiii, 297, 1907. § Ibid., xxxviii, 485, 1889. 72 W. T. Schaller Notes on Powellite and Molybdite. The ratio of CaO to MoO, is 1:0°96, giving the formula CaMoO,,. What is probably a similar occurrence of powellite has recently been described* as possibly a natural occurrence of MoO,, the mineral differing in its physical properties from the hydrous ferric molybdate. It forms a white or grayish altera- tion product of molybdenite, which it sometimes covers and after which it is pseudomorphous, preserving the form of the molybdenite. The luster is pearly and the mineral is semi- translucent, difficultly fusible to a gray scoria, soluble in nitric acid and does not contain any iron or water. The material was too scanty for analysis. 2. Powellite from Nye Co., Nevada.—The powellite from Nevada was received through Mr. F. L. Hess of the U. S. Geological Survey, who states that the specimens were sent him by ue F. O. Byor of Columbia, Nevada. The locality is given as 2 miles south of Oak Springs, Nye County, Nevada. The powellite occurs in a vein about 13 wide in a sott earthy mass which seems to be some altered rock. In this rock are occasionally found irregular masses of powellite which sometimes are several centimeters across. The mineral is dull in appearance, grey in color, and occurs in platy masses often bent and twisted in different directions. Imbedded in this vein of powellite and also as small masses and veins in the altered rock matrix, are found grey to white masses of scheelite showing good cleavage surfaces with a highly vitreous to adamantine luster, often having also a decided greasy appearance. The association of scheelite with pow- ellite side by side was thought to be a most unusual one, but other specimens showed that the powellite, like the Texas min- eral, was a secondary one being formed, zm sztw, from molyb- denite; it is in fact a pseudomorph after the sulphide of molybdenum. Some other specimens showed the various stages of alteration very well, the amount of unaltered molyb- denite varying from considerable to none at all. The association of molybdenite with scheelite is one well known and when the molybdenite alters to powellite the association, powellite-scheelite, necessarily follows. The agencies affecting the change from moly bdenum sulphide to calcium molybdate are apparently without effect on the scheelite. This pseudo- morphous character of the powellite accounts for its occurrence in platy masses, the structure of the original molybdenite being retained. On some of the specimens, notably those on which there is still a considerable amount of molybdenite remaining, the powellite often has a reddish color due to iron stain. * Molybdite from the Ilmen Mts., G. Gagarine, Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci., St. Petersburg, 6 ser., 287-88, 1907. W. 7. Schaller—Notes on Powellite and Molybdite. 73 The dull grey powellite can easily be separated by hand picking from the shining greasy scheelite, and a sample so selected was used for analysis. A thin section showed, under the microscope, some quartz, hematite and limonite as impurity. The density of the mineral was determined by weighing a test tube containing about six grams of the mineral in water. The value obtained is 4026, which when corrected for impuri- ties, as described beyond, becomes 4°24. The analysis yielded the following figures, the small amount of tungstic oxide present being probably due to admixed scheelite. CAO Cate Ne REE RS a ae ees Seat 26°44 INE Oias. 6, Danae, Wenn alee al Sane 62°43 DEM SYA ah 2h a Se Oe es SGN ae Dl id Iboss"oniomee ai ae ee te aa 2°69 RSQ JER Sah renee es at gS A RO AS tGK WiO ra ea wey eure) ey Crace 99°53 The material insoluble in HCl was tested with HF and found to be almost entirely silica. The ratio CaO to MoO, is 1:0°92, giving the formula CaMoO,,. 3. Density of Powellite-—The sample of powellite from Texas gave the value 4°155 as its density. This figure is cor- rected on the basis of the following composition of the sam- ple to 4°23. Silica density 2°65 = "88 Water es 1a —— eS 3 Molybdenite “ Asis vernled Powellite = OF WY 100°00 The presence of the water as such is, of course, an assump- tion and the final value, 4°23, is necessarily uncertain, depend- ing on the assumptions made. The powellite from Nevada gave 4:026 as its density and from the analysis the composition of the sample was found to be as follows: Silica density 2°65 = 6°80 Water gs oe ==) DKS) ironvoxidesae? 23 — ele Powellite = 89:34 74. W. 7. Schaller— Notes on Powellite and Molybdite. Allowing for impurities, the value is raised to 4:24, which, like the preceding case, is dependent on certain assumptions. As powellite and scheelite are doubtless isomorphous we may be justified in assuming that they have nearly the same molec- ular volume. Considering the molecular volumes as identical and taking the gravity of scheelite as 6-14, the density of pow- ellite then becomes as calculated by Melville,* 4-267. As all previous analyses of powellite showed the presence of tungstic oxide, the densities given are all too high for the pure calcium molybdate. The two values obtained by the writer, though uncertain as they are based on some assumptions made in applying the corrections, agree so well not alone with each | other, but also with the calculated value, that the average of the three values (4:24, 4:23, 4:27), namely 4:25, may be taken as being very close to the true density of the pure calcium molybdate, CaMoO,. 4. Molybdite from a new locality.—A sample of molybdite from Hortense, Colorado, was received through the kindness of Mr. F. L. Hess. The yellow mineral occurs in lumps, several of which have a diameter of over 2. With the molybdite are associated molybdenite, quartz and a mica. The sample looks earthy, but under the microscope is seen to be well erys- tallized and shows the characteristic optical properties of molybdite as described in a previous paper. A sample was selected as pure as possible, but which was found on analysis to still contain a large amount of insoluble matter. The pow- dered specimen caked together in the sample tube and proba- bly contained some extraneous water. The analysis also showed too high a water content for molybdite. Below are given (I) the analysis; (II) the same with the insoluble matter deducted and the analysis recalculated to 100 per cent; and (IIL) the percentage calculated for Fe,O,.8MoO,.74H,0. i II VOL H,O pe ey as 15°87 20°19 18°57 Reo ses 15:95 20°30 29-01 MoOn ys 46°77 59.51 59°49 IMoSHeee ee 5°50 SlOREs ne = Gabe 100°60 100°00 100°00 The residue, insoluble in HCl, was roasted in an open eruci- ble to change the MoS, into MoO, and then weighed. The oxide of molybdenum was then dissolved by HCl, leaving the silica, which was tested with HF for its purity. The determi- nation of water was made in two ways, by loss in weight and * This Journal, xli, 138, 1891. W. 7. Schaller— Notes on Powellite and Molybdite. 75 by direct weighing. It was found that the water given off at 110° by heating the mineral in a glass tube in a toluene bath while a current of dry air was passed over the mineral and collecting and weighing the water (shown in @ below), was con- siderably greater than the amount given off at 110° by heating the mineral in a crucible in a toluene bath, and determining the water by loss in weight (shown in below). The results are shown below: Amt. given off at 110°" at 200° total CO je dk WSOP E7/ Dee 16:00 Cp ceomsorernh Bie 11°39 4°34 6SE7/8} In the previous paper on the composition of molybdic ocher, the writer determined the water given off at 110° by loss in weight to be six molecules of the total 7$. From the results given above, it seems probable that this is not necessarily the correct amount and that the temperature at which different parts of the entire water content are given off still remains to pe determined. The density of the powdered sample was determined with a pycnometer, using 3 grams of material. The value obtained is 3°026. This is corrected on the following basis, the sample being composed of Molybdenite density 4°7 = 5°50 Silica Seno oe—-_Ooll Molybdite = 77:99 100°00 The corrected value becomes 2°99, in which, however, no allowance is made for the extraneous moisture. An experiment was made to determine approximately the solubility of molybdite in water. About 3 grams of the min- eral were stirred in a beaker for a day with 760° distilled water at room temp. (about 25°), and then filtered repeatedly. The final filtrate showed a very faint cloudiness. It was evaporated down in platinum, the residue dissolved in HCl and the iron precipitated as hydroxide with ammonia and weighed. The 760° of water contained :0051 gram of Fe,Q,. On the assumption that this all came from the mineral, it is cal- culated that the solubility of molybdite in water is approxi- mately 1 to 33,000, so that the mineral is rather insoluble. Continued attempts to form the crystallized mineral Fe,O,.38MoO,.7$H,O, by heating the amorphous precipitated ferric molybdate in a closed tube at a high temperature have so far been completely unsuccessful, and the writer does not, at present, intend to continue the attempts to prepare this mineral artificially in a crystallized condition. 76 S. &. Moody—Hydrolysis of Ammoniun Molybdate. Art. VIII.—TZhe Hydrolysis of Ammonium Molybdate in the Presence of Lodides and Lodates ; by Srvu E. Moopy. GLAssMAN* makes the statement that ordinary ammonium molybdate is hydrolyzed according to the following equation : 3(NH,),Mo,0,,.4H,O = 9(NH,),MoO, + 12H,Mo0, and that the molybdie acid thus set free reacts with a mixture of potassium iodide and potassium iodate, liberating iodine according to the equation : 12H, MoO, + 20KI+4KIO, = 12K,MoO, +121, +12H,0. The elimination of the iodine was accomplished by means of a Bunsen’s distilling apparatus and standard sodium thiosulphate was used for its measurement. In a previous articlet the writer showed that certain salts of ammonium may be completely hydrolyzed in the presence of a mixture of potassium iodide and potassium iodate and that the iodine liberated in the reaction between the freed acid and the mixture may be eliminated and transferred in a current of hydrogen to a receiver charged with potassium iodide and there measured with a standard solution of sodium thiosulphate. It was discovered that in the direct distillation of the iodine, ammonia passes simultaneously into the receiver and there acts upon some of the free iodine; but that loss of iodine may be obviated by first passing the gaseous products through hot standard sulphuric acid, which holds the ammonia while allow- ing the iodine to pass uncombined into the receiver. Similar experiments upon ammonium molybdate have now been carried out by the method and with the apparatus formerly described. It appears that, as in the case of the salts previously examined, iodine may be set free in amount indicating the complete hydrolysis of this salt, but that unless special pre- cautions are taken the ammonia likewise liberated acts upon a portion of the iodine and so falsifies the indication of hydrolysis. Table I shows results of experiments carried out according to the method of Glassman, except that the distillation apparatus consisted of a Voit flask used as a retort, a Drexel bottle used as a receiver, and that a current of hydrogen was sent cautiously through the : apparatus. These results, taken by themselves, wouldjappear to show that hydrolysis ‘of the ammonium molybdate in the receiver had taken place to about the degree indicated by Glassman’s equation ; but the liberation of more iodine upon acidifying the solution after titration with sodium thiosulphate shows that * Ber. 1905, 38, I, p. 198. + This Journal, xxii, p. 379, 1906. S. EF. Moody— Hydrolysis of Ammonium Molybdate. T7 TABLE I. Ammo- nium Mean molyb- Time I of date KI KIO; in NazS203 found entire germ. grm. cm*. min. em’, erm. series 0°2000 1:0 10 80 12°85 01580 | 0°2000 e@) 10 100 13°10 0°1610 02000 1:0 15 90 13°12 0°1614 | 0°2000 10 10 90 13°08 071609 } 0°1609 0°2000 1°0 10 90 15°15 0°1618 0°2000 1:0 LO 90 13°13 071615 | 0°2000 1:0 15 90 13°11 0°1615 the amounts of iodine first found do not indicate correctly the actual degree of hydrolysis. In another series of experiments in which the products of distillation were received in a solution of potassium iodide acidulated with sulphuric acid, the amounts of iodine obtained corresponded very closely to the complete hydrolysis of the ammonium molybdate according to the equation : 3(NH,),Mo,0,,.4H,O = 18NH,+21H,MoO, and the liberation of iodine according to the equation 21H,MoO,+35KI+7KIO, = 21K,MoO,+ 211, +21H,0. Taste II. Ammo- Mean nium of molyb- Time I entire date KI KIO; in NaeSe.Os found series germ. grm. cm*. min. em?, erm. grm. 0°2000 1:0 15 80 22°10 02777 0°2000 1:0 15 90 22°40 0°2815 } | At9) t 92°49 ° UO" ro Be, 100 ae C2818 \ 90-2808 0°2000 E00) 15 90 22°37 0°2811 | 0°2000 1:0 15 90 22°36 0°2810 | 0°2000 1°0 15 90 22°39 0°2814 | In still another series of experiments the apparatus was modi- fied as in the work previously described,* by inserting between the retort and the receiver a Voit flask containing a definite amount of standard sulphuric acid, in excess of that necessar y to combine with the ammonia set free from the molybdate. The value of the standard acid was obtained from the iodine liberated by the addition of a measured portion of it to an iodide-iodate mixture, and the value of the residual acid after the passage of the distillate was similarly measured. The difter- * Loc. cit. 78 S. £. Moody—Hydrolysis of Ammonium Molybdate. ence between the value of the standard acid and the residual acid is the equivalent of the acid neutralized by the ammonia produced in the process of hydrolysis. The results of the experiments so modified are contained in the following table. TABLE III. Ammo- j H.SO, Drexel Mean nium neutralized, flask of molyb- Time in terms I entire date KI KIO; in of I found series grm. erm. cm? min. germ. erm. erm. 0°2000 1:0 15 80 0°1218 0°2802 | 072000 1-0 15 NOs COPIES) 7 0°2809 0°2000 10 15 90 0°1195 0°2812 0°2000 1:0 15 90 0°1207 0°2810 0°2000 1°0 15 90 0°1202 02807 | 0°2000 1:0 15 90 071207 0°2811 r 0°2000 1-0 15 90 Ope) 7 0°:2810 0°2000 1:0 15 90 0°1207 0 2809 0°2000 Te) 90 0°1206 0°2810 0°2000 1°0 15 90 Pav) 7 0°2806 J Thus it appears that ammonium molybdate may be hydro- lyzed completely in the presence of potassium iodide and potassium iodate and that the reaction does not proceed accord- ing to the equation given by Glassman. Upon boiling a mixture containing the molybdate, the iodide and the iodate, ammonia passes to the distillate with the iodine liberated and there acts upon three-sevenths of the iodine. The apparatus described makes possible the determination of the total hydrolytic action of the salt, the determination of the ammonia, and, by caleula- tion, the complete analysis of ammonium moly ‘bdate. A single oper ration requires about two hours. University of Wisconsin, Madison. Chemistry and Physics. 79 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHyYSICcs. 1. The Parent-Substance of Radium.—Haun has given an account of the views that have been brought forward in regard to the origin of radium, together with some of his own recent observations. As soon as its rate of decay was observed, it was necessary to suppose that radium is being formed from something else, for the solid crust of the earth is so very old that even if the whole earth had been originally composed of this substance it would long since have disappeared. After some time it was established that radium was produced by the much more slowly decaying element uranium, but it was shown also that there must be one or more intermediate products between the two. It was observed by Boltwood in 1906 that an actinium solution showed an undoubted increase in radium, and he believed that actinium must be the direct mother substance, but Rutherford soon showed that it was not actinium, but some unknown substance present with the actinium. Boltwood has since found that the hypothet- ical element follows the reactions of thorium, and gives peculiar a-rays, and he has named the new element ionium. Hahn now states that he also has found in another way that the direct parent of radium follows the chemical reactions of thorium, and may thus be obtained from uranium minerals. He has found, in fact, that old preparations of thorium salts from monazite contain considerable amounts of radium, while newer preparations from the same source contain much less, and he has succeeded in showing an increase, in the course of a few months, in individual samples of these thorium salts. In an indirect way Hahn has calculated the period of decay of radium from the results of his experiments with the monazite product, and has obtained 3250, 2840, and 2630 years as the result. These figures correspond as closely as could be expected with Rutherford’s calculation, 2600 years, and are entirely at variance with the results recently ob- tained by Cameron and Ramsay, 163 years.— Berichte, xi, 4415. H. L. W. 2. The Reduction of Arsenic Trisulphide and Pentasulphide to Disulphide.—It was noticed by EuRENFELpD that in a certain qualitative test for arsenic a red precipitate was obtained, when a stannous salt was present, in the place of the usual yellow pre- cipitate of sulphide of arsenic. This led him to examine the action of stannous chloride in the presence of strong hot hydro- chloric acid upon the two sulphides of arsenic, and he found that both were thus readily and completely converted into the red disulphide : As,8,+SnCl, + 2HCl=As,8, +SnCl, + 0,8 As,5,+85nCl, +6HCl,=As,8, + 35nCl,+3H,S 80 Scientific Intelligence. These results are interesting inasmuch as they show a new and convenient method of producing the compound corresponding to the mineral realgar. It may be mentioned that a red modifi- cation of As,S, is known, which is entirely distinct from the red disulphide.— Berichte, xl, 3962. H. Lawes 3. Titanium trichloride for Volumetric Analysis—KNuecut and Hrsserr recommend the use of a solution of TiCl, for vari- ous volumetric operations where a powerful reducing agent is required. Its use has given good results with organic nitro- compounds, such as picric acid, and also with a number of dyes, including indigo and azo-dyes. Another important application of the reagent is in the determination of iron, where the authors, in the place of the somewhat unsatisfactory dipping test formerly employed, now add potassium thiocyanate in considerable excess directly to the liquid to be titrated. The results of test analyses made in this way show excellent results, and it may be mentioned that where iron is partly or wholly in the ferrous condition it is oxidized before titration by an exact addition of a permanganate solution. The titanious chloride solution is drawn directly from a reservoir into the burette, and the space above the liquid in the reservoir is kept full of hydrogen by means of a small automatic generator supplied with zine and hydrochloric acid.— Berichte, xl, 3819. He bs We 4. Traité de Chemie Analytique Qualitative ; par Duparc et MonnizEr. 8vo, pp. 374. Geneva, 1908 (Librairie Ktindig).—This is the second edition, revised and enlarged, of a text-book on qualitative analysis containing an unusually large amount of intro- ductory and descriptive matter. The first 74 pages are devoted to theoretical chemistry, including some of the more important topics of modern physical chemistry. The next 40 pages are devoted to the reagents, apparatus, and methods of qualitative analysis. Then comes the descriptive part, occupying the greater portion of the book, giving an account of the qualitative reac- tions, and including a very full list of equations. A chapter in this part gives the reactions of the more common organic acids, while separate sections describe the reactions of the rare metals and the alkaloids. The practical part of the book, comprising about 30 pages, gives an elaborate series of systematic tables for mineral analysis, with references to the descriptive part. H. L. W. 5. Kurzes Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie ; von WitLtaM A. Noyrs. 8vo, pp. 722. Leipzig, 1907 (Akademische Verlags- gesellschaft).—The appearance of a German translation by Walter Ostwald of this American text-book of organic chemistry is worthy of mention. The book is introduced to the German- reading public by a preface by the eminent chemist, Wilhelm Ostwald, who speaks in high terms of its independence and orig- inality, and of its suitability as a guide for the student. He con- siders that its translation was desirable, even in view of the exceedingly abundant German litera ture of organic chemistry text- books. H. LW. Chemistry and Physves. 81 6. A History of Chemistry ; by Hueco Baur, translated by R. V. Stanrorp. 12mo, pp.232. London, 1907, Edward Arnold (Longmans, Green & Co., New York).—This book gives a very readable, well-balanced account of the development of chemical science. The chemistry of the ancients as well as the periods of alchemy and iatrochemistry are rather briefly treated, while the more important modern epochs, here called the period of Lavoi- sier, and the period of organic chemistry, take up more than two- thirds of the space in the book. The period of modern chemistry, which the author considers as beginning about 1885, is very briefly touched upon. H. L. W. 7. Beitrdge zur chemischen Physiologie, herausgegeben von Franz Hormerster. Band X. Pp. 500. Braunschweig, 1907 (F. Vieweg und Sohn).—Among the thirty-two contributions in this volume, including eight from the Vienna laboratory of Pro- fessor v. Fiirth, several papers deserve specific reference here. Knoop has finally determined the constitution of histidine as B-imidazolalanine : CH /\\ HN N el HC=C—CH,—CH(NH,).COOH and the long known inosic acid discovered by Liebig has been shown by Fr. Bauer to be a crystalline compound of hypoxan- thine, arabinose, and phosphoric acid of the probable structure : (HO),.PO.0.CH,(CHOH),.CH:(C,H,N,O). A study of pancre- atic nucleic acid by v. Fiirth and Jerusalem has shown that it yields adenine and guanine as its sole purine bases, and that gly- cerol is not present in the molecule. Among the numerous inves- tigations on enzymes reported, the careful research on the animal peroxydases, by v. Czyhlarzand v. Fiirth, deserves notice. They have reviewed the literature on this perplexing topic very thor- oughly and have added new reactions and a new method of quan- titative study. The peroxydases are distinct from the catalases and the glycolytic enzymes. The papers on intermediary meta- bolism are likewise of interest ; for example, Pfeiffer’s failure to obtain synthesis of uric acid in man and the mammals, and vari- ous papers on acidosis from Professor v. Krehl’s Strassburg clinic. Several researches on carbohydrate metabolism are also reported ; Bang’s studies on glycogen transformation by the liver; Embden, Liithje and Liefmann’s on the sugar content of the blood ; and Spiro’s on the direct relation between carbohydrate and protein in metabolism. Hip. Way A 8. Immuno-Chemistry. The Application of the Principles of Physical Chemistry to the Study of the Biological Anti- bodies ; by Svantz ARRHENIUS. Pp. ix, 309. New York, 1907 (The Macmillan Company).—The book comprises a series of six lectures given at the University of California in 1904. Although Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourtu Series, Vou. XXV, No. 145.—January, 1908. 6 82 Scientific Intelligence. ‘bearing on the complex problems of the inter-reactions of toxins and anti-toxins, from the standpoint of the physical chemist, the subject matter is presented in a clear and precise manner. The introductory portion is devoted largely to a general discussion of toxins, agglutinins, hemolysins, ete., and their anti-bodies. Throughout the book the writer emphasizes the possibilities and value of representing by formule the reactions that take place among the anti-bodies, and which he regards as being of a strictly chemical nature. The principles of physical chemistry are applied to the following topics: Reversibility of Reactions between Anti-bodies; Velocity of Reactions ; Equilibria in Absorption Processes; Neutralization of Hemolytic Properties and of Toxins ; Compound Hemolysins, and Precipitins and their Antibodies. The book contains a comprehensive bibliography as well as an index of authors and of subject matter. Te) ee II. Gerotogy AND MINERALOGY. 1. Geological Survey of New Jersey: Annual Report of the State Geologist, Hnnry B. Kime, for the year 1906. Pp. viit192 with 32 plates and 9 fioures. Trenton, New Jersey.— This volume contains, beside the ‘administrative report, papers by four authors, as follows: The fire-resisting qualities of some New Jersey Building Stones by W. KE. McCourr (pp. 17-76). The resistance to fire was found to be greater in rocks of fine texture and small porosity. Clay and limonite were the least resistant cementing materials. The Glass-sand Industry of New Jersey, by Henry B. Ktmuet and R. B. Gace (pp. 77-98). The Origin and Relations of the Newark Rocks, The Newark (Tri- assic) Copper Ores of New Jersey, Properties of Trap Rocks for Road Construction, are three papers by J. Vouney Lewis (pp. 97-172). In the discussion of the various hypotheses of the mode of origin of the Newark Rocks, Professor Lewis shows reasons for abandoning the ¢édal estuary and the lake basin hypotheses and favors the hypothesis that these rocks were laid down by rivers on a piedmont plain, accumulating to a great thickness on certain areas of subsidence. Notes on the Mining Industry, by Henry B. Ktmmet (pp. 173-181). ip 18 2. Indiana. Department of Geology and Natural Resources. Thirty-first annual report. W.S. Biarcutey,- State Geologist. Pp. 772, many maps and illustrations. Indianapolis, 1907.—This report includes ten papers by eight authors. Beside the intro- ductory chapter there are seven papers of an economic character on peat, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, and mine inspection. The volume closes with the following papers of a biological character. A preliminary list of the Arachnida of Indiana, with keys to families and genera of spiders, by NatHan Banxs ; and Notes on the Crayfish of Wells County, Indiana, with description of. a new species, by E. B. Wiuiiamson. pe aeBs Geology and Mineralogy. 83 3. West Virginia Geological Survey County Reports and maps. Ohio, Brooke and Hancock Counties ; by G. P. Grims- tEY, Assistant State Geologist. Introduction, by I. C. Wuirz, State Geologist. Morgantown, West Virginia, 1907. Pp. xxix+ 378, with 16 plates and 37 figures ; 8 maps in accompanying atlas.—This volume is mostly economic in character, containing studies of the coals, petroleum, natural gas, clays, stones, climate, and soils of the Panhandle area. In addition a chapter is devoted to the historical and industrial development of the Pan- handle counties and another to the physiography of the same. J.B. 4, Geological map of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, sheet XI VI. Published by the Geological Commission, 1907. Geology by A. L. pv To1r.—The area covered by this map is a square degree immediately northwest of Kimberley ; the map is published on a scale of 1: 238,000 or about four miles to the inch. The region is underlaid by the older Paleozoic series of diabases, amygdaloids, volcanic breccias, and tuffs of the Ven- tersdorp system, these strata outcropping on the east. Into them the Vaal river has cut a deep gorge. On the west this basal eruptive system is covered by dolomites, limestones, cherts and shales of the Campbell-Rand series, forming the Kaap plateau. Between the two and occupying depressions in the volcanic series occur broad areas of the Dwykasystem of Carboniferous- Permian age. Sheets‘ of diabase which were formerly intrusive in the Dwyka are now broadly exposed as high plateaus within those areas. J. B. 5. The Geology of the Parapara subdivision, Karamea, Nelson ; by JAMES Macxintosu BEtt, assisted by Ernest Joun Hersert Wess and Kpwarp DE Courcy CLARKE. Bulletin No. 3 (New Series) New Zealand Geological Survey. Pp. x+111 with 26 plates, 2 figures, 11 maps, 7 cross-sections.—This report deals with the geology of a district facing Golden Bay, lying ‘consequently in the extreme northerly portion of the South Island of New Zealand. The particular economic interest of the region centers in the deposit of iron ore, though coal and metal- liferous deposits are also present. The region is of mountainous character and extremely wild but stands in marked contrast to the bolder and more magnificent scenery of the Southern Alps. The geological formations of the district comprise a basement of highly metamorphic rocks of Ordovician age, or older. Upon these are laid down argillites, grauwackes, and quartzites of Ordo- vician age; then the Haupiri series of conglomerates, breccias and argillites of later Paleozoic age. Upon these were deposited Miocene sediments, the lower portions holding coal and the whole still nearly horizontal. Physiographically the region consists of an old mountainous land of pre-Miocene formations which had probably been ma- turely dissected prior to Miocene times. The mountains are sur- rounded by an upland country which was once entirely, and 84 Scientific Intelligence. is still in part, mantled by Miocene formations. The disjointed faulted and elevated blocks of this ancient coastal plain show that the old land owes its present comparatively great elevation not so much to the original folding as to bodily secular move- ments since the Miocene period. Narrow coastal belts, hardly to be called coastal plains, stand between the uplands and the sea. Joes 6. Om Fladdale og Randmorener i Jylland; af N. VY. Ussing. Résumé Sur les Alluvions Glaciaires et les Moraines Terminales en Jutland ; WK. Dansk. Videnskab. Forhandlinger, 1907. No. 4. Pp. 53 and pl. 1.—This paper deals with the moraines of recéssion in Jutland and their outwash plains. The outermost of these was formed during a prolonged period of arrest named the Baltic epoch of arrest. The later recessional moraines present a much younger appearance. A résumé in French is given at the end. Joba 7. Die Alpen im Hiszeitalter; von Dr. AtBRrEcuT PENCK und Dr. Epvuarp Brtckner. Part 8, in two sub-parts, pp. 785-896. Leipzig, 1907 (Chr. Herm. Tauchnitz). —It is announced that this work is to include ten parts and that it will probably be soon completed. In part 8 the Pleistocene history of the Lombardy Alps is treated with the same clearness and thorough- ness which have marked the study of other sections of the Alps by these authors. The older and younger moraines are separated and the outwash plains and terraces are also mapped. The glaciated and non-glaciated positions of the Alps are discriminated, allowing the profile of the former glaciers and the snow line of glacial times to be restored. The inter-glacial deposits are also studied. JeeB: 8. Revision of the Pelycosauria of North America; by HK. C. Case. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 55. Quarto, 176 pages, 35 plates and 73 text-figures.—This impor- tant monograph deals with the Permian suborder Pelycosauria and is based mainly upon the collections preserved in the Amer- ican Museum of Natural History collected by Professor Cope and by the author himself, as well as upon two collections made by the latter for the University of Chicago. Following the introduction there is an historical review of the Pelycosauria in which former classifications are discussed. The next section is given to a systematic revision of the suborder, which includes, according to Case, three families, seven genera, and 18 species. The morphological revision gives one an admira- ble idea of the peculiarities of this remarkable group, which contains some of the most bizarre and grotesque of reptiles. Occa- sional restorations of the skeleton throw a great deal of light upon the proper interpretation of the remains. In summing up, Case tells us that the Pelycosauria constitute a highly specialized and short-lived branch from the beginning of the Rhynchocepha- lian stem, a striking example of rapid evolution to extreme spec- ialization from very primitive and generalized conditions. In Geology and Mineralogy. 85 relationship, these forms are not far from the Proterosauria and Proganosauria, but differ from the former in the higher degree of ossification, especially of the pelvic and pectoral girdles, and from the latter in the lack of adaptation to a water life. The most striking feature of the group is the enormous development of neural spines to which it is impossible to assign any utilitarian value. The animals were fiercely carnivorous, with enormous teeth. The spines may be mere exuberance of growth from a possible utilitarian beginning; they may be an illustration of Beecher’s law that the development of spines and excrescences accompanies the approaching extinction of a group. Geographically, the Pelycosauria are distributed in north cen- tral Texas and some of the adjacent states and in IIlinois ; also in Prince Edward’s Island. Abroad they cccur in Bohemia and, less certainly, in central Germany and in France. ‘The remains always occur mingled with an abundant fauna of fishes, amphib- ians, and other reptiles. Geologically, the suborder is confined in North America en- tirely to the Permian, though in Europe Ctenosaurus, an ally of Naosaurus and Dimetrodon, is found in the Muschelkalk. An ample bibliography of 141 titles closes the work. R. 8. L. 9. The Skull of Brachauchenius, with observations on the relationships of the Plesiosaurs ; by SamurL W. WILtisTon, Proc. U. 8. National Museum, vol. xxxii, pp. 477-489, with plates XXXI1V-xxxvil.—The type specimen of the genus and species under consideration comes from the Benton Cretaceous of West- ern Kansas and is distinguished from other plesiosaurs by several remarkable characters, in particular the union of the palatine bones in the middle line, and the very short neck. In discussing the relationship of the Plesiosaurs, Professor Williston refers to certain marked resemblances in form and mode of progression between the oar-propelling plesiosaurs and turtles, as contrasted with the tail-propelling type represented by the ichthyosaurs, mosasaurs and thalattosuchians which Fraas uses as a support for the diphyletic grouping of the Reptilia by Osborn. These resemblances Williston thinks no more imply a common phyletic origin than do the much more marked resem- blances of the ichthyosaurs and dolphins. He further states that there is only a remote relationship between the two orders (turtles and plesiosaurs) in osteological structure, and is still strongly of the opinion that the Sauropterygia were derived from a primitive therocephalian ancestry ; the turtles having had a quite inde- pendent origin from some primitive cotylosaurian, like the Chely- dosauria. The turtles occupy a phylum distinctly their own, no more intimately related to the plesiosaurs than they are to the ichthyosaurs or rhynchocephalians, and the ichthyosaurs, too, enjoy a geological line from the most primitive type of reptiles, and should no more be grouped with the dinosaurs and croco- diles than with the plesiosaurs and theriodonts. Ry Ss Es 86 Scientific Intelligence. 10. Zhe Hell Creek Beds of the Upper Cretaceous of Mon- tana ; by Barnum Brown. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. XXll, art. xxxill, pp. 823-845.—In an excellent paper, Mr. Brown unravels the rather perplexing stratigraphy of the Hell Creek beds, which seem to be of similar age to the famous Ceratops beds of Converse county, Wyoming. The evidences for this comparison are lithological similarity and the fact that most of the genera and many species of vertebrates and invertebrates are common to both localities. Of the vertebrate fauna, mammals are extremely rare, being found always in water-worn debris. They may represent river arboreal types. Of the dinosaurs, the Ceratopsia are the most abundant, remains of Zriceratops being found from the very base to the top of the beds. At least 200 skulls have been found, but in nearly every case very badly broken. The genus TZoro- saurus does not occur in the Hell Creek region, although repre- sented by several specimens from the Converse county beds. (‘The reviewer would add that none of the later species of Triceratops which were contemporaneous with Zorosaurus have been recog- nized at Hell Creek, but the earlier forms like Triceratops serra- tus, brevicornus and possibly horridus were evidently abundant. ) The Trachodontide are also of frequent occurrence and, while rare, the carnivorous dinosaurs were majestically represented by the great Z'yrannosaurus rex which also occurs in the Converse county beds. In summing up, Brown states that the Denver, Converse county and Hell Creek beds are of contemporaneous age and are all post- Laramie. “Considering the evidence of the organic remains, the invertebrates plainly foreshadow Tertiary and living species. The flora, on the other hand, shows very little affinity with that of the true Laramie below and even less with the Fort Union above. The vertebrates are clearly of Mesozoic affinity.” 1S Ihe 11. Ueber die Dinosaurier der Aussereuropeischen Trias; von Dr. F. v. Huener. Geologische und Paleontologische Abhand- lungen. Neue Folge, Band viii, Heft 2, 1906, pp. 99-156, pls. viii- xxill, 102 figures in the text.—This valuable quarto, which has since been followed by a somewhat larger paper on the Triassic dinosaurs of Europe, devotes a goodly portion to the American types, especially those of the Connecticut valley, most of which are preserved in the Peabody Museum of Yale University. Follow- ing the list of genera and species referred to extra-European Triassic Dinosauria is a section disposing of forms wrongly re- ferred to this group. Of these the American types are Clepsy- saurus pennsylvanicus Lea, which v. Huene refers to the Para- - suchia; Bathygnathus borealis Leidy, which, in agreement with Case, is referred to the Pelycosauria. Arctosaurus osborni Adams is not a dinosaur, while Dystropheus viemale Cope proves to be a Jurassic Sauropod. The second section includes an excellent discussion of the so- called Connecticut valley forms in which the very complete speci- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 87 men of Anchisaurus colurus Marsh is treated at length, the others more briefly. Anchisaurus solus Marsh is doubtfully referred to that genus. Ammosaurus major Marsh completes the list of the types preserved at Yale, while Megadactylus polyzelus Hitchcock, which Marsh finally referred to Anchisaurus, v. Huene places in the European genus Thecodontosaurus, the fourth genus to which this interesting type has been referred. The remaining American species are Coelophysis longicollis Cope, C. bauri Cope, and C. Willistoni Cope, all of which come from Mexico. The remaining species discussed are confined to South Africa and Australia. An interesting feature of the final summary is the placing of Ammosaurus among the plant-feeding Orthopoda (Predentata), the first Triassic dinosaurian, known from the skeleton, to be referred to that suborder. ‘The presence of predentates during Triassic times, however, has already been proven from the foot- prints. R. S. L. 12. Diamonds in garnet-pyroxene nodules in Kimberlite.— The Roberts Victor Diamond Mine at Boshof, Orange River Colony, was opened in 1905. Since then numerous nodular masses, consisting of garnet and an emerald-green pyroxene with cyanite, have been frequently found in the “yellow ground.” The interesting observation is now recorded by G. 8S. CorsTor- PHINE that one of these nodules has been found to contain eight diamonds, one or two of them well-formed octahedrons of + to 4 carat. The origin of these eclogite bowlders, as they have been called, has been disputed, but the author regards them as concre- tionary nodules formed by segregation or differentiation in the original magma, comparable with the olivine nodules observed in some basalts. The presence of diamonds in these nodules supports the theory that they originated in the firmer rock material called the “ blue ground,” and have not been carried in from some foreign source. Graphite is also occasionally found in the nodules, and this may represent carbon which, under different conditions, might have appeared as the diamond.—7Zrans. Geol. Soc. So. AT FICO. x, 65,5, 190Ne IU. Miscenttanrous Scientiric INTELLIGENCE. 1. The Microscopy of Technical Products; by Dr. T. F. HANAUvSER, revised by the author and translated by ANDREW J. Winton with the collaboration of Kate G. BARBER. Pp xil, 471 with 276 figures. New York, 1907 (John Wiley & Sons).—The preparation of a treatise of this kind presents peculiar difficulties. From the nature of the case, it cannot be encyclopzedic, for in these days of extreme specialization the encyclopedia has given place to exhaustive essays covering very limited fields. Hence there has arisen in every department of applied science a demand for some safe guide in technique, which shall train the observer 88 Seientific Intelligence. to construct his own private cyclopedia, so to speak, and which, by indicating the best methods of research and bibliographical work, shall keep the investigator in touch with every part of the field. Such a guide requires for its preparation not only a wide acquaintance with the subject and its allied topics, but also a remarkable power of selection by which only the best types for illustration shall be chosen. Without this sense of perspective and proportion, an author will give us an unsatisfactory guide, disappointing at every stage. For instance, in the fields occupied by raw commercial products there are many extremely diversitied subjects, such as vegetable fibers. These fibers are numbered by the hundred. Among them are a few which have a commanding position on account of their wide use, and these are fully described in every work of reference. Of the remainder, there are some which cannot be referred to any of the great types, and these puzzling cases are likely to be the first ones which come in the observer’s path. But if in the hand-book there has been de- scribed a type nearly allied to the one in hand, most of the diffi- culty vanishes. Dr. Hanausek has been very discriminating in the selection of his types and their striking variants, so that bis work is of great value. We could wish that in some cases more space had been given to some of the more important subjects of inter- est in this country, for example the species of woods employed in our vast industries of mechanical and chemical wood-pulp manufacture. Certainly more space could have been advanta- geously given to the spruces. But on the whole, the selection has been admirable and the technical treatment very satisfactory. The translation is good throughout, and wholly free from obscurities. It remains to say that the index is copious and helpful, placing within easy reach of the student the immense mass of useful mate- rial contained in the 448 pages. The treatise is a distinct addi- tion to the list of helpful guides in applied Botany and, we may add, in applied Zoology. GL. G 2. Lehrbuch der Mikroskopischen Technik ; von BERNHARD Rawirz. Pp. 438. Leipzig, 1907 (Wilhelm Engelmann).—Nearly every advance in biological knowledge at the present day is depend- ent upon the ability of the investigator either to make use of the complicated technique which has been developed in the biological laboratory or to devise new and improved methods for himself. Each line of investigation requiring the use of the microscope neces- sitates a knowledge of the special methods by which the particular object to be studied is best prepared for miscroscopical inves- tigation. Descriptions of these methods as they have been employed or devised by the most successful investigators have been brought together in this book, and are presented to the reader in systematic arrangement. Although by no means supplanting the works of Fol, Lee and Mayer, Réthig, Fischer, and others, yet each succeeding year brings some improvements on so many of the older methods that a work of this sort is quickly out of date. The present book is so thoroughly up with the times Miscellaneous Intelligence. 89 that it deserves a place in every laboratory where miscroscopical investigations are pursued. WarkaC: 3. Souvenirs Entomologiques: Etudes sur? Instinct et les Moeurs des Insectes (Dixiéme série); par J. H. Fasre. Pp. 353. Paris (Ch. Delagrave).—The present work comprises the tenth volume of studies by this author on the instincts and habits of insects. The enthusiasm of the true naturalist appears on every page, and the accounts of his interesting observations on the family life of some of the common insects of Europe are written in popular language with all the charm of a story book. W. R. C. 4. Papers and Addresses of the Ninth Annual Session of the American Mining Congress, 1906. Pp. 151. Denver, 1907 (pub- lished by the Congress at the office of the Secretary).—The ninth annual meeting of the American Mining Congress was held in Denver from October 16th to 19th, 1906. The volume now issued contains the annual address of the President, J. H. Richards, with a series of papers by different authors. Among the latter may be noted one on the Development of Metal Mining in the Western States, by W. Lindgren ; another on the Mineral Resources of Utah, by J. Derne ; on the Geological Distribution of Gold, by 'T. A. Rickard ; on the Copper Deposits of Washing- ton, by A. W. McIntyre. 5. Ricerche Lagunarit per cura di G. P. Maerini, L. DE Marcu, T. Gnesorro. N. 4-5 (N. 1-2 della serie biologica), Programma di ricerche biologiche Lagunari. N. 6, Le attuali conoscenze sulla flora Lagunare ed i problemi che ad essa si col- legano di A. Braurnor. N. 7, Prima relazione annuale.—These papers, as the titles indicate, are parts of a series of studies on the fauna, the flora, and their physical and chemical environ- ments ; as found in the lagoons at the head of the Adriatic Sea. io 18) 6. Die Histrift aus dem Bereich der Baffin- Bai beherrscht von Strom und Wetter; von Dr. Lupwie Mrcxina. Pp. 135 with 2 plates and 3 figures. Part 7, January 1906 (Siegfried Mittler und Sohn), Berlin.—This work is a critical study of the part played by ocean currents and by winds in governing the paths of ice drift around Greenland and in the Arctic Archipelago. A bibliography of the subject is appended. aa 7. Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften. leipzig (Wilhelm Engelmann); 1907.—Recent publications are the fol- lowing (see also p. 40, May, 1907): Nr. 159.—Chymische Versuche, einen wahren Zucker aus ver- schiedenen Pflanzen, die in unseren Lindern wachsen, zu ziehen; von A. 8. Mareerar. Anleitung zum Anbau der zur Zuckerfabrication anwendbaren Runkelriiben und zur vortheilhaften Gewinnung des Zuckers aus denselben; von F. O. AcHarp. Die beiden Grundscriften der Riibenzuckerfabrikation. Her- ausgegeben von Edmund O. von Lippmann. 90 Scientific Intelligence. OBITUARY. Professor AsapnH Hatt, the astronomer, died at Annapolis on November 22, at the age of seventy-eight years. Prof. Hall’s first ancestor of the family name in this country, John Hall, landed in Massachusetts about 1630 and afterwards moved to Connecticut, making his home in the town of Walling- ford. Thence Prof. Hall’s grandfather, Asaph Hall, moved to Goshen, Litchfield County, about 1755. He was with Ethan Allen at the capture of Ticonderoga, and afterwards became a captain. Prof. Hall’s father was also named Asaph Hall. The professor was born in Goshen, Oct. 15, 1829. His mother was a Palmer, descended from the Palmers of Stonington. His father manufac- tured clocks at Hart Hollow in Goshen and traveled with wagon and team selling them through the South. In one of these trips he died in Georgia, leaving scanty means to his widow. In con- sequence young Hall had to be removed from school and appren- ticed to a carpenter. But he seems to have early formed the resolution of devoting himself to a scientific career. The nar- rowness of his circumstances, however, prevented any move in this direction until he had reached the age of 25 years, when, having learned the existence of a sort of communistic college at McGrawville, Cortland County, N. Y., where the students paid for their board and tuition by manual labor, and the higher classes lent a helping hand in teaching the lower, he repaired thither. Here, in a couple of years, although the educational appliances must have been meager, he succeeded in acquiring a fair acquain- tance with French, German, Latin, and the elements of mathema- tics. Here, too, he met Miss Angeline Stickney, who was on a quest similar to his. After her graduation they were married and went to Ann Arbor, Mich., where, for a little time, Prof. Hall enjoyed the instruction of Prof. Franz Briinnow. Then they taught school at Shalersville, Ohio. The next step was to Cambridge, Mass., to Harvard College Observatory. This was in the summer of 1857. Prof. W. C. Bond set him to work reducing a large mass of moon-culminations which the Bonds had accumulated as a contribution to the knowledge of the dif- ference of longitude between Europe and America. Prof. Hall’s pay was exceedingly scanty, and the utmost economy was neces- sary to make both ends meet. Fortunately, Congress in 1862 authorized four aidships for the Naval Observatory. For one of these Prof. Hall applied and obtained the appointment. This proved to be the turning point in Prof. Hall’s career. He was soon made Professor of Mathematics in the Navy, and his skill and adroitness in the management of all scientific matters, coming under his hand, won for him universal regard, especially that of Joseph Henry, so that, in 1875, he was elected into the National Academy of Sciences. In 1877 occurred a favorable opposition of Mars, and with the larger equatorial of the Naval Observatory, of which he was then in charge, he subjected the planet and its vicinity to rigid scrutiny, with the shining success Obituary. 91 of the discovery of the satellites Deimos and Phobos. Although some may say this was only good luck, Prof. Hall deserved all the praise accorded him by his extreme industry in accumulating the measures serving to determine the orbits of these bodies. Prof. Hall undertook long journeys for the sake of observing impor- tant phenomena ; the transits of Venus were observed at Vladi- vostok and San Antonio; solar eclipses at Plover Bay, in Sicily and Colorado. In 1891 he was retired. In 1896 he received an invitation to give instruction in celestial mechanics at Harvard University, which he accepted, and performed the duty for five years. His lectures were addressed to undergraduates as an elec- tive course ; he was under the necessity of accommodating his teaching to the capacity of his pupils, who seldom exceeded seven. The subject was treated on the line of Gauss’ Theoria Motus. In 1901 he thought himself warranted in retiring to his native town, Goshen, in quietness, retaining, however, his innate propensity for investigating all matters that interested him. This he kept up till within about ten months of his decease, when, the physician being called in, he was pronounced to be suffering from heart trouble, and absolute quiet was prescribed. He_ passed away on November 22, 1907, at the house of his son in Annapo- lis, Md., whither he had gone to escape the rigors of the Goshen winter. With his fine temperament for social intercourse he had no dif- ficulty in being popular wherever he went. In this connection I can only think of the exclamation of one of the watchmen at the Observatory just after he had passed, “ What a nice man he is !”” G. W. HILL. Dr. Bernarp J. Harrineron, Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal, died on November 29 at the age of fifty-nine years. In him Canada loses not only a well known chemist and mineralogist, but one who had endeared him- self to a large circle of friends and acquaintances by his sterling worth of character and charming personality, His death took place at his home in Montreal, after a long illness of some fifteen months’ duration. Dr. Harrington was born at St. Andrews, P. Q., on August 5th, 1848. Not being very strong as a boy, his early education was obtained chiefly from private tutors. He then entered McGill University, where he graduated with honors in natural science and taking the Logan medal in geology. He then proceeded to the degree of Master of Arts in this University and subsequently continued his studies in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, from which in 1871 he obtained the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, taking the prize in mineralogy. At Yale he was a classmate of Professor H. 8. Williams of Cornell, these two gentlemen being the first candidates to receive the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the School in question. His first fieldwork was carried out in Prince Edward’s Island, where he assisted Sir William Dawson in the preparation of a 92 Scientific Intelligence. report on the geology of the island for the Geological Survey of Canada. He was appointed lecturer in mineralogy at McGill University in 1871, and in the following year succeeded Dr. Sterry Hunt as chemist and mineralogist to the Geological Survey of Canada, discharging the duties of both positions for several years. In 1879 he retired from the Geological Survey of Canada and de- voted his whole attention to teaching work at McGill University where he was subsequently appointed David Greenshields Pro- fessor of Chemistry and Mineralogy. In these pioneer days of University work, he also lectured on mining and metallurgy, in which subjects he proved to be a very able teacher, as shown by the fact that many of his students in these subjects have since fisen to occupy foremost positions in the mining world. He was also an enthusiastic botanist. Dr. Harrington was the author of several important reports published by the Geological Su~ ey of Canada, as well as of many papers, chiefly dealing with mineralogy, which appeared in various scientific publications. We are also indebted to him for an excellent Life of Sir William Logan, the first Director of the Geological Survey of Canada. He planned the Chemistry and Mining Building which was erected for the University by Sir William Macdonald, and was its Director until the time of his death. Dr. Harrington was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, being President of Section III of this Society for several years. He was also President of the Natural History Society of Mon- treal, and Vice-President of the Chemical Section of the British Association for. the Advancement of Science (Toronto meeting). In 1876 he married Anna Lois, daughter of Sir William Dawson, and leaves three sons and four daughters to mourn his loss. He was a man of retiring disposition, but warm-hearted and unselfish to a degree,—a personal friend of all his students, and beloved by all who were fortunate enough to make his acquaint- ance. FRANK D. ADAMS. Lorp KeEtyin, the eminent English physicist, died on Decem- ber 17 in his eighty-fourth year. He was one of the intellectual giants of his time, alike prominent for his contributions to the higher mathematics and physics, and for his remarkable achieve- ments in the practical applications of science, as shown conspicu- ously, for example, in his work in connection with submarine cable telegraphy. His greatness received full recognition at home and abroad: he was made Sir William Thomson in 1886 and in 1892 received the title by which he has been known in recent years; he receives also a resting place in Westminster Abbey, the first scientific man to be so honored since Darwin was buried there in 1882. Of the details of his long and fruitful life, of his wonderful power for work, his simplicity of character, and his charming personality, this is not the place to speak. Dr. L. M. UnpErRwoop, Professor of Botany in Columbia University, died on November 16 at the age of fifty-four years. Relief Map of the United States We have just prepared a new relief map of the United States, 48 x 82 inches in size, made of a special composition which is hard and durable, and at the same time light. The map is described in detail in circular No. 77, which will be sent on request. Price, $16.00. WARD’S NATURAL ©“IENCE ESTABLISHMENT, 76-104 College Ave., OC EGE Sai e Nt. ave Warns Naturat Science Estas isHMent A Supply-House for Scientific Material. Founded 1862. - ~ Incorporated 1890. DEPARTMENTS: Geology, including Phenomenal and Physiographic. Mineralogy, including also Rocks, Meteorites, etc. — Palaeontology. Archaeology and Ethnology. Invertebrates, including Biology, Conchology, ete. Zoology, including Osteology and Taxidermy. Human Anatomy, including Craniology, Odontology, ete. Models, Plaster Casts and Wall-Charts in all departments. Circulars in any department free on request; address Wards Natural Science Establishment, 76-104 College Ave., Rochester, New York, U.S. A. CONTENTS. Page Arr. I.—Contributions to the Geology of Rhode Island ; by B. L. Jounson and C. H. Warren II.—Ksterification of Benzoic Acid ; by aK. and Mea PuHE ups, and R. W. OsBorNeE II.—Description of the Williamstown Meteorite; by E. E. MPO WDD 2 Ie IV.—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects ; by T. D. A. Cock- V.—Stratigraphy of the Mt. Taylor Region, New Mexico ; by H. W. Suimer and M. E. Biroperrr VI.—Mammahan Migrations between Europe and North America; by W. D. Matruew VII.—Notes on Powellite and Molybdite ; DCH ADLER so Souls Ute eee asian ey eae - VIill.—Hydrolysis of Ammonium Molybdate in the Presence of Jodides and Jodates ; by 8. E. Moopy__.._.-.__.-- SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Parent-Substance of Radium, Haun: Reduction of Arsenic Trisulphide and Pentasulphide to Disulphide, HHRENFELD, 79.— Titanium trichloride for Volumetric Analysis, KnmecuT and Hipperr : Traité de Chemie Analytique Qualitative, Duparc et Monnizr: Kurzes Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie, W. A. Noyes, 80.—History of Chem- istry, H. Bauer: Beitriige zur chemischen Physiologie, F. HOFMEISTER : Immuno-Chemistry, 8. ARRHENIUS, 81. Geology and Mineralogy—Geological Survey of New Jersey, H. B. KiGmmen ; Geology and Natural Resources of Indiana, W. 8S. BLatonury, 82.—West Virginia Geological Survey County Reports, G. P. Grimsney and I, OC. Waite: Geological Map of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, A. L. pu Torr: Geology of the Parapara subdivision, Karamea, Nelson, J. MacxintosH Breiu, 83.—Om Fladdale og Randmorener i Jylland; N, V, Ussing: Die Alpen im Liszeitalter, A. Penck und EK. Brickner: Re- vision of the Pelycosauria of North America, E. C. Case, 84.—Skull of Brachauchenius, 5. W. Wututston, 85.—Hell Creek Beds of the Upper Cretaceous of Montana, B. Brown: Ueber die Dinosaurier der Aussereu- ropeischen Trias, F. v. Hurns, 86.— Diamonds in garnet-pyroxene nodules in Kimberlite, 87. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Microscopy of Technical Products, T. F. Hanavsek, 87.—Lehrbuch der. Mikroskopischen Technik, B. Rawurrz, 88.—Souvenirs Entomologiques, J. H. Fapre: Papers and Addresses of the Ninth Annual Session of the American Mining Congress, 1906: Ricerche Lagunari per cura di G. P. Macrint, L. Dz Marcu, T. Gnrsorta : Die Histrift aus dem Bereich der Baffin-Bai beherrscht von Strom und Wetter, L. Mecxine : Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften, 89. Obituary—Professor A. Hatz, 90.—Dr. B. J. Harrineron, 91.— Lorp Kevin: Dr. L. M. UnpERwocp, 92. ~* Wr ae. > sr a. ee oe Le Ee me Nt te ee Be ae ee ee eRe Oe =a | Dr. Cyrus Adler, | Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum. a ees oe On xXye Se FEBRUARY, 1908. Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. i 06mlC€UAMERICAN _ ||JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Epitror: EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS ’ PROFESSORS GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, W. G. FARLOW ann WM. M. DAVIS, or Camsrincez, Proressors ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS, © L. V. PIRSSON anp H. E. GREGORY, or New Haven, Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA, Proressor HENRY S. WILLIAMS, or Iruaca, Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battimors, Mr. J. S. DILLER, or Wasurnerton. FOURTH SERIES VOL. XXV—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXYV.] No. 146—FEBRUARY, 1908. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 1908 THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 123 TEMPLE STREET. a TE ET ESP ED TI TS OP SE EILEEN Published monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the Postal Union ; $6.25 to Canada. Remittances should be made either by money orders, registeréd letters, or bank checks (preferably on New York banks). REMARKABLE CONSIGNMENT OF Rare and Choice Minerals. We would again call your attention to this remarkable consignment, which has created a stir among the more advanced collectors. Descriptive lists are now ready for mailing, so if you are interested, send for one of them. We give below a brief list of the most remarkable of them :— Fine lot of Diamond crystals, from Hast India, in shades of pink, yellow, purple, and light green, $3 to $5 each ; Euclase, Capid do Lane, Brazil, one $75 (white), $55 (blue) and $45 (blue); Emeralds, in matrix, Bogota, Colum- bia, S. A., $35 to $200; Takovaya, Ural, $2 to $15; Aquamarine, Nert- schinsk, Ural, loose crystals and matrix, 50c. to $15; Alexandrite, Takovaya, Ural, matrix specimens and loose xls, $3 to $20; Dioptase, Kirghes Steppes, $15 to $22.50; Crocoite, with Vauquelinite, Ural, also Tasmania, $5 to $10; Topaz, Schneckenstein, matrix specimens, 75c. to $7.50; Blue and white Topaz, Romana, Cal., $8 to $10 ; Tourmalines, Mesa Grande and Pala, Cal., matrix specimens and loose crystals, $1 to $150; Chrysoprase, Silesia, and Pala, Cal., polished, $2 to $4; Hyacinth in basalt, Siebengebirge; in lava, Niedermendig, $2 to $2.50; Pyropes in serpentine, Zoeblitz, 50c. to 75c. ; Essonite, Ala, Piedmont, $1.75 to $2.50; Garnet, Bodé, Norway, loose erys- tals, 25¢c. to 75c.; Cyanite and Staurolite, Mt. Campione, $2 to $2.50; Her- derite, on quartz, Poland, $1 to $15; Zeophyllite, new mineral, Radzein, Bohemia, $1 to $5; Benitoite in matrix, San Benito Co., Cal., $5 to $7.50; Polybasite, xls, Durango, Mexico, $4 to $6; Hausmannite, new locality, Cumberland, 50c. to $3; Zinkenite, Nevada, $1.50 to $3; Copalite on Coal, new mineral, Castle Gate, Utah, $1.50 to $2; Torbernite, Tincroft, $5 to $10; Semseyite, on Galena, Felsébanya, $2. 50 to $10 ; Chaleophyllite, Red- ruth, Cornwall, $8 to $10; Crystal Gold, in leaves, Vérdspatak, $15 to $25 ; and in the matrix, from Siebenburgen, S15 ; Sylvanite, Nagyag, $5 to $7.50 ; Crystal Silver, Calumet, Michigan, 75c. to $20 ; Libethenite, Libethen, $2.50 to $5. We still have a fine lot of Hungarian and English Minerals. Ore Collection of 220 Specimens. We have just secured a collection of rich ores, all hand size, and all fine examples, from American Mines. They will be sold singly or as a whole. Another Old Collection. We have secured still another collection of what have come to be known as old collections, that is collections that are rich in examples, from exhausted localities. Particulars on application. Cut Gems. We have every known gem and semi-precious stones. Scientific Rubies. We have a fine lot of these fine gems, from Paris, from 1/2 to 4 k. Send for lists of our Brooklyn and other collections. | A. H. PETEREIT, 81—83 Fulton Street, New York City. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE fe OnU RR We eS her HS) Art. [X.— Historic Fossil Cycads ; by G. R. Wietanp. Tue silicified cycadeoidean trunks, Oycadeoidea etrusca Cap- ellini et Solms, conserved in the Aldrovandi Museum at Bologna, and CU. Reichenbachiana (Goeppert) Solms of the Zwinger Mu- seum at Dresden, must certainly be reckoned amongst the most distinctly famous of all fossil plants.* For both these fossils are of the greatest structural interest ; and while the former has a fair claim to be regarded as the most anciently collected of all geological specimens, the latter has the double distinetion of having been longer conserved in museums than any other eyead trunk, and of long having been the largest known speci- men .of its kind. In fact it still remains in the foremost rank among the very largest of all silicitied cycads, since it is only a segment of a single trunk; whereas our American specimens of a greater size are either complete columnar trunks or else great branching trunks. Furthermore, while Cycadeoidea etrusca has the distinction of having yielded the first clue to the approximate position of staminate fructification in the Cycadeoideze through Count Solms’ discovery of its pollen grains, the great Zwinger Museum trunk is in no small meas- ure notorious as an unstudied specimen which has urgently demanded study for quite a hundred years,—that is, ever since *The original description of Cycadeoidea etrusca is given in the contri- bution of Capellini and Solms, I tronchi di Bennettitee dei Musei Italiani, Notizie storiche, geologiche, botaniche, Mem. d. R. Accad. d. Se. dell’ Ist. di Bologna, Ser. IV, vol. x, 1890. The chief data relating to the history of Cycadeoidea Reichenbachiana have been brought together by Professor Ward under the caption ‘‘A Famous Fossil Cyead,” in this Journal, vol. xviii, July, 1904. Direct references to these and other papers mentioned, or facts cited here, may be found in the writer’s work, ‘‘American Fossil Cycads,” Publication No, 34 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Washington, August, 1906. Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Series, Vout. XXV, No. 146.—Frsruary, 1908. 7 94 G. R. Wieland— Historic Fossil Cycads. the development of methods for the study of rocks in thin sections. It is hence of some interest to record that, following my studies of American Oyeads, I have recently had the oppor- tunity of seeing both of these famous fossil plants, as well as the egually interesting Williamsonia casts of the James Yates series of the Jardin des Plantes and other collections, and also the unique Triassic form Anomozamites of the Natural History Museum at Stockholm. And indeed all of these fossils have proven so unexpectedly characteristic that I deem it of use to give here a brief account from my notes as intended mainly for a taxonomic study of the American Fossil Cyeads, now in course of preparation for the Carnegie Institution of Washington. (1) Cycadeoidea etrusca.—The features of this segment of a columnar trunk are already familiar through the descriptions and figures of Capellini and Solms. The specimen is of great beauty, the texture dense, the color quite dark, the general outer appearance somewhat intermediate to the Wyoming Cycadella and Cycadeordea nigra from Colorado. Numer- ous young fruits are present, and through the great courtesy of Senator Capellini I was enabled tu study thin sections pre- pared from one of these some years since. ‘Especially the thin section of the young axis figured by Solms is of even greater interest than I had anticipated ; for although the tissues of the sporophyll rachides are mostly broken down, the entire and uncompressed outlines of both the sporangia and the walls of the synangia of the usual Cycadeordea (Marattiaceoid) form seen in the American specimens, are certainly often present. Only the individual cells of the outer or palisade layer of the synangia do not seem to be conser ved. An outline ofa synan- gium cut in the longitudinal transverse direction is quite dis- tinct ; while an obliquely cut synangium shows three adjacent sporangia filled full of collapsed (or desiccated) pollen grains, the enclosing locular walls being very perfectly conserved. The pollen is seemingly mature, ‘and the synangia are even larger than in C. dacotensis, although the fruits are of a much smaller size. The small central ovulate cone, no more than a centimeter long, is very perfectly outlined, the short stalked and minute ovules distinct. In size and veneral structure these fruits may eventually prove more like those of Cycadella than C. daco- tensis. From the rather small size of the staminate fronds, it seems that these were more reduced than in C. dacotensis or C. ingens ; but whether they were bipinnate, pinnate, or sim- ply consisted in a single blade, bearing synangia laterally inserted, much as the megaspores are borne by the carpophylls of Oycas, remains impossible to say. These small fructifi- G. LR. Wieland—Ifistoric Fossil Cycuds. 95 cations may at least prove to have-a rather more reduced form than those of Cycadeoidea dacotensis. Transverse sections of CU. etrusca fruits are lacking, but should be made, as they may show the disk features much better than do longitudinal sections. ‘The vegetative structures, however, agree with those of the Maryland cyeads very closely throughout, —only the species remaining fairly distinct from Cycadeoirdea maryland- aca, 1f we hypothetically consider the plant on the basis of veg- etative features alone. I may add that [also had the pleasure of visiting the won- derfully interesting and picturesque Etruscan town site and necropolis where (, e¢rusca was found. These ancient ruins are situated in the grounds of Count Aria in the picturesque valley of the Reno, 20 miles west of Bologna in the foot-hills of the Apennines. After seeing how the stream is there cutting away the last remnants of what was once a regularly laid out town of considerable size, I am still more impressed with the likelihood of the suggestion I have once made that not a few of the fossil cyead trunks were gathered into towns or cities now in ruins or long since destroyed. That C. etrusca is at least as ancient as the old River Reno Etruscan village and necropolis of 4,000 years ago is certain ; for it bears near its base, as noted by Capellini, an elliptical polished-out depression of considerable size, due to use as a smoothing ora sharpening stone, which may just as well have been -of neolithic as later date. At any rate, the great perfection of the specimen indicates that in all probability it did not occur alone; and perchance the occurrence of associated silicified conifers may yet aid in giving some clue to the original local- ity, which, if found, would doubtless yield yet other eycad specimens ‘of rare perfection and interest. The same remark applies even more pointedly to the great Dresden trunk, con- cerning the macroscopic features of which I proceed to give additional facts. (2) Cycadeoidea Reichenbachiana.—This notable type, now in the paleontological collections of the Zwinger Museum at Dresden, was found not far from Lednice near Cracow about 1753. It consists in the basal segment of an immense silicified cyead trunk a full half-meter in diameter and of noticeably but not markedly compressed unbranched columnar form. In life it may have been more than a meter high, as the segment recovered is over a half-meter in height and without tapering. The leaf bases are a little smaller than those of C. JSenneyand and C. ingens, and of much the same size as those of C. gigan- tea of Seward from the Isle of Portland, and the very similar C. excelsa of Ward from the Black Hills. The trunk has just emerged from its pulcherrima stage of growth, that pre-fructi- 96 G. R. Wieland—fHistoric Fossil Cycads. fication period well illustrated by Cycadeoidea megalophylla Buckland ; and, as indicated by large groups of bracts marking the individual axes of fructification, and especially by the man- ner in which the bracts close in compactly at the center of the bract groups, many young fruits are present. Of these fruits three, and perhaps. more, are very clearly in the bisporangiate or nondehiscent-disk or flower-bud stage so well exhibited by our American specimens. Moreover, in one of these three buds the disk structure is strikingly clear. In it the curved middle portions of the unexpanded and presumably bipinnate microsporophylls have been so eroded away as to clearly reveal in transverse section sixteen circularly disposed miecro- sporophyll rachides. And one may plainly see that these sec- tions of the rachides of triangular outline abut and enclose an inner mass of closely packed and wonderfully conserved synangia of large size, rising above and concealing a central ovulate cone. The individual synangia are evidently attached to the rachides in normal position. This is the first time that the presence of such silicified flowers has been definitely confirmed in European trunks.* In size and general structure the bisporangiate strobilus of C. Reichenbachiana with its 16 microsporophylls closely agrees with that of Q. dacotensis with 17 or 18, with perhaps a decid- edly interesting difference in the apparently larger size of the synangia. The structure of the synangia is unquestionably preser ved ; indeed, although familiar with quite 1,000 trunks, T know of no other fossil cycad so beautifully and magnificently silicitied as O. Reichenbachiana. It is even probable that the entire structure of the staminate fronds as well as the synangia is preserved in the greatest perfection, whence it is of very distinct interest to paleobotanists that, as I was informed at Dresden, Solms-Laubach is soon to carry out an exhaustive histologic study of this famous fossil eyead. *T am unable to reconcile the features of C. Reichenbachiana with the drawing of the ‘‘ Bruchstiick” given by Goeppert on Plate TX of the Jubi- liums Denkschrift, published in 1853. In fact not only this, but all the accompanying figures are of that uncertain value so characteristic of most illustrations of fossils previous to the extended use of photography,—and that they are quite inexact has already been observed by Professor Ward. With the Dresden cycad before me it seemed that the large Williamsonia- like fruit nearly 9 centimeters in diameter and so prominent in Goeppert’s Plate IX must pertain to an accompanying fragment, or even to another specimen ; but as the text of the Denkschrift gives no clue to any such, I must conclude that during or since the time of Goeppert the fruit illus- trated was partly or wholly broken away. Goeppert supposed these axes to be vegetative and like the lateral buds of old Cycas stems; but Professor Ward notes that they are fruits and thought seeds must be found in some. In which he is wholly correct, since nearly all must bear young ovulate cones hidden beneath the thick husk of enclos- ing bracts, which is in the great majority of cases all that can be seen at the surface of the trunk. Fully fifty young floral axes are present. G. R. Wieland— Historie Fossil Cycads. 97 As we have seen, Cycadeoidea Reichenbachiana adds another member to the long series of trunks extending from columnar types which have mostly, though not always, large leaf bases, to the great branching types from America, which are mostly characterized by leaf bases of moderate or small size. Moreover, while C. Leichenbachiana is a columnar form, its flower bud agrees closely with that of the branching cycads of the Black Hills, especially C. dacotensis. It there- fore remains to add that in the light of these new facts con- cerning long known European “eyeads, the family name Cy cadeoidese used by Robert Brown (1828) certainly includes all the forms which English writers on fossil plants have much later mistakenly placed in their so-called Bennettiteze. Simi- larly, the proposal that Cycadeoidea (1827) shall be the generic term used for stems without recognizable fructifications cannot be accepted for the simple reason that not only are the Buck- land specimens vegetatively like the other trunks from Europe as well as the American forms, but, to go no further than the evidence afforded by the original descriptions, the tangential section figured by Buckland eighty years ago ‘clearly shows a large and characteristic peduncular bundle. As to the genus Bennettites (1867), this can at the very most include two or three species so far as known, the great majority of the species of Cyeadeoidex falling within other genera. And so far as truly problematic tr unks of unknown fructification and really doubtful vegetative characters are concerned, it only needs to be remarked that there is already at hand for their reception a plethora of such a as Yatesia, Withamia, Becklesia, Fittonia, Clathraria, Cylindvopodium, and Lolbopodium. It would certainly be as ANigewal to insist that we require to relegate to a minor position a “correctly used generic name for the sake of a handy nomenclature for cycad trunks without distinct or distinctly conserved fructifications, as it would be to say that we can never learn the fructification of a fossil whose vegetative features are the first to be discovered, or are, as in this case, the first to be understood. Clearly, therefor e, those who would further use the family name Bennittiteze, or the generic name Bennittites, in other than a wholly restr icted sense, must err in both these respects. Let us now turn our attention briefly to two of the eyeadeoid imprints and casts, which are quite as famous as the silicified trunks just discussed, and which supplement and add to our knowledge of the Cycadeoider i in such a remarkable manner,— namely Willéamsonia and Anoimozamites. 98 G. Rk. Wieland—Historic Fossil Cycads. (3) Willéamsonia gigas (Paris Museum specinien with leaves attached).*—This is by far the most important specimen of the James Yates collection of Williamsonias from the Juras- Williamsonia gigas (Echantillon No. 2599a Jardin des Plantes, Paris, Col- lection Yates, 1827). Terrainodlithique inferieure, Scarborough et Whitby. The fronds to the right are of an old series ; above these are large scale leaves somewhat interiorly to which rise the petioles evidently of a younger series of full grown fronds,—the main axis ending in a forked bract envel- oped peduncle and possibly being capable of further growth after the pro- duction of its Howers, just as is the Cycas axis. (2 natural size.) *The present drawing of this remarkable cycad is superposed on a photograph furnished to me through the great liberality of the officials at the Jardin des Plantes. G. R. Wieland—Historic Fossil Cycads. 99 sic sandstones of Hawkser and Runswick cliffs, secured by Brongniart. Imperfectly figured by Saporta in the Plantes Jurassiques, vol. 1, it was casually mentioned by Solms-Lau- bach in his Fossil Botany as the only cycadean stem known to him with leaves attached, and later still by Seward, who observed the presence of the terminal and typical W27/liam- sonia peduncle. Yet we remain without an adequate descrip- tion ; for, although a silicified Pétdlophyllum stem with frond bases bearing a few pinnules has been reported from India, and though many of the silicified stems from the Black Hills bear entire crowns of young fronds, here is the only cycado- phyte known in all the world’s museums with quite complete mature fronds plainly attached to the parent stem. Moreover, the present plant differs markedly from the above forms in its stem characters only, and is a fundamentally important con- necting link between Cycas and those Cycadeoidean types with much reduced laterally-borne fructifications. It is, too, a fossil of great beauty ;—conserved as a semi-cast, or combi- nation of cast and imprint in a block of grayish white sand- stone (Lower sandstone of Phillips), traces of the original carbon add very markedly to the clearness of the outlines of the stem, fronds, bracts, and peduncle. All of the features are exposed by a single fortunate split of the matrix which reveals the conuection of the stem and petioles of at least three of the fronds, one above the other; while various other fronds traversing the matrix make it clear that all of the fronds of a sparse crown are present and, in most cases, con- nected. That is, an entire plant with mature fronds and large fruits, as indicated by the prolongation of the stem as a pedun- cle, is surprisingly well shown. In life the foliar crown was of the same size as one of our Florida Zamias, with fronds a little less than two feet in length ; but the stem, the basal por- tion of which is broken away, was slenderer—less than five centimeters in diameter, armor and all, and may have been long. Easily the most striking feature is the continuation of the main axis with but slight constriction and no evidence of lateral budding, as a bract-covered peduncle. This rises to a height of some ten centimeters above the leafy crown and then forks just where cut off by a transverse fracture studded by small barnacles. As thus plainly indicated, the fossil came from a point on the Hawkser or Runswick cliffs between high and low tide, and may even have been found én situ, rather than as talus material, if the fruits were turned toward the cliff face. The barnacle-studded fracture is but little water- worn, and the forked peduncle appears to be broken off just at the base of two large fruits, or, as is quite as likely, a single fruit and the new phytaxis. In short, it seems highly probable that had the importance of the specimen been at once realized when collected some 100 G. R. Wieland—Historic Hossil Cycads. eighty years ago, it would have been possible to find, either associated with it or remaining behind in the cliff, the block containing the entire summit. Indeed, in looking through the other James Yates specimens of the Jardin des Plantes, I could not help hoping every moment to find the barnacle-coy- ered end of a block matching the broken end of that of the main stem, and containing the. missing flowers. And, although I failed to observe any such with cer ‘tainty, there still remains a suspicion that the iron mountings of the specimen prevented my search from being wholly conclusive, and that some one of the beautiful accompanying series of Welliamsonia flower buds was really borne on the forked peduncle. At least, this not proving so, it seems to me that if there exists at Cambridge or elsewhere in England a slab bearing a pair of Williamsonia fructifications, with the peduncles broken away at their bases and ending on a transverse fracture of the matrix, dotted over with barnacles, or similarly, a fruit and a bud lying side by side and oriented alike, it ought in the interests of paleontol- ogy to be carried to Paris and compared with the Jardin des Plantes specimen. I do not think I am deceived in stating that the peduncle forks ;.although whether it is at first a true monopode or inte- gral prolongation of the stem instead of a lateral branch, is more uncertain. As already suggested, however, it appears to rise monopodially, and to thus exhibit precisely that form of fruiting hypothetically intermediate between Cycas and the reduced laterally-borne cones and flowers of Cycadeoidea. If, as must be borne in mind, the peduncular prolongation of the stem bore one flower and a new phytaxis, instead of two flowers, we of course have here repeated in the Jura very nearly the same fruit-bearing and branching habit as in that remarkable related form of the Triassic, Anomozamites. In either case, however, the condition observed forms, @ fortiori, a connecting link of profound interest between the Cycade- oideze and the Cycadaceee. For, restating the case: in the female Cycas, strobilar elongation of the stem ‘following a bract series or seale-leaf series, is integral—monopodial ; while here there appears to be a partially restricted elongation of the stem which likewise follows a bract series and is presumably capa- ble of producing a fruit-bearing branch, and also of subse- quent growth as a new phytaxis. There is little suggestion of a fruit-bearing sympode or flowering stalk. Much more,—if we begin to think out hypothetically related forms with much branched yet slenderer stems, netted veined (Dictyozamites) leaves and primitively plastic multiovulate sporophylls, we soon arrive at a remote type of Proangiosper- mous plant near to or actually a true pre-Angiosperm, or Hemi- angiosperm, as named by Newell-Arber from what is justly G. R. Wieland—Mistoric Fossil Cycads. 101 my own point of view. But this line of inquiry is more appropriate to another chapter. Meantime, it seems extraor- dinary that the fossil before us has received such scant notice in texts, and that just as if it had never existed, the correct- ness of Williamson’s restoration was so long called in question despite the added authority of Brongniart. (4) Anomozamites minor Nathorst.—The accurate descrip- tions of the original types given thirty vears since by Nathorst, and more recently in his contribution on Ainige Mosozoischen Cycadophyten, leave little to add here, except by way of emphasis of the great botanical importance of this oldest of known eyeadeoids. These specimens, still unfortunately few in number, are not only among the most priceless in the superb collections of fossil plants in the Natural History Museum at Stockholm, but deserve a foremost position amongst all fossil cycadophytes. In my American Fossil Cycads I have in unmistakable terms urged the great importance of Anomozamites, which by rea- son of its slender much branched stem, its small blade-like leaves, and its small fruits of Williamsonia type (apparently with 18 microsporophylls), is certainly more suggestive of rela- tionships to primitive Angiosperms, that is to the Magnoliaceze as determined independently by both Hallier and myself, than is any other of the better known cycadeoids. Indeed the only possible contestant for this position of primary importance which can so far be suggested is Dictyozamites. Because of its netted veined leaves, we may well suspect that this cyeado- phyte, now known to be one of the cosmopolitan forms, may show yet closer approximations to Dicotyls—once we are for- tunate enough to find its fruits. For it need surprise no one if these should for instance exhibit that more primitive bispor- angiate combination of the Cyeas-like, or multiovulate carpo- phyll, with reduced mier osporophylls, or stamens, which one may safely predict will be yet discovered in considerable variety amongst the cycadeoids.* * With the present additions, the known species of Cycadeoidean amphi- sporangiate flowers now number quite a dozen distributed in five more or less cosmopolitan genera, ranging through the entire Mesozoic, and ante- dating the angiosperms in the most suggestive manner as follows : 1. Anomozamites minor ; Microsporophylls 17 or 18.—Trias. 2. Cycadella wyomingensis ; 18 —U. Jura. 3. Cycadeoidea dacotensis ; Hy 18 —Wealden. 4, etrusca ; «s — —L. Cretaceous (2). 5. ee ingens ; te 18 —Wealden. 6. i Jenneyana ; ss 10 or 11.— os Ue es Paynei ; “ Se ie 8. nt Reichenbachiana; ‘ PG == 9. is Superba ; ie —_ — ~+§ 10. ee (Species) ; a mi te 11. Cycadocephalus Sewardi ; ie 17 or 18.—Trias. 12. Williamsonia gigas ; ue 15 or 20.—Jura. 102 G. R. Wiecland—Accelerated Cone Growth in Pinus. Arr. X.—Accelerated Cone Growth in Pinus; by G. R. WIELAND. Tux rare but suggestive instance of multiseriate production of ovulate cones in Pinus rigida, illustrated in the accom- panying figure, has been recently brought to my notice by one of my colleagues.* This conspicuous group of cones appears to have been derived from some New England source many years ago, having been found with a series of geological speci- mens collected or left in the Peabody Musewin by ” Professor Benjamin Silliman and probably not examined since his day. As appears in the fig- ure, the individual cones, of which there are fifty- three in all, are nearly all of normal or approxi- mately normal develop- ment and so regularly crowded together on their common axis as to simulate, taken en masse, some such single huge cone as that of Pinus Coulterr. It is clear enough, however, that the entire growth of cones is not in any com- plete sense an abnormal- ity; for each cone must appear normally in the axil of a bract, just as do the several up to half a dozen cones in the usual ovulate clusters [or whorls], and exactly as in the case of the far more numerous cones of the corresponding stami- nate groups. * At the time this note was first written it seemed to me that its interest was somewhat lessened by the fact that after diligent search and inquiry I failed to learn of additional examples of clustered Pinus cones. Since then, however, I have seen three large and even finer clusters in the collections of the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. No label accompanied these specimens, which represent at least two more species of Pinus exhibiting accelerated cone growth, G. R. Wieland—Accelerated Cone Growth in Pinus. 108 Also, similarly to both ovulate and staminate cone-bearing axes, as well as to occasional single ovulate cones, the main or vegetative axis was prolonged ; although, having been broken away, this feature does not appear in the ‘figure. The present very unusual or even unique group of cones has therefore been produced in the simplest possible manner, namely, by increase in number and crowding to the extent of about a dozen of the ordinary ovulate clusters. Moreover, it is from its very simplicity of origin that this fine example of accelerated proliferation appears to me to derive an instructive interest; for of late there have been accumulating various significant facts pointing towar d a deriva- tion of all existing sper ‘maphytes from primitive ferns by way of pteridospermous types. Indeed, it now appears quite prob- able that the production of ferns may well have been Nature’s fundamentally greatest achievement in vegetal evolution, and that following this great step, perhaps thor oughly accomplished in Silurian time, advance in reproductive structures was largely along lines of lesser resistance rather than by sheer forward movement. That is, broadly as well as theoretically speaking, the hiatus between moncecious fern prothalli and the seeds of pteridosperms and finally of gymnosperms and angiosperms ; or, more definitely still, the hiatus between asexual fertile fern fronds, and the microsporophy Il and carpellary leaf, the stamen and carpel, as seen in their thousand-and-one combinations in strobili flowers and inflorescences, was bridged not so much by the outright evolution of new organs as by more roundabout methods. Such, for instance, are, » following the development of either gener alized types or organs, extreme reductions, the secondary “yequisition of organs not originally evolved for the specific purpose or use finally assumed, and especially re- arrangements or regroupings ot fertile axes with sporophyll changes sequent to accelerated branching. Now, if such conceptions of the descent of the higher types of existing plants from the ferns can in any sense approximate the truth, then the question as to the extent to which sporo- pbyll reduction entered into the evolution of primitive types of cones from a main terminal strobilus like that of Cycas at once arises. And directly corollary to this inquiry there imme- diately comes up for discussion the further possibility of accelerated branching with marked increase in number of par- tially reduced fertile axes. Such, whenever assuming a more or less compacted order constituting in reality primitive types of inflorescences, would, if once coming to appear habitually, readily undergo still other subsequent mutations of form. For example, how else than by some such course of evolution as that here briefly suggested, has the male cone (inflorescence) 104. G. R. Wieland—Accelerated Cone Growth in Pinus. of Welwitschia arisen? It is certainly thinkable that an ini- tial period of sporophyll reduction and accelerated branching in some ancient pteridospermous ancestor characterized by large bractlike leaves, could result in a growth of fertile axes in compacted groups more or less analogous to that before us, and that a secondary course of reductions may then have inter- vened and produced the condition we now see. In other words, we imagine that in the dicecious Welwitschia single flowers originally: derived from fertile terminal buds of vege- tative form have, following increase in number, undergone extreme reduction and modification into “ cones,” the ovulate forms of which have lost their microsporophylls. Further- more, if each cone of a group more essentially like that iilus- trated were to be reduced so as to produce but a single seed, another interesting type of conoid inflorescence would be out- lined; though such a form could scarcely be as capable of wide variation as a still more primitive series of spirally inserted multiovulate sporophylls.* It is thus of decided interest to have clearly brought home to us by such a simple form of accelerated branching as that of Pinus, the very interesting fact that’ by reason of new emplacements wholly new series of modifications in organs of reproduction may take place. These hypothetical en masse changes following the earlier evolutionary stages of primitive sporophylls pointedly suggest how the endless variety of angio- spermous fructifications can have arisen from plant types not very remote from but still more primitive than the Cyeade- oidez ; while contrariwise in races with few ovules to the car pel. and little phytologie plasticity like the conifers, such reahgnments and modifications have in post-Triassic time seldom appeared or become habitual with a resultant displace- ment of the plastic stock by its better equipped descendants. [April 25, 1906. | * The gymnosperm cone itself, both simple and Garonne: is throughout derived by branching from a primitive main axis. The sporophylls of both sexes are of course all derivatives of pteridospermous fronds; and dorsal, ventral, or lateral insertion of sporangia is of purely secondary import, since resulting in the simplest possible manner during the process of extreme reduction in which all circinnate pretioration was displaced by obscured con- duplicate, or direct forms, with formation of various types of appression faces. Finally, in the Coniferales, sclerotization into regularly interlocking spirally inserted prismoids resulted in the nearly aplastic bracts and carpels, which have changed but little since the Jura. Appositely it is hypothesized that a diminution in the number of primitive sporophylls, fol- lowed only secondarily by spore decrease in number, would conserve the requirements of ‘carpellary plasticity. E. Ek. Howell— Ainsworth Meteorite. 105 Art. XI.—The Ainsworth Meteorite ; by Eywiy E. How 1. Tuis siderite, for which I propose the name of the town near which it was found, was purchased from Mr. J.C. Toliver. It was found last winter by one of Mr. W. G. Townsend’s little boys, who called his father’s attention to it as it lay partly buried in the sand beside a small creek in Brown Co., Nebraska, about six miles N.W. of Ainsworth. It measured approximately 45 x6 X7 in. and weighed 235 Ibs. (10°65 kilo.) with a specitic eravity for the whole mass of 7°85. Two of the 7 Section 1. The Ainsworth Meteorite, half nat. size. projections on one side are flattened, as if by pounding, but closer examination shows fine striee running evenly across both surfaces, which are in the same plane, suggesting that the meteorite in falling may have glanced on a “rock —making a slickensided surface. The most noticeable. feature, however, is the presence, in a number of places on the surface, of br ioht unaltered troilite and schreibersite. This fact, in connection with the general freshness of the mass, would indicate that the “fall”? was a comparatively recent one. A fractured surface on one of the sharp corners, and adjoining flat side, shows where perhaps two lbs. had been broken from the mass ante- cedent to its burial, probably when it fell. The fractured 106 E. E.. Howell— Ainsworth Meteorite. corner exhibits the coarse octahedral structure, while the frac- tured side has the appearance of columnar structure, and there seems to be considerable tendency to columnar fr acturing at this particular part of the iron, columnar-like pieces breaking from the sections as they were cut. Eight sections have been cut all parallel to the first—the one fieured. The principal veins and the mixed figures of troilite and schreibersite con- tinue through them all; in addition, however, three typical nodules of troilite were encountered, ‘which contrast strongly in color and form with those in which the schreibersite forms a prominent part. The sections etch very slowly; in time, however, lines appear which I did not hesitate to call Neumann lines until Mr, Tassin proved the iron to be an octahedrite, as was at first indicated by the fracture. These lines do not cross the veins referred to, and they are differently oriented in each of the blocks outlined by these veins, making the blocks appear as separate units. Mr. Tassin finds the structure of this iron to be unique, although in general appearance—especially in the irregular graphic segregations of schreibersite and troilite— it very closely resembles the Sao Juliao, and in a less degree the Tombigbee River, and in some respects the Kendall County. Mr. Wirt Tassin of the U. §. National Museum has devoted considerable time to the study of this iron and gives a sum- mary of his results as follows: ANALYSIS AND Nores ON THE AINSwoRTH METEORITE, BY Wrirr Tassin. Meteoric Iron from Ainsworth, Nebraska. The iron (fig. 1) here described is triangular in outline and shows a well-marked octahedral fracture on one edge, in fact the three edges of the section approximate three directions of an octahedron with the cut surface forming a fourth, giving the mass as a whole the appearance of a flattened octahedron. The surface as cut shows octahedral lamelle of the largest size, so large that they are not at once apparent, as the specimen is not big enough to contain more than a few of them. Careful etching develops a surface having in places a mottled or dappled appear- ance. These mottlings w vhen magnified under a vertical illumina- tion show a definite octahedral structure and an etch figure (fig. 2) directly comparable with that of other octahedrites, “and may regarded as centers of crystallization, which though minute, possess a well-detined lamellar structure and usually show the three characteristic alloys. The accessory constituent, shown in the figure as rows of crystals i in relief, is unknown but is here assumed to be nickel-free iron. Such a structure, a most coarse octahedrite containing very minute octahedrites, has never before been observed by the writer. Contained in the mass E. F.. Howell—Ainsworth Meteorite. 107 as a whole are irregularly shaped segregations of troilite, in forms suggesting graphic characters. These troilite areas contain more or less carbon with grains of nickel-iron and phosphide of iron and they are commonly bounded with a thin wall of schrei- bersite. This compound also appears abundantly elsewhere on the surface, usually as bright points which under the microscope Section magnified 1500 diameters. appear to be cross-sections of the lath-like form known as rhabdite. The surface is also marked by veins or fissures of varying widths, certain of which are parallel to the several directions of the octahedron and form octahedral partings. These veins are commonly bounded by schreibersite and are filled with a carbo- naceous material containing phosphorus, sulphur and iron. The material available for analysis gave the following values: IOUS ee ere ey tere ame oy hs yuh CDE mes 92°22 ING eke ict ik Ge a ene eee ee eH BEAO WOb alti ae Ci Se a ey eg ee 0°42 Copper seer a ee se 0-01 phosphorus sees ooh. 2 tel eee te ORS Url po Migs tose ea os, Ae es aren eae 0.7, Clio mune ee er ek ee —0:01 Pe ICGX6) 11 = ies SEN “oA A ep Olea era te 0:049 OP YH OYON I: See cae eS ee ee Bro ea 0:09 108 Hubbard—Tligh Level Terraces in Southeastern Ohio. Art. XII.—Some High Level Terraces in Southeastern Ohio ;* by Grorcr D. Hussarp. Asour thirty years ago Professor J. J. Stevensont+ called attention to a considerable number of high level terraces or benches occurring in the upper Ohio river region, ‘ almost absolutely level ” and ranging in height from 1100 to 2580 feet above sea level. They were more widespread than the river terraces of outwash gravel, and consisted of rock benches well covered with mantle rock. The latter “contained little clay and no transported material but was mostly sand.” Although always above all the outwash terraces, they descend nearly ‘to the upper ones, but never merge with them. They seem to consist of a rock notch, and the removed material’ laid just below the notch. These- high level terraces are recent, having been made since the latest war pings of the region, and being very. well preserved. Professor Stevenson explained that they are due to wave work on the valley walls and hillsides when the region was deeply submerged subsequent to the retreat of the ice sheet. The upper one was formed when the region was depressed nearly 2600 feet below the present level, admitting the sea into a complex, branching system of valleys; and the lower terraces developed at successive halts as the land slowly emerged from the sea. These terraces have probably never been causally connected with the Cincinnati ice dain theory, but in 1890 Professor Chamberlin § discussed them in connection with that theory, stating that the land on which the dam occurred is 440 feet above sea level and that the dam as described by other students, and as required to force the water over the cols to the south- ward, was pees y 500-625 feet thick, placing its summit at 1000-1100 feet above sea level. He concludes that such an obstruction could scarcely make a series of terraces, ranging in altitude from 1100-2580 feet. He shows that some of the terraces are structural or gradational and perfectly related to the strata. | In 1903 W. G. Tight4 also discussed the high-level terraces especially from southeastern Ohio, and considers them to be * By permission of the Director of the Ohio Geological Survey. Read at one ee meeting of the Ohio State Academy of Sciences, November + This Journal (3), xv, p. 245, 1878. tIbid. 246-250: also Proce. Phil. Soc. xviii, pp. 3802, 303, 1880: Penn. Geol. Surv., Ks, pp. 251-268. § Introd. Bull. 58, U.S. G. S., p. 22 f. || Ibid. p. 38. 47U.S. G.S., Prof. Paper 15, p. 104. Hubbard—INigh Level Terraces in Southeastern Ohio. 109 wave-cut forms, and suggests lake conditions due “ to obstruc- tions to the drainage beyond the limits of the basin.” He further states that they bear no relation to the ice dam of Wright. The author does not believe an ice dam was ever effective near Cincinnati nor that any of the phenomena up the valley require such a dam for explanation. To sum up the previous literature on the subject. There have been described, slender, high-level horizontal terraces from the upper Ohio river region and from southeastern Ohio. They have been generally ascribed to wave work, but a few are due to structure and degradation or bear perfect relation to the strata. Sea invasion to an altitude of 2600 feet for those in the upper Ohio region, and lake conditions for the others, have been invoked to explain them. The ice dam theory has evidently been considered but has been discarded as insufficient. During the past summer a number of examples of these neat, slender, hillside terraces have been seen and carefully examined. The following descriptions will suffice to show the character of the forms seen. In Monroe county, southeast of Woodsfield about 12-13 miles, and northwest of Hannibal about five miles along a little branch of Opossum creek near Winkler’s Mill, are three horizontal terraces on a rather steep slope near the sum- mit of a hillside. Two little brooks run down over them and these have cut notches down into the terrace tops and terrace fronts. Careful examination of these ents showed the whole terrace in each case to be of bed-rock with a thin cover of mantle rock. There is no possibility that these terraces are wave-cut unless the waste removed to make them has been entirely removed. They are due to the weathering of alternate hard and soft layers of the prevalent shaly sandstones of the Pennsylvanian formations. In Washington county back of the village of Lowell two localities possessed terraces. In the first place the general survey of the conditions led to the conclusion that there was a single, horizontal rock-fronted terrace and a waste slope below, but a close examination disclosed the fact that a landslide was the cause of the terrace. A long horizontal strip of rock and waste had broken loose from the firmer bed-rock and had fallen a few feet. At the second place, the semblance of ter- races, at a distance, was striking, but on going up among them there was absolutely no question but that. they were caused by landslides. An acre or more slid down, crowding into the road and pushing arail fence down. The vertical slip was probably three or four feet. Earth came down in blocks or sections, three larger ones and several minor ones, extending north and south horizontally along the valley wall, Cracks “opened be- Am. Jour. Sci,—FourtuH Series, Vot. XXV, No. 146.—Frsruary, 1908. 8 110 Hubbard—High Level Terraces in Southeastern Ohio. tween the blocks, which gaped to a depth of from 3 to 6 feet and wide enough, in places, to receive a man. From below, the series looked extremely like wave-cut terraces, but from above they looked just as much like landslide forms. A num- ber of other slides in the vicinity were old enough to have become wholly healed. In Gallia county, near Gallipolis on the walls of a little brook leading into Raccoon creek, two terraces were seen. They rose slightly, southward as did the strata. Careful examination revealed the coincidence of one with a hard calcareous layer among softer shaly layers and of the other with a soft layer between two harder series of layers. Apparently there was in the latter case an accumulation of detritus as if the material taken out of the hillside to make the notch had been piled be- low to build up a terrace, but examination showed that the terrace, from below the notch, was of rock with a thin covering of residual rock waste. It became apparent that a soft layer among hard layers could so weather out as to leave a terrace below. The author has seen a number of such terraces as these two types in central New York, oe in and around Newark Valley 15-20 miles northwest of Binghamton. In Gallia county, 6-8 miles from Gallipolis along the pike to Cora, one fine ter- race was seen on two sides of a hill. It was horizontal on the south side and synclined on the east side and followed the same soft statum on both sides. This was throughout a slender rock terrace, with no mantle accumulation at all commensurate with the notch. About a mile down the Raccoon* from Northup on the left side of the valley, at altitudes of 570-620 feet U.S. G.S., were found four terraces. The upper one was perfect, the second poor, and the two lower ones good. The upper one now shows rock along its crest instead of waste, and the steep slope back of it is also of rock. A little rill over the top and crest of the second shows rock all the way beneath a foot or less of waste, and similarly two rills across the front of the third reveal bed- rock, while one rill over the front of the lower one likewise discloses the rock in place. There has been some sliding in connection with the second terrace from the top. These beautiful slender forms at this point then are rock terraces in shales of varying hardness. They all extend along the hill side a hundred yards, and the third is more per- sistent—perhaps to 250 yards. The valley of Raccoon creek was examined for seven miles, partly above and partly below Northup, and those described * This valley was visited in this connection because it is thought by Tight to be one of the best loc alities to study the terrace. U.S. G. 8. Prof. Paper 13, p. 89. Hubbard—Migh Level: Terraces in Southeastern Ohio. 111 above are the best terraces seen. Others were noted, one or two in a place, at several points, but in every case except one they turned out to be rock terraces. In the one case, the terrace was due to landslide. It is not common for landslid- ing to give a form even resembling the neat terraces, but in at least three examples such was the case. There may, be shore- line terraces in this valley, but the author failed during a care- ful search to find them. All the highland terraces seen are above the outwash, and are in the region of continuous Penn- sylvanian rocks whose chief characteristic is their variableness as evidenced by their relative resistance to weathering. In closing, I desire to call attention to a few facts which it may be well to bear in mind when further reviewing the prob- lem of the high-level, slender terraces. Terraces may often be due to wave work. As fine terraces as have ever been described have undoubtedly been developed by this physiographic process along shore lines.* It has been stated by other observers, and I coneur, that the terraces of the Ohio valley are commonly on the steeper slopes and along the smaller valleys. Wave-made terraces would be slow in forming on steep rock slopes, because there would be little rock mantle, and any material derived by wave action would, by the same agent. be easily scattered down the steep, sub- merged slopes, without forming terraces. The walls of smaller (narrower) valleys would be among the least propitious places for wave terraces to develop because the waves would here be weakest. On the other hand, gentler slopes, soil covered and lying along the larger valleys, would be very proper places for wave-cut terraces; but under such conditions terraces rarely occur. Further, their preservation in such places would be easier because erosion is less active on gentle slopes. Granting that terraces, due to wave action, have been formed along the walls of partly submerged valleys, other rejated features should also have been formed. Deltas, at bay heads, or along the sides of the larger bodies of water where streams entered, should be common. Not one has ever been reported. Probably some streams were too short to construct deltas, but many were not. Lake clays and sands should have been deposited, especially near where the smaller streams entered the drowned valleys. They also have never been reported. In Central New York} ia the finger lake region deltas occur in profusion and associated lake clays occur to depths of 10-15 feet down slope from many delta series. But only in rare instances are cliffs or wave-cut terraces found. They have *U.5. G.S., Monographs I and XI. + Watson, T. L., N. Y. State Mus., 51st Ann. Rpt., vol. i, pp. r6d-117, 1899 ; and several other authors. 112 Hubbard— High Level Terraces in Southeastern Ohio. been recognized at a few points, but, asa rule, no trace of them can be found at the levels of the deltas. If there has been time enough for shoreline cliffs and terraces in the Ohio valley why not time for deltas, clays, ete. In New York, there was plenty of time during the higher stands of the lakes for a splendid development of deltas and lake clays, but rarely any beach terraces or cliffs can be found. It is also rather remarkable, if the terraces of the Ohio valley are due to wave work, that they only occur along the smaller valleys and never along the larger valleys where the opportunity for strong wave work was best. Ifthe few that do occur are mainly due to differential weathering, it is not to be expected that they should occur in the main valleys but rather back in the smaller ones, where the opportunity for long continued preservation of differential weathering is best. Ohio State University, Columbus, O Huene and Lull—Triassic Reptile Hallopus. 113 Arr. XIII.—On the Triassic Reptile, Hallopus Victor Marsh; by F. R. von Hvene, Tiibingen, Germany, and R. 8. Lutt, New Haven, Conn. A REEXAMINATION of the type specimen of Hallopus, pre- served in the Peabody Museum at Yale, has brought forth some interesting new facts. We are giving here a short pre- liminary description and intend later to write a fully illustrated, detailed treatise in which Hallopus will be compared with other reptiles and its true relationships investigated. Following Williston,* the Hallopus beds at Garden Park, near Laramie City, Wyoming, supposed by Marsh to be Juras- sic, are Upper Triassic. The type specimen is contained in two slabs of red sandstone fitting together and, while fairly well preserved, in some instances only the impression of the bone upon the matrix remains, adding to the difficulty of an exact interpretation. Vertebre.—There is one doubtful cervieal vertebra, a doubt- ful broad and low neural spine of a dorsal vertebra, two sacrals and four anterior caudals, the latter still in connection with each other. The sacrals show their upper surface in the smaller slab, but the greater part of the upper arches is missmg. They are coossified, slightly elongated and possess strong sacral ribs, the second one being much stronger than the first. The direction of the first sacral rib is a little forward and that of the second more backward, the latter being longer than the former. The ventral part of the second sacral rib expands towards the first sacral rib so that they come in connection: Length of both sacral vertebree together __-- .-- 20a Their width where they are coéssified ____.___- 6 Length of the right first sacral rib from the me- dianelinevormbehe neural Canalis: 2h s fen es 11°5 Length of the left second sacral rib from the median linevor themeunralicanaly ol) 450 ee 16 Width of the first sacral rib at its narrowest places mite manda ec = rs see oe re ee ihe 4°5 Width of the second sacral rib at its narrowest placemmmthieymitd dle seis x.00 2) Jen Vee Ea 2 se 7:5 From the anterior edge of distal extremity of the first to the posterior edge of distal extrem- ivyor-the: secondisacral mbps yay Lk) 30 The caudal centra are not constricted in the middle and only little longer than high. ‘he neural spines are broad and bent backward; the zygapophyses are fairly large. * Williston, 1905. 114 Fluene and Lull—Triassic Reptile Hallopus. Length of icaudalicentra 22-2 226 =e ene ee (es Heichtiotgcaudalicentra (22.2 pee ee ee 5 From centro-neural suture to top of neural spine (inithessrdtof these vertebrae) 4i5e. sae 10 Ribs and Hemapophyses.—TVhere are several dorsal ribs ; one of them shows the proximal extremity with two widely separated heads, as in the Dinosauria. The longest rib lying in the rock near the scapula and tibia is 33"™ in length with- out proximal end. One hzmapophysis, or chevron ‘bone, lies” below the preserved caudal vertebra; it is marked by length and slenderness. The opening is very long; both branches are connected by a clasp. Length (probably not complete) of hemapophysis, 32™™ Width at articular face (only half of it preserved) 6 Wardithvo Gartner ora nmin ile) a sicher nope pela ea eet ania 3 ene thi fori the foramen hei e ease ha ale ae eee Thickness of the distal end of hemapophysis -.. 1:2 Scapula.—An isolated and peculiar-shaped scapula lies beneath the complete hind leg. _ We think it is quite complete and resembles most nearly that of Erpetosuchus. The extrem- ity having a halfmoon-like depression, taken by Marsh as the articular cavity (glenoid fossa), we consider the distal end. At the other end of the bone is a narrow and thin but high process which we take as processus deltoideus scapulw. It is very similar to that of Erpetosuchus. At the other edge of the same extremity is the articular face, Here and at the distal extremity the bone is thicker than in other places. What Marsh took for the articular end we think cannot be that, because there would be no space for the articulation with the coracoid. Length of scapula from processus deltoideus to upper, commen of distaliend..] sso ee eae a enue Length of scapula from articular face to lower GOrmerOf Europe; Asia << —> Africa 8. The Geological Structure of the North-west Highlands of Scotland ; by B. N. Pracn and Joun Horne, with petrological chapters by J. J. H. Teall, edited by Sir Archibald Geikie. Mem. Geol. Sury. Great Britain, Glaszow, 1907. 668 pp., 66 figures and 89 plates in text ; 13 petrological plates and a geological map (1: 253,440) at end of volume.—Although Gunn, Clough and Hinxman are named on_ the elaborate title page, which is much abbreviated in the above citation, this tine volume will be universally known as the work of the two senior authors, who for twenty years past have been associated in the laborious task of working out in detail the extraordinary structures of the north- west Highlands of Scotland. The chief headings are: Lewisian Gneiss, Torridonian, Cambrian, Post-Cambrian Movements, and Eastern Schists: it is under the fourth of these headings that the extraordinary overthrusts of the region are described. In con- trast to the extreme disturbance of the zone of dislocation, it is remarkable to see, a little farther west, the undisturbed and unal- tered Torridonian resting on buried hills of Lewisian gneiss in perfectly normal unconformity. The volume is finely illustrated with photo-plates. W. M. D. 9. Schmidt's Geological Sections of the Alps.—American geolo- gists who are interested in modern interpretations of Alpine structure will find a valuable series of colored sections in several pamphlets by Prof. C. Schmidt of Basel, as follows: Bald und Ban der Schweizeralpen, which appeared as a supplement to Vol. XLII of the Swiss Alpine Club, 1907 (Finckh, Basel, 5 franes) containing, besides a beautifully illustrated text, a small geological map and a remarkable group of profiles illustrating the extreme ~ extension given to the modern idea of overthrust folds. /tihrer zu den Exkursionen der deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft im stidlichen Schwarzwuld, im Jura und in den Alpen, August, 1907, by Schmidt, Buxtorf and Preiswerk (Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, 5 marks), contains a number of more detailed sections, as well as the group of general sections. Ueber die Geologie des Simplon- gebietes und die Tektonik der Schweizeralpen (Kclog. geol. Hely., 1X), gives a number, of detailed sections and a general geological map of the Alps between St. Gotthard and Mont Blane. Tektonische Demonstrationsbilder (to be had of the author, 1 franc), gives some of the same Alpine sections and sev- eral additional sections for the Vosges and the Schwarzwald. W. M. D. 10. Stidafrika, Hine Landes-, Volks- und Wirthschafiskunde ; by Prof. Dr. Sinerriep PassarcEe. Leipzig (Quelle and Meyer), 156 Scientific Intelligence. 1908 (received late in 1907).—Passarge, known for his thorough explorations of the Kalahari region of South Africa as reported in a large volume entitled Die Kalahari (Berlin, 1904), has now, while acting as professor of geography in the University of Breslau, prepared a more popular account of the region of his travels, from which one may obtain a comprehensive understand- ing of its geology, land forms and climate, flora, fauna, natives and European colonists. The book is of special value to the scientific geographer—as distinguished from the narrating trav- eller—in that it places constantly in the foreground the depend- ence of various phenomena on the nature of the land. w. wm. pD. 11. Zhe Production of Gold and Silver in 1906; by W. Linperen and others. Pp. 265.—This is one of the chapters from the Mineral Resources of the United States for 1906, pub- lished by the Geological Survey, which are issued in advance of the completed volume, the appearance of which is now promised within a few weeks. It is shown that the production of gold in the United States has increased from $36,000,000 in 1880 to upwards of $94,000,000 in 1906. Between 1880 and 1894, the amount produced varied but a few million dollars; in 1895, however, it jumped up to $46,000,000, and since then the pre- gress has been almost uninterruptedly upward. In regard to silver, the production during the same period and also the price per ounce have varied widely, the total value varying from less than $30,000,000 (in 1902 and 1903) to upwards of $57,000,000 (in 1890 and 1891). ‘The amount for 1966 is a little in excess of $38,000,000, while in 1880 it was nearly $35,000,000. Another chapter from the same volume, by David T. Day, is devoted to the production of platinum ; it states that the amount produced in the United States has risen from 100 troy ounces in 1880 to 1439 ounces in 1906, the latter valued at $45,189. During the past year or two, as is generally known, the market price has varied widely, the minimum given for 1907 being $26 and the maximum $41 per ounce. 12. Origin of Meteor Crater (Coon Butte) Arizona, by H. L. Farrcuirp. Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. xviii, pp. 493-504. — The interesting phenomena presented by the remarkable crater- like pit in Arizona, with which is associated the occurrence of the Canyon Diablo meteorites, are discussed again in this paper. The conclusion reached is summarized as follows: “ All the phenomena thus far found in the long and careful exploration of the crater, the distribution of the wreckage both inside and out- side, and the composition and structure of the materials, seem to be fully and satisfactorily explained on the theory of impact by a celestial bolide of high velocity, and do not fit any other theory.” The author urges the propriety of calling the crater Meteor Crater, instead of Coon Mountain, or Coon Butte,—names which have formerly been employed. A series of plates give excellent views of the crater as seen from within and without. Geology. 157 13. On Granite and Gneiss, their Origin, Relations and Occurrence in the Pre-cambrian Complex of Henno-Scandia ; by J. J. Sepernorm (Bull. Com. Geol. de Finlande, No. 23, pp. 110, pls. 8, mapand figs. Helsingfors, 1907.)—The author shows in this paper that the rocks of the Fenno-Scandian shield are divisible into definite groups. Some of these are clearly clastic rocks and agree in character in a general way with the Algonkian of North America ; in other cases, however, where these rocks have been invaded and injected with granites, they are held to have the characters of the Archean of North America as that term is now used. The explanation of the origin of the gneissose rocks is regarded as necessary to solve the riddle of the Archean, not only because the gneisses form so important a part of the Archean complex of the region, but because the granitization is the process which has done most to obliterate the structures of the Archean rocks and their stratigraphical relations to each other. The Finnish gneisses are not dynamically metamorphosed granites but non-homogeneous distinctly veined rocks. The body of the work is devoted to the detailed study and recording of the facts observed on the splendid exposures along a portion of the southern coast of Finland, and from these observations the author draws some important conclusions. Thus he observes gradual passages between granites and mica schists in which no line of demarcation can be drawn. He believes that the strongly contorted structure characteristic of most Finnish gneisses is not a secondary phenomenon in a true sense but that it originated when the rock was in a melting condition. He regards the foliation of the granites, when not of dynamic meta- morphie origin, as formed by the incomplete melting and recrys- tallization of schistose rocks. The author holds that in some regions he has found that the basement complexes of the typical Archean sedimentary forma- tions have been preserved though much altered. But in the coast region the phenomena of refusion or resolution have occurred so extensively that it must be assumed that the whole area has been in a melting condition when it was once sunk to so great a depth that it approached the magma ocean or tectosphere of the earth. His ideas concerning the interior of the earth are based on the views of Arrhenius. The magmas under pressure make their way upward through the weakest parts of the crust, dissolving them in large measure. It is assumed that this process of regional resolution does not alter the composition of the magma as a whole because it assimilates almost a// of the mate- rial resulting from the destruction of magmatic rocks, whose composition is thus restored. Granitic rocks predominate in the basal complexes which the magma penetrates on its upward way and the sheet of sediments is too thin in comparison to have any serious effect in changing the composition of the great magma masses. Am, Jour. Sct.—FourtH SERIES, VoL. XXV, No. 146.—Frsruary, 1908. 11 158 Scientific Intelligence. Following Hutton, the author imagines the process of the destruction and gradual renewal of the solid part of the earth’s ‘erust as one of circulation. The granitic magma, once solidified and in part decomposed, undergoes again, when brought into the deeper parts of the earth, a resurrection. Regional metamorph- ism is caused by a weaker form of the plutonic forces which at greater depths manifest themselves in regional resolution, to which latter the general name of anatexis is given. Wy Vie 12 ik VZoorocx. 1. Recent Madreporaria of the Hawaiian Islands and Lay- san; by T. Wayitanp Vaueuan. Bulletin 59, U. 8S. National Museum, 4to, pp. ix + 222 + index, 96 plates, 1907.— This is another admirable work on the corals, illustrated by excellent half-tone reproductions of photographs, which serve admirably to show the details of coral structures. This work is practically an exhaustive one for the reef corals of the regions treated. It also contains all the deep-sea corals hitherto dredged in the ad- jacent ocean. Many pages are devoted to tables of the local and general distribution, both geographical and bathymetrical, and other matters of general interest. The present work records 129 species and varieties, many of them new. Previously only about 38 species were recorded. A. E. V. 2. Madreporaires d’?Amboine; by M. Bepvor. Voyage de “MM. M. Bedot et C. Pictet dans l’Archipel Malais. Geneva, “8vo, pp. 143-292, plates 5-50 (double size), 1907.—This is a richly illustrated work on the reef corals of Amboina. The 46 plates are double octavo size. They are finely executed re- productions of excellent photographs, many of them enlarged. Amboina has a rich coral fauna, and many of the species illus- trated are widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific faune. This work is therefore of great utility in the study of the corals of the entire region. Numerous new species are described. A. E. Vv. 3. An Account of the Crustacea of Norway; by G. O. Sars. Vol. V, Copepoda, Harpactoidea ; Parts xix, xx, 1907; 4to, pl. 145 to 160.—This is a continuation of the great work on Nor- wegian Crustacea upon which Professor Sars has been engaged for several years, parts of which have hitherto been noticed in this Journal, from time to time. The plates, as usual, are auto- | graphic, drawn by the author. A RSV 4. North American Parisitie Copepods belonging to the family Caligide ; by Cuas. B. Witson. Parts 3 and 4, Panda- rine and Cercopinew. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxxili, pp. 323—- 490, plates xvii—xliii, 1907.—This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of a group of Crustacea that has hitherto been too much neglected in America. It includes general accounts of the larval development and habits. It represents a large amount of Zoology. 159 good work, but indicates much more yet to be done, in the same lines. NSDL Np 5. Hehinoidea of the Danish Ingolf Hxpedition ; by Tu. Mortensen. Vol. 1V, 2. Part Il. 4to, 20 pages, 19 plates, 27 cuts.—This elaborate work contains detailed descriptions and figures of a large number of deep-sea species, with elaborate de- tails of the pedicellariz, spicules, etc., together with chapters on _ the distribution and a very useful general list of the Echinoidea of the Atlantic, with their geographical and bathymetrical distri- bution. In the Introduction the author discusses still further the unfortunate controversy and misunderstanding between himself and Mr. A. Agassiz in regard to the nomenclature and classifi- cation of the Kchini. ‘i Ne 35, Nig 6. Bermuda in Periodical Literature, with occasional reference to Other Works. A Bibliography ; by GrEorGrE Watson COLE. Pp. 275, with portrait of the author and 8 fac-simile reproduc- tions of the title-pages of ancient works on Bermuda, 1907. Published by the author, Riverside, Conn.—This is a reprint - (with additions) of a series of articles on this subject published during several years past in the Bulletin of Bibliography. It contains the titles of 1382 works. A large part of the articles noticed are on scientific subjects, especially zodlogy, botany, and geology. The author has in most cases given a synopsis of the contents of such papers, often with complete lists of species recorded for the first time, together with other matters of import- ance. In the case of historical and descriptive works, extracts of notable or important passages are also given. ‘The work is an exceedingly useful one for any one interested in the Bermudas. For the student of its flora or fauna it is indispensable. Many titles which were received too late for insertion in their regu- lar places are included in the supplements, and, as a matter of course, a few were overlooked, but it is remarkably complete. ALES E 7. Notes on the Parasites of Bermuda Fishes ; by Epw1n B. Linton. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xxxiii, No. 1560, pp. 85-126, 15 plates, 1907.—This includes the results of the studies made by Professor Linton, while at the Bermuda Biological Station in the summer of 1903. In addition to the large number of species described, many of which are new, the author gives a list, of con- siderable length, of the fishes examined and the parasites found in them. Also notes on the food contents. This is a pioneer work on the internal fish-parasites of that locality, few if any having been recorded previously. Mey Een iV 8. North Carolina Geologic and Economic Survey. Volume IT, The Fishes of North Carolina ; by Hua M.Smiru. Pp xi, 453, with 21 plates and 188 figures. Raleigh (KE. M. Uzzell & Co. 1907).—The state of North Carolinais naturally divided into three sections, each peculiar in the character of its waters and hence more or less so in its fish fauna. These include the coastal plain, the Piedmont plateau, and the Appalachian mountain region. 160 Scientific Intelligence. This varied character of the waters, taken into account with the number of prominent rivers, results in an unusually large number of species. The subject has been investigated by many authors, so that the list here given may be regarded as very nearly complete. The volume gives for each species the technical name and original describer, the popular names and a concise description ; then fol- lows a general account as to distribution, habits, economic value, and so on. The volume is liberally illustrated, both by text- figures and by excellent full-page plates, many of the latter show- ing the species in their natural colors. 9. Wiedersheim’s Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates ; adapted from the German by W. N. Parker. Third Edition, pp. vi, 576; with: 372 figures. London, 1907 (Macmillan & Co.).—For a quarter of a century the German editions of this work have served as standard books of reference throughout the world. The two preceding English editions have been used extensively in advanced courses in vertebrate anatomy in the principal universities of all English-speaking countries. The present book, based on the sixth German edition, has been almost entirely re-written by Professor Parker and such additional mat- ter and illustrations added as were necessary to include the results of the most recent investigations in the field of vertebrate zoology. ‘The more important original publications on the sub- ject are arranged in a classified bibliography containing more than two thousand titles. As a standard text-book for advanced students, and a reference handbook for teachers and students in elementary courses, this work stands preéminent. It is, however, to be regretted that so excellent a book is marred by a large number of typographical errors. Wei Ra Ca 10. Final Natural History Essays ; by Grauam ReENsHAw. Pp. 225. London and Manchester, 1907 (Sherratt & Hughes).— This book consists of a series of essays on some of those species of mammals which are of peculiar interest to the general reader either because of their singular habits and instincts or their near approach to extinction. The subject is treated from the stand- point both of the zoologist and the historian, and a multitude of interesting facts about the animals selected are presented in a popular and entertaining manner. WwW. R. C. ITV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the Year ending June 30, 1907. Pp. 95. Washington, 1907.— The report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution recently published is of special interest since it is the first which has been issued by Dr. Walcott. The Institution is fortunate in that its new head has not only a thorough command of the various branches of science concerned, but also has unusual executive Miscellaneous Intelligence. 161 ability long shown in his effective administration of the Geologi- eal Survey ; under him we may look forward to a development of the Smithsonian to a still higher degree of efficiency. It is to be hoped that the duties of the office will not be so arduous as to interfere with his desire to follow in the footsteps of his predeces- sors in carrying forward research work in his own department of geology and paleontology. In discussing the special problems in connection with the Insti- tution, attention is called by the Secretary to the fact that while its activities are most varied, and call for a large expenditure each year, its specific endowment is somewhat less than $1,000,000, one-quarter of which belongs to the Hodgkins research fund estab- lished in 1891. The Institution has been liberally treated by Congress, receiving $1,000,000 for the year ending June 30th, 1907, and $1,750,000 for the current year including the amount called for by the new Museum building. Notwithstanding this support from the Government, however, there are many lines of work in which the Institution is interested, which lie outside of those which the Government can properly be asked tosupport. In order that it should accomplish, therefore, the fullest amount of usefulness, a large increase of its endowment fund is called for. The Institution has distributed through the year nearly 33,000 volumes and separates of its various publications. Of the Annual Report 10,000 copies are printed, most of which go to public libra- ries, and thus bring within the reach of many readers the perma- - nent results of the year’s progress in science. In addition to the above, a plan has been initiated of distributing abstracts of the publications of the Institution and also special articles on the investigations in progress, which have been distributed and widely used by the daily newspapers. The present report gives a concise statement of the various special subjects which have been under investigation, including those supported by the income of the Hodgkins fund; also an account of the various other functions of the Institution, all of which must be carefully read before its full activity can be appre- ciated. In regard to the progress on the new building for the National Museum, it is stated that there is every reason to expect that the work will be completed and the building ready for occu- pancy by the beginning of 1909. It is proposed to devote it to the scientific and historical collections, while the present Museum building, which has been extensively repaired, will be employed for the development of the department of arts and industries. Further, the upper exhibition hall of the Smithsonian building proper is to be used for the fine arts collection, and the lower hall for a library, containing also certain exposition series, The department of international exchanges has now so fully devel- oped that the number of packages annually handled is about 200,000, weighing over 200 tons. In this way correspondence is carried on with over 58,000 establishments and individuals, 46,500 of which are outside of the United States. 162 Scientifie Intelligence. It is interesting to note that Mr. C. G. Abbot, for a number of years in charge of the Astrophysical Observatory established under Professor Langley, has now been made director. The work of the Observatory, carried on during the year both on Mt. Wilson and at Washington, has continued the former investiga- tions of the intensity of the solar radiation and its relation to the earth’s temperature. The results accomplished are briefly summarized as follows: “ The investigations have resulted in apparently definitely fixing the approximate average value of the ‘solar constant’ at 2°1 calories per square centimeter per minute, and in showing decisively that there is a marked fluctuation about this mean value, sufficient in magnitude to influence very perceptibly the climate, at least of inland regions, upon the earth.” ‘The second volume of the Annals, now in press, includes an account of the work of the Observatory from 1900 to 1907. 2. Report on the Progress and Condition of the U. S. National Museum for the Year ending June 30, 1907. Pp. 118. Washington, 1907.—The account of the work accomplished by the National Museum for the past year, given briefly in the Report of the Secretary of the Smithonian Institution as noted above, is here presented in detail by Dr. Rathbun. The progress toward completion of the new building is fally described, as also the work on the collections, in a number of lines of research and in various explorations. The volume closes with a list of acces- sions for the year and also of papers published under the auspices of the Museum. 3. Carnegie Institution of Washington. Year Book No. 6, 1907. Pp. vii, 230, with 11 plates. Washington, January, 1908. (Published by the Institution.) —This report gives an interesting account of the work of the Carnegie Institution for the year ending October 31, 1907. As noted by President Woodward, the Institution has developed very rapidly since its foundation in 1902, so that all its resources are now called for to meet ‘present demands. The income expended during the past six years reaches the large sum of $2,683,000 ; of this $1,202,300 has been devoted to the support of large projects, nearly $700,000 has gone for minor and special projects and research associates and assistants, $140,600 for publication, $234,000 for administra- tion, and the remainder for investments and for the administra- tion building. The allotment for the past year anrounts to $520,000 for large grants, while $64,000 was assigned for minor grants, $25,400 for research associates and assistants, $16,600 for publication and $10,870 for administration. The fact is noted that the amount devoted to work in the physical sciences, includ- ing biology, preponderates largely ; but this course finds justi- fication in the relative prominence of this line of investigation at the present time. The larger projects, to which the greater part of the year’s income is devoted, are the same as those enumerated in the notice of Year Book No. 5, published a year since (see vol. xxiii, p. 156). It is to be noted, however, that Miscellaneous Intelligence. 163 considerable sums have been devoted to the new Geophysical Laboratory, the Laboratory for Studies in Nutrition, and the Solar Observatory. The Geophysical Laboratory, of which Dr. A. L. Day is Director, was completed in June, 1907, at a cost of $100,000 for the site and building, and $50,000 for its equipment. The build- ing is located near the Bureau of Standards in Washington and has been very carefully planned for the special kinds of research for which it is intended. It presents some novel features : for example, in its treatment of the problem of temperature it is so arranged that investigators can carry on the work uninter- ruptedly, without excessive discomfort, through the hot summer ; this end is accomplished by an insulating layer of hollow terra cotta about the exterior brick wall of the building. Special pro- visions have also been adopted to prevent the disturbance due to the heavy machinery belonging to the building. The Nutrition Laboratory has been established in Boston, near the Harvard Medical School, and also in the neighborhood of existing and contemplated hospitals, so that the conditions will be as favor- able as possible for researches in the physics, chemistry, and pathology of nutrition. The cost for the building will be about $100,000 ; it is to be commenced on February 1, and its comple- tion is promised at an early date. The Solar Observatory, at Mt. Wilson, has progressed favorably, notwithstanding the dif- ficulties of the problems involved, and unfavorable local con- ditions due to weather and labor. The erection of the 60-inch reflecting telescope will be completed in the coming spring. In addition to the report of the Director, this volume contains also interesting summaries of the results accomplished on the various larger projects, prepared by the several gentlemen in charge, and also abstracts of the work done in connection with the numerous minor lines of investigation. The following list gives the titles of the publications of the Institution received during the last few months (continued from Vol. xxiv, p. 382) : No. 43. Heliographic Positions of Sun-Spots Observed at Hamilton College from 1860 to 1870; by C. H. F. PErers. Edited for Publication by Epwiy B. Frost. Pp. xili, 189, 4to. No. 55. Revision of the Pelycosauria of North America; by EK. B. Case. Pp. 176 with 35 plates and 74 figures, 4to. (See p. 84.) No. 54 (Volume 2). Research in China. In three volumes and Atlas. Volume Two. Systematic Geology; by BaiLry Wiis. Pp. v, 133, 4to. No. 63. The Electrical Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions. A Report presented by Arraur A. Noyes upon a Series of Experimental Investigations executed by A. A. Noyes and others. Pp. vi, 352, with 145 tables and 20 figures. No. 67. The Fauna of Mayfield’s Cave; by Artuur M. Banta. Pp. 114 with 13 figures. 164 Scientific Intelligence. No. 77. The Influence of Inanition on Metabolism ; by Francis G. Benepicr. Pp. v, 542, with 258 tables. No. 78. Synopsis of Linear Associative Algebra: A Report on Its Natural Development and Results Reached up to the Present Time; by James B. SHaw. Pp. 145. No. 85. Index of Economic Material in Documents of the States of the United States. Vermont, 1789-1904. Pp. 71. Maine, 1820-1904. Pp. 95. Prepared for the Department of Economics and Sociology of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton, by ADELAIDE R. Hasse. No. 91. Guide to the Materials for the History of the United States in Spanish Archives (Simancas, the Archivo Historico Nacional, and Seville) ; by Wirtiam R. SHEPHERD. Pp. 107. Contributions from the Solar Observatory, Mt. Wilson, Cali- fornia. No. 20. Spectroscopic Observations of the Rotation of the Sun ; by WattEr 8. Apams. Pp. 22. Reprinted from the ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL, vol. xxvi, November, 1907. No. 79. Researches in the Performance of the Screw Pro- peller; by W. F. Duranp. Pp. 61, with 85 figures and 4 tables. No. 80. Conductivity and Viscosity in Mixed Solvents. A Study of the Conductivity and Vicosity of Solutions of Certain Electrolytes in Water, Methyl Alcohol, Ethyl Alcohol, and Acetone; and in Binary Mixtures of these Solvents; by Harry C. Jonzxs, and others. Pp. v, 235. No. 81. Mutations, Variations, and Relationships of the Oenotheras; by D. T. Macpoveat, A. M. Vait, and G. H. SHULL. Pp. 82, with 22 plates. No. 83. Guide to the Materials for American History in Cuban Archives ; by Luis M. Perez. Pp. ix, 142. 4. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teach- ing. Second Annual Report of the_ President, Hmnry S. Pritcwett, and Treasurer, Toomas Morrison Carneaix. Pp. 124.—The Second Annual Report of the Carnegie Foundation covers the period from July Ist, 1906, to September 30th, 1907, it having been arranged that the fiscal year shall in future begin on October Ist. All those who are concerned with college and university work in this country will be interested in this detailed report, showing what the Foundation has accomplished thus far and what are its plans for the future. There are at present 55 institutions upon the accepted list, and grants have thus far been made to 166 persons involving an annual cost of $234,660. On October Ist, 148 persons were receiving allowances, 133 of these being professors and officers, and 15 widows of pro- fessors. The total expenditure was $202,145, $124,990 going to accepted institutions and $77,155 being paid to individuals out- side of them. This last item indicates the wise liberality with which the funds are being administered. The total fund with accumulations now amounts to a little over $10,700,000, and the income for the fifteen months covered by the report was $644,000, of which only $199,000 was expended, leaving an additional accumulated sum of $445,000. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 165 Dr. Pritchett discusses in detail the policy that has been adopted in dealing with institutions, and with individual teachers not falling directly under the provisions of the gift. One read- ing these pages sees at once the careful thought which this part of the work has received, which is especially necessary in view of the surplus income now available. In addition to the information given in regard to the special work of the Foundation, a series of chapters also contain dis- cussions of a number of problems concerning the higher educa- tion in this country ; these will’ be read with profit by all who are connected with the work of advanced teaching. Some of the topics discussed are: The place of the college in American edu- cation, the evolution of the American type of university, the distinction between college and university, and the relation in both of efficiency to cost. The fact that there are more than 950 institutions in the United States and Canada which claim to be either colleges or universities, and that out of 500 of these 330 have incomes of less than $50,000, gives point to the sugges- tions made ; as also the additional fact that the cost of educating a student at one of our larger institutions involves an expendi- ture of $420 per student. 5. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory. Wim J. Humenureys, Director; Wittiam R. Buarr, Assistant Director. Prepared under the direction of Wiis L. Moors, Chief of Weather Bureau. Pp. 63, with 9 plates, 3 figures, and 6 charts. Washington (U. 8S. Weather Bureau), 1908.—The Mount Weather Observatory is situated in Virginia, 20 miles from Harper’s Ferry, and at an altitude of 1725 feet on the top of the Blue Ridge Mountains. The bulletin now inaugurated is planned to appear quarterly and will contain accounts of the meteoro- logical researches conducted at the observatory named by the Weather Bureau. The first number is largely devoted to methods and apparatus used in obtaining by kite flights the observations of the upper air, which have proved to be of such value in weather forecasting. It argues well for the further development of the weather service, which has accomplished such good work since it started in 1870, that systematic and well directed work in the various lines of scientific research connected with weather forecasting should be carried on. 6. Publications of the Allegheny Observatory of the Western University of Pennsylvania. Volume I, No. 1. On the Distor- tion of Photographic Films; by Frank Scutesincer. Pp. 6. Published from the Magee Fund.—This discussion of a subject of much importance in astronomical work has recently appeared. 7. Les Prix Nobel en 1905. Stockholm 1907 (Imprimerie Royale. P. A. Nostedt & Séner).—This is another volume of the series (see vol, xxiv, 508) relating to the Nobel Prizes. It gives biographical notices and portraits of the recipients for 1905, namely, in science, Philipp Lenard, Adolf von Baeyer, and Robert Koch, also representations of the medals and diplomas. The lec- tures delivered by these gentlemen at Stockholm close the volume. 166 Scientific Intelligence. It is interesting to note in this connection that Professor A. A. Michelson, of the University of Chicago, has recently been awarded the Nobel prize in Physics for 1907. The same gentle- man has received the award of the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London. The other recipients of the Nobel prizes in science are Prof. Buchner of Berlin in chemistry and Dr. Laveran of Paris in medicine, 8. The Elements of Mechanics ; by W. 8S. FRANKLIN and Barry Macnutr. Pp. 283. New York, 1907 (The Macmillan Company).—The authors have succeeded in making a dry sub- ject for the most part genuinely interesting reading. This is achieved by a pleasing style and the choice of very up-to-date illustrations, such as unbalanced torque in a fan blower, the use of the gyroscope to prevent rolling in a ship, ete. The chapter on Physical Arithmetic is especially good, and there is an abun- dance of fresh and well graded exercises for numerical calcula- tion. Perhaps too little attention is paid to rigid proof of formule, and some topics are treated rather cursorily. An introductory chapter, which might well be omitted, abounds in passages hardly less surprising than the following :-— “The Laws of Motion! You, my young friend, must have in ““some measure my own youthful view, which, to tell the truth, “‘T have never wholly lost.” . . . . “The Method of Science! “That, my young friend, is where constraint and exactness lie.” ouive change of thought . . which must “take place before you can enter into practical life may best be “expressed by the life history of a remarkable little animal, the SSS OMO ene ce fg Jeg Oy GU. Ww. B. OBITUARY. Proressor CHartes A. Youne, LL.D. On January 3, 1908, there occurred an eclipse of the sun, and on the same day the life of Professor Young, the eminent student of solar physics and observer of many eclipses, came to its close. Coming so soon after the death of Professor Asaph Hall, the vacancy thus left in the ranks of the older astronomers of Amer- ica will be widely felt and not easily filled. Charles Augustus Young was born at Hanover, N. H., on December 15, 1834, the son of [ra Young, Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy at Dartmouth, and grandson of Ebenezer Adams, an earlier occupant of the same chair. His early education was at home, and he graduated from Dartmouth College in 1853, at the age of only nineteen, but at the head of his class. From 1853 to 1856 he taught in the Classical depart- ment of Phillips Andover Academy, pursuing also a course of theological study during the last year. From 1856 to 1865 he was Professor of Mathematics, Natural Philosophy and Astron- omy in Western Reserve College, Hudson, Ohio; and in 1865 returned to follow his father and grandfather as Professor of Obituary. 167 Natural Philosophy and Astronomy at Dartmouth, to which position was attached the directorship of the Shattuck Observa- tory. From here he was called in 1877 to become Professor of Astronomy at Princeton, where he had connected with his dwelling a good working observatory equipped with a nine-inch equatorial, four-inch transit, pair of fine clocks with chrono- graphs, etc. ; he was also director of the Halsted Observatory, where in 1882 the 23-inch equatorial was installed. Here he remained till 1905, when from failing health he resigned his active duties and was made Professor Emeritus, returning to spend the closing years of his life at his old home in Hanover. As might be expected from his training and his parentage, he early showed a decided aptitude for astronomical observation, and gave himself to that science, to which his life was devoted and in which his well-deserved fame was won. He devised a form of automatic spectroscope which has been in very general use, and during his life made many new and important observa- tions on the solar spectrum and prominences. He also verified experimentally the fact that the Fraunhofer lines are slightly shifted in one direction or the other, according as the source of light is moving toward or from the earth, and by this method was able to calculate the velocity of the sun’s rotation. He took part in several astronomical expeditions of impor- tance, observing nearly all the solar eclipses that have occurred during his active life. On August 7, 1869, while at Dartmouth, he had charge of the spectroscopic observations of the party to observe the eclipse at Burlington, Ia., and at that time first saw the “1474” line which characterizes the coronal spectrum (see this Journal (2), xlviii, p. 288). On December 22, 1870, as a member of the U. 8. Coast Survey party under Professor Win- lock, which observed the solar eclipse at Jerez, Spain, he for the first time observed the reversal of the Fraunhofer lines of the solar spectrum (this Journal (3), i, 156), an observation for which in 1891 he received the Janssen medal from the French Academy of Sciences. In the summer of 1872 he made spectroscopic observations at Sherman, Wy., in connection with the U. 8. Coast Survey party, taking advantage of the high altitude (8300 feet), and published lists of the lines reversed in the chromosphere (this Journal (3), iv, 358)). In 1874 he was with the Watson expedition to observe the transit of Venus at Pekin, China, whose results were valuable, in spite of clouds. On July 29, 1878, the year after he went to Princeton, he had charge of the Princeton expedition to observe the eclipse at Denver, Col., (ibid., xv, 279). In 1882 he made observations of the transit of Venus at Princeton, using the 23-inch refractor then recently installed in the Halsted Observatory (ibid., xxv, 321), and in 1887 took a party to Russia to observe the eclipse of that year at Rzev, 150 miles from Moscow, but was bafiled by stormy weather. Finally, May 28, 1900, he led a Princeton party to observe the eclipse at Wadesboro, N. C., which was perhaps his last active scientific work. 168 Scientifie Intelligence. In all these years of scientific observational activity, with the pressure of University duties ever upon him, and in later years with impaired health, he yet found time to publish many articles in periodicals both scientific and popular, delivered popular lectures at the Peabody Institute, Baltimore, and Lowell -Insti- tute, Boston, and educational courses for successive years at Mount Holyoke College, Williams College, St. Paul’s School and elsewhere. He wrote several books. “The Sun,” a volume in the International Science Series, 1882 ; “General Astronomy for Colleges and Scientific Schools,” 1889; ‘‘ Klements of Astron- omy,” 1890; “Lessons in Astronomy,” 1891; and ‘* Manual of Astronomy,” 1902. Such a life of scientific achievement did not go without public recognition. He received the degree of Ph.D. from Pennsylvania 1870 and Hamilton 1871, and that of LL.D. from Wesleyan 1876, Columbia 1887, Western Reserve 1893, Dartmouth 1903 and Princeton 1905. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and a Foreign Associate of the Royal Astronomical Society of England; member Astron. and Phys. Soc., vice pres. 1902; fellow A. A. A. S., vice pres. 1876, pres. 1883; Assoc. fellow Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., Boston; Hono- rary member of N. Y. Acad. Sci., Philadelphia Philos. Soc., Brit. Assoc., Cambridge Philos. Soc., Manchester Lit. & Philos. Soc., Astron. Gesell., Soc. [tal. di Spettroscop., and President of the Board of Visitors of U. 8. Navai Observatory 1901-2. Before closing this brief notice of Prof. Young’s life, some mention of his personal character as a friend and a Christian must not be omitted. During the twenty-eight years of his life at Princeton the writer was associated with him in the University work and can testify to his estimable qualities as a Christian _ man of science, never losing sight of the God behind the Nature which he loved and studied. The resolutions of the University Faculty well say: “His transparent honesty, his unaffected modesty, his insight into principle, and his achievement in dis- covery united to give his career not only distinction but also grace and beauty, and his qualities as a man won for him our love as well as our admiration,” while the students’ paper speaks of his “lovable, manly Christian character.” So all who knew him mourn his loss, while recognizing the beauty of his life. Cc. G R. PieRRE JuLEs Cansar JANSSEN, the eminent French astron- omer and director of the Observatory at Meudon, died on Decem- ber 23 at the age of eighty-three years. His scientific labors extended into various fields; he was one of the first to use the spectroscope in the study of the sun and accomplished important results at the transit of Venus in 1874, and at a number of solar eelipses, particularly those of 1868, 1870, and 1883 ; evenin 1905, when a man of eighty, he was an active observer. Dr. Peter TowNsEenpD AUSTIN, at one time Professor of Chem- istry in Rutgers College, later a consulting chemist, died on December 30 at the age “of fifty-four years. Relief Map of the United States We have just prepared a new relief map of the United States, 48 x 82 inches in size, made of a special composition which is hard and durable, and at the same time light. The map is described in detail in circular No. 77, which will be sent on request. Price, $16.00. WARD’S NATURAL SCIENCE ESTABLISHMENT, 76-104 College Ave., ROCHESTER, N. Y. Warps Natura Science EsTaBLisHMENT A Supply-House for Scientific Material. Founded 1862. Incorporated 1890. DEPARTMENTS: Geology, including Phenomenal and Physiographic. Mineralogy, including also Rocks, Meteorites, ete. Palaeontology. Archaeology and Hthnology. Invertebrates, including Biology, Conchology, ete. Zoology, including Osteology and Taxidermy. Human Anatomy, including Craniology, Odontology, etc. Models, Plaster Casts and Wall-Charts in all departments, Circulars in any department free on request; address Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, 76-104 College Ave., Rochester, New York, U.S. A. CONTENTS. Art. 1X.—Historic Fossil Cycads; by G. R. WiELanp.:.. 93 X.—Accelerated Cone Growth in Pinus; by G. R. Wretanp 102 XI.—Ainsworth Meteorite ; by E. E. Howern .-.-.2.----- 105 XII.—High Level Terraces in Southeastern Ohio; by G. D. PIUBBARD 22S. o oS cle So Soe Be ee 108 Die XIII.—Triassic Reptile, Hallopus Victor, Marsh; by F. R. Bee ote. VON Hornm-and. RS: bus 22 See ees eee 113 : XIV.—Species of Grapsoid Crustacean; by A. E. Verriin 119 XV.—Tourmaline of Crown Point, N. Y.; by Wm. P. Brake 123 XVI.—Silurian Fauna in Western America ; by E. M. Kinpie 125 ? XVII.—-Method for the Volumetric Estimation of Titanium; — bysH 2D. NEWTON 22.5222 SG ee a ee ee XVIII.—Isopyrum biternatum Torr. et Gr.; by T. Horm .. 133 XIX.—Phosphorescence Produced by the Canal Rays ; by J TROWBRIDGE )o32 oS gees Ps eo ee eee nea XX.—Application of a Longitudinal Magnetic Field to Meray Uubess by J. TROwseRipGiye a2 ase ec ee 143 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Condensation of Water Vapor in the Presence of Radium Emanation, Mus. Curie: Gaseous Nitrogen Trioxide, BAkmR and Baker, 145.—Atomic Weight of Tellurium, Baker and Bennett: New Element, Lutecium, G. Urparn: Association of Helium and Thorium, StRutTT: Organic Chemistry for Advanced Students, J. B. Conen, 146.— Radio- -activity of Lead and Other Metals, J. C. McLennan : Production and Origin of Radium, E. RUTHERFORD : Radium Emanation in the Atmos-— phere near the Earth’s Surface, A. 5. Eve: Anomalies in the Behavior of Dielectrics, E. R. v. SCHWEIDLER: Hffect of Pressure upon Are Spectra, W. G. Durrrecp, 147.—Modification of the First Linear Spectrum of Mercury, E. CastaeLny1: Gas from Aluminum Electrodes, R. v. Hirsce and F. Soppy : Two New Worlds, E. E. Fourntpr p’AxBs, 148. Geology— United States Geological Survey, G. O. Suira, 149, 150.—Report on the Cretaceous Paleontology of New Jersey, 152.—Die Gastropoden des | J Karnischen Unterdevon, A. Spitz, 155.—Geologic Map of the Rochester and Ontario Beach Quadrangles, C. A. HARTNAGEL: Seapolite Rocks, J. H. SpuRR: Geological Structure of the Highlands of Scotland, Pmacu and ~ Horne: Geological Sections of the Alps: Stidafrika, S. Passar@x, 155.— Production of Gold and Silver in 1906, Linperen: Origin of Meteor Crater, Arizona, H, L. Farrcuiup, 156.—Granite and Gneiss, J. J. SeDERHOLM, 157. Zoology—Madreporaria of the Hawaiian Islands and Laysan, T. W. VAUGHAN: 4 “Madreporaires d’Amboine, M. Brpot: Crustacea of Norway, G. O. Sars: North American Parisitic Copepods, C. B. Winson, 158.—Hchinoidea of the Danish Ingolf Expedition, T. MortmnseN: Bermuda in Periodical Litera- ture, G. W. Cote: Parasites of Bermuda Fishes, EH. B. Linton: Fishes of . North Carolina, H. M. Smirxa, 159.—Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, W.N. Parker: Natural History Essays, cen RensHaw, 160. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Report of the Secretary of the Smith-~ sonian Institution, 160.—Report of the U. S. National Museum: Carnegie Institution of Washingtou ; Year Book No. 6, 162.—Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 164.—Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory: Publications of the Allegheny Observatory: Les Prix Nobel, _ 165.—Mechanies, W. S. FRANKLIN and B. Macnutt, 166. Obituary—C. A. Youne, 166.—P. J. C. Janssen: P. T. Austin, 168. Pe Cyru rus AILEY, a sare” Fo ol “ Air re Veesc? Dae PS AMOR ag Ls wee PS De ei * Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum. ie iy () & . | ea ae MARCH, 1908. Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Epiror: EDWARD 8. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS PROFESSORS ‘GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or Camprincs, Proressorss ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS, L. V. PIRSSON anp H. E. GREGORY, or New Haven, | Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuHiILapELPH, Proressorn HENRY S. WILLIAMS, or Itwaca, Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battimore, Mr. J. S. DILLER, or Wasuineton. i | | | | FOURTH SERIES VOL. XXV—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXV.] No. 147—MARCH, 1908. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 1908 THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 123 TEMPLE STREET. Published monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the Postal Union ; $6.25 to Canada. Remittances should be made either by money orders, registered letters, or bank checks (preferably on New York banks). REMARKABLE CONSIGNMENT OF Rare and Choice Minerals. We would again call your attention to this remarkable consignment, which has created a stir among the more advanced collectors. Descriptive lists are now ready for mailing, so if you are interested, send for one of them. We give below a brief list of the most remarkable of them :— Fine lot of Diamond crystals, from Hast India, in shades of pink, yellow, purple, and light green, $5 to $5 each ; Euclase, Capid do Lane, Brazil, one $75 (white), $55 (blue) and $45 (blue); Emeralds, in matrix, Bogota, Colum- bia, S. A., $385 to $250; Takovaya, Ural, $2 to $15; Aquamarine, Nert- schinsk, Ural, loose crystals and matrix, 50c. to $15; Alexandrite, Takovaya, Ural, matrix specimens and loose xls, $8 to $20; Dioptase, Kirghes Steppes, $15 to $22.50; Crocoite, with Vauquelinite, Ural, also Tasmania, $5 to $10; Topaz, Schneckenstein, matrix specimens, 7dc. to $7.50; Blue and white Topaz, Romana, Cal., $8 to $10; Tourmalines, Mesa Grande and Pala, Cal., matrix specimens and loose crystals, $1 to $150; Chrysoprase, Silesia, and Pala, Cal., polished, $2 to $4; Hyacinth in basalt, Siebengebirge; in lava, Niedermendig, $2 to $2.50; Pyropes in serpentine, Zoeblitz, 50c. to 75c. ; ~ Essonite, Ala, Piedmont, $1.75 to $2.50; Garnet, Bodé, Norway, loose erys- tals, 20¢. to 7dc.; Cyanite and Staurolite, Mt. Campione, $2 to $2.50; Her- derite, on quartz, Poland, $1 to $15; Zeophyllite, new mineral, Radzein, Bohemia, $1 to $5; Benitoite in matrix, San Benito Co., Cal., $5 to $7.50; Polybasite, xls, Durango, Mexico, $4 to $6; Hausmannite, new locality, Cumberland, 50c. to $3; Zinkenite, Nevada, $1.50 to $3; Copalite on Coal, new mineral, Castle Gate, Utah, $1.50 to $2; Torbernite, Tincroft, $5 to $10; Semseyite, on Galena, FelsObanya, $2.50 to $10; Chaleophyllite, Red- ruth, Cornwall, $8 to $10; Crystal Gold, in leaves, Voréspatak, $15 to $28 ; and in the matrix, from Siebenburgen, $15; Sylvanite, Nagyag, $5 to $7.50; Crystal Silver, Calumet, Michigan, 75c. to $20 ; Libethenite, Libethen, $2.50 to $5. We still have a fine lot of Hungarian and English Minerals. Ore Collection of 220 Specimens. We have just secured -a collection of rich ores, all hand size, and all fine ~ examples, from American Mines. They will be sold singly or as a whole. Another Old Collection. We have secured still another collection of what have come to be known as old collections, that is collections that are rich in examples, from exhausted localities. Particulars on application. Cut Gems. We have every known gem and semi-precious stones. to) Scientific Rubies. We have a fine lot of these fine gems, from Paris, from 1/2 to 4 k. Send for lists of our Brooklyn and other collections. A. H. PEPTERELYE, 81—83 Fulton Street, New York City. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. ] ——— Art. XXI.—The Evolution of the Hlephant* ; by Ricuarp S. 1Dioanon CONTENTS : Part I. General discussion. Part Il. Evolutionary sequence. Part Ili. Migrations of the Proboscidea. Part I. Tue modern word elephant, which may be used compre- hensively to include all of the proboscidians, comes from the Greek édépas (€XeharT), a word first used in the literature by Herodotus, the father of history. The origin of the word is somewhat a matter of doubt, certain authorities deriving it from the Hebrew eleph, an ox; others from the Hebrew 7bah, Sanskrit zbhas, an elephant, comparing this with the Latin ebur, meaning ivory. Another Sanskrit word is hastin, ele- phant, from hasta, a hand or trunk. Thus the ancients emphasized the three characteristics of the proboscidians, size, the tusks, and the trunk, which are the most striking features of the most remarkable of beasts. The proboscidians may be defined as large, trunk-bearing mammals, with pillar-like limbs, short neck and huge head, often with protruding ivory tusks, the modified upper and, in earlier, extinct types, the lower incisor teeth. The probo- scidians constitute a sub-order of the great group of ungulates or hoofed mammals, yet have their nearest living allies in creatures strangely remote in size, form and environment from the lordly elephant, for the paleontologist, in his ardent search for family trees other than his own, often discloses some seemingly paradoxical relationships which completely upset the older ideas of classification. Explorations have recently brought to light evidence to show that the sea-living Sirenia, whose American representative is the Florida manatee, can claim close relationship with the elephants, though nothing * An earlier paper in the same series, on the Evolution of the Horse Family, was published in the number for March, 1907. AM. Ue Sel aa Wuere SERIES, VoL. XXV, No. 147.—Marcg, 1908. 170 R.S. Lull—Evolution of the Elephant. could be more unlike than the proboscidians and the fish-like Sirenia with broad swimming tail, front limbs reduced to flippers, and no hind limbs at all. On the other hand, anatom- ists had already recognized certain similarities of structure between the elephants and the Myracoidea, the Hyraces, or conies, furry, rabbit-like animals not more than 18 inches in length, short ears, tailless, and with hoof-like nails instead of the claws one would be led to expect from their general Sy Fic. 1. The Manatee, Manalus australis ; after Brehm. appearance. They are confined to Africa with the exception of the Syrian conies, which the Book of Proverbs tells us ‘‘ are but a feeble folk, yet make their houses in the rocks.” Recent exploration in Egypt has revealed the presence of a hyrax much larger than the modern representatives of the order, and proclaiming by its structure a much closer approximation With the early elephants whose bones are found entombed in the same deposits. Elephants show a curious intermingling of primitive and specialized characters, for in spite of the remarkable develop- ment of teeth, tusks, and trunk, many of the other bodily features would serve to place them among the most archaic of the ungulates. The primitive features of the elephants, briefly enumerated, are as follows: simplicity of stomach, liver, and lungs and the RR. S. Lull—Kvolution of the HMephant. ial rather low type of brain. The limbs combine the archaic features of five toes in front and rear and a serial arrangement of wrist and ankle bones with the admirable adaptation of the entire limb to the support of the huge body. The limbs are further primitive in the retention of both bones of the lower leg and arm, for in most other ungulates one of these in each Fie. 2.—Conies, Hyrax abyssinicus ; after Brehm. member becomes greatly reduced, being, for part of the length at least, often entirely absent. The special adaptations are, as in the horses, primarily for food-getting and locomotion, although i inciden tally the elephants have developed admirable weapons ‘for defense, which, together with the great size and thick skin, render them almost i impreg- nable to their enemies of the brute creation. Adaptations of the Limbs and Feet. The development of the pillar-like limb of the elephant has been shown to be merely a device to support the enormous bodily weight and was independently acquired in other groups of land animals of huge size. In most quadrupeds, however, 172 L. S. Lull—Evolution of the Elephant. the knee and elbow are permanently bent, the upper limb-bones being of the shape of an elongated 8. Increasing weight necessitates a straightening of the limb in order that the weight may be transmitted through a vertical shaft. This is more far- reaching than one would suppose, as it implies also a straight- ening of the bones themselves and a shifting of the articular facets from an oblique to a right angle with reference to the long axis of the bone. The foot has changed its posture Fie. 5. American Mastodon ; after Owen. from the primitive plantigrade position, for the heel and wrist bones are elevated above the ground and a thick pad of gristle has developed beneath them in each foot, forming a cushion to receive a share of the weight. The toes are not separate but are imbedded in the common mass of the cylindrical foot, the hoofs being represented by nails around its forward margin. These may be fewer in number than the toes. Adaptations of the Skull and Teeth. Owing to the shortness of the neck and the height of the head from the ground, the proboscis or trunk, which is merely an elongation of the combined nose and upper lip, becomes a most necessary device for securing food and water. This organ is composed of a great number of muscles and so combined and controlled as to give not only enormous strength but the utmost delicacy of movement. The trunk terminates in one (indian) or two (African elephant) finger-like projections, with which a pin can be picked up from the ground while the entire organ has sufficient strength to uproot a tree. LR. S. Lull— Evolution of the Hlephant. 173 The development of the trunk has been accompanied by a marked change in the character and form of the skull, which is merely a mechanical adaptation to provide the leverage necessary to wield so weighty an organ. This has been brought about by a shortening of the skull accompanied by a corre sponding increase in height. The result is that the base of the ~ trunk has been brought much nearer the fulcrum at the neck, thus shortening the weight arm of the lever, while the increas- ing height not only lengthens the power arm but gives more surface for the attachment of muscles and the great elastic ligamentum nuche which aids in supporting the head. Fic. 4. Sectioned skull of Indian elephant ; after Owen. This change in the form of the skull, while it gives to the physiognomy of the animal that dignified, intellectual look, does not imply a similar development of the brain, for the brain case has increased but little, the great size of the skull being largely due to the development of air cells in the cranial bones so that the actual thickness of the roof of the skull is greater than the height of the brain chamber itself, a feature well shown in fig. 4. The Teeth. It is generally true among mammals that the normal num- ber of teeth in the adult is forty-four, eleven in each half. of 174 L. S. Lull—Evolution of the Elephant. each jaw. This number is rarely exceeded, but often because of specialization a reduction in numbers occurs until, as in the ant-bears, the limit of a totally toothless condition may be reached. The elephants, owing to the great increase in the size of the individual orinders and the loss of all but two upper incisors in the forward part of the mouth, have the total num- ber of teeth reduced apparently to six, as ‘but one fully formed grinder is in use in each half of each jaw at any one time. Actually, however, the number of teeth is greater than this, owing to the peculiar manner of tooth succession in which, instead of having the adult teeth replace those of the milk set vertically, the succession is from behind forward. The tooth forms in the rear of each jaw and moves forward through the are of a circle (see fig. 4.), gradually replacing the preceding tooth as it wears away through use, until the final remnant is crowded from the jaw and ‘the new tooth is in full service. Bearing this in mind, it is evident that the full tooth series is not confined to those present at any one time, but should include not only teeth which have gone before, but, in a young animal, those yet to come. Sir Richard Owen gives the total dentition ef the modern elephant as follows :—incisors ama molars ae which being interpreted means that there are in each half of the upper jaw two tusks, the first milk tusk being succeeded by the permanent one, while in the lower jaw there are none. ‘There are all told six grinders in each half of each jaw, the first appearing at the age of two weeks and being shed at the age of two years. The second is shed at the age of six, the third at nine, the fourth from twenty to twenty -five, the fifth at sixty, while the sixth lasts for the remainder of the creature’s life, up to the age of a hundred to a hundred and twenty years. The structure of a single tooth finds no exact parallel among other mammals, as it consists of a series of vertically placed transverse plates, each composed of a flattened mass of den- tine or ivory surrounded by a layer of enamel. The plates are in turn bound together into a solid mass by a third material known as cement. When the upper surface of the tooth becomes worn through use, the hard enamel appears as a series of narrow transverse ridges between which lie the dentine and cement in alternate spaces, as two enamel ridges with the enclosed dentine are derived from each plate. "In order to keep the teeth in proper condition a certain amount of harsh, siliceous grasses or woody material is necessary, otherwise the teeth become as smooth as polished marble and, as the rate of growth is nicely adjusted to normal wear, the elephant suffers R.S. Lull— Evolution of the Hlephant. 175 greatly when given improper food. The number of plates in the largest teeth varies from ten or eleven in the African ele- phant to twenty-seven in the Indian. The hairy mammoth had the most numerous and finest plates of all, representing 1 this respect the culmination of evolution. The tusks are merely modified incisor teeth of the upper jaw which continue to grow throughout life. They are com- Fie. 5. Crown view and section of a molar tooth, original. posed entirely of dentine or ivory of a superlative quality, the enamel being reduced to a small patch at the tip which soon becomes worn away. The tusks have various uses, but their primitive purpose is for digging. The African elephant is so industrious a digger that the right tusk is always the shorter, as it has to bear the brunt of the work. Tusks are so small as to be apparently absent in the female Indian elephant and often in the male, while they are present in both sexes in the African species. In size they are always much smaller in the Indian form, as seventy-six pounds is the maximum weight for - a single tusk, while the greatest recorded size of those of the African elephant is 10 feet # inches in length by 23 inches in circumference at the base, with a weight of 224 pounds for the right tusk, while the left measured 10 feet 34 inches in 176 LR. S. Lull—Evolution of the Elephant. length by 243 inches in circumference and weighed 239 pounds, a total of 463 pounds for the pair! Mentality. In spite of its archaic type the brain is large and the surface is highly convoluted, the weight being on the average 84 pounds ; more than double that of man. The intelligence of the elephant has been exaggerated by some writers and greatly minimized by others. “Sir Henry Baker, a British explorer, and the German naturalist Schillings, oive us the most unbiased view of the mentality of the elephant. Ele- phants possess a remarkable memory of injuries, real or fan- cied ; of misfortunes; and of the time and place of the ripening of favorite fruits. They also learn to perform com- plex labors, as the carrying and piling of logs in the teak yards in India without other directions than the initial order. They are said to be weather-wise and to be able to foretell rain some days in advance. Elephants are obedient and docile, notably those of India, but the males especially are subject to periods of neryous excitement, apparently of a sexual nature, known as “must,” when they become very dangerous and sometimes destroy the keepers in their paroxysms of rage. Ultimately all male elephants become surly and intractable; in the wild state such are known as rogues and live apart from their kind until they die. A fine specimen of the Indian elephant known as **Chunee” was brought to England in 1810. He was very tractable and continued to grow until 1820, when the first | paroxysm occurred, in which he attempted to kill his keeper. Similar paroxysms occurred with increasing force until 1826, when the violence of the animal necessitated its slaughter. With “Chunee” this condition occurred very early in life, as the animal was not fully adult at the time of its death. The famous “ Jumbo,” an African elephant, was sold from the London Zodélogical gardens because he was no longer trust- worthy, from the same canse. He was not, however, a con- firmed rogue, even when he died three and a half years later. Jumbo was about seventy-five years old at the time of his death. There is a possible parallelism between human mental development and that of the elephant. One of the most potent factors in the evolution of man’s mind is his ability to handle various objects and thus bring them before the face for examination. This is also found in the elephant, although to a less extent, and undoubtedly has aided materially in its men- tal development as well. Elephants are rightly accused of timidity and cowardice, though, when brought to bay, rage may simulate courage, R.S. Lull—Kvolution of the Elephant. wae making a charging tusker a most formidable foe. In common with most forest and jungle dwellers, elephants, while rela- . tively dull of sight, are keen of scent and hearing, in fact marvelously so, for, as Schillings tells us, they either have an acuteness of some known sense far beyond our comprehension or possibly some other sense unknown to us. The sentinels of the herd stand with uplifted trunk, which emphasizes the value of the sense of smell. Elephants rarely breed in captivity, almost all of the tamed individuals having been born wild; hence artificial selective breeding which has given rise to such valuable results in the betterment of domestic animals is unavailable for the i improve- ment of the race. The rate of increase is extremely slow, for Darwin tells us that they begin to bear young at thirty years and continue to do so until ninety, during which time six single young are produced on the average. But, to illustrate the necessity of a check upon increase among animals, Darwin says that even at this slow rate the offspring of a single pair would in 500 years amount to fifteen millions, provided they all lived to maturity! Evidences of Evolution. The evidences of evolution are threefold : structure, as shown by comparative anatomy, ontogeny or individual development, and phylogeny or racial history. The last paleontology makes known to us. We may, by comparing the structure of a given form with that of other animals, gain an insight into the probable course of modifications which it has undergone in the development of its distinctive features and often a hint at least as to Its ancestry and relationship, as in the case already mentioned of the Hyracoidea and elephants. Again, the small hind-limb and hip bones buried deep within the body of the whales and the hip bones alone in the case of the manatee (Sirenia) having no possible function, are indubitable evidence for descent in each case from some land-dwelling quadrupedal type. This has been corroborated in the last instance by the recent finding, in the Eocene of the Egyptian Faytm, of Sirenia wth hind limbs. Ontogeny. Embryology shows us the curious parallelism which exists between the individual’s history and that of the race, that of the individual being in most cases a more or less abridged sum- mary of that of its ancestors. I have spoken of the shortening and corresponding increase in height of the elephant’s skull to provide the leverage 178 LR. S. Luil—Evolution of the Elephant. necessary in wielding the huge trunk. The development of this feature is beautifully shown in individual growth, for the new-born elephant has a relatively long, low skull the walls of which are slightly thickened so that the brain chamber fills the skull completely as in most other mammals. During the Seis aiiees Sas Fie. 6. Section of skull young (x 4), and old (x ;4,): from Flower’s Osteology. course of growth, however, the skull walls ahigken greatly through the development of the air cells, while the brain cavity increases comparatively little, just as one would predict from the structure of the adult skull, RL. S. Lull—Kvolution of the Hlephant. 179 Of the prenatal life of the elephant, covering a period of twenty months, we know very little, but it is reasonable to sup- pose that embryology would give us much more light upon the development of elephantine features. New-born young are elephant-like in every particular with the exception of the skull. Paleontology. The great proof of the evolution of a race of animals is the finding in the ancient rocks more and more primitive forms as one recedes in time, until the most archaic type is reached. By the study of such a series of fossils not only may the evolu- tionary changes be learned, but former geographical distribu- tions, the original home and the various migrations of the race. While this matter is treated much more fully in the second and third parts of this paper, a brief summary of the racial history may be given as follows: | The earliest known proboscidians were discovered in the Egyptian Fayum, in beds of middle Eocene age. Their remains are also found in the Upper Eocene of the Fayum, but the Oligocene elephants are as yet undiscovered. During the early Miocene the first migration occurred into Europe and thence to the region of India and even as far as North America, both of which were reached by the Middle Miocene. The Pliocene saw the elephants in their millenium, having reached the widest dispersal and the maximum in numbers of species. During Pleistocene times the Proboscidia covered all of the great land masses except Australia, but were diminishing in numbers, and toward the close of the Pleistocene the period of decadence began, resulting in the extinction of all but the Indian and African elephants of to-day. Sunmary of the Evolution. The physical changes undergone by the race are also clearly shown, as the paleontological series is very complete. These changes may thus be summarized: Increase in size and in the development of pillar-like limbs to support the enormous weight. Increase in size and complexity of the teeth and their consequent diminution in numbers and the development of the peculiar method of tooth succession. The loss of the canines and of all of the incisor teeth except the second pair in the upper and lower jaws and the development of these as tusks. The gradual elongation of the symphysis or union of the lower jaws to strengthen and support the lower tusks while digging, culminating in Tetrabelodon angustidens. The appar- ently sudden shortening of this symphysis following the loss of the lower tusks and the compensating increase in size and the change in curvature of those of the upper jaw. R. S. Lull—Evolution of the Elephant. 180 Wy, (ee % 4 «x 4 4 Y 4 we) 4 4 vy 4 y ZN 4 4) Fie. 7. Evolutionary changes of Proboscidia. RL. S. Lull—Evolution of the Elephant. 181 The increase in bulk and height, together with the shorten- ing of the neck necessitated by the increasing weight of the head with its great battery of tusks, necessitated the develop- ment of a prehensile upper lip which gradually evolved into a proboscis for food-gathering. The elongation of the lower jaw implies a similar ‘elongation of this proboscis in order that the latter may reach beyond the tusks. The trunk did not, however, reach maximum utility until the shortening jaw, removing the support from beneath, left it pendant as in the living elephant. The change in the form of the skull developed para passu with the orowth of the tusks and trunk, as it is merely a mechanical adaptation to give greater leverage in the wielding these organs. It may readily be seen that these changes curiously interact upon one another ; the result of the evolution of its parts being the development of a most marvelous whole. Elephants Contemporary with Man. Aside from the species of elephant now living, at least three extinct types were coeval with mankind, one distinctively American, the mastodon, Mammut americanum, one confined to Europe and southern Asia, Llephas antiquus, while the third, the hairy mammoth, Elephas primigenius, was common to both and to northern Asia as well. Of these the mammoth is without exception the best known of all prehistoric animals, for not only have its bones and teeth been found in immense numbers, but, in several instances, frozen carcasses have been discovered nearly or quite intact, the hair, hide, and even the viscera and muscles wonderfully preserved. In many instances these were irrevocably lost-or were devoured by the dogs and wolves or by the natives themselves; two specimens have been preserved however and are now in the St. Petersburg zodlog- ical museum. Of these one was found in the Lena Delta in Siberia in 1799 and secured in 1806. The skeleton with patches of hide adhering to the head and feet may still be seen, but the flesh of the animal was devoured by wolves and bears after being preserved in Nature’s cold storage warehouse for thousands of years (see fig. 26). In 1901 another specimen was found at Beresovka, Siberia, 800 miles west of Behring strait and 60 miles within the arctic circle. It is supposed that this creature slipped into a crevasse in the ice which may have been covered by vegetation as in the Malaspina glacier of Alaska. That the poor brute died a violent death is certain from the fracture of the hip and one foreleg, and the presence of unswallowed grass between the teeth and upon the tongue. A’ great mass of clotted blood in the chest tells how suddenly the Reaper over- FTES 8 ORS a Fic. 8. Mammoth of 1901 in situ ; after Herz. . : . j RF. S. Lull—Evolution of the Hlephant. 183 took it, the creature having burst a blood vessel in its frantic efforts to extricate itself. Much of the hair had been destroyed when the animal was dug out of the cliff, but the collector, M. O. F. Herz, has preserved a very accurate record of texture and color of the hair on different parts of the body. This consists of a wooly undercoat, yellowish-brown in color, and an outer bristly coat, varying from fawn to dark brown and black. The hair on the chin and breast must have been at least half a yard in length and it was also long on the shoulders; that of the back, however, was not preserved. This inter esting relic is mounted in the St. Petersburg museum, the skin in the attitnde in which it was found, while the skeleton is in walking posture beside it. Immense quantities of fossil ivory have been exported from Siberia, there having been sold in the London market as many as I, 635 mammoth tusks ina single year, averaging 150 pounds in weight; of these but 14 per cent were of the best quality, per. cent inferior, while more than half were useless com- mercially. The total number of mammoths represented by the output of fossil ivory since the conquest of Siberia is not far from 40,000, not, of course, a single herd, but the accumu- lations of thousands of years. The oyster trawlers from the single village of Happisburg dredged from the Dogger Banks off the coast of Norfolk, England, 2,000 molar teeth, besides tusks and other mammoth remains, between the years 1820 and 18338. This indicates not only the ‘ereat profusion of the mam- moths of the Pleistocene, but the existence of comparatively recent land connection between England and the continent. Direct evidences of the association of man and the mammoth are plentiful in Europe but strangely enough absolutely wanting in North America, although we have every reason to believe that such an association existed in the New World as well as in the Old. In Europe not only have the bones of man and the mammoth been found intermingled in a way that implied strict contemporaneity, but still more striking evidence is shown in the works of prehistoric artists. The fidelity with which the mammoth is drawn indicates that the artist must have seen the animal alive. One of the most notable of these relics is an engraving of a charging mammoth drawn upon a fragment of mammoth tusk found in a cave dwelling at La Madeline in southern France. In the Grotte des Combarelles (Dordogne), France, there are in addition to some forty drawings of the horse at least fourteen of the mammoth. These are mural paintings or engravings, the former being executed in a black pigment and some kind of a red ochre, while the latter are scratched or deeply incised, sometimes embellished with a dark coloring i E t i es bs Fic. 9. Mammoth of 1901 mounted in the St. Petersburg museum; after Herz. LR. S. Luli—Hvolution of the Klephant. 185 matter (oxide of manganese). It is especially interesting to note that the people of that day were not only sufliciently advanced to have artists of a very high order, but that they also had begun to domesticate the horse, if one may judge from the indications of harness on some of the equine figures. The horse is a most potent factor in the civilization of mankind. In the caverns of Fond de Ganme in southern France there are at least eighty pictures, largely those of reindeer but includ- ing two of the mammoth. The actual association of man and the mammoth in America has not been proven. In Afton, Oklahoma, is a sulphur spring from which have been brought Sa = \ 4s AW oe ¥ ee K e S il \ape hig “y | Gf | it Ny ry, / \ \ a Fie. 10. Charging Mammoth ; after Lubbock. to light remains of the mammoth (LHlephas primigenius ) and mastodon (Mammut americanum) and numerous other animal remains, such as the bison and prehistoric horses. In the spring there were also found numerous implements of flint, mainly arrowheads. This naturally was first interpreted as an instance of actual association of mankind and the elephants, but careful investigation proved that the elephant remains far antedated the human relics, and that the latter were votive _ offerings cast into the spring by recent Indians as a sacrifice to the spirit occupant, the bones being venerated as those of their ancestors (Holmes). Another instance, not of the association of the mammoth with mankind, but of the mastodon, is prob- ably authentic. This was in Attica, New York, and is reported by Professor J. M. Clarke. Four feet below the surface of the ground in a black muck he found the bones of the masto- don, and twelve inches below this, in undisturbed clay, pieces of pottery and thirty fragments of charcoal (Wright). The remains of the mastodons and mammoths are very abundant in places, the Oklahoma spring already mentioned producing 100 mastodon and 20 mammoth teeth, while the famous Big Bone Lick in Kentucky has produced the remains of an equal number of fossil mastodons and elephants. Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Series, Vou. XXV, No. 147.—Marcnu, 1908. 13 186 R. S. Lull—Evolution of the Elephant. Indian tradition points but vaguely to the proboscidians, and one cannot be sure that they are the creatures referred to, yet it would be strange if such keen observers of nature as the American aborigines should not have some tales of the mam- moth and mastodon if their forefathers had seen them alive. One tradition of the Shawnee Indians seems to allude to the mastodon, especially as its teeth led the earlier observers to suppose that it was a devourer of flesh. Albert Koch, in a small pamphlet on the Missourium (mastodon) discovered by Fie. 11. Painting of Mammoth on wall at Combarelles; after MacCurdy. him in Osage county, Missouri, and published in 1848, gives the tradition as follows: “Ten thousand moons ago, when nothing but gloomy forests covered this land of the sleeping sun,—long before the pale man, with thunder and fire at his command, rushed on the wings of the wind to ruin this garden of nature,—a race of animals were in being, huge as the frowning precipice, cruel as the bloody panther, swift as the descending eagle, and ter- rible as the angel of night. The pine crushed beneath their feet and the lakes shrunk when they slaked their thirst; the forceful javelin in vain was hurled, and the barbed arrows fell harmlessly from their sides. Forests were laid waste at a meal and villages inhabited by man were destroyed in a moment. LR. S. Lull— Evolution of the Hlephant. 187 The cry of universal distress reached even to the regions of peace in the West; when the good spirit intervened to save the unhappy; his forked lightnings gleamed all around, while the loudest thunder rocked the globe; the bolts of heaven were hurled on the cruel destroyers alone, and the mountains echoed with the bellowings of death; all were killed except one male, the fiercest of the race, and him even the artillery of the skies assailed in vain; he mounts the bluest summit that shades the sources of the Monongahela, and roaring aloud, bids defiance to every vengeance; the red lightning that scorched the lofty fir, and rived the knotty oak, glanced only on this enraged monster, till at length, maddened with fury, he leaps over the waves of the West, and there reigns an uncontrolled monarch in the wilderness, in spite of Omnipotence.” Parr II. The Early Proboscidians. Meeritherium. The earliest known genus of proboscidians is Meritherium, a small, tapir-like form, from the Middle Eocene Qasr-el-Sagha Fic. 12. Mceritherium skull; after Andrews (x 4). beds of the Fayum in Egypt. This creature was probably a dweller in swamps, living upon the succulent, semi-aquatic herbage of that time. It has little that suggests the elephants of later days and, were it not for transitional forms, would hardly be recognized as a proboscidian at all. However, one can see the beginnings of distinctively elephantine features. The hinder part of the cranium is already beginning to de- velop the air cells or diploé, the nostril opening and nasal bones are commencing to recede, indicating the presence of a prehensile upper lip, and the reduction of the teeth has begun, the second pair of incisors in each jaw being already devel- oped as tusks. Those of the upper jaw were dagger-like, and 188 R.S. Lull—Evolution of the Elephant. downwardly projecting, while the lower ones were directed forward, their combined upper surface forming a continuation of the spout: -like union or symphysis of the jaws. The molar teeth, 24 in number, bore on the crown four low tubercles partially united into two trans- verse crests. The neck was of sufficient length to enable the animal readily to reach the eround, though the prehensile lip must have been used for food- gathering. Our knowl- Fic.13. Tooth og edge of the creature’s bodily form is imper- Meeritherium (x 3), fect, as a complete skeleton has not been found. Meritheriwm measured about 34 feet in height, and existed up into the Upper Eocene as a contem- porary of Palwomastodon, doubtless owing to a continuation of those favorable conditions under which it lived. Paleomastodon. Paleomastodon of the Upper Eocene was more elephant- like than its predecessor, Maritherium, and of larger size, while its limbs were much like those of more modern types. The skull has increased materially in height, with a consider- Fie. 14. Skull of Paleomastodon (x +5); after Andrews. able development of air cells in the bones. The small nasals with the nasal openings had receded so that they lay just in front of the orbits, much as in the tapir of to-day. This would imply the development of a short extensile proboscis, essen- tially like that of the modern elephant except for size. The upper and lower canines and incisors have entirely disappeared except the second pair of incisors in each jaw, which have be- come well-developed tusks. Those of the upper jaw are large, downwardly curved, and with a band of enamel on the outer face. The lower jaw has elongated considerably, especially at R. S. Lull—Evolution of the Hlephant. 189 the symphysis, and the lower tusks point directly forward as in Meritherium. The proboscis possibly did not extend beyond the lower tusks while at rest, though it could probably be extended be- yond them. The premolar teeth have two while the molars have three trans- verse crests composed of distinct tubercles and the cingulum of the hindermost tooth shows a strong tendency to form yet an- other crest. ‘There were twenty-six teeth , Fic. ae Tooth of Pa- altogether. The neck is still fairly long, eomastedomt a) though the hinder neck vertebra are beginning to shorten. Paleomastodon is contined to the Upper Eocene, and has thus far been found only in the Fayim region. The Yale collection includes full-sized restorations of the skulls of Meritherium and Paleomastodon as well as casts of the type specimens, gifts of the British Museum of Natural History. Massification of the Later Proboscidea. We know as yet no Oligocene proboscidians, the next forms being found in the lower Miocene of northern Africa and Europe, so that a considerable break occurs in the continuity of our series. It is evident that the line was still African in distribution, for apparently the exodus from Egypt did not occur before Miocene times. The mastodons have been divided in two ways, one depend- ing upon the number of ridges borne upon the grinders, while the other classification is based upon the number and char- acter of the tusks. The latter seems the more logical from a developmental viewpoint. The first of these genera is Tetrabe- lodon, with four, enamel-banded tusks. The second is Dibelodon, having but two tusks which still retain the band of enamel. The last genus is J/ammut, with enameless upper tusks in the adult, though one or two may also be present in the adolescent lower jaw. ‘The latter are sometimes retained throughout life. Tetrabelodon. The third recorded stage in the evolution of the elephants is represented by the Miocene Tetrabelodon angustidens, of which a splendid specimen from Gers, France, is preserved in the museum of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. It was an animal of considerable size, nearly as large as the Indian ele- phant, but differing markedly from the latter in the peculiar character of the lower jaw, which was enormously long at the symphysis and contained a pair of relatively short tusks. This form represents the culmination of the jaw elongation, for in its successors the symphysis is rapidly shortened and the infe- 190 Le. S. Lull—Evolution of the Elephant. rior tusks finally disappear. The upper tusks in Tetrabelodon were longer than those of the lower jaw but did not extend much bey ond the latter. The tusks had an enamel band upon the outer and lower face and were slightly curved downward. The nasal orifice had receded farther to the rear, indicating a still greater development of the trunk than in Palwomastodon. Fic. 16. Skull of Tetrabelodon angustidens. The proboscis, still supported from beneath by the rigid lower jaws, could only be raised and moved from side to side. The neck is now quite short, so much so that were it not for the proboscis and tusks this creature could not reach the ground. Both upper and lower tusks show signs of wear which could only be caused by digging, those on one side bemg often much more worn than on the other. Fie. 1%. Tooth of Tetrabelodon he teeth have increased in size anguatidee (sd) to such an extent that but two adult grinders at a time can be contained in each half of the jaws. Tetrabelodon was a widely spread, migratory form, for we find species referable to this genus not only in Europe but in Africa, Asia, and in North America. In Eurasia it gave rise to Mammut thr ough the loss of the lower tusks and the enamel band, while in America there arose Dzbelodon, which retained the enamel band and which was the first proboscidian to reach South America after the formation of the Central American land connection either late in the Miocene or in the early Pliocene. The Yale Museum contains fine specimens of teeth and tusks of Tetrabelodon angustidens from France as well as similar remains of Yetrabelodon poavus, T. campeste, T. productus, and 7. serridens. In the Yale Museum is also pre- R.S. Lull—Evolution of the Hlephant. 191 served part of the holotype of Zetrabelodon shepardi Leidy from California, of which the remainder is in the museum of Amherst College. Dibelodon, The genus Dzbelodon is known principally from the jaws, teeth and tusks, though two splended skulls of LY. andiwm are preserved inthe Museo Nacional in Buenos Aires. The upper Fic. 18. Skull of Dibelodon andium. tusks are well developed, displaying an elongated spiral form, with a well developed enamel band, but the lower jaw is quite short though the symphysis is longer and more trough-like than in the genera Mammut and Hlephas. The lower tusks have entirely disappeared and with the shortening of the jaw the trunk must have become pendant as in the modern elephants. The genus Dibelodon contains several species, among which are Dibelodon humboldiu (Cuvier), D. mirificoum (Leidy}, D. precursor (Cope), and D. andiwm (Cuvier). Of these Dibelodon humboldii and D. andium ranged into South America and were in fact almost the only proboscidians to cross into the southern hemisphere of the New World. Some of these animals lived in the high Andes at an elevation of 12,350 feet above the level of the sea, at a time when the region had a greater rainfall than now-and therefore a richer vegetation. 3 The Yale collection contains teeth and portions of the tusks of Dibelodon mirificus and D. obscurum as well as of D. humboldu. One D. -obscurum specimen is part of that figured by Leidy, the remainder being in the Amherst College Museum. There are also preserved at Yale a femur and an axis probably referable to Dibelodon andiwm, from the Plio- cene Bone Bed of Quito valley, South America, found at an altitude of 10,000 feet. 192 RL. S. Lull— Evolution of the Blephant. Mammut. This genus reaches its culmination in the American masto- don, a creature of great bulk, though about the height of the Indian elephant. It was, however, much more robust, a feature especially noticeable in the immense breadth of the pelvis and the massiveness of the limb bones. The feet were more spreading than in the true elephants, which, together - with the character of the teeth, and the conditions under which the remains are found, points to different habits of life from those of the mammoth, the mastodons being more dis- tinctively forest-dwelling types. The skull differs from that of the true elephants in its lower, more primitive contour, for while there is a large development of air cells in the cranial walls the brain cavity is relatively larger. The tusks are well- Fie. 19. Skull of the American Mastodon. developed, powerful weapons, not so sharply curved as in the elephants, though in this respect individuals vary. The tusks are very heavy at the base and taper rapidly, curving inward at the tips. In the lower jaw the tusks are vestigial, being apparently present only in the male. Usually they are soon shed and the sockets may entirely disappear as in the Otis- Fie. 20. Tooth of Mastodon (x 4). ville mastodon at Yale, whereas the Warren mastodon now in the American Museum, a fully adult animal, retained the lett lower tusk, which is about eleven inches in length. The socket of the right tusk is also still distinct. A cast of the symphysis of the lower jaw of a young animal containing one tusk is exhibited at Yale. RR. S. Lull—Fvolution of the Hlephant. 193 The grinding teeth were of large size, two in each half of either jaw, asin the Z etrabelodon, but the crests are simpler with but few accessory cusps. The crown of the tooth is covered with thick enamel, which in turn is overlain by a thin layer of cement before it cuts the gum. This is soon removed by wear. These teeth are admirably adapted for crushing succulent herbage such as leaves and tender twigs and shoots, but not for grinding the siliceous grasses which form a neces- sary part of ‘the food of the true elephants. “ Broken pieces of branches varying from slender twigs to boughs half an inch long” have been found within the ribs of a mastodon together with “ more finely divided vegetable matter, like comminuted twigs to the amount of four to six bushels.” “Twigs of the existing conifer ZThuia occidentalis were identified in the stomach of the New Jersey mastodon, while that of New- burgh, N. Y., contained the boughs of some conifer, spruce or fir, also other not coniferous, decomposed wood. A news- paper ‘account of the finding of the great Otisville mastodon, now preserved at Yale, says that the region of the stomach contained ‘ fresh- looking, very large leaves, of odd form, and blades of strange grass of extreme length and one inch to three inches in width.” The Yale collection contains numerous specimens of the American mastodon, including the nearly complete skeleton from Otisville, N. Y., soon to be mounted, another fairly com- plete skeleton of a younger individual from Urbana, Ohio, and many jaws and teeth. ‘There are also specimens of the apparently ancestral J/. borsoni from England. True Elephants. In order to trace the evolution of the true elephants we must go back once more to the, Upper Miocene of southern India to the form known as Mammut latidens. This creature gave rise to a species variously known as Wastodon elephan- toides or Stegodon clifti, for its transitional character is such that authorities differ as to whether it is a mastodon or an elephant. Stegodon. In Stegodon the molar teeth have more numerous ridges than in the true mastodons and the name Stegodon is given because of the roof-like character of these ridges, the sum- mits of which are subdivided into five or six small, rounded prominences. There is a thin layer of cement over the enamel in an unworn tooth but no great accumulation in the intervening valleys as in the elephants. These teeth show how slight the transition is, however, merely a filling of 194 R. S§. Lull—Evolution of the Hlephant. <= z= = (CA yJYY > D Fre. 21. Marsh’s Restoration of Mastodon. R. S. Lull—Evolution of the Elephant. 195 cement to bind the crests together and the elephant tooth is formed. Stegodon embraces at least three species, the home of which was central and southern India, though two of them ranged east as far as Japan, then united to the Asiatic continent. Stegodon insignis lived into Pliocene times. Of the tran- sitional forms, the Yale Museum contains casts of the type specimens of Mammut latidens and Stegodon clifti. True elephants, derived from the Stegodonts, existed in India, their remains being found in the Siwalik hills. Fic. 22. Stegodon tooth (x 4). During Pliocene times there existed in Europe two immense elephants known as Hlephas meridionalis and E. antiquus, each of which lingered on into the cooling climate of the Pleistocene. The former, while ranging as far north as Eng- land, was more southerly in general distribution and of a size which has probably never been exceeded except possibly by Elephas imperator of North America. A mounted specimen of Hlephas meridionalis in the Natural History Museum of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, France, measures thirteen feet and one inch at the shoulder and probably exceeded this in the flesh. The tusks are massive but do not reach the extreme of develop- ment of the later mammoths, while the teeth have rather coarse lamelle. Elephas antiquus stands midway in character between the African and Indian elephants of to-day. The tusks were nearly straight and the creature was also of great size. It is first found in the Lower Pleistocene (Forest Beds) of Norfolk, England. In the Thames valley deposits it was contemporaneous with early man and, for a while, with Hlephas primigenius, the hairy mammoth. £. antiquus was essentially an animal of warm climate, giving way to the mammoth when the arctic conditions of the glacial period arose. Elephas antiquus is represented at Yale by a fine cast of the skull, jaws, a tusk and other bones from the Belgium Royal Museum, while of the early elephants of India there are three casts of skulls recently presented by the British Museum of Natural History. In North America, during the cooling to cold climatic condi- 196 LR. S. Lull—Evolution of the Llephant. tions of Pleistocene time, there were three species of Hlephas of which the most primitive in point of tooth structure was the great imperial elephant, 2. imperator, a migrant from the Eurasian continent. This species appeared in the Lower Pleis- tocene (Equus or Sheridan beds) and, while it ranged from Ohio to California, was more southern in distr ibution, ranging as far as Mexico and possibly into French Guiana. In “this species the grinding teeth were of enormous size with very coarse lamellz and the outer covering of cement was ex- tremely thick. ye = = Ss af THM ain WON Fic. 23. Tooth of HE. imperator (x 4). Llephas imperator was of great size, 134 feet in height at the shoulder, and the huge, spiral tusks measured thirteen feet along the curve by 22 inches in circumference. One tusk in the city of Mexico is said to be sixteen feet in length! The collection at Yale contains one molar tooth of Elephas umper- ator from Mexico, one from Ohio, and the right ramus of the lower jaw containing a single molar from Alameda county, California. An upper molar of this same individual is in the Fic. 24. Tooth of £. columbi (x 4). Amherst College museum, while a portion of the tusk is in that of Wabash College. Elephas GOVE. the Columbian mammoth, is -thought by some authorities to be but a variety of EL. primigenius, the teeth being transitional in the character of the lamelle between R.S. Lull—Fvolution of the Hlephant. i) 2 the latter and /. imperator. In fact, they greatly resemble those of the modern Indian elephant. £. colwmbi was early and middle Pleistocene in distribution, more southern in range than #7. primigentus, though the two inhabited a broad fron- tier belt along the northern United States. £! colwmbi reaches the maximum of evolution in the shortening and heightening of the skull. The tusks ina mounted specimen in the American Museum of Natural History are so huge that their tips actually eurve backward and cross each other. They have completely lost their original digging function and their use as weapons must have been much impaired. They seem to represent an instance of a certain acquired momentum of evolution carrying them past the stage of greatest usefulness to become an actual detriment to their owner. This may have been an important factor for extinction. Specimens at Yale referable to /. col- wmbz consist of several molars from Idaho, Florida, California, and Mexico. Elephas primigenius. The mammoth was not among the largest of elephants, being but little in excess of Hlephas indicus in height, but with Fic. 25. Tooth of HL. primigenius (x4); after Marsh. relatively huge tusks exceeding, in some instances, a length of over eleven feet measured along the outer curve. The teeth have the most numerous and finest lamellee, and in this respect, as well as in the development of hair, this creature.shows the greatest degree of specialization as compared with the tusks and skull in the Columbian species. It is curious to note, however, that in three ways one can trace the increasing fineness in the lamellee of the molars corresponding to the three modes of dis- tribution,—latitude, altitude, and time,—for the more ancient individuals, living the farthest south and nearest the sea-level, have teeth very much like those of /. columbi. The increasing fineness of lamellee is correlated with increasing cold and a conse- quent change in the character of food plants, as the last of the 198 LR. S. Lull— Evolution of the Elephant. mammoths fed upon harsh grasses and the needles and cones of the fir and other conifers, mingled with moss. The hairy coat, another adaptation to extreme cold, was of three sorts, an inner coat of reddish wool, next a longer, fawn-colored coat outside of which were long, black bristles, especially on certain parts of the body, as the neck, back, and chest. Jt is interest- ing to note that in the Indian elephant, the nearest lving ally of the mammoth, there is, at birth, a complete coat of rather long hair which is shed in a few weeks except that in the moun- tain region of the Malay peninsula elephants are reported to be persistently hairy. This points to an ancestral hairy condi- tion atavistically developed in later types when necessitated by cold. A similar development is seen in the Manchurian tiger, in form and markings precisely like its tropical cousin, the sleek Bengal tiger, but with a long, thick fur which defies the cold rm) of a climate as severe as that of New England. Fie. 26. St. Petersburg Mammoth of 1806. The hairy mammoth was circumpolar in distribution, rang- | ing from Europe across the north of Asia as far as 70° north latitude to the eastern part of the United States, its southern limit overlapping the northern range of Hlephas columbi. Of Elephas primigenius the museum at Yale contains sev- eral important specimens: Molar teeth from Minnesota and Washington state. A fine jaw from Nebraska with teeth nearly as coarsely ridged as those of Hlephas columbi. Molars from England and Siberia, tusks from Alaska, hair from an Alaskan ice cliff and a piece of hide from the Siberian mam- moth brought to St. Petersburg, Russia, in 1806. Modern Elephants. The African elephants are the more primitive in the character of the teeth with their broad lozenge-shaped lamellee, unless, as has recently been suggested, they are in this respect degen- erate. The African forms included by some authorities under Le. S. Lull—Bvolution of the Elephant. 199 the genus Lowodonta have recently been divided into four species. They are distinguished from their cousins of India by the contour of the head, the greater size of the ears, greater development of the tusks, and the presence of two figure-like processes at the tip of the proboscis instead of but one. Afri- ean elephants reach a greater size than do those of India, attaining a height of twelve to thirteen feet at the shoulders and a weight of over seven tons. The Indian elephant includes but one species, /: indicus, of which there are, however, several well-marked castes or breeds, varying greatly in commercial value. In size the Indian elephant rarely reaches eleven feet, averaging about nine for the males. The high, convex forehead gives the Indian elephant a somewhat nobler, more intellectual cast of countenance than its African cousin, but this character is due solely to the greater development of the air cells in the skull. Dinotherium. In the Miocene of Europe, though ranging up into the Plio- cene of Asia, is a curious aberrant type, evidently a probosci- Fic. 27. Jaw of Dinotherium ; after Kaup. .dian though formerly classed with the Sirenia. This form is Dinotherium and must have been derived from some very early genus, certainly not later than Palwomastodon. The teeth differ from those of the elephants in their greater num- ber and in their mode of succession, being more like those of other mammals. The grinding teeth are extremely simple, the premolars having three while the molars have but two cross crests with open, uncemented valleys. Tusks are apparently confined to the lower jaw, no trace of upper tusks having been 200 LR. S. Lull—ELvolution of the Elephant. seen in the only known skull, now unfortunately lost. Those of the lower jaw were large and, together with the elongated symphysis, bent abruptly “downward, the tips being actually recurved. The skeleton, so far as known, indicates a huge elephant-like body and limbs and the impression is that the creature must have been semi-aquatic, frequenting the beds of streams and living upon the succulent herbage which it rooted up by means of “its tusks. The contour of the skull is ill known, so that, with the exception of the lower jaw, restora- tions of the head are largely conjectural. Dinotherium died out in the Phocene, leaving no descendants. Part. ITI. Migrations of the Proboscidea. In studying the dispersal of a group of terrestrial vertebrates one has to consider not alone the probability of land bridges over which the wandering hordes might pass, but, on the other hand, the existence of barriers to migration other than the absence of these bridges. The possible barriers are climatic, topographic, and vegeta- tive. Of these the climatic has been given weight, but in the case of the proboscidians the direct action of temperature is relatively unimportant, though the presence of moisture is a prime necessity. The African elephant formerly ranged from Cape of Good Hope into Spain, while Zlephas primigenius enjoyed an even greater range in latitude and consequent temperature. The African species has a vertical distribution from sea level to a height of 13,000 feet in the Kilimanjaro region, which also gives a great range of climatic variation. Aridity, however, is a most efficient barrier, not only from its effect upon the food supply, but because water is a prime necessity to elephan- tine comfort. The Sahara to-day marks the northernmost limit of the African species, the former distribution to the north being by way of the Nile valley or possibly to the west- ward of the great desert. Mountain ranges on the whole do not impede elephant migration, except of course such mighty uplifts as the Hima- layas. The height to which the elephant wanders in the Kilimanjaro has already been mentioned, while Hannibal took a number of African elephants across the Little St. Ber- nard pass, which has an altitude of 7,176 feet, in his invasion of Italy in 218 B.C. The Pyrenees, however, seem to have prevented the numerous elephants of France from invading the adjacent Spanish peninsula, as the few species of fossil PR. S. Luli—Evolution of the Llephant. 201 elephants found therein seem almost without exception to have entered from Africa by way of Gibraltar. The great ranges of mountains in the new world may have influenced somewhat the trend of migration, but were crossed by the proboscidians at will. Vegetation does constitute a most effective barrier, especially in the case of the tropical jungle of central. America. During the Pliocene, as we shall see, after the land bridge was estab- lished, intercommunication between the two Americas was very free. In the Pleistocene, however, this migration of large quadrupeds gradually ceased, so that in spite of the great abundance of mammoths and mastodons in North America none attained a foothold south of the Mexican plateau. To-day the jungle is absolutely impenetrable for all of the larger mammals except such as may be at least partially arboreal in habits. The migrations were forced, not voluntary, for it would appear that the mighty elevations of Asia beginaing in late Miocene times and the consequent alternations of moist and arid climates, with a strong tendency toward the latter, has caused these great animals to . disperse themselves from the rising high lands of central Asia into the more stable low lands. In these forced wanderings the land bridge between Asia and Alaska Was again and again discovered and crossed by the migrating hordes. The first appearance of the proboscidians is in the Middle Eocene beds of the Egyptian Fayum district. There we find in Meritherium, the most primitive type, the foreranner of the race. Of the extent of the geographical range of Mari- therium and of its successor, Palwomastodon, we know nothing further than that they have only been found within the Fayt um. During the Oligocene the proboscidians seemingly remained in Africa, though of this we have no record. Early Miocene deposits of Mogara, which lies northwest of the Faytim some five days’ journey, about 75 miles, give us the remains of Tetrabalodon angustidens, the next known type in the evolu- tionary series. From Tunis again this species is reported, being what Professor Deperét calls the ancestral (ascending mutation) race of 7. angustidens, pigmeus. This race is also reported from the sands of Orleans and from the Burdigalienne of Agles (Aglie, Italy). Thus it seems as though Tetrabelodon angustidens, the form with the maximum “development of symphysis, were the one to make the exodus from Africa, not as the children of Israel did, by way of the northeast, but by the land bridge connecting Tunis with Sicily and the latter with Italy, and thence, by way of Greece to Europe and Asia. Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Sreries, Vou. XXV, No. 147.—Marcu, 1908. 14 202 LR. S. Lull—Evolution of the Elephant. Mammut americanum phylum. (See Chart 1.) Tetrabelodon angustidens did not go unaccompanied, for another type, Zetrabelodon turicensis (=tapiroides), found in the Lower Miocene of Algeria, must have travelled into Europe by the same route and about the same time. In 7. twrecensis the grinders are simple in character as though it had already begun to differ in its feeding habits from its con- temporary, in “which the teeth are comparatively complex. Tetrabelodon turicensis spread during the Miocene over France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and as far as southeastern Siberia. The successor of Tetrabelodon turicensis was Mam- mut borsoni, covering much the same geographical area as its forebear, being found as far as England to the north and Russia, along the northern coast of the Black sea, to the east. Geologically it ranges from Lower to Upper Pliocene. If. borsont merges into Mammut american um, the great Ameri- can mastodon which outlived the mammoth in the New World. Some teeth found in southeastern Russia have been referred to the American type by Mme. Pavlow, who was perfectly familiar with Jf. borsoni. However that may be, the migra- tion of this race was without doubt across Siberia, the Behring isthmus and into the New World from the northwest. The American mastodon’s remains have been found from Alaska to California, east to Prince Edward’s Island and from Hudson Bay to Florida on the east coast, while Le Conte reports a speci- men from Tambla, Honduras, about 15° north latitude, the nearest recorded approach to South America. Tetrabelodon—Dibelodon phylum, Tetrabelodon— Elephus phylum. (See Chart 2.) Reverting oneé more to Letrabelodon angustidens, we find in it the possible ancestor of all of the later proboscidians, with the exception of the very aberrant Dinotheres and the Ameri- can mastodon phylum. Tetrabelodon angustidens was a great migrant covering most of Europe with the exception of Spain and England. Its descendants diver ged along several lines of specialization as along varied lines of “travel, at least one repre- sentative reaching North America in the Middle Miocene (Deep River beds), possibly before (Virgin Valley of Oregon (Merriam)). The earliest North American form, Zetrabelodon productus, resembled its European prototype very closely and R.S. Lull— Evolution of the Hlephant. “WNUBOTIOULB JNULULB YL @ ‘unypAyd WNUBOLLOTULE FUTAULG JT ‘TUOSIOg Jue w “sISUODIIN} UOpoTeqeayay, + 90900}SIe[g-eue001lfy "| LUVHO 204 R.S. Lull—Evolution of the Elephant. gave rise to a remarkable group of four-tusked mastodons which ranged from Nebraska to Florida. From some of the later species arose the Dzbelodon race with upper, enamel banded tusks, but lacking those of the lower jaw. This genus is reported from the Pliocene (Blanco) of Texas and Mexico and ranges as far south as Buenos Aires in the southern hemisphere. Two South American species are known to us, one, J. andium, following the chain of the Andes as far south as Chili. This type is often found at great altitudes, a specimen from the Quito valley in Ecuador, now in the Yale collection, having been found 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. Dibelodon humboldii wasa dweller on the plains, being found ih the pampas formation near Buenos Aires, while Darwin records it along the banks of the Parana river in Argentine, and W allace reports the same species among other remains in a limestone cavern near the headwaters of the San Francisco river in southern Brazil. D. humboldii, like D. andium, has its origin in the Texas Pliocene, the line of migrations nearly paralleling, the one along the tropical plains, the other along the Andine plateau as far south as northern Chili. With the exception of a lone specimen of Elephas reported from French Guiana and the mastodon of Honduras, Dzbelodon is the only proboscidian of the Neotropical realm. The migration of these great forms occurred in the late Pliocene, and for some reason, evidently climatic and vegetative, the route has been closed ever since. Otherwise it is reason- able to suppose that the elepbants and mastodons of the Pleis- tocene would have spread into South America as well. In Europe Zetrabelodon angustidens lad successors in 7. longirostris and arvernensis, the latter ranging over western Europe into England. It did not, however, cross the Pyrenees into Spain. TZ. eng zs and a late mutation of 7. angusti- dens, paleindicus, made the long journey to the Orient, trans- ferring the evolution from Europe to India. The path of this migration is as yet unknown, as little or no paleontological ex- ploration has been made in he region lying between Armenia on the west across Persia, ‘Afghanistan, and Beluchistan to the Indus river. This oriental migration must have occurred during the Upper Miocene and was followed by a relatively rapid evolution involving a number of species of mastodons and elephants. Zetrahelodon longirostris seems to have given rise to Mammut* cautleyi with a shortened lower jaw, thence through JZ. latidens to Stegodon cliftr, the transitional form between the mastodons and the elephants. S. clifti was followed * These Indian forms agree probably with the American mastodon in having but one pair of enamelless tusks. They may represent the Mammut stage but in an entirely different phylum, hence should not bear the same generic name. 205 LR. S. Lull— Evolution of the Elephant. ‘(WOpOs9}g 0} SUIpPRE]) INTIME POM PIO + "MOpOpPEqi PLOM MON W “WOpOTEqRIIeT, PIIOM PIO @ MOpOpEqeajay, PLIOM MEN O wnAR TT ‘unpAYg wopopeqiq-uopojequajyay, ‘(Qaed) wnp SE ew 3°76 1:82 4°70 MeOute. (han ey 6-27 4-60 ae Strong traces of titanium, cobalt and zine were found in Nos. I. and II, which also carry a very perceptible amount of graphite, of which minute traces were also found in No. IL. Dr. Hussak reports that the microscopic examination shows the rocks to be composed of a carbonate (rhodochrosite ?), an olivine-like silicate (tephroite) and spessartite, the latter being in small amount and extremely minute grains in No. II and in greater amount and larger grains in No. I. Some sections O. A. Derby— Manganese Ore Deposits of Brazil. 215 also show a small amount of rhodonite. A considerable amount of the iron, not separately determined in No. I, is in the form of pyrites, which is tolerably abundant in this rock. The titanium is in part in opaque black grains (ilmenite), in part in transparent red grains with the appearance of rutile, but from which on isolation, I obtained strong characteristic reactions for both titanium and manganese, from which, as in the former paper, the mineral is presumed ‘to be pyr ophanite. At Piquery it is very evident that the merchantable ore, con- sisting almost exclusively of manganese oxide (psilomelane 4 ¢), s due to the superticial alteration of this rock, involving the Sec Lol of the carbonic acid and of a large proportion of the silica, alumina, irou, lime and magnesia. Moreover, it is evident that this alteration has proceeded from above down- ward, or in other words, that it is simply atmospheric weath- ering. So far as observed the ore at this place has lost all trace of the platy (joint) structure of the original rock and, except in the rejected block of low grade ore, ‘all recognizable traces of the original constituents. From the neighboring mines of Sao Gongalo and Morro da Mina a type of ore was described that is characterized by a light-colored earthy aspect, platy structure and spongy texture due to innumerable minute rounded cavities. This passes in the upper levels to the ordinary black, massive type of ore (psilomelane ?) in which all these characteristics are lost, and, in one of the lower levels of the Morro da Mina, to a har d black, lustrous type which under the microscope shows minute isolated grains of spessartite in a groundmass of manganese oxide. This groundmass was presumed to be an original con- stituent, and comparable with a specimen of magnetite from a neighboring district in which spessartite occurs in a similar groundmass of iron oxide. The recent observations at Piquery, however, suggest the much more plausible hypothesis that this eroundmass is a residue of manganese oxide due to the alteration and leaching of original carbonate and _ silicate (tephroite) elements like those of the rock at Piquery. The alteration of the latter with retention of the spessartite and of the platy structure is readily conceivable, and this would give precisely the type of low-grade siliceous (from the presence of unaltered spessartite) ore that characterizes the lowest level reached at Morro da Mina. Further investigation, which it is hoped can soon be made, will doubtless clear up this and other knotty points in the question of the genesis of this type of manganese ore deposits, which, when of large extent and of commercial value, seem to be due to the alteration of an original rock with predomi- nant carbonate of manganese and tephroite rather than of spes- 216 O. A. Derby— Manganese Ore Deposits of Brazil. sartite and rhodonite as hitherto supposed. Numerous localities in the Queluz and other districts in Brazil have been prospected, in which at a comparatively slight depth the com- mercial ore ran into an almost pure spessartite rock, and this fact suggests the hypothesis that for the alteration to proceed far enough to produce extensive deposits of merchantable ore, the presence of large proportions of the less resistant carbon- ate and of tephroite is necessary. So far as can be seen at Piquery, rhodonite is an element of subordinate importance, though it may be suspected to have been present in greater force in the original type of the low grade ore characterized by secondary quartz. Rio-de Janeiro, Dec. 24th, 1907. Carney— Possible Overflow Channel of Ponded Waters. 217 Art. XXIIIL—A Possible Overflow Channel of Ponded Waters Antedating the Recession of Wisconsin Ice; by Frank Carney. Introduction. Wuen the lee- -cap extended into Pennsylvania south of the * Lake region” in central New York, the Susquehanna through its tributaries carried off the augmented drainage. Following this maximum reach of the ice came a period of decline marked by successive retreats and halts. In withdrawing from the Alleghany plateau area the front of the ice became grossly serrate, the pattern of the longitudinal valleys of the outer slope of the plateau. Each valley held a lake which grew deeper and broader as the ice-barrier receded. The Susque- hanna was still the ultimate drainage-line of ice-front waters. Each lake retained an outlet southward till the ice uncovered some new point northward lower than the altitude of this over- flow channel; then the lake coalesced with the water-body in a neighboring valley, still reaching the Susquehanna, but by a less direct route. In time the glacier revealed altitudes so low that the impounded waters were no longer carried to the Atlantic by the former course, but went first to the west, over- flowing ultimately by the Chicago outlet, and later eastward via the Mohawk. It is apparent that when the ice had retreated along a partie- ular divide between two adjacent north-sloping valleys far enough to allow the water-body having the higher level to flow into the other, the line of flowage was at first either a channel with ice for one wall, in which position the overflow stream might intrench itself provided the ice kept a constant front; or a sag in the divide, a location that the overflow would main- tain until the ice had withdrawn from a level lower than the bed of the stream. Successive stages of coalescing ice-front lakes would thus develop channels transverse to the intervalley divides. Local Ice- Front Lakes. The two unreported channels that occasion this paper mark stages of an ice-front lake or lakes in Keuka valley; an impounded lake occupying Seneca valley constituted the local base-level of these channels. hésumé.*—The first ponded body (Hammondsport Lake )+ * See this Journal, vol. vii, 1899. Professor H. L. Fairchild’s map, Plate vi, in his paper, ‘‘ Glacial Lakes Newberry, Warren, and Dana in Central New York,” pp. 249-263, will aid in following this brief description. For a bibliography on the history of the high level ice-front lakes see foot- note to p. 325, vol. xxiii, 1907, of the Journal. + H. L. Fairchild, loc. cit., p. 253. Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtuH Series, Vout. XXV, No: 147.—Marcnu, 1908. 15 218 Carney—Possible Overflow Channel of Ponded Waters. in Keuka valley ov erflowed by way of Bath, the altitude of the channel being 1125 feet; in Cayuga* valley, which bitureates south of Ithaca, the Danby stage, the lake of the western arm, had an ov erflow at 1040 feet, but this stage later coalesced with the ponded body in Six Mile Creek, and there- after the White Church channel—975 feet—became the spillway of the resultant Lake Ithaca; in Seneca valley the Horseheads channel (900 feet) carried the overflow of Watkins Lake.t In time the ponded drainage of these three valleys united, forming glacial Lake Newberry.t Lake Ithaca was diverted to the west as soon as the ice discovered a level on its shore lower than 975 feet, the White Church overflow; such a level was revealed a Ovid.g Lake Hammondsport, before coales- cing with Watkins Lake, had an intermediate level via Wayne about 10 feet lower than the Bath outlet. | New Channels.© Fairchild, in discussing the genesis of Lake Newberry, says concerning the coalescence of Hammondsport Lake: “the locality of its overtlow was probably near Second Milo, four miles south of Penn Yan.”** In this area two channels have been studied ; their position is indicated im fig. 1. Channel No. 1 (fig. 2 ).—The topographic map suggests that this outlet, nearly four miles southwest of Penn Yan, is rock bound; the stream has incised the Hatch shales and flags,++ developing a channel about 50 feet deep and 90 rods long. The discontinuity of rock northward indicates that a salient has been cut across. The altitude of the entrance of the chan- nel is approximately 1080 feet; the fall of the bed is not over . 30 feet. The walls of this channel have a gentle slope, suggest- ing either rapid or long-continued subaerial weathering ; the bed is ageraded. Extending eastward, the course of the out- let appears to have passed near the house of A.C. Ansley, on whose farm the channel is located; but there is no con- clusive evidence of the further course taken by the stream. Channel No. 2.—This is three miles southeast of Penn Yan. It heads on the property of John Armstrong, east of the intersection of the highways, in an area containing a conspicuous number of large bowlders. The entrance to this *H. L. Fairchild, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. vi, pp. 869-371, 1895. +Ibid., p. 365. tH. L. Fairchild, this Journal, vol. vii, p. 255, 1899. 8 Ibid. | H. L. Fairchild, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. x, p. 40, 1899. “| The Penn Yan and Ovid sheets of the U. 8. Geol. Surv. may be of use in following this discussion. ** This Journal, vol. vii, p. 255, 1899. ++ N. Y. State Mus., Bulletin 101, p. 47, 1906. Carney—Possible Overflow Channel of Ponded Waters. 219 overflow channel is about 40 rods wide; the drift has been swept away by the stream which terraced the kame-like moraine on the Fie. 1. From the Penn Yan (N. Y.) Quadrangle. Shows northern end of the divide between Seneca and Keuka valleys. Location of two unre- ported spillways of glacial waters is indicated by parallel black lines; the row of small circles near No. 1 represents glacial moraine. 220 Carney—Possible Overflow Channel of Ponded Waters. farm of W. L. S Spooner, forming its northern wall, at the same time cutting a bench in the tele of the southern ill ; crossing the highway, it continues eastward through the property of Samuel McElvee. The development attained by this outlet does not indicate a very long stage of the lake at this level, approximately 1010 feet. Base-level of channels—Lake Newberry overflowed at Horse- heads; since the outlet is heavily aggraded, it is possible that this lake at one time rose above the 900-foot contour, but later removed some of the glacial outwash; the level of its deltas, Fie. 2. Looking eastward through Channel No. 1. however, preclude much allowance for cutting down of the overflow channel. This altitude, then, was the intermediate base-level of the streams that led the pended water of Keuka valley into Seneca valley. The intakes of the channels represent the water levels of the former valley; this level minus the gradient of the outlet streams should be the altitude of Lake Newberry, or 900 feet. Correction for differential movement.—The whole Great Lakes region in post-Wisconsin time has been subject to a deformation which has either depressed the areas in the west and south, or upraised those in the east and north, or, by a combination of these movements, has produced the same result. The amount of this deformation in the Finger Lake area has been computed at 2°7 feet per mile.* The channels we *R. S. Tarr, Journal of Geology, vol. xii, pp. 79-80, 1904; data com- municated to Professor Tarr by Dr. G. K. Gilbert. Carney— Possible Overflow Channel of Ponded Waters. 221 are considering are approximately 30 miles north of Horseheads. Consequently a correction of about 80 Aeel must be applied ; this makes the intake of channel No. 2 930 feet, an altitude that includes a stream gradient of thirty feet; the measurement made in the field was about 40 feet for the slope of this over- flow stream, but there is opportunity for some misapprehension through post- -glacial erosion. The corrected reading for the intake of channel No. 1 is 1000 feet. Correlation of Channels. No. 2.—The north wall of this channel consists apparently of submarginal ice deposits; kame material characterizes the drift for a mile northward. No evidence of a waterway between this outlet and the Newberry level has been found. Obviously this channel represents the last position of the ice- front preceding the retreat that brought about the coalescence of the ponded bodies in Seneca and Keuka valleys. No. 1.—This channel, if associated with Lake Newberry, must have dropped 100 feet in a distance of about two and one-half miles ; this estimate is based on the altitude of rock to the east near Plum Point Creek after making the correction for landwarping. The presence of moraine extending southeast- ward from the vicinity of the channel is suggested by the topo- graphic map; the trend of this moraine indicates the tapering outline of the ice-lobe in Seneca valley. The northern portion of the outlier produced by the cutting of this channel through the salient of rock is covered by drift which marks the vertex of the reéntrant angle between the lobes that occupied these adjacent valieys; the lobe in Keuka valley, however, was much the shorter, judging from the trend of the lateral moraine developed along the ice-front which appears to have had an east-west direction as far as Second Milo. With this relation of ice-lobes and valley walls it is probable that the outlet stream skirted the ice-margin, or the drift deposits accumulat- ing along this margin, taking the course indicated by the head- water segment of Plum Point Creek. Under this hypothesis, during the early stage, as the stream turned more to the south it apparently was crowded by the ice, and in consequence produced the clifflike slope one and one-half miles directly west of Himrod. A shght withdrawal of the ice would allow the stream to broaden; no evidence of an incised channel east of the initial cut, or of terracing against the drift, was found. This outlet stream even in its short course should have acquired a considerable load since it had a sharp gradient and was flowing along accumulating moraine. Its point of debouchure into Lake Newberry would be marked by a delta ; at Himrod is a conspicuous delta; this delta, however, can not be connected with the stream in "question, because when the 222 Carney— Possible Overflow Channel of Ponded Waters. ice abutted the rock salient at channel No. 1, thus holding the Keuka valley lake up to the level of the channel, the lobe of ice in Seneca valley extended south many- miles, covering the site of the Himrod delta, which was not built till the ice-lobe had retreated several miles north. In case this stream did mark its union with Lake Newberry by a delta, we would look for it southwest of Himrod. That this overflow channel correlates with the Newberry level is supported (1) by the position of drift on the north slope of the outlier immediately north, showing that ice was present and hindered the passage of w ater by a lower contour ; (2) by the distribution of moraine laterally from this position evincing a continuous ice-front; (8) the evidence of at least some stream work in the direction of Lake Newberry ; (4) the certainty that when the ice in its retreat had reached ‘this point, discovering a lower level, 1000 feet, than the Wayne outlet, 1100 feet (both levels corrected for differential movement), Hammondsport Lake would be diverted into Seneca valley. But other facts must be considered before deciding that a pro-Wisconsin (recessional) ponded lake was connected with the genesis of channel No. 1: (1) ‘The walls of this channel have a more aged appearance in slope and the consequent covering of vegetation than have unquestionable post- Wisconsin chan- nels of this vicinity cut in the same formation. (2) There is glacial drift in the bed of the channel; it is evidently mod- ified so far as may be judged in the absence of sections. (3) The proportions of this channel imply a time factor that should be represented by erosional work in the path the stream must have taken. While the altitude of the channel in reference to the Newberry level is not contradictory to their being associated, nevertheless it seems improbable that a stream hav- ing a oradient of approximately 100 feet in less than three miles, and having performed so much degradation work at the outlet of the lake which it drained, should not have developed a channel elsewhere in its course. If such a channel exists, it is buried; if buried, it was not genetically related to Lake Newberry. An Alternate Hypothesis. As the Wisconsin ice-sheet moved into and over the Alle- ghany plateau, its front was fringed by lakes, the ponded north- flowing streams. These lakes, save the very earliest, over- flowed southward, probably doing some erosional work on their outlets. Tarr, however, concludes, after having studied a wide area, that “ice-born stream- erosion,’ particularly that of marginal lakes, was very slight.* The i ice later passed over *Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. xvi, pp. 239-240, 1905. Carney— Possible Overflow Channel of Ponded Waters. 223 and abraded these outlets; still later during the recession stage, it is probable that ager adation immediately from the ice or by extra-morainic waters filled up the spillways to some extent. A similar play of factors operated during each preceding ice- invasion. With the weight given at present by glacialists to the ice-erosion factor, it is probable that these outlets or cols were appreciably lowered by even one advance of the ice. It has been convincingly established that ice-erosion was effective in the trough of Seneca valley.* All evidence, then, points to the conclusion that ice-front waters of earlier invasions, as well as the pro-Wisconsin lakes, flowed southward over cols or outlets at higher levels than did the ponded bodies marginal to the receding Wisconsin ice. The alternative hypothesis for channel No. 1 is that it was associated in genesis with a lake held to a higher level than that of Lake Newberry; the divide somewhere between Horseheads and Watkins has since been lowered. The list of channels in New York Statet+ made by waters of the waning Wisconsin ice is long; further detailed study will reveal many more. An equal number of channel-ways must have been necessitated in the advance of the Wisconsin ice-sheet, and in both the advance and retreat of earher ice- sheets, provided the glacier moved as far over the area and then retreated as deliberately as did the ice of the last invasion, and provided further that glaciation produces but slight changes i in topographic relationships, a proposition on which there is agreement.t Such channels are short, being transverse to divides. Conditions in later glaciation ‘favored their oblitera- tion possibly by ice-erosion, more probably by drift-burial. It is conceivable that neither factor may have operated in every case ; also that the retreating Wisconsin ice may have halted in positions favorable to the “resurrection of filled or partially buried channels. Obviously channel No. 1 was used as a spillway for the last high level lake of its altitude in Keuka valley; but at the present we find no satisfactory explanation for the objections raised against its being associated genetically with a lake held in front of the receding Wisconsin ice. We believe that this channel suggests a pre- Wi isconsin ice-invasion of central New York.§ Department of Geology, Denison University, December, 1907. * Ibid., Journal of Geology, vol. xiv, p. 19, 1906. (al. ion Fairchild, Bull. Geol. Soc. "Am., vol, x, pp. 60-61, 1899; ibid., 'N. Y. State Mus., 20th Report of the State Geologist, pp. r119-r125, 1900; ibid. N. Y. State Mus., 21st Report of the State Geologist, pp. £33 135, 1901; ibid.. N. Y. State Mus, 22d Report of the State Geologist, pp. 125-r30, 1902; eid, N. Y. State Mus., Bulletin 106, pp. 15-35, 1907 ; SB: Woodworth, . Y. State Mus., Bulletin 83, pp. 16- 24, 1905. at S. Tarr, The Physical Geography of New York State, pp. 104-5, 1902. Higaaalethin and Salisbury, Geology, vol. i, p. 275, 1904. $ Somewhat analogous evidence of multiple glaciation in New York was necceated in vol. xxiii, pp. 325-335, 1907, of this Journal. 294 OC. Barus—Awial Colors of the Steam Jet and Coronas. Art. XXIV.—The Axial Colors of the Steam Jet and of Coronas; by C. Barus. 1. Tress colors overlie the source of lhght when looked at through a long column of wet air in which uniform cloud particles are suspended. It makes no difference whether the souree is a point simply, or a disk, say, four inches in diameter ; it appears uniformly colored, as if seen through colored class, so long as the cloud lasts. The order of colors beginning “with par ticles of extreme smallness is the same as that. of Newton’s interferences, seen by transmitted light. In case of the steam jet, however, on passing the transition from crimson to violet in the first order, the field becomes oped? while the steady flow of the jet usually breaks down and becomes turbulent. In the case of coronas I have thus far failed to reach this transition, the medium showing mere fogs of uncertain character. To produce the actual colors vividly, and especially the tints of the second and third orders for relatively large particles, the columns of fog must be long and very uniform. The steam jet soon fails in this respect, but a drum one to two meters long used as a fog chamber shows saturated colors surrounded by coronas. In the case of hydrocarbon vapors, the colunms may be shorter, because the particles throughout are larger for like numbers per cubic centimeter, than is the case with water vapor. 2. In my earlier work* [I was inclined to regard these colors as interferences superimposed on the coronas, regarding the small field of refraction possible with small particles, as in keep- ‘ing with the long columns needed for observation. The explan- ation at best is purely tentative. Later in my work when the size of particles was estimated from data given by successive exhaustions,} it appeared that the size of the fog particles were of an order about ten times larger than would be needed to produce interferences of the same kind. The interference hypothesis was therefore abandoned. In my more recent ee the diameter of fog particles, d, and the ratio in question is somewhat reduced, but remains of the same order. Thus if n ne the number of fog particles per cubic centimeter, 2 the thickness of an air plate giving like interference colors, the following results may be selected at random. *Phil. Mag. (5), xxxv,. p. 315, 1893, Bull. U.S. Weather Bureau, No, 12, 1895. + Phil. Mag. (6), iv, p. 26, 1902, Smith’s contrib. No. 1378, 1903 ; No. 1651, 1905. C. Barus—Auial Colors of the Steam Jet and Coronas. 225 Axial Dise d ns LS ay color color cm cm b (fog) (0001 5) "008 8°8 y bg 22 011 Cet p gy 25 13 6°1 v y ON 14 6°4 b TO 29 15 6°5 From this it appears that the strong axial blues of the fir i order must belong to particles even larger than -0001%™ 1 diameter, and that all particles are more than six times lar es than would be demanded for interferences. 3. Recently I have considered the case of a lamellar grating, in which diffractions are obtained from a uniform succession of alternately different thicknesses of clear glass. Experiments with such gratings were originally made by Quincke and there is a full theoretical treatment by Verdet. The behavior of this grating differs from that of the usual kind in the occurrence of an additional factor cos (7d (7 —1) +7a sin 8)/A where 7 is the index of refraction, d the difference in thick- ness between thin strips of width @ and of thick strips of width b,6 the angle of diffraction. Hence for axial color, 6=0, minima occur at (~—1)d=(2m+1).’/2, whereas for Newton inter- ferences the minima occur for a thickness of D in case of transmitted light, where 24 D=(2m+1).rA/2; whence 27 aD — n—1 In case of water = 1°33, or d/D=8-0. This result holding for a grating of transparent strips, is so near the above datum d/D>6 for a medium of transparent particles (for which there is no theory), that it seems reasonable to conclude, that the actual colors are referable to the same type of phenomenon in both cases. The need of observations through long columns in case of fog particles suspended in air is additionally con- firmative, since the contribution of color due to one particle must be exceedingly small. 4, One might be tempted to explain the disk colors in the same way, for in case of deviation 6 from the axial ray D/d=(n—1)/2n+ a sin 6/2dn. But here there are several insuperable difficulties, which refer the disk color to a different origin. In the first place, they are much more intense than the axial colors and are seen dis- inetly through very small thicknesses of fog; disk colors are ‘apparently abruptly complementary to the axial colors and 226 C. Barus—Auxial Colors of the Steam Jet and Coronas there is certainly no continuous transition; finally there is no incident light of the requisite obliquity. The appearance is therefore as if, corresponding to the inter- ferences by transmission, there were complementary interfer- ences by reflection toward the source of light. This phenomenon could then be reversed in direction at any fog particle in its path, and thus turned again toward the observer. But apart from the complementary nature of disk and axial color, no other evidence bears on this explanation. Moreover, any such theory must account for the intensity of disk colors in general, and in particular for the vividness of the greens. _ 5. In a long chamber and intense illumination, the axial colors may be extended over a considerable area and intensified by strong illumination. It is not improbable that they will then be serviceable for spectroscopic investigation, in which case the mean wave length of the interference bands may serve for their identification. They would then offer a means of further investigating the fog phenomenon at a degree of fineness beyond which the coronas cease to be available. Experiments of this kind are in progress. Brown University, Providence, R. I. T. D. A. Cockerell— Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. 227 Art. XX V.—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects; by T. D. A. CocKkERELL. PartIl. [Continued from p. 82. ] (8) . genitalia essentially as in D. stigmosa Scudder. Eyes separ- ated by an interval of about 135 p. T. D. A. Cockerell— Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. 229 Legs long and slender; anterior femur 43, tibia 53, tarsus 61™"; middle femur 54, tibia 6™™; hind femur 6, tibia 62™™. Wings 7" long: a small dark spot on costa 23°™ from base ; another 4"" from base ; stigmal spot large, as in D. stegmosa. Venation not well preserved, but the subcosta (mediastinal of Loew) and the four apical veins are all quite normal. Allied to D. stigmosa Scudder, but distinguished by the details of the measurements, and especially by the two costal spots. DRed shale of Green River, Wyoming, in Yale University Museum. Collector unknown. One specimen, with reverse. (5) A Pompilid Wasp from Florissant. In all, four fossil Pompilidee have been described, three from Florissant, and one from Cningen. One or two others, not named, are said to occur in Baltic amber. The Florissant species have been referred to Hemipogonius (2) and Ceropal- ites (1); an additional species, now described, belongs to Agenia. ; Fic. 3.—Agenia saxigena, x 2. Agenia saxigena sp. nov. Length about 11$™"; rather stout, width of abdomen abont 3$°™ 3 anterior wing 98"™" long ; body and femora black, tibize and tarsi ferruginous ; wings faintly dusky, with a dark cloud in the marginal cell and below, and another in lower basal part of first discoidal and below; venation ferruginous ; antennee more or less curled apically ; legs not at all spinose ; stigma fairly large ; marginal cell lanceolate, ending in a point 230 T. D. A. Cockerell— Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. on costa; first discoidal cell of the same length as jirst sub- marginal, viz. 2890 mw; cubitus of hind wings originating about 34 uw beyond transversomedial. The following meas- urements are in p: Greatest width) of) marginal cell) 2 as 385. e eee Hirstsubmarcimal on marginal’ 222. e2s oes Second ce 36 SOE Ap | ey Ee mS, is a eae Third & cc “c CS ae pe a he ee Marginal from end of third transverso-cubital to APO Ssh Pe Sis 2 hare ee aes Laer Basal nervure on first submarginal -_--.--------- ce oS 666 ISCO ae ae Oe ee a ee ce “ from transversomedial (basad of it) ienethrotmtransversomediali= sess ences = aes Lower side of first submarginal ___-_.-.__-2.-2- First transverso-cubital nervure ___- - Second submarginal on first discoidal “e ee “e third CO Nes Rieter Terap mean w sears Third ce ce ee SR Seger usin coin mp hfe eee ag Lower side of third submarginal beyond third dis- coidal Fie. 4.—Embia florissantensis, x 2. According to Fox’s* table the Pompilini (to which Agenia belongs) should have the first discoidal cell definitely longer than the first submarginal, but in some of the living forms the difference is trifling. A. saxigena is from Florissant, Station 14 (W. P. Cockerell, 1907). * Proc. Phila. Acad., 1894, p. 295. T. D. A. Cockerell— Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. 231 (6) The Second Tertiary Embiid. Pictet in 1854 described Himbia antiqua from Baltic amber, and this has remained the single fossil representative of the family ; 2. westwoodi Hagen, from copal, being properly of the recent period An insect occurring at Florissant, having a strong general resemblance to a Termite, proves upon careful examination to disagree in important particulars with all Termitidee, and to agree well with the Embiide, to which it must be referred. It has even the peculiar streaked appearance of the wings, so characteristic of this family. Embia florissantensis sp. nov. Length 123"; head about 2™™; prothorax about 13; ante- rior wing 11 long and 32 broad ; posterior wing just over gnm long, but as broad as the anterior ; shape of wings nor- mal, with the usual longitudinal bands of color, giving rather the appearance of a flower- petal with colored veins. The head is narrow-oblong, considerably narrower than in /. ( Oli- gotoma) michaeli, McLachlan ; prothorax unusually elongated, shorter, but not very much smaller than the head; the distinct venation consists of two parallel veins, barely separated, run- ning along the upper part of the wing for about three-quar- ters its length, nearly parallel with the costa, but gradually nearing it apically, and apparently fusing at their ends; and of an oblique vein in the anal region. Accor ding to the inter- pretation of Melander* the parallel veins represent the sub- costa; and the oblique vein the cubitus, with its lowermost branch. The color bands, regarded as representing veins, show the media + radius, giving off two large branches above, essentially as in £! wrichv Saussure (this Trinidad species is presumably named after Mr. Urich, the well-known naturalist of that island; hence there is no reason for perpetuating the erroneous form “whr ichi”), except that the branches are given off much sooner, the first about 42™" from base of wing, the second a little more than 4™ from’ apex. The two lower color-bands, representing the third media and first cubitus, are also well represented. These particulars are derived from the anterior wing, but. the hind wing is similar. Hab.—F lorissant, Station 14 (W. P. Cockerell, 1907). Also two from Station 13 (S. A. Rohwer, 1907, W. P. Cockerell, 1906). Melander, in giving an account of the discovery of 7. texand, remarks that Sapindus and Hysenhardtia grew pro- fusely in the locality where it was found. It is of interest to * Biol. Bull., 1903. 232 T. D. A. Cockerell—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. note that Sapindus was abundant at Florissant and Lysenhard- tia also grew there.* (1) A Mayfly from Florissant. Seven Ephemerids have been described from Baltic amber, and one from (£ningen. In America, Scudder has described five nymphs and one adult from Florissant. I have examined the type of the latter (4. ewsweca) in the Museum of Compar- ative Zoology. A much larger form is here described ; like » the other, it unfortunately does not show the characters neces- sary for precise generic reference. Fic. 5.—Ephemera howarthi, x 2. Ephemera (s. lat.) howarthi sp. nov. Length of body, excluding caudal setae, 15™™ ; thorax about Daas three slender caudal setee ; head transversely oval, about 2pm ‘broad, eyes about 37" distant on vertex ; ; length of ante- rior wing 13™™, costa ren slightly arched, subcostal vein close to costa; outer margin about 9"™ long, distinetly convex. Another specimen (from Sta. 15 Bb) is larger (anterior wing about 14™"), but evidently the same species. Florissant, Station 14 (7. D. A. Cockerell); also Sta. 13 B (Geo. LV. Rohwer, 1907). I have named this species after Mr. Howarth, of Florissant, who is known even in Europe as a skillful creator of new genera and species of mayflies, of won- drous form and color, used by fishermen to lure the speckled trout. * Hysenhardtia (or Viborquia) nigrostipellata Ckll. ined. was collected at Florissant by the Princeton expedition, and is now in the British Museum. The leaflets have the blade about 54™™ long and 22 broad, and are almost exactly as in E. orthocarpa (Gray) Watson. The little black pointed stipels are like those of EH. spinosa Engelm. Gooch and EHdgar— Reduction of Vanadic Acid. 233 Art. XX VI.—The Reduction of Vanadic Acid by Zine and Magnesium; by F. A. Goocu and Granam Enagar. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—clxx.] A metruop recently proposed by B. Glasmann* for the esti- mation of vanadie acid and molybdie acid in association with one another, depends upon the dissimilarity in the action of zine and magnesium upon the former and the similarity in the action of these metals upon the latter in the presence of hydro- chlorie acid. The method consists essentially in treating for an hour to an hour and a half, in a flask closed with a Bunsen valve, each of two aliquot portions of the solution containing a vanadate and a molybdate, the one with zine and hydrochloric acid under gentle heating and the other with magnesium and hydrochloric acid, opening the flasks to the air, pouring the contents of each flask into a 500™ porcelain dish containing a solution of 10 gms. of manganese sulphate in 800° of air-free boiling hot water, and titrating with potassium permanganate while “stirring actively. The amount of permanganate taken in titrating the contents of the first flask is used’ presumably in oxidizing the molybdenum from the condition of Mo,O, to that of MoO, and the vanadium from the condition of ve O, to that of V, O.: the amount of permanganate used in titrating the contents of the second flask shows presumably oxidation corresponding to a change of Mo,O, to MoO, and to a change of V,O, to V,O,. The difference between the amounts of per- manganate used in the two titrations should presumably indi- cate the oxidation of V,O, to V,O, and so by calculation give the amount of V,O, originally present in the solution. The amount of V,O, having been determined, the amount of MoO, originally present is easily calculated from the amount of permanganate used in either titration. It is plain that the value of the method depends largely upon the definiteness with which vanadic acid may be reduced to ‘the condition of V,O, by magnesium and left in the con- dition of VO, when the solution is treated with zine and sub- sequently exposed to the air. Concerning the reduction of vanadic acid by magnesium in the presence of hydrochloric acid, Glasmann gives the data and results of three experiments. f Of these two are in fair agreement with the hypothesis ; but, unfortunately, the record of the third experiment is affected by an error of about 10 per cent, either typographical or of calculation. It is likewise * Ber. Dtsch. chem. Ges. xxxviii, 600. + Titrations Tabelle, II, loc. cit. Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Series, VoL. XXV, No. 147.—Marcu, 1908. 16 234 Gooch and EKdgar—Reduction of Vanadie Acid. ‘interesting to note, though the conditions are different, that in Roscoe's study of the behavior of vanadie acid in the presence of magnesium and sulphuric acid,* to which Glas- mann reters, t live variation in the degree of pedarcnen is like- wise considerable, amounting to more than 2 per cent. ‘As to the reduction of vanadie acid by zine, Roscoe’s results show a degree of reduction approaching that of V,O,, but with variations of as much as 8 per cent; and it is well known that the oxidation of solutions thus reduced proceeds rapidly and ultimately results in the condition represented by V,O,+ Whether reductions may be kept regular and the action of air made so small as not to vitiate the analytical results of Glasmann’s method during the short exposure, are matters tor experimental determination. According to Glasmann’s results in these experiments, the interference would seem to be inappreciable, but here again the calculated results are not in complete accord with the printed data.t It has seemed desirable, therefore, to consider further the accuracy which may be expected under the conditions of analysis in the reduction of vanadic acid by magnesium and by zine. Reduction by Magnesium. Portions of a solution of sodium vanadate, standardized by the very accurate method of Holverscheit,§ were reduced by magnesium in the presence of hydrochlorie acid or sulphuric acid. In each of the experiments of Table I, A, the reduction was made, in a funnel-trapped flask, by magnesium in the © presence of hydrochloric acid added gradually to properly — moderate the action. After the magnesium had been used up, the contents of the flask were added to 800° of boiled water containing 1 grm. of manganese uae and 2°"* of sulphuric acid, and titration was made with nearly N/10 potassium per- manganate. The couditions of the experiment were essen- tially those of Glasmann’s method in respect to reagents and time of action. In the experiments of Table I, B, the treatment was modi- fied so that the action might be slower and long continued, with a view to bringing about better contact of the vanadium solution with the magnesium cushioned by evolved hydrogen. The reduction was made in a stoppered flask connected with a hydrogen generator, arranged for the maintenance of an atmosphere “of hy drogen during the period of reduction, and * Ann. Chem. Suppl. vi, 77 (1868). + Roscoe, loc. cit. Gooch and Gilbert, this Journal, xv, 390. } Titrations Tabelle, I, loc. cit. § Inaug. Diss. Berlin, 1890. Gooch and Edgar— Reduction of Vanadic Acid. 235 fitted with a separatory funnel through which dilute sulphuric acid was added from time to time in small portions as required during the prolonged action, never evolving hydrogen violently enough to float the magnesium. The experiments of Table I, C, were made to test the effect of using magnesium in the form of a heavy amalgam. About two grams of magnesium were dissolved, with heating, in an excess of mercury and the resulting liquid amaloam was used as the reducing agent, in the flask containing vanadie acid and sulphuric acid. At the end of the action, which took place without the application of heat and was over in about ten minutes, the distinctly violet solution was decanted, filtered from the mercury with careful washing, and titrated with potassium permanganate. Special tests in blank having shown that, for the amount of amalgam used, mercury goes into solu- TABLE I. Magne- aera V2.0; V2.0; Error V.O02 sium N 1-059 taken as calc. from in terms reduced to Time met. {0 ~ “ NaVO; oxidation of V2.0; §=———-+~-———, of V2.0; V203 V2O2 grm. em* grm. grm. grm. grm. grm. A Reduced by Magnesium and Hydrochloric Acid. 1 rie: 4:0 26:05 O°1144 0°1249 +0°:0105 0:0934 0°0210 it lanes 4°) 26°2 0°1144 0°1257 +0°0118 0:0918 0:°0226 4hr. 4:0 hell O'1144 01300 +0°0156 0°0834. 0:0312 is hr. 4:0 28°3 0°1144 0°1857 +0°0218 0°0718 0:0426 B Reduced by Magnesium and Sulphuric Acid S hrs. 4:0 24°] 0°1144 01156 +0°0012 0:°1120 0:0024 (Shs ies Da SO) 23°8 071144 0°1142 —0-0002 Deets ea Siar 40) 25°2 0-1144 01208 +00064 0:1015 0°6129 Bree Ac 25°4 071144 071218 +0:0074 0:0996 0:0148 Ge oe 3.0, 26°5 071144 0°1271 +0°0127 0°0890 0°0254 Gee se) 26:1 0°1144 0°1252 +0°0108 0:0928 0:0216 P|) Se sed 0) 26 8 0°1144 01285 +0°0141 0°0861 0°0283 C Reduced by Magnesium-Amalgam and Sulphuric Acid Calculated from V.O, 10 min, 2°0 32°] 0°1144 0°1027 —0-0117 0:0353 0-0791 LOW Foe er) 33°4 01144 0:1068 —0°:0076 0:0228 0°0916 HOR eas 250) 54°] 01144 0°1090 —0°0054 0°0161 0°0983 LG ee AY) 32°4 0°1144 01084 —0°'0110 0.0829 0°0815 Ovaries 2-0 33°1 071144 0:1054 —0-0090 0:0269 0:0875 LOS? 0 33°6 071144 0°1075 —0:0069 0:0208 0°0936 236 Gooch and Edgar—Reduction of Vanadie Acid. tion and acts upon the permanganate sufficiently to use up about 0-7" of that reagent, a deduction of that amount from the total amount used was made for such action in each experi- ment, before calculating the degree to which the vanadie acid had been reduced. From these results it is plain that the degree in which vanadic acid may be reduced by magnesium in the presence of hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid is irregular and dependent upon conditions not easily controlled. With magnesium amal- gam the reduction proceeds most readily and approximates more or less to the condition of V,O,,. It is obvious that under none of the conditions which we have tried is the reduction by magnesium sufficiently definite to be applied in a good analytical process. In Table II are given the results of the reduction of vanadic | TaBLeE IT. V:03 V2.0; Error takenas calculated in terms Exp’t *“ NaVO; from oxidation of Remarks KMn0O, of V.2O02 V.O0; cms erm. grm. erm. A. Reduced in flask with Zine and Hydrochloric Acid N/10 x 1:095 1. 35:0 071235 0°1166 —0-0069 ) Poured out into dish 2. 071285 =0°1194. =—0°0041 titrated in presence 3. 34°9 0°1235 0°1163 —90-0072 of MnsSO, B. Reduced in flask with Zine and Sulphuric Acid 36-3 01235). 0:12030— 0:00382 ) 36-4 071235 0°1209 —0-0026 | 0:1235 071213 —0-0022 $ 36°05 0:1235 01206 —0-0029 | 86-1 0:1235 01201 —0-0034 | 35°68 0°1235 071188 —0-0047 | Poured into dish for Titrated in the reduc- tion flask. O DIST (S) o> bo ( titration ; BTC 10. 348 01985 01150 =0-0076 | oe \ minutes C. Reduced by column of Amalgamated Zine N/10 x : 1:052 ie 42°4 0°1381 0°1356 —0:0025 2, 42:7 01881 0:1866 —0-0015 ‘Titrated in the receiv- 8. 42:2 071381 0:°1350 —0:0031 er exposed to the air 4, 49°5 071381 0°13859 —0'0022 Gooch and Edgar—Reduction of Vanadie Acid. 287 acid by zine. The details of experiments made in the reduction flask with zine and hydrochloric acid are given in A; the record of experiments also made in the reduction flask with zine and sulphuric acid is given in B; and C contains the data of experiments made with the J ones reductor,* in which a column of amalgamated zinc 40° long and 2°™ i diameter was used. In all these experiments the titration was effected directly in air by nearly N/10 potassium permanganate. The V,O, ealeulated upon the hypothesis that the reduction goes to fe condition of V,O,. From the results of Table II it is evident that in no case does the condition of oxidation of the product of the reduction of vanadie acid by zine and hydrochloric acid in the flask, by zine and sulphuric acid in the flask, or by amalgamated zine in the reductor, correspond exactly to V,O, when titration is made in air. A series of experiments was made, therefore, in which care was taken to protect the reduced solution from the action of air until the highest degree of oxidation is past and registered, by an adaptation of a method used by Randallt for the accurate titration of molybdic acid similarly reduced by the column of amalgamated zinc. According to this procedure, the receiver attached to the zine column was charged with a solution of ferric alum, gentle suc- tion was applied to the receiver, and in succession were passed through the column of amalgamated zine, hot water (100°™), 2°5 per cent sulphuric acid (100°™"), the solution of vanadic acid in 2°5 per cent sulphuric acid (125°™*), and finally hot water (200°"*). To the receiver was added syrupy phosphoric acid (4°™*), to decolorize the solution, and the titration was made in the hot solution in the usual manner with potassium permanganate. Table III contains the results of these experiments, corrected for the action of the zine column upon the reagents without the vanadic acid. The results of Table III show lant that the action of the column of amalgamated zinc carries the reduction easily and rapidly to the condition of V,O,, and that by anticipating the oxidizing action of the air by means of a ferric salt in the receiver the solution is made less sensitive to the action of the air, while the highest degree of reduction is registered by the ferrous salt formed. A comparison of these results with those of Table Il shows unmistakably that a solution containing vanadium in the condition of V,O, cannot be exposed to air, even momentarily, without undergoing oxidation. * ** The Chemical Analysis of Iron,” Blair, 6th ed., 225. + This Journal, xxiv, 313. t We are indebted to Professor Henry Fay for the information that this mode of treating reduced molyhdic oxide was first worked out many years ago by Dr. C. B. Dudley, though never published. 238 Gooch and Edgar—Reduction of Vanadic Acid. TaBLe III. Ferric alum Phosphoric KMnO, V0; acid N WES) taken as 10 @ sol. syrup 10s 1-052 NaVO; em? em? em? germ. 25 5 43°10 0°138 25 5 43°20 0°1381 25 5 43°30 0°1381 25 5 43°28 0-1381 25 5 43°32 01381 15 3 21°60 0°0691 15 3 21°62 00691 15 3 21°80 0:0691 40 8 64:90 0°2072 V.0; caleulated from oxidation from VO, erm. 0°1378 O°1381 0°1384 0°1384 0°1385 0°0690 0:0691 0:0696 0°2075 Error in terms of V2.0; erm. —0°00038 0:0000 + 0°0003 +0°0008 + 0:0004 —0-0001 0°0000 +0°0005 +0:°0003 Finally, it is evident that the assumptions upon which Glas- mann’s method for the determination of vanadic and molybdie acids is based—viz., that the condition of vanadium in a solu- tion reduced by magnesium is definitely that of V,O, and that the condition of vanadium in a solution reduced by zine and exposed subsequently to the air is definitely that of V,O,—are unwarranted. G. D. Hubbard—Ancient Finger Lakes in Ohio. 239 Arr. XX VII.—Ancetent Finger Lakes in Ohio ;* by Guo. D. HvBBARD. Durie the last two summers, while gathering data for a preliminary report on the physiography of the state, the author has found, in several localities of eastern Ohio, evidence of valley elaciers. It is undertaken in this paper to describe some of the long, narrow lakes that were associated with the with- drawal of these valley dependencies of the Wisconsin ice sheet —_ gente Tastes jean nie’. TTenumaves| es a | Pon = -HURON | : i ae Fr —- | tahnewine eke) CRAWFOR ‘e ‘% STARK [nas omy | | q *, ie © i OLus, j ake a ¢ fa eranal “ ff Fehon Bo 2 oe _p* we ai. ner ae ics =P NOx RS i 3 eee rae as 9 = denne ae Fic. 1. Northeastern Ohio. Lake beds of four finger lakes (in black). from several of the rock valleys of northeastern Ohio. As in New York state, only the hilly region has been favorable to the development of such lakes; and also as in New York, the hilly part contains several rather interesting finger lake basins. But differing from those in the eastern state, our Ohio finger lakes have usually not persisted to the present, nor were they quite so genetically inter-related. The following statement is a preliminary report on the lake beds, a report of progress, stating some results of a rapid investi- gation of the Ohio finger lakes. It presents positive evidence of the occurrence of four such lake beds. If our topographic *By permission of the State Geologist of Ohio. This paper was read in a different form November 30, 1907 before the Ohio State Academy of Sciences. - 240 G. D. Hubbard—Ancient Finger Lakes in Ohio. map were finished it would probably be possible to give a better account of the Jakes studied and also to locate others; for they are represented, in almost every instance, by hill-surrounded, lake-bottom plains,—features easily detected on a good topo- graphic map. The accompanying map of a part of the state (fig. 1) shows in black the approximate location of four of these long, nar- row lakes. Concerning some of them much of detail can be given, but of others, in the preliminary survey now being executed, little more than the proof of their existence has been learned. This is a problem that will yield very interesting results, when it is possible to go into a further, more exhaustive study. The north and largest of this group of finger lakes extends along the valley of Chippewa river from near Medina on the north, southward past Seville and Creston, then eastward almost to Canal Fulton, in the northwest corner of Stark county. Chippewa and Luna lakes and a pond near Doylestown station are remnants of this lake. Formerly it must have attained a length of twenty miles, and at Creston a width of about four miles. In its east and west portion past Rittman, it was probably less than a mile wide. A rather definite beach of sand was found at several points east and south of Chippewa lake but 25-40 feet above its present level; and also on both’sides of Rittman. Fine clays and sandy clays floor almost the entire valley as outlined: but in patches between Chippewa lake and the Medina county line south, and also in large areas around Creston, the soil is black and carbonaceous, suitable for the growing of onion sets and celery. South of Chippewa lake are two loops of waterlaid, and much subdued, moraine, bearing clays over their summits ; and at two or three other points near Doylestown, moraine across the valley is not quite obliterated. Massive morainic loops cross the valley at Canal Fulton and at a dozen places southward to Massillon, beyond which is much outwash gravel . and sand. This series of morainie loops formed the plug at the south end of the valley ; the rock walls held in the lake at the sides, and the ice at ‘the north. As the ice withdrew it occasionally halted and several minor halts are marked by the moraines noted in the valley; and then, while standing a longer time with its front just south of the site of Medina, lar: ae moraines were built there which prevented the waters ever finding an outlet northward, in consequence of which the drain- age is southeastward down the Chippewa to the Tuscarawas river. South of this lake bed near Orrville, and eastward to North Lawrence, is another one, which was mentioned by Read, in G. D. Hubbard—Ancient Finger Lakes in Ohio. 244 1878.* He recognized it as the bed of a short-lived glacial lake. It was probably eight miles long with a maximum width of about one mile. Weak shore lines and a level, lake- clay floor with some peaty material and marl beds are the evidence upon which this one is based. At present the plain lies 50 feet above the last one described, and from one end drains down into it; while from the other end drainage goes down through a narrow postglacial gorge in drift to the Tus- carawas at Massillon. The third lake of the group lay in the level-floored valley, west and south of Wooster. The sides of the valley are of drift-covered rock, the floor at present of black muck, and poorly drained. To the south near Shreve, the valley is closed with a complex of moraine, looping across the valley and now cut through by Killbuck creek but not deeply enough to thor- oughly drain the lake bottom. About four miles south of Wooster, two fine terminal moraines come down the east valley wall and extend out half way or more across the valley, convex southward, They are both buried knee-deep in sediments. A hill about three miles south of Wooster composed of drift must have been an island in the lake; and several small swells a mile or so nearer Wooster consisting of drift and gravel, and overlain with fine sand and clay, represent the summits of another morainic loop which the lake waters completely sub- merged. The lake was one half to one mile wide at Wooster and northward ; but southward it widened to nearly two miles. Other evidence of the presence of a lake in this valley was found at several critical points. In the eastern part of Wooster is a large terrace of stratified gravel and sand at approximately the 940 foot level. The sand was seen where an excavation for a building was made in 1907, northwest of the Pennsylvania R. R. station ; and the gravel could be seen in the railroad cut, and in several minor excavations east and south of the station. This level area is a delta at the mouth of Spring Run, built when the lake stood at the level of its summit. Some two miles northwest of Wooster, at the mouth of Clear creek, is a smaller, similar deposit. Its surface is at almost exactly the same level. It consists of gravel overlying moraine, and along its west side, back a third of a mile, bed rock appears in a steepened slope. Manifestly moraine was formed against the ice and south of the rock point, and sub- sequently, when beneath the lake, the moraine was covered with the sediments washed down by Clear creek. Along the west side of the valley from two to five miles south of Wooster, * Geol. Surv. of Ohio, vol. iii, p. 529. 242 G. D. Hubbard—Ancient Finger Lakes in Ohio. just at the crest of the bluff, and 940-960 feet above sea level, occur sand and gravel, usually in small quantities but specially marked where the little runs descend. These are taken to be ancient shore lines. This lake basin, like the first, has its outlet to the south and hence may have disappeared before the glacier did. It certainly would only persist until the outlet could be cut through the retaining moraine. The soil survey* working in the Wooster area recognized the clay and silt deposits in this valley, also in the first one de- 9 ~ MIL: Big Prairie. scribed, and found rather extensive peat deposits in places on these lake bottoms. Ancient lakes are located by that survey where peat occurs but apparently are not recognized where the clays and silts are laid. The bed of the fourth finger lake has been called the Lake- ville plain. It may be entered at its south end about a mile northeast of Big Prairie station in southwestern Wayne county, where it has been effectually closed by the building of big morainic loops. Rock walls shut in the sides of the basin, and * Bureau of Soils, Field Operations 1904. Wooster Map and text, pp. 548- 062. G. D. Hubbard—Ancient Finger Lakes in Ohio. 243 ice probably closed it at the north. The floor is now of strat- ified clay and fine sand with a heavy muck layer over most of it. ‘At several points in the valley aré inconspicuous areas of water- laid or worked-over moraine, and along the margins may be found, at several points, well defined beach sand. These shore lines are at a level (U. S. G. 8S.) of 765 feet at Blachleyville and Funk, and the lake bottom is 20 feet lower, but descending very gently northwestward. The plain representing the lake bottom varies in width from one-quarter to one and one-half miles in the southern part, but widens in the north to about two miles. This plain delivers its drainage northward, hence persisted until the ice melted away. Its northern end has not been seen, but the plain was followed five miles and undoubtedly continues north- westward, possibly connecting with one or both of the “ water plains” of Read* in northwestern Ashland county. It is probable that other finger lakes equally well marked may yet be found where the glacier invaded the hilly part of Ohio. Ohio State University. * Geology of Ohio, vol. iii, pp. 519-521. 244. Kord—Stephanite Crystals from Arizpe, Mexico. Arr. XXVIII.—Stephanite Crystals from Arizpe, Sonora, Mexico; by W. E. Forp. Recentxy two remarkable specimens of stephanite were sent by Mr. J. W. Miller to Prof. L. D. Huntoon of the Mining Department of the Sheffield Scientific School and were kindly given to the writer by the latter for investigation. They were found at the J. Pedrazzini mine at Arizpe, Sonora, Mexico, in a narrow but rich silver vem in which the stephanite occurs Swe Z £ ZA =< — C CUS yy ~ © Se —— == CON v associated with polybasite, argentite, the ruby silvers and the native metal. The stephanite crystals are of two types; the first showing crystals of simple form but of extraordinary size; the second type being of small but highly modified crystals which were found on the back of the specimens and projecting into the cavities. The two widely divergent types of crystals represent undoubtedly two different periods of formation. The large type of crystals is somewhat diagrammatically represented in figure 1, which was sketched from the smaller of the two speci- mens and is reproduced nearly in its natural size. The crystals have the form of short thick hexagonal prisms, being pre- Ford—Stephanite Crystals from Arizpe, Mexico, 245 sumably formed by a combination of the basal plane c (001) with the prism, 7 (110), and the pinacoid, 6(010). Occasionally on the basal plane radial striation lines were observed which suggested that the crystal form might be in part at least due to twinning. The crystals average between two and three centimeters across the base, and in one or two cases as much as four centimeters, while the height of the crystals is quite uniformly one and one-half centimeters. The prism faces are invariably vertically striated and frequently show a strong tendency to round into each other, making it ) 3) impossible to obtain even approximate measurements of their angles. The basal planes are rough and etched, showing small irregular angular pits, the unetched surfaces however being smooth and with a good luster. In general no other faces beside the base and those in the prism zone were to be observed, but in one or two instances small truncations were seen on the edges between but in such positions as not to admit of measurements. The smaller type of crystals were more interesting crystal- lographically. Their faces were brilliant and in most cases gave on the goniometer angular readings with almost theoret- ical values. In all twelve different forms were identified, 246 Ford—Stephanite Crystals from Arizpe, Mexico. which are shown on the stereographic projection, figure 6, and were as follows: 4(010), ¢(001), ¢,(190), (810), m (110), d (021), g (114), A(112), P (111), @ (134), v (132), 7142). All of these are well known and common forms and are ineluded in the lists given by Dana and Goldschmidt, with the exception of z, (190). This prism is listed by Hintze and was observed on crystals from Pribram, by Nejdl.* This form on the erys- tals from quently repeated. Figure 4 shows such a twin, the faces in twin position being indicated by a prime (’) mark. At the position. The twinning is usually quite irregular and fre- e Normal position © Twin position extreme right hand of the figure the faces were te as in normal position ; then came a series of small faces, g’, o’, m’, b’ and d’ in twin position. Next followed a series Onn foees in 248 Ford—Stephanite Crystals from Arizpe, Mexico. normal position, oscillating with each other, then three more faces again in twin position, g’, P’ and m’ , and finally a few others in normal position again. Figure 5 shows the top view of another twin which showed two projecting arms twinned to each other, each arm in turn being itselfa twin. On the right hand and upper side of the right hand arm the faces were taken as in normal position, those on the lower and left hand side being in twin position (”); on the upper left hand arm the faces are in twin position to (’) and are marked with a double prime (”), while on the lower side of this arm the position reverts to that of the faces on the lower side of the right hand arm (’). The erystals of this second type averaged “between three and six millimeters for their greatest dimension. A chemical analysis was made of the mineral, the results of which agree closely with the theoretical composition of steph- anite. Tests were made for other elements likely to be present but with only negative results. The method of analysis was simple: the finely powdered mineral was digested for some hours with aqua regia, the insoluble AgC] filtered off, dissolved in ammonium hydroxide and the undissolved mineral, of which there was always, at least, a small amount, collected on a weighed filter and its weight deducted from the amount taken. The silver was precipitated as AgCl by acidifying the ammoniacal solution with nitric acid. After the nitric acid in the original solution had been destroyed by repeated evaporation with hydrochloric acid, the antimony was precipitated by H,S, collected on a weighed filter tube, ignited in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide and w eighed as Sb 2, following the method described by Bradley.* The sulphur was deter mined both by fusion with sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate, and after treating the mineral with strong nitric acid. The results of the analysis are as follows: Theory for I, IM, Ay. dAgeS.SbeS3 Res Oise enh eens ad G24} 16°44 16°33 16°23 bse ae 15°48 15°18 15°30 15°25 DAO NESE Gh ait 68°29 68°42 68°36 68°47 99°99 100°:00 The Mineralogical Laboratory is indebted to Mr. Miller for his kindness in ‘sending these specimens to the School, and to Prof. Huntoon for placing them at its disposal. Mineralogical Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, New Haven, Conn., Feb. 1908. * This Journal, xxi, 453, 1906. Gooch and Beyer— Use of the Filtering Crucible. 249 Arr. XXIX.—The Use of the Filtering Crucible in Hlectro- lytic Analysis; by F. A. Goocu and F. B. Bryer. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—clxxi. | Tue rapidity with which a metal or oxide may be thrown upon the electrode and thereafter handled successfully in the ordinary processes of electr olytic analysis depends upon keep- ing to conditions under which deposits are compact and adher- ent. It is for the purpose of getting adherent deposits that in modern rapid processes use is made of rotating electrodes,* of apparatus so arranged that gases evolved or introduced shall stir the liquid,t and of the agitating action of a magnetic field. The use of these methods is, however, limited to those cases in which attainable conditions and the nature of the processes are such that the deposits may be handled and washed without loss of material from the electrode. Plainly, the range of conditions and processes may be very much extended if means can be found for handling easily and safely electrolytic deposits more or less loose. The chief purpose of the device to be described, in which the perforated ‘ filtering crucible, of platinum or of por- celain, is adapted to the use of an elec- D Fe trolytic cell, is to handle snch deposits. First Process. Figure 1 shows a convenient form of apparatus for use in electrolytic analysis. The crucible (A), fitted in the usual manner with an asbestos felt (a), serves as an electrode (e) the surface of which is very much increased by a layer of pieces of platinum foil (6) within the crucible and in contact with its walls. The joint between cap and crucible is made water-tight by a thin rubber band (Ff). The capacity of the cell is made conveniently ample by attaching to the crucible, by means of a close-fitting, thin rubber hand (EK), a glass chamber (C) easily made from a wide, short test-tube. The second electrode (7) is introduced from above through the glass *V. Klobukow, Jour. prakt. Chem. (N. F.), xxxili, 473. Gooch and Medway, this Journal, xv, 320. Exuer, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., xxv, 876 + Levoir, Zeitschr. Anal. Chem. xxviii, 63. Richards, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., xxvi, 530. iE eney Zeitschr. Elektrochum xiii, 308. Jour Amer. Chem. Soc., xxix, Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Series, Vout. XXV, No. 147.—Marcg, 1908. 250 Gooch and Beyer— Use of the Filtering Crucible. funnel (D), which serves to prevent spattering of the liquid during the electrolysis, and hangs within the glass chamber. The cell, held by a clamp, may be kept cool during action by immersing it in water contained in a cooler, as indicated in figure 2. Electrical connection is made witn the crucible by means of a platinum triangle (¢) bent as shown and held tightly against the outer wall of the crucible by a rubber band (d). Figure 2 shows, on the left, the apparatus adjusted for work. In using the apparatus, the crucible fitted with asbestos and 2 containing clippings of platinum foil, is capped, ignited and weighed. The glass chamber with the wide rubber band folded back against itself is set upon the crucible and the band is snapped into place. The other adjustments are made in the manner shown. The electrolyte is introduced and the current turned on. After the expiration of time enough to complete the electrolysis, the cooler is lowered and arrangements are made to draw off the liquid in the cell. If the process is such that no harm can follow the stopping of the current before removing the liquid, the upper electrode and funnel are washed and removed, the cap and band are slipped off, and the appar- atus is set in the holder of the filtering flask as for an ordinary Gooch and Beyer— Use of the Filtering Crucible. 251 filtration. The liquid is drawn through the felt to the flask, the chamber washed down, and removed from the crucible, and the deposit is well washed. The crucible and contents are dried and weighed, the increase over the original weight being, of course, the weight of the deposit. In Table I are given the details of experiments made to test this form and use of the apparatus. Copper sulphate strongly acidulated with sulphuric acid was the electrolyte. Deposition was completed in the times given and the ferrocyan- ide test applied to the whole filtrate showed the absence of copper in every case. The apparatus and deposit were washed first with water and finally with alcohol. It was noticed that though the filtrate contained no copper, the washings did sometimes contain a bare trace. When the filtrate was allowed to stand after treatment with potassium ferrocyanide it turned blue rapidly, and this action, which indicated prebably the presence of hydrogen dioxide or of persulphurie acid produced in the electroly sis of the sulphuric acid, is suggestive that the liquid should be drawn from the deposit as quickly as may be after the current is cut off. In experiments (1) and (2) no special care was taken in this respect, and in these experiments the results are a trifle higher than those of experiments (3) to (7), in which the manipulation was quickly made. TABLE I. First Process: Electrolysis with filtration after interruption of the current. Vol. Theory CuS0O;.5H,0 of H.SO, for Copper taken liquid (1:1) Current Time copper found Error grm. em®. cm*. amp. volt. min. grm. grm. erm. “a i Gi) OL0738 50a 85 1S 2 ve 071283 0°1290* +0-0007 (2) 00510 50 5 14 17 ree 01276 0-1282* +0:0006 9 e (3) 05009 50 5 7 iE ve 01276 0:1279* 40-0003 (4) 05005 50 5 Lu e } re 071275 0°1277* +0-0002 2 5 5 (5) 0°5047 50 5 y Ve ie 071285 071286* +0:0001 ae (6) 050389 50 5 1 ee r 071283 0:1285* +0-0002 i) 5) 5 (1) CBORD BO, > ts 4 : He 01281 0°1282+ +0:0001 + Trace of copper in washings. * No copper in filtrate or in washings. 252 Gooch and Beyer— Use of the Filtering Crucible. Obviously this process of electrolytic analysis is fairly rapid, easily executed, and accurate; but the desirability of quickly removing the ‘liquid from the deposit after stopping the current is evident. Second Process. In Table II are given results obtained as in the preceding process excepting the single point that the liquid was drawn off while the current was still running. In these experiments the filtration was effected by removing the cooler, taking off the cap and band from the crucible, and quickly swinging into place the filtration apparatus shown at the right in figure 2. The liquid was then drawn through the crucible and replaced by wash water until the current ceased to flow because there was no electrolyte to carry it. The apparatus was washed with water and finally with alcohol, and the crucible and con- tents were dried for periods of ten minutes at 100° 110°, to constant weight. TABLE IT. Second Process: Electrolysis and filtration without interruption of the current. Vol. Theory CuS0O,.5H20 of H.SO, for Copper taken liqnid (1:1) Current Time copper found Error grm. em*. cm’, amp. volt. min. grm. grm. grm. 3 (OP G5 a4 35 i (1) 0°5030 50 5) ] 4 V7 30) 071281 0:1278+ —0:0003 tp ae (Qe 5 2 5) . ) ) "1275 °127: . (2) 0°5008 50 5) )4 17 40 071275 0°1275f 0°0000 5) (3) 0°5024 50 by) o i a 071280 0°1277¢ —0-0003 ( 9 (4) 05014 50° 5 14 se 146 01277 0:1276* —0-0001 Caress, ao (2 (5 San ete rae (5) 05018 50 5 Nee 20 071278 0°1278 0°0000 * No copper in filtrate or in washings. + Trace of copper in filtrate. { Trace of copper in washings. These results are plainly excellent. Third Process. When a deposit is so loosely adherent as to be moved by the liquid it may be compacted upon the filtering felt by keep- ing the liquid in process of filtration and constant motion through the cell to the receiver. The adjustment of appara- tus for this purpose is shown in figure 8. Here the electro- lytic cell rests in the crucible holder fitted to a separating funnel used as a receiver and connected into the vacuum Gooch and Beyer— Use of the Filtering Crucible. 258 pump. Mz,,0,, 530° 565° Mn,O, —~> Mn,0 940° 1:090° Upon cooling Mn,O, in contact with oxygen, it is converted into Mn,0O,, but this change does not take place upon cooling in con- tact with atmospheric air. In the analytical determination of manganese as Mn,O, this state of oxidation can be attained with precision if the ignition is continued long enough above 940°, and if the product is cooled in the air.—Zeitschr. anorgan. Chem., lvil, 104. H. L. W. 5. White Phosphorus.—lt has been observed by LLEWELLYN that when yellow phosphorus is distilled in a current of ammonia gas a white form of phosphorus is obtained. Upon exposure to the air or warming with water it is gradually converted to the ordinary yellow modification. The auther considers this method more convenient than the method of distilling in purified hydro- gen which has been described by Remsen and Keiser.— Chem. News, xevi, 296. Hale We 49 258 Scientific Intelligence. 6. The Radiometer for Measurement of Low Pressures.—Prof. J. Dewar finds that this instrument is available for the measure- ment of extremely low pressures. It is well known that the McLeod gauge is not very reliable for measurements below one- thousandth of a millimeter. Professor Dewar, by the use of his well-known methods of the use of charcoal combined with liquid air, found that the radiometer indicated pressures as low as syavroov Of an atmosphere.—Proc. Roy. Soc. (A), xxix, pp. 529-532, 1907. ify ts 7. Existence of Positive Electrons in the Sodium Atom.— Prof. R. W. Woop finds two types of magnetic rotation in the channeled spectrum of sodium vapor, and believes that these two types indicate the presence of positive and negative electrons in the atom.— Phil. Mag., Feb., 1908, pp, 274-279. apne 8. Magnetic Effect of Cathode Rays.—It is well known that. a magnet easily deflects a stream of cathode rays. This effect is explained by the fact that the rapid movement of charged particles constitute an electric current. Eugen Ktoupatiy shows that the converse is true, that the stream of cathode rays can produce a magnetic effect.—Ann. der Physik, No. 1, 1908, pp. 31-47. J. T. 9. Practical Physics ; by W.S. Franxiin, C. M. CrawFrorp and Barry Macnurt. Vol. I. Precise Measurements. Measure- ments in Mechanics and Heat. Pp. vi+172. Vol. Il, Elemen- tary and Advanced Measurements in Electricity and Magnetism. Pp. vi+160. Vol. III. Photometry, Experiments in Light and Sound. Pp.vii+80. New York, 1908. (The Macmillan Co.)—This laboratory manual for students in colleges and technical schools contains a well-chosen list of instructive and interesting experi- ments; the descriptions of apparatus and the directions for carrying out the experiments are clear and practical. The sug- gestions as to the calculation and presentation of results and the estimation of errors are also to be commended. H. A. B. 10. Praktische Photometric; by Emit LriepenToar. 8vo, 445 pp., 201 figures. Braunschweig, 1907 (F. Vieweg u. Sohn).— This book owes its excellence to the fact that its writer has had many years experience in photometric investigations conducted in the laboratory of the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt at Charlottenburg. The author has treated all phases of the subject in great detail and has endeavored to express the ideas in language comprehensible to the non-scientific, practical reader and yet, at the same time, rigorous enough to satisfy the require- ments of the student of pure science. Numerical examples are given throughout to illustrate the use of the principles and for- mule previously discussed. The special subject of spectropho- tometry has only seventeen pages devoted to it because the author does not consider that it properly comes under the title of “Practical Photometry.” The wealth of late, accurate, numeri- cal data contained in the text and appended tables will undoubt- edly make the book very useful for reference. ee SE D- Geology and Mineralogy. 259 11. The Principles of Physics ; by ALFRED P. GAGE, revised by Artuur W. GoopspEED. Pp. 547. New York and Boston, 1907 (Ginn & Co.).—In the present publication the edition of 1895 has been brought down to date while it also presents sev- eral other points of advantage over the older text. For example, it contains eighty-seven pages less than its predecessor and “ this has been effected by omitting some sections which, in the expe- rience of the reviser as a teacher, have been found of little value to students of an elementary course.” The illustrations also are wisely made a less prominent part of the work. - H. S. W. 12. A Text-book in Physics for Secondary Schools; by Winiiam N. Mumprer. Pp. 411. New York, 1907. (American Book Co.)—The author has correctly characterized the volume in the following words: “This book has been prepared in the belief that there is a demand for a text-book ‘pure and simple’; a book that does not attempt to do the work of either the teacher or the laboratory, one which aims to present only those phases of the secondary school course in physics which the pupil should acquire from the study of a book.” The text seems to be very well balanced, and to be the product of the kind of pedagogic insight that can alone come from long experience in teaching. The illustrations constitute a distinctive and pleasing feature of the book. The subjects chosen for illus- tration, and the brief explanations directly associated with the figures, are also unusually apt. In short, a discussion of the facts which are graphically represented by the collection of illustra- tions, taken as a whole, would constitute an adequate and satis- factory course in secondary school physics. ‘The author has wisely preferred the use of waves and wave fronts to rays, in the sections on light. The book unquestionably merits the consid- eration of all progressive teachers of the elementary phase of physics. H. 8. U. 13. Laboratory Exercises in Elementary Physics; H. New- MAN. Book I. Measurement, Gravity, Mechanical Powers. Pp. 25. Boston, and New York, 1907. (Ginn & Company.)—This publication is simply a paper-covered note book designed for use in the laboratory. It gives a brief description of each of the twenty well-chosen exercises, illustrated by a good sketch of the associated apparatus; this is followed by a blank form in which are to be entered the experimental results of the student. H. 8. U. Il. Grontogy sand MIngeRALoey. 1. Karthquakes, An Introduction to Seismic Geology ; by Wiriram Herperr Hosss. 310 pp., 24 pls. and 112 illustra- tions. New York, 1907 (D. Appleton and Company).—The the- ory of earthquakes was rescued from myths by Robert Mallet in 1857, but the belief in explosions inside of a focal cavity was firmly fixed in his mind. In 1872 Professor Suess demonstrated 260 Scientific Intelligence. the fact that successive earthquakes occurred repeatedly along a line marking the position of a fault. The latest epoch in seis- mology was inaugurated in 1894, when the possibility of record- ing distant earthquakes was made known. Since that date the British Association and the Vienna Academy of Sciences, the Japanese Earthquake Investigation Committee, and, finally, the Committee on Seismology for the American Association, have taken up the work and have carried it so far as to show that the chief cause of earthquakes is faulting and that the ultimate cause is only approximately known. Statistical study has shown that earthquakes are distributed along Tertiary mountain sys- tems, in zones bordering the coasts, in regions of active vulcanism, and in the most mobile pertions of the earth’s crust. Professor Hobbs discusses the nature of earthquake fissures and earthquake shocks, and contributes important new material regarding the derangement of surface waters and ground waters, including the origin and behavior of certain cold and thermal springs and, in this same connection, discusses the origin of sand dikes and the peculiar sandstone “pipes” of Wales and other districts. Full descriptions are given of the following earthquakes: Lisbon, 1755, Calabria, 1783, the Mino-Owari, 1891, Iceland, 1896, Assam, 1897, Kingston, 1907. The chief earthquakes in the United States, namely, the New Madrid, 1811, Owens Valley, 1872, Charleston, 1886, Sonora, 1887, Yakutat Bay, 1899, San Francisco, 1906, are discussed somewhat fully. The particular contribution of Professor Hobbs to seismology is the location of earth “lineaments” by topographic methods and the connection of earthquakes with these supposed “ linea- ments.” The line of reasoning followed here departs widely from the safe ground of theory based on fact. In some cases fault lines appear to be located by Professor Hobbs not as the result of field evidence, but because earthquakes have occurred in certain localities, which places may be connected by straight lines. This leads to the assumption that faults exist and are responsible for the topography in regions where other explana- tions are as acceptable. For instance, Kast Haddam, Conn., is given first rank in seismicity for the entire eastern United States and is said to be ‘‘located” where the fall line intersects the gorge of the lower Connecticut, itself a strongly marked linea- ment.” ‘The objections to these statements are, first, that the fall line, as physiographers understand it, does not extend through East Haddam, and, secondly, there is no proof that the lower Connecticut follows a fall line. If the location of other earth “ lineaments” rest on no better geologic data than is shown by this instance, the conclusion of Professor Hobbs must be con- sidered speculative. Aside from its theoretical portions this book is a valuable gen- eral discussion of earthquakes, and students will be particularly thankful for the chapters discussing the methods of study of earthquakes in the field and the efficiency of different types of Geology and Mineralogy. 261 seismographs. The references to seismological literature will be found very helpful to those who wish to follow up the subject. H. E. G. 2. Glaciers of the Canadian Rockies and Selkirks; by Wiruiam Hirrertt ScHerzER, Ph.D. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, No. 1692, part of volume xxxiv. Pp. xli+135, pls. xlii. Washington, D. C., 1907.—As stated in the opening pages, Dr. Scherzer has brought together in the present memoir the results of an expedition undertaken, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, among the glaciers of the Canadian Rockies and Selkirks in 1904. The author’s observations began, however, in 1902, and continued each year until and including 1905. The general objects of the research were to render available a description of some of the most accessible glaciers upon the American continent, to investigate to what extent the known glacial features of other portions of the world are reproduced in these American representatives, and to ascertain what additional light a study of similar features here might shed upon glacier formation and upon some of the unsettled problems of Pleisto- cene geology. The five glaciers selected for study are representative ones, easy of access, among the many which exist in this region. These detailed quantitative investigations serve an immediately valuable purpose in promoting knowledge of this region of mag- nificent mountains and glaciers, but perhaps its greatest value will be as a standard of quantitative comparison for studying future changes in North American glaciation. The volume shows the results of thorough study and is finely and profusely illustrated. It is unfortunate, however, that in this, as in certain other Smithsonian reports, there is no general map of the region. This is to be regretted, since most readers who handle the volume will not have such a map at hand, and difficulty will be experienced in holding in mind the geographic relations of the various localities. J.B. 3. Traité de Geologie: 1. Les Phénoménes géologiques ; par Emite Have. Pp. 546, photographic pls. 71, figs. and maps 195. Paris 1907 (Librairie Armand Colin).—The aim of this volume is to meet the demand for a work on geology which shall be intermediate in character between the elementary manu- als and the works of reference written especially for professional geologists. The work will comprise two parts of equal impor- tance ; the first part, on geological phenomena, forms by itself a rounded treatise. The volume is well illustrated, largely from European localities, and contains at the end of each chapter a list of the more important works dealing with the subject. Such a volume should be of great value to all American geologists, since it gives in an attractive form illustrations of geologic significance from unfamiliar localities and presents prevailing French views of geologic problems. The discussions on continental fragmen- 262 Scientific Intelligence. tation and Ilaug’s views on the geosynclines and continental areas will be new to many. The succeeding portions of the work will be awaited with interest. J. B: 4. La Science Séismologique. Les Tremblements de Terre par le Comrr DE Monressus DE Battore, Directeur du Service séis- mologique de la République du Chili, avec une préface par M. Kd. Suess. Pp. vil + 579, maps and figs. 222. Paris 1907 (Librairie Armand Colin). “This is a work of still wider scope than the recent volume by the same author upon da Géographie séismologique. The introduction consists of two chapters. The first upon the present standing and tendencies of the science and its two divisions,—the study of the nature of earthquake wa ves, a.branch of physics; and the study of their causes and effects, a branch of observational geology. The second introductory chapter is on the history of seismology and indicates the extreme recency of the science as a subject of exact study and its present increasingly great importance. The body of the work is divided into three portions, the first being devoted to macroseisms, or perceptible earthquakes, the second to microseisms and to instrumental or theoretic seismol- ogy, the third to megaseisms, or destructive earthquakes, followed by a discussion of means designed to minimize the disastrous results. As is to be expected from this author, the work is one of great value and completeness and will not fail to interest all students of seismology. J. B. 5. The Lower Paleozoic Fossils of the Northern Shan States, Burma; by F. R. Cowrer Reep, Mem. Geol. Surv. India, Pal. Indica, New Series, ii, Mem. 3, 1906, pp. 154, pls. 8—As yet iittle is known of the older Paleozoic rocks of Asia, and it is therefore very gratifying to find so much that is new in a recent paper published by the Survey of India. Ordovician (Naungkangyi formation). From twenty localities 48 species have been obtained; of these, 28 are specifically named and 19 are restricted to Burma. The following are the more important forms from a stratigraphic standpoint. Of the Bohemian genus, Aristocystis, there is a new species ; of the widely distributed European Heliocrinus 3 (new), and of Echi- noencrinus 2 are compared with north European forms. The genus Caryocrinus is said to be present in 3 new species, but these seem to the reviewer to be nearer Hemicosmites in having but three pairs of closely set brachioles, while the Silurian genus has 13-14 in five widely separated bases. The Baltic Protocri- nus is represented by a new form and Cyclorinus by a form near C. spasski Kichwald. Of brachiopods, there are Rafinesquina imbrex Pander, R. subdeltoideu (a new form closely related to American Trenton R. deltoidea). Orthis subcrateroides (a new Rafinesquina near R. minnesotaensis but larger), Leptaena ledetensis (new, near L. charlottae W. & §., of the Black river), Plectambonites quinque- Geology and Mineralogy. 263 costata McOoy (near P. gibbosus W. & S., of the Trenton), Ovthis chaungzonensis O. and irravadica (both new Plectorthis related to 2. triplicatella), Clitambonites of the Baltic C. sqwamata group, Porambonites intercedens Pander (Baltic). Of trilobites the genera represented are Remopleurides, Kncrinurus, Calymene, and Amphion (=Pliomera). ‘These species are said to be from “one set of beds” which the author is not disposed to correlate definitely. To the reviewer, they seem to agree fairly well with the Baltic formations marked C by Schmidt (Echinosphaerit, Kuckurs and Itfer zones), and though less clearly, but still with considerable evidence, with the American interior Galena and Trenton formations. Recently Weller has added other Baltic types, as Hemipro- nites, Asaphus (5 species), and Megalaspis, collected by Willis and Blackwelder from the Kinsinling limestone, province Ssich’- uan, China. The age, he states, is “ approximately equivalent to the fauna of the Trenton limestone of North America.” In Shantung Ormoceras and Gonioceras occur according to Crick. This evidence points clearly to an intimate relationship between these Asiatic faunas and those of the Baltic region. On the other hand, it is also clear that the interior American Mohawkian faunas are of the Pacific realm, but with a development that readily separates them into a distinct province. In further sup- port of this view is the discovery by Ulrich and Bassler of Kchi- nosphaerites and Cyclocrinus in Virginia. Silurian (Namhsim sandstone),—The more characteristic of the 38 species described are Mimilus aunglokensis (new), Orthis rustica, Bilobites biloba (exceedingly common), Platystrophia biforata, Atrypareticularis, Spirifer sulcatus, Nucleospira pisum, Encrinurus konghsaensis (new, near £. punctatus), Calymene blumenbachi, and Dalmanites longicaudatus orientalis (new). This fauna is regarded ‘as homotaxially equivalent” with the Wenlock. ‘ Silurian (Nyaungbaw formation).—These beds yield frag- mentsof a Scyphyocrinus, Camarocrinus asiaticus (near C.ulrichi of Oklahoma), and a small Orthoceras. The crinoid material has the development of the Silurian etage E2 of Bohemia. la Touche “is inclined to put the Nyaungbaw beds at the top of the Ordovician,” but with this correlation the reviewer does not agree (he is aware that Fritsch has recently described Camarocrinus quartzitarum from the middle Ordovician of Bohemia). The paleontologic evidence clearly places this formation in close asso- ciation with the Zebingyi beds. Lower Devonian (Zebingyi formation).—Among the 23 species the more important are Monograptus dubius Suess, MW. ef. riccar- tonensis Lapworth, Atrypina sub-globularis (fig. 31 seemingly the young of Atrypa reticularis, 32, 33 represent a large Atry- pina, but the specific name is a misnomer, as no known species 1s globular or even biconvex), Zentaculites elegans (in Bohemia F1—H1=Lower Devonian), Styliolina cf. laevis, Dalmanites 264 Scientific Intelligence. swinhoei (new, this large species is said to be closely related to the Lower Devonian D. rugosus), Phacops shanensis (new, a large form). This formation les unconformably above the Ordovician Naungkangyi beds (the Namhsim sandstones are not present in the same area with the Zebingyi beds). Reed clearly recognizes the Hercynian aspect of the fauna, and the “lithological and stratigraphical type of development,” but is per plexed over the presence of Silurian graptolites, probably because they have been determined for him by a specialist, Miss Elles. The evi- dence of the other fossils, however, is so convincing that the Zebingyi formation must be referred to the Lower Devonian, and is directly comparable with the Bohemian black limestone fauna (1) of the Konieprussian. C.:S: 6. A Summary of the Geology of India; by Ernest W. VREDENBURG. 67 pp., Calcutta, 1907. (Printed by Thacker, Spink & Co.) This booklet gives a short but clear account of the main geological events throughout the Indian Empire. It should be in the hands of all teachers of general geology. It can be had of Geo. E. Stechert & Co., New York City, for eighty cents. CG. s 7. Die Fossilen Insecten ; von Anton Hanpitrscu.—The seventh and eighth Lieferungen of this monograph, published by W. Engelmann, Leipzig, have been received. The former has the remainder of the annotated catalogue, with bibliography of Tertiary insects, on pages 961-1092. The Quaternary insects are similarly treated, but only a portion appear in this part, on pages 1093-1120, the remainder embracing pages 1121-1140 of the eighth part. The latter part (pp. 1141-1280) also contains several important chapters of comprehensive and general char- acter. Another part will probably conclude this handbook. Chis: 8. Evolution of Mammalian Molar Teeth to and from the Tri- angular Type ; by HENRY FairFIELD Osporn, Se.D., LL.D., D.Se. Edited by W. K. ‘Grecory, M.A. Pp. vi, 250. New York, 1907 (The Macmillan Company). —This admirable volume consists of a series of reprints of the various articles which the author has writ- ten upon the mammalian molar teeth, together with new chapters on the ordinal types of molars, the evolution of the premolars, and a judicial discussion of the theories concerning the development of the molar teeth,—those of the author and of others who oppose his views. Aside from its main purpose, the book is of great value to the student as a text-book of mammalian odontology, being accurate in description and rich in illustrations. A very full bibliography completes the volume. Reisegle 9. Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1906. Pp. 1307. Washington, 1907. U.S. Geological Survey, GerEoRGE Otis SMITH, Director.—The annual volume on the min- eral production in the United States, announced in the last num- ber (p. 156), has now been distributed. This volume is the Geology and Mineralogy. 265 twenty-third report which has been issued by the Survey during the past twenty-seven years, and the entire series gives a most interesting and valuable presentation ef the development of our mineral wealth. It may not be generally appreciated that since 1880 the mineral output of the country has increased more than five times, the value rising from $365,000,000 to $1,900,000,000. The amount of labor which has fallen upon this division of the Survey in keeping up the records of this progress can easily be imagined. The division of Mining and Mineral Resources, which has been a definite part of the Survey for some years, has now been placed in charge of Mr. E. W. Parker; Dr. David T. Day, who has done such excellent work for it in the past, will devote himself to the reports on petroleum and natural gas. The sepa- rate chapters which make up this volume of 1300 pages have already been distributed to the public in advance of the appear- ance of the completed volume. 10. Handbuch der Mineralogie; von Dr. Cari HIntze. Erster Band; Elfte Lieferung. Pp. 1601-1760. Leipzig, 1907 (Verlag von Veit & Comp.).—This is the twenty-third part of Hintze’s Mineralogy, begun in 1889; it embraces the oxides from rutile to corundum. Mineralogists will congratulate them- selves and also the author that the progress of this monumental work, if not rapid, is still continued uninterruptedly, so that its completion may be looked for at no distant date. 11. The Meteor Crater of Canyon Diablo, Arizona ; its His- tory, Origin and associated Meteoric Irons; by Groree P. Merritt. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Quarterly Issue, vol. 1], pp. 461-498, plates lxi, Ixxv. Washington, Jan. 27, 1908.— The general interest in the remarkable crater-like depression near Canyon Diablo, in Coconino County, Arizona, which has been repeatedly described since it was first brought to notice by A. E. Foote in 1891,* will be much stimulated by the present thorough study of the subject by Dr. Merrill, the field investigations for which were conducted under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution. The present communication is admirably exhaustive in character, covering all the features of the crater within and without, giving the results of the borings carried on by Messrs. Barringer and Tilghman, and also an account of the iron and the peculiar iron shale and shale balls which accompany it. The last part, it may be added, forms the subject of an earlier article by Merrill and Tassin in vol. 1, part 2, pp. 203-215 of the same publication. The whole is fully illustrated, particularly by numerous excellent reproductions from photographs ; the con- tour map of the crater is of especial interest. The author weighs judicially the two theories which have been offered to explain the existence of the crater, and decides in favor of its meteoric origin.t The fact that the borings thus far made tend to show that no very large mass of iron lies buried in the crater * See this Journal (3), xlii, 413, 1891. + See also Fairchild, noticed in the February number, p. 156. Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtuH Sreries, Vou. XXV, No. 147.—Marca, 1908. 8 266 Scientific Intelligence. is not fatal to the theory, if it is true, as assumed probable, that the impact of the meteoric mass was followed by the volatiliza- tion of a large part of it with the outrush of a great volume of vapor. 12. The Foyer Collection of Meteorites.—A recent publication of the American Museum of Natural History (Guide Leaflet, No. 26) contains an interesting account by Dr. E. O. Hovey of the remarkable series of large meteorites on exhibition in the entrance hall of the Museum. This includes the Ahnighito meteorite brought by Captain Peary from Cape York, Greenland, weighing upwards of 36°5 tons, also the two other Peary irons known among the Eskimos as “the Woman” of 3 tons weight and “the Dog” (1100 lbs.). Another of the specimens is the unique Willamette iron, weighing 15°6 tons, with its extraordinary basin- like depressions produced by oxidation. The collection also includes a large example of the Canyon Diablo irons (1087 Ibs.), a composite specimen of the Brenham meteorite half siderite and half siderolite, and several large aérolites, that from Selma weighing 306 lbs. Ill. Miscerntanerovus Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. 1. Introduction to Higher Algebra; by Maximi BOocHER: prepared for publication with the cdoperation of E. P. R. Duvat. Pp. xi, 321. New York, 1907. (The Macmillan Company.)— There is no field of mathematics in which the need of a clear and thorough exposition has been more seriously felt than in the topics of Algebra that Professor Bécher has included in his book. There are already an abundance of excellent works in French, German and English, that treat in detail the classical theory of equations, invariants, finite groups, the theory of separation and approximation of the roots of algebraic equations, and Professor Boécher makes no attempt to add to the list. He has, in fact, very little to say on any of these subjects. His object is rather to give a thorough introduction to the theory of linear equations and quadratic forms with particular reference to the problem of reduction to normal form and classification. The book is of especial interest to students of analytical geometry who now have, for the first time, a convenient, clear and adequate treatise from which to derive the necessary alge- braic background for their more advanced work. After a short chapter on the fundamental properties of poly- nomials, the subjects of determinants and matrices are taken up, with their application to linear equations and transformations. The treatment of matrices shows the influence of Frobenius rather than that of Cayley, and is directed, as is the original work of Frobenius, toward the problem of reducing families of bilinear and quadratic forms toa normal form. ‘The subject of invariants is illuminated rather than exhausted, a brief chapter being devoted to the geometrical interpretation of the invariant and covariant properties of equations. No details are attempted ey at ; Miscellaneous Intelligence. 267 and the symbolic notation and Aronholdt’s operator are not even mentioned. A short chapter later in the book considers some of the simplest rational invariants. It is a pleasure to find Sylvester’s dialytic method of elimina- tion developed in a careful manner. There is no doubt that this is the simplest and the most effective method to determine the existence of common roots of equations, but apart from the treat- ment in Mansion’s Théorie des Déterminants, one does not find’ the method given the place in the treatises that it deserves. The most suggestive and important chapters of the book are the last three, in which the theory of elementary divisors is for the first time made completely accessible to students of geome- try. The fundamental memoirs of Weierstrass, Kronecker and Frobenius are not adapted for a rapid acquisition of the theory and the book of Muth on Elementarteiler can scarcely be called a successful exposition. The only other development of the sub- ject is found in a little tract of Bromwich which is hardly ade- quate algebraically. Professor Bécher’s treatment contains all the virtues that the other writers lack. His development follows that of Frobenius though his reduction of a matrix to a normal form in which the elementary divisors are displayed is that of Kronecker. Not enough special cases are included to obscure for a moment the aim of the discussion, which is appropriately closed by an actual enumeration of all classes of collineations and families of quadratic forms. An important feature of the book is the large number of exer- cises, the solution of which will ensure a thorough comprehension of the subject. The students of algebra and higher geometry are to be congratulated on the appearance of a work, that to such a marked degree clarifies and simplifies what has hitherto been one of the most difficult subjects in which to obtain a satisfactory perspective. H. E. HAWKES. 2. Observations simultanées de la Surface de Jupiter ; réunis par M. Jean Mascart. Pp. 70. Paris, Société Astronomique de France.— At the suggestion of M. Jean Mascart of the Paris Observatory, and with the sanction of Flammarion, thirty-six observers residing in Eastern Europe, England and Northern Africa undertook to make a telescopic study of the planet Jupiter during the month of January 1906, subject to certain rules of procedure drawn up by Mascart—those of prime importance being that the observations should be taken simul- taneously and that each observer should record his results as soon as possible and according to a prescribed form. The days were from Jan 2 to 20 and the time, 8 p.m. Paris. ' 172 observations were obtained, each accompanied by a draw- ing,—the least number on any night being 5, the greatest 17 and the average 9. The report forms a pamphlet of 70 pages with plates showing separately for each night all the drawings made on that night. The results are analyzed by Mascart for each night—separately, with a résumé of all the nights, which is the essentially valuable NG =P) [(o.6) Scientific Intelligence. part of the pamphlet. From it the reader may draw for him- self a safe conclusion as to how far in the long run observers of the same telescopic object may be expected to differ from each other. The question suggested to the mind of most readers will be, whether it would be possible to apply such a system to the study of Mars for the purpose of verifying the results claimed by Mr. Percival Lowell, and if it were possible whether it would be worth ne wave en SS W. B. 3.07 s the title of a pamphlet by JEAN Wiese Ae eee at the Observatory of Paris, published i in 1907 by Gauthiers- Villars, of the Bureau of Longitudes of the same observatory. It is a description of the system for distribution of accurate time from the above observa- tory to the clocks of Paris, preceded by a rather exhaustive his- torical sketch of the whole problem of the measurement of time. The principal facts in the development of the subject are intro- duced and described in chronological order,—the gnomon, transit instrument, astrolabe, quadrant and other astronomical instru- ments, the clepsydra, sundial, clocks, watches and chronometers, and the successive stages of improvements in each of these time- keepers, the different customs among nations as to when the day be- gins and how it was divided, the difficulties of keeping time by the real sun and the introduction of mean time in its place, and finally the adoption of the mean time of a nation’s capital for that of the entire country, which, except in France, has given way to the system of Standard Time. The author refrains from going into the reasons for France not complying with the general custom, but concludes his disqui- sition with an elaborate description of the equipment for deter- mining time at the Paris Observatory, giving particular attention to the delicate synchronizing apparatus attached to their clocks and the system of distributing time to the various clocks of the city by electricity. He recounts the many difficulties encoun- tered and finally makes an appeal for a reorganization of the system and extending it so as to cover not only Paris, but the whole of France. The author’s general discussion of the problem of time con- tains many interesting facts well brought together in their proper relation. rab 4. Globus-karte. Weltkarte in Teilkarten in einheitlichem Flachenmassstabe mit einer-statistischen Tabelle der selbstdndigen Staaten und der deutschen Kolonien; von F. Steman. Berlin, 1907 (Verlag von Dietrich Reimer).—This quarto pamphlet contains a chart of the world on a scale of 1200 miles to the inch, cut into six segments, each segment extending from the north to the south pole, and embracing sixty degrees of latitude. The segments are in contact at the equator, and all parallels of lati- tude and the central meridians of each segment form a true scale, differing in this respect from a Mercator’s projection. Statistical — tables of the various governments are included. J. B. Relicf Map of the United States We have just prepared a new relief map of the United States, 48 x 82 inches in size, made of a special composition which is hard and durable, and at the same time light. The map is described in detail in circular No. 77, which will be sent on request. Price, $16.00. WARD’S NATURAL SCIENCE ESTABLISHMENT, 76-104 College Ave., OC EEE SA Bik. IN Ne Warps Naturar Science EstaBuisHMent A Supply-House for Scientific Material. Founded 1862. Incorporated 1890, DEPARTMENTS: Geology, including Phenomenal and Physiographic. Mineralogy, including also Rocks, Meteorites, etc. Palaeontology. Archaeology and Hthnology. Invertebrates, including Biology, Conchology, ete. Zoology, including Osteology and Taxidermy. Human Anatomy, including Craniology, Odontology, etc. Models, Plaster Casts and Wall-Charts in all departments. Circulars in any department free on request; address Wards Natural Science Establishment, 76-104 College Ave., Rochester, New York, U.S. A. C. ON DEONGa Ss _ Art. XXI.—Evolution of the Elephant; by R. 8. Luu.--- 169 X XII.—Manganese Ore Deposits of Brazil ; by O. A. Dersy 213 XXIII.—Possible Overflow Channel of Ponded Waters Ante- dating the Recession of Wisconsin Ice; by F. Carney 217 XXIV.— Axial Colors of the Steam Jet and of C. as; by Cy BARBUS Clee he Bae Pea Sep oe eA 224 XXV.—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects, II ; ou D. A: CocKERELI: 2020 2\)z Se oe rrr XXVI.—Reduction of Vanadic Acid by Zine and Magne- sium; by EF. A: Gooce and G. HnGar.:22ss. eee 233 XXVITI.—Ancient Finger Lakes in Ohio; by G. D. Hu>sparp 239 XXVIIL.—Stephanite Crystals from Arizpe, Sonora, Mexico; by Weck. orp oi See en OE eee eo oa XXIX.—Use of the Filtering Crucible in Electrolytic Analy- sis; by EF. A. GoocH and: !) SB; BEyvER =) 42 oe ee eee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chenistry and Physics—Phosphorescent Elements, G. URsarin: Metallic Vacuum Vessels for Liquid Air, J. Dnwar: Manganese and the Periodic Law, Reywnops, 256.—Higher Oxides of Manganese, MmyEer and ROTGERS ; White Phosphorus, LLEWELLYN, 207.—Radiometer for Measurement of Low Pressures, J. Dewar: Existence of Positive Electrons in the Sodium Atom, R. W. Woop: Magnetic Effect of Cathode Rays, E. KLupatuy: Practical Physics, W. 8. FRawxgiin, C. M. Crawrorp and B. Macnurr: Praktische Photometrie, HE. LIEBENTHAL, 208. — Principles of Physics, A. P. Gace: Text-book in Physics for Secondary Schools, W.N. MumpEr: Laboratory Exercises in EKlementary Physics, H. Newman, 299. al Geology and De Voge an Introduction to Seismic Geology, W. H. Hops anadian Rockies and Selkirks, W. H. SCHERZER : Traité de Géologie, K. Have 261.—La Science Séismologique. Les Tremblements de Terre, M. de Bator: Lower Paleozoic Fossils of the Northern Shan States, Burma, F. R. CowPsr ReEp, 262.—Summary of the Geology of India, E. W. Vreprenspure: Die Fossilen Insecten, A. HawpurirscH: Evolution of Mammalian Molar Teeth to and from the Tri- angular Type, H. F. Osporn: Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1906, 264.—Handbuch der Mineralogie, C. Hintze: Meteor Crater of Canyon Diablo, Arizona, G. P. Merriuy, 265.—Foyer Collection of Meteorites, 266. > Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Introduction to Higher Algebra, M. BocuER, 266.—Observations simultanées de la Surface de Jupiter, 267. _— L’Heure 2 Paris, JEAN Mascart: Globus-karte, F. Srpman, 268, _Dr. Cyrus Adler, Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum. VOL XXY. APRIL, 1908. ~ Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF. SCIENCE, | a Epitrorn: EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS PROFESSORS GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, W. G. FARLOW ann WM. M. DAVIS, or Camprince, Proressors ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS, L. V. PIRSSON anp H. E. GREGORY, or New Haven, Proressorn GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA, Proressor HENRY S. WILLIAMS, or Iruaca, & Proressor JOSEPH 8S. AMES, or Bautrmore, Me. J. S. DILLER, oF Wasuinerton. FOURTH SERIES VOL. XXV—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXV.] No. 148—APRIL, 1908. NEW HAVEN, CONNEOTIOCUT. 1908 THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 123 TEMPLE STREET. Published monthly, Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the Postal Union ; $6.25 to Canada. Remittances should be made either by money orders, registered letters, or bank checks (preferably on New York banks) New Arrivals of Rare and Choice Minerals and a Few Remarkable Cut Cems. Gold, crystallized, three large beautiful gas in milky quartz, from Bonanza mine, Trinity Co., California ; weight 25 oz., 21 oz., and 1414 oz., 1250, $750, $500. Also smailer specimens from $5 to $15, from different F catitiee Kunzites, Pala, Cal., about 200 crystals good color, some are doubly terminated, prices ‘from Sl to $10. Tourmaline, fine lot from Mesa Grande, Cal., loose xls and matrix, different colors, from $2 to $150. One doubly terminated erystal 5 in. long, 1in. diam, of 4 different colors, pink, red, purple and green, a perfect gem, costs $275. Silver, beautifully x1d. from Batopilas, Mexico, $0 to $10, ‘also a number of nicely crystallized speci- mens from Houghton Co., Calumet, Mich., from $1 to $10. Herderites, fine lot from Auburn, Maine, loose xls and in the matrix, from 25c. to $20; a remarkable terminated crystal in the matrix, about 1 in. long, 3g in. diam. almost clear; matrix 234 x 11g inches, price $20. Apatites, deep lilac, Auburn, Maine, loose xls and in the matrix, from $1 to $20: Euclase crys- tals, Capio do lane, Brazil, prices $5, $45 and $55. Emeralds, in matrix, from Bogota and Ural Mts., from $5 to $385. Topaz crystals, Mino, Japan, 25c. to $5 each. Cassiterite crystals, a new find from Mino, Japan, 75c. to $2.50. Crocoite, with Vauquelinite, from Berjosow and Beresowsk, Ural, also Tas- mania, $5 to $10. Aquamarine, xls, Colo. and Siberia, 50c. to $25. Alex- andrite, matrix specimens from Ural, from $20 to $25, loose crystals from $3 to $5 each. Anatase, Binnenthal, fine xls in the matrix, attached to Hisen- rose, $8 to $10- Zeophyllite, Radzein, new mineral, from $1 to $38. Chryso- prase, Silesia, $2.50 to $4. Topaz, Schneckenstein, 25c. to $3. Quartz groups, Isere, France, $1.75 to $5.50. ENGLISH MINERALS. Chalcophyllite, Cornwall, $8 to $10; Torbernite, Cumberland, $5 to $10. Fluorites, Calcites, Barites, Specular-iron, Hausmanites, all from Cumber- land, varying in price from 50c. to $2. HUNGARIAN MINERALS. Barites, Calcites, Tetrahedrites, Fluorites, Amethysts, Plumosites, Pyrites, Sphalerites, Stibnite, Quartz, Cinnabar, Rhodochrosite, Realgar, Bournonite, Cerussite, Galenite, Marcasite, Galena, Chalcopyrite; we have these speci- mens from_50c. to $5 each; Semseyite on Galena, Felsébanya, Hungary, $2.50 to $5 CUT GEMS. Alexandrite, Russia, fine color, 1024, #5 k., price $100; Pink Beryl, Pala, Cal., 2114 k. of rich color, price $60 ; one at 21h, "k. , price $50 ; Tourmaline cats- -eye, Calif., 18 k., price $25; another one from Calif., 7 uy k., at $15; another from Brazil, WZ k., price $35; Pink Tourmaline, Cal., 1218 3 k., price $50; remarkably rich ee (2) Yellow Topaz, Brazil, 2714 k., price S15 each ; Siberian Amethyst, 41% k., price $25; another 19 ee price $15 ; another 12 k. , price $10; polished Thomsonites, from $3 to $5, each ; Chlorastolites, from $1 to $3. Also a full line of every known cut gem, "of course smaller. I have in stock a fine lot of reconstructed Rubies. Further particulars cheerfully furnished on application. A, H. PETEREIY, 81—83 Fulton Street, New York City. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES, ——__—_ $4) __— Arr. XXX.—On the Radio-activity of Uranium Minerals ; by Berrram Bb. Boxirwoop. [Contributions from the Sloane Physical Laboratory of Yale University. | A comparison of the radio-activity of uranium minerals with the radio-activity of freshly prepared uranium com- pounds and metallic uranium was first made by Madame Curie* and is of interest chiefly because it was one of the first steps which led to the discovery of polonium and radium. Further, and much more: elaborate, experiments of a similar character have been carried out by McCoy, who has published a number of important papers on the subject. In McCoy’s first papert it is stated that the uranium minerals (free from thorium) have an activity which is 5-7 times as great as that of the uranium which is contained in them. Ina sHuseuten: paper the value of the ratio was found to be 4:15,{ and in a recently published paper$ the value is given as 4 Ba. These differences in the value for the ratio are due to the introduc- tion of certain modifications in the methods of analysis, meas- urement and calculation which were employed. A knowledge of the exact value of this ratio is highly desir- able and its determination is by no means a simple matter. It is also equally important that we should know what part of the total activity of a uranium mineral is due to each of the separate radio-elements or products which are contained in it. It was particularly with a view to obtaining light on the latter question, namely, the relative proportion of the total activity of uranium minerals due to each separate active constituent, *S. Curie, C. R., exxvi, 1101, 1898. + Ber. d. chem. Ges., xxxvii, 2641, 1904. ¢ Phil. Mag., xi, 176, 1906. § McCoy and Ross, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., xxvii, 1698, 1907. Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Series, VoL. XXV, No. 148.—Aprir, 1908. 270 Boltwood—Radio-activity of Uranium Minerals. that the experiments to be described in this paper were under- taken. The problem was first brought to my attention in April, 1905, by Professor Rutherford, who suggested that an attempt be made to determine the relative activ ity due to actinium and its known products in a uranium mineral. At his sugges- tion certain experiments were undertaken with the object of meas uring the rise with the time in the activity of a uranium mineral from which the radium emanation and its immediate produets (radium A, radium Band radium C) had been completely removed, and also of determining the relative activities of the radium and actinium emanations which were evolved by a solution containing a known amount of a uranium mineral. In the former experiments a fraction of a gram of a pure uraninite was dissolved in dilute nitric acid and the solution was boiled to expel the radium emanation. The solution was heated for a further period of several hours, and was finally transferred to a shallow dish and evaporated to dryness. The radium emanation and the products of rapid change formed from it (RaA, RaB and RaC) having been completely removed in this manner, the dish with the residue was placed in an electroscope and the activity measured. The rise in the activity with the time due to the accumulation of fresh quan- tities of emanation and active products was then observed and the final maximum activity attained at the end of about thirty days was ultimately deter mined. Results were obtained which indicated that the activity of the residue free from radium emanation, radium A, B and C, was from 0°55 to 0°62 that of the residue when the maximum amounts of emanation and products were present. From these data and from other data on the relative activity of uranium minerals and the uranium contained in them, it was possible to calculate roughly the activity of the radium and known radium products as com- pared with the activity of the other active substances (includ- ing the actinium products) present in the mineral. The relative activity of the actinium products as calculated in this manner was found to be so low that it appeared highly improb- able that actinium was an intermediate product in the main line of descent in the uranium-radium disintegration series.* This matter had been discussed in some detail by Rutherford.t+ In the experiments in which it was attempted to measure the actinium emanation evolved by a solution of the mineral, it was found that the amount of the emanation given out by a * Rutherford and Boltwood, this Journal, xx, 56, 1905. + Radioactive Transformations, p. 177. Boltwood—Radio-activity of Uranium Minerals. 271 solution* containing as much as ten grams of a pure, soluble uraninite was too small to be measured or even to be detected with certainty. This result could be explained neither by the faet that the life of the actinium emanation was too short (3°9 seconds) nor on the assumption that the amount produced was too small, since certain dry preparations obtained from smaller quantities of the mineral and introduced in place of the solution gave out amounts of actinium emanatien which could be readily measured. It appeared to be due rather to a very marked retention of the emanation by the solution, the real cause of which has not yet been discovered. It was evident, however, that no reliable data as to the relative amounts of radium and actinium present could be obtained by this method. Considerable time was spent in testing the method depend- ing on the measurement of the rise of the activity of the residues obtained from the solutions of the mineral, and the conclusion was finally reached that this was capable at best of giving but very rough approximations for the values of the relative activities. Efforts were then made to devise experi- ments by which more direct and accurate values could be obtained. The important discovery by Bragg and Kleemant that radium and its immediate products (radium emanation, radium A and radium C) emitted a particles with different ranges and velocities, did not seem to justify the earlier assumption made by Rutherford that each change which gave rise to a rays supplied about an equal fraction of the total activity, aud made a further experimental investigation of this matter very desirable. This was undertaken and the results obtained have been already published.§ It was found that the relative activities of the different products were approximately propor- tional to the ranges of the a particles emitted by each product. It soon became apparent that the uranium minerals (namely, the primary uraninites) which were most suitable in all other respects to the purposes of the investigation, contained small proportions of thorium. The primary activity of thorium was still in question and the statements made by Hofmann, Zerban, Baskerville and others suggested that thorium might not be a radio-active element. It therefore became necessary to investigate this matter also before any definite conclusions could be drawn from the activities of the minerals. The care- ful examination of a considerable number of minerals contain- * A strong current of air was drawn through the solution into a small electroscope. + Phil. Mag., x, 318, 1905. ¢ Radio-activity, 1st edition, p. 308. $ Boltwood, this Journal, xxi, 409, 1906. 272 Boltwood—Radio-activity of Uranium Minerals. ing varying proportions of thorium and uranium demonstrated that the specific activity of the thorium and its products in a mineral is constant* and furnished reliable data by which the activity of a uranium mineral could be so corrected as to elimi- nate that fraction of the total activity which was due to the thorium contained in it. The conclusions with regard to thorium were independently confirmed by Dadourian,t by McCoy and Ross} and by Eve.§ The experiments described in this paper were begun over two and one half years ago and have been steadily continued throughout the intervening period. Various improvements and modifications have suggested themselves from time to time and much of the work has been frequently repeated in order to insure greater accuracy and reliability. The results are even now by no means so satisfactory as could be desired and the repetition of some of the work would undoubtedly lead to more trustworthy values. It is believed, however, that the values as found are sufficiently accurate to permit certain important deductions and conclusions to be drawn from them. It is of interest to note that the methods which were employed in several cases depended on the quantitative chem1- cal separation of a number of the radio-elements from the complex mixture of active substances present in the mineral. Information as to the exact chemical behavior of the radio- elements other than uranium and thorium which can be found in the literature is extremely meager and, as will be pointed out later, is frequently untrustworthy. It has therefore been necessary not only to work out the methods of separation which were used, but to demonstrate that the separations were more or less complete by confirmatory evidence of a purely physical character. The Radic-active Measurements. The measurements of the radio-activity of the different minerals and preparations were made in an electroscope, a plan of which in vertical cross-section is shown in fig. 1. The ionization chamber was 14 in height, 19™ in diameter at the middle and 15” in diameter at the top and bottom. It was made from two tin pans loosely fastened together by a single copper rivet which permitted the lower pan to be swung to one side for the introduction of the preparation to be measured. The preparations were placed on the bottom of the lower pan and the two sections of the ionization chamber were firmly * Boltwood, this Journal, xxi, 415, 1906. + This Journal, xxi, 427, 1906. { Ibid., xxi, 433, 1906. $ Ibid., xxii, 477, 1906. Boltwood—Radio-activity of Uranium Minerals. 278 held together by a spring clamp after the lower half had been swung back into position. The charged electrode was a circular aluminium plate 75°" in diameter and was 9°5°" from the bottom of the chamber. The vertical brass rod holding the electrode passed through a sealing-wax plug in the top otf the chamber and carried on its top a brass plate and gold-leaf five centimeters in length and eight millimeters in width. The insulating sealing-wax plug was surrounded by a brass guard-ring which was kept permanently attached to the charg- ing battery, consisting of 190 small storage cells. The gold- leaf was protected by a metal case with small mica-covered windows. ‘The insulated electrode could be charged at will by touching the back of the plate carrying the gold-leaf with a fine wire inserted through a short glass tube in the side of the metal case. The guard ring and charging wire were connected through a water resistance with the negative terminal of the charging battery. The positive pole of the battery and the case of the electroscope were connected to earth. The move- ment of the gold-leaf was observed through a microscope rigidly mounted in front of the electroscope. The type of microscope used has already been described* and the practice was always followed of noting the time required for the passage of the *This Journal, xviii, 99, 1904. 274 Boltwood—Radio-activity of Uranium Minerals. gold-leaf over a certain definite portion (8-0 divisions) of the scale in the eye-piece. The natural air-leak of the electr sta e was low and averaged about 0-04 division per minute. maximum and minimum noted in the course of over two cae were 0:058 and 0:029 div., respectively. The air-leak was always higher in winter, when the windows of the laboratory were closed, than in summer, when the windows were open. With proper precautions the natural leak could be kept con- stant within a few per cent for days at atime. In every series of measurements the sensitiveness of the electroscope was determined by measurements of the leak produced by a cer- tain standard film of uranium oxide. This film was attached to a plate of aluminium in a manner which will be described later. This standard film was carefully preserved during the entire course of the investigation. When the electroscope and reading microscope were undisturbed the sensitiveness of the electroscope remained quite constant for long periods, but during the time occupied by the experiments it was necessary on one occasion to completely dismount and re-assemble the entire apparatus. On several other occasions a slight readjust- ment of the microscope was made. These alterations produced slight changes in the constants of the instrument, which could be readily determined by the measurements of the standard film mentioned above. By means of these readings obtained with the standard film the different measurements can all be calculated in terms of a single standard. The results of earlier measurements as given in this paper have thus been reduced to the terms of the present sensitiveness of the instrument. Preparation of the Films.—The method followed in pre- paring the minerals and solid pr eparations for the radio- active measurements has been described in an earlier paper.* The material to be tested was ground to an impalpable onde in an agate mortar with freshly distilled chloroform. At the end of the grinding operation the mixture of solid and chloroform consisted of a thin paste. A small amount of this paste was removed on the point of asmall camel’s-hair brush, a little fresh chleroform was dropped on the brush, and the material was quickly and quite evenly spread over the surface of a sheet of aluminium 7:5 wide, 9™ long and 0-1™™ in thickness. The aluminium sheets weighed about 2 grams, and the weight of the film of solid remaining after the chloroform had evaporated could be determined with considerable accuracy. The mate- rial adhered quite firmly to the surface of the plate and showed *The Radio-activity of Thorium Minerals and Salts, this Journal, xxi, 418, 1906. + The brushes before use were carefully cleaned with chloroform in order to remove any soluble substances contained in them. Boltwood—Radio-activity of Uranium Minerals. 275 no tendency to fall off even when the plate was completely inverted. In measurements of a similar character to those here deseribed MceCoy* has used films of such appreciable thickness that a correction had to be made for the absorption of the radiations in the material itself. By using very thin films the absorption becomes inappreciable and the activity is directly proportional to the weight of the material present. This relation is indicated in the following table (Table I) giving the results of the measurements of a series of films prepared from an oxide of uranium containing 82°1 per cent of uranium: TABLE I. Weight of oxide __—- Activity : Divisions Activity Film No. grams per minute Weight 1 0°0324 3°16 98 2 0°0131 1°36 104 3 0:0087 0°885 102 4 0°0088 0°889 101 3) 0°00435 0°446 102 In the case of the uranium minerals the absorption with increasing thickness of the film is more apparent, as is in- dicated in the following table (Table II): TaBLe IT, : Activity : Divisions Activity Film No. Weight grams per minute Weight 1 0°0364 13°76 378 2 0:0250 9°56 382 3 0°0229 9°11 397 4 0°0049 2°07 492 The results given in Table If are shown graphically in fig. 2, in which the ordinates are proportional to the activity and the abscissee to the weights. The dotted straight line is drawn through the first point and the origin and indicates the locus of the points if no absorption took place. It is evident that for films weighing about 5 milligrams (and approximately 60° in area) the absorption of the radiations in the material of the film is very slight. The films of minerals used in these experiments weighed in no case more than 11 milligrams and no corrections were therefore made in the activities for any absorption of the radiations in the films themselves. Determination of the Uranium in the Minerals. An accurate determination of the proportion of uranium contained in the minerals was highly essential as it was desired to express the activity of all the other substances in terms of * Jour. Am. Chem. Soe., xxvii, 391, 1905. 276 =Boltwood—Radio-activity of Uraniwm Minerals. the activity of uranium taken as astandard. In my earlier work* J had found that very ators results could be obtained when the uranium was separated and weighed as the phosphate, but in the present instance it was “considered preferable to weigh the separated uranium in the form of uranoso-uranic oxide (U,O,) and to employ as a standard of radio-activity a specimen of the same oxide prepared in an identical manner from a very pure sample of uranium nitrate. The method used for separating the uranium from the min- erals was a slight modification of the method described by Div.hom, Hillebrand.+ One gram of the finely powdered mineral was decomposed with dilute nitric acid and the solution was evapo- rated to dryness. The residue was moistened with a little dilute nitric acid, digested with a few cubic centimeters of water and the resulting solution was filtered to remove insolu- ble matter. After further dilution the solution was treated with an excess of hydrogen sulphide and the precipitate of sulphides was filtered off.t The filtrate was then evaporated to dryness and the residue was heated for some time at 110° to insure complete drying. The dry residue was thoroughly extracted with pure, dry ether which removed nearly all of the uranium salt present. The material insoluble in ether was dis- solved in dilute nitric acid, and to this solution an excess of * Phil. Mag., ix, 603, 1905. + Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey, No. 78, p. 46, 1891. + It was found that when the precipitation was conducted in a very dilute nitric acid solution the precipitate could be filtered off and completely washed without the slightest difficulty. When a dilute hydrochloric acid solution was used the precipitated sulphides could not be satisfactorily removed as they ran through the finest filter paper with great readiness. ‘ Boltwood—Radio-activity of Craniwm Minerals. 277 oxalic acid was added and the mixture was allowed to stand for 24 hours. The rare earths present together with a little calcium were precipitated as oxalates. The filtrate from the oxalates was evaporated to dryness and cautiously heated to destroy the oxalic acid present. The residue remaining was dissolved in a small amount of dilute nitric acid and this solu- tion was poured into a cold solution of about 1 gram of ammo- nium carbonate in 20° of water. To this mixture a little hydrogen sulphide was added. It was then heated to boiling, allowed to cool and filtered. The filtrate was boiled to remove the ammonium carbonate present, made slightly acid with nitric acid, and added to the residue obtained “by the evapora- tion of the ether solution. The uranium solution was then transferred to a standard volumetric flask and diluted to exactly 100°. Separate portions of this solution 10° in volume were measured out with a standard pipette. The uranium was determined in these portions in the following manner :—The solution was diluted to about 50°, and 10° of a freshly prepared solution of pure yellow ammonium sulphide was added.* The mixture was heated nearly to boiling for an hour, and the separated uranous oxide was filtered off and washed with hot water. After drying, the filter paper and precipitate were ignited in a porcelain crucible, at first gently in the air and finally at the highest heat of the blast- lamp in an atmosphere of oxygen. After deter mining the weight of the uranoso-uranic oxide obtained in this manner it was in many cases converted into the uranous oxide by a similar, intense ignition in an atmosphere of hydrogen,+ and the weight of the uraninm when in the form of the lower oxide determined. Very good agreement was shown by the results obtained in this manner. Determination of the Thorium.—The determination of the thorium in the minerals was made by separating the thorium from the precipitate of rare earths thrown down by oxalic acid in the solution of the residue remaining after extracting the dry nitrates with ether. The oxalates were converted into oxides, the oxides dissolved by fusion with sodium bisulphate and subsequent treatment with water, and the thorium removed by making use of the solubility of thorium oxalate in an excess of ammonium oxalate.t In some cases the determi- nation of the thorium was also carried out by other standard * Remeleé, Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem., iv, 579, 1865. + In the various works on analytical chemistry which I have consulted sufficient emphasis is not placed on the importance of highly heating both the uranoso-uranic and the uranous oxide. A very high temperature is essential in order to insure the complete conversion of either form of the oxide into the other. t This Journal, xxi, 416, 1906. 278 Boltwood—Radio-activity of Uranium Minerals. methods, and the results of all determinations were in good agreement. Preparation of the Uranium Standard. The uranoso-uranic oxide used as a standard of the uranium activity was made from some very pure uranium nitrate which was a portion of that prepared some years ago for experiments on the growth of radium in uranium compounds. * A fraction of a gram of this nitrate was dissolved in 50° of water, an excess of a solution of pure, yellow ammonium sulphide was added, and the mixture was digested for an hour at the temperature of boiling water. The uranous oxide formed was filtered off and ignited over the blast-lamp in oxygen. After the weight of the uranoso-uranic oxide had been determined it was again ignited, this time in hydrogen, and converted into the uranous oxide. After weighing the uranous oxide this was again con- verted into uranoso-uranic oxide and again weighed. The weight of the U,O, in both cases was the same and was in per- fect agreement with the weight obtained for the uranous oxide. It was therefore assumed that the uranoso-uranic oxide finally obtained was pure and this material was used in preparing the standard. Two films of this material on alu- minium sheets were made. The following table (Table IID) gives the data obtained from their measurement. TABLE IIT. Weight Activity Activity Activity Film No. U;0Osg. div. permin. Weight per g. Uranium 50 0°0061 0-641 105 124 div. per min. 51 0°0063 0°663 105 124 0 In calculating the activity of one gram of uranium it was assumed that the oxide (U,O,) contained 84:8 8 per cent of uranium. At the beginning of the investigation some uranium oxide supposed at that time to be pure U,O, was pr epared by ignit- ing pure uranium oxalate first in air and then in oxygen at the highest temperature attainable with an ordinary Bunsen burner. This was the oxide used in the preparation of the films included in Table I. A duplicate sample of this oxide was preserved and when examined later it was found to con- tain only 82-1 per cent of uranium. Film No. 3 of this series was the film used throughout the investigation for determining the sensitiveness of the ‘electroscope. The Activity of the Minerals. In attempting to reach any definite conclusions from data derived from the measurement of the activity of a uranium * This Journal, xx, 239, 1905. Boltwood—Radio-activity of Uranium Minerals. 279° mineral one important point must be taken into consideration. This is the spontaneous loss of radium emanation from the powdered material, to which attention was first called by the writer.* It will be shown later that the activ ity due to the radium emanation and its immediate disintegration products is a considerable factor in the total activity of the mineral. In order to obtain a true measure of the activity of a mineral a determination must be made of the emanating power of the mineral in the form used in the film, and it the proportion of emanation lost is appreciable a correction must be made in the activity as measured.+ The proportion of the total emanation lost by the powdered minerals was determined in the manner previously described,t and the material used was the finely, powdered mineral left after the evaporation of the chloroform with which it had been mixed in the operation of grinding. The necessity of any very appreciable correction ‘for the emanation lost’ was avoided in at least one instance, by the use of a specimen of a very dense and pure uraninite (the Branchville material), in which the emanation lost by the powder was only 1°4 per cent of the total amount present. The data from which the correction for the emanation lost was calculated will be given later (p. 283). The correction to be applied for the thorium contained in the mineral was determined in the following manner. A film was prepared from a specimen of thorite containing 52:0 per cent of thorium oxide and 0°37 per cent of uranium. The weight of mineral in the film was 0:00955 gram and its activity v was 0-704 divisions per minute. This was equivalent to 73°7 div. per min. per gram of mineral. The activity due to the uranium would be equal to 2-2 div. per gram of mineral (576 x 0037). One gram of mineral contained 0°520 gram of thorium oxide, and the activity per gram of thorium oxide was therefore 71:5 ~ 0-52 = 187 divisions per minute in the electroscope.§ The following minerals were used in the experiments :— No. 1. Uraninite from Branchville, Conn. This specimen was a portion of some very fine mater ial which was most kindly presented to me by the late Professor S. L. Penfield, Curator of the Brush collection. It consisted of small, imperfect crystals * Phil. Mag., ix, 603, 1905. + This point was neglected by McCoy in his earlier experiments, but the metbod of determining and applying the correction was called to his atten- tion by the writer. The correction has been applied in the paper which he recently published (Jour. Am, Chem. Soc., December, 1907). t Phil. Mag., ix, 603, 1905. $ This is equivalent to 156 div. per min. per gram of thorium. The activity of one gram of uranium was 124 div. per min. The ratio of these numbers is 1°26; viz., the specific activity of thorium containing equilibrium amounts of products is 1°26 times that of uranium. The value found by McCoy and Ross for this ratio is 1°27 (Jour. Am. Chem, Soe., xxix, 1709, 1907). 280 Boltwood—Radio-activity of Uranium Minerals. in a feldspar matrix from which they could be readily separated. The large specimen was crushed and about three grams of the pure uraninite was picked out. This was div ided into two portions consisting of larger and smaller fragments respectively. Examined with a lens, ‘the portion consisting of smaller frag- ments appeared to carry a shght admixture of the matrix. The appearance of all of the material indicated the complete absence of secondary alteration. The smaller fragments were taken for the preparation of this sample, which was found to contain 0°50 per cent of silica and matter insoluble in dilute nitric acid. No. 2. This was prepared from the larger fragments men- tioned above. It was found to contain 0-34 per cent of silica and matter insoluble in dilute nitric acid. No.3. Uraninite from Spruce Pine, N.C. This was a por- tion of alot of about 50 grams of very pure material obtained from the centers of a number of good-sized lumps which had been externally altered into gummite and uranophane. The material selected showed only the slightest traces of secondary alteration and was found to contain only 0 ‘03 per cent of mate- rial other than silica which was insoluble in dilute nitric acid. The ice present was equal to 0°14 per cent. No. 4. Material similar to No. 3, but containing a slightly ee propor tion of secondary alteration products. It con- tained 0°37 per cent of silica and 0-04 per cent of insoluble matter other than silica. No. 5. Uraninite from Joachimsthal. Carefully selected material of fair purity, but containing small amounts of sul- phides. No. 6. Uraninite from Saxony. An inferior variety con- taining various impurities. No. 7. Uraninite from Colorado. This material was very kindly on to me by Professor McCoy, who stated that it was similar to the No. 1 Pitchblende from Colorado described in his paper in the Philosophical Magazine for January, 1906. No. 8. Carnotite from Colorado. This was also obtained from Professor McCoy and was a sample of the No. 5 Carno- tite mentioned in his paper. Both this specimen and No. 7 above were tested in the powdered form in which they were received. No. 9. Carnotite from Colorado. Obtained through the kindness of Mr. William Zowe of Uranium, Colorado. It gave a residue insoluble in nitric acid amounting to 16-7 per cent of the total. No. 10. Thorianite, Sabaragamuwa Province, Ceylon. A portion of some very fine material kindly supplied by Mr. H. S. Miner of the Welsbach Company. The result of the measurements made with these minerals are given in Table IV. 281 nerals. 7) ty of Uranium MT. COG . Boltwood— Radio-act ay} OF poJINSuN 910Jo.LoY} Sl IT a[qvouttad Ajatletjxe uv Ul ‘leAOaTOUT ‘s.1m990 4] pue snotod Ajetle14xX9 ST [BABUIUE SLI, GLP OG. Ff C&P 09-f T9-P 89-F G17 19% 89-F O1-F ulnpuein [Bou O1Vel powoadtog 60-0 GG-0 OL-0 86-0 90-0 €1-0 66-0 66-0 G0-0 60-0 480 0-1 0-61 9.66 6-61 6-9 0-FL L-F1 2.7 DFT [VOUT UOlBUBUID podlepMod Loy UOTy -DO1LOD Aq SO] TOLVURUL 18704 Jo uolyodoag ‘MOLVULULLoyep ayvainooe we Fo sesodand "S19JVM VOVTINS Sutyepooted Fo worjoe oyy 07 yoolqns st pu ‘STOIZRAVOXO MOT[VYS WO1Z pouly}qo st ‘auoyspuvs ‘TOTVURMMS UMIpedl sqrt Jo woytodoad s[qvaapisuod B seso[ 90ye3S (patopModun) [ernzeU $71 UL ‘ule{dxa 0} J[MOUFIp jou ore suouttoeds 9z13OUIvO 94} JO SOLJLALIOV OY} LOF pouleyqo Son[RA MOT 9TJ, ‘suoutioeds pozA[VUR oY} ULOAF PUY ESET} WOLF UOLVUBUO TINIpRL JO sJUNOMIL AATZVIOL YY WOAZ pazelno -[R) SRA Jnq ‘STSATVUR JOeITp Aq PEULULIEJOp JOU SRM STRAOUTUL OY} UL peuLyzuod wintUVIn jo UOTZAOdord ayy G puR g ‘y ‘Q ‘SON SuoTITDedS UT y 601 » [900- 884 Gol G6-F L6G L6G O L6G O¢-1 » 9900. 0.0 -6F 69-6 OFT 066 0) OGG 16-1 » S900- 0-0 0-6F 6&-F 96¢ GOS 0 GOS 66:1 9 OFOO- 0.0 6-9G So.P 89¢G 196 0) 1936 6F- 1 » L¢00- 0-0 0.9F GG. PIE 9LE 0 9L§ 92-1 » 4700. 0-0 1-99 ire US B12 Ce CG HOG 5 OT Os 6 = enc SEF EPG IGP & 66P 1¥-G » 9S00- 6-1 G84 89-7 LG OPP 8 Ver 60.¢ » LITO. 1-9 LeLd L9-7 649 LP S Gcy Sh-65 70.0900: 0.9. 6-14 Mensa wnUBIn wunjuRM FOUL [edeurur “ul dod ULL quod log 9uod log Jo"90¥8 07 Wests dod 07 snp oJ} onp weisdaod "AId jo aplxXo WNIUBI) winjuBin =AITAIOW AUAOYW AYATOY AIAMOY UWLYy Jo QUESTO AA WOOL wes tod AQIAYOW AYTATIOR JO OFVVY “AL WIV L, wo[Aadg So UVLLOY J, a ee = 0/06) 4 OUNE GO) <6 ““"" "OOD 4,“oITJouIVD °8 OpRIOfOD ,oJLULUVI) *L aber Sec AUOXRE ,fOJTUTUBIY) *9 "77" TRISWUTYOVO PF fopTULARIL, ‘ON Sourg oonadg Soqturuvsg ‘ON Sourg oonidg ‘ozrutuery *¢ ‘quod SoTfLAyourag ‘oyrurusyy *% ‘UUoL So][LAqouRIg Sojtutuety ‘T [RALOULTT 282 Boltwood—Radio-activity of Uranium Minerals. The average value of the ratios obtained from the first four specimens is wf 69, a number differing by less than 4 per cent from the value of the same ratio as determined by McCoy and Ross. The results may be taken as indicating that the activity of a uranium mineral containing its equilibrium amount of emanation is about 4°7 times the activity of the uranium which is present in the mineral.* Relative Activity of Radium and Uranium in Minerals. A solution was prepared by dissolving a few milligrams of recrystallized radium-barium chloride in 250° of distilled water containing a little free hydrochloric acid.+ The emanation produced by a portion of this solution was compared with the emanation produced by a standard solution of radium bromide.t The amount of the radium in one cubic centimeter of the chloride solution was thus found to be 8°5 x 10-" gram. By a comparison of the emanation formed in 10° of this solution with the emanation BE oduced in known amounts of the analyzed uraninites (Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, Table IV) it was determined that the radium in 10° of the chloride solution was equal in amount to that associated with 0°0250 gram of uranium in the minerals. Portions of this solution 10° in volume were evaporated to dryness in shallow glass dishes under conditions which insured the complete removal of radium emanation and its immediate active products. The activity of the residue remaining in the form of a very thin film was then determined in the electro-. scope. The following values were obtained for the activities : 1396, 1°373, 1-437, 1°341; average 1°386 div. per min. The activity of 00250 &. of pure uranium was equal to 124 x 0°25 = 3°10 div. per min. 1°386 3°10. namely, the activity of the radium itself in the minerals was 0-447 that of the uranium present. Because of the variation shown in the separate results above given, and particularly because of a slight uncertainty as to the effect of the sides§ and non- conducting material of the glass *In a communication published in Nature for January 3, 1907, the value 53 was given for this ratio. This high and incorrect value was obtained under the erroneous assumption that the substance obtained by moderately heating the oxide of uranium in oxygen was pure U3Oz. + For further details concerning the preparation of this solution see this Journal, xxi, 410, 1906. t Ruther ford and Boltwood, this Journal, xxii, 2, 1906. $9™™ in height. Boltwood— Radio-activity of Uranium Minerals. 283 dishes, a further experiment was made in which 10° of the radium solution were evaporated to dryness in a shallow platinum tray 5°™ square with edges having a height of only 17™. The activity of the film obtained (the film extended to, but did not touch the edges) was 1-401 div. per min. This gave the value of the ratio as 0°451. It has been shown* that for the electroscope used in these experiments, the activity of radium containing equilibrium amounts of the emanation and the products radium A, radium _B and radium CO, is about 5°64 times the activity of the radium itself. Taking the activity of the radium in the minerals as 0°45 of that of the uranium present, the activity of the radium and its immediate products is found to be 5°64 0°45 = 2°54 times the activity of the uranium present. The activity of the equilibrium amounts of the products radium emanation, radium 100 mesh: Knopf and Schaller—Two New Boron Minerals. 32% Analyses of Hulsite. 1 2 3 Average. Bye Oe peek tna 332917 apis ea peed 33°27 MOMs PERU MO 10°17 Lage 10°17 LS O)e te Sa es ol 0 aE ey ae 17°83 Total iron as Fe,O 54°40 54°20 bats Tee (©) Sitea iy Sab hee FR ede te 1°24 1.81 (calc.) BOG Nr oi sane aie thea: 27°42 (calc.) LBS) eee Re yee is 10-00 wel 10-00 100°00 Ratio Av. Anal MeO eae tae oe VAG? fh MoO sia 0, 254 pe v Re Ons ae S108 in) SeO5 1 LON ea aeas ea ‘101 “98 1 B,O "392 3°83 4 2 ee 8 baba ia aia ho aa cae cy thar 9 The formula for hulsite then becomes 7(Fe,Mg)O.Fe,O,.H,O. 4B,O,, The values given for B,O, and water are calculated from the figures obtained from the magnetite-hulsite mixture as given beyond. The direct water determination, 1:24 per cent, is of no exact value on account of the small quantity of water weighed, being in this case only 2°3™£, so that more reliance is placed on the figures obtained from the hulsite-magnetite mixture, from which the value 1°81 per cent is calculated. As above stated, the determinations on this sample were made on powder of <60> 100 mesh. Considerably more material of the magnetite-hulsite mixture was available for chemical analysis and the following results were obtained, about 1/4 gram substance being used for a determination: Analyses of Magnetite-Hulsite. 1 2 3 4 do Average. He Oe oer ei ney ACA er Si Spier Wane tit VeeMOAMAUMe Rio Ren sielInie ss 4nd 4) MgO Ree error eee 8°60 8°83 8°36 8°12 as ana 8°48 Oe eave Tere UPON Eee een SUA Total iron as Fe,O, 66° o4 OW 08) |: Gon O Ga 4. 2A Oona? EROS terse ee IG Swhe ILE SiMe Nan ann RE Hae hie IGBG SSO) See ea ee 7 aa Bree ehitleSiNh al HEy ag B Wa AED of Insol. ieee Sa ae A Sy 1:97 2: DANI OCA 8 sit the las 9-94 99°73 The total iron determinations given were all made volu- metrically, as the gravimetric determinations gave very varied 328 Knopf and Schaller—Two New Boron Minerals. results, due to the retention of boric acid. It seems as if the presence of so much iron had a very great tendency to retain some of the boric acid, for the lowest gravimetric determina- tions of iron were several per cent higher than the volumetric ones, even though the solutions of iron chloride were repeat- edly evaporated with methyl alcohol. The ferrous iron was determined by a modification of Pratt’s method, which has been shown (Hillebrand) to give reliable values.* The water was determined by heating the mineral (size <20> 60 mesh) in a glass tube and weighing the water directly in a portion of that tube (Pentield’s “method). The boric acid was deter- mined by fusing the mineral with sodium carbonate, leaching with water, refusing the residue, acidifying the solution with nitric acid, ‘distilling with methy| alcohol, collecting i in ammo- nia, and finally W eighing boric acid as calcium borate. The ratios obtained from the average analysis are shown below, the proportion of magnetite present being obtained as presently to be described. *Bull. 305, U. S. Geol. Survey. p. 158. Both of the two new borates here described dissolve readily in hydrofluoric acid, so that no difficulty was had in rapidly making the ferrous iron determinations. The powder was always coarser than 100 mesh and for the paigeite coarser than 60 mesh, so that very little, if any, oxidation of the ferrous iron resulted from the grinding. That such oxidation occurs, sometimes to a large extent, has recently been shown by Mauzelius (Sveriges Geol. Undersékning, Yearbook I, 1907, No. 3. See Chem. Abstracts, 7907, 2861, for an abstract of the article). For the paigeite samples the oxidation caused by grinding is con- siderable, the value for ferrous iron falling from 44'48 per cent (on<20> 60 mesh) to 39 per cent on the finely ground material. The direct determina- tion of total water was similarly made on coarse material, so that the amount of hydroscopic water in the sample was a minimum. What increase in the water (given off at 110°) is caused by grinding these borates is not known, but the following results made on ludwigite “from Hungary (a mineral of analogous composition) show that a very “considerable amount of water is taken on by the mineral during grinding. Direct duplicate determinations of water at 110° on powder of <10> 20 mesh gave (1) 0-09 per cent. (2) "0-12 per cent. On same powder finely ground : (1) 0-50 per cent. (2) 0°52 per cent. Therefore a total water determination on a mineral such as these borates must, to be of any value, be made on coarse material such as was used for hulsite and paigeite. It is therefore believed that the water content given for these minerals is an essential part of their composition and is not to be taken as hydroscopic or accessory water. However, the question is still an undecided one as to just what role the water plays and it may be that future work will show that the water content of these two minerals is extraneous and does not actually belong to the minerals themselves. See a paper soon to be published by Dr. Hillebrand for a discussion of the effect of grinding ou the water content, as well as on the oxidation of ferrous iron. To Dr. Hillebrand the writer is under obligation for calling his attention to these points, which served to explain the very varying results first obtained on paigeite for ferrous iron. Data showing the oxidation of ferrous iron for these borates as well as for other minerals will be given in a later paper. Two New Boron Minerals. 329 Knopf and Schaller Ratios Hulsite Magnetite —-_Hulsite Magnetite He @s 22 4 479") 392 87) £56 gg | Lol MeO) LISS B19) | 212 ! 246 (ie = HELO a Peay te 8G). Shee 1-00 + 1:01 EO) Rey ie 092 | 92 1:07 BLOM se ree 361 | 361 J 4-19 The proportion of magnetite present is calculated as follows: The analysis of the magnetite-free hulsite shows that the ratio of Fe,O,: RO is 1:7. Therefore from the ratios of Fe,O, and RO in the average analysis of the magnetite-hulsite mixture there must be deducted such an amount (a) of both Fe,O, and RO (in the proportion 1:1 to form magnetite ) that the result- Fe,O, 1738 ing ratio shall be 1:7. —2—* = in the mixture of mag- = RO 691 8 : : 173—@ 1 : a netite and hulsite. Then~ oy = ; solving, ¢=87. De- Ke ducting 87 from both 173 Fe,O, and 691 RO, the resulting ratio becomes 86:604 or 1:7. This mixture of minerals then becomes one part of hulsite (7RO.Fe,O,.H,0.4B,0,) with one of magnetite (FeO.Fe,O,). That all the magnesia belongs to the hulsite is shown by the analysis of the magnetite-free mineral, which gives as the ratio of FeO: MgO = 453: 249, while that in the above analysis is 453: 244, or practically the same. The composition of the sample analyzed is then found by calculation to be as follows, the formula for hulsite being taken as 9FeO.5Me¢0.2Fe,O,.2H,O.8B,0,. (Insoluble) Vesuvianite 2°24 Hulsite 77°40 Magnetite 20°36 100:00 The density of this mixture is 4438. Taking the density of vesuvianite as 3-40 and that of magnetite as 5°17, the dens- ity of hulsite is found by caleulation to be 4:28. The ferrous iron and magnesia are doubtless not present in any definite ratio, but vary reciprocally, so that hulsite may be considered as a mixture of a ferrous with a magnesian borate. The ratio of 9FeO:5MgO just given is therefore only an approximate one. ferrous iron and magnesia are doubtless isomorphous in hulsite as well as in paigeite, and similarly in the related borate ludwigite.* Any discussion as to the structural formula of hulsite would be very premature, as our knowledge of such minerals is very scanty. The formula * An analysis of ludwigite from Montana shows this particularly well, this mineral containing very little ferrous iron while that from Hungary contains about 15 per cent. 330 Knopf and Schaller—Two New Boron Minerals. 7TRO.Fe,O,.H,0.4B,0, does not lead to any simple eonstitu- tional formula. Paigeite. The specimens of paigeite from Brooks Mt. show a coal- black lustrous mineral of a laminated appearance. No distinct erystals were seen, but the entire mass has a crystalline appear- ance and in thin sections is seen to be composed of innumer- able hair-like needles, often forming radiating groups. The characteristic appearance of paigeite is shown in the photomicro- graph (fig. 2). The mineral apparently possesses an imperfeet Fig. 2. Paigeite fibers embedded in tourmaline. Colorless mineral is fluor- ite. Magnified 60 diameters. cleavage, is soft, hardness about 38, with a density of 4°71. The color is coal-black, streak the same, and the luster very shining. It is readily soluble in HCl and HF and in its pyro- gnostic properties resembles hulsite. Analyses of paigeite from Brooks Mt. gave the following results: Analyses of Paigeite. 1 2 3 4 Avy. Anal, He ON teen Meacr han 43°91 44°30 45°82 43°87 44°48 MoOvs er eaiwa 1-70 Tey) es) 1:44 He Oi neie rie AD aaiays 16°72 Total iron as Fe,O, 66°26 Oya) (HWM se FORO Gee as D208 ie fijee 28 ian te eat 2:03 BOs fe) 0 oo 7300 st alataaee en e 20°89 Tnisolignhasscm Serie 14°25 ASA GA 3 eae 14°35 99:91 Knopf and Schaller—Two New Boron Minerals. 331 Ratios Bie Ope eo. as iy "618 | Me Ole 2 rng Gig SON e es a ens 97 BLO) ua gaa 113 1:04 1B Opa Cee eee 298 2°74 These ratios lead to the formula 6(Fe, Mg)O. Fe,O,.H,O.3B,0,,. The methods of procedure were similar to those described for hulsite. The reason for the single high value for ferrous iron (45°82 per cent) is not known, but as the other three values agree well, the average of all four is taken rather than to give preference to the single higher value, which may be due to error in the manipulation. (See footnote on page 328 for reference to the ferrous iron and water determinations. ) The value here given for FeO includes that of the vesuvianite present, but it is probably so small that it may be neglected. While this mineral has not yet been analyzed, the ferrous iron in the 14 per cent vesuvianite present is doubtless less than .3 per cent. The effect of the arsenopyrite was probably nd, as the mineral particles were so large that the arsenopyrite remained undissolved in the hydrofluoric acid solution. Of the insoluble material about 1:20 per cent was arsenopyrite, the remainder being vesuvianite. The boric acid determina- tion is probably too low. The density of the sample analyzed was deus mined as 4°544. By calculation the density of pure paigeite is found to be 4:71, the sample analyzed consisting of the minerals in the pro- portion shown below: Vesuvianite, density SAO == S275 Arsenopyrite s GLO = ty G20 Paigeite ee Ailes 8d.05 100°00 While these two minerals are very similar in composition, there is sufficient difference between them to preclude their being referred to the same species. The mode of occurrence, the hulsite in stout crystals, the paigeite in long hair-like needles, and the general appearance of these two minerals vender it very easy to distinguish them on sight. The only borates known of analogous composition to these new minerals are ludwigite, pinakiolite and warwickite, of which only the first is similar in composition, this being 4(Fe, Mg)O.Fe,O,.B,O,. 332 G. Edgar— Vanadic and Molybdic Acids. Arr. XX XVII.—The Determination of Vanadic and Molyb- dic Acids in the Presence of One Another ; by GRrawAM EpG ar. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—clxxii. | A meruop has been recently proposed by Glasmann* for the estimation of vanadie and molybdie acids in the presence of one another, based on the different reducing action of zine and magnesium upon the hydrochloric acid solution of these acids. In a previous paper from this laboratoryt it has been shown that the action of magnesium is irregular and not adapted to an accurate quantitative method. Vanadic acid, however, is reduced to the state of dioxide by a column of ‘amalgamated zine and may be estimated by titration with potassium perman- ganate, if the receiver be charged with a solution of ferric alum to anticipate the oxidizing action of the air.f That molybdic acid is under the same conditions reduced to the state of Mo,O, has been shown by Dudley§ and, independently by Randall. l The ease with which Dandie acid is reduced to the state of tetroxide by sulphur dioxide and the difficulty, as has been found, with which this reagent attacks molybdic acid under proper ¢ conditions of acidity ‘and concentration, suggest its use in one of two processes of differential action for “the determination of these acids. To determine the conditions under which inolybdic acid is unaffected by sulphur dioxide, a series of experiments was made in which solutions of moly bdic acid of varying concentrations, acidified with varying amounts of sulphuric acid, were heated to boiling and treated with a current of sulphur dioxide for varying leneths of time. The excess of sulphur dioxide was then removed by boiling the solution, a current of carbon dioxide being meanwhile passed into it, and the degree of reduction was determined by titration with nearly } N/10 potassium Ree eG The solution of mo- lybdic acid was standardized by the method of Randall4 and by evaporating a portion to dryness and igniting at ine red heat. The results of the experiments are given in Table I. The results show that if the concentration be not greater than 0-2 grm. of MoO, in 50™* of solution, and the acidity not less than 1° of sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1°84) in the same volume, the molybdie acid is not reduced, and that if the acidity be increased to 5°"* of sulphuric acid, reduction does not occur at even a concentration of 0-4 grm. in 25°, * Ber. Dtsch. chem. Gesellsch., xxxviii, 600. + Gooch and Edgar, this Journal, xxv, 238. {Gooch and Edgar, loc. cit. S$ Unpublished, but privately communicated by Professor Henry Fay. | This Journal, xxiv, Oct. 1907. | Loe. cit. G. Edgar— Vanadic and Molybdic Acids. 333 TABLE I. Time of KMnO, Volume of H.SO, treatment N x 1-004 Color of solution MoO; sp. gr. 1°84 with SO. 10 solution em, erm. em?, em®, 25°0 0200 faintly acid 10 min. 0°15 light blue 35:0 0°200 O-5cny I) 22 0:05 faint blue 50°0 0°200 LEQ NOEs 0:0 colorless 75°0 0°200 Denes LO 0:0 se 50:0 0°200 Oeoems 8x0) |G 0:0 & 25°0 0:200 FeOcm: OW 0:0 ce 25°0 0:400 5-ocems Ones 0°0 sé 50°0 0:400 gas EQ). 0:0 ee 50:0 0°400 1O-OcEe Ome 0:0 ug 50°0 0°400 OCs NO 0-0 ss A series of experiments was than made in which solutions containing vanadic and molybdic acids were diluted to 75°, acidified with 2 to 8°™* of strong sulphuric acid, heated to boiling and subjected to a current of sulphur dioxide for a few minutes until the clear blue color indicated the complete reduction of the vanadie acid to the state of tetroxide. The boiling was continued for some time, a current of carbon dioxide Deine passed into the liquid until the last traces of sulphur dioxide had been removed. ‘Titration was then effected by nearly N/10 potassium permanganate and the vanadic acid was calculated from the equation, 5V,0O,+2KMn0,+3H,SO, = 5V,0,+K,SO,+ MnSO,+3H,0. The solution, preceded by 100°* hot water, and 125° of dilute (23 per cent) sulphuric acid, and followed by 100™* dilute sulphuric acid and 200° of hot water, was passed slowly through a column of amalgamated zine in a Jones reductor,* the receiver containing a solution of ferric alum. The hot solution was then titrated with nearly N/10_ potassium permanganate, a little phosphoric acid being added to decolorize the ferric salt. Since the reduction of vanadic acid is in this case to the condition of dioxide, V,O,, if the number of centimeters of permanganate used in the titration of the tetroxide be multi- plied by three and the product subtracted from the total number of centimeters of permanganate used in the final titra- tion, the result is the number of centimeters used in oxidizing Mo,O, to MoO,, from which the amount of molybdic acid present may be easily calculated. The results, given in Table I, show that molybdic acid and vanadic acid may be accurately estimated in the presence of one another by two processes of reduction and oxidation, the reduction being made first by sulphur dioxide and last by amalgamated zine. * The Chemical Analysis of Iron, Blair, page 220. Am. Jour. Sct,—Fourts Series, VoL. XXV, No. 148.—Apriz, 1908. 23 334 G. Edgar— Vanadic and Molybdic Acids. TABLE IT, Rhos) ao V0; MoO; Ferric phoric KMnO; KMn0, ‘ taken taken Error Error alum acid + .4.959 N x 1°052 __ 28 as V.0; MoO; on on 10% syrup 10 10 NaVOs3 (NH,)2MoO, found found V2.0; MoO, em*. cm’. em®, em?® erm. grm. germ. grm. grm. grm. 50 8 11°95 74:15 071144 0°1980 0°1146 0.1934 +°0002 +0004 50 8 11°95 74°00 01144 0°19380 0°1146 0°1926 +°0002 —-0004 50 8 11°94 74°20 0'1144 0°1930 0:1145 0°1936 +:0001 +0006 25 4 SO eo tlOm 00572) 100965.) 100571200965 ‘0000 =*0000 25 4 5°97 37°05 0°0572 0°0965 0°0572 0°0962 +-0000 —-:0003 25 4 5°98 37°12 0°0572 0°0965 0°0573 0°0963 +:°0001 —-0002 35 6 11°95 =55°0 071144 0°0965 0°1146 0:0967 +:0002 +:°0002 35 6 11°95 55°0 071144 0°0965 0:1146 0°0967 +:0002 +:0002 35 6 11°96 54°86 071144 0°0965 071147 0°0958 +:°0003 —-0007 65 10 W392 92°70 O1716 0719380 01719 0719381 +-:0003 +:°0001 GoameLO 17°94 =92.05 01716 0°19380 0°1720 0:1981 +:0004 +-:0001 65 10 17°92 92°02 071716 0°19380 071719 0°1932 +:0008 +:0002 In conclusion the author desires to thank Prof. F. A. Gooch for many kind and helpful suggestions and criticisms during the progress of the work. H. M. Dadourian—Atmospheric Radio-activity. 335 Art. XXX VIII.—On the Constituents of Atmospheric Radio- activity ; by H. M. Dapourtay. [Contributions from the Physical Laboratory of The Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University. | 1. Tue study of the atmospheric radio-activity may be said to have had its origin in an interesting discovery made by Elster and Geitel* in the spring of 1901. They found that if a nega- tively charged conductor be exposed to the open air for a short time, it temporarily exhibits the properties of radio-active bodies. They showed further in aseries of investigations} that this activity 1s due to a substance in the solid state, which is attracted towards and deposited upon the charged body under the action of the electric field. The active deposit was isolated by dissolving it in acid solutions and evaporating the solution to dryness ; the residue was found to possess the general prop- erties of the rapidly disintegrating radio-active products. A number of investigators, working under different experi- mental conditions and in widely separated localities, conducted experiments similar to those of Elster and Geitel, and obtained similar results. Rutherford and Allan,t{ who made a study of the rate of decay of the active-deposit, found that its activity fell off exponentially to half value in about 45 minutes. This is not close enough to the half-value periods of radium and thorium emanations to justify one to ascribe the atmos- pheric radio-activity to the presence in the atmosphere of either of these emanations alone. Therefore they arrived at the fol- lowing conclusion: ‘“ From the differences observed for the penetrating power and the rate of decay we can conclude that the excited radiation from air cannot be ascribed to the presence of any known radio-active substance in the atmosphere.” § Later it was shown by Elster and Geitel || that the decay curves of active-deposits obtained from the air and from radium emanations agreed fairly well. But the observations on the decay were not carried beyond two hours after the removal of the potential difference from the negatively charged body. Thus the agreement was confined to within a rather small region of the activity and time-diagram. Furthermore the agreement was not as close as would be expected from the precision of the experimental data, if the active-deposits obtained from the air were due to radium emanation. Soon after the appearance of *Elster and Geitel, Phys. Zeitschr., ii, 590, 1901. + Elster and Geitel, ibid., iii, 8305, 1902, iv, 522. { Rutherford and Allan, Phil. Mag., iv, 352, 1902 ; Gockel, Phys. Zeitschr., v, 091, 1904; J. J. Thomson, Phil. Mag., iv, 352, 1902; Himstedt, Phys. Zeitschr., iv, 482, 1908. § Loe. cit., 712. || Elster and Geitel, Phys. Zeitschr., v, 11, 1904. 336 HH. M. Dadourian— Atmospheric Radio-activity. the above paper by Elster and Geitel, Allan* published a paper in which he came to this conclusion: “ The difference of the rates of decay of excited activity obtained under different con- ditions seems to point to the fact that the radio-activity of the atmosphere is of a very complex nature.” Bumstead+ was the first to show the true nature of the atmospheric activity and to account for the agreements as well as disagreements among the rates of decay of the active-deposits obtained from the air, from radium emanation and from thorium emanation. Like other investigators of atmospheric activity he exposed to the air a negatively charged wire and observed the rate of decay of its activity, after the electric field was removed from the wire. But instead of confining his obser- vations to the first few hours of the process of disintegration, he continued them beyond the time necessary for the complete disintegration of the rapidly changing radium products. Then he observed that there remained a “slowly decaying activity, which proved to have a half-value period equal to that of the active-deposit of thorium emanation. For exposures of three hours duration the activity of the slowly decaying product was found to be from three to five one-hundredths of the total initial activity, while for an exposure of twelve hours it was 15 one-hundredths. When the activity of this product was subtracted from the total activity at any instant, the rate of decay of the residual activity was found to agree very closely with that of an active-deposit obtained from radium emana- tion. He therefore concluded that atmospheric activity was due to the presence of radium and thorium emanations in the alr. The presence in the ground air of radium emanation was demonstrated by several ‘observers st long before the discovery of the exact nature of the atmospheric radio-activity. These investigators found that there was a close agreement between the decay curves of radium emanation and of the “ radio-active gas’ ’ obtained from the ground. Later it was shown by the writers that the radio-activity of the ground air was due to the presence of not only radium emanation but also thorium emanation. It was found that the close agreement between the rates of decay of the radio-active gas and of radium ema- nation was due not to the absence of thorium emanation in the ground, but to its decay during the short time taken in transferring the radio-active eas from the ground into the * Allan, Phil, Mag., vii, 140, 1904. + Bumstead, this Journal, xviii, 1. 1904. t Elster and Geitel, Phys. Zeitschr., iii, 574, 1902, and v, 11, 1904; Ebert and Ewers, Phys. Zeitschr., iv, 162, 1902 : Gockel, Phys. Zeitschr.., iv, 604, 1903; Bumstead and Wheeler, this Journal, xvii, p. 97, 1904. § § Dadourian, this Journal, xix, 16, 1905. H. M. Dadourian —Atmospheric Radio-activity. 337 testing vessel. On account of the rapid decay of thorium ema- nation it is very difficult to detect its presence in the ground air by direct observation on the rate of decay of the activity of the radio-active gas. This difficulty was avoided by meas- uring the rate of decay of the active-deposit obtained from underground air. A cavity 50™ in diameter and 200° deep was dug in the earth near the Physical Laboratory. A negatively ‘charged wire wound around a cylindrical frame was suspended in the cavity. The top of the cavity was sealed and the air was removed by means of a filter pump in order to keep the wire in contact with fresh ground air. After exposures of three hours duration the wire was taken out and the rate of decay of its activity observed. About 5 per cent of the total initial activity was found to be due to the disintegration products of thorium emanation, the balance being due to those of radium emanation. It should be observed that unless account is taken of the time of exposures Bumstead’s results do not give a measure of the relative amounts of radium and thorium emanations present in the open air in New Haven, nor do the results ob- tained by the writer measure the relative amounts of these emanations present in the underground air. The activity of a body which is negatively charged in the open or underground air is due to at least six disintegration products of radium and thorium, e. g.. Ra A, Ra B, Ra ©, Th A, Th B, and Th C. Each of these accumulates and decays at a perfectly definite rate, which is characteristic of that particular substance. So that the amounts of these disintegration products present on the negatively charged body at any instant of the time of ex- posure are not, in general, proportional to the amounts of the corresponding products present in a unit volume of the air. Suppose P to represent the number of particles of any one of these radio-active products present on the charged wire at any instant of the time of exposure. Then the observed rate of decay is represented by the exponential law P=Pe™ where P’ is the number of particles at the time ¢=0, and 2 is the constant of disintegration. Now if p represents ae num- ber of particles which are transformed per sec., then p = fur t =—rAP 338 H. M. Dadourian—Atmospheric Radio-activity. In other words, the number of particles which are transformed is proportional to the number of particles present. Therefore X Pdi particles are transformed in the differential time dé. If the air be in radio-active equilibrium the number of particles which are deposited on the wire per second will be constant. Denot- ing this number by g, we obtain dP = — 2X Pdt + gdt for the net change in the number of particles during the time dz. Integrating and remembering the fact that P=0 for ¢=0, we get The right-hand member approaches the value 2 asym ptoti- cally as the time increases indefinitely. Denoting this final value by P — Xt P= P, (1-< yi) If the disintegration product under consideration is not a ray- less one, the ionization it produces is proportional to the num- ber of its particles, hence Edie where [=value of ionization at any instant of the exposure, and I,=the value it would have attained if the exposure were continued for an indefinite length of time. Theoretically an infinitely long exposure is necessary for any of the disintegya- tion products on the wire to reach equilibrium value. But only a comparatively short exposure is necessary for the ionization due to any of the products to approach within one one-hun- dredth of the equilibrium value. The last column of the fol- lowing table gives the time of exposure necessary for the ionizations produced by the six disintegration products of radium and thorium to attain 0-99 of their equilibrium values. It takes over three days for thorium A to reach within one one- hundredth of its equilibrium amount. Therefore it is neces- sary to continue the exposure for at least three days in order to make the amounts of the six disintegration products present on the wire proportional to the amounts of the corresponding products present in a unit volume of the air. 09 H. M. Dadourian—Atmospheric Radio-activity. 339 Exposures Range of Half-value necessary to a-particle period ”) make I=‘99I, Radium Em = 4"33°™ 3°8 days /2°11x105° see 25:3. days és A 4°83 SUID. aye oee>> GllOma me 0°33 hrs. ee B (noa-rays) 26 “ AAAS Ome Ye DO urnes e C CAO ORES GLOSS alOm= Delain se Thorium Em 5°55 54 sec. eS Sal Omni cs Gslevmese Scr AS. e(tayless) : 11 hrs. op lOmen < BONS ‘ B 5°0 i Jeg 19S all Omar: G20 ee C 8°6 few sec.* —- os 2. Open air.—A copper wire 4™™ in diameter and about 100 meters in length was strung between two buildings of the Scientific School, at a height of about seven meters from the ground. The wire was insulated and connected to the negative electrode of a Wimshurst machine, the positive pole of which was earthed. <10-" electrostatic units, or Jess than 1 electron. Hence the electrical hypothesis must be abandoned. It would in any case be improbable for the charge to show so small a eoeticien of decay as do the water nuclei. Under the circumstances it seems permissible to suggest an i poilisas of a statistical character ; namely, that the mole- cule of liquid water is composite, consisting of v irtually more volatile and less volatile constituents. Such a view is quite compatible with the composite molecule observed in water vapor, where millions of nuclei may be captured long before 412. C. Barus—Behavior of Nuclei of Pure Water. the molecule proper is reached, the evidences of which are now beyond question. In case of fog particles, when the evaporation is réduced to extreme slowness, we may conceive that all groups of molecules evaporate together at about the same rate, and that therefore the residue, i. e. the persistent water nuclei, are present in least amount. On the other hand, when the evaporation is forced, or accelerated by the heat due to compression, the more volatile constituents of the fog par- ticles evaporate faster than the less volatile, and there is a correspondingly greater residue of persistent water nuclei, because of this concentration of the less volatile molecular aggregates of water in each fog particle. It follows also that relatively more persistent nuclei are obtained by the evapora- tion of large fog particles than by the evaporation of small particles, because a greater relative number of these droplets would Soave a sufficient number of the less volatile groups to persist ; , the opportunities for concentrating the less volatile neers are enhanced. Finally it should never be possible to replace all fog particles by the water nuclei derived from them. All of these deductions are in keeping with the experimental evidence as pointed out. Bigelow— Meteorological Elements of the United States. 413 Art. XLV.—The Relations between the Meteorological Ele- ments of the United States and the Solar Ladiation ;* by Frank H. Biernow. In attempting to trace out any synchronous relations which may exist between variable sources of energy in the sun and their corresponding effects in the atmosphere of the earth, there are three considerations which must be carefully complied with, or else the existing relations will be entirely smothered. (1) The complete homogeneous series of all data must be pro- vided, eliminating local conditions at the station and employing a uniform system of reductions. (2) The summation of the residuals must not be made strictly periodic at the earth unless the solar action is also strictly periodic. As this is not the ease at the sun, the synchronism at the earth must be traced through only roughly periodic variations. The 33-year period, the 11-year period and the 3-year period are known to have wide variations in length and amplitude, but the solar intervals should be compared with the terrestrial intervals as they occur, without forcing a uniform period upon them. (3) The temper- atures of the United States are more the product of heat which is transported in the general circulation than of direct solar radiation, so that the main features of the circulation must be admitted to be the connecting link between the periods. Thus, an increase in solar radiation will increase the heat energy and temperatures of the tropics, but this will be followed by a decrease in the temperatures of the middle latitudes, because the return currents from the polar zones transport an excess of cold air towards the tropics, over the temperate zones, which is to compensate for the increase of warm air transported in the upper levels towards the polar zones. All the complex circu- lation observed in the earths atmosphere stands between the solar radiation and the temperature effects in any latitude. Especially does this become an important feature in the United States, where the influences of the circulation are vigorously registered in the prevailing powerful cyclonic action. The question whether there are variations in the observed solar phenomena, numbers of the prominences, faculae and sun-spots, which are synchronous with the obser ved magnetic and meteor- ological elements on the earth, is one simply of statistical comparison and analysis. The other question of the cause of such synchronism, if it exists, the mode of transferring the variable energy of the sun’s output to the earth, may properly * Read before the Philosophical Society of Washington, Feb. 1, 1908. Am, Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Series, VoL. XXV, No. 149.—May, 1908. 28 414 Bigelow—Meteorological Hlements of the United States. be taken up at a later time after the factsare known. In 1889* I concluded that the variation of the solar radiation is respon- sible for the annual variations in the terrestrial magnetic field, because the magnetic disturbing vectors follow the sun in its changes in declination. In 1894+ evidence of the effect of the solar variation upon the magnetic field of Europe, and upon the temperatures of the United States, together with the action of the same upon the position of the storm tracks and the velocity of the movement of cyclones in the United States, was added. In 1904¢ the comparison was extended to the temperatures and pressures of the entire earth’s atmosphere, with the gen- eral result that the temperatures respond directly to the solar variation in the tropics, but inversely in the temperate zones; while the pressures correspond directly in the eastern hemi- sphere, but inversely in the western hemisphere. It thus became apparent that the circulation of the atmosphere has to do with the prevailing annual temperatures quite as much as the direct radiation of the sun. To separate these two terms is a task of great difficulty, and it is the purpose of this paper to record one step in that direction. The variations in the annual values of the temperature, vapor tension and barometric pressure are in fact comparatively small quantities, and the question whether they are to be ascribed to the influence of the solar variations can only be determined by using data of several kinds reduced to strictly homogeneous series. There are several causes for the fact that the meteorological observations of the United States, as originally made, are not sufficiently free from accidental errors to permit of this refined use, and advantage was taken of the necessity of providing for the Weather Bureau some new nor- mals of temperature, vapor pressure and barometric pressure, to make the series from 1873 to the present time as homo- geneous as possible. In the report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau, 1900-1901, the results for the barometric pressure were published, the succeeding annual volumes containing the supplementary data. In 1908, the temperatures and vapor pressures reduced to homog eneous systems are to be published, and this completes the re- reductions for the United States for one-third of acentury. Evidently these data are very valuable for the study of the solar-terrestrial problems. There are about 100 stations available in the United States for these saa Causes of the Variation of the Magnetic Needle, this Journal, Sept. il + Inversions of temperatures in the 26°68 day solar magnetic period, ibid., Dec. 1894. t¢Synchronism of the variation of the solar prominences with the terrestrial barometric pressures and the temperatures, Monthly Weather Review, Noy. 1903. Bigelow—Meteorological Hlements of the United States. 415 studies, and the record is made homogeneous for the years since 1873. For the purposes of this paper there have been employed 50 stations, separated into 10 groups of 5 stations each, covering the United States as fairly as possible, as follows: 1. Missouri Valley. St. Paul, St. Louis, Keokuk, Daven- port, La Crosse. 2. Lake Region. Marquette, Milwaukee, Chicago, Alpena, Detroit. 3. Middle States. Pittsburg, Lynchburg, Buffalo, Oswego, Washington. 4. North Atiantic. Philadelphia, New York, New Haven, Boston, Portland. South Atlantic. Montgomery, Knoxville, Jacksonville, Augusta, Wilmington. . West Gulf. Shreveport, Galveston, Memphis, Vicksburg, New Orleans. 7. North Plateau. Denver, North Platte, Bismarck, Yank- ton, Omaha. 8. South Plateaw. Yuma, El Paso, Santa Fe, San Antonio, Palestine. : 9. North Pacific. Portland, Roseburg, Red Bluff, Winne- mucca, Spokane. 10. South Pacific. San Francisco, Los Angeles, San Diego, Yuma, Sacramento. Or or) For the purposes of exhibit, these 10 groups have been united into three groups, I (9, LO) Pacitie States, II (6, 7, 8) Plateau and West Gulf States, ITI (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) Central and Eastern States, and this is justified by comparing the curves together, as well as by their geographical characteristics. It should be remembered that each station is independent of every other, so far as the making of the observations is con- cerned, and therefore whatever harmony is found to exist among the residuals for any of the 10 sections cannot be due to local peculiarities. In order to exhibit the kind of agree- ment that has been found, the residuals of temperature, vapor pressure and barometric pressure for the group No. 1, Missouri Valley, are collected in Table I. It shows that there is gen- erally a fair agreement in the signs of the residuals for the same year in each of the three elements. In some years the magnitude of the residuals is large, in others it is small, and in still others the residuals are scattering, in which case there was no pronounced external force determining the prevailing circulation to move aside from the normal in a given direction. The means of the groups of five stations each have been car- ried forward, and combined, as stated, iato three groups, and | |+++t+++ | ) se) ese | | | | | } | £00) + (900. + |610- + (880. + |ET0- + || 100-— ), £00. +; 900: +) 00. +| #00. —| ETO. — 416 Bigelow—Meteorological Elements of the United States. V-0— |(4-0-|1-0-(¢-0—-|0-0 (¢-0— 600- + 810: + \Ga0. + |G80. + |GE0- + || 610-— |/GB0- —| G10. —| 960-—| OL0-—]| 980-—]| 0-8 - |19-—|T-e—|¢-8—|8-1—-16-T— 400:—|600-—|9L0- + |060- + |400- + || €00-— |/F00- +} G00. +| PLO: —| 010. +] 610-—|| T-0— ||9-0—|2-0+/L-IT-|T 0—1¢-0 + 0&0. — |060- —|800- —|100. + /7L0-—|| 100. + |/F00- + | G00-—| FLO. +| S00. +] B10-—|| 8-O+ |]0-0 |T-E+/T-0+]0-T+ i Ba 460-—|TL0: —|00: —|900. + |700- + || 400. + |/600.—| O10. +] O10. +| S10. +] LT0-+ |] G-O+ ||L-0—-|2-0+14-0—-|2-0+ 16-04 900-— |700- — |OT0: + |6T0. + |100-—|| GB0. + |/Ee0. +] 160. + 980. +] E10. +] F80-+ |] @T+ ||6-0+/T-8+IP-0F16-E+ 11-6 + £00- + /400- + |CT0- + |610. + /ZT0-—|| 600- + |'900-—| S10: +] GZ0- +] 100.—| ST0-+]| ¢-0+ ||1-0+/8-0+/¢-0+10-1+|¢-0— F00- — |800: —|00: —|Sv0. + |TEO-—|| GTO. + |/SL0. +] GB0-+| LTO. +] SLO. +] 9T0-+ |] 9-E+ |IP-1+|7-6+19-0+4 4-04 |4-.+ ILO. + |GT0- + /PEO- + |gG0. + |PO0- — || £00. + ||F00-—| F10- +] GOO-—| 100. +] G10. +]] 4-0+ |IL-O—|F-T+|¢-0+/@-1+/2-0+} ST0- + |TLO- + |OL0- + |810. + |TTO —|| 900- + |/OT0- +| 900- +] F00-—| 910. +].700-+]] T-T+ ||8-0+/8-T+|¢@-T+\¢-14+|L1+ 600- — |8L0- —|900: —| 100. + 280: —|| 060. — |\660: —| G10-—| FE0-—| S%0-—] €00-—|| 4-0— |/¢-1—|¢-0-|0-T—|¢-0—|¢-0— 900- —|900: —|900: —|800. —|860- —|| F00- + |'200-—| LTO. +] FLO-—| GTO. +] 400. +]] 9-T+ |]0-T+16-1+|8-E+|1-8+|6-E+ S60: — |T80- —|960- —|L60- —|190- —|| O10. — ||GT0- —| O10. +] G10-—| #B0-—| L00-—]| F-I— ||F-1 —|L-0—|0-6—|F-T-|9-T— ILO. + /Se0- + |GL0- + |SG0. + |600- + || 100. + |/600- +} TL0- +) 800: —| ¥00-—| F00-+ || L-0— |18-0-|0-0 |L:T—|6-0—|0-0 GT0- + |L10- + JOO. + |TT0. + |TLO- —|/ 900. — |/S10-—| 800. +] OL0-—| OL0-—| 100- + || B-T+ ||8-0+|¢-1+|1-0—|g-1 + |9-1 + 900- + )200- + |CTO. + |e10. + |P00- + || F00-— ||F00-—| G00. +| 900-—| 900.—| 900-—|| F-0+ |1T-0+)¢-0+|8-0+|6-0+ [2-0 + P00: —|600- + |200- + |200. —/910- + || $00. — ||FEO-—| 000 OLO-—| 700-—| 200-+ || 6-04 ||F-0—|9-0+|1-0—|9-0+ |¢-0 + G60: + |920- + |LE0- + |060- + |680- + |) EGO. — 1/840. —] 910. —|] 080-—] 080. —| 610-—|] B-S— |/8-8—-|6-T—|4-T—|1-e—-|L-e— 600- + |800- + 900. —|400. —|4T0- + || $00. — |/F00- —| 200. —| F10- —| 900-—| 200- —|| 9-0— ||¢-0+ |6-0—|9-0—|¢-0—|F- T— 100. — |G00- — |G00- + | 100. —| E10. + || 900. + ||080- +| 00. +} T&0- +] 800-—| 910-—|] &-T— |]0-L+/0-E—|L-0+ |F-b—|9-0— 960- — |LF0- —|€60.—|960- — 000 ¥00-— |\800- + | S10. —| 00. —| S10. —| B80-—|] 9-6— |/0-T—|L-8—|8-I—|L-8 -|6-3— 600- + /ST0- — |200: —| 100. + |FT0- + || 800- — ||400- + | S10-—| G00. —| 100- +] 800-—|| ¢-O— |18-T+|1-I—|I-0—|¢-1—|L-8— 4T0- + |900- + G60: + |LT0. + |TLO- + || 6L0-— |/G00- —| 60. —| B80. —] 810-—]| 2¢0-—]| 6-I— ||%-0—|8-%—|0-8—-|L- I —|0-e — 060. + 00: + |G00- + |600. + |8G0- + || PLO. + ||G0. +} G00- + | GTO. +} L10-+| 200-+]| 8-T+ |]@-E+|T-T+|/8-T+/L-%+|E1+ 400. + |GT0- + |200- —|200. + |ZT0- + || 910. + ||T80- +] 00. +] 810. +] GIO. +] 800-+]] B-1+ |1g-G+]G-04]1-T+/S-T+|/¢-0— ||610. + |200-—)100- + |900- —|600- — |) 600. + |\910- +] 800-—| 910. +] FLO. +| 800-+]| B-T+ [4-04 |L-0+|8-8+ |9-L+18-0+ ||810- + |600- + /LT0- + |8T0. + |TLO- + || 800. + ||100- + | 800-—| 100. +] 600. +] O10-+|| 8-0+ |]0-0 |8-0—-|9-L+|T-1+|¢-1+ 920. — |990- —|790: —|SS0. — |€80- —|| L60- + ||TLO. +] 080. +] 720. +| THO. +] 880-+|| PS+ |]L-1+1¢-8+|e-8+|F-e+|e-g+ F00: + |610- + /F00- —|L00- + |910- + | TL0- + | 000 600- +} 960. +] L00- +] LTO. + || 8-I+ ||L-L+|8-L+|0-6+ |8-0+ [8-8 + 060. —|960- — #60. —|L¢0- —|000 600. + |/600-—| 900-—]| 610. +) 800-—| 600-+ || G-O— |[2-0+ |L-0—|4-0+ |6-E—|F-0— OLO- —|S10- —|G10- —|T0. —|T10- + || 860-— | 80. —| 680. —| T@0-—| 980-—| F80-—|| 6-E-- ||8-E—|L-F—|6-8 - |F-F—|1-F— 460. + IPPO- + 00: + |GG0. + |9E0- + || G00. + | 900: —| TLO-—| B10. +] HLO- +] 800-+]| 9-0+ ||P-0+|8-0—|L-6+ |8-0+ [0-0 180. —|700- + |S10- —|S0- —|P10- —|| FLO. — |/LT0-—| 810. —| ST0- —| G00-—] £00-—|| 9-T— ||4-L—|6-L—|T-I—|8-T—|0-8— ‘9d | div | ornO] “THW | “2eI ||steoqy || 9eq | “dry | ‘oro | crow | ‘xem |/sueoyy | ‘ged AV / Old} “THM | eI ‘AINDLOUL JO Your ‘eanssorg olwjouoIrwg | ‘ALNOLoUT FO Tout ‘ainsserg 1odv A | “7, ‘otnzerodue y, ‘WOW WT AY) W) aunssalg WMowolng pun aimssarq odn,a ‘aungnueduay, ay) fo suoymInA JOnUUY aYf—] WAV, Bigelow— Meteorological Hlements of the United States. 417 TaBLE I].—Monthly and Annual Frequency numbers of the Solar Prominences. | | | y . Year | Jan.| Feb.|Mch.| Apr.| May June|J uly |Aug./Sept.| Oct.| Nov.| Dec.|| P / M | P-M \ J — 1872 | 220| 230] 227| 187] 254| 274) 885) 330) 193] 146] 140] 109'2645|1800) +845 1873 | 183) 190 250 154) 191) 112) 98 14020531700 +353 1874 | 132 102] 115| 107] 115] 123) 171) 90] 107| 79/1415/1569/—154 1875 | 67| 68| 64] 66] 57| 52/ 198] 132| 65| 71] 55] 31| 856\1188|—332 1876 | 32) 51| 388] 49| 47| 51| 107] 136] 111] 94) 80] 80| 876! 865|/+ 11 1877 | 40| 75] 59) 37| 55| 95| 54] 115] 82] 42] 31] 57| 742] 695/4 47 1878 | 19| 57| 82]: 49| 21/ 29) 69| 71| 50] 30| 1) 10) 438] 791\—353 1879 | 17/ 6] 23] 13/ 37| 64] 57] 66] 80] 100| 58] 40) 561/1015|—454 1880 | 13) 71) 145} 54} 81| 146] 260| 187) 187| 120] 77| 97/1888)1882|+ 6 1881 | 45| 80, 88 109| 210| 177) 299| 284) 187] 121] 258) 140/1998/1604) +394 1882 | 229| 242) 184] 146] 183) 269] 288] 249) 169] 137] 189) 921239712063) +264 1883 | 95] 187| 97| 133) 183) 122| 219] 167| 133] 233) 135] 142/1796/2952| 456 1884 | 139| 186) 317| 212| 237] 237] 364, 399) 233] 269 152) 111/2856 2170) + 686 1885 | 104] 197 146) 111| 226) 351) 328 221] 177] 104] 126] 1932284 2280) + 204 1886 | 116) 98] 126) 82) 162] 174) 233] 162| 149] 68] 138 77/1585/2098/ 513 1887 | 115| 134| 137] 129] 127) 257) 268| 231| 161| 69] 141] 108|1877/1671| + 206 1888 | 198] 107) 197| 266| 181] 117] .154) 222| 144] 158] 73) 70/1887/1352| 535 1889 | 76| 84/140) 49) 19| 20| 62| 99| 75] 29) 47| 24) 724|1402|678 1890 | 25] 27| 29| 38] 31] 63] 60] 82] 68| 175| 36] 51) 685|1521|—836 1891 | 60 170) 110 138 98 108 256) 210 220) 217| 98 151 1836 1592 +244 1892 | 83) 95| 122) 158] 207] 380| 323) 296) 305! 186] 216] 151/2472/1740| + 732 1893 | 145| 214) 272) 824) 143) 161] 167, 267, 185| 188| 70} 155 2241 /1931| +310 1894 | 87| 141) 159] 104| 114) 178) 157| 167] 116] 78] 104) 62)1467/1806| 339 1895 | 28) 69| 127) 131] 141] 181| 257| 246) 178| 93) 114] 75/1640/1534| +106 1896 | 134 155| 71| 77| 103] 125] 148] 105] 106| 102] 55] 3511211/1280/_ 19 1897 | 60) 69) 109} 85| 84/119) 81) 118/ 143] 101| 95] 54/1113/1037/4+ 76 1898 | 53] 42) 31/ 60) 26] 77] 64) 78| 121; 86] 27] 56] 721] Si7i— 96 1899 | 45) 38) 40] 45] 18] 51) 52) 44) 76] 49/ 98] 19] 498| 604/106 food, (J) DS ee Co So ores © S — — (2) S e te) (SX) 1900 | 40) 13) 20) 32) 48) 36) 68) 56] 96) 60) 20| 54| 543) 398)/+145 1901 DES tae Oa 2 elo 26| en 2S iia Se win ar Mersin) 1451129521150) IGOR | = AB Gh Za Sura ea) Sills eae eavarsihien oa 1| | 83) 305/222 1903 AES} eo 9\) 20h dol) t77) © 35/183) 31\16\) 18) 10) 204) 800) 196 1904 | 21) 12) 50) 35) 53 55) 79 115) 29) 35) 22° 44) 550) 800\—250 1905 | 22) 37) 65) 24) 45 93) 955) 96) 59) 18) 38) q 519)1194| —675 Daily 6-2) 6:6) 6-7) 6:6} 5-9} 6:2) 6:3) 6:1] 6:4) 6°7| 6-1] 5-9] 6:3) Daysieloe lol LG) Lol AS S126) 26) 2ON i Tol 4 13) 212) they are found in Tables IV, V, VI, under the columns marked 'T (temperature), V (vapor pressure), B (barometric pressure) respectively. The solar prominences and the Huropean magnetic horizontal Jorce. In order to procure other elements due to solar action with which to compare the meteorological variations, the annual numbers of the solar prominences and the annual amplitudes of the European magnetic field have been selected. The num- ber of the prominences, as recorded in the reports of the Ital- ian observers, Osservatorio del Collegio Romano, and Catania, were counted out month by month, and the numbers are given in Table I]. The annual sums are taken. The lowest line of 418 Bigelow—Meteorological Llements of the United States. TasieE ITI.—The Amplitude of the Horizontal Magnetic Force without regard to sign. Year | Jan. | | Feb. ‘Meh. Apr. | | May | June) July| Aus. sent | Oct. Noy.) ‘Dec. H | M | H-M 1872 | see Nez | [50 208, 228) 265, 192) 275 555| ina es 2033 +679 1873 | 206] 145] 186) 178) 146) 157) 105] 141) 94] 152 140, 158 1803 2 2054|—251 1874 | 146) 262| 195) 250 149 160| 162| 146 124) 203 137, 128 2062 1894 +168 1875 | 110| 195) 168) 142| 183 142) 106] 94) 139) 126) 111 103 1569 1630 — 61 1876 | 119) 128] 154) 93/ 105) 75) 82] 98) 106; 75 127) 161)1323 1681) — —358 1877 | 125} 84) 100) 85] 142) 128) 153) 145) 89] 98) 144) 102|1895)1715| 320 1878 | 178] 157| 168) 161] 170, 241) 151) 140] 154| 144) 227| 167/2 2058/1948) + 110 1879 | 241 129 138] 123] 189 224) 183). 173] 194) 220) 177] 242/2983/9256|— 23 1880 | 188) 169) 195] 138] 297) 176| 166) 380) 268) 305) 225) 213/2780/2729/+ 1 1881 | 250) 371] 198] 212| 161) 289) 265) 181) 303) 189) 252) 245/2866/2946|—_ 80 1882 | 206 193) 252] 458) 242) 350) 148) 311) 244) 859) 577| 317/3757/3144) + 613 1883 | 197| 297] 245) 323] 215) 231) 255) 242| 353) 241) 331) 216/3146/3193|— 47 1884 | 259) 250) 263] 266| 248 283| 257) 289] 278) 234) 319) 282/32233204,+ 19 1885 | 330) 227] 251) 200} 383) 246) 214] 199] 256) 207) 229| 240/2973/2920|+ 53 1886 | 275] 154) 308) 272) 242| 187) 220) 205) 315) 804 263) 171)2920|2779)| +142 1887 | 182| 159) 183 184| 172| 154) 202) 244) 255] 171) 234) 196]2336|2569 233 1888 | 228] 155] 258) 228] 244) 183| 170| 179] 182] 220) 219) 176/2432/2298 + 144 1889 | 152) 119 165 164 153| 149 188, 152 245 222, 805) 15821722220 — 48 1890 | 129) 125] 187/ 101] 99] 134] 149] 189) 143] 179) 157 1271619 2473 — 854 1891 | 155, 185, 195) 219) 291) 142) 208) 181) 330) 186 212 2 9'7/2581|2613|— 82 1892 | 250) 286) 387| 374) 378) 824) 358) 282) 224| 280) 257 249 3599 2795, + 80d 1893 | 170 320) 266) 184) 242) 263) 267) 342| 249 283) 299) 259/3144/2993) + 151 1894 | 186) 361) 324) 237) 217) 187| 286) 318) 283 156 310) 2153080 3073|+ 7 1895 | 180) 198) 175| 217| 251) 178) 187) 248) 232) 303 249, 198 2611 2806 —195 1896 | 255) 189] 282) 192] 323] 280] 218] 203] 259) 221) 292 266 2930 2650 +280 1897 | 261| 179) 195) 215] 221) 218) 206) 129] 129] 188) 119] 254|2264/2441)—177 1898 | 198 212 249 229) 185) 206 130) 145) 246 240 154, 172 2366 2236 +130 1899 | 162 196) 223) 235) 201, 169) 159| 186) 146 112 159) 184/2082)1925) + 107 1900 | 115) 107) 285) 175) 193) 95) 93] 182) 80) 183) 113) 118/1589)1765 —176 1901 | 107] 189) 160} 838] 103] 112/ 111} 96] 122) 100) 90 15] 1374 1717 —248 1902 | 117; 79 109] 145| 169) 112) 112) 94) 83] 163 177) 103)/1464/1853)—389 _. 1903 | 82) 98] 117| 197] 94] 96) 132] 169] 194] 321) 454 2492126 1896 + +280 1904 191 130 93 169 172 207 148) 119 125) 153 181 9917872000 —213 1905 | 139) 216) 271) 159) 107) 164| 151| 205) 198) 118) 290 176 2194 2180 + 14 means ie 85) 189 207 201, 203, 189) 184 191) 199 199 229 189 | | | | | | | | the table shows the average number of days on which obser- vations were made, 13 in the midwinter and 26 in the mid- Zummer, while the line above shows the average number of / prominences seen on the edge of the sun’s disk per day in each month. It will be noted that there is a small semi-annual period in these day-numbers, which will be considered in a later section of this paper. It was found the most simple, and approximately sufficient, method to use the variations of the horizontal magnetic force in the European field, though strictly the total disturbing vec- tor for the entire hemisphere should be carefully computed. Practically, the horizontal force at from three or four stations, Pawlowsk, Pola, Paris, Greenwich, were plotted on diagram paper month by month, and mean lines were drawn to elimi- Bigelow— Meteorological Hlements of the United States. 419 TABLE IV.—Annual Variations of the Temperature. Pacific. Rocky Slope. Central-Eastern. Year at M T.-M | T M. T.-M. T M T.-M 1873 PS Seal pore See NOs) | HOt | HO 1) Sle aly 0:0 74 pe |i melee SN) 8088} |) OG yy, erst) ees} | ag) tease 75 eet aecare ati OCOn neil elle —— Oe sill Oeonler— Oe 76 gar eaa |p eter S| 059) 0:0! —0-9 | —0:3 | +£0:2 | —0:5 U0 a eels Ba MOSS ee O emia Osun lie tcaless ali Oicsn et alvelt a +0°8} +0:2| +0°6 || +1:0) +0.3] +0°6 || +2°3) +1:0} 41:3 79 +0°4 0:0} +0°4 |) +1°6! +0°5| +1:°0 || +0°7) +14) -—0°7 1880 —1°8| —0°4| —1-4 |] —0°3/} +0°7). —1:0 || +1°2) +1:°3} —0-1 81 == (cay == Oni alae OeAn iets (Olmert (cern Oeaa le tlere silt eryaalli a tei (aC 82 et 0-98) 02) Ee Se Od) tO) Edt |) 40267) 405 83 (095) |) =O O83 1) Oy 0:0} —0:2 || —0°'7) —0:1| —0°7 84 —0:9 0:0} —0-9 |} —0°6} —0:2 |) —0°3 || +01) —0°3)| +0°6 85 +1:°8| +0°2|) +1:6 || —0:8| —0-4 —0:4 | —2:0 | —0:8 |) —1-2 86 +0°2] +05; —0-3 || —0°8| —0°-4} —0°4 |) —1:2| —0°9| —0°3 87 te (Qh |) 10) IP EO) eek |) A933 I Ee eae |) Oe) SEOs) 88 +12} +06) +0°6 || —0°5| +071) —0°6 || —1:5| —0°4| —1:1 89 +12] +06} +0°6 |} +0°2| +071] +01 |) +0°3 00} +0°3 1890 —0:2/ +0:4; —0-6 || +1:0}) —O°1| +1:1 || +0°7| —0:1} +0°8 91 +0°2| —01| +0°3 || —0°7| —0-71| —0°6 || +0°6 0:0; +0°6 92 —0°2 | —0°6| +0-4 || —0°7 0:0} —0°7 || —0°6| +0°2| —0°8 93 —1°6| —0°6) —1:0 || —0°71) —0°4| +0°3 || —1:1} —0:1| —1:0 94 —1-1 |) —9:6 | —0:5 || +0°6) —O1) +0°7 |) +1°3) —O1) 41:4 95 —0°6 | —0°6 0-0 || —1°3| +01| —1-4 || —0°7| +01} —0°8 96 +0°4) —0°3| +0:7 || +0°8) +071] +0°7 || +0°6| +0°5} 401 97 0:0 | —0:2) +0°2 || +0°4/ —071)| +0°5 || +05) +03) +0:2 98 —()°2| +072) —0:4 || —O1 | 40:4) —0°5 | 41:0) 40:7) +0:3 99 —0°4) +0:1| —0:5 |) —0-4| +03) —0°7 || +0°2] +06) —0-4 1900 +1:0 0-0; +1:0 |} +171} +03) +0°8 || 41:3} +05) +0°8 01 +0°3 0:0} +0°3 || +06) +0:°2) +0°4 || —0°3} +02] —0°5 02 —0°5) +0°2)| —0°7 || +0:5) +03) +0:2 || +0°3 | —0-1) +0°4 3 —0°5 0:03) 0:5) I =0:92) =O) 0:8) = 053) 0:6) > 42053 04 +0°8| +071] +0°7 |} +01) —0°3| 4+0°4 || —1°9} —0°8} --1:1 05 +0°2!) +0°2 0:0 |! —0-6!' —0:3! —0°3 || —0°6! —0°7! +01 nate the zero-point correction, as well as that for the slope of the curves due to the change in the mean value of the hori- zontal force during the month. Then, the amplitudes or departures of the minor crests from the mean line were scaled off from day to day, and their sum taken out for the month, the average sum for the stations employed being entered in Table III. The magnetic field varies in its intensity, and these amplitude numbers are a relative measure of the intensity itself, whatever may be the physical cause of the same. These relative numbers may, perhaps, be improved by closer compu- tations covering more stations, but they are sufficient for our present purpose, which is to exhibit the evidence of solar and terrestrial synchronism, by using easily accessible data. It may be observed that the monthly means for the interval 1872— 1905 possess the same semi-annual period as the solar promi- 420 Bigelow—WMeteorological Elements of the United States- TaBLE V.—Annual Variations of the Vapor Pressure. Pacific. Rocky Slope. | Central-Eastern. Year | i] M V.-M. Vie M. | V.-M. || V. M. | V.-M. 187 —‘004) 000) —-004 || —-002} —-002 000 || —-012} —-010} —-002 74 | +:006) +003) +-003 || + 006) + -003) +003 || + 002] —-006| +-008 7d || +°015) +:010} +005 || —-007) + -008) —-010 || —-019| ~-004| —-015 76 || +010) +012) —-002 |) + 012} +:009) + -003 |} —-001} + -002| —-003 77 || +-020| + 012) +-008 || + 007) + -011 — 004 || + 008) +002) + -006~ 78 || +:010| + -006} + -004 || + 029) + 016) + -012 || + 019] + -007| +-012 79 || +:006| + 006 000 || + 015) + -020) — -005 || + -001) + 012} —-011 1880 || —-016| + -002) —-018 || + -020} + -028) —-008 || + -010| + -014| —-003 81 || +-008! + °002| + -006 || + 030) + -020} +-010 || + 021) + -009| + -012- 82 000} +006) —-006 || + -022) + 022 000 |) +°015} +-012) +-003 83 || +012) + 020) —-008 || + 012) + 020) —-007 || —-001| + -010| —-011 84 || + 023) + °024) —-001 || + 023] + -016| +-007 || +015] +007) +-008 85 || +°056| + -027| +°029 | +-011) +-014| —-003 | —-002} + -003) —-005 86 || + 028) + 029) —-001 || +012} +-013| —-001 || + 008} + -001} +-007 87 || +016) + 024) -—-008 || + 018] + -008) + -005 || —-004, —-002) —-002 88 || +7018} +°010) + -008 || + -006) + -007) —-001 |; —:014) —-002) —:012 89 || +004) + -004 000 || 000} +-001} —-002 || —-001} —-005] +-004 1890 || —-014) —-001} —-018 || + 004) —-004) + -008 | —-001) —-006| + -005 91 || —-004) —-008| + 004 || —-016) —-011| —-005 | —-006) —-006 0GO 92 |) —-012| —-012 000 | —-016) —-015} —-001 || —-006| —-005 000 93 || —-017| —-014| —-008 | —-025) —-020) —-005 || —-013] —-008} —-005 94 ||—-014|—-014 000 | —-023|}—-018} —-005 || —-001] —-006) +-005 95 | —-022|—-014} —-008 |, —-022| —-016| —-006 || —-016|—-005} —-011 96 || —-007|—-016|} +-009 | —-001|—-013) +:012 | +-006; 000) +-006 97 || —-012) —-016} + -004 || —-009)}— 011} + -002 |) —-002) + 001) —-008 98 || —-022| —-012} —-910 || —-009| —-006} —-003 || + 013} + 007} + °006 99 | — 014 —-012) —-002 || —-015} —-008| — -007 || + -002| +-005) —-003 1900 || —-004)—-011; + °007 | + -005| —-008| + -012 || + -015| + -004| + -011 01 || —-006!—-009| + -003 |;—-013) —-010| —-008 ||—-006| 000; —-006 02 || —:007) —:006} —-001 || —:004| —-010}-+ -006 | —-003|—-004| + -001 03 || —:012)—-008| —-004 || —-020)—-009| —-012 | —-007|—-007 000 04 |;}—-002}—-008) + -006 || —-016|—-007| —-009 |) —-019|—-009| —-010 05 || —-012!—-004! —-008 || + -008) —-005] +-012 000)}—-007! +007 nences, as can be seen by comparing the lowest lines of Table IIL with lowest line but one in Table IV. Separation of the annual numbers into two groups, (1) the long- period variations as in 11 years, and (2) the short-period vari- ations as in 3 years. In order to exhibit the annual and secular variations of these data, the annual numbers have been separated into two groups, by the following simple process: Since the short period is evidently of 3 years duration, and the long period of 11 years, as can be seen by an inspection, the means of successive groups of five years, as 1873-1877 inclusive, 1874-1878, 1875-1879 BE een et were taken out, and these are entered in the column -M, against the middle year of the group in every case, as 1873— 1877 against 1875, 1874-1878 against 1876, 1875-1879 against Bigelow— Meteorological Elements of the United States. 421 TaBLe VI.—Annual Variations of the Barometric Pressure. Pacific Rocky Slope Central—Eastern Year a | Ieee B-M B M B-M B M | B-M 1873) ©... | .... | -... |] +-005 | + -012'| —-007 || 010 | +-010 | —-020 74| ....| ---.| ---- || +°011 | +-010 | +-001 || +:038 | + -006 | + -032 MOU ese alt ape Be +006 | +:006 000 || +°004 | +-006 | —-002 TAD) etme ie See --=- || + 008 :|—;004 |) :012 ||| — 003) ||— -008 000 TEE Me NS Walt ---- || 000 |—-006 | +006 |; +003 | —-007 | + .010 78 | —-027 —:006 —-021 ), — 048 —-007 | —-035 |, —-055 |—-006 —-049 79 |} +°001 —-004 +:005 | —-004 | — 012 | + 009 || + 015 | —-006 + -°021 1880 | +°022 |—-001 | + 028 —-006 |—:014 | +:008 || +:013 | —-004 | +016 81 |—-003 +-007 | —010 | —-013 | —-001 | —-012 || —-006 | +011 | —-018 82 | + 004 | + 001 | +°003 || —-002 | —-001 | —-001 || + -013 | +-008 | + -005 83 | +°014 |—-007 | + °021 || +017 000 | +°018 |) +°020 | —-001 | +021 84 | —-032 | —-008 | —-024 || —-002 | + 002 | —-005 || — 004 | —-001 | — 002 85 | —-020 | —-009 | —-O11}} 000 | + 002 | —-002 || —-028 | —-004 | — 024 86 | —-006 —-015 | +009 | —-001 000 | —-001 || —:006 | —-006 | —-001 87 | —-002 | —-012 | + 010 || — 004 | + :002 | — 006 001 | —:006 | + -004 88 | —-018 —-004 | —-014 |) + -005 | +:005 000 || +°012 | +002 | +:010 89 |—-011 |—-002 —-009 | + 012 | + 005 | + 007 || —-008 | + -006 | — 009 1890 }+°016 000 +°016 |) +:015 +:008 | +007 || +011 +-007 | +004 91 | + 004 | +006 | —:002 || 000 | +°004 | —-004 || +010 | 000) +-010 92 |+-007 +°010 }—-003 +°008 | +°004 | +:008 || +007; 000 | +006 3 | +012 | +009 | + 003 || —-018 | + -003 | —-017 || —-025 | — 003 | — 023 94) +°:014 | +008 | + 006 || +013 | + °005 | +008 || +004 | —-008 | +-006 95 | +°008 | +008 000, +°008 +004 | +°004 || —:008 | —-0038 | — 005 96 —-002 +:005 | —:007 +011 +°007 +°004 | +°009 +001 | +-008 97 | +007 | + 002 | +005 || +004 | +004 000 | +°004 000 | +004 98 +-001 000 | +001 || —:003 +°002 | —°005 || —:007 | + 001 | —:008 99 |—-002 | +°001 | —-003 | —:001 000 | —:001 |) +:002 |—-007 | + °009 1900 |—-006 —-004 | —-002 —-001 —-004 | + -003 | —-006 | —-013 | +-007 01 | +°006 —-002 | +008 || + -002 000 | +°002 || —:028 | —:012 | —-016 02 |—-018 |—-001 | —-017 |) —-017 | + -004 | —-022 || —-028 | —-012 | —-016 03 | +°012 —-002 | +014 +-016 +:007 +008 | —-002 | —-008 | + -006 04 | +002 | —-006 | +008 | +-019 | +-005 +°014 | +-012 —-005 | +017 05 |-—-015 | — 004 | —-009 || +015 | +-009 | +006 || +-004 | + -008 | —-004 1877. Finally the third column in the summaries, P-M, H—M, T—M, V—M, B-M were made by subtraction, and this gives the short period, which is required to be superposed upon the / long period to produce the original curve representing the observed annual values of the several elements. These data of the long and short periods are transferred to fir, 1 for the Pacific States, to fig. 2 for the Plateau and West Gulf States, and to fig. 3 for the Central and Eastern States, and their mutual relations can there be readily studied. The arguments are marked in every case, and need not be fur- ther explained. 422 Bigelow— Meteorological Elements of the United States. Synchronism of the solar prominences and the Huropean mag- netic field with the temperatures, vapor pressures and baro- metric pressures of the United States in the 11-year and the 3-year periods. An inspection of these curves indicates that there is a clear synchronism between the numbers of the prominences and the terrestrial magnetic field in both the long and the short peri- ods, showing that if the prominences stand as representatives of the solar activity, the intensity of the radiation, electro- magnetic or magnetic, varies with it in such a way as to mod- ify “the strength of the earth’s magnetic field from year to Vea bmn alt should be noted that there is a tendency for the short- period curve to lag somewhat, possibly several months, behind the solar curve. This suggests very interesting speculations between the time of formation of the solar impulses gener- ating the prominences, and those producing the radiation. Do the ‘great heat and radiation waves pass from the interior to the surface of the sun in such a way that the prominences first feel the impulse in the solar circulation that produces them, and afterwards does the main flood of radiant energy follow from the interior of the sun? It becomes a problem in cireu- lation and convection of heat on the sun, just as in the earth’s atmosphere the maximum of heat and the minimum of cold lag about 40 days behind the position of the sun causing them. It has been pointed out, furthermore, that the temperature variations recorded in these tables are a product of circulation in the temperate zones rather than of direct radiation, as might hastily be assumed. 2. A comparison of the curves on fig. 1, fig. 2, fig. 3 indicates that the synchronism ts better defined in the Pacific States than it is cast of the Mountains, and that while the long period tends to break down, the short period persists with considerable precision. This accords with the statement made on page 125, Bulletin No. 21, Solar and Terrestrial Magnetism : ‘‘ The occur- rence of four subordinate crests in the 11-year period suggests strongly that a 2°75 year period is superposed upon the ‘long sweep of that periodic curve. Apparently this is more at the basis of the seasonal variations of the weather conditions of the United States than anything else, so that in long-range fore- casting this period must be very carefully considered.” If the ten sections of the United States be plotted separately, it is shown that the amplitude of the temperature, vapor pressure and barometric pressure curves increases from south to north. It is weakest on the Southern Rocky Mountain plateau, and strongest in the Lake Region. 3. The phenomenon of inversion is very clearly exhibited, and it is fundamental in all these reseaches. Zn the long period Bigelow—Meteorological Elements of the United States. 423 1 Synchronism in the Pacific States. Solar Prominences, Magnetic Field, Temperature, Vapor Pressure and Barometic Pressure. MEAN VARIATIONS, .ILYEARS. 1875 1880 1885 1890 1895 1900 EUROPEAN MAGNETIC SHORT PERIOD VARIATIONS, 3 YEARS.. PROMINENCE —. i} | i) MAGNETIC |FORCE| 1 a MR ADDN 7 curves an increase in the prominence and the magnetic force numbers is always accompanied by a decrease in the temperature 494 Bigelow— Meteorological Elements of the United States. and the vapor pressure, but an increase in the barometric pres- sure. In the short-period curves the reverse of this is true in the Pacific States, but the same rule holds good on the Rocky Mountain plateau and eastward to the Atlantic Coast. An increase of solar energy, as registered by the number of prom- inences and the strength of the magnetic field, is attended by direct synchronism of the temperature and its dependent vapor pressure, but zmverse or barometric pressure, in the Pa- cific States. An ¢ncrease of the solar output of radiation is accompanied by a decrease in the temperative and vapor pres- sure, but zncrease of the barometric pressure, to the east of the Rocky Mountains. We already have shown* that the direct sychronism between the prominences and the temperature prevails thoughout the tropics, while the synchronism is generally reversed in the temperate zones. The direct increase of solar radiation is attended by diminution of temperature in the greater part of the United States. Meteorologists are familiar with the fact that the temperatures of the Pacific States generally are the reverse of those in the central and eastern districts, in the sense that the monthly residuals usually have opposite signs, as can be seen on numerous monthly maps representing these conditions for the years 1873-1905. It therefore is evident that this phenomenon of inversion is to be explained only by the facts of circulation of the atmos- phere. Since the high-pressure belt, separating the westward drift of the tropics from the eastward drift of the temperate zone, crosses the United States from Florida to Northern California or Oregon, it follows that the Pacific States are practically to be considered as a part of the tropical system, so far as circulation is concerned. This is characterized by freedom from cyclonic circulation, and by a quiescent state of the atmosphere. On the other hand, east of the Rocky Mountains the atmosphere is continually filled with cyclones and high-pressure areas which advance down the slope and move eastward. This is the result of well-known meteorological con- figurations, which are determined by the relations of the general circulation to the ocean and land areas. When the solar radi- ation is stronger than the normal, it increases the tropical cir- culation, with its currents directed poleward in the upper and lower strata, and this is counterbalanced by return cold polar currents, which flow persistently over the United States east- ward of the mountains. This therefore conforms to our obser- vations of the temperature, vapor pressure and barometric pressure. Zhe temperature observed in the temperate zones *Studies on the circulation of the atmospheres of the Sun and of the Earth, Monthly Weather Review, November, 1903. Bigelow—Meteorological Elements of the United States. 425 2 North Plateau, South Plateau, West Gulf States. Solar Prominences, Magnetic Field, Temperature, Vapor Pressure, Baro- metric Pressure. MEAN VARIATIONS, YEARS. 1875 1880 1885 1890 EUROPEAN MAGNETIC —-O/0| VAPOR: PRE PRESSURE ame” Be il: SHORT PERIOD VARIATIONS, 3 YEARS. NUMBER | PROMINENCES + 800 t+ 400 oO - #00 AMPL. + 800 | MAGNETIC + #00 Oo — #00 oe —/.0 |TEMPERATUR —O.5 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE ~| asa yearly amount is the product of the transportation of heat in horizontal currents, rather than of direct heating by radiation. The comparisons of the sun’s heat, observed with 426 Bigelow—Meteorological Elements of the United States. the pyrheliometer, and the simultaneous temperature at the surface of the earth in the temperate zones, must be treated with the utmost caution, and the entire effect of the temper- ature due to the currents of the atmosphere, prevailing in a given region, must be fully eliminated before the function of equivalent solar heat energy can be known. J/¢ ¢s this necessity of separating the effects of circulation from those of radiation which constitutes the unusual difficulty attaching to this re- search, and which has made it necessary to secure very accu- rate data from the observations before a beginning could be made upon the real analysis of the problem. 4. It is seen that the amount of the annual variation of the temperature is about one degree Fahrenheit on either side of the normal in the long period, and another degree in the short period, making two degrees amplitude or four degrees range, per day for the year, Multiplying this amplitude by 365, we have 730° F. or 405° C. as the aceu- mulated temperature between the extreme years. These numbers can be compared with the numbers of the solar prom- inences and the magnetic field as given in our tables, which are the annual sums. ‘The range of the vapor pressure is about 0:040 inch of mercury in the long-range period and 0-020 inch in the short-range period. That of the barometric pressure is 0°015 inch for the long period and 0-040 for the short period. Some preliminary studies show that the varia- tions in certain seasons, as the winter or the summer, may be very large in restricted areas, such as the Lake Region, and it will be our next endeavor to carry this analysis one step further in the direction of the periodic variations of the seasons. As stated, the complexity of the function is very great on account of the circulation, but there is good ground for pursuing the research. 5. In my studies on the magnetic field it was found that a periodic action takes place, having 26°68 days duration, and that a certain type curve emer wed from the variations within that period. On attempting to match this curve with the temperatures and pressures of the United States, and other data, it was found that the phenomenon of inversion appeared persistently. A very brief oy of this research was summarized in Bulletin No. 21, U. Weather bureau, and on Table 21 the number of the oe and the inverse types found by trials for the magnetic field, the temperatures and the pressures, were recorded. Taking the magnetic field, 1841-1894, we found for the ephemeris the curve given in fig. 4 re sproduced from Chart 19 of that Bulletin. It is quite probable that a better conformity can be secured by executing more exact computations. For the prominences the intensity Bigelow— Meteorological Elements of the United States. 427 3 Lake Region, Central, Atlantic and East Gulf States. Solar Prominences, Magnetic Field, Temperature, Vapor Pressure, Baro- metric Pressure. MEAN VARIATIONS, YEARS. 1875 Va 1885 1890 1895 1900 1905 TULA a Jt po SHORT PERIOD VARIATIONS, 3 YEARS. sal 7 FAN A cae wi au 40.5 aoe _ INCH -.0/0 -.005| VAPOR o | PRESSURE AY Al fey ais rl of the eruptions, as well as the number of them, and the number of those appearing over the entire viscble disk every day of the year, as well as on the edge, should be recorded. NUMBER +800 +4¥00 Oo -— #00 AMPL. *#G00 |MAGNETIC #400 7) - 400 °F -— 14.0 Ose Q 428 Bigelow—Metcorological Elements of the United States. The variations of the magnetic field should embrace several stations in each hemisphere, and combine the _ horizontal component with those of the declination and the vertical force. The comparison of the direct and the inverse forms of the adopted 26°68 day curve, which apparently lies underneath the complex phenomena of circulation in the earth’s atmos- phere, should be carefully followed out in different regions, in order to discover the least disturbed place for observatory work. The relation of this central or heart action to the other members of the atmospheric system can then be studied out. 6. The many problems that I have not mentioned, but which are implied in this series of relations, are most fascinat- ing. Not the least of these is the possibility of developing a system of long-range seasonal forecasting. When the crests on the curves reach a certain amplitude, it is easy to foresee their course for a couple of years. The fact that the terrestrial curves tend to /ag somewhat behind the solar curves make this a point of value. Since the prominences on the sun develop in middle latitudes a year sooner than they do near the equator or near the poles, there is a chance here to anticipate the impulse at the earth that moves the atmospheric _-cireulation. Our next study will be on the monthly and seasonal variations, as distinguished from the annual variations treated in this paper. It is important to secure homogeneous data of the sun’s prominences, the earth’s magnetic field and the temperatures, in places of quiet circulation, such as in So. California, to serve as the basis for other corollary researches. It has been assumed in this paper that the frequency of the prominences and the amplitudes of the magnetic field are practically proportional to the intensity of the invisible solar radiation, There are no better elements available at present, and until a continuous homogeneous series of observations with the bolometer or the pyrheliometer are secured, extending over many years, it will not be possible to bring this problem to a conclusion. There will doubtless be a difference of opinion as to the final interpretation of such data, because the smallness of the residuals and the overpowering influence of the circulation in effacing the evidences of synchronism, introduce an element of uncertainty. It must be shown to what extent the maxima of the invisible radiation coincide with the maxima of the prominences. Again, it is evident that the apparent synchronism on the Pacific Coast is partly destroyed through reversal and the turmoil of the cyclones and anticyclones in the lower strata of the atmosphere. It may properly be inferred that the stations for making observations on radiation should be located in the midst of the high pressure belt in about latitude 33°-35°, where the cireu- Bigelow— Meteorological Llements of the United States. 429 4 [Semi-annual period in the solar prominences, the magnetic force, and the direct type of the normal curve of the 26°68 day period. } — MONTH |J F M A M J JY A S O N OD 26.68 DAY PERIOD. Ue 4 6 7 8 TO Ores erect a (1) DAILY NUMBER OF SOLAR PROMINENCES. (2) AMPLITUDE | 2/0 NUMBERS HORIZONTAL | 200 MAGNETIC WA : / FORGE. 140 +20 (3) TRIAL +/0 NUMBERS OF THE O DIRECT \ TYPE-CURVE.|—/o 7 < (1) Daily number of solar prominences. Table 2, 1872-1905. (2) Amplitude number of the European magnetic horizontal force. Table 3, 1872-1905. (8) Trial numbers of the direct type-curve in the 26°68 day period. Bulletin No. 21, page 102.. It is probable that this synchronism in these three semi-annual periods depends upon the aspect of the earth to the sun in its orbit, the maximum effects occurring at the time of the equinoxes. More prominences can be seen at that time, because the sun’s disk shows the two hemispheres more evenly; the magnetic force is more disturbed; the direct type is ata maximum in the successive 26°68 day periods. The physical explanation of these effects is probably this, that the solar radiation is more favorable for influencing the earth’s magnetic field, through the process of ionization which produces electric currents. The evidence is that these are most vigorous in the strata of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface. It is also found that the warm and cold masses of air move over the Missouri valley in such a procession that the order reverses in the same semi-annual period, when referred to the typical 26°68 day periodic curve. Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH SERIES, Vou. XXV, No. 149.—May, 1908. 29 430 Bigelow—Meteorological Elements of the United States. lation is ata minimum. It should be placed in a dry climate free from fog and clouds, where the region is shielded from strong diurnal winds. Similar stations to the north and south of the equator, in the eastern and the western hemispheres, to supplement each other, and to fill in gaps in the record occurring in any station, are urgently recommended. It is my belief that this subject will in the future assume large propor- tions, because it is the only way at all promising in which to lay the foundations for a system of seasonal forecasting. The Weather Bureau has now adjusted its records to the required standard of observation and computation for about 100 stations, and the future records will continue automatically to unroll the hidden story of the sun’s influence upon the earth's weather and climatic conditions. T. EF. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern Illinois. 431 Arr. XLVI.—On the Lower Paleozoic Stratigraphy of Southwestern Lllinois; by T. E. Savacr, University of Illinois. [ Contributions from the Paleontological Laboratory of Yale University. ] Tux following paper is a preliminary statement concerning _ the pre-Mississippian formations that occur in the southwest portion of I[linois. A monograph on the stratigraphy and paleontology of these terranes in the above mentioned area is being prepared by the writer for presentation as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Yale University. The field work on which the report is based was done dur- ing the summer of 1907, under the auspices of the Illinois Geological Survey ; while the paleontological study was made at the Peabody Museum under the direction of Professor Charles Schuchert. The writer wishes at this time to acknowl- edge his indebtedness to the Director of the Illinois Geolog- ical Survey for assigning him to this very interesting piece of work, and to Professor Schuchert for his invaluable assistance in the study and interpretation of the faunas and the data that were collected. ; The pre-Mississippian beds in this portion of the state under- lie the surficial materials over an area 150 square miles in extent. They appear in the southwest corner of Jackson county, at the Back Bone and Bake Oven ridge; at the south end of Walker ridge; and at Bald Rock, and southward on the east side of the Big Muddy river. In Union and Alexander counties they extend from the flood plain of the Mississippi river eastward to the general line passing within about one mile west of the towns of Alto Pass, Mountain Glen, Jonesbore, and Mill Creek to a point nearly two and one-half miles south- east of Elco, whence the line separating the Devonian from the younger formations trends toward the southwest past the Diswood postoffice, to near the middle of section 28, Township 15 South, Range 2 West. Eastward they are bordered by Mis- sissippian beds, while along the southern edge sands and clays of Tertiary age lie upon the flanks of these older formations. Occasional patches of Tertiary gravels occur within the region under discussion. This small area is exceedingly interesting, geologically be- cause of the fact that some of the formations ‘here represented do not appear further north anywhere in the Mississippi valley. The successive beds were deposited in a basin of the Interior or Mississippian sea which, during a great part of the time, was more or less separated from that in which the older strata in other portions of the state were laid down. Owing to its prox- 432 T. E. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern Illinois. imity to Ozarkia this basin was subjected to vertical move-. ments and therefore to variable conditions of sedimentation, very different from those that prevailed during the same time over the more northern areas. Ordovician. Galena—Trenton.—A thickness of 68 to 80 feet of this for- mation is exposed in Alexander county. It appears at two points adjacent to the Mississippi river where the waters of that stream have cut across low arches which bring the Galena limestone above the level of the water. One of these expo- sures is a short distance below Thebes, where a thickness of about 68 feet of limestone may be studied. The second fold crosses the river about two miles north of Thebes, just west of the village of Gale, where these limestones may again be seen on Little Rock Island. The Galena formation is here a light colored, crystalline, non-magnesian limestone, in layers from a few inches to four feet in thickness, which are imperfectly exposed in the upper part. The lowest layers contain in abundance Leceptaculites owent, Hebertella near occidentalis, Parastrophiahemiplicata, Platystrophia biforata, Rafinesquina alternata, Rhyncho- trema inequivalue, Strophomena emaciata, Tr iplecia n. Sp., and the trilobites Bronteus lunatus, Bumastus trentonensis, LIllenus americanus, Lsotelus maximus and Platymetopus cucullus. Eighteen feet above low water Crania trentonensis, Cyrtolites ornatus, Plectorthis plicatelia and Remopleurites striatulus are associated with most of the above mentioned forms. In the middle and upper parts the white color is in places mottled with pink, and the fossils become much less abundant. eceptaculites owenz is still common, while Crania trentonensis, Hebertclla near occidentalis, Plat ystrophia bifo- rata, Rafinesquina alternata, Rhynchotrema inequivalve and Triplecia un. sp., persist in diminished numbers. This facies of the Galena resembles, in its fossils and lithology, the Kimmswick limestone of Ulrich, zee described by Weller from Jersey and Calhoun counties.* The basin in which it was deposited may have been carne wink separated from that which received the sediments of the more northern dolomite phase of the Galena. Richmond—Maquoketu.—The beds provisionally referred to the Richmond have an aggregate thickness of 91 feet. This formation succeeded that of the Galena after a long land interval. All of the Utica and Lorraine deposits are wanting, and, seemingly, much of the Richmond is also absent. The formation in southwest Illinois consists of two members, 2a * Weller, Illinois State Geological Survey, Bull. No. 4, p. 222. T. FE. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern Illinois. 433 and 2b of the general section described at the end of this article. The lower one (2a) is a sandstone or sandy shale— “Thebes sandstone and shale”—which is exposed along the flanks of the Thebes and Gale anticlines, and in the interven- ing trough. The materials are reddish-brown where weathered, and blue where not changed by the atmosphere. The lower part is a sandstone, thick bedded and in regular layers, which are well exposed at the east end of the railroad bridge at Thebes. In the upper half the layers are thinner and, where much weathered, appear decidedly argillaceous. This more shaly horizon is well exposed in the river bank three-fourths of a mile south of Gale. Lingula cf. covingtonensis occurs sparingly throughout the sandy shale of this member. The upper member is a bed of fossiliferous, bluish shale (2b of the section). It is exposed in the bank of the river, and in a cut along the Lllinois Central railway about three- fourths of a mile south of Gale, where it overlies the ‘ Thebes sandstone and shale” member. The bed has a thickness of 18 feet, and contains Cyclocystoides n. sp., Phylloporina near granistriata, Dalmanella testudinaria, Plectambonites sericea, Lihynchotrema imequivalve?, Strophomena sulcata?, Zygo- spira recurvirostra, Conradella near fimbriata, and species of Lsotelus resembling L. suse and J. platycephalus. The litho- logic and faunal change from the Thebes sandstone member to this blue shale is abrupt, which may indicate a break between the two beds. The fauna reminds one much of the Black River formation, but as it occurs in, or immediately above, the Maquoketa series, and its life assemblage is not at all that of the overlying Cape Girardeau limestone, it seemed best to group it with the Thebes sandstone. Neither of these members contain Rhynchotrema capa, the widely distributed guide fossil to the Richmond. Indeed, none of their fossils which have yet been determined are deci- sive markers, but the lithology and position of the beds, and their relation to known formations to the north and south, leads to their provisional reference to the Richmond until the complete study of the fauna and the wider study of their field relations shall determine definitely their stratigraphical position. The above shales and sandstone do not extend so far north as does the underlying limestone. The sea in which they were deposited probably washed the shores of the Ozarkian land area a few miles to the west, which, during late Richmond time, was the source of the sediments that make up these terri- genous beds. Middle Silurian. Alexandrian.—The beds referred to this formation are exposed in Alexander county to a thickness of 44 feet. They 434 7. FE. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern Illinois. include the Cape Girardeau limestone and the overlying beds containing Dalmanites danae and Whitfieldella billingsana. The Cape Girardeau limestone is well exposed about two miles south of Thebes, in the bank of the river and along the streams in that immediate vicinity. It is also seen in a cut along the Illinois Central railroad, and in the river’s bank, one and one- half miles north of Thebes. In the former locality this lime- stone is nearly 40 feet thick, and consists of black, fine-grained, brittle limestone, in thin layers which are often separated by narrow partings of dark, caleareous shale. This zone has a rich fauna which appears abruptly at this horizon. Among the forms are several species of crinoids, Dalmanella near ele- gantula, Homeospira nu. sp., Leptena rhomboidalis, Lafines- quina mesacosta, Leh, ynchotreta n. sp., Schuchertella missourt- ENSUS, Zygospira n. sp., Cornulites tenuistriata, C. incurvus, Platyostoma near neagarensis, Strophostylus sp., Acidaspis halli, Calymene sp., Cyphaspis girardeauensis and Enerimu- TUS Sp. At the exposure north of Thebes the Cape Girardeau lime- stone rests directly upon the fossiliferous blue shale (20 of section). This member is succeeded by a bed of dark gray limestone, oolitic in the upper part, which contains /avosites sp., Stromatopora sp., Atrypa rugosa, Clorinda n. sp., Home- ospira nd. sp., ef. Hindella umbonata, Leptena rhomboidalis, Platystrophia biforata, Rafinesguina mesacosta, Lehyncho- treta n. sp., Schuchertella subplanus (probably a coarse form of S. missouriensis), Strophomena sp., Whitfieldella billings- and, Dalmanites danw, Dalmanites sp., and Lichas breviceps clintonensis. There are here no diagnostic fossils of the Richmond. The genera Fuavosites, Stromatopor a, Atrypa, Whitfieldella, Ho- meospira, Schuchertella and Clorinda do not occur in Amer- ican Ordovician strata, while Atrypa rugosa and Lichas breviceps clintonensis are indicative of the Silurian. On the other hand, the fauna is not directly related to that of the Clinton, from which formation it is separated by a marked erosional unconformity. Schuchert* cites a fauna from Edge- wood, in eastern Missouri, collected by Ulrich, which corre- sponds closely with the above. Since there seems to be no direct time equivalent of these beds in the Ordovician or in the Silurian as generally defined, the horizons 3a to 8¢ are classed as Middle Silurian strata that more or less completely bridge the lost interval between the -Cincinnatian and the Clinton. For these beds the time term Alexandrian is pro- posed, from Alexander county, Illinois, where they are well exposed; the term to have the same rank as Cincinnatian, which it immediately follows. * Jour. Geol., vol. xiv, pp. 728, 729, 1906. T. EF. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern Illinois. 435 Silurian. Clinton.—The limestone of this formation has here a max- imum thickness of 75 feet. One-half mile southeast of Gale it immediately overlies the “ Thebes sandstone and shale” ; the shale member (20 of section) and all of the Alexandrian beds having been cut out by erosion prior to the deposition of the Clinton. One and one-half miles north of Thebes the Clinton limestone rests on the Whztfieldella billingsana mem- ber (8¢ of section), while two miles south of Thebes it imme- diately overlies the Cape Girardeau limestone (8a of section). The upper part of the Clinton (4c) consists of heavy bedded, pink or mottled limestone, 23 feet thick, which contains many small, immature brachiopods, besides Plectambonites transver- salis, Rafinesquina mesacosta, Spirifer near sulcata, Illenus sp., and a few new species of Orthoceras. Below this pink limestone lie 6 feet of thin- bedded, dark gray limestone with narrow bands of chert (40 of section). The limestone layers contain Havosites favosus, Halysites catenulatus, Stromato- pora sp., Atrypa rugosa, Orthis cf. davidsont, Orthis flabel- lites, Plectanibonites tr ansversalis, and var. elegantula, Strick- landinia triplesiana and Triplecia ortont. The above fauna corresponds with that of the Interior or Western Clinton, as described by Foerste from the region of Dayton, Ohio. The lower portion of this formation (4@) is well exposed in the vicinity of Gale, and two miles further north, along Sexton Creek in the N.W.4sect..27, T.148., R. 8 W., where it con- sists of 46 feet of thin: bedded, gray limestone, the layers of which are separated by narrow chert bands. The thickness of the Clinton is variable. It does not exceed 29 feet in the exposure south of Thebes, while near Gale and along Sexton creek and in the river bluff two miles east of McClure the aggregate thickness is 75 feet. Where the for- mation is thinnest it is the lower and not the upper layers that are absent. Devonian. Helderbergian.—The rocks of Helderbergian age in Illinois correspond with the New Scotland formation of New York. They succeed the Clinton after an exceedingly long land interval, represented by all of the Silurian after the Clinton, and the Coeymans of the Lower Devonian. In New Scotland time the Interior or Mississippian sea was much more restricted than during the Clinton. According to an unpublished paleogeo- eraphie map of the time, by Schuchert, this sea extended as an embayment from the Gulf region as far north as Jackson county, Illinois. It spread west to Indian Territory and east as far as southeast Tennessee. It was separated by a land bar- rier from the Atlantic embayment (Cumberland basin) which 436 7. EF. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern Illinois. occupied parts of New York, Maryland, and northeastern Ten- nessee ; and it is probable that the Kankakee barrier, as defined by Schuchert, prevented its spreading far to the north and northwest. The New Scotland formation in Union and Jackson counties has an aggregate thickness of more than 160 feet. The lower portion, for a thickness of 100 feet, consists of shaly limestone with interbedded bands of chert. This phase is exposed in the lower part of Bald Rock, four miles southeast of Grand Tower, on the Big Muddy river. It appears in the east bluff of the Mississippi river for some distance south from this point. It makes up Tower Rock, in the Mississippi river channel, west of Grand Tower; and it is exposed in the quarry, and in the cut made by the Frisco Railroad company a short distance south and west of this rock. At the latter point were collected Streptelasma recta, Dalmanella subcarinata, Leptena rhomboidalis, Leptenisca adnascens, Meristella levis, Spirifer cyclopterus, S. perlamellosus, Stropheodonta’ punctulifera, Hausmannia sp., and Phacops logani var. The upper 58 feet of the New Scotland formation is com- posed of light gray, heavy bedded, coarsely crystalline lme- stone. This facies is exposed in the south end of the Back. Bone ridge where a fault brings it above the level of the flood- plain. It forms the upper part of Bald Rock, where another fault has raised it to the level of the adjacent Chester lime- stone, of Mississippian age. It occurs in the east bank of Clear creek, in sections 23 and 24, T. 118.,R. 38 W. The beds furnished Aspidocrinus scutelleformis, Anoplotheca concava, Eatonia singularis, Leptenisca concava, Megalanteris con- doni, Meristelia arcuaia? Oriskania sinuata n. var., Spirifer concinnus, S. cyclopterus, S. macropleura, S. perlamellosus, Stropheodonta beck, S. varistriata, and variety arata, Stro- phonella punctulifera, Uncinulus nobilis? and 1. nucleolata. Oriskanian.—Clear Creek cherts, Camden cherts.—The Clear Creek formation consists of light grey to yellowish colored cherts that are usually in thin layers, but which in the lower part are sometimes three to five feet in thickness. At some points the cherts are thoroughly leached and decom- posed, and occur as a fine white powder that can be dug with a shovel, and is utilized for commercial purposes. This formation rests, with erosional unconformity, upon the New Scotland beds at the south end of the Back Bone ridge. It corresponds in age to the Camden cherts of western Tennes- see. The beds represent deposits of the Upper Oriskany time, as is indicated by the interwedging of the upper chert layers with those of the basal portion of the succeeding Onondaga (see 6a to 6e of section). The chert formation has a thickness, Pid “isa BS T. E.. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern [llinois. 487 in Illinois, of about 237 feet. Fossils are somewhat rare in the lower portion, but in the middle, and especially in the upper, portion there is a rich fauna including Michelinia, n. sp., Ambocelia cf. umbonata, Amphigenia “curta, Anoplia nucleata, Anoplotheca flabellites, A. fimbriata, Centronella glansfagea, Chonostrophia reversa, Cyrtina hamiltonensis, Eatonia peculiaris, KE. cf. whitfieldi, Hodevonaria melonica, Leptostrophia perplana, Megalanteris condoni, Oriskania sinuata n. var., Pholidops terminalis, Phipidomella MUSCU- losa, Spirifer worthenan us, S. duodenarius, S. macrothyris, S. hemicyclus, S. tribulis, S. ef. murchisoni, Schuchertella pandora, Acidaspis tuberculata, Odontocephalus arenarius and Phacops cristata. These Upper Oriskany beds were deposited near the north end of the Mississippian embayment, which at this time was even more contracted than during the Helderber gian. The basin was remote from, and not connected with, the New York—Maryland province. It covered western Kentucky and Tennessee, and lapped over the southeast corner of Missouri and the east side of Arkansas, spreading an arm across north- ern Alabama. Onondaga.—The sedimentation of the Upper Oriskany time continued without a break into the Onondaga or Corniferous. The latter period was initiated by disturbances to the west- ward, in Ozarkia, which increased mechanical sedimentation in the Llinois area. These resulted for a time in the deposition, along the eastern shore of Ozarkia, of layers of sand containing Onondaga fossils alternating with the return of the Oriskanian limestone conditions. Eventually sand deposition prevailed and there was spread over the basin the basal sandstone of the Onondaga formation (7a of section), containing J/ichelinia stylopora, Aulacophyllum sp., Amphigenia curta, Centronella glansfagea, Meristella near lentiformis, Rhipidomella muscu- losa, Spirifer duodenarius, S. macrothyris, Conocardium cuneus and Odontocephalus arenarius. Early in the Onondaga time an elevation in the southern portion of Union and in Alexander county put a stop to further deposition in these regions, while farther north, in Jackson county, sedimentation was uninterrupted. At the cut through the Back Bone and at the Bake Oven, a short distance north of Grand Tower, there is exposed a ConGanions section of the Onondaga formation showing a thick- ness of 115 feet. The beds consist largely of light colored, regularly bedded, more or less erystalline limestone, which becomes arenaceous in the lower part. Fossils are abundant throughout the section. The upper layers are marked by Chonetes konickianus, Leptena rhomboidalis, Pentamerella arata, P. papilionensis, 438 T. EF. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern Illinois. Meristella rostrata, Rhynchonella gainesi, Spirifer acumin- atus, S. griert, S. macra, Stropheodonta patersoni, Conocar- dium tri ygonale and On ychodus sigmotdes. In the lower part Nucleocrinus verneuili, Coscinium cribriformis, Centronella glansfagea, Leptena rhomboidalis, Meristella barrisi, Penta- merella arata, Spirifer acuminatus, S. duodenarius, S. macrothyris, Str opheodonta patersoni, Dalmanites calypso, Odontocephalus egeria and Onychodus sigmoides are common. During the Onondaga and the succeeding Hamilton time the warm waters from the Gulf region, with their successive faunas, spread towards the nor theast across Illinois and Indi- ana, passing around the north end of the Cincinnati axis, and mingled with those of the eastern embayment in western New York. Such water connections permitted continued migra- tions within this sea, and accounts for the close correspondence between the various Middle Devonian faunas of southwestern Illinois and those of western Ontario and New York. Hamulton.—Throughout Hamilton time the Kankakee bar- rier, or peninsula, extending from Ozarkia towards the north, east across Illinois, was largely effective in preventing the waters of the Interior or Mississippian sea from uniting with those of the Northwestern or Dakotan basin towards the north- west. As a result of this separation the deposits and the faunas of Hamilton time, in Illinois, belong to two distinet provinces. The phase of the Hamilton in the vicinity of Roek Island, and in ens and Calhoun counties, belongs to the Northwestern or Dakotan province; while that of south- west Illinois belongs to the New York province. The New York faynal phase of the Hamilton is well developed in the south part of Union county, in the north half of sect. 34, T. 13 8., R. 2 W.; and further north in the N.E. 4 of sect. 34, T. 11 8.; R. 2 W. The formation is also represented in the upper beds near the north end of Back Bone ridge, in Jackson county. At the first mentioned exposure there is at the base of the Hamilton 28 feet of yellowish-blue shale, which contains Letorhynchus limitare. Both the character of the sediment and the fossils remind decidedly of the Marcellus shale of New York. This shale rests unconformably (erosional) upon the basal sandstone member (7a) of the Onondaga. It is suc- ceeded by a few feet of limestone which, in places, is much leached and very fossiliferous; Athyris spiriferoides, Del- thyris sculptilis, Rhipidomella penelope, Spirifer granulosus and Stropheodonta concava being very common. At points further north the lower beds of the Hamilton consist of dark colored, impure limestone which succeeds the Onondaga with- out any apparent break. The characteristic fossils of these layers are Microcyclus discus, Athyris vittata, Hunella atten- T. E. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern Illinois. 439 uata, Spirifer fornacula, Conocardium cuneus and Onycho- dus sigmoides. The middle portion of the Hamilton limestone is dark colored and evenly bedded, and contains Ambocwlia wmbonata, Chonetes yandellanus, C. pusillus, Cranena romingert, Para- zyga hirsuta, Pholidops oblata, and Spirifer pennatus. Above this horizon occurs about 25 feet of yellowish-brown, impure siliceous limestone with few fossils. Near the top of the formation come in a few feet of hard, gray limestone con- taining Chonetes coronatus, Rhipidomella vanuxemi, Spirifer audaculus, S. pennatus, Tropidoleptus carinatus and Vitu- lina pustulosa. Upper Devonian.—During Upper Devonian time the Mississippian sea continued to expand, spreading the materials of this formation more widely than the preceding. In the N.E. + of section 34, T. 11 S., R. 2 W., the lower deposits of the Upper Devonian are conformable upon the Hamilton. There is here exposed a thickness of 83 feet of yellowish- brown (black where unweathered), siliceous shale or shaly limestone, cherty near the top, and marked by Lecorhynchus globuliformis, L. mesacostalis, Reticularia levis and Spiri- Jer pennatus. At other points the upper cherty phase is suc- ceeded by 50 or more feet of greenish to black, almost barren shales. These siliceous and dark colored shales are probably the equivalent of the ‘calico rock,” a mottled and leached, siliceous shale, present further south in Union and Alexander counties. They doubtless correspond with the Chattanooga Black Shale, Ohio Black Shale, New Albany Black Shale, and the Lower Portage beds of other states. Conclusion.—The present studies have shown that the pre- Mississippian beds have a much wider distribution in south- western Illinois than was formerly supposed. They have dis- tinguished the presence of a bed of blue, fossiliferous shale (2b of section) containing the Cy cloeystoides and Phylloporina fauna, immediately overlying the Thebes sandstone and shale horizon. They have demonstrated the presence, in this region, of Silurian beds corresponding with the Clinton formation in Ohio. They have shown that the massive crystalline lime- stone underlying the Clear Creek cherts, in Jackson and Union counties, belongs to the New Scotland formation of the Hel- derbergian. They have demonstrated the Upper Oriskany age of the Clear Creek cherts. They have disclosed the absence of the greater portion of the Onondaga formation in the southern portion of Union and in Alexander county; and they have shown that the Hamilton formation, in Union county, continues upward without a break into the Lower Portage beds of the Upper Devonian. The general relations of the formations discussed above may be shown in a composite section as follows : 440 T. E. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern Illinois. Generalized section of the ae ississippian strata in southwesternIllinois. Devonian | Correla- tions. New Albany Black Shale Upper Devonian Chattanooga Black Shale Ohio Black Shale Lower Portage, 86 feet. youenee See 1/4 sec. E. 1, T. 188., BR. 2 W. and §S. 2W. N. HE. 1/4 sec. 34, T. 115S., R. | | Descriptions of horizons 10c. Greenish-blue shale, fossils almost none___---- 100. Black shale with few fossils, but carrying nu- merous ERY small balls of iron pyrite from 17/8 toll/2yinchyinydiameter=ae 45.0 10a. Brown to black, siliceous shale or shaly lime- stone with Leiorhynchus globuliformis and 29 ft. Pi tte iReticulomias loeui ses. eee eee ene 36 1/2 ft. Late Middle Devonian Early Middle Devonian 98 feet Hamilton, 70 feet. Marcellus, Onondaga, 156-2/3 feet R. 2 W., Union co. at Back Bone near Grand Tower N. E. 1/4 sect. 34, T.1158., Sect. |N. 1/2 sect. 34, |T.188.,R. 2 W. Union county Back Bone, Jackson county 9c. Light gray, siliceous limestone, in part oolitic, characterized by Chonetes coronatus, Cra- nena romingeri, Sptrifer pennatus, S. audac- ulus, Tropidoleptus carinatus and Vitulina POUSUULO SOUS es WS a Nyt Et ELS ee 9b. Yellowish-brown siliceous or shaly limestone with Few OSSIIS ACs) hea ees oe cue eee 9a. In the north are dark colored, fine-grained lime- stones with Microcyclus discus, Chonetes yan- dellanus, Eunella attenuata, Parazyga hirsuta, Spirifer fornacula and S. pennatus. In the south are gray or leached limestones with Athyris spiriferoides, Delthyris sculptilis, 8a. Rather soft shale weathering to a yellowish- brown color, with Leiorhynchus limitare_.--- This horizon is not present at the north, in Jackson county. Spirifer granulosus, Rhipidomella penelope - -- 20. £t. 38 ft. 28 ft. The Onondaga is well developed in Jackson county, where it passes without a break into the Hamilton. In the southern part of Union county there is a break, and the Onondaga is ‘ represented only by the basal sandstone (7a of section). Ti. Heavy layers of very hard, gray, coarsely crys- talline limestone, containing corals, Chonetes konickianus, Pholidostrophia iowensis, Product- ella spinulicosta, and Stropheodonta concava. Strophalosia truncata is abundant in the lower half, while Productella spinulicosta is common | injthe upperspaciiseeee ee == ee eee 7h. Layer of dark colored limestone largely com- posed of Chonetes konickianus var. ---------- 26 ft. 3 5/6 tt. T. E. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern [llinors. 44] Devonian arly Middle Devonian Correla- tions Onondaga, 156-2/3 feet N.W. 1/4 sec. 26, Location of sections Back Bone, Jackson county Bake Oven, Jackson county | MSs) Slog, Lito Wiiog also S.W. 1/4 sec. 26, 7.18 8., R.2 W. Union county Tf. Te. . Dark gray, impure, fine-grained limestone. 7b. Descriptions of horizons Thin-bedded, hard, gray limestone, layers 2-10 inches thick. Fossils rare ; Chonetes konick- ianus var. present in the upper part and C. pusillus and Stropheodonta concava in the lower 15) sare Hard, gray, impure limestone with few fossils__ 21 ft. Dark gray, impure limestone with thin chert bands near the top. Fossils numerous, Nucle- ocrinus verneuili, Rhynchonella gainesi, Meris- tella barrisi, Spirifer acuminatus, Stropheo- donta patersoni, etc 8 1/3tt. Cho- netes mucronatus abundant in a zone near the middle. Other fossils are Rhipidomella vanux- emi, Spirifer grieri, Stropheodonta patersont, S. perplana, and Phacops cristata 11 ft. Heavy layers of light gray, subcrystalline limestone. Fossils abundant. Cosciniwm cribriformis, Centronella glansfagea, Spirifer duodenarius, S. macrothyris and Odontoce- phalus egeria present throughout --__.----- Alternating layers of light gray, arenaceous, subcrystalline limestone and coarse-grained sandstone, containing Centronella glansfagea, Meristella near lentiformis, Rhipidomella mus- culosa, Spirifer duwodenarius and S. macro- CHU TUS RES RUE NA AS ONAN RGN TONS CES DE 2A 15 1/2ft. . Bed of more or less iron-stained sandstone, in places soft and friable, at other points cement- ed by a deposit of iron or silica, containing Michelinia stylopora, Aulacophyllum sp., Cen- tronella glansfagea, Spirifer duodenarius, S. macrothyris and Odontocephulus arenarius... 18 ft. Oriskanian Upper Oriskany—Clear Creek Chert, Camden Chert, 237 feet N. W. Schaffer’s branch, 2 miles west of Jonesboro. 1/4 see. 26, T.125.,R.2 W. Union county Ge. . Layers of light chert, 4-8 inches thick. Bed of light gray chert in layers 3-9 inches thick. Amphigenia curta, Chonostrophia reversa, Ko- devonaria melonica, Schuchertella pandora and Spirifer worthenanus abundant . Reddish-brown, friable sandstone with Miche- linia stylopora, Zaphrentis sp., Amphigenia curta and Spirifer duodenarius..-....-.---- 25/6 ft. Anoplia nucleata, Chonostrophia reversa, Hodevonaria melonica, Schuchertella pandora and Spirifer worthenanus 442 T. FE. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern Lllinois. oe Correla-| Location oie E me tions of Descriptions of horizons = sections = 6a. Bed of light colored chert layers, in places alter- a nating with impure siliceous ere os 42 Sey aie at other points composed wholly of chert 3 = = = bands. roses most abundant in the upper Eada tls ena cetieey part. Amphigenia curta, Anoplotheca flabel- q O59 Pa Pa AS lites, Eatonia peculiaris, Hodevonaria melon- Ss See | nten ca ica, Chonostrophia reversa, Schuchertella a OR |ASAss, pandora, Spirifer worthenanus, and S. hemi- Te lea Hod gad cyclus common in the upper part.---_____- 225 ft. s eae Sates In the southern part of Union county the a8 Sp S285) lower chert layers are massive and contain wa (em fa but few fossils. In the pit worked by the M. os > SS and O, railroad, 1 1/2 miles north of Tamms, m4 Soy ae ae in Alexander county, may be seen an exposure 5, eal a of more than 100 feet in which few fossils 5 BALE were found. a 8 A short break in sedimentation. A Exe SARs g BUS 3 5b. Heavy bedded, light colored, coarsely crystalline es fol aug limestone with Eatonia singularis, Spirifer iS oC aloe macropleura, S. perlamellosus, Stropheodonta = i Be ~Se beckit and Strophonella punctulifera ._..-- about 08 ft, = 909 2) ge | egies 2 & a pease da. Bed of impure, shaly limestone with bands and & $B aes nodules of chert in the upper portion. Dai- > ca Ses manella subcarinata, Meristella levis, Spirifer a8) = Ea cyclopterus, S. perlamellosus and Str aphonelia ibe rs ® See 6 punctulifera . Go. ss ee about : A ses The horizon of 5a appears to belong immedi- aoe SE 5 ately below 5b. It is doubtless present at Bald Riser Rock and in the river bluff further south, but bescr the fossils were not found at the latter points. A long break in sedimentation. es SS 4c. Pink, mottled limestone in layers 10-45 inches a = “oa thick, containing many small, immature bra- & aq |Ba . chiopods, with which occur Plectambonites 2 2 2 | = S transversalis, Rafinesquina mesacosta and ri ba a4 Le Oo Sptrifer near sulcata....--. ..-.------------ 23 ft. ols ei | a = |4b. Layers of gray to drab colored limestone, 2-6 die ae om . 8 inches thick, alternating with thin bands of =a | ® a 3 so chert, and characterized by such typical Clin- ye Bo ant ton fossils as Stricklandinia triplesiana, and ; wD Se AAs Triplecia: ortont 20) 2 Se 08a ) eee a | 8 PA 4a. Bed of tough, gray limestone in layers 3-8 inches ay Bo Rese thick, which are imperfectly separated by 2- Db 7S Teo to 4-inch partings of chert. Fossils rare_... 0-46 ft. ae Bom 4a is wanting at some points in this area. OF |aadg T. FE. Savage—Stratigraphy of Southwestern Lllinois. 443 Sys- tem Correla- tions Location of sections Descriptions of horizons A short break in deposition. Middle Silurian Alexandrian Cape Girardeau Limestone, about 44 feet in Along the river 1 1/2 miles north of Thebes, and also 1 mile south of Thebes, Alexander county 3c. Coarse-grained, somewhat oolitic limestone, in layers 12-18 inches thick. Atrypa rugosa, Rhynchotreta sp., Schuchertella subplanus, W hitfieldella billingsana and Lichas breviceps clntonensis are common.---_--------------- 3 1/2 ft. 3b. Fine-grained, dark colored shaly limestone, in layers 4-10 inches’ thick, characterized by Rafinesquina mesacosta, Schuchertella sub- planus and Dalmanites danw_.-._.--------- 2 1/2 ft. 3a. Cape Girardeau limestone: Fine-grained, black, brittle limestone, layers 1-4 inches thick, separated from each other by thin lenses or partings of calcareous shale on the surface of which are exposed Crinoids, Rafinesquina mesacosta, Rhynchotrema sp., Schuchertella missouriensis and Cornulites tenuistriata, ete. 33-38 ft. Lower Silurian or Ordovician Cincinnatian Richmond-Maquoketa, 91 ft. East bank of Mississippi river in the 20 south part of Thebes mile south of Gale, Alex- ‘ ~~ ander county. 1/ A probable short break in sedimentation. 2b. Bed of grayish-blue shale in which 1-inch bands of more resistant calcareous shale occur 4-6 inches apart, bearing Rhynchotrema incequi- valve ?, Strophomena sulcata, Zygospira recur- virostra, Conradella sp., and Isotelus sp. ; 18 ft. 2a. Thebes sandstone and shale: Bluish to brown, shaly sandstone. In the lower part a sand- stone in layers 1/2-2 1/2 feet thick; the upper portion thinner bedded with a larger admixture of shale. Lingula cf. covingto- nensis the only fossil found____------------ Gdtts A long break in deposition. Mohawkian Galena-Trenton, 68--80 ft. East bank of Mississippi 17, T. 15 8., R. 2 W. river, 3/8 mile south of Thebes; S. E. 1/4 see. la. Light gray, coarsely crystalline limestone, in reg- ular layers 3-48 inches thick, the upper part characterized by the fossils Receptaculites oweni, Herbertella near occidentalis, Platys- trophia biforata, Plectorthis plicatella, Cyrto- lites ornatus and Platymetopus cucullus, while the lower is marked by Receptaculites owenit, Rhynchotrema inequivalve, Parastrophia hem- ipiicatonandylriplecia; ne sp wee sees sae eeee 68-80 ft. did Gooch and kddy—Separation of Magnesium. Arr. XLVIL.— The Separation of Magnesium from the Alka- lies by Alcoholic Ammonium Carbonate: by F. A. Goocu and Ernest A. Eppy. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—clxxiv. ] Nearty fifty years ago Schaffgotsch* brought out the ammonium carbonate method for the separation of magnesium from the alkalies. According to this process, the very concen- trated solution of the sulphates, nitrates or chlorides of magnesium, sodium, and potassium, is treated with a concen- trated solution of ammonium carbonate. The voluminous precipitate which first falls is acted npon by an excess of the pre- cipitant, sometimes dissolving completely, and crystalline am- monium magnesium, MgeCO,.(NH,),CO,.4H,O, is soon formed. After standing twenty-four hours the precipitate is filtered off, washed with the concentrated ammoniacal solution of ammo- nium carbonate, dried and strongly ignited. In the absence of salts of potassium, the residue is weighed at once as mag- nesium oxide, and from the filtrate sodium salts are recovered by evaporation. When asalt of potassium is originally present, with or without asalt of sodium, the ignited magnesium oxide is to be washed out and again ionited before weighing, and the washings are to be added to the filtrate containing the oreater part of the alkalies. When Schaffgotsch published this methodt it was customary to deal in analysis with larger amounts of material than at present and the requirements as to results were not so exacting. In eight complete determinations, upon which Schaffgotsch rested, weights of salts taken ranged between 1°75 grm. and 3°69 grm., and the magnesium oxide taken approximated 0°6 erm. ; while the weight “of magnesium oxide found varied from 00007 grim. to 0° 0082 erm., with an aver age error amounting to 0°6 per cent. Though these results do not meet the modern requirements of a good analytical method, the process has been recently recommended and applied in roek analysis by Wuelting,{ and mentioned by Hillebrand.g It has seemed to us desirable, therefore, that the method should be again submitted to care- ful testing, and to that end the following work was undertaken. * Ann. Phys., civ,.482, 1858. earns method was published by H. Weber, Jahresb. Chem., 1858, p. : +t Ber. Dtsch. Gesellsch., xxxii, 2214, 1899. SU. 5S. Geol. Sur. Bulletin, 505, 149. Gooch and Eddy—Separation of Magnesium. 445 Hxperimental. Schaffgotsch’s reagent was prepared by dissolving 230 grm. of ammonium carbonate in 180°* of ammonium hydroxide, diluting the solution to one liter and filtering. A solution of magnesium chloride was prepared by the following process. Presumably pure magnesium oxide, 20 grm., was treated with nitric acid not quite sufficient in amount to act upon all the oxide. The solution thus obtained was diluted somewhat, and boiled and filtered to remove traces of the elements of the iron group. From this filtrate the greater part of the magnesium was precipitated by concentrated ammonium car bonate, thrown upon a filter, washed, and nearly dissolved in nitric acid. The solution, containing some undis- solved magnesium carbonate, was first boiled and filtered to remove traces of the elements of the caleium group, and then treated again with ammonium carbonate to precipitate mag- nesium carbonate. The insoluble magnesium carbonate was washed and dissolved in the least possible amount of hydro- chloric acid; and the solution was suitably diluted, and standardized by heating definite portions in a large platinum crucible with sulphuric acid, evaporating, removing the excess of sulphuric acid by careful ‘heating over a radiator and bring- ing to constant weight the residue of magnesium sulphate. With the Schaffgotsch reagent and the standard solution of pure magnesium chloride the following experiments were made. In Table I are given results of experiments made to test the solubility of the ammonium magnesium carbonate in an excess of the precipitant of full strength or half strength. Definite portions of the standard solution of magnesium chlor- ide were evaporated in a beaker of 250™ capacity nearly to dryness, and the precipitant was added in the amount indicated. The mixture, stirred vigorously until the flocky precipitate had disappeared and the crystalline double carbonate had begun to form, was allowed to stand at least twenty-four hours. The precipitate, filtered off on asbestos in a perforated crucible, the filtrate being used to effect the transfer without addition of other liquid, was dried, ignited, and weighed as magnesium oxide. The filtrate was treated with microcosmic salt, and, after standing over night, was again filtered on asbestos in a weighed perforated crucible, and the precipitate was washed with water faintly ammoniacal, dried, ignited and weighed. The increase in weight of the er ucible was taken as magnesium pyrophosphate from which the magnesium oxide was caleu- lated. In the experiments of A, Schaffgotsch’s reagent of full strength was used as the pr ecipitant. In B the same reagent was used of half strength. Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtsH Sreries, Vout. XXV, No. 149.—May, 1908. 30 446 Gooch and Eddy—Separation of Magnesium. TABLE I, Volume of MgO MgO foundas Volume reagent taken as MgO Error Mg.P.0; in of precip- used in MgCl, weighed MgO filtrate itant washing grms. grm, grm, grm, em, em?, A. 0°0029 — 0°0000 —0°0029 00-0024 100 32 00289 0°0286 —0:0003 0.0007 10 a 0'1444 0°1430 —0°0014 0°0006 50 Be 071444 0°1427 —0°0017 0:0009 50 50 ; B. 0°00384 0:0000 — 0°0034 0°00383 100 as 0°0342 0°0542 —0:0000 0°0002 10 ae 01708 0°1694 —0:°0014 0:0012 50 eee 0°1708 0°1696 —0°0012 0°0012 59 ae 071708 0°1698 —0:0010 00020 50 25 01708 0°1683 —0°0025 0°0024 100 10 0°1708 0°1670 — 0:0038 0°0043 200 10 These experiments show plainly that ammonium magnesium carbonate is noticeably soluble in Schaffgotsch’s solution of full strength, and rather mere so in the samer ‘eagent wf half strength. So, it is evident that an exact separation “of magnesium from the alkalies, in solutions of reasonable volnme, cannot be made without some modification of the method. The effect of add- ing to the mixture certain proportions of alcohol was therefore tried, and, after some preliminary attempts, a series of experi-_ ments was performed for which the precipitant used was made by saturating with ammonium carbonate a mixture of 180% of ammonium hydroxide, 800°" of water, and 900° of absolute. aleohol, and filtering, after some hours, from the undissolved ammonium carbonate. In the experiments of Table II (A), por- tions of the standard solution of magnesium chloride were evap- orated nearly to dryness and to the residue was added a definite amount of the alcoholic solution of ammonium carbonate. The precipitates, after stirring and standing over night, were fil- tered upon asbestos in the perforated platinum crucible, washed with the precipitant, dried, ignited strongly, and weighed. The filtrates were examined as before for dissolved magnesium by the phosphate method. In the experiments of Table II (B) an equal volume of alcohol was added to the solution of magnesium chloride taken and to this mixture was added, as a precipitant, a volume of the saturated alcoholic solution of ammonium ear- bonate equal to that of the magnesium chloride. The precipi- tate was filtered, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed as in the former experiments. The filtrate was examined as before for- magnesium. Gooch and Eddy—Separation of Magnesium. 447 TaBLe II. MgO MgO Vol. Vol. Vol. of taken found of of solution as MgO Error as Original alcohol precipi- used in MgCl, weighed in MgO Mg.P20, vol. added tant. washing grm. grm. erm. grm. cm? em? em? em? A 0°1444 0°1446 +40°0002 0:°0001 eee Bes 50 Ae 0°1444 0°1449 +40°0005 0:0000 ny oe 100 Se 071444 0°1445 +0°0001 0-0000 ee Lt 100 50 0°1444 071445 +0°:0001 6°0000 ies ae 100 50 B 071444 0°1443 —0°0001 0°0000 50 50 50 zB 0°1444 0°1440 —0:0004 0°0002 50 50 50 From the results of section A of this table, it appears that the precipitation of the magnesium brought about in 100™ of a saturated ammoniacal ammonium carbonate solution contain- ing 50 per cent of alcohol is complete. From the result of sec- tion B it appears that the precipitation produced in 150™ of a one-third saturated solution of ammonium carbonate containing 50 per cent of alcohol is reasonably complete. Table III shows the details of certain experiments in which the separation of magnesium from the alkalies was attempted by the precipitation processes of Table II. In the experiments of A the precipitation was brought about by treating the solu- tion of magnesium chloride and the alkali chlorides, concen- trated in the highest degree, with the saturated ammoniacal ammonium carbonate solution containing 50 per cent of alcohol. In the experiments of B,. an equal volume of absolute alcohol was added to the water solution containing magnesium chloride and the alkali chlorides, and to this mixture was added the saturated ammoniacal ammonium carbonate solution containing 50 percent of alcohol. In the experiments of C the precipi- tate was made as in the experiments of B, but, after pouring off the supernatant liquid through the asbestos felt of a weighed perforated platinum crucible, was dissolved in the beaker by warming with the least possible amount of hydrochloric acid. The solution was diluted with water to 50°* and treated as in the first precipitation. The second precipitate was collected upon the asbestos felt through which the supernatant liquid had been filtered after the first precipitation, ignited, and weighed. The filtrates were tested for dissolved magnesium as in former experiments. In experiments in which the fil- tration was made after twenty minutes it was found advisable to hurry the crystallization by stirring the mixture for not less than five minutes after adding the precipitant. 448 Gooch and HKddy—Separation of Magnesium. TaBLeE III. = Doe (’eor |e ae ie 2 Bale siagio9 4 Se Nase EM Atel ey OMe | fe SSA Sss ge sl Sad| Sas [Bas Sa/Ce/ Sales al as 2'S 0015 bo\— b0/O bo) o> bo] Ga & 4S | o-4 osia la o-5 aa See 1 {SO * E os asideiseisss| gs Zz MI SUE IER iGiaices | | ae Sse le 5 0:1444| __|0°1] .. |0°1455] +0-0011/0-0000|1-2|.__|100| 50 | over 0°1444/ 0-1} --| -- |0°1446) + 0-0002/0:0000/1—2 | ___ 100 50 night B 071444) -_| 071] ~_ |0°1445| +0°0001/0-0001; 50 | 50 |50 |} 50 |20 min Orileees | 4 Ord - |0°1444) 0:0000)0°0001) 50 |50 |50 | 50 }20 * 071444) O°1l| _- - |0°1445| + 0°0001)0:0002) 50 | 50 |50 | 50 |20 “ 0°1444| O-1l| --]| .-- |0°1449| + 0°0005/0°0001; 50 |50 |}50 | 50 |20 % 0°1444/0°2| _. | ~- |0°1449) +0:0005|0°0002} 50 |50 |50 | 50 |20 * 0°1444) _-| 0:2] _- |0°1461)+.0°0017/0°0000} 50 | 50 |50 | 50 |20 “ 0°1444) _.| -_| 380 )0°1444| 0:0000\0°0001/ 50 | 50 |50 | 50 |20 * 071444) __| _- | 3:0 |0°1447/ +0-0003|0:0002/ 50 |50 |50 | 50 |20 * C | 0°1444] 0-2] ._] ~. 071446] +.0-0002|0-0002] 50 | 50 |50 | 50 |20 min. 0:1444| __| 0-2] __ 10°:1442!—0-0002|0-0002| 50 150 150 | 50 120° « The results of each method of treatment are plainly very good, but it is more convenient to add alcohol to a water solu- tion than to evaporate a solntion and then treat the residue. Reprecipitation is shown to be advisable when large amounts of the alkalies are present. For amounts comparable to those which we have handled, the procedure is very rapid and simple. The solution containing the salts of magnesium and the alkalies is brought to a volume of about 50°" and an equal amount of absolute alcohol is added, precipitation is made by addition of 50°™* of the saturated ammoniacal ammonium carbonate solu- tion containing 50 per cent alcohol, and the mixture is allowed to stand twenty minutes with stirring for five minutes. If the amount of alkali salt originally present is small, the precipi- tate may be collected on asbestos in a perforated crucible, washed with the precipitant, dried, ignited, and weighed as magnesium oxide. When the amount of alkali salt originally present is large, the precipitate may be freed from traces of the alkali salt by pouring off the supernatant liquid through the prepared asbestos filter, dissolving the precipitate, and pre- cipitating ammonium magnesium carbonate as at first. This second precipitate, collected upon the filter originally used, leaves upon ignition practically pure magnesium oxide. Chemistry and Physics. 449 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. Determination of Small Amounts of Iron in Copper Alloys.— A colorimetric method for this purpose has been worked out by A. W. Grecory by making use of the well-known color imparted to solutions of ferric salts by salicylic acid. Two tenths of a gram of alloy are dissolved in a minimum quantity of strong nitric acid. If a precipitate is formed, due to tin or antimony, the liquid is diluted slightly and filtered. Lead if present must be removed as sulphate. ‘To the solution 20° of a concentrated solution of sodium acetate are added and 10° of a 10 per cent. solution of salicylic acid in glacial acetic acid. 12 9) 12 Sy Wad 1 eta 3 \ qs3 g 934) = Awe SR PR PP WU YY LCLYEELEY Dao Po STIM— LEN Ways PEs IIYGOwWY 9 oo — G—LAN SO Dore et MLeErYPY Xo SSS eae EMS ase OY SSO LY POY COURS RY 99 ~—WUE QQQVUN PY O-—9LL CW P—VUY pw—w e——TS24 Ce —— WS RP EDAVWOP— KP LAQAY—WY OO OSM ymweV.qghy eyo — ee ee OO ee Ora ae el ote0 A gfe CF IWU)C ey WwW 69.0W & MOY NGO OD — — PO — HH HI DOLL EY APT HlOuUe MOOS — “lO BOTS M — ody +o BY WY Ye vg — GYOW ODOC Y Co l2-—cO~ C ww OV IT — pe therefore, that my compilation of the analyses in order of con- centration might be worth record. The geological column of Missouri shows a distinct transition from that typical of the east to that of the west, the Grand Canyon 454 Scientific Intelligence. type, in that the whole interval from the Cambrian (or rather the Saint Peter) sandstone to the Carboniferous is not very thick. Thus very many of the deeper Missouri wells may draw both from the Calciferous and the Lower part of the Pennsylvanian. The Calciferous or St. Peter is, says Shepard, the most important water bearer, and is classed as Cambro-Ordovician. This relatively thin column between the St. Peter and the Coal-measures is in part due to one or more unconformities. These imply that Missouri was out of water during long periods of the Paleozoic. We also find that there are considerable local disturbances, so that, for instance, the beds from which the deep St. Louis wells draw their water come to the surface within a few miles. Thus both during Paleozoic times and more recently considerable circulation may have taken place. Missouri, then, is not a very good state from which to draw safe conclusions as to buried waters. Nevertheless Shepard also notes indications of ‘ fossil brines.” T have arranged the analyses in order according to the total solids. The strongest water given has a little over two per cent solids. I have then (fig. 1) drawn a line from an abscissa X corresponding to this concentration down to an arbitrary ordi- nate. Opposite points on this line corresponding to the strengths of the various waters I have drawn lines connecting an abscissa corresponding to the chlorine with one corresponding to the sodium for the same analysis. If the waters were dilutions of one water, or simply compounds of two waters, straight lines could be drawn through the ends of these lines. With the chlorine this is nearly but not absolutely. true, lead- ing one to infer that there is one strong water, strong in solids and also strong in chlorine, and that the waters with which it has been diluted have relatively almost insignificant amounts of chlorine. With the sodium this is not so much so. The ratio of sodium to chlorine is quite variable, sometimes more and sometimes less than in salt. In the sodium there are at least three types of water that must be assumed,—a saline one with over 2°5 per cent solids, a fresh one practically pure, and an alkali water such as is characteristic of the far west and is best represented by the Haver well, p. 69, strong in sodic sulphate or carbonate. Otber fairly weak wells show the same predominance of sodium. These arid land waters are factors which I have hitherto neg- lected. If the stronger analyses were derived by solution of salt from a weaker buried ocean water containing the calcium chlor- ide, we might expect the chlorine to form a larger proportion of the total solids in the weaker brines. Of this there is little or no sign. On the whole, therefore, the Missouri analyses, if compatible with the theory of the chemical evolution of the ocean at all, would indicate a greater degree of concentration in the Paleozoic than the figures in my address of last July, and hence much Geology. 455 greater time previous, and a relatively much earlier determina- tion of the composition and concentration of the “ organic medium.” There has also just appeared a bulletin of the Illinois Geologi- cal Survey on the waters of the East St. Louis district,* which should be studied at the same time. The Mascoutah well seems to be especially of interest. Unfortunately there are a number of slips by which contradictory statements as to the character of the water at different depths are made, but it seems likely that there are two main flows as usual, one from the Carboniferous and one from the Calciferous, differing greatly in sodium. In chlorine and total solids it agrees with the strongest of the Mis- souri water. 2. The Falls of the Niagara,—their Evolution and varying Relations to the Great Lakes ; Characteristics of the Power, and the Effects of its Diversion; by JosErpH Witi1am WINTHROP SPENCER. Pp. xxxi, 470, with 58 plates and 30 figures, frontis- piece and map. Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, 1907.— During the years 1905-1906 special surveys were made to deter- mine disputed points regarding the origin and history of certain features of the Niagara falls region. The results of these sur- veys, taken in connection with work previously done by Spencer, Taylor, Gilbert and others, give a fairly complete account of the physiography of the Niagara river. New soundings have been made for the entire gorge, which have determined its shape much more accurately than heretofore. The soundings directly underneath the Canadian falls, where an unexpected depth of 192 feet was found, and also in the Whirlpool rapids, were executed with great skill. A detailed study of the form of the gorge in connection with the structure of the rock forming its sides and bed has led to recalculations of the rate of recession. The mean rate for the Canadian falls from 1842 to 1905 is 4:2 feet annually; for the American falls about ‘6 of a foot annually. The rate is slower now than previously and the future retreat will be still slower, owing to the fact that the river is now receding up the-bank of an ancient river depression. The chapters dealing with the development of the Great Lakes, their shifting outlets due to uncovered channels and earth tilting, contain material that has previously been presented, but for the first time a definite pre-Glacial outlet for Lake Erie has been discovered and the existence of a buried valley extending from the falls southwestward toward the Welland river has been proven by well borings. A study of the rainfall, fluctuation of level, amount of discharge, etc., of Lake Erie is discussed in detail, and the conclusion reached that there has been practically no tilting of the lake beds during the past fifty years. * Bulletin No. 5, Illinois Geological Survey by I. Bowman and C. A. Reeds (this Journal, April, 1908, p. 393). The Mascoutah well is mentioned pp. 24, 57, 64, 76, 78, 938, 94, 117. ca 456 Scientific Intelligence. Dr. Spencer calls attention to the changes that are sure to occur in the character of the falls and the river as the result of power plants established at Niagara. If the concessions already granted are completely developed, the waters of the lakes will decrease materially and the American falls will entirely dis- appear. The level of Lake Erie has dropped eight inches already as the result of the dev elopment of about one-fourth of the fran- chise power. The detailed studies outlined above enable the author to reach the following conclusions regarding the age of the falls: “The time required for the recession of the double falls to Wilson point (in addition to the 3,200 years mentioned) is found to have been 31,600 years, and 700 years more to the head of Faster flats, the whole distance being nearly three miles. This was the length of the gorge excavated during the Erie Epoch. From now onward the recession was very rapid, modified at times, but in all requiring only about 3,500 years, so that the age of Niagara falls may be placed at about 39,000. Slight variations on one side or the other are probable, but under the conditions, all of which are now apparently known, the error in calculations will not exceed ten per cent.” (p. 11. The book is admirably illustrated and contains valuable his- torical matter. H. EB. G. 3. Michigan State Geological Survey. Aurrup C. Lang, State Geologist. Peat ; essays on its Origin, Uses and Distribution in Michigan ; by CuaruEs A. Davis. Pp. 105-361, 19 pls., and 19 figs. Lansing, 1907.—This book, issued as part of the Michigan Geological Survey report for 1906 (see this Journal, vol. xxv, p. 354), is deserving of wide recognition. It constitutes practically the only available source of information on a question which is much misunderstood. While the book is designed to apply particularly to the peat deposits of Michigan, the discussion is so general as to be practically a treatise on the whole subject. Part I deals with the or igin of peat, Part II with the peat bogs of north- ern Michigan, Part II] with the economics of peat. The discussion of peat origin necessarily involves a consider- able treatise on ecology, a subject with which Professor Davis is evidently much at home. The character of the peat-forming plants and the conditions under which they thrive are explained in detail. The discussion of the origin of peat bogs will interest all geologists, for Professor Davis finds that, contrary to the almost universally accepted idea, sphagnum moss is not an import- ant factor in bog formation. . “.. . peat is chiefly formed by plants which grow below or very near the water level, aquatic plants in connection with sedges, and other grass-like plants ; Sphagnum does not appear until late in the history of the formation, if at all, and develops only shallow, superficial layers of peat and usually grows best in association with certain shrubs, which may become prominent before the Sphagnum appears, and which may also reduce its effectiveness in peat-forming by developing dense Geology. ABT shade” (p. 170). The reviewer wishes to say that this conclusion is entirely in accord with the recent studies made of nearly one hundred bogs in Connecticut, in which the role played by peat has been heretofore misinterpreted. The chapter on the method of formation of bogs and their distribution contains much that is of interest to physiographers. The commercial value of peat, method of preparing it for the market, etc., is discussed in considerable detail. H. E. G. 4. Illinois State Geological Survey, H. Foster Bain, Director. Bulletin No. 6. The Geological Map of Illinois (Second edition) ; by Sruart WELLER. Pp. 32, with map. Urbana, 1907.—The activity of the Illinois Survey is well shown by the fact that a second edition of the geological map has been issued within a year (see this Journal, vol. xxii, p. 543, 1906). Considerable new information is given on the revised map, and in the accompanying builetin Dr. Weller discusses the formations in the light of recent field work. The outline of the Carboniferous has been entirely revised. H. E. G. 5. North Dakota Geological Survey. Fourth Biennial Report. A. G. Lronarp, State Geologist. Pp. 312, 37 pls., 1 map. Bis- marck, 1906.—The present report is a volume on the clays and clay industry of the state and should serve to increase the esteem with which the Survey is held by the people of North Dakota. The subdivisions of the subject, as treated, are: clay and its properties with special reference to North Dakota, stratigraphy of North Dakota clays, economic geology of clays, uses and value of clay products, and methods of brick manufacture. H. E. G. 6. Sur la Fixation des Coquilles de Quelques Strophomena- cea; by N. Yaxoview. Bull. Comité Géol., St. Petersbourg, XXvi, 1907, pp. 181-201, pls. 3, 4. From the short French résumé one learns that Meekella may be cemented to foreign objects by the ventral beak and grow in clusters with three to four individ- uals lying over one another—the cardinal area of one adjusted over the back of the ventral valve of another individual. When the shells are not cemented the cardinal areas are low and sym- metrical, the valves flattened and the plications regularly devel- oped. In the cemented forms the ventral area is much drawn out and more or less twisted to one side, while the plications are irregularly developed and even obsolete on the lateral parts of the valves. The calcareous cement, the author thinks, 1s extended through umbonal pores—a probable misunderstanding of the punctate nature of the Strophomenacea. The author also states that in Strophalosia and Aulosteges individuals may or may not be cemented by the ventral beak. In these genera the reviewer has seen individuals cemented by the spines, so that the absence of a ventral cicatrix is not final evidence of a lack of cementation. Finally the author states that different species of Strophalosia have developed.different species of Aulosteges, just as different 458 Setentifie Intelligence. species of Productus have given rise to different forms of Stro- phalosia. If this is all true, our definitions of these subdivisions needs emendation, and the reviewer regrets that he is not able to follow the discussion in the Russian text. Cc. 8. 7. The Data of Geochemistry ; by Frank WiaeLeswortH CrarKe. Pp. 716. Bull. 330, U. S. G. S.—The critical works of Bischof and Roth are well known to all geologists and contain what is most essential to the discussion of Chemical Geology down to the time of their publication. Years, however, have passed since the more recent of these appeared, and the material which many workers have added to this department of geology is extensive and varied. Furthermore, recent investigations have attacked many new problems, or approached old ones from new points of view. Important service to science has, therefore, been done by Prof. Clarke in bringing together in this voiume a digest of this recent literature belonging to the special depart- ment which is called by the author, Geochemistry. The work, however, is not simply a compilation, although on this side its completeness and the abundant references to the original litera- ture would make it most useful; it is also a critical summary of the whole subject, containing many suggestions from the author himself. After an introductory chapter devoted to the relations of the chemical elements and their distribution, the prin- cipal topics treated of are: the atmosphere ; the water of lakes, rivers, and oceans, with the saline residues which have accumu- lated in certain regions ; volcanic gases and the molten magma ; rock-forming minerals; igneous and metamorphic rocks, and metallic ores. Il. MisceLrutAneous Scientiric INTELLIGENCE. 1. National Academy of Sciences.—The annual spring meet- ing of the National Academy was held in Washington on April 21 —23; upwards of forty members were in attendance. The following are the officers: President, Ira Remsen ; Vice Presi- dent, Chas. D. Walcott; Home Secretary, Arnold Hague ; Treasurer, 8S. F. Emmons. The following new members were elected: Edwin Brant Frost, Yerkes Observatory; William E. Story, Clark University; Ernest F. Nichols, Columbia University; William F. Hillebrand, U.S. Geological Survey; William B. Clark, Johns Hopkins University; Whitman Cross, U. 8S. Geological Survey; Edwin Grant Conklin, Princeton University; Theobald Smith, Harvard Medical School; Simon Flexner, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. The following foreign associates were also elected: S. A. Arrhenius, Stockholm; Charles Barrois, Lille; Joseph Larmor, Cambridge; Ivan Petrovic Pavlov, St. Petersburg; Hugo Ritter von Seeliger, Munich. The next meeting of the Academy will be held on November 17 next at Johns Hopkins University, in Baltimore, Md. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 459 The following is a list of the papers presented at the meeting : W.M. Davis: A proposed International Atlas of land forms. W.B.Scotr: The geological age of the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia with restorations of Santa Cruz mammals. BE. L. Mark: The biological station for research at Agar’s Island, Ber- muda. EK. B. Witson: The cytological basis of heredity and the determination of sex. W. G. MacCatium and C. Voreriin : On the functions of the parathy- roid glands in their relation to calcium metabolism and tc tetany. T. C. CHAMBERLIN: Supplementary atmospheres. BaiLEyY WILLIS: Great tangential movements of the earth’s crust. L. A. BavER: Some results of the magnetic survey of the United States. EK. T. Atten: The metasilicates of lime and magnesia—an application of physical chemistry to minerals. W. P. Wuite: The exact measurement of quantities of heat, up to 1500° Centigrade. EK. L. Mark and Martin CoPpELAND: Spermatogenesis in the bee and in the wasp. J. McK. Catretui: Perceptions, ideas, and hallucinations, F. R. Moutton: Application of periodic solutions of the problem of three bodies to the motion of the Moon. A. Acassiz: The elevated reefs of Mombasa and adjacent coast. The pelagic fauna of Victoria Nyanza. C. G. Appor: Recent work of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. E. W. Wasusurn: The hydration of ions in solution. Lewis Boss: Radiant of the star-group in Taurus. W. K. Brooks: Biographical memoir of Alpheus Hyatt. G. W. Hitt: Biographical memoir of Asaph Hall. The members of the Academy attended, on Wednesday evening, the Hamilton lecture delivered by Prof. George E. Hale on the subject ““Some Recent Advances in our Knowledge of the Sun.” In the afternoon of the same day a visit was made to the recently completely Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, under the Directorship of Dr. Arthur L. Day. 2. Report of the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, O. A. Tirrmann, showing the Progress of the Work from July 1, 1906, to June 30, 1907. Pp. 565, with seven appendixes, numerous plates and 9 maps in pocket. 1907.-—The work of the Coast Survey for the period covered by this volume has been in many respects novel, since it included the investiga- tion of the effect of the San Francisco earthquake of April, 1906, on the region in the vicinity of the great fault which extends for a distance of 200 miles, from Point Arena to Monterey. The subject is discussed in detail in Appendix III and some of the conclusions noted are as follows; First, with reference to an earthquake of 1868, about 1000 square miles of the earth’s crust in the region immediately north of San Francisco were perma- nently displaced to the northward about 5°2 feet, the whole area probably moving as a bulk without distortion. During the great earthquake of April, 1906, points on opposite sides of the fault moved in opposite directions, those to the eastward southerly, and those to the westward in a northerly direction, the displace- 460 Scientific Intelligence. ments being approximately parallel to the fault and diminishing as the distance from it increased. On the western side the dis- placements were about twice as large as at corresponding points on the east. A critical examination was made of the small area one and one-quarter miles north of the Golden Gate, and it was decided that no general change of elevation of sufficient magni- tude to be detected had occurred. In addition to the regular work of the Survey the results given in Appendix V, by R. L. Faris, of magnetic observations, may be mentioned ; ‘and also the fifth and closing part of a Manual of the Tides, by R. A. Harris, the earlier parts of which were pub- lished in 1894, 1897, 1900 and 1904. In regard to the magnetic work it is to be noted that five observatories have been in con- tinuous operation during the year, namely at Cheltenham, Md., Baldwin, Kans.; Sitka, Alaska; near Honolulu. H. I. and on Vieques Is., Porto Rico. 3. Harvard College Observatory, Enywarp C. Pick®Er1INne, Director.—Recent publications from the Harvard Observatory are included in the following list (continued from vol. xxiv, p- 509) : Annats.—Vo!l. XLIX, Part I. Peruvian Meteorology; by Soton I. Barey. Observations made at the Arequipa Station 1892-1895. Pp. 103, plate 1. Vol. LIX, No. 1. Standard Tests of Photographic Plates ; by Epwarp S. Kive. Pp. 32, with 16 tables and 1 plate. Vol. LX, No. VI. Nebule Discovered at the Harvard College Observatory. Pp. 194, with 8 tables. No. VII. Double Stars south of —30°, and of magnitude 6°3 to 7:0. Pp. 195-198, with 1 table. No. VIII. A Catalogue of Bright Clusters and Nebule ; by Soton I. Bartey. Pp. 199-229, with 5 plates. Crrcutars.—No. 131. Group of Red Stars near Nova Velouin. No. 132. Stars having Peculiar Spectra: 15 New Variable Stars.. Pp. 3. No. 183. 15 New Variable Stars in Harvard Maps, Nos. 15, 18, and 27. Pp. 2, with 2 tables. No. 134. 16 New Variable Stars in Harvard Map, Nos. 37 and 46. Pp. 4, with 2 tables. No. 135. 25 New Variable Stars in Harvard Map, Nos. 24, 36, and 42. Pp. 3, with 2 tables. 4. Publications of the Allegheny Observatory of the Western University of Pennsylvania. Volume I, No. 2.—The subject discussed is ‘A simple method for reducing spectograms;” by FRANK SCHLESINGER. Pp. 9-16, with 2 tables. 5. Darwin Celebration at Cambridge.—It is announced that arrangements are now being made by the University of Cam- bridge to celebrate on June 22-24, 1909, the hundredth anniver- ary of the birth of Charles Darwin, and the fiftieth anniversary of the publication of the “ Origin of Species.” It is proposed to invite representatives of universities and other learned bodies, together with distinguished individuals, to visit the university on this occasion. A program of the celebration will be issued in the near future. Relief Map of the United States We have just prepared a new relief map of the United States, 48 x 82 inches in size, made of a special composition which is hard and durable, and at the same time light. The map is described in detail in circular No. 77, which will be sent on request. Price, $16.00. WARD’S NATURAL SCIENCE ESTABLISHMENT, 76-104 College Ave., ROCHESTER, N. Y. Warn’s NATURAL OCIENCE ESTABLISHMENT A Supply-House for Scientific Material. Founded 1862. - Incorporated 1890. DEPARTMENTS : Geology, including Phenomenal and Physiographic. Mineralogy, including also Rocks, Meteorites, etc. Palaeontology. Archaeology and Hthnology. Invertebrates, including Biology, Conchology, ete. Zoology, including Osteology and Taxidermy. : Human Anatomy, including Craniology, Odontology, ete. Models, Plaster Casts and Wall-Charts in all departments. Circulars in any department free on request; address Ward's Natural Science Establishment, 76-104 College Ave., Rochester, New York, U.S. A. CONTENTS. Page Art, XL.—Ionium, a New Radio-active Element; by B. B. Boitwoop XLI.—Mid-Cretaceous Species of Torreya ; by HE. W. Berry 382 XLIT.—Cranial Musculature and the Origin of the Frill in the Ceratopsian Dinosaurs; by R. 8. Lutz. (With Plates 1-1)... 2322S es ss ee XLUI.—Desiceation Conglomerates in the Coal-measures Limestone of Ohio ; by J. E. Hypz XLIV.—Behavior of Nuclei of Pure Water ; by C. Barus. 409 XLV.—Relations between the Meteorological Elements of the United States and the Solar Radiation ; by F. H. BigELOW XLVI—Dower, Paleozoic Stratigraphy of Southwestern Illi- nois; by T. E. Savace XLVII.—Separation of Magnesium from the Alkalies by Alcoholic Ammonium Carbonate ; by F. A. Goocn and BAS DDN: 2 20S Woe es Se Sener Gn fara pee eee ee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Determination of Small Amounts of Iron in Copper Alloys, A. W. Gregory: Action of Carbonates upon Tetrathionates, A. GutTMANN, 449.—Perearbonates, WOLFFENSTEIN and PHLTNER: Practical Methods for the Iron and Steel Works Chemist, J. K. Hmrss: Laboratory ‘Exercises in Physical Chemistry, F. H. Getman : Quantitative Chemical Analyses, A. F. Gitman: Flame Spectra obtained by Electrical Means, G. A. HemsaLecH and C. DE WATTEVILLE, 400.—Electric Furnace Reac- tions under High Pressure, R. S. Hurron and J. BE. Petave: Positive Column in Oxygen, P. J. Kirsy: Quadrant Hlectrometers, H. ScHuLzE : Reception of Electric Waves in Wireless Telegraphy, REINHOLD-RUDEN- BERG: Velocity of Sound, M. Tuizsen : Diffraction of X-rays, B. WALTER and R. Pout, 451.—Electrolitic Rectification of Niobium, G. SCHULZE : A Manual of Practical Physics, E. S. Ferry and A. T. Jonus: La Tele- graphie sans Fil, I. Van Dam, 492. Geology—Shepard on the Underground Waters of Missouri, C. A. Davis, 452.—Falls of the Niagara, J. W. W. SPENCER, 400.—Michigan State Geo- logical Survey, A. C. Lane, 456.—Illinois State Geological Map, Stuarr WELLER: North Dakota Geological Survey, A. G. LronarD: Sur la Fixa- tion des Coquilles de quelques Strophomenacea, N. YaKovitew, 407,— The Data of Geochemistry, F. W. CLARKE, 408. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—National Academy of Sciences, 458.— Report of the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, O. A. TitrTMaNN, 459.—Harvard College Observatory, EH. C. PickERING: Publica- tions of the Allegheny Observatory of the Western University of Pennsyl- vania, F. ScHLESINGER: Darwin Celebration at Cambridge, 460. Dr. Cyrus Adler, Pew Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum. MOL: XXV. JUNE, 1908. Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. THE AMHR CAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Epitorn: EDWARD S. DANA. | ASSOCIATE EDITORS Proressorss GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or Camprincez, Proressors ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS, L. V. PIRSSON anp H. FE. GREGORY, or New Haven, Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA, Proressor HENRY S. WILLIAMS, or Iruaca, Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battrmorz, Me. J. S. DILLER, or Wasuineton. FOURTH SERIES VOL. XXV—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXV.] No. 150—JUNE, 1908. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 1908 THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 123 TEMPLE STREET. Published monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to ‘countries in the Postal Union ; $6.25 to Canada. Remittances should be made either by, ney orders, registered letters, or bank checks (preferably on New York banks), IMPORTANT. NOTICE, We recently secured a fine collection of specimens of rocks about 248 in number, from all parts of the world, some polished on all sides; average size 4x51¢ inches; a black walnut block 414x384 inches, goes with each specimen; the block is beveled, with label attached, and the specimen and label are numbered. We will sell this collection at a low figure, with list of localities. This collection was originally labelled and arranged by Ward and Howell, of Rochester, New York. Latest Arrivals of Rare and Choice Minerals and Remarkable Cut Gems. Will name a fewas follows :—Petzite, Offenbanya; Stephanite, Hoel- ritsch ; Helvite xls, Kapnik ; Greenockite, Dognacska, Schneeberg, Vasko ; Proustite & Pyrargyrite, Nagybanya, Felsébanya; Sylvanite, Colorado ; Hessite, Botes ; Semseyite, Felsébanya; Hnargite, cryst., Montana, Hun- gary ; Polybasite, Hungary ; Uranite, Schlaggenwald ; Miargyrite & Pyrar- gyrite, Felsébanya; Zircon, Niclermendig ; Spherosiderite, Felsébanya ; Realgar, Felsébanya ; Tourmaline, Fichtelgebirge ; Stibnite & Heteromor- phite, Fels6banya ; Chalcedony, blue crystals, Trestia; Orpiment, Felso- banya; Himbeerspath, Kapnik ; Tetrahedrite, Kapnik; Orthoclase, Karls- bad; xld. Gold in qtz.; Cinnabar, Opal, precious, Kapnik ; Albite & Natro- lite, Aussig. These minerals have not yet arrived, but are in the Custom House, and we have taken this list from the invoice, so cannot give prices. They will be on sale June Ist. Other Remarkable Minerals. Neptunite, San Benito Co., Cal., $7.50 to $10; Herderite, Auburn, loose xls, from 50¢ to $2; matrix, 75c to $20 ; Terlinguaite, $9 to $8 ; Calomel, $5 to $10; Montroydite, $3 to $7. 50: Cassiterite, xls, Japan, 25¢ to 70¢ ; Cassiter- ite, Tasmania, 13¢ in. diam., $10 to S15 : Crocoite, Tasmania, $5 to $10; Kuclase xls, Brazil, S5-$45-$55 ; Emerald, Bogota; $d to $35 : Apatite, Auburn, deep lilac color, $2.50 to $15 ; Kunzite, Pala, $1 to $10 : Tourma- line, Mesa Grande, different colors, loose xls and matrix, 50c to $275 Precious Opal, Queensland, very picturesque piece, the center precious opal, bottom blue and top red, price $40. ; Remarkable Cut Gems from Russia and other Countries. Green Garnets, Aquamarines, Amethysts, Zircon, Topaz, Spinel, Sap- phires, star-sapphires, star-rubies, pink beryls, tourmaline cats-eye, tourma- lines, opals, reconstructed sapphires and rubies, and other semi-precious stones, Please send name and address for our mailing list. A. H. PETEREIS, 8I—83 Fulton Street, New York City. 7 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL DE SOE [ROWE SB ian ES). | Art. XLVIII.—A Determination of the Molecular Weight of Radium Emanation by the Comparison of tts Rate of Diffusion with that of Mercury Vapor; by P. B. Perxiys. | Contributions from the Sloane Physical Laboratory of Yale University. ] On account of the very small quantity of radium emanation which has hitherto been available for experimental purposes, a direct determination of its density has not been possible. Sev- eral investigators have, therefore, attempted to determine the density by comparing the rate of diffusion of the emanation with that of a known gas or vapor and applying Graham’s Law, according to which the molecular weights of two gases should be inversely proportional to the squares of their coefli- cients of diffusion. Such experiments have led to widely dif- ferent results and the values obtained have been difficult to reconcile with the value which would be expected on the dis- integration theory of radio-activity. This investigation was undertaken to clear up, if possible, these discrepancies. History. Shortly after the discovery of the emanation, an approximate estimate of its molecular weight was made by Rutherford and Miss Brooks,* by determining its rate of interdiffusion in air contained in a long metal cylinder. Values were obtained for the interdiffusion constant intermediate between those for carbon dioxide and ether, the molecular weights of which are 44 and 74 respectively. They, therefore, concluded that very probably the molecular weight of the emanation was between 40 and 100. Results obtained by Curie and Dannet, who measured the interdiffusion constant for emanation passing through capillary * Transact. of the Roy. Soc. of Canada, 2d series, 1901-2. + Comptes Rendus, exxxvi, p. 1314, 1903. Am. Jour. Scr.—Fourta Series, Vout. XXV, No. 150.—June, 1908. 31 462 Perkins—Molecular Weight of Radium Emanation. tubes into the air, gave about the same value for the molecular weight of the emanation as the estimate made by Rutherford and Miss Brooks. In 1904, Bumstead and Wheeler* compared the rate of dif- fusion of the emanation through a porous plate with that of carbon dioxide. Their results showed that, providing Grahain’s Law apples, the molecular weight of the emanation was about 4-1 times that of carbon dioxide or near 180. Makowert compared the rates of diffusion of hydrogen, oxy- gen, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide with that of the emanation and, for different plugs of different materials, got results for the molecular weight ranging from 85:5 to 97. Reasons for using Mercury Vapor. Rutherford and Soddyt have shown that the radio-active emanations are incapable of chemical combination. From this. resemblance to the inert gases, it is highly probable that the emanations are monatomic gases. It would also appear from the position of radium emanation in the radio-active series that its molecular weight is probably near 225. Graham’s Law has been shown to hold very well for gases of similar molecular structure which did not differ greatly in molecular weights ; but to break down entirely when applied to the diffusion of gases or vapors of complex molecular structure and widely different molecular weights. If the emanation is monatomic and has a molecular weight near 225, Graham’s Law cannot be expected to hold when its rate of diffusion is compared with that of any gas or vapor which has been used in any previous investigation. In order to satisfy both the conditions required for appli- cation of Graham’s Law, mercury vapor was chosen for a series of comparisons. This is mouatomic and has a molecular weight of 200. Since it is necessary to work at quite high temperatures to obtain large enough amounts for accurate weighing, most of my work was done near 250° C. and 275° C. Apparatus. Electric furnace.—For maintaining the required temper- ature, an electric furnace was constructed in the following way: ‘A copper tube, 45° long and of about 5°5™ outside diameter, was coated with a mixture of tale and water glass as recommended by Nernst. On this insulating base, about 110 *This Journal, xvii, Feb. 1904. + Phil. Mag., ix, p. 56, 1905. Or t Phil. Mag., Nov, 1902. Perkins—Molecular Weight of Radium Emanation. 463 turns of German silver resistance wire, of less than 5™™ dia- meter, were wound. After filling the spaces between the wires by another coating of tale and water glass, this was followed by a coat of rope asbestos 2° thick ; finally by an outside coating of asbestos packing 1°5°" in thickness. Ends for the furnace were cut from thick asbestos board. Temperature was registered by a WeLenLy thermometer. The city current of 110 ‘volts gave about 4°5 amperes through the furnace and heated it to 250°C. in20 min. After heating, by aid of the city current, to within a few degrees of the tem- perature required, the furnace was connected with the storage battery, a sufficient number of cells being used to maintain the temperature needed. An adjustable resistance of 14 ohms in circuit was used to keep the temperature constant. After equilibrium had been established, which usually took nearly an hour, it was found that the tem per ature did not vary more than 0-5° per hour. Diffusion apparatus.—The diffusion apparatus must be designed so as to minimize temperature changes and viscosity effects. The diffusion chamber must be air-tight except at AANN\ iam Ze My yet the plug, which should be as symmetrically placed as possible with regard to the diffusion chamber. It is necessary to insure diffusion’ through the plug in only one direction and to use some suitable means for collecting and condensing the diffused vapor. Preliminary experiments were made with an apparatus con- structed in glass including several stopeocks. This proved to be impracticable owing to my inability to find a good lubricant at these tem peratures. The accompanying figure (fig. 1) is a section of the furnace containing the diffusion apparatus as it was finally constructed in iron. O is a piece of iron tubing about 30° long and of 2°" outside diameter on which collars with perfectly true edges 464 Perkins— Molecular Weight of Radium Emanation. were shrunk at Dand D’. For outside jacket, A, a piece of tubing of nearly 5 outside diameter was squared off to exactly the same length as the distance between the shoulders D and D’. Iron plates, K and K’, with accurately ground surfaces were made to bear at D and D’ on the outside tube and the ends of the outside jacket, thus forming a diffusion chamber. Collars B and Bb’, threaded and shouldered inside, pulled the plates against the ‘ends of the outside jacket; while collars E and E’, threaded on the inner tube, served a similar purpose at D and D’. In order to bri ing down the size of the ends of the. inner tube, iron plugs, F and F’, were threaded into them. These were reamed out and ground to fit thin-walled iron tubes 1° in diameter. One of these tubes communicated with a hydrogen generator, while two others were alternately inserted in F for collecting and condensing the diffused vapor. The hydrogen eenerator was used for maintaining a slow current through C to continually remove the diffused vapor from the plug. Some early experiments showed that when mercury was heated in air, red oxide of mercury began to appear at 275° ©. and pr obably at a slightly lower temper: ature ; In addition, small quantities of iron scale were formed. By per for ming the experi- ments in an atmosphere of hydrogen, all oxidation ‘effects were eliminated. Before entering the diffusion apparatus, the hydro- gen was bubbled through bottles of copper sulphate to remove hydrogen sulphide and “then passed through a calcium chloride drying tube. For the purpose of introducing mer cur or emanation into the diffusion chamber, small holes were bored through the collars D and D’ and still smaller holes through the plates about mid- way between the outer and inner tubes. Into these holes in the plates were threaded small iron caps G and G’, closed by iron plugs L and L’ with conical tips. These iron plugs had slotted heads and could be screwed into place, then set in with a wrench. Some previous experiments with asbestos fiber.showed it to be especially adapted for use as porous plugs. When a mixture of fine asbestos fiber and water was run through fine holes under pressure, very uniform and porous plugs were formed of any desired thickness, which seemed to suffer very little change in porosity over wide ranges of temperature. To serve as a base for porous plugs of this kind, 40 small cup- shaped holes were bored through the middle of the inner tube C as follows: Small borings were made with a drill of nearly 3™™ diameter reaching: almost through to the inside of the tube. Through the remaining 0:2™™, holes were bored 1" in to) diameter. Before the plugs were formed, all the different parts Perkins— Molecular Weight of Radiwm Emanation. 465 of the apparatus were carefully cleaned with gasoline and boiled in a strong solution of potassium hydroxide. A series of iron screens was also fitted into the end of C nearer the generator in order to make the current as uniform as possible through the inner tube. As the different parts were assembled, all the bearing surfaces were given a thin coat of water glass, which was also run inside around each end of the diffusion chamber. After heating in the furnace at about 110° C. for several hours, to set the water glass, no appreciable leak through the outer jacket occurred in twelve hours. That no time should be lost in pushing the collecting tubes into position, a guiding tube P with a smoothly ground flaring end was fitted over the end of C and worked very satisfactorily. The only change necessary in the diffusion apparatus, when working with the emanation, was to replace the iron plugs L and L’ by small brass tubes threaded into the iron caps and reaching outside the furnace, where their ends were left large enough to be closed off with rubber tubing and pinchcocks. The holes through these tubes were made so small that their volume was negligible when compared with that of the diffusion chamber. Llectroscope.—¥or work with the emanation an electroscope provided with a guard ring was constructed, connected with a perfectly air-tight ionization chamber, made from a mercury flask of nearly 3 liters capacity. The guard ring and gold leaf were charged to a negative potential of 320 volts by a storage battery. The motion of the gold leaf was observed by a micro- scope provided with a scale of 100 equal parts. The time required for the leaf to move from 20 to 80 on the scale was chosen as a satisfactory means of finding the leak in divisions per minute. A minute irregularity in the leaf, near the scale, greatly assisted in making the readings. Constant pressure apparatus.—In order to collect the dif- fused emanation under constant pressure, a simple device was used which could be readily adjusted. A hole was made in the side, near the bottom, of a common acid bottle of about 3 liters capacity. his served as collecting vessel and was connected, by means of rubber tubing, with an inverted balance bottle from which the bottom had been removed. Enough distilled water was introduced to fill the collecting bottle and leave a small amount in the balance bottle. By lowering the latter as gas entered the top of the collecting bottle, the two surfaces could be kept at practically the same level and atmospheric pressure maintained on the collected gas. 466 Perkins—Molecular Weight of Radium Emanation. Methods of Determining the Diffusion Constant for Mercury. Two methods are available for finding the diffusion constant for mercury vapor. Methods Fim ployed : Method 1.—Introduce into the diffusion chamber a quantity of mercury large enough to give a constant supply of vapor as diffusion proceeds and. weigh the amount diffusing in a known time, when the diffusion constant is given by the following relation : M, == Amt. of vapor diffusing in time ¢. M, = kM{ = kpVi k = Diffusion constant. M, = Amt. of vapor in diffusion chamber. p = Density at the temp. used. V = Vol. of diffusion chamber. The use of this method of finding the diffusion constant requires an accurate determination of the density. Method 2.—Place a very small amount of mercury in the diffusion chamber and find as before the amounts diffusing in a known time. As diffusion proceeds, a condition is finally reached where vapor alone remains in the diffusion chamber, after which the amounts diffusing in a given time fall off very rapidly according to the following exponential law, which also holds for the emanation : Me Meenas M, = Amt. of vapor present in the diffusion chamber at the beginning of collection. M = Ant. present at the end “ ff k= Dit const, 4 — Time.‘ of A very simple relation holds between amounts of vapor or emanation collected during successive, equal intervals of time, ¢. Let M, = amount of Ist collection. 66 M, = 66 “ Od 66 Me ‘in the diffusion chamber at beginning of first collection. HpivenwM SMPs (ie mn) Also M, = M, Cee (Weert) i > . ot RE TD lherefore Mees Cis As from 5 to 8 sec. were required to withdraw one collecting tube and push the other into position, 20 min. periods were chosen for collection so as to introduce an error considerably less than 1 per cent. Method used for Measuring Relative Amounts of Diffused Emanation.—In order to keep the conditions for diffusion similar to those for mercury vapor, it is essential that diffusion of the emanation should take place in an atmosphere of hydro- gen. If the amounts of emanation diffusing through the porous plug are to be measured dir ectly, this must necessarily Perkins—Molecular Weight of Radium Emanation. 467 be done by having the electroscope filled with hydrogen. This would be inconvenient and involve considerable liability to error due to differences in ionizing power produced by the -presence of any small amount of air. A statement made by Rutherford and Soddy* seemed, however, to give an easy solution of the difficulty. They say : “Tf either emanation is conveyed by a slow stream of hydro- gen, oxygen or air through a metal spiral immersed i in liquid air, no trace of emanation escapes in the issuing gas.” Provided this were tr ue, after diffusion the emanation could be condensed by means of liquid air, the hydrogen replaced by air and, as soon as room temperature was reached, the einanation mixed with air could be introduced into the elec- troscope. In order to test this statement, a long spiral of cop- per tubing was made just large enough to fit inside a Dewar bulb tilled with liquid air. A very slow current of air mixed with emanation was passed through the spiral, when it was found that enough emanation remained uncondensed to give a decided leak in an electroscope placed at the issuing end, thus forbidding the adoption of such a method. A series of experiments showed that very good results were given for the relative amounts of diffused emanation by measuring the amount of the active deposit (Radium C) induced on the negative electrode. Using this method of measurement, the order of experiment was as follows: Measure the natural leak of the electroscope while bringing the furnace into equilibrium at the required temperature. Introduce into the diffusion chamber, by displacement, emanation boiled from 4 grs. of carnotite dissolved in hydro- chloric acid, the containing flask having been previously filled with hydrogen. This is an amount of emanation equivalent to that in equilibrium with 9°2107° ers. of radium. Let dif- fusion take place for 10 min. into the open air, so as to allow a sufficient time for the emanation to get well ‘mixed with the hydrogen in the diffusion chamber. Collect the first sample for 20 min. in one bottle; then transfer, by means of a “T”’ tube and pincheocks, into the other bottle’ for a second period of 20min. Exhaust the electroscope and introduce sample 1, leaving sample 2 under a negative pressure so that any leak will be into the collecting bottle rather than out into the air. After 3 hrs., draw a rapid current of air through the electroscope by means of a water pump to displace the emanation, and make a series of measurements of the ionization produced by the active deposit. Introduce sample 2 and after 3 hrs. measure the activity of the active deposit as before. Correct the values obtained for sample 2 for the decay of the emanation for the time which has elapsed between the introduction of sample 1 * Phil. Mag., May, 1903. 468 Perkins—Molecular Weight of Radium Emanation. and sample 2. Plot leak in div. per min. as ordinates and time of decay of the active deposit as abscissae, time to begin at the moment the water pump is turned on. ‘The ratios of. the two ordinates at any given time after the first few minutes - are proportional to the relative amounts of emanation in sample 1 and sample 2. In order that any slight changes i in the porosity of the plug might be eliminated, experiments with the emanation were alternated with those for mereur y vapor, using the two methods already described. Diffusion under constant supply (method 1) furnished a ready means of revealing any systematic change in porosity. Results. The earlier trials made under constant supply gave about 1-2 ers. of mercury diffusing per hour, showing that diffusion probably took place about as rapidly as the vapor was formed. In order, therefore, to materially lessen the amount diffusing, the inner tube C was removed and all but one of the original porous plugs were closed with a drop of water glass. About one sixth as much diffusion took place through this one plug as through the forty originally made. The position of this plug with respect to the mereury supply made no difference in the amount of vapor diffusing per min., showing the density of the vapor in the diffusion chamber to be pretty uniform. The following tables Bie the results in full of diffusion with the emanation for Jan. 5, at 250° C.; and the observed values for & only, for eepeniiont made on succeeding days: Time after Leak of Sample 1 Leak of Sample 2 pump began in diy. per min. corrected for k 4 hrs. decay 15 min. 36°5 18°6 0336 20) 2 34°5 17°8 0331 Wis SP 32°4 16°8 *0328 3 Oleees 30-4 15°6 0353 SOU hese 28°7 14°4 "0344 Ay. 8 26°5 13°3 0344 Jan. 24, at 250° C. Jan. 25, at 250° C. Jan. 27, at 250° C. Time after Time after Time after pump began k pump began k pump began k in min. in min. in min. 15 0337 15 0346 15 0334 20 °0339 20 0353 20 ‘0334 25 °0340 25 ‘0349 25 "0534 30 ‘0339 30 ‘0348 30 ‘0329 395 ‘0335 35 0346 35 0321 40 "0337 40 °0346 40 "0324 45 0339 45 0544 45 0329 50 "0329 Perkins—Molecular Weight of Radiwm Emanation. 469 Jan. 31, at 275° C, Feb. 1, at 275° C. Time after Time after pump began k pump began k in min. in min. 15 0379 15 0387 20 ‘0372 20 "0389 25 ‘0368 25 "0378 30 "0368 30 0378 395 ‘0366 35 ‘0382 40 ‘0371 40 ‘0380 45 "0366 45 "0378 Feb. 11, at 250° C. Feb. 12, at 250° C. Time after Time after pump began Kk pump began k in min. in min. 15 70349 15 "0344 20 °0344 20 "0347 25 "03438 25 "0344 30 0342 30 0347 35 0342 35 “0347 40 0337 40 0344 45 "0339 45 "0347 The decay curves plotted from the results of the above experiments are indistinguishable from those obtained for the active deposit from radium. The following tables give the times of collection in min. and the amounts diffusing per min. in grs. when a constant supply of mercury vapor from abont 300 grs. of mercury was kept in the diffusion chamber: Feb. 3, at 250° C. Feb. 4, at 250° C. Feb. 6, at 250° C. Time Amts. diffusing Time Amts. diffusing Time Amts. diffusing in grs. per min. in grs. per min. in grs. per min. 45 "00450 26 "00447 60 "00456 46 00452 50 "00449 40 00454 67 00445 40 "00446 102 ‘00451 64 "00446 30 00445 31 "00450 Feb. 5, at 250° C. 50 "00468 Feb. 6, at 250°-C. At 275° C. Time Amts. diffusing Date Time Amts. diffusing in grs. per min. in grs. per min. 55 00468 Feb. 4 36 01028 50 00444 ne 30 ‘01008 50 00451 Feb. 5 26 °01021 60 “00459 ‘Feb. 6 60 “00981 As the ground ends of the collecting tubes were heated, in a Bunsen flame, to about the temperature of the furnace’ each time before insertion, very slight changes took place in the 470 Perkins—Molecular Weight of Radiwm Emanation. weights of the empty tubes, which were, therefore, weighed after each collection. Approximation for k at Constant Supply. Since no experimental data were available on the density of mercury vapor, an attempt was made to find approximate values, at the temperature at which diffusion took place by means of the gas laws. Using standard thermometers, the corrected temperatures were found to be 252:8° C. and 278:2° O. Vapor pressures for mercury vapor have been deter aed with a good deal of accuracy at these temperatures. Person* found the latent heat for mereury vapor at 850° C. to be 62. By using > the equation =) 1, — (Ve Ve ah a where L is the latent heat, (V,—V,) the difference in vol. of 1 gr. of mercury after and before vaporization, P the vapor pressure and T the abso- Iute temp., and extrapolating by means of Boyle’s Law to 252'8° O. and 278-2° C., the values for the density came out "000550 grs. / eem. and 000988 grs. / cem. respectively. The volume of the diffusion chamber was 237 ccm. Making these substitutions in the formula for constant supply given on ae 5, the diffusion constant at 252°8° C. was -0346 ; and, at 278°2° C., 0431. Applying Graham’s Law, this gave for the molecular weight of the emanation 208 and 262 respectively, with a mean - of 235, showing that in all pr obability the molecular weight of the emanation was a little greater than that for mercury vapor. The very discordant results for the two temperatures showed that the method was not available because of the uncertainty in the value of the density. Therefore, the Opluet method, using unsaturated vapor, was tried. Results obtained at 250° C. with a small supply of mercury (less than 1 gr.) in the diffusion chamber, showed that diffu- sion began under saturation conditions. For 20 min. periods of collection, since the rate of diffusion was shghtly in excess of that of supply, the amounts diffusing showed a slow gradient until a point was reached where a sudden drop took place, showing that vapor alone remained in the diffusion chamber. This result is well illustrated by the following curve (fig. 2) plot- ted from data obtained from the first experiment made eee these conditions. Amounts diffusing during 20 min. collec- tions are plotted as ordinates and 20 min. periods of time as abscissae : . *Poge. Annal., vol. Ixx, 310, 386, 1847. Perkins— Molecular Weight of Radium Emanation. 471 The exponential character which the curve assumes after the 14th collection will be noted. That the curve is expo- nential, after vapor alone remains in the diffusion chamber, is well shown in the following tables, which contain the results of an experiment in full, made at 250° ©. with about 0-4 grs. and the results for 4, of mercury in the diffusion chamber ; Collections. calculated from the data given by similar experiments at 2502 Ces Time of collection in min. 20 20 20 20 also-ab: 2152.©.: Wt. after collection ‘in gers. 44°9167 AV ACSIA) 44°9109 47°3074 44°8938 47°2629 44°8519 Wt. of tubes empty in ers. 44°8390 47°2366 44°8395 47°2381 44°8393 47 °2367 44°8393 using O°7 grs. : Amt. of Hg diffusing OCEEL "0749 ‘O716 0693 0545 "0262 . 0126 Calculation fork 472. Perkins—Molecular Weight of Radium Emanation. Feb. 13, at 250° C. Feb. 14, at 250° C. Time Amt. of Hg Calculation Time Amt. of Hg Calculation diffusing for k diffusing for k 20 *0650 20 ‘0817 “0489 20k 0531 20k 20-048 =e" 20) 4.50531 gene "0231 0251 20 "0231 > Kh="0374 20 "0251 *, k="0874 0231 20k "0251 20k 20 0110 = 20 0120 — “O110 “0120 3 /S=—aSi7ill -, K=:0369 Feb. 15, a. M., 250° C. Feb. 15, P. M., 275° C. Time Amt. of Hg Calculation Time Amt. of Hg Calculation diffusing for k diffusing for k 29 ‘0658 20 "1440 0548 - 21k "0682 20h 21 "0548 —_—__= 20 (0682 —— =e 0249 "0296 21 "0249 ch KOBiNo 2 K=0416 "0249 21k *0296 20k 21 0112 = 20 "029 = “O02 ‘O1L31 *, k= :0379 .. K= 0408 Heb. 17, A. M.. 275° ©: Feb. 17, p.m, 275° ©: Time Amt. of Hg Calculation Time Amt. of Hg Calculation diffusing for k diffusing for k 20 "1414 20 "1233 oh “0700 20k 3 °0589 22k 20 ‘0700 - = 22 "0589 =¢ "0306 "0246 aes 044 *, k=-0397 0306 20k 22 "0246 20 "0306 —=¢ 0138 20 ‘0138 *- K=:0399 Résume. Following is a brief review of the data in the order obtained : (1) Four experiments at 250° C. with emanation. = -0338 + "00025. (2) Two experiments at 275° C. with emanation. k= -0376 + "00040. (3) A series at 250° C. with a constant supply of mercury vapor in the diffusion chamber. Average amount per min. = "00450 + *000012. (4) One experiment at 250° C. with mercury vapor by Method Tes — 0366: (5) Two experiments at "00026. (6) Three experiments at 250° C. with mercury by Method II. A = :0374 + :00009. 250° C. with emanation. k= ‘0344 + Perkins—Molecular Weiaht of Radium Emanation. 473 (7) Three similar experiments with mercury at 275° C. k= "0407 + *00032. (8) A series for mercury vapor at 250° C. under constant supply. Average amount diffusing per min. = ‘00456 + -000031. Series (8) was used to test the constancy of the porous plug by comparison with (8). Final Calculations for the Molecular Weight of the Ema- nation.—A slight increase in the porosity of the plug appears to have taken place as the experiments proceeded. By taking the mean of the different sets of determinations for a certain diffusion constant, any small error due to change in porosity should be approximately eliminated. Average (k) at 250° C. for emanation = -0341. 5 (A Mercury, vapor — 0370: Applying Graham’s Law, the molecular weight of the ema- nation equals 0370" 200 5 oor "0341" Average (k) at 275° C. for emanation = ‘0376. (ees e mercury vapor = °0407. 0407" Molecular weight of the emanation = 200 Wie 234, Conclusion.—These experiments leave httle doubt that the molecular weight of radium emanation is greater than: that of mercury vapor (200). Although the actual value obtained (235) is larger than the atomic weight of radium (226°5), yet the uncertainties of the diffusion method render it likely that this is due to experimental errors. It is, however, evident that the emanation has an atomic weight in the immediate neigh- borhood of radium—a result to be expected, on the disintegr a- tion theory, but which previous diffusion experiments had not contirmed. : It is with pleasure that I acknowledge my indebtedness to Prof. H. A. Bumstead for suggesting the investigation and for valuable advice during its progress; also to Prof. B. B. Boltwood for kind assistance throughout the entire work. 474 G. B. Richardson—Paleozoic Formations. Arr. XLIX.—Paleozoic Formations in Trans-Pecos Texas ; by G. B. RicHarpson.* Tuer presence of Paleozoic rocks in trans-Pecos Texas has been known since the middle of the last century, when fossils were collected by the surveying parties engaged in exploring routes for a Pacific railway and in establishing the boundary between the United States and Mexico.+ In 1874 W. P. Jenney{ measured a section of the rocks in the Franklin Mountains, north of El Paso, and called attention to the long Paleozoic sequence there exposed, which in 1896 was also examined by ©. D. Walcott. W.H. von Streeruwitz and E. T. Dumble made a number of references to the Paleozoic rocks in the vicinity of Van Horn, in the reports of the Geological Survey of Texas, 1890-93, but that or ganization was discon- tinued before correlations and maps were published. An important result of the early surveys was the determina- tion by the Shumard brothers§$ of the presence of a Permian * Published by permission of the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey. + Explorations and surveys for a railroad route from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, vol. ii, Washington, 1855. Report of ie Uasbes. States and Mexican Boundary Survey, “by Wm. H. Emory, vol. i,. part 2, Washington, 1857. +This” Journal (8), Vii, p. 25, 1874. §$ Transactions St. Louis Academy of Science, vols. i and ii, 1860, 1868. G. B. Richardson— Paleozoic Formations. 475 fauna in the Guadalupe Mountains, near the Texas-New Mex- ico boundary about 60 miles west of Pecos River. R. 8. Tarr disagreed with this conclusion,* but G. H. Girty in 1901 con- firmed the early work,t and he has described the unique fauna in an elaborate report which is now in press.t And in 1904, J. A. Udden reported the presence of Carboniferous rocks in the Chinati Mountains in Presidio County.§ The present writer in 1908 made a reconnaissance of that portion of trans-Pecos Texas in which the greater part of the Paleozoic rocks are exposed,| and later, in connection with the survey of the El Paso and Van Horn quadrangles, had an opportunity to map the formations in detail and to collect fossils. These have been examined by Messrs. C. D. Walcott, E. O. Ulrich and G. H. Girty, and the writer is particularly indebted to Dr. Girty, who accompanied him in the field both in the El Paso and Van Horn regions. The formations which are the subject of this paper outcrop in the Franklin and Hueco Mountains in the El Paso quad- rangle, and in the Sierra Diablo, Delaware Mountains and associated groups of hills in the Van Horn quadrangle. These two quadrangles, which have recently been mapped by the U.S. Geological Survey, are situated abont 60 miles apart and they include. practically all of the known occurrences of lower Paleozoic rocks in trans-Pecos Texas. The following table summarizes the Paleozoic formations in the El Paso and Van Horn quadrangles: CAMBRIAN. Bliss Sandstone. The main occurrence of the Bliss sandstone is lone the eastern slopes of the Franklin Mountains, but the considerable faulting to which the range has been subjected causes its dis- tribution to be very irregular. The Bliss is a massive, fine- textured, brownish sandstone that varies from a few-feet to slightly more than 300 feet in thickness. The lower beds are indurated and are practically quartzites and at the base of the formation the strata are coarser textured, locally are conglom- eritic and contain pebbles of the underlying rocks. The sandstone is composed of small grains of quartz imbedded in a matrix of sericite and kaolin. In places the Bliss sandstone * Reconnaissance of the Guadalupe Mountains, Bull. No. 3, Geol. Survey of Texas, 1892. + This Journal (4), xiv, p. 368. {The Guadalupian fauna, U. S.. Geol. Sur., Prof. Paper No. 58. § The Geology of the Shafter Silver Mine District, Bull. No. 8, Univer- sity of Texas Mineral Survey, 1904. __ || Report of a reconnaissance in trans-Pecos Texas north of the Texas and Pacific Railway, Bull. No. 9, University of Texas Mineral Survey, 1904. 476 G. B. Richardson—Paleozoic Formations. Tuble of Paleozoie formations in the El Paso and Van Horn Quadrangles, Texus. El Paso ‘Thick- | Sys- | Seri | Thick- Van Horn quadrangle ness | tem | oy ness quadrangle Absent | 500+) Capitan Pane limestone | > (Guadalupian) | Delaware Absent | levies 2000+, Mountain = | | formation hee | | a ell pave ene (3000 S | Pennsylvanian 2500 +. Hueco imestone | - | limestone eel ; : Absent | | Mississippian Absent |Get Saaiges| | | Absent S| | Absent > | | (an) nt af | Fusselman 1000 | | (Niagara) I SA saat limestone eel er MN Upper and | | Montore | 950) | Middle | 250 | Montre ? | = Ordovician | eee El Paso 10001 o Lower 750 El Paso limestone Ordovician limestone Bliss » | & | Saratogan or | : | Wan Horn sandstone 300 e | Acadian | 700 Santon v | is in contact with granite of post-Carboniferous age and elsewhere it rests on rhyolite porphyry, of which it contains rounded pebbles in the basal beds.. In the central part of the Franklin Mountains the sandstone thins out and locally disap- pears, and the overlying limestone, containing a basal congiom- erate, lies directly on the rhyolite porphyry. G. B. Richardson — Paleozoic Formations. ATT Annelid borings both perpendicular and parallel to the bedding occur abundantly i in the Bliss sandstone. Other fossils are rare, but in places in the lower strata some brachiopod shells have been found. Of these Mr. Walcott has identitied Lingulepis acuminata, Obolus matinalis (?) and fragments of Lingullela which determine the Cambrian age of the rocks and indicate that either the upper or middle division of the system is here represented. Van Horn Sandstone. The Van Horn is a medium to coarse-textured cross-bedded sandstone that is banded with thin lenses of conglomerate. The formation is of a prevailing brick-red color in its lower part, which becomes paler towards the top, where the color fades away and the sandstone is white. The conglomerate lenses vary from a few inches to about a foot in thickness and are irregularly distributed throughout the formation. At the base the pebbles are composed of fragments of the underlying rocks and consist of quartz schist, fine-textured red sandstone, cherty limestone, porphyry and quartz, while the conglomerate in the upper part of the formation consists chiefly of well rounded quartz pebbles. The sandstone likewise varies in com- position ; its lower part being composed of quartz and decom- posed feldspar grains while the upper portion is prevailingly quartzose. The formation varies from a few feet to 700 feet in thickness and averages about 400 feet. The Van Horn sandstone unconformably overlies highly tilted metamorphosed rocks and is overlain in places by the El Paso limestone (Ordovician), and elsewhere by the Hueco lime- stone (Carboniferous). The upper part of the formation con- tains numerous annelid borings and fucoid-like remains, but no characteristic fossils have been found in the sandstone and its age therefore is undetermined. The presence of sandstone at the base of the Balenzore section in southwestern United States has been noted wherever observations have been made, and it is suggested that the Bliss and Van Horn sandstones are the probable equivalent of the Tonto sandstone of the Grand Canyon, the Bolsa quartzite of Bisbee, the Coronado quartzite of Clifton, the Reagan sand- stone of Oklahoma and the Cambrian sandstone of the Central Texas Paleozoic area. ORDOVICIAN. El Paso Limestone. The El] Paso limestone outcrops in the Franklin and Hueco Mountains in the El] Paso quadrangle and in Beach and Baylor ee in the Van Horn quadrangle. The formation is . JOUR. Beat pete SERIES, VOL. XXV, No. 150. —JUNE,- 1908. 478 G. B. Richardson— Paleozoic Formations. typically a massive gray magnesian limestone which contains the same fauna in both regions. In the El Paso area the formation is about 1000 feet thick, the lower 100 feet of which is characteristically arenaceous and weathers brownish. A distinctive feature of the middle portion of the formation is the presence of thin connected nodules of brown chert arranged in irregular streaks parallel to the bedding. This limestone lies apparently conformably on the Bliss sandstone, but, as already stated, in the central part of the Franklin Mountains the Bliss sandstone is locally absent and the El Paso limestone rests directly on pre-Cambrian (?) rocks with a basal conglomerate varying up to 20 feet thick composed of rounded pebbles of rhyolite porphyry in a calcareous matrix. In the Van Horn quadrangle the El Paso limestone does not contain the cherty layers that are characteristic of the middle parts of the formation in the Franklin. Mountains, and 50 feet above the base of the formation a thin bed of white sand- stone is present. In this region there are indications of an unconformity at the base of the limestone marked by a slight undulatory contact between the El Paso and Van Horn formations. Mr. Ulrich reports that the fossils obtained from the El Paso limestone in both the El Paso and Van Horn quadrangles rep- resent essentially the same Beekmantown fauna. Most of the species are undescribed, but all are of unmistakable types. The more characteristic forms are the following: Calathium, sp. nov. (coral-like sponge), Maclurea ? sp. nov. The small horn-like opereula are very common. The shell itself is of the type of JZ. oceana Billings. Solid siphuncles of endoceratoid cephalopod, evidently a close ally of Camero- ceras brainardi. Besides these there are a number of less easily recognized small gastropods. Montoya Limestone. The Montoya limestone also has been recognized by its stratigraphic position and fossils in both of the quadrangles. This limestone contains two distinct Ordovician faunas, the Richmond and Galena, and on paleontologic grounds it is desirable to separate the two, but the small thickness of the formation, only about 250 feet, and the seale of the maps wil not admit of it. Fossils characteristic of the Galena occur in the lower part of the Montoya limestone, the zone being commonly marked in the El Paso quadrangle by massive dark-colored limestone containing little or no chert. The upper part of the limestone is prevailingly gray, but some of the beds are almost white G. B. Richardson— Paleozoic Formations. 479 while others are dark, and the two parts of the formation can not always be distinguished lithologically. The zone which carries the most abundant Richmond fossils in places is seamed with conspicuous bands of chert a few inches in thick- ness. In the Van Horn quadrangle the base of the Montoya limestone is commonly marked by the presence of thin- bedded earthy yellow and reddish limestone, but otherwise in both quadrangles the contact is apparently conformable. Like the El Paso ‘Hmestone, the Montoya is characteristically mag- nesian. Mr. Ulrich has identified the following fossils from the Montoya limestone : Fossils from the Galena beds. Receptaculites owent. Hormotoma major. Maclurina manitobensis. Ormoceras sp. undet. Maclurina acuminata. , Fossils from the Richmond beds. Streptelasma rusticum. Dinorthis proavita. Hemiphragma imperfectum. — Platistrophia aentilerata. Monotryprella quadrata. Rhynchotrema capax. Strophomena flexuosa. Orthis whitfieldi. Leptena unicostata, Parastrophia divergens. Dinorthis subquadrata. In southwestern United States outside of the areas here considered few Ordovician rocks are known. The system ap- parently is not represented by sediments in either the Grand Canyon or Bisbee districts. The Longfellow formation in the Clifton quadrangle, Arizona, probably should be correlated with the E] Paso limestone as well as a part of the Ordovician limestone in the central Texas region. lecently several small areas of Ordovician rocks have been reported in cen- tral New Mexico by Gordon and Graton.* Mr. Ulrich reports that the Beekmantown fauna of the El Paso limestone is of the type prevailing in the Wichita Mountains, Oklahoma, in the upper 1,000 feet or so of the Arbuckle limestone ; and that the Galena and Richmond fauna of trans-Pecos, Texas, are similar to those in the Mississippi valley, Oklahoma, the Black Hills, the Big Horn Mountains, and elsewhere. SILURIAN. Fusselman Limestone. The Silurian svstem in trans-Pecos Texas is represented only in the El Paso region, where the Fusselman limestone outcrops in the Franklin and Hueco Mountains. This is a massive * This Journal (4), xxi, p. 190, 1906. 480 G. B. Richardson— Paleozoic Formations. whitish magnesian limestone approximately 1000 feet thick. It overlies the Montoya limestone apparently. conformably, although in one locality fragments of the underlying limestone included in the inggelhinera, is evidence of an ‘unconformity. Throughout the greater part of the formation fossils are scarce, but at a few horizons they are very abundant. The common- est form is a species of radially plicated pentameroid shell which, with Amplexus and Favosites, determined by Mr. Ulrich, proves that the upper Niagaran stage of the Silurian is ere represented. Gordon and Graton* have recently found Silurian fossils in the Silver City region and at Lake Valley, New Mexico; and Taff’s Hunton ‘formation in Oklahomat also contains a Silurian fanua. But with these exceptions the Fusselman limestone is the only known occurrence of rocks of Silurian age in southwestern United States. CARBONIFEROUS. Hueco Limestone. Neither the Devonian nor the Lower Carboniferous, so far as known, is represented by sediments in trans-Pecos Texas, and the Silurian, where present, is overlain by the Upper Car- boniferous. The Hueco limestone outcrops in an area of sey- eral hundred square miles in trans-Pecos Texas. It underlies the Diablo Plateau, a large area between the El] Paso and Van Horn quadrangles, ‘and outcrops in the Sierra Diablo, Finlay, Hueco and Franklin Mountains, The Hueco isa rather homo- geneous gray limestone, generally massive, though in places it is thin-bedded. It is comparatively free from chert and differs from the limestones of Silurian and Ordovician age in that it contains little or no magnesia. Although the limestone is pre- vailingly gray, there are local variations in color from light gray to almost black. In the Franklin and Hueco Mountains the Hueco limestone immediately overlies the Fusselman limestone apparently con- formably in spite of the fact of the great hiatus indicated by their ages. But in the Van Horn region a well developed basal conglomerate averaging approximately one hundred feet in thickness and composed “of pebbles of all of the pre-Car- boniferous formations is present at the base of the limestone, which rests with marked irregularity on the underlying forma- tion. The Hueco limestone “generally is overlain by Pleisto- cene debris, but in a few areas, notably in the Finlay Mountains, and also eight miles northwest of Van Horn, it is directly overlain by Cretaceous strata. The total thickness of * Quoted above. + Tishomingo Folio, U. S. Geological Survey, 1903. { Kindle, E. M., this Journal (4), xxv, pp. 125-129, 1908. G. B. Richardson— Paleozoic Formations. 48] the Hueco limestone has not yet been determined, but it is more than 3000 feet. The Hueco limestone carries an abundant fauna of Penn- sylvanian age, of which the following, identified by G. H. Girty, is a partial list. According to Dr. Girty, this fauna with some modifications is similar to that found over much of the Cordilleran region, and the Hueco limestone is tenta- tively correlated with the Aubrey formation and the Weber quartzite.* List of fossils from the Hueco limestone. Fusulina, several sp. Archeocidaris cf. A. biangulata Shum. Axophyllum sp. Fistulipora sp. Septopora sp. Schtzophoria sp. Enteletes of. E. hemiplicatus Hall. Orthotetes sp. Productus cf. P. inflatus Tsch., non McChesney. Productus cf. pustulatus Keys. Productus cf. P. longus Tsch., non Meek, and P. porrectus Kut. Productus, cf. P. irginae Stuck. Productus, several sp. type of P. semireticulatus Martin. Marginifera, cf. M. wabashensis Nor. and Pratt. Spirifer, cf. S. marcoui Waagen. Spirifer, cf. S. cameratus Morton. Squamularia (?) sp. 5 Spiriferina cf. S. cristata Schlot. Seminula, cf. S. subtilita Hall. Hustedia, cf. H. Mormoni Marcou. Camarophoria cf. C. mutabilis Tsch. Pugnax, cf. P. utah Marcou. Dielasma, cf. D. truncatum Waagen. Myalina sp. Naticopsis sp. Euomphalus sp. (large.) Omphalotrochus obtusispira Shumard. Bellerophon sp. Patellostium, cf. P. Montfortainum Nor. and Pratt. Phillipsia sp. (FUADALUPIAN. In the Van Horn quadrangle and north of it the bolson plain known as Salt Flat, which is occupied by an unknown depth of unconsolidated Quaternary deposits, lies between the Sierra Diablo on the west and the Guadalupe-Delaware Mountains on the east and completely conceals the relations of * Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. vii, p. 14, 1905. 489 G. B. Richardson—-Paleozoic Formations. the rocks in the two mountains. As has been stated, the Sierra Diablo is made up of the Hueco limestone, the strati- graphic top of which has not been observed. And the Guada- lupe-Delaware Mountains are composed of Paleozoic strata, younger than the Pennsylvanian, which contain a fauna not elsewhere known in North America, that Girty has named Guadalupian. This fauna, which has Permian affiliations, is described by Dr. Girty in a paper now in press, and it is intended here only to outline the stratigraphy of these rocks, which complete the long Paleozoic sequence of trans- Pecos Texas. Delaware Mountain Formation. The Delaware Mountain formation includes a varying mass of sandstone and limestone having a maximum thickness of at least 2300 feet, but the base of the formation is not exposed in Texas and has not been determined. In the northern part of the Guadalupe-Delaware Mountain uplift, the formation is prevailingly sandy and contains only thin beds and lenses of limestone. Southward the sandstone decreases and the lime- stone increases in amount until, in the southern part of the main Delaware Mountains, the formation consists of gray limestone with only subordinate beds and lenses of sandstone. The sandstone is a massive to thin-bedded buff to brownish quartzose rock and the limestone likewise is both thick and thin-bedded, of a prevailing gray color, and contains little chert. The following fossils, determined by Dr. Girty, are characteristic of the Delaware Mountain formation: List of fossils from the Delaware Mountain formation, Fusulina elongata. Astartella nasuto. Productus Guadalupensis. Pleurophorous Delawarensis. Productus Meekanus. Pleurotomaria englyphia. Productus Walcottianus. Pleurotomaria arenaria. Richthofenia Permiana. Warthia Americana. Myoconcha costulata var. Gastrioceras serratum. Capitan Limestone. In the Guadalupe Mountains, 60 miles north of Van Horn about 2200 feet of the Delaware Mountain formation is conformably overlain, ina magnificently exposed section, by 1800 feet of limestone named the Capitan limestone. The name is taken from El Capitan Peak, which, having an elevation of 8690 feet,* is the highest point in Texas. "The Capitan is a light colored, usually white limestone which, although possessing minor variations, is homogeneous in gen- eral appearance. Bedding planes in many places are not appa- * Recently determined by Arthur Stiles. G. B. Richardson— Paleozoic Formations. 483 rent and the rock is characteristically massive. Chemically it is of variable composition, some analyses showing the pres- ence of considerable magnesium while others indicate its almost complete absence. “Besides its main occurrence in the Guadalupe Mountains the Capitan limestone was determined in 1907 to be present in the southern end of the Delaware Mountains, where it has been faulted down and adjoins the limestone of the Delaware Mountain formation. R. 8S. Tarr reports, in the paper cited above, the presence of 1000 feet or more of sandstone lying above the Capitan formation, but these rocks have not been studied, so that neither the base nor the top of the strata bearing the Guadalupian fauna has yet been determined. It is expected that these relations can be determined in the northward continuation of the formations in the Sacramento Mountains of New Mexico. The following a short list of fossils typical of the Capitan limestone deter- mined by Dr. Girty : List of fossils from the Capitan limestone. ‘usulina elongata Squamularia Guadalupensis — Orthotetes Guadalupensis Spiriferina pyramidalis Chonetes Hillanus Composita emarginata Productus latidorsatus Pugnax Swallowiana Productus pinniformis Dielasma spatulatum Richthofenia Permiana Fleterelasma Shumardianum Spiri fer Mexicanus Leptodus Guadalupensis Resumé. In both the El Paso and Van Horn quadrangles the basal Paleozoic strata are sandstones which le unconformably on pre-Cambrian rocks. ‘These conditions are in accord with observations elsewhere in southwestern United States, where part of late Cambrian time was characterized by the deposition of coarse arenaceous sediments in a sea which was advancing on an old land surface. The succeeding record is of subsi- dence, interrupted by probable emergences, and of the accumu- tation in Ordovician, Silurian, and Upper Carboniferous time of a great mass of limestone exceeding 5000 feet in thickness. The presence in this limestone of fivedistinct faunas representing the Beekmantown, Galena, Richmond, Niagara, and Penn- sylvanian stages, and the absence of the intervening faunas which are present in the complete Paleozoic section, imply a number of unconformities to account for the hiatuses, yet these are not lithologically well marked and their exact strati- graphic positions generally are unrecognizable. It is especially noteworthy that in rthe Franklin Mountains Upper Carboniferous 484 G. B. Richardson— Paleozoic Formations. (Hueco) limestone hes with apparent conformity on Silurian (Fusselman) limestone. The absence of the intermediate series between the Cambrian and Pennsylvanian in the two quadrangles points to several uplifts which in general did not appreciably deform the rocks, and apparently the emergences were so slight that there is little record of erosion. But in the Van Horn region there is abundant evidence of pro- found pre- -Pennsylvanian erosion, for the Hueco limestone with a well-developed basal conglomer ate rests indifferently on all of the underlying for mations. The deposition of the sand- stone members of the Guadalupian series indicates changed con- ditions during late Paleozoic time in contrast to those prevailing during the accumulation of the great mass of limestone in the earlier periods, but the extent and relationships of these Permian ? strata have not yet been determined. The close of the Paleozoic era in the trans-Pecos Texas region apparently was accompanied by general uplift, but there is little record of immediately succeeding events. Karly Mesozoic rocks are known in only a few areas, such as the marine Jurassiv beds in the Malone Mountains,* 65 miles southeast of El Paso. East of the Van Horn quadrangle the Delaware Mountain formation is unconformably overlain by several hundred feet of gypsum of undetermined age. There is abundant evidence of considerable post-Carboniterous, pre-Cretaceous erosion in this region and in several places the Hueco limestone is immediately overlain by Lower Cretaceous strata. U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. * Bulletin No. 266, U. S. Geological Survey, 1905. Perkins—Rectification Effect in a Vacuum Tube. 485 Art. L.—A Rectification Effect in a Vacuum Tube; by Henry A. PERKINS. Tue effect to be described in this article was accidentally discovered by the writer during some experiments on the electrodeless discharge. It was noticed, in the first place, that a tube exhausted to about $™" pressure showed ioniza- tion when acted on by an alternating electrostatic field of low frequency and comparatively low potential, 550 volts and above. Moreover a direct current was sent through a galva- nometer connected to two terminals sealed into the ends of the tube. The alternating field was supplied from one end of a trans- former capable of giving 2000 volts, and the other end was grounded. The free end was connected to a ring surround- ing, but not touching, the tube, and was adjustable to various positions along the tube. The tube itself was about 20™ long between the inside ends of the electrodes, and about 2™ outside diameter. It was exhausted from a point near one end, thus leaving the main body of the tube a smooth eylin- der, and in order to secure as much symmetry as possible, a dummy tube was blown in the other end as shown in the dia- gram. The galvanometer used was a Thompson type of instrument having a resistance of 5800 ohms, and, as adjusted 1 deflection on the scale was equivalent to 5 10-° amperes. The connections are shown in fig. 1. _ As soon as the main transformer circuit was closed, the ionization became evident by a faint glow in the tube, and on closing S, by a deflection of the galvanometer. This deflec- Current through Galvanometer 486 Perkins—Rectification Lffect in a Vacuum Tube. tion was too small to be observed, however, when the poten- tial of the ring was less than 550 wollte: or when the ring was - so situated that the glow did not reach to both electrodes. If the ring was mov ed in successive readings from A to B,a curve of deflections was obtained of the general character of tic. 2. This current was practically zero at A and B, but on moving toward the center it increased very rapidly beyond 5" from the ends, went through a maximum, then decreased very rapidly and reversed sign when the ring was at the Cune Showing Yeriation of Ope position (RAST oe gb Heer of 2 7. Varying Lxcilotion of Fig feithout change of position) Distance measured ulong Tabe creat trough Galva noneser Zranslormer_EA1F\ sa Volts J000 1500 2 on Corves Show! 179 £ Litec? of ‘ Botlery int Series with Ga/vonometer Cyreuit™ ’ | \\ TvrV itshows that no ions can reach B at all, hence no current can flow. Moreover, / is supposed always to be the larger segment, it can thus vary only between N= oH (1@(1—d)} (LrvV —2) L : L and a? where L is the tube’s length. Thus the current will begin to flow when TwrV=/', and a plot of the equation between N and /, assuming TroV =18' and 1+d=L= 20, in fig. 8 exhibits all the essential features of the experimental curve. Letting TrvV=15° gives an even closer similarity, as is shown on the same diagram. The effect of assuming a 2 L distribution unaffected by the ends (i. e., =) is to make the slopes more abrupt than those shown. One more possible effect ought to be considered ; the possi- bility of a variation in the total ionization for different. posi- tions of the ring. For instance, the number produced on either side of the ring might depend on the gradient on that side. Let n= the number of ions produced per second, per ; : Nie. unit gradient. Then a will be produced on the side toward ONE : : B and oa on the side toward A (assuming as before that nearly all the ionization occurs very near the ring). Then V(i+d) total ionization = ld =2%m. Substituting this in the last equation, we have = yates (0-9 (Trev —2)} which yields the curve shown in fig. 9, which does not differ very materially from that in fig. 8. The variation of potential as exhibited by the electro- static voltmeter is easily explained by considering the potentials, due to the ring, at A’and B. When the galva- nometer circuit is to open the ends will not affect the field so much, and we may assume P=" and P,, a when (c—d) ld This gives a curve very similar to the one obtained, although . Q is the charge on the rmg. Then P, —P,=P.D.=Q 492. Perkins—Rectification Effect in a Vacuum Tube. it reaches » at A and B, which follows of course from aa The foregoing attempt to explain the phenomena seems to account fairly well for the form of the curves obtained, as well as the chief effect of rectification. The few quantitative measurements so far made are not discordant with the theory, and further experiments are now in progress involving chang. ing the frequency, the pressure in the tube, the form of the terminals, ete.; all of which should give interesting data on the various ionic properties involved. assuming P, = Jarvis Laboratory, Trinity College, Hartford, Ct., March, 1908. Boltwood—Life of Radium. 493 Art. LI.—On the Life of Radium; by Berrrram B. mi Boirwoop. [Contributions from the Sloane Physical Laboratory of Yale University. ] Tue theory proposed by Rutherford and Soddy to explain the behavior of radio-active substances assumes that the phe- nomena of radio-activity are accompanied by the disintegration of the atoms of the radio-elements and the production of atoms of other eleinents having distinctive physical and chem- ical properties. On the basis of this theory it is necessary to conclude that in any salt of radium a certain proportion of the votal number of radium atoms present are constantly being transformed into atoms of other substances. A number of estimates of the approximate order of magni- tude of the change occurring in radium have been made by Rutherford. From the heating effect observed in radium salts he at first calculated that the half-value period of radium, 7.¢., the time required for exactly half of a given quantity of radium to disintegrate into other substances, | was about 800 years,* but very shortly afterward he decided upon 1500 years} as a more probable value. Later, he was able to determinet the quantity of positive electricity communicated to an insulated conductor by the a particles from a known weight of radium bromide in the form of a thin film and in this way obtained further data on which a calculation of the life of radium could be based. Thus, for example, when the film contained 0-484 of radium bromide, the current due to the charge carried by the a particles was found to be 9% x107" ampere. This corresponded to 2°03 X10~* ampere per gram of radium bromide and, since at most not more than half of the a particles escaped (the rest being absorbed in the plate supporting the film), the total charge carried per second by the a particles from one gram of radium bromide was equal to 4:°0710~* ampere. Assuming that the charge carried by each a particle was the same as the charge on an ion, viz., 1:1810-" coulomb, the total number of a particles emitted Dey second by one gram of radium bromide was given as 3°6X10". Taking the composition of the radium salt used to be RaBr,, containing 58 per cent of pure radium, it followed that the total number of a par- ticles expelled per second from one gram of radium was 6-210". This number was for radium itself, that is for radium free from other products (Em, Ra A, etc.). If it is * Bakerian Lecture, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., cciv, 169, 1904. + Radio-activity, 1st edition, p. 333, 1904. ¢ Phil. Mag., x, 193, 1905. Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Series, Vou. XXV, No. 150.—June, 1908. 33 494 Boltwood—Life of Radium. assumed that an atom of radium on disintegrating to form an atom of emanation emits a single a particle, then the number of a particles expelled per second from a gram of radium is a measure of the number of atoms undergoing transformation in the same period. It can be shown that the number of atoms in one gram of radium is approximately equal to 3-610". The number of atoms disintegrating per second is, from the number ot a particles emitted, equal to 6-210". The frae- tion of the whole number present undergoing transformation per second is accordingly 1:72 107", or 54107" per year. It follows from this that the half-value period of radium is about 1300 years. Not long after making the above estimate Rutherford experimentally determined the velocity and the ratio of the charge to the mass of the a particles from the radium produets, and found the value of % to be approximately 5-1<10°. Since oo the value of © forthe hydrogen ion in the electrolysis of water is nearly 10°, he concluded that of the three possibilities, viz., that the a particle i is (1) a molecule of hydrogen carrying the ionic charge of hydrogen, (2) a helium atom carrying twice the ionic charge of hydrogen, or (3) one-half of the helium atom carrying a single ionic charge; the most probable was the second. He has pointed* out that if this assumption is applied in the calculation of the number of a particles emitted per second by one gram of radium, the value obtained is one- half of that calculated above, namely 3°1x10". This would. give the half-value period of radium as 2600 years instead of 1300 years. The experimental data on the velocity and the value of @ for the a particles have also been used by Rutherford in obtaining an estimate of the number of a particles from the heating effect of radium bromide. It has been found that the heat emitted by pure radium bromide is equivalent to about 100 gram calories per hour per gram of radium containing equilibrium amounts of its immediate products. This is mechanically equivalent to 1:1610° ergs per second. Taking the energy of the a particle from radium itself as nineteen one- hundredths of the total energy due to the four a ray changes (Ra, Em, Ra A and Ra O), “the heating effect which can be attributed to radium alone is 2°2410° ergs per second per eram. This is on the assumption that the energy emitted as heat is due to the kinetic energy of the expelled a parti- cles. Since the energy of an a particle from radium itself is * Phil. Mag., xii, 348, 1906. Boltwood—Life of Radium. 495 2-41 10"e, when the value of @ is expressed in electromag- netic units, the number of a particles expelled per second by one gram of pure radium free from products is equal to aoe - Now assuming that the disintegration of the radium atom is accompanied by the expulsion either of (1) a single a particle having a mass equal to that of a helium atom and _ bearing twice the charge of a hydrogen ion, or of (2) two a particles of a mass equal to half that of a helium atom with a single ionic charge, the number of atoms in one gram of radium disinte- erating per second is given as 4:1 x 10” per second, or 12-7 x 10" per year. Taking the total number of atoms in one gram of radium as 3° 6X10", the fraction disintegrating per year is equal to 3°510-' and the haif-value period is approxi- nately 2000 years. The latter is about 77 per cent of the maximum estimate on the basis of the measurement of the charge carried by the a particles. Owing to the relative uncertainty as to the exact values of many of the quantities used in the above calculations, it is not to be expected that the results obtained by the different methods will at best give more than the approximate order of the rate of the change taking place in radium. The amount of emanation produced by one gram of radium is also a measure of the rate of disintegration of radium. The results obtained by Ramsay and Soddy from measurements of the volume of the emanation produced by known amounts of radium salts were in fair agreement with the quantities to be expected from the rate of change indicated by Rutherford’s early calculations.* Quite recently, however, Cameron and Ramsay have published+ an account of the results of some similar experiments which they interpret as indicating that the rate of change of radium is much more rapid than has been generally supposed, and on the basis of these results they have calculated that the fraction of radium disintegrating per day is _ 1162 107°, which corresponds to only 163 years for the half. value period. Theory of Present Experiments. It follows from the disintegration theory, that in any system of radio-active substances, consisting of a parent element A and a series of successive disintegrating -products, B, ©, etc., when the relative amounts of products have reached their highest possible value and a state of radio-active equilibrium has been attained in the system, the number of atoms of the parent substance disintegrating in unit time is exactly equal to * Radio-activity, 2d edition, p. 458, 1905. + Jour. Chem. Soc., xci, 1266, 1907. 496 Boltwood—Life of Radium. the number of atoms of each successive product disintegrating in the same period. If the number of atoms of the substances A, B, and C is equal to P, Q, and R, respectively, and X,, X,, and 2, are the respective constants of change or fractions of the total amounts of each substance which undergo change each second, then the relation existing under equilibrium conditions is expressed by due = N Qi Nie and the amount of the first product B which disintegrates per second to form the second product C is exactly equal to the amount of B which is produced per second by the disintegra- tion of the parent substance A. This follows from the very assumption of a state of equilibrium, for if the amount of B which disintegrated per second was greater or less than the amount formed in the same interval, the relative proportion of B as compared to A would diminish or increase accordingly, which is contrary to the fundamental assumption. If, therefore, it is desired to find the rate of change A, for the product b, and for any reason a direct determination of this is impracticable, it is possible to obtain a knowledge of its value by comparing the amount of B formed in a given inter- val from a known amount (P) of A with the amount of B in , where A,P radio-active equilibrium with P. Thus A, = is the amount of B formed per. second by P atoms of the parent A. Now in the case of radium, owing to its rarity and its slow rate of change, it is not at present possible by direct measure- ments conducted with radium compounds to accurately deter- mine the rate at which disintegration is taking place. The pri- inary uranium minerals, however, represent systems which are cer tainly of sufficient age for a state of radio- active equilibrium to have been reached by the different products. If, therefore, the parent substance from which the radium is formed can be separated from such a mineral, and the amount of radium produced by this parent can be determined and compared directly with the amount of radium with which it was associ- ated in the mineral, it is possible to obtam a more accurate knowledge of the constant of change of the radium than can be obtained by other methods. The constant proportion which has béen found to exist between the quantities of uranium and radium in different minerals is very conclusive evidence in support of the assump- tion that radium is a disintegration product of uranium, but attempts made to detect the orowth of radium in compounds of pure uranium indicated that if radium was produced at Boltwood—Life of Radium. 497 all it was produced at a very small fraction of the rate which was to be expected from other considerations. It was possible, however, that the transformation of uranium X into radium was not a direct one, and that the atoms of uranium X disin- tegrated to form atoms of an unknown intermediate product with a slow rate of change from which radium was ultimately produced. The indications were all in favor of the presumption that this intermediate product, if it existed, had so slow a rate of change that, for purposes of determining the rate of produc- tion (and disintegration) of radium, it offered all the advan- tages of a true parent. Ina search for this possible interme- diate product I finally found* that there could be separated from uranium minerals a substance from which radium was unquestionably produced at a readily measurable rate. This substance was separated with thorium, with which it remained very persistently, exhibiting a chemical behavior almost iden- tical with that given by Debierne as characteristic for actinium. It was, therefore, at first supposed that the radium-forming substance was actinium, although the necessity of further in- _ vestigation before reaching a definite conclusion was fully appreciated. Further experiments were therefore undertaken from the results of which it was established that the radium- producing substance was a new radio-active element, to which the name ‘‘ ionium’”’ was given.t In the mean time Rutherford had found + that, although radium was produced in a com- mercial preparation of actinium which he had examined, the substance from which the radium was formed could be par- tially separated from the actinium and could not therefore be identical with it. Exper imental Part. The experiments which will be described in this paper were undertaken with the object of determining the rate of disinte- gration of radium. The operations consisted in the separation of the ionium from definite quantities of certain uranium min- erals and the comparison of the amounts of radium produced by the separated ionium in known periods with the amounts of radium originally associated with it. The radium present in the minerals used was ascertained by comparing the activity of the maximum or equilibrium amount of radium emanation evolved from a small, average sample of * This Journal, xxii, 557, 1906. + This Journal, xxiv, 370, 1907. poe a Ixxv, 270, 1907 ; ibid., Ixxvi, 126, 1907; Phil. Mag., xiv, 733, 498 Boltwood—Life of Radium. the powdered material, with the activity of the emanation from a solution containing a known amount of radium. The solutions of ionium were sealed up in glass bulbs and the radium emanation present was deter mined from time to time by boiling off the gases in each bulb and measuring the activity of these gases in an electroscope. The radium ema- nation obtained in this manner is a measure of the amount of radium present in the solution at any time, but for short periods of accumulation is not directly proportional to the actual amount of radium contained in the solution.* If a freshly prepared solution of ionium free from radium is sealed up and radium is produced at a constant rate, then at the end of ¢ days the amount of emanation present in the solu- tion is proportional to qd it Gla tae ee eee) when g is the amount of radium produced per day expressed in terms of its equilibrium amount of emanation and X is the constant of change for the emanation, the day being taken as the unit of time. The ratio of the amount of emanation in the solution at the end of ¢ days, to the amount of emanation in equilibrium with the total quantity of radium then present would be equal to pola ety oe 1 —At hh Se (se or A ( € ) Thus at the end of four days, for example, taking XA as 0°178, the value of the ratio would be 1 1 nota a Of D2 viz., the amount of emanation present would be 0°286 the amount in equilibrium with the radium in the solution. If a quantity of radium gq, is present in the ionium at the start, then the proportion of its equilibrium amount of emana- tion which will accumulate in the solution in the time ¢ will be equal to g,(1—¢—“). The total amount of emanation at the time ¢ will then be equal to g,(l—e my ees [1 = yim en’) I. * The general mathematical considerations which apply in this case have been discussed and developed by Rutherford. Phil. Mag., xiv, 733, 1907. (1 — 49) = 0-286, Boltwood—Life of Radium. 499 This is the form of the expression used in caleulating the results of the experiments. Two curves with the time in days taken as the abscissas, one for ihe values of 1 — e~”’ and the —At other for the values of 1 — — _ (la ), were plotted on squared paper and afforded a Heels, means for quickly obtaining the values of these quantities for different periods of time. If, after testing a solution, a second test was made less than 30 days later, the value obtained for the amount of emanation in the seen case was increased by an amount equal to le~ Me, where I was the activity of the emanation found in the first test and #, was the interval between the times of testing. The method followed in calculating the results of the experiments will be illustrated by the following example: A solution of ionium (Solution 8) was prepared and was sealed up, after thorough boiling to remove all emanation. Five days and twenty-two hours later the gases were boiled out and tested in the electroscope. The leak due to radium emanation was found to be equal to 0°094 divisions per minute. Eighteen days later (23-9 days from the start) the gases were again removed and the activity of the emanation then obtained was equal to 0°613 div. per min. in the electroscope. The value found in the first test was 0:094, and 0:094%e7!8” is 0-004 ; this quantity was therefore added to 0°618, giving 0-617 div. per min. for the activity of the emanation at the second time of testing. The equations then had the form (For 5:9 days) 0°659, + 2:25¢ = 0:094 (For 23-9 days) 0:9869,+18°36¢ = 0°617 and from these equations the values g = 0:0317 and g, = 0-034 were obtained. The sensitiveness of the electroscope was such that a leak of 1:00 div. per min. corresponded to the equilibrium amount of emanation from 1:05X10~° gram of radium. The amount of radium produced per day was there- fore 0:0333 X10~° gram and the amount present in the solution at the start was 0-0357 x 107° gram. Tonium Solution 1. The preparation of this solution has already been described in a previous paper.* -The mineral used consisted of about one kilogram of a crude carnotite ore containing approximately nine per cent of uranium and a total quantity of radium equal to about 3-1 10-° grain.t * This Journal, xxv, 371, 1908. + This is the solution mentioned in an earlier paper, this Journal, xxii, 537, 1906, where the content of uranium in the mineral taken and the amount of radium produced in the first 195 days are incorrectly given. 500 Boltwood—Life of Radium. This solution was tested for the growth of radium for a total period of 539 days from the time of its first preparation. The results obtained are given in the following table (Table I). The first column gives ; the number of each test, the number 1 signifying first test, 2 second test, ete. ; the second column gives the time in days which elapsed from the time that the solution was first prepared and sealed up to the time that any given test was made; the third column gives the amount of radium emanation obtained in each test expressed in terms of the weight of radium with which it would be in equilibrium ; the fourth column gives the amount of radium produced per day during the different periods as calculated in the manner already explained. TABLE I, Growth of Radium in Solution 7. I I rat IV 1 69 days 5'58X10™ g % ae 9 963. « 9:99 « « 0°0187 X10~ gram. Bre oe 11:38 « « HOE A 539 14:43 «6 CORES = The amount of radium produced per day calculated from the results of the first and the last test only was 0:0188x10-° gram, and the amount of radium present in the solution at the start calenlated from this number and the result of the first test was 440107 gram. The amount of radium produced — in this solution in one year would therefore be approxi- mately 69 X10~° gram. Assuming that all of the ionium in the original mineral was contained in this solution, the constant of change (A) tor radium is given by . eran = 22X10 % and the half-value period indicated is abou 3100 years. Tonium Solution 2. The preparation of this solution has also been described in a previous paper.* It was prepared from a kilogram of car- notite containing 3°1X10-° gram of radium. The chemical treatment to which the mineral was subjected was more elaborate than in the first instance and was designed to effect, if possible, a more complete separation of the ionium. The data obtained from the measurements conducted on this solu- tion are given in Table II, in which the arrangement is similar to that in Table I. * This Journal, xxv, 372, 1908. Boltwood—Life of Radium. 5O1 TABLE II. Growth of Radium in Solution 2. Time Radium emanation Radium from start found growth Test No. days in terms of Ra per day 1 9 0636 X 10° g ee 9 39 Te Go) Gs 0°0252X 107 g. ° 2 66 66 66 3 196 5°35 ce 66 ce 0 0246 The average growth calculated from (1) and (3) was equiva- lent to 0°:024710-° g. radium per day and the amount of radium present at the start was 0°65x10-° gram. The amount of radium produced per year would be 9:01 X10~ g., giving a value for X equal to 2°9X10~* and a half-value period of 2400 years. Tonium Solution 3. The ionium contained in this solution was separated from 200 grams of Joachimsthal uraninite by the chemical opera- tions described in a former paper.* The mineral taken con- tained 213X107" gram of radium per gram, or a total of 4:-26X10-° gram of radium. The data obtained on the growth of radinm in this solution are given in Table III. TasBLeE IIT. Growth of Radium in Solution 3. Time from Ra Em found Growth start expressed ‘radium Test No. in days in terms of Ra per day i 5°9 O;0987-xX 1057 go. un 2 93:9 0648 « Dene Raed “—s oo 66 ce 3 46 1:397 (3 66 0°0339 ee i 909 CY oe ies The average amount of radium produced per day caleu- lated from the results of the first and last tests only, was 0°034110~ ¢., and the amount of radium in the solution at the start was only 0:034610~° gram. The amount of radium produced per year in this solution would be 12°45 x 10~° gram, giving a value of 2:°9210~* for X and indicating a half: value period of about 2400 years for radium. LTonium Solution 4. This solution was prepared from about 100 grams of second- ary uranium minerals, chiefly guimmite and “uranophane, by the chemical operations which have been already described in the earlier paper.+ During the later stages of the chemical * This Journal, xxv, 373, 1908. + This Journal, xxv, 373, 1908. 502 Boltwood—Life of Radium. treatment a considerable portion (about half) of the solution of ionium was lost through an accident. The amount of radium in the original mineral is therefore of no significance, but the growth of. radium in this solution is shown in Table IV. TABLE IV. Growth of Radium in ‘Solution 4 Time from Ra Em found Growth of Test start expressed radium No. in days in terms of Ra per day 1 6 0°150 Bag = , BO ae 0:00875 X 1078. 2 140 WESC SK 10g. The amount of radium present at the start was 0°20 107° ., and the amount of radium produced per year would be 3:19 X 10~° gram. Lonium Solution 4. The separation of the ionium from the relatively impure materials used in preparing the first four solutions involved very considerable difficulties. The minerals themselves were not entirely soluble in any one reagent and various insoluble residues were obtained from time to time which further added to the complications. It was therefore doubtful in the end whether a complete separation of the ionium had been effected. In order to avoid these difficulties a solution of ionium was prepared from a specimen of very pure uraninite from North Carolina. The material used consisted of exactly 40 grams of the mineral which was essentially free from traces of secondary alteration products. It was heated with an excess of dilute nitric acid and the solution was evaporated to dryness. The residue was moistened with a few drops of dilute nitric acid, was treated with hot water and the solution was filtered. The insoluble material removed in this manner weighed only 0:0663 gram after ignition, corresponding to 0°17 per cent of the material taken. It consisted chiefly of silica equivalent to 0-14 per cent of the mineral and only 0°03 per cent of other sub- stances. Its activity was not greater than that of about one milligram of uraninm. The filtrate from this residue was first treated with an excess of hydrogen sulphide and the sulphides of lead, ete., removed. The excess of hydrogen sulphide was expelled from the solution, which was than heated to boiling and a solution of 10 grams "of oxalic acid added. An immediate precipitation of oxalates occurred and the solution was allowed to stand for three hours until cold. The precipitated oxalates were filtered off. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness and ignited to destroy the oxalic acid. The residue was dissolved in nitric Boltwood—Life of Radium. 508 acid, the solution evaporated to dryness and the residue of nitrates was treated with pure, dry ether to remove the uranium nitrate. That portion of the residue undissolved by the ether was treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, and to the resulting solution about 5 grams of oxalic acid were added. An immedi- ate precipitate of oxalates formed, but the mixture was allowed to stand over night before filtering. The oxalates were then removed, were added to the oxalates obtained by the first precipitation with oxalic acid, and the whole was ignited gently to form the oxides. The oxides were treated with hydrochloric acid to form the chlorides, and the chlorides were thrice precipitated with ammonia to form the hydroxides. The final precipitate of hydroxides was dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid and the solution was tested for the growth of radium. The results obtained with this solution are given in Table V. TABLE V. Growth of Radium in Solution 8. Time from Ra Em found Growth of Test start expressed radium No. in days in terms of Ra per day 2 5 FING, —9.. Se ECG courn : é ee 0-0101 > 107° 3 147°0 1a SK LOmeon The average production of radium per day, calculated from the results of tests 1 and 3 only, was 0:0102 & 10-° gram and the amount of radiuim in the solution at the start was 0-067 < 10~* gram. The amount of radium produced per year would therefore be 3°72 x 10-* gram. The amount of radium contained in the 40 grams of mineral (78°5 per cent U) taken was 1:07 X 10~° gram. The fraction (A) of the radium changing per year was therefore 3°48 x 107", which gives 1990 years for the half-value period of radium. Activity of Ionium in Solutions. The activity of the substances present in solutions 1, 2, 3 and 4 was determined in the manner which has been already described.* Now it has been elsewhere shown? that the activity of the ionium in radio-active equilibrium with uranium is about 0°35 the activity of the uranium with which it is associated in a mineral. From the activity of an ionium preparation it is therefore possible to determine the w eight of uranium with which this quantity of ionium would be in “radio- active equilibrium. Since the amount of radium in equilibrium with one gram of uranium is known,t it is also possible to * This Journal, xxv, 374, 1908. vate, xxv, 291, 1908. ¢ Ibid., xxv, 296, 1908. 504 Boltwood—Life of Radium. calculate the amount of radium in equilibrium with the ionium contained in a preparation of this element. Thus, for example, the total activity of the substances contained in solution 1 was found to be equivalent to 2591 divisions per minute in the electroscope. The activity of the thorium products present was calculated to be equal to 30 divisions per minute, which leaves 2561 divisions per minute for the activity of the ionium. Now the sensitiveness of the electroscope was such that one gram of pure uranium had an activity of 124 divisions per minute. The activity of the ionium in equilibrium with one gram of uranium would therefore be 124 0°35 = 43 divisions per minute. From this it follows that the ionium contained in solution 1 was the amount in radio-active equilibrium with 59°6 grams of uranium. The amount of radium in equilibrium with one gram of uranium is 3°4 X 107° gram, and the amount of radium in equilibrium with the ionium contained in solution 1 would therefore be 2°02 x 107° gram. The amount of radium in equilibrium with the ionium_ pres- ent in each of the first four solutions has been calculated in this manner and the results are shown in Table VI. The activities taken for the total material in the different solutions are calculated from the activities of the specimen films pre- pared from these solutions and are expressed in terms of divisions per minute in the electroscope. At the time that these values were obtained the films were about four months old and had attained an essentially constant activity.* Column I gives the total activity of the substances contained in the solution ; column IL the activity due to the thorium products present ; column III the activity of the ionium; column IV the calculated amount of uranium (in grams) with which the ionium would be in radio-active equilibrium ; column V the calculated amount of radium (in gram xX 107°) in equilibrium with the ionium; column VI the observed growth of radium per year in terms (on gram X107°; column V IL the fraction of the radium undergoing change per year as given by the ratio of the amount of radium produced to the amount in equi- librium with the ionium. TABLE VI Sol. No. I II Til IV V VI VII 1 2591 30 2561 59°6 2°02 6°90 3-4 Ome 2 3485 84 3401 19-1 2°69 9 Ol Bs SO 3 4495 90 4405 102°4 3°48 12°45 So oxlOme + 1268 68 1200 28°0 0°95 3°19 BeBe Or * The activity of these films will probably fall slowly with the time owing to the decay of the radiothorium contained in them. Boltwood—Life of Radium. 505 The average vaiue for A» is 3°4210~*, which is in good agreement with the value 3-48 x10~* obtained directly from the growth of radium in solution 5. Giesel has published* an account of some experiments with a strong preparation of actinium in the course of which he obtained results suggesting the existence of a very slowly changing type of emanation, and has intimated that the pro- duction of this new emanation would account for the results which I had previously obtained and believed to indicate the growth of radium in actinium compounds. It is therefore desirable to state that in the course of the experiments described in this paper I have been unable to obtain: any evi- dence of the existence of an emanation in any way resembling that described by Giesel. The emanation produced in the solutions of ionium was in all respects identical with the radium emanation, showing the characteristic rate of decay and producing the readily identified radium active deposit. An interesting insight into the effectiveness of the method used by Rutherford “for separating the radium parent from actinium can be gained from the data given in his later paper si He states that the actinium preparation used had an activit about 250 times that of uranium, and on page 747{ the total constant activity of 0°32 gram of this material is given as 12900. This would correspond to an activity of about 160 per gram of uranium. Now it can be readily shown that the radium produced per year by a quantity of ionium having an activity equal to that of one gram of uranium is about 3°3X10-" gram. From this it follows that in the crude actinium preparation which Rutherford used about one-tenth of the total activity was due to the ionium present. It can be similarly shown that in his “Actinium I” and “Actinium IL” the activity due to the ionium was about 0-12 of the total in the case of the former and about 0°18 of the total in the case of the latter. By the chemical operations which he describes the relative proportion of ionium to actinium was approxi- mately doubled in his more concentrated preparation but was still considerably below that in which these elements occur in the uranium minerals.$ Discussion of Results. The results obtained in the different experiments indicate that the growth of radium in the solutions of ionium was con- stant within the limits of experimental error throughout the -periods during which the solutions were under examination. * Ber. d. chem. Ges., xl, 3011, 1907. + Phil. Mag., xiv. 733, 1907. + Loc. cit. § Boltwood, this Journal, xxv, 269, 1908. 506 Boltwood—Life of Radium. This would appear to justify the conclusion that the rate of change of ionium is relatively slow and that it is the immediate substance from which radium is formed. It is obvious that the significance of the value found in these experiments for the ‘rate of disintegration of radium depends chiefly on the matter of the complete separation of the ionium. That the separation of the ionium was essentially complete in the preparation of Solution 5 appears highly probable, as it has been found* that by similar, and even more complicated chemical operations, the amount of ionium to be expected from the disintegration theory can be separated from a pure uranium mineral. The method which has been used has also the further advantage that the result obtained is wholly independent of any standard of radium salt or of any hypothesis or assumption other than the fundamental theory of disintegration and the conclusion that the emanation is a meas- ure of the radium present. Except for convenience there is no advantage in expressing the results of the separate measure- ments in terms of the standard radium solution. They could just as well be expressed in terms of divisions per minute in the electroscope.t It is therefore very significant that the rate of disintegration of radium as determined in this direct manner should agree so closely with the rate which has been predicted by Rutherford from distinctly complex theoretical considerations, and_ this agreement is a further corroboration of Rutherford’s extraor- dinary ability in such matters. It affords me much pleasure to | acknowledge my indebtedness to Professor Rutherford for his — constant interest and encouragement during the course of this investigation. Summary. Results obtained on the growth of radium in preparations of ionium separated from uranium minerals indicate that the dis- integration constant of radium has a value of approximately 3°48 X10 * (year)~. The half-value period of radium is therefore about 2000 years. New Haven, Conn., March 24, 1908. * This Journal, xxv, 269, 1908. + The rate of change of uranium, calculated from the rate of change of radium and the amount of radium associated in a mineral with one gram of uranium, is givenas 1:16x10-l(year)—'. Thisis equivalent to a half-value. period of 6x 10° years for uranium. These values are of course dependent on the purity of the radium standard. Van Horn—Occurrence of Proustite and Argentite. 507 Arr. LII.—A New Occurrence of Proustite and Argentite ;* by Frank R. Van Horn. In 1902, the Mine Developing Company of Cleveland, Ohio, was oper ating a property known as the California or Bell Mine on Glacier Mountain about 3 miles from Montezuma, Summit County, Colorado. The ore occurs in a fissure vein in granitic gneiss and consists chiefly of argentiferous galena, sometimes with considerable sphalerite mixed irregularly through. it. The vein sometimes shows a simple structure made by the irregular mixture of galena and sphalerite ; at other times it is banded symmetrically, while in a few other instances a brecci- ated appearance was observed. The Proustite. In September, 1902, the paying portion of the vein widened to about 21 inches, and assumed a distinctly banded structure, with galena and sphalerite in coarsely crystalline masses irreg- ularly mixed on each wall; this was followed by siderite, also symmetrical, while the center consisted of massive proustite mixed with finally divided quartz which at times was more or less drusy. The proustite-quartz aggregate was generally about 2 inches wide, but in one case became 14 inches in thick- ness. This averegate had an average of specific gravity of 4:17 as compared with 5:60 for pure proustite. This ore was fol- lowed along the strike for a distance of 30 feet with an upward stope of about 20 feet, when it disappeared. Mr. J. C. Sharp, Case ’03, made two analyses of carefully chosen proustite, which gave the following average : Found Theoretical Ag;AsS3 Ag Ba AGE Oe AM ope aR 67°60 65°5 UNIS ES ee ROA EN Sea pie EL ig Soy 2A 13°85 Hop! Na) Open SMS RE IN aes 93 2 igen een er neta sane se] eet) 19°4 99°78 100°0 The analysis aoe a slight’ admixture of the pyrargyrite molecule (Ag, SbS,), also that the sulphur is too low, which is probably due to Geely tical errors. The silver is pr obably too high for the same reason, but might be due to native silver although none was observed on the specimen analyzed. * A full description of this occurrence with assays of ores was contained in a paper read before the Geological Society of America at the Albuquerque meeting, December 30, (907. This article will be published in volume xix of the Bulletin of the Society. 508 Van Horn—Occurrence of Proustite and Argentite. The Argentite. For a very short distance in the symmetrically banded vein above described, proustite was replaced by argentite which in two instances was reduced to wire silver. The argentite seam was from 2 to 3 inches in width and generally of a massive and finally granular appearance; in some cases, however, the mineral became quite coarsely eranular ; in all specimens the argentite was sectile and malleable but like the proustite was mixed more or less with minutely divided quartz. The average specific gravity of three specimens was 6°55, compared with 7-28 for pure argentite. The average of two analy ses made by Mr. Ree: Dennis, Case ’07, is as enlllowa SNe OER Nes Mac gst 83°57 a eae eC ee CN TIC Hea ae Nine 2 12°66 Tnisolulble nc sae Binge aA 3°62 99°85 The insoluble matter conforms in general to the lower specific gravity (6°55) and probably consisted of quartz. The analysis was recalculated with the following result : Found Theoretical Ages Ag PRR AD patti a Lea al sie 86°71 87°1 aes ely BL Lh SAS 13°13 12°9 99°84 100°0 As far as the writer could learn, the proustite and argentite ~ have never been found previously in this locality, and the occurrence of both minerals in such massive form and large amounts is also considered a matter of interest. Several fine vein sections were presented by The Mine Developing Com- pany to the geological department of Case School of Applied Science, and are on exhibition in the Museum. Geological-Mineralogical Laboratory Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio, April, 1908. Evans and Bancroft—Gedrite in Canada. 509 Arr. LIT.—On the Occurrence of Gedrite in Canada ; vy N. Norron Evans and J. Austen Banororv. Ty the year 1836 Thomson* reported the discovery of antho- phyllite at Perth, Ontario, but although the authors have not been able to gain access to Thomson’s original paper, both Hintze and Rammelsberg refer to the occurrence of antho- phyllite at this locality as doubtful. Fur thermore, the mineral is not mentioned in the “ Annotated List of Minerals Occur- ring in Canada” compiled by G. C. Hoffmann.+ It seems, therefore, very doubtful whether the mineral has hitherto been found in Canada. So far as can be ascertained further- more, the mineral has never been found in place in the United States, although it was found in bowlders of dunite at Bakers- ville, North Carolina, by the late Professor 8. L. Penfield. The aluminous variety of this species known as gedrite has, however, been recently found by Dr. Frank D. Adams occur- ring abundantly i in amphibolite on Lot 11 of Range IX of the Township of Harcourt, Haliburton County, Ontario. The discovery was made in the course of the geological survey of a large area on the margin of the Laurentian Protaxis to the north of Lake Ontario, which has recently been completed by Adams and Barlow for the Geological Survey of Canada. The occurrence of amphibolite in question belongs to the Grenville series, which is very extensively exposed “and is of great thickness in this region, consisting chiefly of limestone with, however, a considerable amount of associated amphibo- lite. Towards the southern margin of the Protaxis the ‘Gren- ville series has an almost continuous development, but on going north it is invaded by great bathyliths of gneissic oranite which rise through it and ‘induce in it extreme ‘metamorphism. Still farther north the granite appears in increasing abundance the Grenville series being represented by long “curved ~belts and irregular patches distributed through the invading rock. One of these belts, consisting of impure : limestone, crosses the north end of Elephant Lake in the Township of Harcourt, being about seven miles in length and half a mile wide, and completely surrounded by the granite referred to above, whose foliation coincides with the direction of the strike of the lime- stone. About a mile and a half from the northern extremity of this limestone belt, in the direct line of the strike and of the folia- tion of the enclosing granite, there appears a narrow belt of * Records Gen Sc. Edinb., iii, 386, 1836. + Ann. Rept. Geological Survey of Canada, 1888-89, pp. 1-67 T Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Serres, Vou. XXV, No. 150.—June, 1908. 34 510 Evans and Bancroft—Gedrite in Canada. amphibolite which stretches for about two miles along the north shore of Fishtail Lake. This mass of amphibolite is traversed in all directions by pegmatite veins. The amphibolite is a dark basic variety, consisting largely of anthophylhte and garnet associated with cordierite and subordinate amounts of quartz, biotite, iron ore and rutile. The anthophyllite is very abundant, occurring in groups or sheaves of long narrow individuals, often curved and without proper crystallographic terminations. Under the microscope the anthophy llite is seen to contain a few little inclusions of black iron ore and of biotite. The mineral has a bright luster and possesses that delicate clove-brown color which caused Schumach, who first described this mineral, to give to it the name anthophyllite. The mineral has a perfect cleavage parallel to the prism (110) and also to the brachypinacoid (010). Two cleavage: fragments were selected and measured on a reflecting goni- ometer. The average of four measurements gave the cleavage angle as 54° 41’, In thin sections the mineral shows the loz- enged-shaped cleavage traces characteristic of the hornblendes, and in sections in the prismatic zone always presents a parallel extinction. The mineral is negative and the pleochroism is as follows: X= pale yellow; Y= brownish yellow’; Z=dove color or gray. The absorption is Z>Y>X. The cordierite occurs in colorless allotriomorphie individuals which are slightly turbid when contrasted with the quartz. which they otherwise resemble. The mineral is biaxial -and displays itself no pleochroism, but shows in a striking manner the little pleochroic halos so commonly found in this mineral when it occurs as a constituent of metamorphic rocks. These halos, which are quite numerous, change from deep yellow to colorless as the section is rotated, each halo having in its cen- ter a minute, colorless, rounded erystal with high index of refraction and high double refraction. The cordierite also shows in places the twin lamellae fr equently observed in this species and is occasionally somewhat altered, especially along the cleavage lines, into the cryptocrystalline aggregate of some micaceous mineral. It also occasionally contains the little bundles of minute sillimanite crystals which occur so charac- teristically as inclusions in cordierite. This is, so far as can be ascertained, the first occurrence of cordierite which has been described from Canada. In order to obtain material for analysis a hand specimen of the amphibolite was crushed sufticiently fine to pass through a sieve of 70 meshes to the inch. To free the powdered material vans and Bancroft—Gedrite in Canada. 511 from the finest dust, it was then placed on a sieve of 100 meshes to the inch, and that portion which passed through the latter sieve was discarded. The material was then submitted to the action of a Wetherill Magnetic Separator provided with two pair of magnets, the first of which were placed one quarter of an inch apart while the second set were 5/16ths of an inch apart. It was found that °8 amperes removed the magnetite and a little ilmenite, while with a current of 3 amperes the rest of the ilmenite, the rutile, some garnet and some anthophyllite were withdrawn. The current was then raised to 15 amperes, which removed the remainder of the anthophyllite and the garnet with most of the biotite, the tailings consisting of cordierite, quartz and a little biotite. In order to complete the separation recourse was had to heavy solutions. By means of Klein’s solution the garnet was removed. Iodide of methylene was then employed, which when diluted with a few drops of benzol was of such a specific gravity that the biotite floated while the anthophyllite sank. This latter, however, was seen, when examined under the microscope, to still contain a few composite grains of feldspar or garnet with a little black iron ore. The powder was accordingly placed under a lens of low power and the foreign material removed by means of a fine needle. Perfectly pure anthophillite was thus secured. In the analysis which was made by N. Norton Evans all the determinations were made in duplicate with the exception of those of water and the alkalis. The mean of the analysis of the air-dried powder is given below. An analysis of the original gedrite from the valley of Héas by Pisani is pre- sented for purposes of comparison. Township of Harcourt, ' Valley of Héas, near Ont. (Evans) Gedres. (Pisani) Ratio SiOe a caves oe 44°53 SSA ni Sielsiges teaches 43°58 DANII O Fee seats 16°04 °156 la (Nc a LicOn GH Orga estas = 2°80 101076 HeOR chan 16°88 235 UAE te 15°96 Mn@ee Vent 0:09 001 CAO ee Onin SO)A UG eee ait Ue ori 0°75 Nic OMe 2 = elion SSO opti mere near 18°30 | AUG Js We cee eeanaal ie) oO es an atresia 3°92 K. ,O and Na,O_ 1°86 "024 100°02 99°58 The ratio of RO: SiO, is “741: -734, or very nearly 1:1; and the ratio of R,O,:SiO, is -173: °734, or almost 1: 4. 512 Evans and Bancroft—Gedrite in Canada. This gives a formula corresponding to that suggested by Ram- melsberg, namely, 4RSiO,+ Al,O, where R= Meg,Fe,H,. From this analysis, as well as from its negative character, it will be seen that the mineral belongs to the aluminous variety of anthophyllite known as Gedrite, this being, as above mentioned, as far as can be ascertained, the first occurrence of this variety reported from North America. The close similar- ity In composition of the mineral from Harcourt and the original g gedrite from the valley of Héas near Gedres (Hautes- Pyr énées) will be noted. Geological Laboratory, McGill University, Montreal. Heath— Determination of Arsenic and Antimony. 513 Art. LIV.—TZhe lodometric Determination of Arsenic and Antimony Associated with Copper ; by F. H. Hearn. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ,—clxxv. | Ir has been said that the iodometric process for the deter- mination of copper can be used without error in the presence of arsenic and antimony provided that the latter elements are in the higher condition of oxidation, A. H. Low* makes this statement and gives careful directions for the complete oxida- tion of the arsenic and antimony. There appears, however, to be no record of any attempt to determine arsenic and anti- mony iodometrically after the separation of copper from a mixture containing the three elements. It has been thought worth the while, therefore, to attempt the determination of arsenic and antimony in the filtrate from cuprous iodide after titration of the free iodine by means of sodium thiosulphate, and filtration. To this end, the attempt has been made to reduce the arsenic and antimony by boiling with potassium iodide and sulphuric acid according to the -method of Gooch and Gruenert and determining these ele- ments by reoxidation with a standard-solution of iodine. The reactions involved in these processes may be expressed by the general symbols, M,O, + 4HI = M,O, + H,O + 21, and M,O, + 41 + 2K,0 = M,O, + 4KI. _ The trials of the method were made with tartar emetic and potassium arseniate. The tartar emetic was dissolved in water and the antimony oxidized to the higher condition by means of standard iodine solution in presence of sodium or potassium bicarbonate. The amount of iodine required was taken as a measure of the amount of antimony used. The solution of antimony thus obtained, or the solution of arsenic taken in the higher condition of oxidation, was acidified and a known volume of a standard solution of copper nitrate was added. The copper was determined iodometrically with precautions previously recommended by Gooch and Heath.+- A special precaution to be observed is the choice of the acid used during the determination of copper. Mineral acids must not be present on account of their tendency to bring about reduction of the arsenic and antimony by action of the excess of potassium iodide used in throwing out the copper. Such action causes high results on copper and low results on arsenic and antimony. A mixture of acetic acid and potassium iodide * Jour. Amer. Chem, Soc., xxiv, p. 1083. + This Journal, xlii, Sept., 1891. { Ibid., xxiv, 65, 1907. 514. Heath—Determination of Arsenic and Antimony. reduces the higher salts slowly. Tartaric acid is somewhat irregular in action and tends to cause an interfering precipita- tion of acid potassium tartrate. The action of citric acid is more favorable. The amount of iodine set free by the combined action of citric acid and potassium iodide upon an arsenic com- pound in the higher condition of oxidation is appreciable if the solution is allowed to stand, while in the case of an anti- monic salt the action is not nearly so rapid. A few determinations. were carried out to test the action of citric acid quantitatively. Portions of tartar emetic were oxi- dized to the higher condition by iodine in presence of sodium bicarbonate, the solution was then acidified with citric acid, weighed amounts of citric acid and potassium iodide were added, and the solution was allowed to stand for a definite time io find whether there was any reduction. When the solution was aciditied, after the oxidation with iodine solution, a little iodine was set free and this was bleached with a drop of sodium thio- sulphate before continuing the experiment. For the test with arsenic a standardized solution of potassium arseniate was used. The results of these experiments are shown in Table I. ~ TABLE I. Liffects of Citric Acid and Potassium Iodide in reducing Arsenic and Antimonic Salts. Sb As Citric KI Vol. Time I taken taken as acid used. of of found KH,AsO., — used sol. standing grm. erm. erm. erm. cm. min. grm. no color °1209 ee 3 4 60 10 with starch ‘0797 ER. 3 2 50 20 Lp "1057 SR RE 3 3 60 20 ie — > 60 trace eG "1238 2 3 50 10 "0009 enna BILOJaxts} 24 4 60 10 0012 SRL *12388 3 3 50 10 0019 pide dl 21133 3 5 75 10 0017 aed °1238 3 5 100 10 "0010 se2alet: °1238 3 5 100 KO "0017 From these results it appears that in the iodometric deter- mination of copper associated with arsenic there must be no delay in titrating the iodine even when the free acid is citric acid ; otherwise, some reduction of the arsenic acid and libera- tion of iodine may take place, thus affecting the result of the copper determination. Antimonic acid is not reduced appre- ciably, in a reasonable time, under similar conditions. Heath-—Determination of Arsenic and Antimony. 515 In the course of preliminary work the fact developed that tetrathionic acid, which results from titration of free iodine by sodium thiosulphate in the copper determination, makes trouble in the subsequent operation. For, when the solution is boiled, after addition of sulphuric acid, the tetrathionic acid decomposes to give hydrogen sulphide and free sulphur, and sulphides of antimony and arsenic may be precipitated. Various means were tried to oxidize the tetrathionic acid and its decomposition products before reducing the arsenic and antimony. Solid iodine and potassium nitrite were tried for this purpose but not very successfully. Bromine water and, better, liquid bro-- mine were used with success. It was found that if liquid bromine was added to the cold solution in sufficient quantity to decompose all the excess of potassium iodide present, and the solution then boiled, there was very little subsequent trouble on account of tetrathionic acid. ‘To decompose the remainder of the potassium iodide used in the precipitation of the copper about one cubic centi- meter of bromine was added. If, after boiling for a short time, the solution did not become clear it was cooled, a little more bromine added, and the boiling repeated to ensure com- plete oxidation and to expel excess of bromine. It is well to concentrate the solution somewhat at this point so as to remove most of the bromine; otherwise, when potassium iodide is added to bring about reduction of the arsenic or antimonic salt so much of it may be decomposed by the bromine that the -reducing action may not be complete. Some free iodine remains in the solution after the reduction process and there was found to be some difficulty in bleaching it with exactness in the hot solution. If the solution was cooled starch indica- tor could be used. Accordingly in the cooled solution the free iodine, in presence of starch indicator, was bleached by adding an excess of dilute sulphurous acid. The solution was then diluted to 100™* or more and iodine solution added to a faint color. This pale blue color was then just bleached by careful addition of dilute sulphurous acid froma pipette. The solu- tion was neutralized by use of sodium or potassium bicarbonate and the arsenic or antimony determined by titration with stand- ard iodine solution in the usual way. Following are tables showing results obtained by this method. The procedure for the determination of copper and arsenic or of copper and antimony may be outlined as follows :—To the solution containing the copper and also the arsenic or anti- mony in the higher condition of oxidation, add 1 grm. to 2 erm. of citric acid. To precipitate amounts of copper not exceed- ing *3 grm. in a volume of 50™ add 3 grm. of potassium iodide ; in a volume of 100° add 5 grm. of potassium iodide. Titrate 6000-— 1000. + F000-— 1000. — 1000. + 000. + €000.— 6000. + €000.— 1000. + 1000-— 4000-— “ULIS sy ul IOI, 66P0- G6FO0- G 8. €100.— 0980. GLSO- 6EEl- EAR g 0-1 0100. + OLFI. OOFI- FeZl- Ba ae ra 0-1 F000. + - 6180- C180. LESt- ete j 0-1 000. + €0L0- OOL0. 68ZI- ae j ae $000. — 1,060- 0160- reer Ee es j fe 1000. + LOFT- OOFI- GESL- eter j 0-1 0000. -F 00210. 0010: L¥GL- BB 3j 0-T £000. + 010. 00L0. SA ¥-0 s ‘ GksT- I ae 6000-— 8690. 00L0- 6EZI- ogee r6 0.1 9000.— 6980. 6180. Teale ree ré 0-1 1000. — £690. 00L0. 1ST. S&ZL.- Z Onli 0000. + 00L0- 0010. “was “US “ULES uo Rees) “ua “ua pest punoy Wayey pesn OULULO.LG, ny ul punoj we yey SV SV IM pinbry LOLLY no no 516 Heath—Determination of Arsenic and Antimony. ‘Owuasupy pun saddogp— TT ATAaV], 0€ g9 Og Ud ‘udd jo pus ye s KOYAN “Ud pasa In 517 cMony. ad Ant ue an of Arsen “ON O Heath— Determinat 9000. — SIFl- 6IFI- G a F900-— [LGI- GLGT. O 2K,SO, + CuI, +], and 21 +2Na,8,0,=2Nal+Na,8S,0.. Filter off the cuprous iodide on asbestos. ‘To the filtrate add 1 of liquid bromine and boil the solution in an Erlenmeyer flask, using a trap to prevent loss by spattering. If, after boiling for a short time and allowing the large amount of free iodine to volatilize, the solution does not become clear, cool it, add a little more bromine (0°5°™*) and boil again. When the solution has become clear, concentrate it somewhat (to about 60°™) to expel excess of bromine. Dilute to about 100°’, add 2 grm. of potassium iodide and boil to a volume of 50™*. Cool the solution, bleach the free iodine by adding sulphurous acid, using starch as indicator. Dilute to 100°™*, add iodine solution to color and just bleach by careful addition of dilute sulphur- ous acid from a pipette. Neutralize the solution with sodium or potassium bicarbonate and titrate the arsenic or antimony with standard iodine solution in the usual way. From the results obtained it seems possible by this method to separate and determine copper and arsenic, or copper and antimony, with errors of only a few tenths of a milligram. It is also possible to determine the sum of arsenic and antimony present with a fair degree of accuracy, and to separate and determine copper when associated with both arsenic and anti- mony. In the latter case the sum of the arsenic and antimony may also be determined, but the values here obtained for copper tend to come a little too high and those for arsenic and antimony a little too low. In conclusion, the author wishes to express his appreciation of the kind assistance and many suggestions given by Profes- sor F. A. Gooch during the course of these investigations. 520 Scientific Intelligence. S CLIENT LETC tN hh LanthG Hentai I. Curmistry AND Puysics. 1. Crystallized Chlorophyl.—An important contribution to our knowledge of the green substance of plants has been made by WiistAtreER and Benz. Following up the observation of Borodin, made in 1881, that when microscopic sections of green - leaves of various plants are moistened with alcohol and allowed to dry slowly upon the object-glass, peculiar green crystals are often obtained, they have succeeded in preparing such crystals on a large scale, apparently in a very pure condition, and have recrystallized and analyzed them. ‘This is the first time that an actual chlorophyl has been studied analytically, for it has been shown that the preparations of Hoppe-Seyler and Gautier were products of the decomposition of chlorophyl by acids. The analyses showed some variations in the different preparations in their contents of carbon and nitrogen, but the surprising fact was shown that chlorophyl is a magnesium compound and leaves a residue of pure magnesium oxide upon being burnt. Tio analyses are as follows: Crude Recrystallized product ' preparation Carbonara est eee 66°41 65°83 Hiydrogents.2 54. ee es ee Oi, 6°15 INItrOG ena ee ae 7°46 8:24 Mia onesium seer eepee so 3°40 3°40 Oxy Gen in. coe aay cee ee 16°46 16°20 The composition corresponds best to the formula C,.H,,0,N,Mg. The crystals are usually 0-1 to 0°2™™ in diameter, sharply defined, and usually of hexagonal or triangular outline. They are bluish- green in color; in transmitted light only very thin scales show a green color, and generally they are opaque. They are character- ized by a strong metallic luster, especially in sunlight, where they show wonderful reflections.— Liebig’s Ann., ecclvill, 267. H. L. W. 2. Mercury Peroxide-—When metallic mercury is covered with a ten per cent solution of hydrogen peroxide, and the liquid is neutralized by the addition of a few drops of dilute sodium acetate solution, an intermittent evolution of oxygen takes place, in the form of regular pulsations. Previous to each period of oxygen evolution there is formed upon the surface of the mercury a yellow or brown film, which is decomposed again as long as the catalysis continues. Von Antroporr has attempted without success to isolate the substance of which this film is composed. He was able to increase its stability by lowering the temperature and using 30 per cent hydrogen peroxide, but he was unable to Chemistry and Physics. 521 obtain it in a pure condition. He observed, however, the forma- tion of a red compound under certain conditions, and found that this compound could be prepared by the action of hydrogen peroxide upon pure red mercuric oxide. This product has the appearance of red phosphorus and has a composition correspond- ing to the formula HgO,. Its preparation is difficult, since diluted hydrogen peroxide reduces it, and therefore it cannot be washed, but the hydrogen peroxide can be removed by evapora- tion in a desiccator at alow temperature. It is extremely unstable, and even when covered with liquid it gives small local explosions when stirred with a glass rod. The dry substance explodes violently when slightly heated, or by concussion or friction. The author considers the compound to be a mercuric derivative of hydrogen peroxide, and upon theoretical grounds he supposes that the film formed upon metallic mercury may be the corre- sponding mercurous derivative, Hg,O,.—Jour. prakt. Chem., |xx, 273. H. L. W. 3. A Supposed New Hlement in Thorianite.—In connection with the working up of 5 cwt. of thorianite from Ceylon belong- ing to Sir William Ramsay, C. pE Bb. Evans has observed some colorations that could not be accounted for in the examination of the tin group of metals. What was evidently a brown sul- phide was eventually isolated with arsenious sulphide, which it resembles in being insoluble in hydrochloric acid and readily soluble in ammonium carbonate svlution. Like arsenious sul- phide it dissolves in nitric acid, but the concentrated syrupy liquid has a strong golden-brown color, and leaves on evapora- tion at 120° a brown hygroscopic oxide. This is reduced by hydrogen at 250-300° to a black oxide, and then at a higher tem- perature to a dark grey, non-volatile metal which melts at a bright red heat. After many months of work only about 0-05¢. of the brown oxide was collected from about one-third of the mixed sulphides, and this was not free from arsenic. This cor- responds to less than one gram per ton of thorianite. It is prob- able that this small amount of substance would not have been detected at all, had it not been for the fact that the sulphide dissolves in water, which is colored brown by a very small quan- tity. This solubility greatly increases the difficulty of separa- tion. Attempts to determine the equivalent of the metal indicate a considerably higher equivalent than that of arsenic. A pre- liminary spectroscopic examination revealed no new lines. Inci- dentally in this investigation more knowledge was gained of the composition of thorianite, and it can be stated positively that this mineral contains arsenic, mercury, bismuth, molybdenum and selenium.—Jour. Chem. Soc., xciii, 666. H. L. W. 4, Stercochemistry, by A. W. STEWART, 12mo, pp. 583. Lon- don, 1907 (Longmans, Green & Company).—The author of this book has not attempted to give a complete treatment of every branch of the subject of stereochemistry, since it was found impracticable to mention, in a book of reasonable size, all the 522 _ Scrventrjic Intelligence. work on the subject which has been carried out within the last twenty years. He has made a selection, therefore, of the cases which throw light upon the general lines along which stereo- chemical research has advanced. The book is a valuable contri- bution to chemical literature, and its references and index are excellent features. ie Bana 5. Condensation of Water Vapor in the Presence of Radium Emanation.—Mme. Curie has shown that radium particles have the power of condensing water vapor. A cloud is formed and made visible by an are light. The formation of the cloud occurs far below the saturation pressure. The phenomenon differs from the effect produced in the condensation of water vapor by ions. The condensation disappears under the effect of an electric field, and disappears after the field is removed.— C. &., cxlv, pp. 1145- 1147, 1907. J.T. 6. Anode Rays.—E. GEnRCKE and O. REIcHENHET™ filled the anode with various salts which were raised to a high temperature and formed a family of positive rays, which conveyed particles of the salts to a suitably placed screen. In order to increase the brilliancy of the effects it was necessary to mix the salts with some inert substance, pulverized graphite, for instance. The color of the fluorescence produced was always identical with that of the canal rays. The anode rays emerge perpendicularly to the surface of the anode. They were directed by a magnetic field in a direction opposite to that taken by the negative rays. They also showed the Doppler effect. Proceeding to calculation, they obtained the value of v = 1°4:10’cm/ sec for the fastest rays and v= 1:10’em/see for the rays of mean velocity. From the anode fall of potential the value = = 0°45°10° was obtained for 1b . . : . € sodium vapor; comparing this with the value — = 9°5°10° for m hydrogen, the authors obtain 21 for the atomic weight of sodium. In a similar manner atomic weights of other substances were ob- tained.—Ann. der Physik, No. 5, 1908, pp. 861-884. ae Ute 7. Handbuch der Spectroscopie; by H. Kayser. Vol. IV, pp--xix+1248. Leipzig, 1908 (S. Hirzel).—In order to place the fourth volume of Kayser’s treatise in proper perspective it seems desirable to call attention both to the author’s original plan and to the chief characteristics of the preceding volumes. As stated in the preface to the first volume (which appeared in 1900*), it was Kayser’s intention to fill a very important gap in the litera- ture of spectroscopy by writing and compiling a reference book which should possess the greatest possible completeness and also present a critical recapitulation of the views and opinions held with regard to disputed questions. Conformably to this plan the first volume dealt with the his- tory of the subject and also contained a detailed description of all * See this Journal, vol. x (1900), p. 464; xiv (1902), p. 460 ; and xx (1905), p. 69. Chemistry and Physics. 528 the important forms of spectroscopic apparatus supplemented by the theory and practical applications of the latter. This volume, as well as each of the succeeding volumes, closed with a detailed index arranged with reference to authors and to subjects sepa- rately. The second volume (1902) took up the following subjects : Emission and absorption from the standpoint of Kirchhoff’s law ; radiation of solids; radiation of gases; spectra of compounds and multiple spectra ; the influence of pressure, of temperature and of the form of electrical discharge upon spectra; the appear- ance of spectra ; Doppler’s principle ; laws of spectra ; and the Zeeman effect with related phenomena. This second volume has proved to be of inestimable value to spectroscopists, and it has been the exciting cause of a great deal of subsequent important investigation. The author’s original intention of devoting the third volume to the discussion of the phenomena of absorption and of such allied matters as fluorescence, phosphorescence, and surface colors had to be modified because of the enormous volume of work done upon these subjects. Consequently the third volume (1905) was limited to a description of the apparatus and methods for the study of absorption and to a detailed account of the absorption of such organic and inorganic materials as are not derived, directly at least, from the vegetable and animal kingdoms, The volume in question closes with a complete list of all known absorption spectra which pertain to the classes of substances just indicated. If any one of the four volumes is less important than the others, then it seems to be the third. On the contrary, the fourth volume is of fundamental impor- tance not only to the spectroscopist but also to the theoretical physicist, to the botanist, to the zodlogist, and to the student of medicine. That this is true may be seen from an inspection of the following synopsis of the contents of the last published volume: The first chapter is devoted to adetailed account of the natural coloring matters produced by plants. More specifically, the tive sections of this chapter deal respectively with green coloring matters and their derivatives ; with yellow and other pigments of leaves and flowers ; with certain coloring matters which do not fall under the preceding heads; with the colored constituents of fungi, bacilli, and lichens ; and with the coloring matters of alge. The second chapter deals with the coloring matters of blood, of normal and pathological urine, and of bile. Animal pigments are exhaustively treated in the third chapter. The subject matter of each of the preceding chapters is pre- sented in a thoroughly systematic manner. First, the historical development of each field of investigation is unfolded, then the facts and appertaining opinions are discussed, and, finally, com- plete lists of bibliographical references are followed by alphabet- ical synopses of the characteristic absorption spectra of the sub- stances concerned. Kayser expresses doubt as to the relevancy 524 Scientific Intelligence. of the contents of these three chapters to a treatise on spectroscopy, but we think that his final decision to include these subjects in his book was a happy conclusion since there is no other published list which approaches the present one either in completeness or in scientific critique. The fourth chapter practically exhaust: the subject of disper- sion, both from the theoretical and from the experimental points of view. It comes from the pen of Pfliiger, who is a recognized authority on the questions involved. This chapter is also unique in completeness and elegance of presentation. It will be as wel- come to the theoretical physicist as to the specialist in spectro- scopy. The fifth and sixth chapters were written, in the order named, by Kayser and by Konen, and they are devoted respec- tively to phosphorescence and fluorescence. No other accounts of these subjects are at all comparable with the exposition of these two chapters. In this sense, the last two chapters are as new as the preceding ones. The four volumes, thus far published, constitute a masterpiece of scientific literature. The fourth volume ranks with the second in promise of stimulating interest in research in its special fields. Other volumes are to follow until the whole subject of spectro- scopy will have been critically discussed and its literature brought down to the dates of publication of the several volumes. H. S. U. 8. Refrigeration: an Elementary Text-book; by J. Wemyss ANDERSON. Pp. ix+242. New York and London, 1908 (Long- mans, Green & Co.).—The first seventy-eight pages of this book are deyoted to an introduction to the theory of heat and the thermal properties of gases, liquids and vapors. The simplest element of thermodynamics are given, Carnot’s engine is described, and the doctrine of the efficiency of refrigerators is based upon its reversed action. The remainder of the work describes a num- ber of forms of refrigeratory machinery and deals with various practical problems which arise in connection with them. Ice- making, and the design and insulation of cold-stores are con- sidered, and much useful information is given in the form of tables. H, (Ay By 9. Introduction to Metallography; by Pau Gorrens, Trans- lated by Frep IBgorson. Pp. x, 214. New York and London, 1908 (Longmans, Green & Co.).—The first of the four parts into which this work is divided deals with allotropy and the experi- mental determination of transformation points by the method of curves of cooling. The more important forms of pyrometers are described (including recording instruments) and brief directions are given for their use. The second part begins with an admir- ably simple and interesting introduction to those parts of the theory of solutions which have recently been applied with so much success to the study of alloys. Gibbs’s phase-rule is explained and its applications by Roozeboom and others. Curves are given for a large number of binary and ternary alloys, their ~ Chemistry and Physics. 525 properties are discussed and references given to the original investigations. The third part deals with the microscopy of metals; directions are given for grinding, polishing and etching the sections, the construction and use of the Martens and Le Chatelier microscopes are described, and several pages are devoted to the technique of photography. In the fourth part the special metallography of the iron-carbon alloys is considered. As a whole, the book seems to be admirably adapted to serve as an introduction to this comparatively new subject whose techni- eal importance is already widely recognized. Hi AB 10. Lehrbuch der theoretischen Elektrochemie auf thermody- namischer Grundlage ; by J. J. van Laar. Pp. xii+307. Leip- zig, 1907 (Wilhelm Engelmann), Amsterdam (5. L. van Looy,)s= Although this is not the first book on electrocbemistry to give a systematic treatment of the subject from the standpoint of the theory of the thermodynamic potential, it is in many respects the most satisfactory one that has yet appeared. By omitting all description of experimental processes, and by judicious limitation of the amount of numerical data employed for purposes of illus- tration, the author has been able, within the compass of 300 pages of large print, to cover a fairly wide field with more than the usual thoroughness. The book is up to date both in spirit and in subject matter, and the style clear and direct. As would natu- rally be expected in a treatise of this sort, the thermodynamic potential is used to the complete exclusion of the osmotic pressure in the derivation of the formulas for the electromotive force of galvanic cells. Among the noteworthy features of the volume are the critical summary of the most trustworthy values for the velocities of the commoner ions (p. 31), the comprehensive review of work on conductivity in non-aqueous solvents (chap. iv), and the clear and satisfactory discussion of oxidation cells and gas cells (chap. ix) and of the relation between potential and surface tension of mercury electrodes (chap. x11). The work is hardly suitable for the use of beginners as an ele- mentary text-book, but will recommend itself to those of wider experience, as it contains much that is interesting and suggestive. Roe Vo wNE 11. Comparative Hlectro-Physiology ; by JAGADIS CHUNDER Bosse. Pp. xliii, 760 with 406 figures. London, 1907 (Longmans, Green & Company). — This is a somewhat unique attempt to point out a continuity between the most complex living and the simplest inorganic matter—to interpret all responsive phenomena on a uniform basis. “In this demonstration of continuity it has been found that the dividing frontiers between physics, physiol- ogy, and psychology have disappeared.” “All the responsive phenomena of the animal are thus found to be foreshadowed in the plant, and this to such a degree that in the common script of the response record the one is indistinguishable from the other . . . . Both alike are responsive, and similarly responsive, to Am. JOUR. Sci.—FouRts SERIES, Vout. XXV, No. 100.—June, 1908. BO 526 cientific Intelligence. all the diverse forms of stimulus that impinge upon them.” “A single molecular derangement may thus find manifestations as . change of form, altera ation of electrical condition, and subjective sensory. variation.” ‘he author has covered a large range of experimental observa- tions to show that those proper ties (phy siological responses), gen- erally regarded as distinguishing living matter, are capable of analysis into physico- chemical processes. Some of the illustra- tions, as for example the electromotive response of many plants or the responses of metals to diverse influences, are well recog- nized. Where the author attempts, however, to remove the dis- tinction commonly assumed to exist between sensitive and non- sensitive parts by a demonstration of responsive movements, he enters a distinctly controversial field. Thus it is somewhat start- ling to find the distinction between motile and non-motile tissues - completely. rejected and replaced by records of the contractile response of animal nerves , analogous to those of muscle. Plant tissues are sunilarly concelv ed to be capable of universal mechani- cal response. New experimental methods are described for the study of such anomalous experiences. A critique of this effort to find “an underlying unity in apparent diversity ” must be left to others. Tis Baio Il. Groxoey. New Zealand Geological Survey, J. M. Berry, Director. Bulletin No. 4 (New Series). The See) of the Coromandel Subdivision, Huuraki, Auckland ; by CoLixn FRASER assisted by JamES Henry Apams. Pp. 148, 32 plates, 11 maps, and 2 see- tions. Wellington, 1907.—The geological formations of the Coromande! district consist of two series of pre-Triassic rocks, the first,—Tokatea Hill,—made of argillites, grauwackes and inter- stratified basic and acidic lavas; the second,—Moehau,—of thin- bedded argillites without volcanic rocks. The Manaia Hill series, consisting of conglomerates, argillites, etc., has been assigned to the Jurassic period. The three series mentioned constitute a folded complex on which rest conglomerates, sandstones, and coal-bearing shales, followed by marls and limestones constitu- ting the Torehine series, presumably of lower Eocene age. Dur- ing Tertiary times lavas of different types were ‘extruded. Detailed descriptions of the rocks of these different formations are given, accompanied by micro-photographs and analyses. IN chapter is devoted to the physical geography of the district and considerable information given regarding the fauna, flora, conditions of settlement, ete. Mineral veins are treated in a separate chapter, in which is included an account of the history of mining in the region. The abundant illustrations are fully up to the high standard of the previous bulletins. H. E. G. Geology. 527 2. Geological Survey of Western Australia. A. Gren Marr- LAND, Government Geologist.—The following bulletins have ~ recently been issued by this or ganization : Bulletin No. 2 Palaeontological Contributions to the Geology of Western Mb evali by R. Erueriver, F. Cuarman, and W. HOowcun. Bulletin No. 28. The Geology and Mineral Resources of Law- lers, Sir Samuel, and Darlot (Kast Murchison Goldfield), Mount Ida (North Coolgardie Goldfield), and a portion of the Mount Margaret Goldfield ; by Cuas. G. Girson, Assistant Geologist; 68 pp., with 3 maps and 5 mining plans. Perth, 1907.—The rocks in the district including these mines are granites and ereenstones, the former intrusive in the latter. Quartz veins of still later origin cut both rocks. The bulletin is chiefly con- cerned with detailed descriptions of the occurrence of the ores and of the mining operations, Bulletin No. 30. The Distribution and Occurrence of the Baser Metais in Western Australia; by Epwarp 8S. Srpson and Cuas. G. Gipson. 117 pp., with map. Perth, 1907.—The method of exploitation and the history of mining of copper, tin, lead, zinc, 1ron, manganese, tantalite, aluminium, antimony, bismuth, cobalt, tungsten, and molybdenum are discussed in detail. The iron deposits of Western Australia are “probably some of the largest in the world” but have remained undeveloped owing to their location and the absence of coal. The bulletins issued by the Survey of Western Australia are necessarily of economic nature, and although the ore deposits are described in great detail the publications do not serve to explain the geology “of the region as a whole. This defect bas been remedied in part by the admirable address of A. Gibb Maitland, Government Geologist, on the Recent Advances in the Knowl- edge of the Geology of Western Australia. This address is accompanied by a geological map. H. E.G. 3. Geological Survey of Canada, A. P. Low, Director.— The following publications have recently been received : Section of Mines. Annual R eport on the Mineral Industries of Canada for 1905. Pp. 174. Also Summary Report for 1907. Pp. 123. Report on the Cascade Coal Basin, Alberta ; by D. B. Dow- LING. Pp. 37 with Appendix. Eight maps in separate pockets. Report on the Geology and Natural Resources of the Area Included in the Northwest Quarter-sheet, Number 122 of the Ontario and Quebec Series, comprising portions of the Counties of Pontiac, Carleton and Renfrew ; bys IX. We Mis.) p: 71: The Barytes Deposits of Lake Ainslie and North Cheticamp, N.S, with Notes on the Production, Manufacture and Uses of Barytes in Canada; by Henry 8. Poote. Pp. 43. Moose Mountain District of Southern Alberta; by D. D. CarRNES. Pp. 55, 3 plates and map. Report of the Section of Chemistry and Mineralogy ; by G. Chr. Horrmann. Pp. 7 Also eleven Geological Maps. 528 Scientific Intelligence. 4. The Ankylosauride. A new Family of Armored Dino- saurs from the Upper Cretaceous ; by Barnum Brown. Bulletin American Museum Natural History, vol. xxiv, art. xil, pp. 187— 201.—In this bulletin Mr. Brown describes one of the most unique of dinosaurs, found: by a party from the American Museum in the Hell Creek beds of Montana in 1906. The striking features of this reptile, Ankylosaurus, are its sculptured, plated skull, large, flat or low-ridged body plates, some of which are united asa shield, short-spined vertebrae with parapophyses never arising above the centra, and posterior ribs co-ossified to the vertebre. This genus Brown includes under the Stegosauria, but erects for it a new family because of its departure from the more typical members of that group. Mr. Brown has restored the animal after Stegosaurus, modifying the skeleton in accordance with the known elements. His result is strikingly glyptodon-like, Ankylosaurus representing a remarkable case of convergence towards that mam- malian group. Saale A Revision of the American Eocene Horses ; by WALTER GranceR. Bulletin American Museum of Natural History, vol. Xxiv, pp. 221-264.—This valuable paper forms one of a series of several, preliminary to a forthcoming treatise on the Kquide by Professor H. F. Osborn. The Hyracotheres or Eocene horses have been recorded from the Wasatch upward, with the excep- tion of the Washakie basin of southern Wyoming, predomina- ting over all other forms in the Wasatch of the Big Horn basin. Twenty- six species, embracing some ten different genera, have been described, but Mr. Granger reduces the latter to three,— Epihippus Marsh, from the Uinta ; Orohippus Marsh, from the Bridger, and Eohippus Marsh, ranging through the Wasatch, Wind River, and, possibly, the Huerfano. In referring these genera to their European equivalents, Granger expresses some doubt, but the closest approach is apparently that of the Kohippus to Hy ‘acotherium in the lower Eocene, and of Epihippus to Lo- phiotherium i inthe upper Eocene. In his final summary of species, Mr. Granger enumerates twenty-three, of which five are new ; the sub-genus Aminippus being proposed ‘to include the more advanced species of Orohippus from the upper Bridger. Rausenels 6. Ideas on the Origin of Flight ; by Dr. Baron FRancts Norcsa. Proc. Zodlogical Society of London, 1907, pp. 223-236, —Baron Nopesa sharply differentiates flying by means of a pata- gium from flight by means of feathers, as the former requires numerous firm, s radial supports to render the soft membrane effec- tive, while for the quills but one line of attachment is needed. Bats and Pterosaurs exhibit an analogous direction of evolution, as shown by the development of the - patagium with all that this implies, and have risen in similar manner from leaping, quadru- pedal arborealforms. ‘“ Birds,” Nopesa thinks, “originated from bipedal, long-tailed cursorial reptiles which during running oared along in the air by flapping their free anterior extremities.” He Geology. 529 further states that a bipedal animal never could or did develop a patagium without giving up bipedalism.. This makes it some- what difficult to account for the pre- and _ post-patagia of modern birds, which are usually looked upon as vestigial organs. One important conclusion is that the birds and ptero- dactyls are unrelated, the similarities which they exhibit being merely the result of convergence, while the dinosaurs and birds show many striking similarities which indicate parallel adapta- tions in forms having a common ancestry. R. S:) L 7. Traite de Geologie I, Les Phénoménes géologiques ; par EmitE Have. Pp. 538, 8°, 195 figs. and 71 pls. Colin, ‘Paris 1907.—This large work is a " veneral_ treatise on geology, of the type of those of ‘Suess and Neumayr; the volume corresponds i In a general way with the first one of Chamberlin and Salisbury, being devoted to geological processes ; it thus gives a general presentation of the subject of dynamical geology. It has the descriptive character of Neumayr’s volumes rather than the philosophical nature of the American work just mentioned. In so far as the theoretical treatment of subjects is involved, the author naturally reflects the views of the French school. It is well and clearly written, the material has been selected with judgment, the author exercises an admirable restraint and poise in his presentation of a topic, so that, the balance between descriptive matter and theory being justly held, it is an excellent work for the reader who desires a general knowledge of the sub- ject. In this respect the work recalls the text-book of Geikie. A valuable feature is a short bibliography appended to the dis- cussion of each important topic, giving the chief works felating to it. The cuts and diagrams are well selected, and the half-tone plates are reproductions of remarkably good photographs, which show, as a rule, very clearly the phenomena which they are intended to depict. One of the greatest advances, if not the greatest, that has been made during the past five years or so in geological text-book making, is in the quality of pictorial illus- tration, and in this respect the work is up to the recent standard. While intended as a work of reference, and for reading by advanced students in France, the volume is one that commends itself to every geologist, and should be in every geological library. Tis eVerBs 8. Key for the Determination of the Kock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections ; by A. JOHANNSEN. Pp. 542,8°,1col. pl. New York, 1908 (Wiley & Sons).—Perhaps no more striking evidence could be given of the extent to which the study of rocks i in thin sections has become a science in itself, than the appearance of this large volume entirely devoted to technical methods for determining rock minerals by optical methods. While not a text- book, the first part, comprising some forty odd pages, is given to a brief explanation of the phenomena of polarized light, the optical properties of crystals, and the methods for their observa- tion and determination. In a second part of about the same 530 Scientific Intelligence. extent, the individual properties, especially the optical ones, of the various important and accessory rock minerals are compactly ‘described. The main body of the work which follows consists of tables arranged according to a definite plan, optical characters being used, somewhat in the way in which the properties of plants are classified in botanies, for the determination of the species. Under the heading of each mineral in the table its important crystallographic and optical properties are given, and tests of various kinds are suggested for its discrimination from others, with which it might be confused. Although the book ~-is printed and bound in the ordinary manner, an arrangement for cutting the edges is indicated, which, if followed, will facilitate the use of the tables. A large amount of time and labor has evidently been expended in the preparation of this volume and great care used in col- lecting and tabulating the large number of details it contains. For all those who are seriously engaged in the study of rock sections it will prove of great service. In the few weeks that have elapsed since its publication the writer has found it an efficient aid in the petrographical laboratory, especially with more advanced students. It is well printed and durably bound, and is a credit to both author and publisher. Be 12 Ill. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. A Monograph of the British Annelids. Vol. 2, Part 1. Poly- cheta: Nephthydide to Syllide ; by Wittram CarmicHaet Mc- Intosu. Pp. vill, 232, quarto, with 22 plates of which 8 are colored; London 1908. (The Ray Society.)—AlIl students of marine zool- ogy will welcome the appearance of this new volume continuing the series of beautiful monographs by the well-known authority on British Annelids. The first part of this work dealt with the Nemerteans, and appeared about 35 years ago. It is hardly necessary to state that the present book exhibits the same thor- ough study of the species which has characterized the other portions of the work. Whenever sufficient material could be obtained, each species has been subjected to detailed anatomical examination, and such structures as are of importance to the systematist illustrated by well-executed drawings. The habits of the species and such embryological data as are available have been given in each case, and finally, the extensive synonymy of the species will be appreciated by every worker in the group. The author retains the older system of classification and in- cludes in this part the families Wephihydide, Phyllodocide, Hes- tonide, and Syllide, which are represented in British waters by 30 genera and a much larger number of species. A discussion of the evidence as to the relationships and systematic position of the families is promised for the final part of the work. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. 531 Seven of the colored plates represent most admirably the beautiful coloring of many of the species, while one plate shows the coloring of the larval stages. It is a matter of great satisfaction to learn that the next part, similar to this in size and in number of plates, is already pre- ac for publication. WwW. R. C. Selectionsprinzip und Probleme der Artbildung,; Kin Hand- ch des Darwinismus ; von Dr. Lupwie Puate. Third edition ; pp. vii, 493. Leipzig 1908 (Wilhelm Engelmann).—In many points this new edition differs widely from the second revision of the work, and contains upwards of twice the amount of matter. This extensive enlargement was necessary in order to allow a more detailed discussion of such phases of evolution as have recently been subject to controversy among biologists and to incorporate the discoveries of the past few years. During this time the mutation theory of DeVries has gained wide acceptance among both botanists and zoologists. In this new theory, how- ever, the author sees little more than a rehabilitation of Darwin’s earlier hypotheses. This book gives unreserved support to Darwin’s principle of natural selection, aud discusses at length the more important objections which have been urged against it. Deserving of special attention is the newly written chapter on the question as to the inheritance of characters acquired by the body during the life of the individual, for the author still main- tains that such an inheritance occurs, and presents evidence from recent observations which may seem to support this view. The author attempts to explain the possibility of such an inheritance as due to a process of “somatic induction,” by which external influences of sufficient strength may affect the germ plasm, while the continued effect of such influence may be cumulative through a number of generations until it finally becomes manifest exter- nally. At a time when Weismann’s hypothesis is so widely accepted by biologists, such a support of the Lamarckian doctrine is of much interest. The book as a whole is an able discussion of the recent discoveries and hypotheses relating to Tee evolution, and allied topics. WRC: 3. Annals of the Astr es Observatory of the. Spee nian Institution ; by C. G. Assot, Director, and F. E. Fowrs, Jr: Auds voli, 245, with 44 tables, ‘and 29 plates. Washington, 1908.—This second volume, Dee by the Astrophysical Observatory (see vol. xi, 473, 1901), i a notable contribution to the subject of solar radiation, and an Dae alike to the present Director, and to Prof. Langley who founded the Observatory. It contains the results of observations carried on between the years 1900 and 1906, in part at Washington and in part at Mount Wilson, California. These observations embrace chietly measure- ments of the solar radiation, and, having a high degree of accuracy and being carried out on a consistent system, permit of important conclusions in regard to the general subject. Briefly 532 Scientific Intelligence. stated, they show a considerable variation in the radiation from the sun from time to time, sufticient to produce a very appreciable effect upon the temperature of the earth. The probable mean value of the solar constant obtained is estimated in round numbers at 2°1 calories per square centimeter per minute ; otherwise expressed, this implies an intensity of solar radiation which would melt an ice shell over the earth’s surface 35 meters (114 feet) in thickness annually. Substantially similar results are obtained for obserya- tions at sea level, and at altitudes of 1800 (Mt. Wilson) and of 3500 meters (Mt. W hitney). The variations of the solar radiation, as observed at Mount Wilson, are coutpriscd between 1°93 and 2°14 calories, and at Washington 189 to 2:22. The variation of intensity of about 33 per cent t between August and October, due to change in the distance of the sun, is distinctly noted 1m the Mount Wilson observations, which indicate that the larger changes noted are in fact solar, and not atmospheric or accidental. In consequence of the interference of clouds and water vapor, it is shown that the earth can radiate only slightly into space, the temperature being kept nearly constant, chiefly by the layer of water vapor at a height of 4000 to 5000 meters. This layer is estimated as being 10° or more below 0° C. It is shown to be probable that the changes in solar radiation produce not infrequently marked changes in temperature over the continents, and such changes could be predicted if accurate measurements of the solar radiation were continued at a few well-selected situations. It is further indicated by comparative measurements of the center and the edge of the solar disk, that observed changes in total radiation accompany a variation in the transparency of the solar envel- ope and perhaps are caused by it. Numerous other points are brought out in detail through the body of the work, which also gives s the observations in fall and the methods and instruments by which they have been obtained. 4. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Ce a prepared under the direction of Wits L. Moore, Chief U. 8. Weather Bureau. Vol.i, pt. 2, pp. 65-133, charts vil-ix. anon the papers contained in this second number of the Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory may be mentioned one by W. R. Blair, on the change of phase in electrical waves on passing through thin plates and the refractive index of water for such waves ; also by the same author, on upper air temperature in October, November and December, obtained by kite flights at a mean altitude of 2342 meters, and a maximum of 7044 meters. “The results are shown graphically on three charts which are highly interesting. Still another article by H. H. Kimball discusses observations with the pyrheliometer and polarimeter. 5. Hield Columbian Museum. lhe cent publications are the following : Annual Report of the Director, IO Frederick J.-V. Skiff, to the Board of Trustees for 1907. Pp. 109-212, plates xvill-xxxil. Geological Series, Vol. II, Table of Contents and Index. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 533 Publication No. 122. Geol. Series, Vol. III; No. 6. Meteorite Studies IL; by O.C. Farrineron. Pp. iii, 129, with plates xxix— xliii.—Interesting observations, with numerous illustrations, are given in regard to a number of meteorites, particularly the fol- lowing: Bath Furnace, Chupaderos, Modoc, Lampa, Saline. No. 123. Geol. Series, Vol. If, No. 10. New Crinoids from the Chicago Area; by ArrHuR W. Stocom. Pp. 273-306, with plates Ixxxii—lxxxvii, and Index for Vol. II. No. 124. Zodlogical Series, Vol. VII, No. 5. Notes on Fresh- Water Fishes from Mexico and Central America; by SETH KucENE MEEK. Pp. 133-157. No. 126. Botanical Series, Vol. 11, No..6. New or Noteworthy Spermatophytes from Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies; by Juess—E M. Gremnman. Pp. 247-286. 6. The Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sci- ences. —The following publications have recently appeared: Science Bulletin, Vol. I, No. 11. Notes on the Electrical Phe- nomena of the Vesuvian Eruption, April, 1906. Notes on the Eruption of Stromboli; April, May, June, 1907. By Frank A. PzrRReET. Pp. 307-323, with 9 figures. Vol. I, No. 14. List of the Longicorn Coleoptera collected on the Museum Expeditions to Brownsville, Texas, and the Hua- chuca Mts., Arizona, with Descriptions of New Genera and Spe- cies and Notes on known Species; by CHARLES SCHAEFFER. Pp. 325-352. No. 13. Ona Second Small Collection of Birds from the Island of Trinidad ; by Groren K. CuErrir. 7. University of California Publications in American Arche- ology and Ethnology.—The University of California has recently issued the following papers in the department of American Eth- nology : Vol. VI, No. 1. The Ethno-Geography of the Pomo and neighboring. Indians; by 8. A. Barrett. Pp. 332, with 2 maps.—This memoir is an exhaustive discussion of the distribu- tion and dialects of the Pomo Indians and of the tribes most nearly associated with them. Vol. VI, Nos. 2 and 3. The Geography and Dialects of the Miwok Indians; by S. A. Barrerr. Pp. 333-368.—On the Evidences of the Occupation of Certain Regions by the Miwok Indians; by A. L. Kroeser. Pp. 369-380. Vol. VII, No. 2. Recent Investigations Bearing on the Ques- tion of the Occurrence of Neocene Man in the Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada ; by Wm. J. Sincuarr. Pp. 107-131.—The conclusion reached in this paper by Mr. Sinclair is an important one, namely, that the evidence as to the occurrence of human remains in the auriferous gravels is insufficient to establish the fact. 8. Medico-Physical Works of John Mayow (1674). Being a Translation of © Tractatus Quinque Medico-Physici.” Pp. xxii, 331. Edinburgh (The Alembic Club); Chicago, 1908 (The University of Chicago Press.) Alembic Reprints, No. 17.— 584 Scientific Intelligence. This little volume contains a republication in English of the writings of an author, Dr. John Mayow, who, although he died in 1679 at the early age of 36, made most important contributions to the subjects of ‘Chemistry. and Physiology. These had been long forgotten, when Dr. Thomas Beddoes in 1790 brought them to notice in his Analyses of Mayow’s Chemical Theories. The five treatises which constitute the Operaeomnia of Mayow are now presented entire, and this beok hence has a peculiar value to all interested in the history of Chemistry. 9. Graphic Algebra; by Artraur Scuuttze, Ph.D., New York University (The Macmillan Co.).—This volume follows the author’s larger works on elementary algebra and advanced algebra, and presents in very clear form the process of drawing the graph of a function of one variable ; from this are deduced the most practically convenient methods of solving quadratic, cubic and biquadratic equations by means of a standard curve combined with straight lines and circles. With the exception of two these methods are original with the author, who first pub- lished them in a paper read before the American Mathematical Society in 1905. The book leaves little to be desired in the way of economy and efficiency, its aim being to replace compu- tation by measurement in solutions where a high degree of accu- racy 1s unnecessary. WwW. B. 10. Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften. Leip- zig, 1907 (Wilhelm Engelmann).—The following are the latest additions to this important series : No. 160. Untersuchungen tiber die Galvanische Leitfaihigkeit der Elektrolyte, von Svante Arrhenius. Ubersetzt von ANNA HamupurcGer und herausgegeben yon Orro Sackur. Pp. 153, mit 6 Figuren im Text. No: 161. Abhandlungen von Christian Doppler. Heraus- Ee von H. A. Lorentz. Pp. 194, mit 36 Figuren im Text. Decapod Crustacea of the Ber mudas, Part I. Brachyura wie Anomura ; ; by Appison E. Vreraity. Trans. Conn. Acad. Science, vol. xiii, pp. 299-474, plates ix—xxvuil, Jan.-May, 1908.— This report includes a review of all the known species and sub- species (78) with accounts of their distribution and habits, and full descriptions of many species. Nearly alll the species are illustrated by half-tones from photographs. There are included 16 additions to the Bermuda fauna, and 9 are described as new Species or subspecies. One, which is made the type of a new genus and species, Zroglocarcinus corallicola, of the family Hapalocarcinidze, forms dens or houses under the surface of liv- ing corais (JZussa and Mcundra). For this group of peculiar small crabs, all of which are parasitic in corals, the new super- family, Hapalocarcinidea, is proposed. This article includes a pretty full bibliography and index to scientific names. DEX TO) VOLUME xXxey A Academy, National, meeting at Washington, 458. Air, liquid, vacuum vessels for, Dewar, 256. d’Albe, Two New Worlds, 148. Algebra, Higher, Boécher, 266. — Graphic, Schultze, 554. Allegheny Observatory, 165, 460. Alpen, die, im Hiszeitalter, Penck and Briickner, 84. Alps, Schmidt’s sections, 155. Anderson, J. W., Refrigeration, 524. Anode rays, Gehreke and Reichen- heim, 522, Arc spectra, Duffield, 147. Archzology, American, Univ. California publications, 535. Arizona, Meteor Crater, Fairchild, 166; Merrill, 265. ace S., Immuno-Chemistry, ‘81 ot Artbildung, Probleme der, Plate, 531. Astrophysical Observatory 162, 451. B de Ballore, Seismology, 262. Pancret, J. A., gedrite in Canada, 509. Barrell, J., Mauch Chunk shale, 353. Barus, C., axial colors of steam jet and coronas, 224; behavior of nuclei of pure water, 409. Bermuda, Bibliography, Cole, 159; Cahow from, 361 ; fishes, parasites of, Linton, 159 ; decapod crustacea, Verrill, 554. Berry, E.W., mid-Cretaceous species | of Torreya, 382. | Beyer, F. B., filtering crucible in| electrolytic analysis, 249. Bigelow, F. H., meteorological ele- | ments and solar radiation of the | United States, 413. | Biology of the Nineteenth Century, | Braeunig, 362. | Blackwelder, E., Research in China, | 349, | Blake, W. P., tourmaline of Crown | EOimtn Nema lee: * This Index contains the general heads. Blodgett, M. E., stratigraphy of Mt. Taylor region, N. M., 53. Boltwood, B. B., radio-activity of uranium minerals, 269; ionium, 365 ; life of radium, 493. Bose, J. C., Electro-Physiology, 525. BOTANICAL WORKS. Pflanzen, der Lichtgenuss der, Wies- ner, 363. Pilze, Chemie der hoéheren, Zell- ner, 364. Plant Anatomy, Stevens, 363. Technical Products, Microscopy, Hanausek and Winton, 87. BOTANY, PALEOBOTANY. Angiosperms, origin, Arber, 356. Chlcrophyl, crystallized, Willstit- ter and Benz, 520. Cycadacez, structure, 308. Flora fossile de ’ Argonne, Fliche, 309. Gineko-like forms, Nathorst, 560. Tsopyrum biternatum, Holm, 135. Mesozoic age, flowering plants, Scott, 354. Paleobotanische Mitteilungen, Na- thorst, 556. Pinus, cone growth, Wieland, 103. Plant remains in the Scottish peat mosses, Lewis, 398. Pteridosperms and angiosperms, Oliver, 356. Sporophyl, morphogeny, Hallier, 300 Worsdell, Stellaria, North American species, Holm, 5105. Taxoidez, Robertson, 560. Torreya, mid-Cretaceous Berry, 382. Trias und Jurapflanzen von der Insel Kotelny, Nathorst, 360. Végétaux fossiles, Zeiller, 597; Marty, 3538; de Normandie, Lig- nier, 360. Zamites and pterophyllum, Arber, 360. BoTaNy, CHEMISTRY (incl. chem. physies), species, GEOLOGY, MINERALS, OBITUARY, ROCKS, ZOOLOGY, and under each the titles of Articles referring thereto are mentioned. 536 Brazil, manganese deposits, 2138. Breeding, Davenport, 362. Brooklyn Institute, publications, 533. Briickner, E., die Alpen im Hiszeit- alter, 84. Bumstead, H. A., Roéntgen rays in lead and zine, 299. Burma, lower Paleozoic fossils, Reed, 262. Cc Canada geol. survey, 527. Canadian glaciers, Scherzer, 261. Canal rays, mechanical working, Swinton, 348. — phosphorescence by, 41. Cape of Good Hope, Carnegie Foundation, nual report, 164. — Institution of Washington, cations, 162. Carney, F., glacial overflow channels | in New York, 217. Cathode rays, magnetic effect, Klu- pathy, 298. Chemistry, History of, Bauer, 81. — Organic, Cohen, 146: Noyes, 80. — Physical, Getman, 450. — Qualitative analysis, Du Pare and Monnier, 80; Quantitative, Gilman, 450. CHEMISTRY. Actinium. activity, 291. Aluminium electrodes. Hirsch and Soddy, gas from, 148. Ammonium molybdate, hydrolysis, | Moody, 76. Arsenic and antimony, tion, Heath, 513. — trisulphide, reduction, feld, 79. Benzoic acid, esterification, Phelps and Osborne, 39. Carbonates, action of, 449, Helium and thorium, Strutt, 146. Tonium, Marckwald and Keetman, d47; activity, 289; Boltwood, 365. Tron, estimation, Newton, 343. — in copper alloys, Gregory, 449. Lithium in radio-active minerals, McCoy, 346. Lutecium, Urbain, 146. Magnesium, separation, Gooch and | Eddy, 444. Derby, | Trowbridge, | ye )4| geol. map, 83. | second an- | publi- | determina- | Gutmann, | INDEX. Manganese and the periodic law, Reynolds, 256. — higher oxides, Meyer and Rotgers, 207. Tae peroxide, Von Antropoff, 02 Niobium, Schulze, 452. Nitrogen trioxide, Baker, 145. Percarbonates, Wolffenstein and Peltner, 450. re ase elements, Urbain, 256. Phosphorus, white, Llewellyn, 257. Polonium, activity, 285. Radium, see Radium. Tellurium, atomic weight, Baker and Bennett. 146. Thorianite, new element in, Evans, 521. Titanium, volumetric Seamiton of, Newton, 130. — trichloride, Knecht and Hibbert, 80. Uranium, 269; see Radium. | Vanadic acid, reduction, Gooch and Edgar, 233. | —and molybdic acid, determina- tion, Edgar, 532. China, Research in, Willis, Black- welder and Sargent, 549. Clarke, F. W., Data of Geochem- istry, 458. Coast Survey, U. S.. 459. Cockerell, T. D. A., Tertiary in- sects, 51, 2 227, 309. | Cohen, J. B., Organic Chemistry | 146. | Cole, G. W., Bermuda Bibliography, 159. |Colors, axial, of steam jet and coro- nas, Barus, 224. Coon Butte, 156, 256. Crawford, C. M., Physics, 258. ~ Cycads, see GEOLOGY. D |Dadourian, H. M., atmospheric ra- | dio-activity, 335. | Darwin, celebration at Cambridge, | 460. | Derby, O. A., manganese deposits of Brazil, 213. Ehren- | Dielectrics, anomalies of, Schwei- dler, 147. | | E - Earthquakes, de Ballore, 262; Hobbs, 259, 354. Eddy, E. A., separation of magne- ' sium, 444. INDEX. ‘ reduction of vanadic vanadic and molybdic Edgar, G., acid, 253; acids, 532. Electric furnace reactions, Hutton and Petavel, 451. — waves in wireless telegraphy, Rein- hold-Riidenberg, 451. Electro-Chemistry, van Laar, 525. | Electrometer, gold leaf, effect of | temperature, Bottomley, 347. Electrometers, quadrant, Schulze, 451. Electrons, positive, in the sodium | atom, Wood, 258. Electro-Physiology, Bose, 525. Elephant, evolution, Lull, 169. Evans, N. N., gedrite, 509. F Ferry, E. S., Practical Physics, 452. Field Columbian Museum, 532. Filtering crucible, Gooch and Beyer, 249, ; Flight, ideas on the origin of, Nopcsa, 528. Flora, see Botany. Ford, W. E., stephanite crystals from Arizpe, Mexico, 244. Fossils, see BOTANY,GEOLOGY. Franklin, W. S., Physics, 208. G Gage, A. P., Physics, 259. Geochemistry, Data, Clarke, 458. GEOLOGICAL REPORTS. Canada, 455, 527. Illinois, 353 ; geol. map, 457. Indiana, 31st annual report, 82. Michigan, 354, 456. New Jersey. 1906, 82, 152. New Zealand, 83, 526. North Carolina, 159. North Dakota, 457. United States, 28th annual report, 149; folios, 100, 552; bulletins, 151 ; mineral resources, 264; wa- | ter supply papers, 151. Western Australia, 527. West Virginia, 83. Géologie, Traité, Haug, 261, 529. GEOLOGY. ‘ Alpen im Hiszeitalter, Penck and | Briickner, 84. Alps, Schmidt’s sections, 15d. Ankylosauride, Brown, 528. Brachauchenius, skull of, Willis- ton, 85. BT Or Brechiopod, new Devonian, Greger, 315. Conglomerates, desiccation, in the coal-measures of Ohio, Hyde, 400. Cretaceous of Montana, Hell Creek beds, Brown, 86. — paleontology, New Jersey, Wel- ler, 152. Cycads, historic, Wieland, 95; BOTANY. Dinosaurs, von Huene, 86. — cranial musculature, Luli, 387. Earthquakes, de Ballore, 262; Hobbs, 259, 354. Elephant, evolution, Lull, 169. Eocene horses, American, Granger, 528. Finger lakes, ancient, Hubbard, 259. Gastropods, Spitz, 153. Glacial overflow channels in New York, Carney, 217. — period in non-glaciated regions, Huntington, 353. Glaciers, Canadian, Scherzer, 261. Hallopus, von Huene and Lull, 115. Hell Creek beds of Upper Creta- ceous, Montana, Brown, 86. Insects, Fossil, Handlirsch, 264. — Tertiary, Cockerell, 51, 309. Lower Paleozoic of Illinois, Savage, 431, Mammalian 69, 164, —molar teeth, Evolution, H. F. Osborn, 264. Mauch Chunk shale, Barrell, 353. Mt. Taylor region, N. M., Shimer and Blodgett, 53. Ouray folio, Colorado, Cross, Howe, and Irving, 352. Paleozoic formations Richardson, 474. — fossils of Burma, Reed, 262. Patuxent folio, Shattuck, Miller and Bibbins, 352. Peat in Michigan, Davis, 456. Pelycosauria, EH. C. Case, 84. Silurian fauna, in Western Amer- ica, Kindle, 125. Strophomenacea, Yakovlew, 457. Terraces in Ohio, Hubbard, 108. see in Ohio, migration, Matthew, in Texas, Tertiary insects, Cockerell, 51, 227, 309. Triassic reptile MHallopus, von Huene and Lull, 113. See also under BOTANY. Getman, F. H., Physical Chemistry, 450. 53 Gilman, A. F., Chemical Analysis, 450. Glaciers, see GEOLOGY. Globus karte, Sipman, 268. Gooch, F. A., reduction of vanadic acid, 253 ; filtering crucible in elec- trolytic analysis, 249 ; separation of magnesium, 444. Goodspeed, A. W., Physics, 259. Greger, D. K., new Devonian brach- iopod, 315. H Hanausek, T. F., Microscopy of Technical Products, 87. Handlirsch, A., die Fossilen Insecten, 264. Harvard Observatory, 460. Haug, E., Géologie, 261, 529. Heath, F. H., determination of ar- senic and antimony, 013. Hintze, C., Mineralogie, 265. Hobbs, W. H., earthquakes, 259, 354, Hofmeister, F., Beitriige zur chem- | ischen Physiologie, 81. Holm, T., Isopyrum 1a%3} 2 stellaria, 315. Howell, E. E., Williamstown, Ky., meteorite, 49; Ainsworth meteor- ite, 105. Hubbard, G. D., terraces in south- eastern Ohio, 108; ancient finger lakes in Ohio, 289. Huene, F. R. von, Triassic reptile, Hallopus, 113. Huntington, E., glacial period in non-glaciated regions, 393. Hyde, J. E., desiccation conglomer- ates, 400. as biternatum. I Illinois geol. survey, 457. — lower Paleozoic stratigraphy, Sav- age, 451. Immuno-Chemistry, Arrhenius, 81. India, geology, Vredenburg, 264. Indiana, geol. survey, 82. Insects, Tertiary, Cockerell, 51, 309. — Fossil, Handlirsch, 264. Ionium, new radio-active element, Boltwood, 365 + 289, 347. 99 7 ; Ionized Air, effect of magnetic field, | Blane, 348. J Johannsen, A., Key for Rock-form- | ing Minerals, 599. Johnson, Bol. , geology of Iron Mine Tebuliy 185 Jt. al North American species of | INDEX. | Jupiter, surface of, 267. Jutland, moraines, Ussing, 84. K | Kayser, H., Spectroscopie, 522 Kindle, E. M., Silurian fauna in Western America, 125. Knopf, A., new boron minerals, 323. L Lagunari, Ricerche, 89. | Lane, A. C., Shepard on underground waters of Missouri, 452. Library of Congress, 564. Lull, R. S., Triassic reptile Hallopus, 118; evolution of the elephant; 169; Ceratopsian Dinosaurs, 387. M McIntosh, W. C., British Annelids 5350. MacNutt, B., Physics, 258. Mammalian migrations, Matthew, 69, 154. Matthew, W. D., mammalian mi- erations, 69, 154. Mayow, Medico- physical Works, 509. Mechanics, Franklin and MacNutt, 166. Merrill, G. P., meteor crater of Ari- zona, "985, Metallography, Goerens, 524. — Meteor crater, Arizona, origin, Fair- child, 156; Merrill, 265. Meteorite, iron, Ainsworth, Nebras- ka, Howeill,105; Williamstown, Ky., Howell, 49. Meteorites, Foyer collection Amer. Museum, New York, 266. Meteorological elements of United States, Bigelow, 418. Metric systems, Perkin, 364. Michigan geol. survey, 304; peat in, Davis, 456. Microscopical Technique, 3s. Mineral Resources States, 1906, 264. of Rawitz, of the United | Mineralogie, Hintze, 260. MINERALS. Argentite, Colorado, 507. Diamonds in Kimberlite, 87. Gedrite, Canada, 509. Gold and silver, production in 1906, 156. Hulsite, Alaska, 325. Hyalosider- a, 185 dn, 1S), Meymacite, 309. rado, 74. Paigeite. Alaska, 330. Powellite, Molybdite, Colo- Jones, A. T., Practical Physics, 452. | Texas, 71; Nevada, 72. Prous- tite, Colorado, 507. INDEX. 539 MINERALS—continued. Stephanite, Mexico, 244. Thorianite. 521. Tourmaline, New York, 128. Tungstite, 305. Uranium, radio- -activity, 269. Villiaumite, 547. Johannsen, 599. Mining Congress, American, 89. Missouri, Shepard on underground | waters, Lane, 452. Moody, S. E., hydrolysis of ammo- nium molybdate, 77. Mowbray, L., the cahow in Ber- muda, 361. Mumper, W. N., Physics, 259. N Natural History Essays, Renshaw, 160. New Jersey, Cretaceous paleontol- ogy, Weller, 152. — geol. survey, 82. Newman, H., Physics, 259. Newton, H. D., volumetric estima- tion of titanium, 130; estimation of iron by potassium permanga- nate, 3438. subdivision, 83. Niagara, Falls of, Spencer, 455. Nobel prize in 1905, 165. North Carolina, fishes, Smith, 159. North Dakota geol. survey, 457. Noyes, W. A., Organic Chemistry, | 80. Nuclei of pure water, behavior, Barus, 409. O OBITUARY. Austin, P. T., 168. Hall, A., 90. Harrington, B. J., 91, Janssen, P. J. C., 168. Kelvin, Lord, 92. Underwood, L. M., 92. Young, C. A., 166. Observatory, ‘Allegheny, publica- | tions, 165, 460. — Astrophysical, publications, 431. — Harvard College, publications. 460. —Mt. Weather. bulletins, 155, 5382. Ohio, ancient finger lakes, Hubbard, © 239. = ieee tien conglomerates, Hyde, 400. | Ohio terraces, Hubbard, 108. | Osborn, H. F., Evolution of Mam- malian Molar Peeth, 264. Osborne, R. Wes esterification of benzoic acid, 39 Ostwald’s Klassiker, 89, 534. p Oxygen, positive column, Kirby, 401. Minerals, Key for Rock-forming, 1S Paleobotany, see BOTANY. Penck, A., Alpen im Wiszeitalter, 84. | Perkins, H. A., rectification effect in a vacuum tube, 485. |Perkins, P. B., molecular weight of radium emanation, 461. ‘Phelps, I. K. and M. A., esterifica- tion of benzoic acid, 39. |Phosphorescence by canal rays. Trowbridge, 141. Photometry, Liebenthal, 258. | Physics, Elementary, Newman, 269. /— Practical, Franklin, Crawford and MacNutt, 258; Ferry and Jones, 452. — Principles, Gage and Goodspeed, 259. — Text-book, Mumper, 259. |Physiologie, Beitriige zur chemis- New Zealand, geology of the Coro- | mandel region, 026; of Parapara | chen, Hofmeister, 81. Plate L., Probleme der Artbildung. d38l. R Radio-active minerals, lithium in, McCoy, 346. Radio-activity, atmospheric, Dadou- rian, 335. — of lead, McLennan, 147. —of uranium minerals, Boltwood, 269, — see Radium, Radiometer for low pressures, Dewar, 258. Radium emanation in the atmos- phere, Eve, 147; molecular weight of, Perkins, AOL § water vapor in, Curie, 145, 522. — in the earth, Strutt, 546. — life of, Boltwood, 493. | — origin, Habn, 79 ; Rutherford, 147. | Refrigeration, ‘Anderson, 524. | Rhode Island, geology of Iron Mine Hill, Johnson and Warren, 1. Richardson, G. B., Paleozoic forma- tions in Trans-Pecos Texas 474. Rochester quadrangle, geologic map, Hartnagel, 154. eS ee een - aS 2 40 ROCKS. Cumberlandite, R. I., 2. Granite and gneiss of Finland, Sed- erholm, 157. Scapolite rocks of America, Spurr, 154. Rontgen Rays in lead. and zinc, Bumstead, 299. - —see X-RAYS. S Sargent, R. H., Research in China, 349. Savage, T. E., lower-Paleozoic strat- igraphy in Illinois, 431. | Schaller, W. T., powellite and mo- | lybdite, 71; new boron minerals, Scherzer, Canadian glaciers, 261. Schmidt’s Alpine sections, 155. Schultze, A., Graphic Algebra, 534. Scotland, geological structure of Highlands, 155. Sederholm, J. J., Finland granite and gneiss, 107. Seismology, de Ballore, 262. Shimer, H. W., Stratigraphy of the Mt. Taylor region, N. M., 53. Smithsonian Institution, report, 160. Sound, direction, Bowkler, 348. — velocity, 451; in fluids, Ddrsing, 348. South Africa, Passarge, 155. Spectra, flame, Hemsalech and de) Watteville, 450. Spectroscopie, Kayser, 522. Spectrum, emission, of mercury, Castelli, 148. Spencer, J. W. W., Falls of the Niagara, 455, Spurn es America, 154. Stereochemistry, Stewart, 521. Stevens, W. C., Plant Anatomy, v0»e. Stewart, A. W., Stereochemistry, 521. St. Louis district, water resources, Bowman and Reeds, 393. scapolite rocks of al Telegraphie sans fil, Van Dam, 402. Texas, Paleozoic tormationsin, Rich- ardson, 474. Time distribution in Paris, 268. | Trowbridge, J., phosphorescence | produced by canal rays, 141; use of | magnetic field with X-ray tubes, | 143. ! INDEX. U United States Coast Survey, 459. geol. survey, see GEOL. REPORMIS: V Vacuum-tube, rectification Perkins, 485. Van Horn, F. R., proustite and ar- gentite, 007. Verrill, A. E., grapsoid crustacean, 119; decapod crustacea, 534. WwW Walker, T. L., tungstite and mey- macite, 305. Warren, C. H., geology of Iron Maneseille shi sslepgle Weller, S., Cretaceous paleontology ot New Jersey, 182. West Australia geol. survey, 527. West Virginia geol. survey, 83. Wiedersheim’s Comparative Anat- omy of Vertebrates, Parker, 160. Wieland, G. R., historic cycads, 93; accelerated cone growth in Pinus, 105; notes on Paleobotany, 304. Willis, B., Research in China, 349. effect, | Wisconsin geol. survey, 304. Worlds, Two New, d’Albe, 148. x X-ray tubes, in use of magnetic field, Trowbridge, 143. — diffraction, Walter and Pohl, 452. oe Z ZOOLOGY. Annelids, British, McIntosh, 530. Cahow in Bermuda, Mowbray, 361. Copepods, No. American parisitic, Wilson, 158. Crustacea of Norway, Sars, 158. — decapod, Bermuda, Verrill, 534. Eehinoidea of Danish Expedition, Mortensen, 159. Fishes of North Carolina, Smith, 159. Grapsoid crustacean, Verrill, 119. Insects, instincts, ete., Fabre, 89. Madreporaria of Amboina, Bedot; 158; of the Hawaiian Islands, Vaughan, 108. Parasites of Bermuda fishes, Lin- ton, 159. : Vertebrates, Comparative Anatomy, Wiedershcim, Parker, 160. See also GEOLOGY. Relicf Map of the United States We have just prepared a new relief map of the United States, 48 x 32 inches in size, made of a special composition which is hard and durable, and at the same time light. The map is described in detail in circular No. 77, which will be sent on request. Price, $16.00. WARD’S NATURAL SCIENCE ESTABLISHMENT, 76-104 College Ave., ROGERS VR IN SAN: Warn's NATURAL OcIENCE ESTABLISHMENT A Supply-House for Scientific Material. Founded 1862. Incorporated 1890. DEPARTMENTS: Geology, including Phenomenal and Physiographice. Mineralogy, including also Rocks, Meteorites, etc. Palaeontology. Archaeology and Ethnology. Invertebrates, including Biology, Conchology, ete. Zoology, including Osteology and Taxidermy. Human Anatomy, including Craniology, Odontology, ete. Models, Plaster Casts and Wall-Charts in all departments. Circulars in any department free on request; address Ward’ Ss Natural Science Establishment, 76-104 College Ave., Rochester, New York, U.S. A. CONTENTS. Arr. XLVUI.—Determination of the Molecular Weight of Radium Emanation by the Comparison of its Rate of Diffusion with that of Mercury Vapor; by P. B. Pzr- Page BINS 5222S se SSE ee ak a i XLIX.—Paleozoic Formations in Trans-Pecos, Texas ; by G. B. RICHARDSON] 2.25. 25 ce i L.—Rectification Effect ina Vacuum Tube ; by H. A. Prr- KINS oo BEC f oe ee Gis Oy BG Se Ne rr LI.—Life of Radium ; by B. B. Borrwoop ... __..-.-=.._ 498 _ LI.—New Occurrence of Proustite and Argentite ; by F.R. - é Van HORN: SoS ar a ee 507 LUI.— Occurrence of Gedrite in Canada; by N. N. Evans and: J. A] DAN CRORG se. 2 ies i eee 509 LIV.—Iodometric Determination of Arsenic and Antimony _ Associated with Copper; by F. H. Hmata. ______.___- 513 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Crystallized Chlorophyl, WitusTATTER and BENZ: Mercury Peroxide, Von ANTROPOFF, 020.—Supposed New Hlement in Thorianite, C. pp B. Evans: Stereochemistry, A. W. STEWART, 021.— Condensation of Water Vapor in the Presence of Radium Emanation, Mme. Curie: Anode Rays, GEHRCKE and REICHENHEIM: Handbuch der Spectre- scopie, H. Kayser, 522.—Refrigeration, J. W. ANDERSON: Introduction to Metallography, P. GoERENS, 024.—Lehrbuch der theoretischen Hlektro- chemie auf thermodvnamischer Grundlage, J. J. vAN Laar: Compara- tive Electro-Physiology, J. C. Bosn, 520. Geology—New Zealand Geological Survey, 4026.—Geological Survey of Western Australia: Geological Survey of Canada, 027.—The Ankylo- sauride, B. Brown: Revision of the American Eocene Horses, W. GRANGER: Ideas on the Origin of Flight, Dr. B. F.. Noposa, 528.—Traité de Géologie I, Les Phenoménes géologiques, E. Haua: Key for the Deter- mination of the Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections, A. JOHANNSEN, 529. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Monograph of the British Annelids, W. C. McIntrosxH, 530—Selectionsprinzip und Probleme der Axtbildung, Dr. L. PuatE: Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithso- nian Institution, C. G. Apsot, 531.—Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, W. L. Moore: Field Columbian Museum, O. C. Farrine- TON, 532.—Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences; Uni- versity of California Publications in American Archeology and Ethnol- ogy : Medico-Physical Works of John Mayow, 533.—Graphic Algebra, A. ScHULTZE: Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften: Decapod Crustacea of the Bermudas, Part 1, A. E. VERRILL, 534. Ae i canis Mit Ae pee) few. af ra a SUT 3 9088 01298 5768